UNIV.OF TORONTO LIBRARY Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/bulletin190113v21v30unit ie “ HOM Oi ie Lull Ae ek UG Ye a Serre ay ( 50), ano AG Uhhti'raL ? , Eng nreerenwde ¢ a (u. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 2.— 3 O B T GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. eS. OF AMERICAN VARIETIES OF VEGETABLES FOR THE YEARS 1901 AND 1902. BY W. W. TRACY, Jx., Assistant, BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. Issurp January 17, 19083.~ Dec © be? oy) WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. USN) 33 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. 8. DeparTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau oF Puanr Inpustry, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, - Washington, D. C., May 7, 1902. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a List of American Varieties of Vegetables for the years 1901 and 1902, and respectfully recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 21 of the Bureau series. The manuscript was prepared by Mr. W. W. Tracy, jr., Assistant, Botanical Investigations and Experiments, and was sub- mitted by the Botanist. Respectfully, B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James WIxson, Secretary of Agriculture. bo kobe AC E.. In the Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture for 1900 (p. 543) it is stated that American seedsmen catalogued the preceding year 685 real or nominal varieties of cabbage, 320 of table beets, 340 of sweet corn, 560 of bush beans, 255 of pole beans, 320 of cucumber, 530 of lettuce, and an equally large number of varieties of other vegetables.@ In such a maze of names, a large proportion of which are accom- panied by the most meager descriptions, the progressive cultivator, endeavoring to ascertain what varieties are best adapted to his partic- ular location, soil, climate, and uses, has little to guide him. Among seedsmen, also, similar difficulties exist. A small number of the larger houses maintain extensive trial grounds, but the information secured in this way is usually not made public. There remains a strong demand, both from fhe seed trade and from the public, for more precise infor- mation about the qualities of the various advertised varieties—infor- mation which can be furnished only after years of careful study and experimentation. There is one necessary preliminary to such work, namely, a catalogue of the names of the varieties. There is no published work which gives all the varieties of vegeta- bles sold by American seedsmen, and the Department of Agriculture has therefore undertaken to supply this want with a list, which is presented herewith. The list has been prepared by Mr. W. W. Tracy, jr., who has charge of the Department’s variety testing, with the aid of Mr. J. E. W. Tracy, also of the Department of Agriculture. Freperick V. CoviLie, Botanist. OFFICE OF THE Boranist, Washington, D. C., April 26, 1902. «In counting the number of these varieties, names were included which differed from others simply by the addition of a descriptive word, such as ‘“‘improved,” “large,” “‘early,’’ or the names of persons, while other varieties, haying attached to them unimportant descriptive words, such as ‘“‘select,’’ ‘‘new,’’ and ‘‘choice,’’ were not included. 3 ¢ dle ’ ’ Wieser ‘ te Pan ate one Ws) Rade daz : Bs ‘ . Lee i - ’ > - y v é i ! « CONTENTS. EU CMR OMOLECTING = ee aoe ee eee ort Nasco atisia eae oe Delos cis ee ae See List of abbreviations of names of seedsmen................-....------------ _ List of varieties: PATEL COO Keg as ase eee ee eer ee Sy a ee A ed Joel os adekice Satins ZAG IRD DS) SSeS Aa C HESS RECS AAS Sr SS eR et er ae Bean: Bosbelum albeantass se esteeer sean 6 scigsceicec. cine ncecssceacereans means pod aedspushibeals nessa nscsac sae - eee eae ee ceo nce ee see TROIS IOSD S Se Sep Be re SSR SSOP ON CSRS cee eee ee eee a Mae nod edipushibeAne c=. s.c\smeee snc Sade acne nannees cee eeaeSe Beet: dGand euMbee bins cms eatin tna cote see moste ose aan eee neaeeeenis Sugaribect and mangel-wurzel..--...---2 26. -2 22 ccs +22 coerce TEPROVEOLNT, pes 2 Set sR SE em a er oe DRT Cece cee Se SS se oo eee ee ee ene cee Cabbage . .--- - Pe MINER Ee eek Coals tee ct Sains coal ine eeS SO CCD tay I oreo ee are Nats bate ee nea sen neee See (CINGOINY 2o2 se ndseckbo SSE CEB Dace eS BSE Ae CnC nee Eee See eae e anaes CIMIKN GE Sac b5eccodabeccese SEE eE OAS BS ae eer ee (ive, 5 ee oe teak ates TEER SEN Skee oc eae ae ee Corn: rel Wai, ~. oe BAO ee See See ee era EO DCO nn eee oe tela tate oi cictsie ala wioie wa nin Sain a= wie cie winle wnielvnels EXWCCIRCO lta eee Bo ee oo secie canes acm cedecncsce Birra nl eee eles ae siete eta aa ane aoe nino ccc se cece sisnnnaseweee 6 CONTENTS. List of varieties—Continued. Page. IPRA [AVN poe Se.- Coch ore cannes Saree oan soOSUSOSSCasabe sasssa2s6 264 Garhiers-- 2222) Bese Secale Oa eras oe ce ee See Oe eee 190 Genmanicelenger reer = a-ha eee e ee ae eee ee eee 123 Grass ants} 5 2 a Jo oeias Seema ae ee aio dae see eee tee eee ae eee 133 Gumibor -..252% Lounge ure qT | % ee spod SutMois poos or ‘FL aune “"" Bounge urd z ~ poung “ur dz it Re “-""*" (al[Ry punos [[B ‘pF aun’ “77> {Quvpunqse pordde uayjod ysorg |" 7% AByy Ure OT | ZL ABI “UE B OL | Z% Bea A soreeeess OTBy PUNOF [[B TZ ABW | AURpUNQE porfdde plo Avp [ uopfod |" Avy ued p | ZL AB ued F |Z -***UaT[By JOU IN pRap SIL “pr ABT UB TL | ZAR ULB TT | T - acersalara waist oats “Zp XUyy OUR OL | ZL ABIL ULB OT | T votes oc teeeeeeterereeeet eters pete: > narpod Ooowqo) 1OJ pain Iysqns uaffod volRzy doByIts [IITOy-duo AIBJANS JAMLOJ-auo uap[od 10} poyngysqns ayBydns wMISoLsR yy uarjod soy paynaysqns anoy w10p -uarpod oy pay Ysqns oul, poxov[s-rby op"- *"SBULSIYS 0} pordds Rome gsc se = *- uapjod z0y paynysqns anog u10D *SBULST} aNBjNS YWNOF-au0 01 potjddvy uajjod ysoag “SBULSIIS 0} paydde ustjod ysemq “uorRBuT[od puv uajod Surpawso1. syavuiey poos May B pAaUlRyUOd spo | -MO015 Z'6 Gay ‘ueT[B] punoys Gz uBe | Jo | “SUIMOLS ‘gL uRe poywurppod-jpas {8 ‘6g “UBE ‘UOA[[By puNoy T ‘pl ‘uBe | jo | “SUIMOLS [Bus pod | 1 | pod [ ‘6a*uLe Suat[Ry punoy g ‘OL-uBe “UONBULL | “SUIMOLS -jod 20378 eP}iTT Inq Mats 6 | T [14s pod fT ‘6g "uBr ‘uaTpey 6 ‘OL ‘wee |--- >> | % hs aaa Tas © a | B & “UOTIPUoD HPA ueCha ey UO SYAVUAT YIM ‘pourUIeXe WAY AL z Et a uatjod Ysoly uaTfod 107 painisqns oyBydyus wMIsousByy (~** > 97 Ady “UR 6 ~-pazBuryjod JaAau Jnq ‘passeq puB paye[nosvuig, \" IaAaN rqarau Pe ACY INE >>> GE-qom *ur-86 j 792g “Ur -R O8'0T - pqog “ult TL uUBe CULL -"* Te*uee “ul 'B OL UB ULB OF TL “--- §L uBre urd z “=- OL uBr "U8 TL “CuBr ULB OR LT “> G‘uep “U'B “LO6L “payeurylod way MA *ponulpzuo/)—suosso7q 09900} Uren spuaunwad.csy — J. aTdy I, “id y “Ul'B 6 ~- gaudy “urd 9¢"T Pisce nia ieneley (yee | “ce eras | @ | | “=<-'QTdow “Ul:816) |G | g-qou“uL'voe-Or | Z pqog Ore IL | % guBeULZr |G | “-- [1g uBr “UB OL -eacuup oun “BOE TL “6. use urd Z| ¢ smc aa Ga a OD eer lis ale wee JOAIN g /SRERCRIVB (ee Una he “LOST “sling | Se || aAndaa) “poze -a1 U9aq -LLOSBUTO Ud aARq | prnoa. std | ‘ON queued xa | EXPERIMENTS WITH BLOSSOMS OF DATURA TATULA. 118) EXPERIMENTS WITH BLOSSOMS OF DATURA TATULA. The destructive effect of a premature pollination having been found to be so pronounced in the case of tobacco flowers suggested a trial of its effect on a related plant. Some young jimson weeds (Datura tatula) were placed in pots and kept in a greenhouse, where they soon came into flower, but unfortunately did not bloom profusely enough to furnish similar flowers in sufficient quantity to admit of experiments such as were performed with tobacco flowers. The following method was therefore adopted: From day to day these plants were examined and flowers in various stages of advancement were operated upon and the records made on labels attached to the plants at the petiole of each flower. As the seed pods resulting from the labeled flowers ripened or dried up they were cut and a record made of the size of the cap- sule, the number and condition of the seeds, etc. On the completion of the work an examination and classification of these labels showed results similar to those obtained in the case of tobacco flowers, with the one exception that the capsules of the prematurely pollinated flowers did not fall loose from the plants, but hung on for several weeks, although the ovaries did not grow any after pollination and contained no seeds. Pods resulting from flowers to whose stigmas pollen had been applied at the proper time were of normal size—14 inches in diameter—and full of good, plump seeds; while pods from prematurely pollinated flowers were scarcely larger than they were when the flowers were pollinated, usually one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and contained no seeds. The only instances in which good seeds were found in pods from prematurely pollinated flowers were those in which the stigmas had been pollinated when exceedingly young and the flowers not emasculated. In some cases of this kind, and the same is true of tobacco flowers, the very young stigmas overcame the results of the early pollination and the flowers were later self-pollinated and produced seed. Indeed, the work with Datura blossoms indicates fully as strongly as does that with tobacco flowers that there may be a stage a certain time before maturity when the flowers suffer more from premature pollination than they would suffer from an earlier pollination. It may be necessary for the pistils or stigmas to reach a certain stage of development before pollen tubes can penetrate them. EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON BLOSSOMS. While hand pollinations were being made in order to obtain hybrids between Sea Island and upland cottons, the question arose as to whether the pollen could be applied at the time of emasculation with as good results as if applied to perfectly mature pistils. If such could be done much labor would be saved. Accordingly the work was arranged 20 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION, in experiments of 10 flowers each in order to compare the results of the two methods. The pollinating was done on Sea Island cotton with pollen of the Mit Afifi variety. With the exception of experiments 5 and 6 the cotton experiments were with flower buds that would have opened naturally the day after they were emasculated. Such a bud is shown by Pl. IV, fig. 13. Figs. 14 and 15 show how emasculation was performed. Experiments 5 and 6 were with very young buds that would have opened in four or five days. The flowers of experi- ment 5 were pollinated when emasculated and those of experiment 6 two days later. No fruits set in either experiment. The flowers of experiment 1 were pollinated when emasculated, one day before the flowers would naturally have opened, and produced but one small boll; while the flowers of experiment 2, as near like the others as could be chosen on the same plants and emasculated at the same time, were not pollinated until the next day, and produced seven good bolls. In order to obtain Mit Aftifi pollen that was pure and that had not been mixed with other kinds of pollen by the visits of insects, the flowers were collected before opening, and in each case just one day before the pollen was applied to the flowers. Experiment 3 was an exact repeti- tion of experiment 1 and produced no bolls; while experiment 4, an exact repetition of experiment 2, produced ten good bolls. These results are decidedly in fayor of waiting until the pistils are fully mature before applying the pollen, but work similar to the above, performed in i901 on two different varieties of upland cotton, has given results so different from those obtained with Sea Island cotton that further study of the cotton flower is necessary before its reaction to premature pollination is understood. Although differing from the results obtained with Sea Island, the work with onl varieties still speaks in favor of waiting until the pistils are mature before applying the pollen, not so much, however, in order to obtain a greater per- centage of bolls as to obtain bolls of larger size and more symmetrical shape, many bolls from the prematurely pollinated blossoms being small and one-sided. The work with the upland varieties was conducted in the same manner as that with the Sea Island, pollen of Sea Island being used in experiments 7, 8, and 9. The flowers of experiment 7 on the Braddy variety were pollinated when receptive and produced 10 good bolls. Those of experiment 8 were pollinated when emasculated and again the next day, and produced 5 bolls, 3 of which were larger on one side than on the other and hardly as large as the bolls of experiment 7. The flowers of experiment 9 were pollinated when emasculated and produced 9 small bolls, 4 of which were decidedly larger on one side than on the other. Experiments 10, 11, and 12 were upon the King variety of upland cotton, and pollen of the same variety was used. The flowers of Y EXPERIMENTS WITH COTTON BLOSSOMS. 21 experiment 10 were pollinated when receptive ana produced 6 good bolls. Those of experiment 11 were pollinated when emasculated and again the next day and produced 10 small bolls, 5 of which were decidedly one-sided. The flowers of experiment 12 were pollinated when emasculated and produced 7 rather good bolls. In making the second pollination of experiment 8 it was noticed that the pistils of the flowers in experiment 7 which had not been pre- maturely pollinated were longer than those of experiment 8, but they were not measured because it was then too late to determine whether they had been precisely of the same length when emasculated. To determine whether premature pollination checks the growth of young pistils, the pistils of experiments 10 and 11 were accurately measured at the time of emasculation, 8 of each experiment being each five- eighths of an inch and 2 three-fourths of an inch in length, so that the ageregate length of the pistils was 64 inches. The flowers of experi- ment 11 were pollinated twenty-one hours before they were fully open and again twenty-one hours later, when the pistils were again carefully measured and found to give anagegregate length of 8 inches, an increase of 1 inches since emasculation, during which time the pistils of experiment 10, which were not prematurely pollinated, had made an aggregate increase of 2+ inches. This is to say that the application of pollen to 10 immature pistils reduced their growth during twenty-one hours by five-eighths of an inch. The conclusion to be drawn from the cotton experiments is in favor of making an extra visit to the emasculated flowers to apply the pollen rather than to apply it when the flowers are emasculated. This is not only because larger percentages of fruits will result, but more especially because better fruits are obtained. It is the opinion of the writer that the variation in the results obtained with Sea Island and upland cotton flowers similarily treated is largely due to the fact that the pistils were closely approaching a receptive condition. Of course this would cause no variation in the results, providing the size of the flowers and length of time before opening indicate the same stage in the development of the ovules of both kinds of cotton, but this may not be the case. The one-sidedness of many of the bolls resulting from early pollination indicates that only a portion of the ovules were mature enough for fertilization. Perhaps pollination a few hours earlier would have resulted in the falling of all the flowers. Tobacco flowers pollinated one day before opening give fair results, while those pollinated two days before opening are killed. It is thought that the same will be found true of cotton flowers, as indicated by the results of experiments 5 and 6, but more work with cotton blossoms is necessary before their behavior will be well understood. OF PREMATURE POLLINATION, NJURIOUS EFFECTS “Buoy SOYOUr FT AAVIOAT ST[OG *“SUOT soyout 2, asB19AB STO “suo SOYOUL I] OABIDAB S[[OG “SU0T soyoUuL fT oFvIOAB ST]Og “SUOT SOYOUL EL AFvVIOAR s[[O_ “SUO] SOyOUL % IABIOAV S[[og ‘g quauttedxa UL UBY} Jesuo, 10M SIOMOY UIT[RJ JO s[std “SyIRUIAY Or Us) o (¢) OL 4 | IaquuNn “S]IMIy 1N}BUE | jo - UWOLBUT[[Od 1aq7B WLOOS | [AF g ‘6 “DO. *STLOG. papis-ouo Apjsour ‘[yeRuIs OT ‘6 OO - uoTBUT[[od 19jyR OOS [Ley F ‘6 OO -uoTRur[[od 1ajyR WOOs [ay T “6 OO - uoryRur[[od 19}J WOOs [AJ 6 ‘6 “190 oe Sapna ~ STTOq AYI[ ROY OL ‘6 ‘po "Wy 3uey oan} “BUT 0} MOIS yOu prp spustd ‘TL 4900 “Wysuel orn} | Bur OF MOL yOu pp spysid ‘TL 300 * SUIMOIS [[YS S[[Oq Pood OT ‘IT 190 *[[o] PUR pap OOS JN 408 8 ‘TL “WOO *[[9J SpavM.10978 ING ‘BUIMOIS STIOG 4 ‘TT "300 “T1194 [[Buis T ydavoxo udT[By [TR ‘TL 300 panes % “UOT]IPUoD U0 SYIRUIOI YIM ‘pauruexd UAT AA | “sess susogy ‘ualfod Sury ‘u0;j00 purydn sury *puodas oy plo Aep T puew ‘uonwordde 4say 107 Ysory ‘uatjod Sury ‘W000 puwdn sary --**pro Aep qT ‘uatjod Sury ‘u0}j00 pusldn Surry “*uajod purysy Bag Yysery ‘0300 pudgy *puodas Ioy plo Aup T pus ‘uoneurypod ysay 10F ysouy ‘uatfod puxysy Bag ‘u0}}00 puefdn ‘Appeag "plo Aep J ‘uotjod purist Bog ‘u0}j00 pueidn ‘Apprig Dodo Sersoomeaaded titre eee eeeeseseeeeesess Qpreeee DJ dSS Se omaeoeietncooaesennoecaggans eens QD==5"= ASSES ORS SO Sot criscaeG oh -Marseaues CON “opr pro Aep T uajjod yyy WWW ‘puRysy wag *pasn ual[od Jo pury pus 104309 J) AJaTIBA. -*-6z‘sny “urd og'e |" 6a suny ‘urd ogg |" snoy gt | ZI ‘0g “Any “ur “B08 OL ‘6g ‘sny “urd f[ |°--"6z°sny “urd [ |"- sinog Tz | TL | ***-*Qe-dny “Ur'v OT so" 6g Sn “UL aL laestope ease OL sz‘sny “UI ZL "ez any “Ural |" sinoy zz | 6 ‘62 “Suy “ULB Og'0T ‘8S “sny our 7” IL soc Sn y “Ul'B IT Rs: opi as5 8 -*79"6Z"SNy “UL'B OT 7, Sny “Ure OT |°* SanoY FZ | L “1061 eT qdag “ure or |" er ydeg “urd og'g |°""* Op" =~ 9 “el qdog “unde |----epydog“urdg |"sAvpcioF | ¢ pT qdag “une oT | -"gEsdag urd z |°* sinoy 0G | F “eT 'qdog “ure og TL et ydeg “uw og TL |** SAnOy FG | S sep ydag eure pp [rote opt |e ope] z inary zi 4ydag ‘urd |*-*-zrydes “urd pf |*~ sunoy gt } T “006T B ut =] “parry aatjdaoar 2s ; 5 mee poyeurjod way -nosvia ua AA aca oH sInstd |g (spnq somoy aeyrarts oT uodn poursoyssed yuotipiodxe yoRgq] “SULOSSO]G UOHOI YUN spuIUaTa—TT LIAV I, EXPERIMENTS WITH ORANGE BLOSSOMS. 23 EXPERIMENTS WITH ORANGE BLOSSOMS. Only 15 experiments of 10 flowers each were performed with orange blossoms and the results were rendered somewhat unsatisfactory for two reasons: (1) The trees blossomed profusely, but set only a small quantity of fruit. Although no actual calculation was made, it was evident when the trees were examined, September 27, that had the total number of blossoms put forth in the spring produced as good a per- centage of fruits as those experimented with, the trees would have yielded a much heavier crop. (2) Some portions of the trees produced a greater percentage of fruits than other portions. This was espe- cially true of the older limbs, while the younger wood in the tops of the trees produced almost no fruit. Luckily, the records made when the experiments were begun designated the portions of the trees which the blossoms of each experiment occupied, thus explaining some apparent contradictions in the results. For example, experi- ment 9 (see Table III) should have given results similar to those of experiment 8, but unfortunately the blossoms of experiment 9 were located in a nonproductive portion of the tree and on the same limb as those of experiment 6, which resulted in no fruits, although it should have produced results similar to those of experiment 7 had its blossoms been located in as productive a portion of the tree, This work was undertaken for the purpose of determining the effect of pollinating orange blossoms before the pistils became receptive. But an examination of blossom buds of different ages showed that the stigmas were receptive (if the presence of stigmatic fluid is a sure indi- cation of receptiveness) in buds that would not have been fully open for nine days. Such a bud is shown by Pl. IV, fig. 4, and an emas- culated bud of the same age is shown by fig. 5. The stigmatic fluid can not be easily distinguished in the photograph, but when the emas- culated bud is held in the hand a drop of light-colored fluid is seen in the center of the stigma. The fluid is viscid and pollen adheres readily and abundantly to the very young stigmas. While these young buds did not possess the conditions of nonreceptiveness, they were so young that it was thought better to test the effect of pollinating them at this age rather than work with younger buds. The detailed results of the experiments can be obtained from Table III, which follows. The first nine experiments were performed with flower buds nine days before they would have been open, like the one represented in PI. LV, fig. 4, and the other six with flowers four days older, like the one shown in fig. 3. The records suggest that better success results from work with the buds last mentioned, but it was demonstrated that fruits con- taining good, well-developed seeds will result from flowers pollinated nine days before they would naturally have received pollen. This was demonstrated with flowers of both seedy and seedless varieties. That the pollen so prematurely applied fecundated the ovules is proved by 24 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION. the fact that the resulting fruits of trees of seedless varieties contained good seed which germinated almost as well as seeds of fruits from the same tree the flowers of which were pollinated at the normal time. Indeed, the seeds resulting from these premature pollinations germi- nated to a greater per cent than seeds taken at random from fruits of a seedy orange. One might expect the seedlings resulting from the pollination of such immature pistils to show feebleness, but such is not the case. They are now 6 inches tall and growing with as much vigor as any in the seed bed. They also show polyembryonic tendencies to as great a degree as the other seedlings, having from one to as many as four separate plants growing from a single seed. Seven fruits resulting from prematurely pollinated flowers of a Melitensis navel were compared with six from the same tree which resulted from flowers emasculated nine days before opening and hand pollinated when the pistils were fully mature. The following are the averages: Seeds tha Number of | race | eres Number of t | fruits. Weight. Diameter. seeds. germinated. | Grams. Inches. Per cent. th || 183 2,91 5 73 | 6 242 3.10 8 87 The last four experiments were for the purpose of ascertaining whether seedy oranges are disposed to set fruit without pollination, as is customary with navel oranges. The 20 buds that were emascu- lated and bagged without pollination, as well as 20 that were emas- culated and had their stigmas irritated by the application of magnesium sulphate, alike failed to set any fruits. wD i EXPERIMENTS WITH ORANGE BLO “BUL[[BJ ALOJO Layo -UIRIp UL POUL F VULBOIq VU *“poVUtes EL YorupA JO ‘popyuBpd 9p !yeasy dod spoes TT JO ostI0AR UY “poy RULTdad g Yor so ‘poyuwpd Tp :ymmay dod spaos p JO asRIOAR UV “poyeu a8 1 OLA yo ‘payurpd 99S § POULWIUOD JIOYT “poVBULOod TOrmpay Jo [Re ‘poyunrd pl tymay dod spoas G JO oFRIOAR Uy “poyBULUad & yor jo ‘payund p sqroay dod spaas 9 Jo asR0AR Uy “polp siiay SuULveq QuIVy ‘od *]]OM poyBULUIEs spa ~1ULL 6 oO" “[[OAL poyBULLLIAS Spadg ‘SYIBULOY ISeMS “spy / edu jo sroquinn Sjpauva Apoas vB ‘LORIN IS JO dod] UO pouTOyiod syuoutLIed xg p ‘poywury | Pte hee be Sate ARS fey De hcg cheer) oes opts?) -[od daaou yng posduq puv poyepnoswuigp |---| “uaypod Joy poyngysqns oayydyns unisaeusvyy | OL *poyeuly -jod JoAou Jnq pessvq pus poyepnospungp |--7 77> +} uayjod | cee ual[[By punoy OL [[Btez AB | doy parngusqns oayeyqdius wmniwssuARy, | OL | ares | “* AUIMOLT O1OM SJINIT § sR TINDE | her pci a ES Sas gS AR Se a clio S OD eamag | OL \° Eemeicicd ULYAN OD .L3 ch ck © cM S99] CLL AGB CocePaN RS TAT lc ana ce (0) 0 aici sas OL Siciecnud ULTAN 8 a AL ETL PoE TAT | Netha cheadaahe a shc eich S ia OD sega ima 3 > SULMOLS OOM SytOay pez ABW |” > SUIMOLT 10M SITNIT BGG ABI lez OL > BUIMOIT OOM SIME Sb] ABI ~~ or [-* BULIMOLS o10.M syndy g pe ABW | OL i siezse eric SRLS HESS tele) « oteeaeel fo 6 i > SUTMOLT SBA JING Tbe AR | OL ; * SUIMOLS O1OM BINA FPS AB 77 OL i | “9011 OULRS » “> SUTMOLS o10M syne ‘Fz Auy_ Wiosy UaT[Od ‘asuw1o Apoaas Bau IS OL f \* uo -wurjod | aLOJaq “U“OLTpUoD UO “uoneurod | Tighe SHAVUOT WILMA ‘PouUlMIBXd LOY AA pus uoljod Surpivsed syiBUulay | saa q30 ‘paye -utpod LoOqutny [spnq saMoy seprants of uodn poutroyiod yuoutedxe Yorum] “suosso)g abunso yp suaunsadrg— TIT ATA, ABW ULB TL ud 7% “IBN OD eae g-any “urd “97 'qQaq “ULB TT “7 96'G9q "UL" OT “cz qoq “urd fF Ste QDs ase g-apyy “urd ¢ OZ Qo ULB OS TL 67, "Qo ULB OT ‘poysurypod Wat AA 6 uy “urd ¢ 4g aByy “urd Z 6 ABT UL BL "4 IB ULB TT “rey “urd g GAB “ud Z 9% dag “ued Of SL “96 Go ULB OTL \.2 298 Q9q "ULB TL 77 9G "Gag] UL" OT “ez qoq “ud F “Gz qoy “urd ¢ "G3 "qoq “urd % “G3 "Gog “ULB OS TL "*" ¢z"qay “UL'B OT “porey -HOSBULA UAT AA ire) “sing —ul uodo AUN uaeq BABY plnom Sioa MOLT Or No -iosE a | ‘ON JudMILIed xq | 26 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION. EXPERIMENTS WITH TOMATO BLOSSOMS. The work so far having been performed on flowers the pistils of which are naturally protected against a premature pollination, it was desired to try some flower the stigma of which is naturally exposed to pollination before it is receptive. It is to be supposed that flowers of the latter kind would not be killed by premature pollination as tobacco flowers are, for nature could not expose the young flowers to so immi- nent a danger of destruction without the plant becoming extinct or its manner of flowering changed by natural selection. The tomato blos- som was found to present the conditions desired, for here the young stigma is exposed more or less for two or three days before it is receptive. (See Pl. IV, fig. 9.) All of the work on tomato flowers was performed in the greenhouse, where there were grown eight different varieties. These vines grew very vigorously and were pruned and trained to vertical wires as the: growth proceeded. Near the conclusion of the work the vines had reached a height of 8 or 9 feet and had such a mass of foliage that pruning was frequently necessary. The following notes of the 25 experiments performed with tomato blossoms are given in about the words written in the notebook as the work progressed. Some explanations and references to figures are inserted, and to avoid too many repetitions the wording has been changed in some places, and the description of the kind of blossom buds chosen is omitted except in experiments land 5. Experiment 5 was performed on fully open flowers, as explained in the notes of that experiment. The kind of blossom buds chosen for all the other experiments is explained in the notes of experiment 1 and illustrated by Pl. IV, fig. 10. Fig. 11 of the same plate shows another of the same age which has been decap- itated, and fig. 12 one of same age that has been emasculated. It will be noticed that decapitation prepares the flower for premature pollination just as well as emasculation, but this process of decapita- tion can not be used in hybridization work since there is danger of the flower becoming self-fertilized by the pollen remaining in the decapi- tated flower. The flowers were usually simply decapitated because decapitation was more quickly performed and perhaps of less injury to the flowers, although the experiments do not show any injurious effects from emasculation (decapitation employed in experiments 3 and 4, and emasculation in similar experiments 7 and 9). (See Table IV, p- 35.) However, in al! experiments where it was necessary to remove all of the pollen the flowers were decapitated and then emasculated. In some cases one experiment is an exact repetition of another, while in other cases it is a repetition so far as practical results are concerned, but different in minor details, as, for example, in the variety of tomato from which the pollen was taken. In all these experiments, except experiment 5, the flowers and resulting fruits were kept covered with paper bags from the commencement of the work until the fruit was ripe. i EXPERIMENTS WITH TOMATO BLOSSOMS. 21 Experiment 1.—March 1,2 p. m. Ten young flowers of Lorillard variety were decapitated and pollinated at once with pollen from Atlantic Prize. Only young buds with a total length of one-half inch and with their sepal lobes still touching at their apexes were chosen. (PI. IV, fig. 10, shows the size and appearance of the flower buds chosen for this and all following experiments except experiment 5.) The sepal lobes of these flowers were at this time one-eighth of an inch longer than the petals, stamens, and pistils, which were all of about equal length. In unmolested flowers similar to these it was observed that from this age on the pistils grew more rapidly than the other parts, and usually protruded one-sixteenth to one-eighth of an inch beyond the mature stamens (Pl. IV. fig. 8). March 19. A few of these flowers were to-day examined, and it was found that some had fallen from the plants, while others were ready to fall at a touch. April 3. These 10 flowers were all found loose at the base of the stem, and the flowers black, dried, and shriveled. Results of the experiment: No fruits set. Experiment 2.—March 1, 2.30 p. m. This experiment is in every particular an exact repetition of experiment 1, and the 10 flowers examined March 19 and April 3 showed results exactly the same as those of experiment 1. Experiment 3.—(Compare with experiment 4 and contrast with 1 and 2.) March 1,3p.m. These 10 flowers on the same plants as flowers of experiments 1 and 2 were decapitated and then bagged to be pollinated with Atlantic Prize pollen when the pistils have become mature, as shown by other blossoms of the same age to-day, labeled to determine the rapidity of growth of unmolested flowers on these vines. March 7. On this date the blossoms labeled to indicate the rapidity of growth showed reflex petals and receptive stigmas. An examination of the flowers of experiment 3 showed the decapitated sepals to be reflexed and the stigmas receptive as near as could be determined with a hand lens. These 10 flowers were accord- ingly pollinated with fresh pollen of Atlantic Prize. April 3. These 10 flowers were to-day examined and 9 large green tomatoes found developing. One blossom had fallen without setting fruit, but 2 of the 9 large tomatoes were on this same stem, which might possibly be the cause of the falling of the other flower, as 2 tomatoes were enough forso small astem to support. These fruits now range from 1 to 3 inches in diameter. Results of the experiment: June 8. Nine large ripe tomatoes. Experiment 4.—(Compare with experiment 3 and contrast with 1 and 2.) March 1,4 p.m. This experiment is an exact repetition of experiment 3. March 7. These 10 blossoms treated similarly to those of experiment 3. April3. Nine large green tomatoes found; 1 flower had fallen without setting fruit. Results of the experiment: June 8. Nine large ripe tomatoes. Experiment 5.—March 1. In order to ascertain the percentage of blossoms which would set fruit if pollinated in the manner usually employed in growing tomatoes under glass for commercial purposes, 10 fully opened blossoms were thus pollinated and labeled, but left unbagged. These 10 flowers were of the Lorillard variety and were pollinated in a hasty manner with pollen of Atlantic Prize by simply touching the protruding pistils with a watch glass into which pollen had been shaken from flowers of the latter variety. April3. These 10 flowers were examined and 8 large green tomatoes found develop- ing, 1 flower having fallen without setting fruit, and another in the same fruit cluster was still attached and had a strong stem and large green calyx, but the ovary was exceedingly small and had not begun to develop. The last 2 mentioned are in the same fruit cluster with 2 of the 8 large green tomatoes, and this fact may be an explanation of their nondevelopment, since 2 large tomatoes are as many as so small a stem can well support. Results of the experiment: Eight large well-formed tomatoes. 28 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION. Experiment 6.—(Compare with experiments 1, 2, and 8 and contrast with 7.) March 11, 10a. m. Ten flowers of the Lorillard variety were decapitated and the stamens entirely removed. The blossoms were then immediately pollinated with fresh pollen of Atlantie Prize. April 3. Eight of these 10 flowers have fallen loose at the base of the stem, and the flowers are black and shriveled, while the other 2 are still attached by strong fleshy stems. The ovaries, though not enlarged, are plump and green, like tiny tomatoes. June 10. Two small ripe tomatoes gathered and found to contain 8 seeds each. Results of the experiment: Two small ripe tomatoes. This experiment differs from experiments 1 and 2 only in that the flowers were emasculated rather than simply decapitated. Experiment 7.—(Compare with experiments 3 and 4 and contrast with 6 and 8.) March 11, lla. m. Ten flowers of the same variety and in every particular similar to those of experiment 6 were decapitated and the stamens entirely removed and the flowers bagged to be pollinated when the pistils become receptive as indicated by other flowers of the same age to-day, labeled to show the rapidity of development. March 16, 2 p.m. These 10 blossoms were pollinated with fresh pollen of Atlantic Prize. April 38. The above 10 blossoms examined and 8 good green tomatoes found developing, 1 flower having fallen while the other was still attached by a strong fleshy stem, but the small green ovary was undeveloped. Results of the experiment: Eight good tomatoes. Experiment 8.—(Compare with experiments 1, 2, and 6 and contrast with 3, 4, 7, and 9.) March 11, 12 m. Ten young blossom buds on Suttons Best of All were decapitated and the stamens entirely removed, and the stigmas covered immediately with fresh pollen of Atlantic Prize. April 3. These 10 flowers examined and all found fallen loose at the base of the stem and black and shriveled. Results of the experiment: No fruits. Experiment 9.—(Contrast with experiment 8.) March 11, 12.30 p.m. Ten blos- som buds of the same variety, and in all respects similar to those of experiment 8, were similarly treated in regard to emasculation and decapitation, but were bagged without pollination. These 10 flowers are to be pollinated with fresh pollen of Atlantic Prize when the pistils become receptive as indicated by other labeled blossoms of the same age. March 16, 2.30 p.m. These 10 flowers were pollinated with fresh pollen of Atlan- tic Prize, the decapitated petal lobes being reflexed, showing that the flowers would haye been fully opened had they been left unmolested. April 3. Ten good large tomatoes found developing. Results of the experiment: Ten large, well-formed tomatoes. It will be seen by contrasting experiments 8 and 9 that they differ only in the time of the application of the pollen to the pistils. In experiment 8 the pollen was applied to the immature pistils, while in experiment 9 it was applied to mature pistils. It being noticed that several of the varieties in the greenhouse were ‘setting a few fruits, although there had been no opportunity for the blossoms to become pollinated, the question naturally arose as to whether tomatoes will set fruit if secluded from wind and insects, and experiments 10 and 11 were undertaken in order to throw some light on this point. Experiment 10.—March 16, 3 p.m. This experiment consisted simply in bagging 10 young blossom buds on the variety Livingston’s Beauty. The blossom buds were EXPERIMENTS WITH TOMATO BLOSSOMS. 29 unopened and in the same condition as those described in the preceding experiments. In bagging, two blossoms were placed in each bag. May 9. An examination showed two small fruits, the other flowers having fallen without setting fruits. Results of the experiment: Two small fruits. As it was not known at this time that the tomato sometimes sets fruit without the flowers having received pollen, no further attention was given to these small fruits. As shown by later work, however, it is possible that these fruits set without receiving any pollen and, of course, if such was the case they were without seeds. No definite conclusions can be drawn from this experiment, since the two fruits may have set without their flowers having been pollinated at all, or by means of self-fertilization, or by one flower becoming pollinated with pollen from the other flower in the same bag. Experiment 11.—This experiment was performed at the same time and is a repeti- tion of experiment 10, except that it is on the variety Atlantic Prize. The experi- ment resulted in the falling of nine of the blossoms without setting fruit, while the tenth remained green, with a thick green stem and calyx, but failed to develop a fruit. Results of the experiment: No fruits. The results thus far having definitely shown that good results could not be obtained by the immediate pollination of the immature pistils, the question arose as to the cause of the failure—whether the pistils were injured by the premature application of pollen, or whether the pollen had lost its vitality before the pistils became mature. In order to test this point some further experiments were undertaken, begin- ning with experiment 12. If the pistils were uninjured by the appli- cation of pollen at the time the flowers were decapitated, it is evident that another pollination when the pistils became receptive would give as good results as in those experiments in which the flowers received but the one pollination—that at the time when the pistils were receptive. Experiment 12.—(Compare with experiment 14 and contrast with 13.) March 19, 10a.m. Ten flowers of Sutton’s Best of All were decapitated and at once pollinated with fresh pollen of Lorillard. Other similar flower buds were labeleel at the same time in order to show the time when the pistils became receptive. March 27,9 a.m. These 10 flowers were again pollinated with fresh pollen of Lorillard. The decapitated calyx lobes were reflexed and the pollen of the previous pollination could still be seen upon the stigmas. April 3. An examination of several of these flowers showed that about half had fallen, while the others seemed to be setting fruit. May 9. Seven fine fruits were found growing. Results of the experiment: Seven good fruits. This experiment indicates that the immature pistils were uninjured by the first pollination, and the failure to obtain fruits in the preced- ing experiments in which the pistils were prematurely pollinated must be accounted for in some other way, perhaps by the loss of vitality in the pollen. 30 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION. Experiment 13.—(Compare with experiments 3, 4, and 7 and contrast with 6, 12, and 14.) Mareh 19, 10.30 a.m. Ten flower buds on the same variety, and in all respects similar to those of experiment 12, were decapitated and bagged without pollination, to be pollinated with pollen of Lorillard when the stigmas become receptive. March 27, 9.30a.m. These 10 flowers were pollinated with fresh pollen of Loril- lard. The stigmas appeared receptive when viewed through a hand lens and the pollen adhered readily to them. April 3. An examination of a few of these flowers showed that some small tomatoes were forming, but their development was not sufficiently advanced to deter- mine results. May 9. Six good, large fruits were found growing. Results of the experiment : Six good, large fruits. Experiment 14.—(Compare with experiment 12 and contrast with 13.) March 19, 12m. This experiment is a repetition of experiment 12, except that the pollen used was from different flowers of the same variety instead of from those of the Lorillard variety. March 27, 11 a. m. The flowers were again pollinated with fresh pollen from dif- ferent flowers of the the same variety. One of the 10 was found fallen and another, which was of a yellowish color, about ready to fall. Results of the experiment: May 9, seven good fruits. Experiment 15 was planned to be a repetition of experiments 7 and and to contrast with experiment 14, in order to determine whether the flowers are injured by premature pollination. However, when these flowers were receptive and were being pollinated, it was discov- ered that some of them had become injured in some way after being emasculated, while others could not be found, thus making it necessary to give up experiment 15. A comparison of experiment 14 with experiments 7 and 9 suggests that early pollination has no detrimental effect upon the pistils, but as experiments 7 and 9 were performed at a different time and pollen from a different variety was used, the conditions are not similar enough to warrant such a conclusion. In order to get more conclusive proof that premature pollination does not injure the young pistils and pre- vent them from performing their functions when they become mature, experiments 16 and 17 were performed. Experiment 16.—(Compare with experiments 12 and 14 and contrast with 13.) April 3, 2p.m. Ten young blossom buds of the Lorillard variety were decapitated and immediately pollinated with fresh pollen of Livingston Potato Leaf. When the pistils haye become mature, as indicated by other flowers of the same age to-day, labeled to show the rapidity of development, these 10 flowers are to be again polli- nated with fresh pollen of Livingston Potato Leaf. April 11, 9a.m. The 10 blossoms were again pollinated with fresh pollen of Liv- ingston Potato Leaf. The flowers were fresh with decapitated calyx and corolla lobes reflexed and the pistils apparently receptive, although still bearing the pollen of the first pollination. May 9. Nine good, large fruits were found developing. Results of the experiment: Nine good, large fruits. Experiment 17.—(Compare with experiments 7, 9, and 13 and contrast with 12, 14, and 16.) April 3,3 p.m. Ten young flower buds on the same plants and in all EXPERIMENTS WITH TOMATO BLOSSOMS. $l respects similar to those of experiment 16 were decapitated and bagged without being pollinated, but are to be pollinated with fresh pollen of Livingston Potato Leaf when the pistils become mature. April 11, 10a. m. These 10 flowers were pollinated with fresh pollen of Living- ston Potato Leaf. The flowers were fresh with decapitated calyx and corolla lobes reflexed and the pistils apparently receptive. No difference in appearance was noticed between these flowers and those of experiment 16. May 9. Ten good, healthy green fruits found growing. Results of the experiment: Ten good fruits. On the same day, and of course before the results of experiments 16 and 17 were known, experiments 18 and 19 were commenced. It was thought likely that experiment 17 would give so much better results than experiment 16 that it would be necessary to explain in what way the first pollination in experiment 16 and similar experiments had injured the pistils. If the injury was due, as in the case of tobacco flowers, to the growth of pollen tubes down the immature pistils, sub- stances other than pollen would not act in that way; while if the injury should prove to be due simply to the coating on the stigmas, some other substance might have the same injurious effect. Since quite ¢ number of ripe tomatoes had been examined and found to contain no seeds, it was thought that this tendency to set fruit without pollination might be increased by the irritation of the stigmas by the application of some substance other than pollen. Consequently in some of the following experiments magnesium sulphate was employed in the place of pollen. Experiment 18.—April 3, 4 p.m. This experiment is similar to experiment 16 in all respects except that magnesium sulphate was used in place of fresh pollen to coat over the surface of the stigmas immediately after decapitation. Ten flower buds of the same variety and in all respects similar to those of experiment 17 were decapi- tated and the pistils dipped at once into powdered magnesium sulphate, and the flowers bagged. April 11, 10.30 a. m. The 10 flowers were pollinated with fresh pollen of Liv- ingston Potato Leaf. The darkened appearance of the stigmas of the flowers when pollinated indicated some injury due to the magnesium sulphate. May 9. Three good fruits found developing. Two of the blossoms were still fresh and green, with large stems and large green calyx lobes, but had failed to set fruit, while the rest of the 10 flowers had fallen without setting fruit. Results of the experiment: Three good fruits. Experiment 19.—April 3, +.30 p.m. Ten blossom buds of the same variety and in all respects similar to those of experiment 18 were decapitated, and the pistils dipped at once into powdered magnesium sulphate and the flowers bagged. April 11. The 10 flowers were examined and found in the same condition as those of experiment 18 at this time. May 9. Two ot the blossoms were found still fresh and green with large stems and large, green calyx lobes, but they had failed to set fruit, while the other 8 blossoms had fallen without setting fruit. Results of the experiment: No fruits. Experiment 20.—April 3,5 p.m. Five blossom buds of Lorillard and 5 of Sutton’s Best of All were emasculated and bagged. April 11, 11.30a.m. The stigmas of these blossoms were coated with magnesium 32 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION. sulphate.. The 10 blossoms were in good, fresh condition, with reflexed calyx and corolla lobes and protruding pistils showing fresh receptive stigmas. May 9. One small green tomato found developing. Three of the flowers were found with large green stems and calyxes, but jailed to set fruit. The other 6 were found fallen without having set fruit. Results of the experiment: One ripe seedless tomato 1} inches in diameter. The results of this experiment gave additional proof that the seed- less tomatoes previously found growing in the greenhouse had resulted from flowers that had never been pollinated. Experiment 22 was an exact repetition of experiment 20, but resulted in the falling of all the flowers without setting fruit. It having been shown by experiments 12, 14, and 16 that the failure to obtain fruits in experiments 1, 2, and 8 was not caused by the pres- ence of the pollen on the immature pistils, it would seem to be due to loss of vitality of the pollen before the pistils became receptive. To test this point experiments 21 and 22 were performed. Experiment 21.—(Contrast with experiment 17.) May 9,4 p. m. Ten blossom buds of Sutton’s Best of All were emasculated and bagged to be pollinated when the pistils become mature with pollen of Lorillard collected to-day at 5.30 p. m. May 14, 1.30 p. m. These 10 flowers were to-day pollinated with pollen of Loril- lard collected May 9 and placed in a watch-glass closely covered and kept in the green- house near the tomato vines in order that it might be exposed to the same conditions of temperature, etc., as the pollen placed upon the immature pistils in the previous experiments. The decapitated sepals and petals of these flowers were reflexed and the pistils had a good healthy appearance when pollinated. June 6. Eight of the flowers were found detached below the ovaries, which had not enlarged after pollination. One flower set a fruit which attained a size of 2} inches in diameter and contained 22 seeds. The other flower could not be found. Results of the experiment: One fruit. The fact that experiments 6 and 21 produced 3 small fruits contain- ing but few seeds shows that the pollen had not lost quite all its vital- ity during the five days from the time it was collected till the pistils on which it was placed became mature. Experiment 23.—(Contrast with experiment 16.) May 9. Ten blossoms of Sutton’s Best of All were emasculated and at once pollinated with fresh pollen of Lorillard. Some of the pollen was reserved for a second application to these flowers when the pistils become mature. May 14, 2 p. m. The 10 flowers were pollinated with pollen of Lorillard collected May 9 and kept in the greenhouse since that time. When pollinated the second time all parts of the flowers were in a fresh, healthy condition, the stigmas showing white from the application of pollen May 9. June 9. All of the flowers were found detached below their ovaries, which had not enlarged since pollination. Results of the experiment: No fruits. Experiment 24.—(Compare with experiment 25 and contrast with 20 and 22.) May 14,3 p.m. Ten young blossom buds of Sutton’s Best of All were emasculated and bagged. These blossoms are never to be pollinated. June 6. All of the 10 blossoms were found fallen below the ovaries, which had not enlarged. Results of the experiment: No fruits. EXPERIMENTS WITH TOMATO BLOSSOMS. 33 Experiment 25.—This experiment is an exact repetition of experiment 24, except that it was performed on the Lorillard variety. Results of the experiment: No fruits. While the work with tomato blossoms indicates no injurious effects from the growth of pollen tubes down the immature pistils, it proves the fallacy of the commonly accepted opinion that when pollen is placed on young stigmas it will remain there and fertilize the flower when the pistils finally become receptive. It is also shown that tomato blossoms will sometimes, though seldom, set fruit without pol- lination, and the number of fine, large, seedless, and almost seedless tomatoes that grew on the vines under glass without any attention having been paid to the pollination of the flowers shows that the absence or scarcity of pollen on the stigmas will sometimes result in the production of better, firmer, and less seedy tomatoes than those which result froma natural pollination. An examination of tomato flowers growing out of doors showed that the stigmas of the fully opened flowers were completely covered with pollen, and tomatoes on the same vines consequently were found to contain the usual large num- ber of seeds. One of these of average size—3 inches in diameter and 24 inches thick—and not unusually seedy, contained 308 seeds; while some of the same variety and of the same size that were grown under glass contain no seeds, and others but a dozen or two. The fine toma- toes above mentioned, some of which contained no seeds and the others but few, grew on large thrifty vines which bore but a few fruits each, owing to the failure of their flowers to receive pollen. Had these vines borne at the time a crop of tomatoes containing the normal number of seeds it is likely that the ones without seeds, as well as those with but few seeds, would not have reached the size they did. As it was, how- ever, the tomatoes without seeds reached a diameter of 24 and 3 inches and were firm and of excellent quality. If some of the fruits on a vine have set as a result of a liberal pollination, while others have set as a result of a slight pollination, or even without pollination, it is natural to suppose that the nourishment of the vine would go largely to the fruits containing an abundance of seeds, while seedless ones would be dwarfed. That such is the case has been shown by the experi- ments of Munson“ and Bailey’. The same effect is shown by PI. IV, fig. 16, which is a photograph of a cluster of Wilmot Hamburg grapes grown under glass. The small berries are ripe and have the same color and flavor as the large ones, but are entirely seedless and doubt- less set without pollination. The large berries contain several seeds each and likely resulted from blossoms that were naturally pollinated, perhaps by insects that found their way into the hothouse. When there is competition on the same plant between seedless and seeded fruits the latter receive the most nourishment and become the @Ann. Rep. Maine Exp. Station, 1892, p. 50. »Rep. Cornell Univ. Exp. Station, 1891, p. 53. 1810—No. 22—02——3 34 INJURLOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION, larger, but by careful breeding it is not unlikely that a tomato can be obtained that will produce seedless fruits as large as the seeded fruits we now have. The large size of seedless bananas and pineapples indi- cates that this is possible. But since the most convenient way of propagating the tomato at present is by means of seeds, it is nota tomato entirely seedless that is wanted, but a large, well-shaped, firm tomato with but few seeds. While a comparison of the experiments in which the flowers were emasculated and never pollinated with the experiments ‘in which the flowers were emasculated and magnesium sulphate substituted for pollen would seem to suggest that the irritation of the receptive stig- mas may stimulate the setting of fruits, yet fruits set so rarely without flowers having received pollen that a yery large number of flowers would have to be tested in order to determine whether the mere irri- tation of the stigmas by the application of substances other than pollen has any tendency to cause fruits to set. |WOt Sr OSS See ee eS ee es O Die tases ee ae he ee eek go 2S ee") OD mage OpEgaas “py Avyy “urd p | ¢ 10 \" ~“*payeurfod JaAou !pasaeq puv payRpuosnugy TOAON |[7-** PL Avy ‘urd ¢ | ¢ | | “pL ARW plo SABp g UaT[od paRy “PL AVL (OMe | a eA Se sits UdaT|BI punoy [[v ‘g aune | -[WoT pur ‘6 Avy posa udsppod pavl[woT ysoery | vur dz ‘6 ABW | 6 ABW |G OL le sorte * UATL[By [pRB ‘g oun |** + uarfod doy paynyysqns, ayeydins urnwausv yy, “pL AB “UTZ [°° 6 AB “urd Gc | ¢ ‘spoos ZZ PoulByUuod ‘[[euUIg | | “SurMorgs Judy T ‘9 oun “plo skup ¢ uoyod paeypmoT | pr Avy urd og [77 6 AB “ud F |G *ssa[paoos ‘sax ABO U90LT | SUA pur poudedit gio | T WIA ¢ pus ‘udT[By 9 ‘Ings T ‘6 AB [cot ~ Ops “Tad “urs oer |*- ‘idy “ur‘de¢ | 8 | 0 |* Sex A[Bo dad YILAZ ‘UoT[BI 8 ‘6 AUP [oe “sees oyBydyns TINIsaUsvUL palopMOd gcudy “urd og'p | gaudy “urd og'p | g ‘spgsid Aunod poanl “Troudy need JvarT OYBIOd YSouy pun Trad y “ure og 01 “ur ayeydyns wnsouseyy “""FUIMOLS S}Tndy Wea poos g ‘6 AvW | ‘sf ady posn oyeydins wmisousevur posapmog | 'g “dy “ord p jose tady “urd F | 8 | OL | SurMoa3 syinay a8any poos oT ‘6 Av |e wisialola.c'S nie/chess "is uotjod yeayy 070}0g Ysaig | TP dy “ure op jo eudy “ude |] g | ) "[Dudy “urs 6 |--- Suro s}inuy aziny pood 6 ‘6 Avy [7777 Beg Sivsege oOULt} YoRve UaT[od Jay OVWIOg Ysory | 6 ‘Eg “dy “urd | mudy “u'dz |g *poyveurpod aq you prnos os pus ‘painful ottooveg PBL aULOS PUR YSO[ AULOY ‘LAVIN “ule ete Ue dog ar | 8 dh ||| senengeea SUIMOIS syns poos 1 '6 {177 aut yove ue tod LLV JO Isoq 8,U0}INS YSatT | TL GLAVIN “UL BL | GL ABA UE ZT | 8 Qe acs ees BUIMOIS S}INIF Pood 9 ‘6 “--uaTfod paw[[Moy Ysa |-2Z CRN “ULB OF'6 | GL ABN UR OS 'OL | 8 "1G ABN ULB G a “"SULMOIS SyTMIy poos 1 ‘6 2 OUI} YOR UaT[od paVBl [oT Ysoduy 6 UB “UR OT BL BN ULB OL | 8 *xA[RO Udeda aFIBEOUg | QO fot “-ULOTLB] PUNOF 6 6 ee tain, Gp ag FEE eS eee, EO DE aig os tees ok O Dinettes | ee eee bean op." ¢ “BB YOR OJ KIOMOY OMT, | Z [ot SULIT [[VUS Z ‘6 727 MON UZTTAaJ-T[98 189} OF OT YOUBW DOSSBA) | ewes es OAS Niel |aeeecacictae ST) Ne NTN | OL |” “HULMOId $90] BUIO} poos OL‘ PRO CeO “opr }op ey “urd og'g | Trey ‘ur'doe'sr | ¢ () Pe > UAT[BI punoy [[B ‘g Pr eoes S(oyoRe TTB USE | IL BA UL eT | Simic “SVO}BULO] Waals g ‘¢* eras op} "gp ae “urd % TL aR ULB TT | “YoRA Spd0S § EXPERIMENTS WITH TOMATO BLOSSOMS. ‘Yyuus {100A syrnay ‘oraeune |Z |--7,pwus AoA % ‘UdTTRy punoy g “¢ op TL UB UB OL | TL UW “ORR OL | ¢ 9 “pasarq “OAL jou pure Ajpides payeury[od | 8 SdOVBULO} W9AIF ASIRE g ‘Eg -ady |-~ op** Pate OO G ef :) ina ere GDS ey Catal) cee lyk Re | ‘posoy1es pure odi'g oun’ | 6 *sa0}BUIO] UoaIt aF1N, G6 ‘gudy |*~ op" BEBO IO) 0 20 SOY AG Winnett a1) 4) 8901 -HULO] OdLT aFIRT 6 ‘Q oUNL | 6 1G Tek BA | mee Soa esr Sioisct einisie wressiric wci°.r=)0°.°'s 10 Dire sa te eee ees LON | eee Tuppy “u'd¢ | 9 oq 0 Sop |: SoneEcncccsoga veeeeessopeees |= pay Curd og'z | Dae curd og'z | 9 “Ap puv user [[@ ‘g‘ady | 0 Tea anth S1OY}O ‘WaT[By OULOS ‘BL IB |" uapfod aziid onurpyy Yysory [tT aey und % fey urd Z | 9 “LO6L ‘sing | laa —u |_o 8 F aaudao |26 Ps Ne sea “uOlIpuod 7 ; 4 ‘payaitduoep 10 | -at Use |g & SYABULO YY 3 Ol 0 syawutos YUM eae Ud A uoyrurfod pur ueal[od Zurpausas syanutey poyeuryfod wat Ay painiuosvuna vay! oANY eo = prnom |3s bar) s[ustd | 3 = [spnq toMoy reyprutrs OT uodn pauuoyied quamtjsedxe yous] “SUOSSO]G OFDULOD YR Spuauladrs——' AT LAY L 36 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION. CONCLUSION. The following summary of results obtained with tobacco, cotton, orange, and tomato flowers contrasts the effects of immature and mature pollinations. The orange work does not lend itself well to this comparison, for it is unsafe to say that the young pistils were not receptive when pollinated: Resulting Resulting Prematurely pollinated. number of Maturely pollinated. number of | fruits. fruits. 80 tobacco blossoms. 3 || 40 tobacco. blossoms -.---=2.---.4----- 38 60 cotton blossoms .......... 32: ||40\cottonsblossomS2s22e- --s ser aeaeeaee 33 60 orange blossoms, 6 experiments. = 15 | 42 orange blossoms, 5 experiments -.. 9 dO;tomatoiblossoms)_3------- = - ee ee 25\\'70: tomato blossoms: -=---.-seaee ee | 60 To determine whether cotton bolls would set without pollination, or by the substitution of other substances for pollen was not attempted, but a summary of this work with the other three flowers is as follows: — = —— . tes i 3 ~ . Ss i Emasculated and stigmas covered ese || Emasculated and bagged without | Resulaae with substances other than pollen. fmunltee pollination. | fruits. 60 tobacco blossdms,.-<.5-- 2-2 -. 14 | 20 tobacco blossoms) 2-2-2 +. eeeeeeeee | 2) 20 orange blossoms, seedy variety -... 0 l 20 orange blossoms, seedy variety -.-. 0 30 tomato blossoms 1 || 20 tomato blossoms —------2--2---- ee 0 Much has been said in apology for the lack of success of attempted hand pollinations, advocating perseverance, and regarding it as a great accomplishment if even 5 or 10 per cent of the flowers set seed. But this is erroneous, for if one is working with plants that naturally cross readily and is not trying to make a cross between two very different plants, the results should certainly not be considered suc- cessful unless a greater percentage of fruits is obtained than set on the same plants naturally without artificial pollination. We increase the production of fruits by giving attention to plants in other respects, and likewise by a careful study of the flowers upon which we work we can obtain greater percentages of fruits by hand pollination, including emasculation, than set naturally. After the behavior of tobaceo, cotton, and tomato flowers was quite well understood, and they were correctly operated upon for obtaining the best results, the following percentages of fruit were obtained: te : Fruits Flowers hand pollinated. | obtainea, | Percent. 40 tobaeco (experiments 7, 16, 20,and 36) ....... 38 95 40 cotton (experiments 2, 4,7,and 10)............. 33 | §2 60'tomato (experiments'3,45 7, Ole, 17) ioc v. .cce ne cee a= oe eee see rie dee 52 | 86 CONCLUSION. 37 The writer is fully convinced that persons having hand-pollinations to make with unfamiliar flowers, or with flowers with which their pre- vious work has been unsatisfactory, will find it profitable to make some small experiments in order to determine the method to which the flowers respond with a large percentage of fruits. These experi- ments can usually be made with the proper pollen and flowers so that the fruits will contain seed of the desired kind. While attention is constantly being called to the many adaptations of flowers for accomplishing various purposes, such as cross-fertiliza- tion, it might be well to attempt to discover if some adaptations for preventing premature pollination have not been brought about by natural selection. That many flowers are admirably formed to success- fully prevent premature pollination is certain, but that such devices have been brought about for this purpose will perhaps never be cer- tain. Proterogenous flowers that open or unfurl in blooming usually a b c Fic. 1.—Flowers of Sabbatia angularis: (a) Appearance while pollen is being shed; (b) Stigma and anthers avoiding each other; (c) Receptive stigma and deciduous anthers. (From drawings by E. E. Lower.) do so when their pistils have reached a receptive condition. The pis- tils of such flowers are perfectly protected from pollen from all sources until they are receptive. Pl. IV, fig, 6, shows a fully open, recep- tive begonia flower, while fig. T shows the two calyx lobes securely closed over the young pistil of a similar but younger flower. Proter- androus flowers open while the pistils are immature, but even here modifications are met with which insure the pistils against premature pollination. The stigmatic surfaces are often folded together, thus preventing pollination even though the immature pistil be exposed. Fig. 1 shows the interesting behavior of flowers of Sabbatia angularis; a shows the condition of the flower when the anthers discharge their pollen, two petals and one stamen having been cut away in order to show the young pistil, which at this stage has no stigmatic surface exposed. Instead of growing straight out and thus coming in contact with the drying anthers, the pistil invariably grows out to one side, passing between the filaments of the stamens. The stamens at this stage begin to bend to the side of the flower opposite the one occupied 38 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF PREMATURE POLLINATION. by the pistil, as shown by #, fig. 1, and by the time the pistil straight- ens and exposes its stigmatic surfaces the stamens have assumed a recumbent position and have drooped their anthers, as shown by e. The modifications of this proterandrous flower successfully prevent self-fertilization and premature pollination without interfering with the proper shedding of pollen. The many adaptations of flowers to insure pollination at a certain time is interesting and suggestive of the importance to be attached to the time for applying pollen when hand-pollinating. Movements on the part of stamens so as to bring the pollen to the pistil at a certain stage in the growth of the flower, and especially movements on the parts of the pistils themselves which bring the stigmas into contact with the stamens, are admirable adaptations. With some flowers, such as those of corn, the pistils have no definite length, but continue to grow in search of pollen, as it were. If pollinated upon protruding from the husks, corn silks perform their functions, turn brown, and become dry without making a growth of more than 2 or 3 inches beyond the end of the ear, but if kept secluded from pollen they will continue to grow for a week and will attain a length greater by 14 or more inches than would otherwise have been the case. During the work with the various flowers herein mentioned nothing has been more noticeable than the individuality possessed by flowers of different forms. It seems impossible to say that the flowers of one plant will respond in a given manner because those of another plant so respond. From these experiments it is evident that flowers of dif- ferent genera of the same order, as the tomato and tobacco, respond dif- ferently to the effects of premature pollination, while the flowers of Datura tatula, of the same order, sufter as do those of tobacco, but do not fall. Two of the five kinds of flowers experimented with mature their pistils before their stamens and were uninjured by premature pollina- tion, while the three that mature their anthers and stigmas at the same time were injured. It is perhaps accidental that such is the case with these five flowers, but it is to be hoped that future work will reveal some means of distinguishing flowers that will, from those that will not produce seed when prematurely pollinated. For the plant breeder it is quite important to know with what flowers one can apply the pollen at the time of emasculation and thus avoid the extra labor of removing the bags, pollinating, and again bagging the flowers when the pistils have become receptive. It is apparent that several of the phenomena suggested by the results of these experiments have not been sufficiently proven. How- ever, concerning the following points the writer feels no doubt: That the application of good tobacco pollen to immature tobacco pistils causes the flowers so treated to fall from the plant because of the growth of pollen tubes into their ovaries; CONCLUSION. 39 That tobacco and tomato plants sometimes set and ripen fruits with- out the flowers haying received any pollen, and that such fruits con- tain no germinative seeds; That but few fruits will be obtained by the pollination of immature cotton and tomato pistils, but that good percentages may be obtained if the pollination is performed when the pistils are receptive. The lesson taught by these experiments is that some flowers can not be successfully pollinated when the work of emasculation is per- formed, while others can, and that no arbitrary mode of procedure can be given for all flowers. A study of the behavior of each kind of flower will reveal its peculiarities and its requirements, and, under- standing these, hand-pollinations should be highly successful. . » > = . fede i*e- + ¢ " i == ag ea i * ‘ = s , i ¢ i : a . , ‘ ; 1 be . ‘ a \ . : ¥ PLATE I. Figs. 1 and 2. plant. The photograph for fig. 1 was taken 3 p. m., June 21, 1900, immediately after the numbered flowers had been emasculated and pollinated, and the lettered flowers had been emasculated but not pollinated. The photograph for fig. 2 was taken 3 p. m., June 23, or just forty-eight hours later than that for fig. 1, and shows that premature pollination has caused flowers 1, 2, and 6 to fall, while the more mature flowers, 3, 4, and 5, show no injury from pollination, but, on the contrary, were fecundated and set seed pods, as shown in Pie Flowers 1 and 2, fig. 1, would not have been receptive for two days and flower 6 for three days, and according to results of experiments they were expected to fall about thirty-six hours after pollination. Flowers 3, 4, and 5 would have been fully open and receptive in one day and were expected to give a fair percentage of seed pods. If early emasculation had caused the falling, flowers ¢ and d should have fallen also. The advancement of an unmolested flower may be studied by observing the small bud on the right in fig. 1 and its growth as shown by fig. 2 and the forming seed pod in Pl. II, fig. 1. 42 The upper portions of the same two main stems of a growing tobacco PLATE I. Dept of Agriculture Ss U Bul 22, Bureau of Plant Industry Fia. 1.—GROWING TOBACCO BLOSSOMS AT TIME OF EMASCULATION Fia. 2.—SAME BLOSSOMS AS IN Fia@. 1, Two DAYS LATER (THREE-F¢ (THREE-FOURTHS NATURAL SIZE) NATURAL SIZE). PLATE II. Fig. 1.—The same portion of the same plant shown in Pl. I, photographed eight days later than fig. 1. The emasculated flowers b and c¢ have not yet fallen, while the seed pods resulting from flowers 3 and 4 have attained considerable size. Figs. 2,3, 4,and 5.—Photomicrographs of pollen grains and pollen tubes in sections of flowers that fell because of premature pollination. Fig. 2.—Section of a tobacco stigma showing pollen grains which haye germinated and sent their tubes into the style. Flower from which this section was made was emasculated and pollinated May 25, 11 a. m., two days before it would have opened. May 27, 11 a. m., it was found fallen and was fixed for microscopic study. (X 250 diameters. ) Fig. 8.—Pollen tabes farther down the style. Figs. 2 and 3 are sections of the same pistils. (> 315 diameters. ) Fig. 4.—Mass of pollen tubes near the point where they enter the ovary from the style. The flower from which this section was made was one of experiment 21 (see Table I). (> 160 diameters. ) Fig. 5.—Pollen tubes in ovary on the placenta at attachment of ovules. Figs. 4 and 5 are from different sections of the same ovary. (> 75 diameters. ) 44 (AZIG IWHNLVYN SHLYNO4-33YH L) "S38NL N3110d O990VEO] JO SHdVYDOHOINOLOHd Bul 22, Bureau of Plant Industry, U S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE II. ‘olf “Id NI Sv swossolg aWyvS—‘| ‘ec = | “f yaLVv7 SAVG LHOIG PLATE III. Flowers 1 and 2 were pollinated March 3, two days before they would have been fully open, No. 2 being emasculated. Thirty-nine hours after being pollinated these flowers had fallen. No. 1 shows the anthers just opening. Flowers 3, 4, and 5 were emasculated February 27. No. 3 was not pollinated, while Nos. 4 and 5 had their stigmas coated over with corn flour. March 5, Nos. 3 and 4 were still fresh, while the corolla of No. 5 had fallen and the ovary begun to enlarge. No. 6.—A ripe pod torn open to show normal seeds for comparison with chafty seeds that sometimes form in pods the flowers of which were not pollinated or had other substances substituted for pollen as in Nos. 9 and 10. No. 7.—A normal ripe seed pod. No. 8.—A green pod formed from a flower which was emasculated and had its stigma coated with air-slacked lime. Nos. 9 and 10.—Ripe pods of experiment 45 in which the stigmas were coated with corn flour. After being photographed pod 9 was examined and found to con- tain only light, chaffy seed like those shown in the opened pod 10. 46 PLATE III. f Aor Tosacco BLOSSOMS AND SEED Pops (NATURAL SIZE). LA PLATE IV. Fig. 1.—An orange forty-three days after pollen was applied to the stigma. Figs. 2, 8, 4, and 5.—Flowers of a Melitensis navel orange, showing different stages in their development. Fig. 2.—Fully open flower, showing abortive anthers characteristic of seedless varieties. Two petals were removed for convenience in photographing. Fig. 8.—Flower five days younger than No. 2, and the kind used in experiments 10 to 15, inclusive. The stigma at this age bears a large drop of stigmatic fluid. Fig. 4.—Flower nine days younger than No. 2, and the kind used in experiments 1 to 9, inclusive. Fig. 5.—Flower same age as No. 4, showing appearance after emasculation. The stigmas at this early age show stigmatic fluid. Fig. 6.—A fully opened pistillate begonia flower, showing receptive pistil. Fig. 7.—A pistillate begonia flower slightly younger than No. 6 and showing the calyx lobes tightly closed, perhaps to protect the young pistil from premature pollination. Fig. 8.—A fully opened tomato blossom of the Lorillard variety, showing receptive stigma extending a short distance beyond the surrounding stamens, which are about to open and shed their pollen. Fig. 9.—A blossom of Lorillard three days younger than No. 8, showing the stigma already exposed. Fig. 10.—A blossom of Lorillard that would have been fully open like No. 8 in about six days. This shows the kind of buds selected in all the tomato experiments to determine the effects of premature pollination. Fig. 11.—A bud similar to No. 10, which has been decapitated to permit of a pre- mature pollination of the pistil. Fig. 12.—A blossom bud similar to No. 10, which has had its stamens entirely removed. Figs. 13, 14, and 15.—Cotton flowers, showing method of emasculation. The flowers were gathered one day before they would normally have opened. Flower 14 has had the upper portion of corolla cut away ready for emasculation. Flower 15 shows emasculation completed. Fig. 16.—A cluster of Wilmot Hamburg grapes, showing difference in size between normal and seedless berries. 48 O ‘NOILVINOSVWA 4O SGOHL3W ‘g3|4uag G30TaS GNV Ssa1daag N33IML3Ig 3ZIS Ni JONSYSISIGQ ONIMOHS ‘Y3LSNID Adv v OSTY U.S. Dept BS PO AOS ee f Agriculture PLATE IV. ff o~ UeSe OP PAR TE MENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN 'No. 23. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. BERSHEM: THE GREAT FORAGE AND SOILING CROP OF THE NILE VALLEY. DAVID G. FAIRCHILD, AGRICULTURAL EXPLORER FOR SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION. Issuep AuGust 30, 1902. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. MN SE Bi Ce ae WWWin 72. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau oF Piant INpustrRy, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., May 20, 1902. Str: IL have the honor to transmit herewith a paper on Berseem: The Great Forage and Soiling Crop of the Nile Valley, and respectfully recommend that it be published as No. 23 of the Bureau series of bul- letins. The paper was prepared by Mr. David G. Fairchild, agricul- tural explorer, Seed and Plant Introduction, and was submitted by the assistant in charge of Seed and Plant Introduction. Respectfully, B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. Janzs WIixson, Secretary of Agriculture. PRE AG Ee One of the most important duties of an agricultural explorer is the obseryation of methods of agriculture practiced in other countries, that show promise of having value if transferred to parts of the United States. Mr. David G. Fairchild has made some careful observations upon Egyptian agriculture with reference to its adaptability to parts of the irrigated Southwest, the accompanying article on berseem being one of the results of this study. It is not to be expected that every agricultural practice followed in Egypt can be bodily transferred to the United States, but it seems probable that at least for certain con- ditions this great Egyptian forage crop may prove of extreme value. Ernst A. BEssey, Assistant in Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction. OFFICE OF SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION, February 6, 1902. bag LAPT - peak avira ee: yar? Fis fuel 1: ¥ ny yu \ ‘ if * i ty ‘ * hi i 7 e 4 aie ‘ f ty we Oa y COUNa ENE S) URockan nie nas ae oe SSR es oe Shas oi ae ae ee 17 IBETSceirasmaghavaCLlO Disses - ee eee eee eis oa = mina sa nse Sais eeae 18 @onclostO nese ern e eee ae or eee eaten tes aciece soe sacescecsctecece 18 MeseriphOm Ol platessa oss] clases eee ecjonne asea nate nsse ween aee 19 ‘ NIM. NIV. RESUS TRAST ONS: Muscowi berseem. - Reclaiming salt lands with the assistance of berseem-.-.---.--..------ . Berseem used as a pasture and green fodder crop..-.-..----.------- . Bringing preen berseem to market: --..-.22252-28--s252) 22 5ee eee . Fig. 1.—Taking green berseem to market. Figs. 2 and 3.—Taking berseem>hayion “drees’)\to the banne==s-e—5-6 eee eee eee . Fig. 1.—Berseem in full flower. Fig. 2.—Camel grazing in field of of berseem. Fig. 3.—A windrow of berseem hay or ‘‘drees’’----- . Fig. 1.—Field of berseem before flowering. Fig. 2.—Embankment dividing two irrigation basins. Fig. 3.—Flood gates for irrigation . Fig. 1.—Roots of Muscowi berseem, showing tubercles on main and lateral roots. Fig. 2.—Roots of Muscowi berseem after first cutting - . Fig. 1.—Young plant of Muscowi berseem shortly after first cut- ting. Fig. 2.—Roots of plants shown in fig. 1. Fig. 3.—Plant of Muscowi berseem, showing height it attains................----- Roots of ordinary alfalfa and Muscowi berseem..---..-.------------- . Fig. 1.—Cutting berseem by hand sickle and loading on cart for market. Fig. 2.—Cutting berseem with scythe. Fig. 3.—Cutting berseem with American mowing machine..-..-.--.-...--------- . Fig. 1.—Plant of Fach] berseem already gone to seed, May 1, 1901. Fig. 2.—Plant of Saida berseem in flower, May 1, 1901........--- American mowing machine and rake in a field of berseem on the estate of Mr. Beyerlé at Bordein, Egypt-..--.------.-=---------- Loading trams with berseem hay on estate of Mr. Beyerlé at Bordein, 20 20 B. P. I.—28. S. P. L.—24. BERSEEM: THE GREAT FORAGE AND SOILING CROP OF THE NILE VALLEY. INTRODUCTION. There are few countries in the world to-day where agriculture pays better than it does in Egypt. The methods of plowing and seeding have scarcely changed at all since the days of the ancient Egyptians, and yet without a single manufacturing industry worthy the name the valley of the Nile is entering upon an era of growth and prosperity which seems most remarkable even to an inhabitant of the Western Hemisphere. While her great money-making crop is cotton, in the production and shipment of which she has much to teach her competitors, the foundation of her continued prosperity rests upon a leguminous fod- der and soiling crop, about which the outside world has concerned itself very little. Berseem, Alexandrian clover, or Egyptian clover (Pl. I), as it is variously called, is a species of Trifolium more or less closely related to the ordinary red clover. Its name, Z7/folivm alerandrinum L., probably has nothing to do with its origin; in fact there is good reason to believe that the plant came from some other part of the Mediter- ranean than that about Alexandria, and was introduced into Egypt in comparatively recent times. The total absence on the monuments of any bas relief which can be identified as this plant is remarkable if the species occupied in those days the important place it does now in the agriculture of the peasants or fellahin. There are few single species of plants which play in any country a more important role in its agri- culture than is played by this Trifolium. It is the first crop planted after reclaiming the salt lands (PI. If, figs. 1, 2, 3); it furnishes the green fodder for all work animals in the big towns (Pl. V, fig 1); on it graze all the beef and milch cattle (Pl. IIT, figs. 1, 2, 3); the camels are fed upon it (PI. VI, fig. 2); the well-kept donkeys get their por- tion of it, and even the poor fellah carries a bunch of it in his hand and seems to enjoy its sharp clover taste. Nothing among the most varied agricultural sights which interest the tourist in Egypt in winter can be more conspicuous than the culture, harvest, and marketing of this essentially green-fodder crop. Every coachman has a bunch of 9 10 BERSEEM: FORAGE AND SOILING CROP OF NILE VALLEY. berseem or a bag full of it under his feet with which he feeds his horse at the cab stand; every drayman has on top of his load a few hand- fuls for his bullocks or horses, and the donkey boys carry a bag of the freshly cut clover for their much-abused beasts. In the early morn- ing all the avenues leading to Cairo are lined with long files of camels and donkeys half hidden under loads of this green forage. (PI. IV, figs. 1, 2, 3.) The fields on either side of the railway impress one as the greenest and cleanest meadows he ever saw. Scarcely a weed is in sight. (PI. VI, fig. 1.) Planters say that the culture of berseem is very valuable for killing out many kinds of weeds. Not another fodder crop is conspicuous enough to attract one’s attention as one gazes over the most beautiful agricultural checkerboard in the world. It is the one great fodder crop of Lower Egypt, and about it, as it were, all the other cultures are arranged. Over 940,000 acres of it were grown as far back as 1891. This amount has been probably consider- ably increased. To an American farmer clover is only one of a number of fodder crops, but to the Egyptian fellah his berseem furnishes not only his principal fodder, but his principal manure as well. The great fertility of the Nile silt and its manurial value has been so much written about that we have gotten accustomed to considering Egyptian agriculture as the tillage of a perpetually renewed alluvium. It will surprise some, especially farmers in the Mississippi Valley, to learn that this Nile soil is so lacking in nitrogen that in most places two good-crops of Indian corn can not be raised in successive years off the same field, and the culture of sugar cane is considered much too exhausting for many Egyptian soils. This condition of affairs is not to be wondered at, considering that most of the manure has for centu- ries been collected by the ‘*manure girls” and dried into cakes for fuel and only the liquid elements returned to the land, mixed with dry earth with which the stalls are strewn. This bad practice, carried on as it has been for thousands of years, would have, according to our present ideas, quite exhausted the fertility of the soil notwithstanding the yearly deposits of silt had it not been for the culture of leguminous crops. The action of soil bacteria is as yet too little understood to demand recognition in the above statement, although it is highly prob- able that bacteria play a most important part in the matter. The writer never sawa region where the opportunities for soil studies seemed so promising. According to Wilcox, in his Egyptian Irriga- tion of 1899, no important soil analyses of Nile silt have been made since 1875, and, so far as I know, no bacteriological examination has ever been made of it. The ancient Egyptians doubtless cultivated several leguminous crops, although the museums of Egyptology do not exhibit their seeds because the plants seem in no way to have been connected with their GENERAL USES. 11 religious customs, and so far as discovered the bas reliefs of the tombs and monuments show no convincing evidences of their use. A bas relief in the tomb of Thy at Sakkara, of which a part is even illustrated in Baedeker’s Egypt (p. 139), represents several calves tethered in a field of some forage plant or other in a manner quite resembling that of the present day. This bas-relief is about 4,500 years old. In the collection of seeds and dried plants in the Gizeh Museum which was made by Professor Schweinfurt is a small bowl of the seed of an unmistakable leguminous plant, probably a Medicago, from the temple of Isis at Dendera, which was, however, of comparatively recent times, being in the first Christian century. Dr. Schweinfurt, who is an authority on the botany of Egypt and the ancient Egyptians, states that no picture, bas relief, name, or authentic seeds of berseem had ever been discovered in any of the tombs of Egypt. He discredited the correctness of certain finds made at Kahun by Flinders Petrie and identified by Percy Newberry as seeds of berseem, saying that there is in his mind a question as to whether these came from really ancient tombs. The name berseem bears a close resemblance to the Arabic name for lentil (** belsem” or ““bersem”), and Dr. Schweinfurt thinks it not unlikely that when the Arabs conquered Egypt they applied this to the clover then cultivated in the country. The plant has nowhere been discovered wild, but a Byzantine variety (Zrifolium alerandrinum var. phleoides, Boiss.) exists at Kilsali, near Smyrna, and it is probable that the plant was introduced into Egypt about the sixth century. GENERAL USES. Berseem is not only an annual clover, but it is a winter clover for warm countries where irrigation is practiced. Where the conditions of mild winter and abundant water supply for irrigation exist it can scarcely fail to prove a most profitable introduction, for it starts into growth with remarkable rapidity, outgrows most kinds of weeds, and yields one of the most palatable and nutritious green fodders known. Anyone having once seen it in Egypt can not fail to be impressed with its great value. It resembles quite closely when young our common alfalfa, but its. flowering heads, although white, are in form like a loose- headed variety of red clover. (Pl. Land Pl. VI, fig 1.) The hollow stems are exceedingly succulent; in fact the whole plant is in every way more delicate than either clover or alfalfa, and it is eaten not only by domestic animals, but even by the fellahin.” The root system of the berseem is not a large one, but remarkable for its abundant and succulent tubercules. (PI. VIII, figs. 1 and 2; Pl. «The writer is aware that the fenugreek, which resembles berseem somewhat, is a common green food of the peasants. 12 BERSEKEEM: FORAGE AND SOILING CROP OF NILE VALLEY. IX, figs. | and 2.) Being an annual and grown in general on irrigated land, it has not the faculty of going far in search of water, hence is not suited to cultivation on dry, arid soils, even though possessing a deep underlying layer of moister soil. The distinct differences between berseem and lucern or alfalfa must be insisted upon if the crop is to be made a success. (Compare roots of alfalfa and berseem, Pl. X.) In Egypt, where both plants are grown—the alfalfa, however, only experimentally—the distinctions are very evident. The berseem is an annual and never grown more than nine months, while alfalfa is a per- ennial, which gets its full growth only in the second year. Berseem is planted in the autumn as late as October and cut in the late winter or early spring, from December to June, while alfalfa is planted in the spring (March to May), and cuttings are made in the summer and winter, or from April to December. The former is a short-lived win- ter-fodder plant for soils on which other crops are grown in the sum- mer, while the latter is a perennial summer-fodder crop for rotations extending over several years or for permanent meadows. Doubtless much of the continued fertility of the Nile soils may be attributed to the culture of this single crop, and nothing can be more striking than the dependence placed in it not only by the fellahin, but by the keenest modern cultivators in Egypt. It seems to be a sort of cure-all for the land, and no such thing as clover sickness from its culture is known. Until the Khedivial Agricultural Society endeay- ored to introduce artificial manures last year, nothing but the stable manure was employed, dependence being placed in the nitrogen stored in the soil by these tubercules. Mr. Wilcox, who is an authority on irrigation matters in Egypt,“ said he had seen land steadily improve in fertility under a culture of half-year cotton and half-year berseem without the addition of any manures or fertilizers whatever. In his book on irrigation, p. 219, he remarks that— Berseem eats down salts if they are present in small quantities and enriches the soil with nitrates. * * * Many think that while cotton in summer is followed by clover (berseem) in winter, and cereals in winter are rigidly excluded, the rota- tion of cotton and clover can be carried on unlimitedly without any appreciable deterioration of the soil. The cotton is planted in March and harvested in October and is fol- lowed by berseem, which is planted in October and plowed under in March. Mr. Lang Anderson, manager of the Aboukir Land Company, who is reclaiming in the Nile delta over 30,000 acres of alkali land, says he is dependent upon berseem to bring up his soil, after the salt has been washed out of it, to a state of fertility suitable for cotton grow- ing. The writer visited these remarkable reclaiming basins and saw «W. Wilcox, author of ‘‘ Egyptian Irrigation,’”’ which has already gone through a second edition. Now managing director of the Daira Sanieh Company in Cairo. VARIETIES. 13 land on which cattle and horses were tethered and grazing in a luxuri- ant growth of berseem which two years before was as barren of vege- tation as a bathing beach. (PI. II, fig. 3.) The amount of nitrogen stored in the soil by the roots of this plant must have been considera- ble, for cotton was grown on it the third or fourth year. Nothing could be more striking than the contrast between the roots of some alfalfa which I examined at several places in Egypt and those of this Egyptian clover. (Pl. X.) In the former the roots of both young and old plants were conspicuous for their freedom from tubercles, only an occasional almost microscopic one being observable, while the latter were often little less than a mass of these nitrogen- bearing bodies. (Pl. VIII, figs. 1 and 2; Pl. LX, figs. land 2.) It is probable that the bacterium of the alfalfa nodule has not been intro- duced into Egypt and that it is distinct from the germ of the berseem tubercle. Possibly former trials with berseem in America have not succeeded well for a similar reason. It is expected that experiments which have been already started will solve this problem. Too much stress can hardly be laid upon the necessity of a thorough study of the soiling value of this Egyptian clover, for its application to irrigated orchard lands in California and Texas may prove of the greatest importance. The Colorado Desert region, with its abundance of water, mild climate, rich soil, and other conditions for irrigation, seems an ideal place for the trial of this Egyptian culture, and if the rotation of crops can be adapted to its employment it should prove a great success. If Egyptian cotton can be made to succeed in this region, as is now hoped, this soiling crop will be of great value for a winter culture. In the dry, irrigated regions of northern Africa, in Tunis and Algiers, this plant has already begun to attract the serious attention of the French experimenters. Mr. Gagey, of the Tunis Agricultural College, has tried it and is very enthusiastic over its quick growth and large production of green fodder. He was planning to secure seed for planting on a large scale. During the year in which the berseem was grown at the college in Tunis the thermometer sunk to nearly 2° below freezing, but the plant was not injured in the least. In the remarkable trial gardens of Dr. Trabut at Rouiba, in Algiers, the tields of berseem were among his most promising experiments, and a temperature of 9° below freezing (23° F.) did not injure them. VARIETIES. There are three distinct varieties of berseem known in Egypt% and their characters must be understood if one wishes to make a success of their introduction. « Boissier gives Trifolium alexandrinum var. phleoides Boiss. as a variety occurring in Kilsali, near Smyrna, but says nothing as to whether it is in cultivation or not. 14 BERSEEM: FORAGE AND SOILING CROP OF NILE VALLEY. Muscowi (Pl. 1), which is the variety commonly grown in the delta, where perennial irrigation is practiced and an abundance of water is always obtainable, is by far the most important of the three. It grows not uncommonly to a height of 5 feet and over (see Pl. LX, fig. 3), being the rankest grower of the three. It is broadcasted by the fel- lah or Egyptian peasant directly on the mud which is produced by flooding the land and allowing it to dry slightly. As muchas a bushel of seed is sown per acre, but in the crude method of broadcasting a large amount of seed is wasted and a regular clover-seed sower could be used to advantage. In Egypt the seed is worth less than 5 cents a pound, or about the value of crimson clover, which it very closely resembles. Fully 10 per cent of Egyptian seed is, however, valueless, and it is, like all seeds in these warm climates, subject to weevils. The seed is raked in slightly to cover it and often in three days in Egypt the young plants are aboye ground. According to Mr. Lang Anderson as much as 10 per cent of the seed sometimes fails to germinate. The subsequent watering and attention depend somewhat on the condition of the land, but after each cutting a thorough irrigation is given, not immediately, but leaving sufficient time to elapse for the cut stubble to dry up and cure, otherwise the water will rot the newly cut stems and will often kill the plants. The sowing season varies from the 1st of Sep- tember until the middle of January, according to location. If sown early in the autumn four cuttings can be secured, while only three are obtained when planted later; for although the plant may make but little growth above ground if sown in the cool autumn, it establishes itsélf and starts into a more vigorous growth in the early spring. A most important point in the culture of this crop is that it is injured by intense heat. Near Cairo, in early May, where the temperature had not gone above 92°, the berseem had begun to show signs of dying out, and by the 1st of June, the writer was informed, it would have almost entirely disappeared. A variety called Awdrav7 is said to have a longer vege- tative period, giving one more cutting than usual, but the writer has been unable to verify the statement. The Muscowi berseem, if planted in the early autumn, will give four cuttings. The first and second cuts will yield about 8 tons of green forage each, and the third and fourth only 6 tons apiece. When seed for next season’s culture is required it is the practice to let the plants go to seed in June after the fourth cutting; otherwise often a fifth though inferior cutting is made. The yield of seed is much heavier than that of clover. When planted early the first cut may be taken in fifty days, but if the weather shortly after planting is cold, seventy days are required. The writer saw a field of late berseem planted January 5 which had been cut March 11, at which time it was 18 inches high. A second cutting was made April 7, and a third April 30, after which the roots were plowed under. VARIETIES. 15 In some experiments carried on at the Algerian Experiment Station of Rouiba by Dr. Trabut, the seed was sown much earlier in the sea- son and the yield was estimated as much higher. Sown on the 26th of July, the field was cut on the 12th of September, when it yielded at the rate of 28 metric tons to the hectare, equivalent to 14 tons per acre, while the second cutting of 13 tons, and the third of 15 tons, made the total of 42 tons of green fodder for three cuttings, as com- pared with 28 tons, the usual Egyptian yield for four cuttings. The better care given to the experimental plats and possibly a richer soil would account for the difference in yield in the two countries. The profitableness of the crop as grown in Egypt depends largely upon the proximity of a market for the green fodder. Egypt is not a beef-producing country; from 10,000 to 15,000 head of cattle were imported annually up to a few years ago.” There are few large herds of cattle, and the dairy interests are in their infancy. Near Cairo, at Benisuif, the berseem fields are let for grazing or cutting purposes (Pl. XI, figs. 1 and 2) for £8 a feddan, which would be equivalent to about $88 an acre. At Gizeh £10, or about $48 an acre, are paid for the four cuttings, while even as high as $19 an acre per cutting is sometimes paid for especially luxuriant fields of berseem. It was learned that there was government land on which the rents amounted to only 540 an acre, upon which the berseem alone had sold for $42.50, leaving the summer crop to pay for management and the profits. In Egypt there is a tradition that berseem can not be profitably planted in spring or before the Ist of October, because of the hot, dry weather between these dates; some of the more yventuresome English experimenters, however, declare this tradition to be founded on superstition rather than fact, and recommend planting it as late as the last of April. In Algiers, Dr. Trabut has planted it in midsum- mer (the 26th of July) with good results. The temperature records of Egypt for the months of June, July, and October (of an average season, 1895) are appended for purposes of comparison with the arid regions of this country, and from them it is evident that if the traditions regarding the deleterious effects of the hot season in Egypt were true it would be impossible that the crop would succeed if started in the hot summer of the Colorado Desert, for example. However, a few experimental plantings will probably be of more value than any study of temperature charts. Temperature. Relative humidity. Month. SS SSS —S => aaa Mean. |Maximum. Minimum.) Maximum.) Minimum. oF. | OF. or: SVEN oS Re aes +78 +103 +56 90 | 10 QU) Vgsece = sree tes oon e ss ceeaoteeceeecces +82 +104 +66 91 13 WCiopermetec. er = pee = 2 ees ee +70 + 90 +54 97 17 = — * ord aMcKenzie, in Journal of Khedevial Agricultural Society, Vol. I, No. 6, p. 259. 16 BERSEEM: FORAGE AND SOILING CROP OF NILE VALLEY. A comparison of the chemical analyses of green berseem and lucern has been made in Egypt, and it is given here to show how much more succulent the former is, containing 86.11 per cent of water, while lucern contains only 74.35 per cent. Berseem is poorer in nitrogen and starch, but also has less fiber in it than lucern. It is unfortunate that no analyses of the dry berseem are at hand, for the comparison of the green fodder alone does not give a fair idea of its food value. Comparison of chemical analyses of green berseem and lucern, in Egypt. | Berseem. Lucern. Per cent. Per cent. MOistiate sae ee RE ee tee eh ape car ae ho ee ee | 86.11 | 74.35 Al Dumin O18. ote sane See eee nee osc c.<'- = a ee eee Sees eee ae 2.29 | 4.35 RES Fas ieee ears eee Ome ee eae cle ws winiafars cin ela eiareleie = peice setae weal male ee | 74 1. 06 Stare ete See ae ce eran tay see ete eae = ees Slee net yates sale ea rere oe eter 5.78 9, 62 RIDGE sess oa ee EE ce nck nbgwdh ee ae oe ree 3.41 | 8.41 ING) Werehannnbeccss ana a- se cien RoSo SAGAN aeRO pea aeea ened cones seceseascauenacteoer 1. 67 | 2.21 Fachl berseem (Pl. XII, fig. 1) is a variety used in Egypt on land which is irrigated by the basin system—i. e., overtlowed for forty days in the autumn months from August until Noyember, depending on the latitude and Nile overflow. The seed is broadcasted at the rate of a bushel per acre on the Nile mud, which has been deposited from the meter or so depth of water which has stood over the land. No later irrigation is given it, and as a consequence it only gives one cutting. This cutting, however, yields 9 tons of green fodder per acre, and having more substance in it than the Muscowi, it makes a heavier hay. It is said to be fed exten- sively to donkeys. In order to get seed for planting it is often the practice to sow this variety mixed with wheat or barley and reap both together, separating the berseem seed from the grain only after the thrashing has been done. This variety is therefore a short-lived form and will prove of yalue on such lands as can be given only a single but heavy irrigation in the autumn. The flood plains of the Colorado Desert region may some day be supplied with that remarkable system of basin irrigation (Pl. VIL, figs. 2 and 3) which, although gradually disappearing from many parts of Egypt, is still acknowledged by experts like Mr. Wilcox to be the most wonderful of any, preserving the deposits of rich silt, which, by the perennial method, are largely lost. Such irrigation basins will be preeminently suited to the cultivation of this variety of berseem, and it may find a use as well on land under perennial irriga- tion where only one cutting is desired. Saida is the name of a variety of berseem which, although yielding less than Muscowi, is relatively more nutritious. It possesses a com- n USE AS A GREEN FODDER. i, paratively long tap root (see Pl. XII, fig. 2) which enables it to thrive with much less water than is required for Muscowi, and it is, in fact, considered a kind of dry land berseem. (t is sown in the basins but requires subsequent irrigation, as it yields two cuttings. Being a cheaper seed than that of the Muscowi, it is often sold in place of the latter. In habit it is lower and has a peculiar glaucous appearance, enabling one to distinguish it from the Muscowi. Its root system is abundantly supplied with tubercles and is eminently fitted to sustain the plant during prolonged droughts. It was observed growing luxu- riously upon stiff Nile silt which was so baked and dried out that large eracks had formed in it to a considerable depth. On an average 6 tons only of green fodder is produced by the first cutting and 4 to 5 by the second or last. It is not sown to any extent in the Delta, but is common above Cairo. Experiments with this variety should be made on soils likely to suffer from drought, and even on land not under irrigation in regions depending on the natural rainfall. such as southern Texas, and Louisiana and Florida. USE AS A GREEN FODDER. The peculiar value of this crop lies in its use as a green fodder, and throughout lower Egypt there is scarcely an animal, either in the city or on the farms, which is not put on berseem for at least a month in the spring. Most marvelous fattening and conditioning properties are ascribed to it. Naturally the first effect upon an animal which has been fed all winter on chopped straw and barley is a purgative one (many cultivators mix a small amount of seed of fenugreek (Z?7- gonella fenumgrecum) with their berseem seed on sowing to increase the conditioning effect of the fodder) and weak animals are sometimes injured by the practice of tethering them all day long in the berseem fields, but, if strong enough to stand it, the scouring effect puts them in good condition and they are sent back to the stables in town in excellent flesh. It is a curious sight, that of a country with every beast of burden undergoing a sort of cure. In general, animals are not worked very steadily while on this green diet, as it is not sufh- ciently strong, and barley is often given work horses as an addition to the green fodder. The small expense connected with the raising of this Egyptian clover and its effect in keeping the weeds in check are points decidedly in its favor. This latter property is more a matter of the frequent cuttings, which prevent weeds from seeding, than any effect of crowding out on the part of the clover. Although weeds grow with the usual aston- ishing rapidity in Egypt, in general there are fewer weeds than in any other agricultural region ever visited by the writer. Whether the berseem is responsible and how far for this clean culture will be hard to determine. 1971—No. 23—02 2 18 BERSEEM: FORAGE AND SOILING CROP OF NILE VALLEY. As a food for milch cows (PI. IL, figs. 2 and 3) one can imagine no sweeter or more delicate one, and from the samples of butter tasted on Mr. Zeryudachi’s place at Kafr. Dewar, it must be a most excellent milk producer. The large amount of water contained in the green food, however, may influence unfavorably the quality of the milk, making it poor in fats, and complaints in this regard were heard, but certainly for fine flavor the butter tasted was equal to the finest Fin- nish or Danish butter put on the London market. BERSEEM AS A HAY CROP. It would be a great mistake to underestimate the value of Egyptian clover asa hay crop. Great quantities of the cut clover are cured into hay or what the Egyptians call ** drees” (Pl. VI, fig. 3) and stored for summer feeding, when a scarcity of green fodder makes the dried hay very acceptable. Four to 5 tons of this freshly cut plant yield 1 ton of **drees,” a curious brittle hay, snapping between one’s fingers like pipestems, and apparently with scarcely any substance to it. In comparison with alfalfa the freshly cut berseem has 89.61 per cent of water instead of 74.35 per cent, and only 3.41 per cent of fiber in place of 8.41 per cent. The percentage of albuminoids is corre- spondingly poor, being only 2.29 per cent as compared with 4.35 per cent. But notwithstanding the 15 per cent larger shrinkage, the value of the hay is sufficient to induce such men as Mr. Beyerlé of the Egyptian Crédit Foncier to grow it in fields largé enough for American mowing machines (Pl. XI, fig. 3; Pl. XIII and XIV) and sulky rakes to operate in and by means of portable tramways to transport it to his barns. (PI. V, figs 2and 3; Pl. XIV.) No baled drees was seen, and baling does not appear to be commonly done in Egypt. Owners of properties some distance from the markets find it does not pay to grow berseem on all of their land not occupied, but, instead, let many acres go fallow. The yield of hay per acre would vary according to the variety and cutting. Muscowi would yield for the first and second cutting 1% tons per acre each and for the third and fourth about 13 tons apiece, making for the four cuttings of the season 6} tons of dried hay per acre, which is 2! tons in excess of the maximum yield given for red clover in America, which is cut only twice.“ CONCLUSION. In conclusion, the object of this bulletin is to call attention to a remarkable crop which, in Egypt, is of the very greatest importance « Owing to lack of accurate data it was hard to ascertain the yield of drees per acre in Egypt. None could be found who had actually measured it. The figures given are those furnished by Mr. Bonaparte, of the School of Agriculture at Gizeh. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 19 both as regards the value of its green and dried fodder and its fertiliz- ing effect wpon the soil, and if possible to introduce its culture into such regions of the United States as shall be suited to its proftitavle cultivation. A considerable quantity of seed has been secured through the kind assistance of Mr. George P. Foaden, of the Khédevial Agri- cultural Society of Cairo, for distribution by the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction, and experiments to test it are now under way. Previous experiments with the culture of berseem were based upon an insufficient knowledge of its peculiarities as a winter crop and their failure was practically assured from the start. It is designed to have the plant tested as a half-year rotation for cotton in Texas, and in connection with the culture of the newly imported Egyptian cotton now being grown experimentally in Ari- zona and southern California. It is hoped also that it will find a place for itself as a winter soiling and fodder crop for orchards and yine- yards in such regions as Arizona and California, where winter irriga- tion, which has been shown to be so beneficial by Professor McClatchie, is practiced. For spring forage, berseem may prove of value for the Northwest if planted after all danger of frost is over and harvested before the excessive heat of summer comes on, and the humid climate of Washington and Oregon may admit of its use in rotation with wheat, where now many thousands of acres lie fallow throughout the winter. Until careful tests have been made it will be impossible to say to which of these purposes it will prove best adapted. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Puate I. Plant of Muscowi berseem in full flower. Natural size. Froma photograph taken by Mr. C. S. Scofield of a plant in the trial gardens of Dr. Trabut at Rouiba, near Algiers. Prate II. Reclamation of salt lands by the aid of berseem. Fig. 1. Salt land of Aboukir estate near the seacoast of the Nile Delta before any attempts at reclaiming have been made. Fig. 2. Aboukir estate; fresh-water canal at right of picture; on the left, drain for salty water after it has been used for washing salt lands. Fig. 3. Horse feeding in field of berseem on salt lands of Aboukir the second year after the washing and reclaiming work has been begun. PuaTeE III. Fig. 1. Water buffaloes feeding in a berseem field at Kafr. Dewar on the estate of Mr. Em. Zervudachi. Fig. 2. Cattle tethered in a berseem field near Cairo. Fig. 3. Cattle in barn, feeding on fresh berseem, at Mr. Beyerlé’s estate at Bordein, Egypt. Puate IV. Fig. 1. Camels loaded with fresh berseem starting for Alexandria. From photo- graph taken by Mr. Brand, of Aboukirestate. Fig. 2. Early morning on the road from the Pyramids. Camels loaded with fresh berseem. Fig. 3. A donkey load of fresh berseem. 20 BERSEEM: FORAGE AND SOILING CROP OF NILE VALLEY. PLATE V. Fig. 1. Taking green berseem to market. A donkey cart load of berseem which has just been watered to make it weigh more. Fig. 2. Making berseem hay or “drees.”’ Tram wagonload of ‘‘drees,’’ showing method of handling on the large estate of Mr. Beyerlé at Bordein. Fig. 3. Tram train of ‘‘drees’’ ready for the barns, Mr. Beyerlé’s estate at Bordein. PrAmE Vel Fig. 1. A field of berseem in full Hower on Mr. Beyerlé’s estate at Bordein. Fig. 2. Camel grazing in field of berseem, Aboukir estate. Fig. 3. A windrow of berseem hay or ‘‘drees.’’ Puate VII. Fig. 1. A field of berseem before flowering. Roadside near Alexandria. Fig. 2. The irrigation basins of Bedraschine, showing embankment dividing two large basins. Ruined native town in background. Fig. 3. Flood gates barring the entrance to the irrigation basins shown in Fig. 2. Puare VIII. Fig. 1. Roots of Muscowi berseem, showing numerous root tubercles on the main and lateral roots. Slightly enlarged. Fig. 2. Roots of Muscowi berseem from a . re + ry . > patch which had been cut but once. Natural size. PLATE TX. Fig. 1. Young plant of Muscowi berseem shortly after the first cutting, showing the base of the dead stem and the new living lateral shoots. Greatly reduced. Fig. 2. Roots of the plant shown in Fig. 1, showing the numerous tubercles. Natural size. Fig. 3. A single plant of Muscowi berseem from Mr. Beyerlé’s estate at Bor- dein on April 14, 1901. Pirate X. Root of ordinary alfalfa on left and of Muscowi berseem on right, showing the great difference in habit of the two plants, and also the greater number of root tubercles on the berseem. Natural size. Puate XI: Fig. 1. Cutting berseem by hand sickle and loading on donkey cart for the market. Fig. 2. Cutting berseem with a scythe; photographed by Mr. Brand, of the Aboukir estate. Fig. 3. Cutting berseem with an American mowing machine on the estate of Mr. Beyerlé, Bordein, Egypt. Pirate XII. Fig. 1. Plant of Fachl berseem gone to seed, showing the dry heads and shriveled leaves. Gizeh irrigation basin near the Great Pyramids. Photograph taken May 1, 1901. Fig. 2. Plant of Saida berseem in full bloom, showing the tong taproot. From the Gizeh irrigation basin near the Great Pyramids. Photograph taken May 1, 1901. PiaTe XIII. American mowing machine and rake ina field of berseem on the estate of Mr, Beyerlé at Bordein, Egypt. PLATE XIV. Loading trams with berseem hay on estate of Mr. Beyerlé at Bordein, Egypt. @) Bul. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture Plate I. Muscow! BERSEEM. Bul. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE Il. Fic. 2.—DITCHES IN SALT LANDS. Fic. 3.—GROWTH OF BERSEEM ON SALT LANDS. RECLAIMING SALT LANDS WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF BERSEEM. Bul. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S Dept. of Agriculture PLaTe Ill. * Fic. 1.—CATTLE GRAZING IN FIELD OF BERSEEM. Fic. 3.—BERSEEM USED AS A GREEN FODDER Crop. BERSEEM USED AS A PASTURE AND GREEN FODDER CROP. Bul, 22, Dureau oF Fiant industry, U. o. Vept. of Agriculture PLATE IV Fic. 3.—DONKEYS TRANSPORTING GREEN BERSEEM. BRINGING GREEN BERSEEM TO MARKET. Bul. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE V.* Fic. 1.—TAKING GREEN BERSEEM TO MARKET Fic. 2.—TRAIN WAGONLOAD OF * DREES.”’ Fic. 3.—TAKING BERSEEM Hay or “ DREES”’ TO THE BARN. Bul. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Fic. 1.—BeERSEEM IN FULL FLOWER. Fic. 3.— A WINDROW OF BERSEEM Hay OR “ DREES.”” 1 of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLaTte VII. Fic. 1.—FIELD OF BERSEEM BEFORE FLOWERING. Fic. 3.—FLOOD GATE FOR IRRIGATION BASINS SHOWN IN Fia. 2. =s “- : ry ee 6 i ; v img i . “ i . id ry i : i fi ‘ A ~~" ‘ ag y oS anes Y 4 ’ 0 - : A ; EF a " ne 7 4 ro ‘ om . ae Seo! oy t : / % <) 7 eet) ; = i : *y ‘ == ve ye ; 7 7 oe _ F 1 n * : al \ F : ; ae ¥ ‘ ae ie t . Fi oe 5 ~~ i { > -! ‘ p nl F 1 Bul. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLaTe VIII. a v ee Po se oy & ~! Fic. 1.—Roots oF Muscow! BERSEEM, SHOWING TUBERCLES ON MAIN AND LATERAL Roots. SLIGHTLY ENLARGED. Fic. 2.—Roots oF Muscow! BERSEEM TAKEN AFTER FIRST CUTTING. NATURAL SIZE. PLATE IX. griculture Dept of Ag 3, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Bul Fic. 1.-YouNG PLANT oF Muscow! BERSEEM SHORTLY AFTER THE FIRST CUTTING. RE- DUCED TO THREE-EIGHTHS. NATURAL SIZE Fic. 2.—ROOTS OF PLANT SHOWN IN Fia. 1. NATURAL SIZE. Fic. 3.—PLANT OF Muscow! BERSEEM, SHOWING HEIGHT IT ATTAINS. Bui. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture PLATE X. Roots OF ORDINARY ALFALFA (ON LEFT) AND Muscow! BERSEEM (ON RIGHT). Bul 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XI. ' Fia. 1.—CUTTING BERSEEM WITH HAND SICKLE AND LOADING A CarRT FOR MARKET. Fia. 2.—CUTTING BERSEEM WITH SCYTHE. Fic. 3.—CUTTING BERSEEM WITH AMERICAN MOWING MACHINE. Bul. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture PLATE XII Ay Fic. 1.—PLANT OF FACHL BERSEEM Fic. 2.—PLANT OF SAIDA BERSEEM IN FLOWER, ALREADY GONE TO SEED, May 1, May 1,1901. REDUCED TO TWO-SEVENTHS 1901. NATURAL SIZE. PLATE XIII, Dept of Agriculture Ss Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 23, Bul AMERICAN MOWING MACHINE AND RAKE IN A FIELD OF BERSEEM ON THE Estate oF Mr. BEYERLE AT BORDEIN, EGYPT. PLATE XIV. ture. of Agiicul S. Dept Bul. 23, Bureau of Plant Industry, U LOADING TRAINS WITH BERSEEM Hay ON ESTATE OF Mr. BEYERLE AT BORDEIN, EGYPT. ao te — FRONTISPIECE. Dept. of Agriculture 4, Bureau of Plant Industry, U Bul “LOIWLSIQ AdvVYH VNONVLNVHD NI G3sn S37113y GNV S3ssaud US: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN No. 24. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. THE MANUFACTURE AND PRESERVATION OF UNFERMENTED GRAPE MUST. BY GEORGE C. HUSMANN, EXPERT IN CHARGE OF VITICULTURAL INVESTIGATIONS, POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. IssueD NovEeMBER 6, 1902. on 34 32> ae ZO W ASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau oF Puanr Inpustry, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., July 7, 1902. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled **The Manufacture and Preservation of Unfermented Grape Must,” and respectfully recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 24 of the Bureau series. The paper was prepared by Mr. George C. Hus- mann, Expert in Charge of Viticultural Investigations, and was sub- mitted by the Pomologist. Respectfully, B. T. GaLLoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wriison, Secretary of Agriculture. RAVE EAC Er. This bulletin gives the results of recent investigations undertaken by Mr. George C. Husmann, Expert in Charge of Viticultural Inves- tigations, of this office. The manufacture and preservation of unfer- mented grape must is a subject that is attracting much attention at present and is of vital interest to both manufacturers and consumers. Mr. Husmann has made a careful investigation of the industry in both its economical and commercial aspects, and the bulletin is designed to aid both manufacturer and consumer in preparing and utilizing a product of the grape that is of most important economic value. G. B. BRACKETT, Pomologqist. OFFICE OF THE POMOLOGIST, Washington, D. C., June 24, 1902. Or CONTENTS. IELUSTRATIONS:. PLATE: Page. Presses and kettles used in the Chautauqua grape district..-.-...---.- Frontispiece TEXT FIGURES. Hie. dl. Continuous;pasteurmer #3.) - Ys... etc ote een cea se ee eee 12 2s Milter for clarityinemusti- 5.222 eee ee ae ee 13 3. Cork clamp and pasteurizer for must in bottles. .............--.----- 14 4. Aluminum kettles for heating crushed grapes .-....-.--.------------- 15 5 THE MANUFACTURE AND PRESERVATION OF UNFER- MENTED GRAPE MUST. INTRODUCTION. The use of unfermented grape juice is of very ancient origin, being undoubtedly as old as the art of wine making. The industry of man- ufacturing unfermented grape must on an extensive scale for a general market is, however, as yet in its infancy, as is exemplified by the diversity of the apparatus used in the various factories. Each manu- facturer seems to have had a different conception and to have con- structed his machinery according to his own ideas. It is the purpose of this publication to describe the most economical and successful methods of manufacturing must and to discuss its uses and effects on the system, together with the outlook for the commercial success of the industry. HISTORICAL NOTES. Galienus, the Greek physician and writer, says (A. D. 131): A good many Asiatic wines were stored in bottles, which were hung in the corner of the fireplaces, where, by evaporation, they became old and dry. This process was called fumarium. The Greeks had two kinds of wine—the protoplon, or first juice of the grape before pressing, and the denterion, or pressed juice. The Romans called them vinum primarium and vinum secondarium. Some of them drank the juice before fermentation had started, and called it mustum; after the must had been through a heating process (called reduction nowadays), they called it frutum; and when after long heating it had been reduced to one-half or one-third its original vol- ume, they called it sapa. This was used by the Romans on their bread, and was the equivalent of what we now call sirup. In Europe physicians often send their patients to the wine-growing districts during vintage time to take daily rations of unfermented must as it comes from the crusher. This, however, restricts its use to only one season of the year and to the immediate vicinity of wine districts or to individuals strong enough to undertake a journey. %) 10 MANUFACTURE AND PRESERVATION OF GRAPE MUST. Of late years extended efforts have been made to keep the must unfermented and put it up in such shape that it can be used anywhere and at all times of the year. Until recently the usé of must was almost exclusively restricted to medicinal purposes. Unrestricted use has been delayed on account of a lack of special knowledge underlying the principles of the process of manufacture and of skill in their application, resulting in many failures, thus making the production of a good article uncertain and very expensive, and inducing some unscrupulous persons to use injuri- ous preservatives to cheapen the cost of manufacture. It is well known that pure must is healthful and nutritious, but with the addition of chemical preservatives it becomes injurious in proportion to the amount and kind of preservative used. COMPOSITION OF THE GRAPE. The grape contains 15 to 35 per cent of sugar (Balling’s scale), about 2 to 3 per cent of nitrogenous substances, and some tartaric and malic acids. The skin contains tannin, cream of tartar, and coloring matter. The seeds contain tannin, amylaceous matters, and fat. The stems contain tannin, divers acids, and mucilaginous matter. The compara- tive composition of the different parts of the fruit determines the value of must made from any grape. CAUSES OF FERMENTATION. It is well known that grapes and other fruits when ripe have the invisible spores of various fungi, yeast (ferments), and bacteria adher- ing to them. When dry these are inert, but after the grapes are crushed and they are surrounded by the must they become active and begin to multiply. If the must is warm, the changes take place rap- idly; if, on the other hand, it is cool, the change is slower. But in either case, if left alone, the organisms increase until the must fer- ments. The most favorable temperature for fermentation is between 65- and 88° F. Cold checks, but does not kill, the ferment. This fer- mentation, now commonly called the elliptic yeast, changes the sugar in the grape to alcohol and carbonic acid gas, and is the leading factor in converting must into wine; hence it will be readily seen that to keep unfermented must sweet, fermentation must be prevented, and to be salable the product must be clear, bright, and attractive. METHODS OF PREVENTING FERMENTATION Fermentation can be prevented in either of two ways: (1) By chemical methods, which consist in the addition of germ poi- sons or antiseptics, which either kill the germs or prevent their growth. Of these, the principal ones used are salicylic, sulphurous, boracic, and benzoic acids. formalin, fluorides, and saccharin. As these sub- PROCESS USED IN CALIFORNIA. 11 stances are generally regarded as adulterants and injurious, they should not be used. (2) Mechanical means are sometimes employed. The germs are either removed by some mechanical means, such as a filtering or a centrifugal apparatus, or they are destroyed by heat, electricity, ete. Of these, heat has so far been the most practical. When a liquid is heated to a sufficiently high temperature all orean- isms in itare killed. The degree of heat required, however, differs not only with the particular variety of organisms, but also with the liquid in which they are held. Time is also a factor. An organism may not be killed if heated to a high temperature and quickly cooled. If, however, the temperature is kept at the same high degree for some time, it will be killed. It mustalso be borne in mind that fungi, includ- ing yeasts, exist in the growing and the resting states, the latter being much more resistant than the former. A characteristic of the fungi and their spores is their great resistance to heat when dry. In this state they can be heated to 212° F. without being killed. The spores of the common mold are even more resistant. This should be well con- sidered in sterilizing the bottles and corks, which should be steamed to 240° F. for at least fifteen minutes. Practical tests so far made indicate that must can be safely sterilized at from 165° to 176° F. At this temperature the flavor is hardly changed, while at a temperature much above 200° F. it is. This is an important point, as the success of an enterprise of this character depends entirely upon the flavor and quality of the product. Such a vast difference exists in the methods pursued in California and in the Eastern States that a description of each is here given. PROCESS USED IN CALIFORNIA. This method, as described in Bulletin No. 130 of the California Experiment Station, is in substance as follows: Only clean and per- feetly sound grapes, preferably those having a high natural acidity, picked and handled when cool, should be used. This fruit should not be too ripe or the must will be too sweet and be difficult to clarify. The grapes are pressed immediately and the juice is run into clean, ster- ilized puncheons or other receptacles. If the must is 59° F. or under, it may be left to settle for twenty-four hours or more. This rids the juice of most of the floating solid matter and facilitates sub- sequent filtering. It is then passed through a continuous pasteurizer (see fig. 1) and heated to 175° F., and should come out not warmer than 77° F. when it is run directly by means of a block-tin pipe into fresh vessels. For this purpose sterilized puncheons or other casks may be used, although casks or vats of metal, lined with enamel, would be better. The greatest care must be taken to avoid contamination of the must 12 MANUFACTURE AND PRESERVATION OF GRAPE MUST. as it flows from the pasteurizer. ‘The ends of the block-tin pipe should be plunged into boiling water in changing from one package to another, and should not touch the hands or any exposed surface. The package should be closed with a sterilized bung as soon as full. After the must has settled some days, or even weeks, it is ready for filtering. This filtration is best accomplished by means of a filter so constructed that the must passes upward through the filtering medium under pressure. Such a filter is seen in fig. 2. This filter consists essentially of two shallow bowls clamped together, mouth to mouth, with the filtering medium between them. ‘The unfiltered must enters the lower bowl through the pipe on the right of the figure, passes through the filtering medium into the upper bowl, and makes its exit. when clear, through the faucet a little to the left of the middle a 2a LSS —— = SSS mW ST i ae Fic. 1.—Continuous Pasteurizer: ST, Steam pipe. J, Outlet for hot pasteurized must. U, Inlet for unpasteurized must. JW, Water bath. P, Outlet for cooled pasteurized must. 77’, Thermometers. W- YRS Del. 'P of the figure. The small faucet at the bottom of the lower bowl is for the purpose of cleaning the filter. Occasionally when filtration becomes slow, this faucet is opened fora few minutes. This allows the sediment accumulated at the bottom to escape and at the same time the entering must takes a rotary motion in the lower bowl, thus clearing off the surface of the filtering medium, so that when the clear- ing faucet is closed filtration proceeds as before. Ona large scale a filter press such as is used in large wineries and in beet-sugar factories might be conveniently used. The must should be bottled as it flows from the filter, corked im- mediately, and sterilized as soon as possible, preferably within twenty- four hours. On account of recontamination during filtering, a final sterilization must be made after the bottles are corked. This is accom-. plished by means of a bottle sterilizer. PROCESS USED IN CALIFORNIA. fe A simple and efficient form of sterilizer is shown in tie. 3. It con- sists of a wooden trough, provided with a wooden erating placed about 2 inches from the bottom. The filled bottles are placed in wire baskets which rest upon the grating. The trough should contain enough water to submerge the bottles and be kept at 185° F. by means of a steam coil beneath the grating. It requires fifteen min- utes for the must at the bottom to acquire that temperature. For packages of other sizes it is necessary to make a test witha bottle of must in which a thermometer has been placed, in order to determine how long it > takes for the entire con- tents of the bottle to reach the required tem- perature. Sterilization in bottles should be con- ducted at a temperature WRISAEEIOTM. lower than that reached in the con- tinuous pasteurizer. If the final heating is higher than the first, it may ‘ause a precipitation of solid matter, which will make the must in the bottles cloudy. During the steriliza- tion in bottles the corks are liable to be expelled by the pressure devel- oped. ‘To prevent this they may be tied down with strong twine, but if is a great saving of ——————— Fic. 2.—Filter for clarifying must. time and labor to use some such contrivance as illustrated in fig. 3. Must so sterilized will keep unchanged for years, or-until the bottles are opened. No matter how carefully all previous work may be done, there is still danger of mold germs getting into the liquid through the corks, especially if a poor quality of corks be used. This can be prevented by dipping the necks of the bottles into heated paraflin before putting on the caps or by sealing over the corks with sealing wax. The quality and character of the grape must will vary greatly with 14 MANUFACTURE AND PRESERVATION OF GRAPE MUST. the quality of the grapes used, and a pleasing effect may be had by the blending or mixing of the must of two or more varieties of grapes. The color of the must will always be white or yellowish, with the exception of that from such yarieties as the Bouschets, which have a red juice. Red must can be obtained by a modification of the process described. If the must is allowed to pass through the continuous pasteurizer and flow out hot into a vat containing the skins of red grapes, almost any desired depth of color may be obtained, depend- ing on the variety of grapes used and tbe time during which the hot must is left on the skins. Must thus prepared differs in other respects than color from the white must, various substances, especially tannin, © 7 i ee Fi 3 : = nH ise = —_ —— E = j 08 =I of Se a ee Ue Fig. 8.—Cork clamp and pasteurizer for must in bottles: DB, Double bottom. STZ, Steam pipe. W Water bath. 7, Thermometer. (Bottle shows method of adjusting a cork holder of sheet metal.) being extracted from the skins, making the composition more like that of red wine, but containing sugar instead of alcohol. In some instances such an article will be preferred for medicinal use, METHODS USED IN THE EASTERN STATES. The methods used in the larger plants of the Eastern States, prin- cipally in the Chautauqua district on Lake Erie, are as follows: The grapes are run through a combined crusher and stemmer in the upper story of the building, passing through wooden chutes to three aluminum kettles directly underneath. (See Frontispiece.) These ket- tles have double bottoms, so that steam can be used for heating without coming in contact with the contents. They also have in them revolving cylinders which keep the crushed grapes thoroughly stirred while they are being heated to 140° F. This heating and stirring aids in getting more color out of the skins, the relative amount of juice obtained per ton of grapes is larger, and the must has more of the ingredients and taste of red wine, without containing any aleohol. These kettles are filled in rotation, namely: As soon as No. 1 is full, steam is turned on to heat it while No. 2 is being filled. By the time No. 2 is full No. 1 is hot. Steam is then turned on No. 2 while No. 3 is being filled, and No. 1 is emptied and ready to be filled again. METHODS USED IN THE EASTERN STATES. 15 Underneath the kettles are the presses, which are of the hydraulic type. Into these the heated contents of the kettles are emptied and pressed. They are on wheels, and are run backward and forward for filling and emptying in regular rotation. From the presses the juice runs through pipes to aluminum kettles underneath, similar to those in which the crushed grapes are heated, except that they contain no revolying cylinders. (See fig. +.) In these kettles the juice is heated to 165° F., skimmed, and run through a pasteurizer underneath at a temperature no lower than 175° F. and no higher than 200° F. From the pasteurizer the must is filled directly into freshly sterilized 5-gallon carboys, securely corked, and stored in the vaults until the juice has settled and cleared, after which the clear juice is carefully siphoned we iM A sae il ——— \ — ; | We Hit ME |, | ; | == ito \! ty (II 1 [el Re a io SORertaiagsaee S| eee . ZA Ve Le I ZA -Bk Fic. 4.—Aluminum kettles for heating crushed grapes. off, filtered, filled into bottles, and securely corked, undergoing a final pasteurizing in the bottles, as explained in describing the California method. By the method just described a dark-colored liquid is made, usually called grape juice. Nine-tenths of the eastern musts placed on the market are of this kind. Should it be desired to make a lighter- colored smooth article, the process should be modified by omitting the heating and stirring before pressing, the crushed grapes being pressed at once. Attention should be called to the fact that the leading defects so far found with unfermented juice placed on the market are that much of it is not clear, a condition which very much detracts from its other- wise attractive appearance, and is due to two causes already alluded 16 MANUFACTURE AND PRESERVATION OF GRAPE MUST. to—either the final sterilization in bottles has been at a higher tem- perature than the preceding one, or the juice has been improperly filtered or has not been filtered at all. In other cases the juices have been sterilized at such high tempera- ture that they have a disagreeable, scorched taste. It should be remembered that when an attempt is made to sterilize at a tempera- ture above 195° F., one is treading on dangerous ground. Another serious mistake has been made in placing grape juice on the market in too large bottles, so that much of it becomes spoiled before it is used. Grape must properly made and bottled will keep indefinitely if it is not exposed to the atmosphere or mold germs; but when a bottle is once opened it should, like canned goods, be used as soon as possible to keep it from spoiling. HOME MANUFACTURE. Friends who are fortunate enough to have a small patch, perhaps only an arbor, of grape vines often tell us: ** We have so many grapes we do not know what to do with them.” The surplus may be used to make unfermented grape juice. The following recipe will enable any- one to make it: Use only clean, sound, well-ripened grapes. If an ordinary cider mill is at hand, it may be used for crushing and pressing, or the grapes may be crushed and pressed with the hands. If a light-colored juice is desired, put the crushed grapes in a cleanly washed cloth flour sack and tie up. Then either hang up securely and twist it, or let two persons take hold, one on each end of the sack, and twist, when the greater part of the juice will be expressed. Then gradually heat the juice in a double boiler or a large stone jar in a pan of hot water at a temperature of 180° to 200°—never aboye 200° F. It is best to use a thermometer, but if there be none at hand, heat the juice until it steams, but do not allow it to boil; put it in a glass or enameled vessel to settle for twenty-four hours; carefully drain the juice from the sediment, and run it through several thicknesses of clean flannel, if no other filter be available. After this, fill into clean bottles. Do not fill entirely, but leave room for the liquid to expand when again heated. Fit a thin board over the bottom of an ordinary wash boiler, set the filled bottles (ordinary glass fruit jars are just as @ood) in it, fill in with water around the bottles to about an inch from the top of them, and gradually heat untilit is about to simmer. Then take the bottles out and cork or seal immediately. It is a good idea to take the further precaution of sealing the corks over with sealing wax, to pre- vent mold germs from entering through the corks. Should it be desired to make a red juice, heat the crushed grapes to not above 200° F., strain through a clean cloth, set away to cool and settle, and proceed the same as with light-colored juice. Many people do not TSES OF UNFERMENTED MUST. UY even go to the trouble of letting the juice settle after straining it, but reheat and seal it up immediately, simply setting the vessels away in acool place in an upright position, where they will be undisturbed and the juice allowed to settle, and when wanted for use the clear juice is simply taken off the sediment. Any person familiar with the process of canning fruit can also preserve grape juice, for the prin- ciples involved are identical. Must is a valuable product, and many pleasures and comforts may be derived from its use. It contains a large part of the valuable ingre- dients of both fresh and canned grapes, and can be used in many more ways and for many more purposes. USES OF UNFERMENTED MUST. The uses of unfermented must are many. It is used in sickness, convalescence, and good health; asa preventive, as wellas acure. By the young, by persons in the prime of life, and by those in old age it is used at all seasons of the year, whether that season be warm or cold, wet or dry. It is used in churches for sacramental purposes; at soda fountains as a cool and refreshing drink; in homes, at hotels, and at restaurants as a food, as a beverage, as a desert, and in many other ways. When people become accustomed to it they rarely give it up; hence the manufacture of grape juice will probably increase enor- mously as the years go by. Dr. Miradow Minas, at Jurjew (Dorpat), experimented on himself with pasteurized must during fifty-three days, dividing the time into thirteen periods. He took the following daily rations of food: Water, 2,100 cubic centimeters; meat, 3,000 grams; tea, 9 grams; meat extract, 5 grams; light bread, 500 grams; sugar, 85.38 grams. During the first two and the last two periods he took no must. In the third period he took 300 cubic centimeters daily; in the fourth, 600 cubic centimeters, and thus gradually increased the portion until 1,250 cubic centimeters in the seventh period, which lasted five days, were taken. After this he gradually decreased the portion until 250 cubic centimeters were used in the eleventh period. The conclusions reached were: Through the rational addition of pasteurized must toa satisfactory mixed diet the cleavage of protein in the body is diminished. The power to protect protein is due to the grape sugar present, and is dependent not alone upon the quantity of grape juice taken, but also upon the kind and amount of protein consumed. The richer the food in easily digested protein the greater the power of the grape juice to protect protein. With an abundant diet the more or less long continued use of pasteur- ized must tends to induce a gain in body weight. The material gained may consist of nitrogenous substance or fatty tissue. When 300 to 750 c. c. of pasteurized grape juice is consumed daily the resorption of nitrogenous material is increased. When larger quantities are consumed (1,000 to1,250 c. c.) the resorption of nitrogen dimin- ishes somewhat, but in all cases it is better than on the same diet without the addition of pasteurized grape juice. The consumption of 300 to 500 c. c. of unfermented grape T795—No. 24—02 2 18 MANUFACTURE AND PRESERVATION OF GRAPE MUST. must daily diminishes intestinal fermentation. Larger quantities are either without effect on the intensity of intestinal fermentation or by diminishing the resorption of nitrogen increase the amount of ether sulphates excreted in the urine. It should be said in considering the results obtained by Minas, that practically the same favorable results attributed to the use of grape juice have been found to follow the consumption of cane sugar. It therefore seems not unlikely that the value of grape juice as a food depends chiefly on the sugars present, though it should be remem- bered that the agreeable flavor undoubtedly increases the appetite and very probably increases the flow of digestive juices. Further- more, grape juice offers the sugars in a reasonably dilute as well as a palatable form. A FEW GOOD RECIPES. GRAPE NECTAR. Take the juice of two lemons and one orange, one pint of grape juice, one small cup of sugar, and a pint of water. Serveice cold. If served from punch bowl, sliced lemon and orange add to appearance. AN INVALID DRINK. Put in the bottom of a wineglass two tablespoonfuls of grape juice; add to this the beaten white of one egg and a little chopped ice; sprinkle sugar over top and serve. ‘This is often served in sanitariums. GRAPE PUNCH. Boil together one pound of sugar and half pint of water until it spins a thread; take from the fire and when cool add the juice of six lemons and a quart of grape juice. Stand aside overnight. Serve with plain water, apollinaris, or soda water. GRAPE SHERBET. For eight persons, mix one pint of grape must, juice of lemon, and one heaping teaspoonful of gelatin, dissolved in boiling water; freeze quickly; add beaten white of one egg just before finish. GRAPE ICE CREAM. One quart of must, one quart of cream, one pound of sugar, and the juice of one lemon. SYLLABUB. One quart of fresh cream, whites of four eggs, one glass of grape must, two small cups of powdered sugar; whip half the sugar with the cream, the balance with the eggs; mix well; add grape juice and pour over sweetened strawberries and pineapple or oranges and bananas. Serve cold. ANALYSES—PRICES AND STATISTICS. 19 BOHEMIAN CREAM. One pint thick cream, one pint grape-juice jelly; stir together; put in cups and set on ice. Serve with lady fingers. Besides the recipes just given, many more are enumerated by the manufacturers, such as grape ice, grape lemonade, grape water ice, grape juice and egg, baked bananas, snow pudding, grape gelatin, junket and grape jelly, tutti frutti jelly, grape float, grape jelly, grape juice plain, grape soda water, and scores of others. ANALYSES OF GRAPE MUST. The analyses of a California must, as published in Bulletin No. 130 of the California Experiment Station, and of Concord grape must ana- lyzed by Mr. L. S$. Munson, of the Bureau of Chemistry, U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, are appended herewith, and may be of interest: Califor- Concord. oneord nila Per cent. | Per cent. STIG GOTGIIEN 56 55 06an Ses SOR OCE RES ES RIGO S OGRE COL SS HSS 0 0 SCE SE REESE SCA OE ener 20. 37 20. 60 Bay SET Cheers etre oe ate ha Sols se SP ose aw teen ee Gok acca asc ssceuceseeears None. None. FUSE EESHOM I ARIULTEATIC ) tata Stee eae eee Ens ood aeons eeaaasee . 663 53 WELD AG OG hs 6 ON ES RSA ROCE CEOS SUL, OOos Sa RE aE ae te ae eee . 023 . 03 Grape sugar. 18. 54 19.15 TAR DST ETM CG | eS Be ee aS RS che ae 025 07 LAND. sot seed nn ode SURO eee eee aU Sean ee . 255 .19 FUG TOUT COG |; 05845 Seek awen SHO RC REE CONDEAGARORE SE STOS OS aes Sooo eee . 027 04 REM PRITO HALAL EEE erste oo ciale of ols ee teise cea ara cin oe es lone rose chance ccuoes 55 59 The comparison between the two becomes all the more interesting from the fact that California musts are made from Vinifera, or the European grapes, whereas the commercial musts of the Eastern States are made almost exclusively from the Concord, a Labrusca, or American variety. PRICES AND STATISTICS. The average yrices to consumers are as follows: to} Per ease. Gases ofl dozen) quart: bottles2-5-2--ceeeee-- == =--<-- $4.50 to $6. 00 Csresiot.2/dozen! pint bottles= ==. s925-sheee sea = -2- == 4.75 to 6.25 (aresofescallon bottles: 22.2225) = pee meee. <== 5.00 to 6.00 One firm in 1901 used, in their manufacture, 8,000 gross of bottles. To fill these required 1,000 tons of grapes, 8,000 gross of corks, 1,100,000 caps, as many labels and wrappers, and 60,000 boxes. In the Chautauqua district alone about 300,000 gallons of unfermented must was made in 1901, and all those engaged in its manufacture are enlarging their plants. O US DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN No. 25. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. I], THE SEEDS OF RESCUE GRASS AND CHESS. By F. H. Hittman, Assistant, Seed Laboratory. I, SARAGOLLA WHEAT. By Davin G. Farrenitp, Agricultural Explorer. ILL, PLANT INTRODUCTION NOTES FROM SOUTH AFRICA. By Davin G. Farrcniup, Agricultural Explorer. IV, CONGRESSIONAL SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION CIRCULARS, 1902-1905, BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS AND SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. IssuED JuLy 18, 1903. (NA: ANS \) \) CUTTUTT NN S HMEROSA Rese SS SANS WAS WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 19038 BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Breverty T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. FREDERICK VY. CovILuE, Botanist. SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. A. J. Pirrers, Botanist in Charge. a CONTENTS. Page Mhesecedstotirescue crassiand chessin. ssc eee 2-5 cece cece cee cee 5 paracollaswheatt seessea= see eee ee atte eee einacescecdeceicecceeeecccs 9 Rlantantroduction notes from South Africa) --22.------.22.--2-------------- 13 Umtrod@uchioniy we neers eas ee eee eee eee ace ccle Scinckineccseueseeeis 13 Some Cape seedling yrape varieties...........-...-----.--------------- 14 Mhewedehanenootiprapers ass tecmee seas nese obs ojos seen 14 WALSENUpestrisuMetallicawess ace se tree ne 6 a oee ac eewecce et ccs se 15 MATIBERUpestrispleemR Oa. sey Ee ee eee csc cca cecemcccsieen ceca 16 Bott bearneshed pe plantss sere seme e memes ala <1= a anicintninsjne si = ai ta 16 OG CHa 1 aS eae are eae EIR oc Sin cciniccjeiseieeicjes yaee Se 17 mheskanrplumbasiashadeitrees--- acre seca. once soe eee eee en 18 MhepRooi-ploem\ya new corn parasites. -s22-=-----<--2+-5222- 52 - eanen 18 MhewNatalipinesppless=eewess a. ces sec ccisiee=- -- soc sees aces eer sete 20 Congressional Seed and Plant Distribution circulars, 1902-1903 -.......-.---- 23 blanronaistributionrand-allotments=.2--2sse-------+-2---=-2--<-s---2-- 23 Distribution of novelties and specialties ............-------------------- 26 MITeChOUSMOGEs DANG OMOU DRGs sae ao eae wom mye ware = = ime i tras 47 Digterbutloneomcoutoniseed et cnes ces eee ee nn <2 os-o- os Set eet eee tees 47 Rivers Oca Slanakeo GONE fee ae enone eeeene es a1cin na pe enice oeiniese 59 EAmip Lam CUCOLLODWN OteZ 2am eas eee RIS ola alain wie ono 2m maim ecleiaiesee 64 ING CONV TCD, cbeSccnd Ses SCS SDE S OO SUE e540 Soe ee eee OSes 65 Rélerowyanzlebenrsupan Wee base sea eee ees a aja <= = <0 nici 68 Distribution of tobacco seed and cultural directions. -...-.-.--------------- 70 2 o RESUS T RAT TONS: PLATES. Puare I. Mature unopened cotton bolls—Parker, Jones Improved, Moore i I , Excelsior, King, and Seabrook Sea Island -..-...---.----------- II. Mature unopened and opened cotton bolls—Griffin and Allen Iimiprovedi: cece ese ---5-5 605, ee Soe eee Ree eee eee III. Fig. 1.—Field infected by wilt and root-knot. Fig. 2.—Roots of Iron cowpea. Fig. 3.—Root-knot on Wonderful cowpea ------------- TEXT FIGURES. Ric. 1. Blorets*or seeds obmescue! grass — =. 2-22 22 o on ee eae ee MASE IGE Cle 5 pone no Reese He Ronen Ss oeossSSScrLSecosers=< ) Upright chess ssteese.- +2. 2 $5.0. sc. eee ee ee ee . Map showing districts into which the United States has been divided for'seed-distributlonspurposes\. 22225 - coe eeseee ea a= eee ee . Hyacinth, tulip,and narcissus bulbs--------.---------=-5- ---====—== 6. Row of Rivers Sea Island cotton in wilt-infected field planted with TOWs OMOrdinanyssea sland Cotton! 22 oe— see eee = ae 4 wm OF bo oO Page. 48 MiSCELEANBOUS PAPERS. B, P. I.—29. B. I. E.—d2. [HE SEEDS OF RESCUE: GRASS AND CHESS: By F. H. HitiMman, Assistant, Seed Laboratory, Botanical Investigations and Experiments. There have recently been received at the Seed Laboratory from different States of the South several samples of the seed of chess, or cheat (Bromus secalinus), which had been offered for sale as rescue grass (Bromus unioloides). Notwithstanding the close botanical rela- tionship of chess to rescue grass, and the fact that the former is some- times, like the latter, employed as a hay crop, the difference between the two is so considerable that, if the seeds of both are to be handled in the trade, they should pass under their true names. The brome grasses belong to the genus Bromus and yary widely in their agricultural value. One of them, the awnless brome grass (Bromus inermis), also called smooth and Hungarian brome grass, is highly valued in the West as a drought-resisting forage and hay plant. Rescue grass bears a somewhat similar relation to the agriculture of the South, while the chess is less valuable than either. Some value is assigned to it in certain localities, but it has been long and widely recognized as a most troublesome weed. The frequency with which it occurs in grain fields has led to the erroneous belief, adhered to by many farmers even to the present day, that chess is a degenerated form of wheat. Chess seeds are often abundant among the seeds of the cereal grains and the larger grass seeds, and sometimes occur with red clover seed. With the aid of specimens, or descriptions, there should be no dif- ficulty in distinguishing the seed of rescue grass from that of chess. The differences between the seed of chess and that of its near ally, Bromus racemosus, are more difficult to detect; but from a practical For some reason confusion has arisen in the Southern States regarding rescue grass and chess. Seed of the latter, which, though occasionally grown as a forage crop, is ordinarily a grain-field weed, has been offered for sale repeatedly under the name of the former, which is a valuable forage grass; and it has been thought desir- able to issue a brief description of the two, so that both seedsmen and purchasers may be able to distinguish them. The present paper is therefore presented. It was prepared under the direction of Mr. A. J. Pieters, Botanist in Charge of the Seed Laboratory.—Freperick V. Covitie, Botanist. oO 6 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. standpoint this is not so important, since the two plants are very similar in habit, and it is probable that in many localities the latter would prove quite as undesirable as chess. Bromus unioloides ( Willd.) H. B. K. (B. schraderi Kunth.) Rescur Grass. ScHRADER’s Brome Grass. Arctic GRAss. Florets, or *‘ seeds,” ” 11 to 25 mm. (% to 1 inch) long, strongly com- pressed from the See sharply keeled alorg the back, lanceolate as viewed from the side, the apex tapering and usually tipped by a short awn, at the base of which the glume is slightly notched; margins of the glume membranous-edged and usually not infolded ex- cept at the base; veins 4 or 5 on each side of the midnerve, keel, evident as narrow ridges; palea two-thirds to three-fourths the length of the glume, which wholly in- closes it; grain folded length- wise and tightly clasping the infolded center of the palea. The floretsare light or yellow- Fic. 1.—Florets, or seeds, of rescue grass (Bromus unio- ._ ; loides): a, side view of a seed; b, front view of a seed, ish brown or str aw-colored, showing the palea and pedicel between the edges of often greenish and sometimes the glume; c, seeds, natural size. a = purplish. The surface varies from smooth to very finely rough-hairy, the latter condition being particularly evident on the veins and pedicel. When spread thinly on a level surface the seeds lie on one of the flattened sides. (Fig. 1.) Bromus secalinus L. Cuess. CHEAT. Wii.arb’s Brome Grass. Florets about 7 mm. (4 to ;'; inch) long, exclusive of the awn, which varies from 1 to 3 mm. in length, not compressed, cylindrical or some- what spindle-shaped, obtuse at the apex; glume notched at the apex above the insertion of the awn; margins more or less infolded below the middle, narrowly or scarcely membranous-edged above the middle, usually not at all flaring at the apex; veins 3 on each side of the mid- nerve, very indistinct; palea equal to the glume, deeply grooved con- SeenON with the grain, per keels enspids ciliate and partially or wholly «The seeds of these grasses in a commercial sense consist of the grain atlosed in the chaff—i. e., glume and palea. SEEDS OF RESCUE GRASS AND CHESS. i exposed; grain equal to the glume and palea, often exposed at the apex of the floret, deeply grooved, reddish brown, sometimes occur- ring free from the glume and palea. The florets are light or dark brown and mostly smooth, and sometimes have a shght diffused luster under the lens. (Fig. 2. The more evident characters by which rescue-grass seed and chess seed may be distinguished upon comparison are as follows: Rescue-grass seeds, being strongly compressed, lie only on one side when resting on a level surface; and thus appear lance-shaped or broadly awl-shaped, tapering uni- formly to a sharp, short- awned point. In con- trast, the chess seeds are from little more than one- b fourth to one - half as Fic. 2.—Seeds of chess (Bromus secalinus): a and b, front views; Log, nue. OUT amen eae epee amma evidently flattened, near- ly cylindrical, grooved along one side, abruptly pointed, the apex with a very short or somewhat longer awn or awnless. When resting ona level surface they may lie slightly at one side of the midvein of the back, exposing to view the grooved face and a part of one side, or they may lie on the grooved face, showing the back. They more rarely rest directly on the back. Furthermore, the general color of a sample of chess is much darker brown than one of rescue-grass seed. Bromus racemosus L. Upricut CHEss. Florets about 9 mm. (4 inch) long, exclusive of the slender awn, which varies from 4 to 9 mm. in length, similar to those of Bromus secalinus in general form. The glume is broader than in B. secalinus and usually more arched at the margins; edges sometimes membra- nous, especially at the apex, which is notched above the insertion of the awn and of- ten flaring; veins sometimes Fic. 3.—Upright chess (Bromus racemosus): a, back view; distinct; palea shorter than b and ¢c, front views, and d, side view of seeds; e, seeds, the gl ume. broadly hollowed naturalsize. Views b and c show the paleaand pedicel. Z on or grooved, its keels more or less exposed and hispid-ciliate; grain shorter than the palea or at least covered by it, more broadly grooved than in Bromus secalinus. ‘The 5 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. florets are smooth or finely roughened and straw-colored or light brown. (Fig. 3.) These seeds are as easily distinguished from rescue-grass seeds as are those of chess. They are most readily distinguished from chess seeds by the broader glume, longer awn, and shorter palea and grain. The following statement of the relative values of rescue grass and chess is contributed by Mr. Carleton R. Ball, Assistant Agrostologist of the Department of Agriculture: Rescue grass was introduced into the South some fifty years ago and has since been widely cultivated. Its chief value is for winter and early spring grazing. It is very hardy, and makes a luxuriant and rapid growth throughout the winter under favorable conditions. Although it is an annual plant, it is said to become a short- lived perennial under close grazing, which prevents the production of seed. In ordinary practice the grass is allowed to reseed itself each season. Where grazed, stock should be taken off long enough to allow seed to ripen in the early summer. If it is cut for hay in March, the aftermath will usually reseed the ground. A sum- mer crop may be grown on the same ground if it be taken off early enough to allow the young plants to begin their growth in the fall. Rescue grass is best adapted to rich, loamy soils. On light, poor soils it is probably inferior to rye or oats for pasturage or hay. Chess is becoming more and more common as a weed in southern wheat fields. In some parts of the country, particularly in the Northwest, it has considerable value as a hay crop. A similar yalue has sometimes been claimed for it in the Southern States, but the general opinion is quite the opposite. It often appears abundantly where grain crops have been killed by unfavorable conditions. There are, however, other catch crops with fewer weedy tendencies and greater forage value which may be employed in such cases. In feeding value, as indicated by chemical analyses, chess ranks lower than most grasses, including rescue grass. This has been proved to be true of it even in the Northwest, where it is so largely used for hay. B. P. I.—57. S. P. I. D.—34. II—SARAGOLLA WHEAT. By Davin G. Faircnitp, Agricultural Explorer. Italy is the land of macaroni, and the best of this remarkable food product in the world is to be had in Naples. There seems to be an agreeable flavor about Neapolitan macaroni which is characteristic of it and which one does not find in the French or Spanish, oreven in the north Italian made product. Macaroni a la Napolitona, with its sauce made from the plum-like tomatoes that one sees hung up to dry every- where on the walls of the narrow streets of Naples, must be tasted within sight of Vesuvius before one can judge this national Italian dish. In searching for a reason for this superiority of the Neapolitan macaroni, the writer’s attention was called to the fact that an especially fine-flavored variety is made from a native wheat called Saragolla, and that this variety is made only in small quantities. Paradoxical as it may seem to the American who is ready to pay any price for the best food products, the very finest quality of Italian macaroni is not often exported to America. This is a statement which the writer feels war- ranted in making after interviewing some of the largest exporters of macaroni, as well as the famous producers of Gragnano and Torre Annunziata. The reason for this anomalous condition of the trade lies in the fact that the very finest kind of macaroni keeps only a few months, while the commonly exported article remains good fora year. In the days before the macaroni trade had assumed the proportions that it now occupies in the commerce of Italy it was supposed that only the hard wheats of Apulia and Sicily could be used in its manu- facture, but as the demand for this foodstuff increased the hard wheats of other countries were imported. Among these wheats those from southern Russia, the so-called Taganrog varieties, proved best suited to the demands of the manufacturer. They are now imported in large quantities every year, and the majority of the macaroni is said to be made from these imported wheats. Nevertheless the manu- facturers still consider the durum wheat of the province of Apulia to have a flavor superior to the imported varieties, and they place the so- called Saragolla wheat at the head of all macaroni wheats so far as the production of a fine-flavored product is concerned. 9 10 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. The market price of the Saragolla wheat ranges from 1.25 to 1.75 lire per quintal higher than that charged for the best Taganrog sorts, even after a duty of 8 lire per quintal has been paid; and the reason for this higher price is not so much in the better flavor of the Italian wheat as in the greater yield of semola per given weight of grain. The semola makers get proportionately more salable product out of the Saragolla wheats than they do out of those from Taganrog or other sources of import. It is from these south Italian wheats that the most delicate macaroni of Naples is made, and the connoisseur who wants to live well. in southern Italy insists on having his macaroni made from the hard wheats of Apulia. It makes little difference to him that the more delicate variety does not keep so well and more quickly falls a prey to the attacks of insects. What he wants is the fine flavor. Like the export Munich beer, or the canned Danish butter, macaroni designed for sale in America, it is said, must be especially prepared, and the tougher gluten of the Taganrog wheat renders the macaroni that is made from it better suited for the export trade. Mixtures of the imported and the Saragolla wheat are also often made, it is said. The region south of Foggia near the Adriatic coast of southern Italy, where this best Italian macaroni wheat is grown, is one of the driest in the country, having an annual rainfall of only 446.7 mm., or about 17.59 inches. In this respect it is but little superior to some of the Russian wheat regions, which have, according to Carleton, about 15 inches. Whether or not the generally acknowledged superiority of Italian macaroni, even that made from Taganrog wheat, is due to the water used in its manufacture is a question which would probably require much study to answer. It is difficult to understand how any bacteria present in the water used to make the paste can influence the flavor, for it is employed while boiling hot. There is a possibility, however, that in the cellaring process, ov the preliminary drying in the open air, the freshly made macaroni may be affected by the bacteria with which the air of the moist cellars and exposed drying places must be filled. Although perhaps superfluous to the American manufacturer of macaroni, a description of the process of making it as followed in Gragnano and Torre Annunziata may have some interest as being that pursued by some of the most famous factories in the world. To travelers in Italy these towns are pointed out as nestling at the base of Vesuvius and forming scarcely more than suburbs to the big city of Naples. They are dependent upon the manufacture of the pastas, as the various types of macaroni are called, and hand-worked mills stand side by side with those run by steam; all squeezing out long strings of yellow paste, which are cut and hung up on poles to SARAGOLLA WHEAT. 11a dry. The housetops, courtyards, narrow streets, and hillsides are covered with thousands of reed poles bending under the weight of yellow macaroni, and scattered over the ground on mats lie different sorts of short-shaped pastas. The process of manufacture seems exceedingly simple, but there may, for all that, be secrets of the trade. As described in general by the manager of a large mill in Torre Annunziata the mode followed by the steam factories is as follows: The durum wheat is ground into semola and sieved to remove the starchy part of the grains and leave the clear, light amber, or glutinous part. Three or four grades of quality are made, and these depend on the size of the sieve meshes. The semola is put into a special iron mixer, shaped like an old- fashioned artillery mortar, except that it is square instead of cylindrical, and furnished in the bottom with special screw-shaped fans with which to stir the paste or dough. Boiling water is added to the semola and the dough is mixed for about seven minutes. The mass is then put on a flat, circular kneading board and kneaded by two sharp-edged parallel beams, which rise and fall as the table turns and press into the dough as they descend. A few minutes of kneading are sufticient and the homogeneous dough is then put into the cylinder and the piston descends upon the mass, forcing it in strings slowly through the per- forated plate at the bottom. Fifteen minutes are required to convert the gallons of dough into thousands of feet of yellow macaroni. The yellow color is produced by the use of saffron, of which powder a very small quantity is put into each batch of dough. As soon as the strings of fresh paste which issue continually from the die are of the proper length they are cut and thrown over a reed pole and carried into the sunlight, if the weather is fair, or into sheltered terraces, protected by curtains from the rain, if the weather is unfavorable. On bright days the strings of macaroni are exposed to the sunlight only two hours. They must be dried out only slightly before being cellared for the night in dungeon-like underground vaults similar to the Bavarian beer cellars. For twelve hours or more the poles of macaroni are kept in these damp places, until the dough has become moist and pliable again and the strings have lost the brittleness that the exposure to the sunlight has given them. From the cellars the poles are carried to shaded storehouses, open on all sides to the air but not lighted from above. Here, in great masses of millions of strings, they hang for several days—from eight to twenty being required, depending upon the dry- ness of the atmosphere. According to the statements of the manager of a factory this process of drying is necessary to give to the brittle paste a horn-like toughness and fit it to withstand the rough handling to which it will be subjected without breaking into small pieces. 12 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. In all this simple process the one point at which bacteria might have a chance to play a role is in the first drying, cellaring, and subsequent slow drying in the shade. The theory that the water is responsible for the flavor must rest, it seems to the writer, on other than bac- terial grounds, for from the appearance of the tank which supplied the hot water the inference is easy that the water is chalybeate, for the tank was incrusted with lime. If, aside from the superiority of the macaroni of Gragnano, which is made from Taganrog wheat, a specially fine flavor is produced by the use of Saragolla grain, the growers of durum wheats in America deserve to have their attention called to this variety and be given an opportunity to test it on a reasonably large scale. The thin-skinned nature of the sort and its consequent greater semola-producing prop- erties may not be maintained in all places in America, but regions may be found where these valuable qualities as well as the flavor are retained, and the wheat may prove, as it evidently does in Apulia, a profitable crop. Napies, Vovember 9, 1902. B. P. I.—s8. S. P. I. D.—35. IIIT—PLANT INTRODUCTION NOTES FROM SOUTH AFRICA? By Davin G. Farrcuiip, Agricultural Explorer. INTRODUCTION. From the standpoint of an agricultural explorer South Africa is a land of newly introduced plants. Compared with old civilized coun- tries. like Egypt and Japan, it is poor in cultivated species that are suitable for introduction into America. Its native flora is rich, but the number of economic plants is small and the most important of these have been brought into Africa in comparatively recent times. Only one who has been bewildered by the hosts of cultivated native plants of the Malay Archipelago can fully realize the dearth of food plants of South Africa. The explanation is simple. The Kafirs and Hottentots were, like our American Indians, races of hunters, and lived mostly on the immense herds of game which roamed over the vast areas of grass land on the South African veldt. As these herds of antelope and other game diminished in numbers or disappeared the natives became stock raisers and counted their wealth by the number of cattle they owned. The cultivation of the soil, which in such lands as Java or Japan was the chief occupation of the people, played a small réle among the blacks of Cape Colony, and in consequence few wild plants were brought into cultivation, and the staple food plants of other races, when introduced late in the history of the country, were accepted by the Kafirs and grown ina careless, slovenly manner. The mealies of the country are the maize plants from America. Cassave is the West Indian manihot, Kafir corn is the ** Dura” of the Arabs, @Several South African wild plants have already found their way into cultivation as valuable ornamentals, but, as Mr. Fairchild has pointed out in the present Bulle- tin, the South African flora is poor in economic species. There are some, however, that may prove valuable additions to the forage resources of our Southwest, and the grapes and the pineapples described will certainly be worth a careful trial. The plants and seeds sent through the kindness of Mr. Lathrop have been dis- tributed in such a manner that we shall be able to watch the growth of these plants in the United States.—A. J. Prerers, Botanist in Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, Washington, D. C., May 8, 1903. 13 14 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. and rice and potatoes were practically unknown among their cultivated plants. It is no wonder that a country in which the natives have neglected their indigenous fruits and grains, and in whose footsteps the early white settlers followed, should prove a land poor in cultivated plants that are worthy of introduction into the New World. A few things have, however, been called to the writer’s attention during a stay of some weeks in the country, and these have seemed worthy of writing about for the information of American cultivators. SOME CAPE SEEDLING GRAPE VARIETIES. It were strange if in so old and isolated a vine region as South Africa seedling varieties of the grape had not originated. Mr. Eustace Pillans, at present in charge of the Government Wine Farm at Constantia, has called the writer’s attention to three varieties which are either known to be Cape seedlings or are of doubtful Cape origin, and the department of agriculture of the colony has, with that liberality which characterizes it, offered to send in July next a quantity of cuttings of each to America. THE RED HANEPOOT GRAPE. The Red Hanepoot, which ranks as one of the best export table grapes from South Africa, and which is called by the late Mr. De Waal, vine expert of the Cape government, the Red Muscat of Alex- andria, is described as a variety with large, loose bunches, a large oval berry, which is dark red when ripe and has a sweet and musky flavor. It requires a lime and clay subsoil, and its fruit ripens in the middle of the grape season. The origin of the Red Hanepoot, I am told, is not known, but it is believed to be a seedling of the White Muscat, called at the Cape White Hanepoot, and Mr. Bioletti, wine expert at the Elsenburg Agricultural School, who was formerly connected with the California Experiment Station, assures me that it is probably of Cape origin, and so far as he knows is not grown anywhere in California. Its good shipping qualities and its excellence as a table grape will, Mr. Bioletti thinks, give it a place beside the Flame Tokay, from which it differs in its decided musky flavor. Its excellent eating qualities Mr. Lathrop and the writer had an opportunity of testing, and there can be no doubt of its desirability for Californian vineyards. Like the other Muscat varieties, it is difficult to graft successfully upon resistant American stocks, and at the Cape it has succeeded best upon a seed- ling variety of Vitis rupestris called ‘‘ Le Roux,” which is likewise of South African origin. PLANT INTRODUCTION NOTES. 15 VITIS RUPESTRIS METALLICA. Vitis rupestris metallica is the name given by the late Mr. De Waal to a resistant stock grown from American seed on the Government Wine Farm at Constantia. This is quite distinct, Mr. Bioletti says, from a French variety bearing the same name, and is another of the Cape productions which is worthy of the attention of California vine- yardists. It was a chance seedling, like the Riparia Gloire de Mont- pellier stock so universally used, according to De Waal, in the Medoe vine region of France. In the Agricultural Journal for December, 1901, Mr. De Waal published the following statement in reference to the origin of this interesting variety, which is, according to Mr. Pillans, taking the lead all over the colony as a grafting stock for wine grapes: RUPESTRIS METALLICA. This variety is derived from one seedling stock selected at Groot Constantia from amongst thousands. It was picked out in the year 1894, and new stocks were multi- plied as fast as possible by the single-bud or one-eye system of propagation. In 1896 a mother plantation of 3,500 vines was laid out. The combined plantations have this year (1901) given a return of 687,000 cuttings, exclusive of several cartloads of thin ends. As many other mother p!antations of this variety have, during the past few years, been laid out in the Constantia and other districts, the old mother stock, selected in 1894, must this year have given rise to an output of several millions of cuttings. The Rupestris Metallica is a strong grower and will thrive well in any loose soil, loam, gravel, or sand, and also in dry, open, heavy soils; it can besides stand a fair amount of wet in loose soils. It forms an excellent graft bearer for all varieties of European vines, except the Hanepoot, and, possibly also, other members of the Muscat family. A large percentage of Hanepoot grafts will die back on it even after a very successful start, and as a stock for Muscat Hambourg its suitability is also doubted. It appears to answer fairly well as a graft bearer for Muscadel, but sufficient experience on this point has not yet been gained to recommend it unre- servedly as a stock for that variety. The latest verdict regarding this Metallica stock from Mr. C. Mayer, who has not been an enthusiastic believer in it, is that it is suitable for dry, light sandy soils, but not for heavy ones. It is remarkable for the ease with which the cuttings root and can be grafted upon. The proportion of failures among grafts upon this stock is said to be remarkably small, and when millions of grafts are concerned this item is an important one. The vigorous nature of the Metallica is claimed by Mr. Pillans to impart to the graft a very remarkable productiveness, and certainly when compared at Groot Constantia with the same varieties grafted on other American stalks of French origin, the load of fruit on the metallica vines this season bore out Mr. Pillans’s belief. Considered from the standpoint, then, of a quick-rooting, easy-grafting, vigorous stock, which produces good bearing vines, the Vitis rupestr?s metallica is well worth an extensive trial in California. 16 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. VITIS RUPESTRIS LE ROUX. The Muscat varieties of table grapes, which are among the best, do not generally thrive well when grafted on American phylloxera-resist- ant stocks, and vineyardists in California are, according to Mr. Bioletti, looking for a better variety of stock than those already in use. In Cape Colony, two of the best table grapes, the White and Red Hanepoot sorts, are of the Muscat type, and in replanting the vine- yards with resistant stocks, the ordinary Riparia and Rupestris varieties haye proven uncongenial to these Muscat kinds. In March, 1899, the Cape department of agriculture appointed a commission to investigate the causes of this failure of the Hanepoot grafts on American vines. In their printed report members of this commission call attention to the Le Roux, a seedling variety of American parentage which originated in the Cape and which has proved a successful stock for the Hanepoot variety of Muscat grape, of which there are six-year-old plants growing in the colony. This Le Roux grape is named after Mr. Le Roux, of Drakenstein, upon whose place the seedling was raised and first propagated. Such a stock which, although not yet thoroughly tested, promises to be well suited for Muscat varieties, deserves the attention of our vine growers. FRUIT-BEARING HEDGE PLANTS. The finest hedges in Natal are the evergreen amatungulas, which are made from the white-flowered, red-fruited Carissa grandijfiora, a native of the colony. It is rare to find a fruit-bearing hedge, and of all those which the writer has seen the amatungulas are the most desirable. The genus Carissa contains a number of thorny, evergreen shrubs which bear pretty white flowers and edible red fruit. On the markets in Durban the long, brilliant red fruit of the ama- tungulas is commonly sold; in fact, during January and February it is one of the commonest fruits to be seen in the stalls. Though variable in size and shape, it has generally an elongated form, with a distinet point, and the diameter of a good-sized Damson plum. The thin, red skin covers a pink flesh with a milky juice, which in flavor is sweet but lacks character, although much praised by European residents for use in making fruit salads. To make an amatungula hedge, Mr. I. Medley Wood, the curator of the Durban botanic gardens, informs me, is a very simple matter. The seeds are sown in a seed bed, and when the young plants are 6 inches high they are transplanted to the place chosen for the hedge and set a foot apart, alternately in parallel rows, distant from one another a foot or more. As the plants grow they are trimmed into the desired hedge form, and the oftener they are trimmed the thicker PLANT INTRODUCTION NOTES. 17 they interweaye their tough, thorny branches, making an mpenetrable barrier for stock of all kinds. When in flower the white, jasmine- like blossoms show off strikingly against the dark background of foli- age; and the red fruit which follows is quite as pretty. It is an interesting sight to see the children hunting up and down the hedges about the city houses for the ripe amatungulas, with which they fill their aprons. A nearly related species of Carissa (C. arduina DC.) is one of the prettiest shrubs in the municipal gardens in Cape Town. Its sym- metrical form and dark-green leaves and branches make it well worth a place on the lawn of any subtropical park, while its pendant red fruits, which look like large barberries, make a showy contrast to the dark background. These fruits, like the amatungulas, are filled with a milky-juiced flesh, and are not unpleasant to the taste, although they have no sprightliness of flavor. Whether or not. the genus has in it sufficient material from which, by breeding, a new superlative fruit plant can be produced, which at the same time will make good hedges, is a question for experiment. RHODES GRASS. At Groot Schur, Mr. Cecil Rhodes’s estate, near Cape Town, there are several large grass fields of a species of chloris (C. virgata Sw.) grown from seed which Mr. Rhodes had collected in the eastern prov- inces of Cape Colony some years ago. Although, according to Pro- fessor MacOwan, the plant occurs commonly in the subtropical zone in other continents, from the fact that it was first brought into culture in South Africa by so noted a man as Mr. Rhodes it has been given the name of Rhodes grass. Like other species of the same genus, this one sends out long, creep- ing stems, which lie flat on the ground, and from these the finger-like inflorescences arise. These stems lying on the ground are tough and hard and are likely to be of little food value, but the mass of leaves which is produced above them on good soil attains, it is said, a foot or more in height and has excellent feeding properties. It does not seem likely that this species will prove more resistant to drought than many other grasses, for on the slopes of Table Mountain a patch was pointed out which was evidently not a success, and the only explanation for the failure was that the ground there was too dry. However, the planters to whom the steward of the estate has distrib- uted seed have found the grass a valuable fodder plant, and there is such a local demand for the seed that a single sack was all that could be secured for trial in America. This quantity was given after appli- cation to the Chartered South African Company and to the steward of Groot Schur. 27609—No. 25—03: 2 18 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. THE KAFIR PLUM AS A SHADE TREE. Professor MacOwan, whose writings on South African plants are so well known, showed the writer a row of Kafir plum trees which, by his advice, were planted in the grounds of the Parliament building at Cape Town. He pointed out that, owing to the situation of the adjoin- ing houses, they were subjected to the most violent cross winds, and that ordinary trees which had been tried there were unable to keep their shape. A ‘‘southeaster” which came up before leaving Cape Town permitted the writer to see how these trees were whipped and beaten about with the winds from Table Mountain. It is truly remarkable how well they bear the rough treatment. The evergreen foliage of this interesting tree is dense and dark, and casts a deep shade, which in sunny climates is always a desirable character. Its gray trunk and upright branches produce a graceful vase form, while its bright red plum-like fruits show off in pretty contrast against the dark background of leaves. These plums are nearly all seed, only a thin layer of subacid pulp lying between the stone and the thin red skin, and though they are of sufficient sweetness to be attractive to children, they would find no use in our American households. The species is a tender one and could only succeed in the frostless regions of the country, but its characters as a shade or ayenue tree should win for ita place among the ornamentals of the subtropical zone. According to the conservator of forests of Cape Colony, Mr. D. E. Hutchins, the Kafir plum is a large timber tree of the eastern proy- inces and produces a useful wood that is almost indistinguishable from mahogany, and which, like the latter, requires careful seasoning. THE ROOI-BLOEM, A NEW CORN PARASITE. Plant introduction concerns itself with calling to public notice plants which should not be introduced as well as those that are eligible for cultivation. Professor MacOwan handed the writer the letters which are here reproduced, and which call attention in a forcible way to a parasite of the Indian corn plant which might prove a great pest if once intro- duced into our corn belt. The plant has caused damage among the mealies (Indian corn) in Natal, and the Government entomologist, Mr. Fuller, has published in his reports notices of its ravages. While it appears to cause the most injury in poorly cultivated ground, and, in the opinion of Mr. Fuller, requires only clean culture to get rid of it, it is no doubt a pest that American corn growers should beware of introducing. The danger of its introduction seems quite remote, since no grain is imported from South Africa to America, but still it would be well to guard against any chance of its being introduced. PLANT INTRODUCTION NOTES. 19 TRANSVAAL DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, GOVERNMENT BuILpINGs, Pretoria, February 24, 1908. Sir: Iam sending you per same post a box containing a weed forwarded to me for identification. As we are at present without a botanist, I trust you will kindly help mein the matter. * * * For your fuller information I inclose the letter which accompanied the specimen. I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant, R. A. Davis. Professor MacOwan, Cape Town. {Inclosure.] SANDBACH, AMSTERDAM P. O., February 15, 1908. Srr: Iam sending you by this post a box containing a weed which is very preva- lent on this farm. The Dutch call it ‘‘Rooi-bloem.”? When it appears among mealies it immediately kills the mealies. I have a field of over 40 acres which had a first- class crop of mealies three weeks ago; since then this ‘‘Rooi-bloem’’ has appeared, and I am doubtful if I shall get five bags off the whole field. The Dutch say there is no cure for it, and nothing can be done to eradicate it; but I can not find out whether anything has been tried. Will you be good enough to inquire if any known cure exists? It is said that ‘‘Rvoi-bloem”’ only affects mealies. I have been trying to get oats for sowing in April, but can not get any ‘‘Africander”’ oats. i Yours, faithfully, G. 8. Lesure. Secretary Lanp Boarnp, Pretoria. Cape GOVERNMENT HERBARIUM, Cape Town, February 28, 1908. My pear Sir: Iam in receipt of your letter of the 24th instant respecting a weed doing mischief in mealie crops, and of the sample belonging thereto. The plant is a semiparasite, Striga coccinea Bth., and is not infrequent on our “yellow eastern frontier. Its habits resemble those of Rhinanthus crista-galli L., the rattle,” and Melampyrum pratense L., in that it is able to live easily on its own roots like other normal plants, but also to attach itself to those of more succulent neigh- bors and draw surreptitiously upon their food material. It will work when it must, but prefers the easier life of a predatory parasitism. As to extirpation of this showy interloper, advise your correspondent to give up for the present the culture of cereals upon the acreage infested with Striga, so that the parasite shall find no host to receive it, and perseveringly plow and cross plow, following with the harrow to get the weeds into heaps for drying and burn- ing. A crop of totally different character, such as lucerne, for instance, would be best. But if local conditions do not allow of this, a double cropping with rape, to be grown on till fit for stock food, fed off, and then turned in to make way for the second crop suggests itself. The object is to give no chance to the Striga to renew its parasitism. The seed of the Striga is small and tenacious of life, hence the repeated working of the soilisimportant. Also it would be well to use kraal manure, in place of stable dung. It is astonishing what a number of weed seeds pass through the intestinal tract of the horse, and since we very rarely keep his contribution to the fertility of the farm long enough to insure their being killed out by a proper rotting down, we innocently sow a crop of weeds along with the manure. This is the secret of the spread of ‘‘zuuring”’ far and wide. 20 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Will you hereafter let me know what is decided on and what the results amount to? I will consult our recently arrived agricultural assistant, and will let you know sharp whether he has anything different to recommend. Remaining, my dear sir, yours, faithfully, P. MacOwan. R. A. Davis, Esq., Pretoria. THE NATAL PINEAPPLE. The common pineapple of Natal, which is served everywhere in the colony on private and hotel tables, is one of the most satisfactory varieties of this fruit in the world. Mr. Lathrop, who has traveled for many years in pineapple-growing countries, found the Natal pine one of the most delicious and in cer- tain respects the most satisfactory of any which he had ever eaten. This variety is a small one, the fruit often not being over 6 inches long, but this is one of its desirable characters. It is just large enough to serve as an individual fruit at a dinner table, and the result is that in Natal one is given a whole pineapple and prepares it himself, instead of a slice froma fruit that has been prepared in the kitchen and in which fermentation has already set in. The form of this fruit is in all ways satisfactory. It has a small cluster of leaves at the apex, just large enough to serve as a good handle when you are preparing it for eating. The seed cavities are small and do not enter a great distance into the fruit. The skin is thin and easily cut off with a sharp knife. The flesh, which has a golden-yellow color when ripe, is so crisp and brittle that you can break it away from the slender core with a fork almost as easily as you could tear an apple to pieces. Many pines haying a deliciously flavored flesh are so tough and full of fiber that it is only with diffi- culty that portions can be separated from the core for eating. This character of tender, fiberless flesh is possessed by the Natal pine to a very marked degree, and especially recommends it to people whose delicate digestion prohibits their eating the ordinary sorts, which con- tain more or less fibrous matter. As regards flavor this variety leaves little to be desired. It has the characteristic pineapple taste, is deliciously sweet, and compares in these characters very favorably with the best hothouse pines. It may not be quite so juicy as the latter, but this character can scarcely be considered an objection to it. No pine that has come to our attention has so little core to it as this Natal sort. Some fruits have scarcely any core, the pencil-thick cen- ter part itself being tender enough to eat, and as a rule the core spin- dle which one discards in eating is not over a half inch in diameter. According to those with whom the writer talked the origin of this Natal pine is not known, though it has been in cultivation many years in the colony. Some time ago the Government, under the impression PLANT INTRODUCTION NOTES. 21 that foreign varieties were better than their own, introduced suckers of the Ceylon and other larger fruited sorts for trial. These intro- ductions have produced no effect upon the cultivation of this native sort, I am informed, and the **common pine” is still the great market variety of South Africa. This Natal variety is so remarkable that suckers for introduction into America would have been secured had not many of the fruits seen in the markets and on the hotel tables been affected with what appears to be a disease; and although the contagious character of this malady or even its determination as of fungus or bacterial origin could not be decided, it was deemed best to take no chances of introducing it into our pineapple plantations. The fruits affected by this disease have generally soft spots on them near the base, which, when cut into, are found to reach some distance into the flesh. The small cavities characteristic of the outer part of the pine are in these affected areas of a peculiar white color. This appearance resembles somewhat that produced by a felt of very fine fungous mycelium, but with a high-power hand lens no mycelial fila- ments could be detected. The same white color is also often produced in fruit flesh by the drying out of the juicy cells, and I am inclined to think that empty air-filled cells are the cause of the snowy-white appearance in this case. The flesh about the diseased areas is soft and juicy, but in none of the fruits examined was there any dark discolora- tion such as characterizes the pineapple disease described from Queens- land and which is reported to be caused by the conidial, Fusarium-like form of some Ascomycete. This Natal malady does not agree with the description of the Queensland disease, and, if it proves to be a fungous disease at all, will probably be found to be caused by some new species of fungus. A pine which is probably identical with this Natal variety is grown extensively in the eastern provinces of Cape Colony. It is there culti- vated on the hillsides at a considerable altitude and not on the level plains, and it is grown in such quantities that the markets everywhere are overstocked with it. Pineapples are the cheapest fruit in South Africa. Some of these eastern province pineapples were sent for by the Cape department of agriculture in order that we might compare them with the Natal variety. These, although not quite so luscious as those eaten in Natal, were evidently the same sort, and the very slight inferiority in flavor might be easily explained by the fact that the eastern-province fruits were picked before becoming quite ripe in order to ship well, while the Natal ones came more directly from the fields. Through the department of agriculture a number of suckers of this eastern-province pineapple were ordered after it was ascertained that 22 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. the disease which affected the Natal fruits was unknown there. These were to be sent from perfectly healthy plantations’ and are unques- tionably safe for introduction; but in order to make doubly sure of not introducing any pernicious pests, the introduced suckers will be grown apart from the commercial plantations and carefully watched. aAccording to Mr. Malley, the Assistant Cape Entomologist, there are, in the east- ern provinces, plantations in which pines do not grow well and some situations where pineapple growing has had to be abandoned. Whether any specific disease is the cause of this or not is a disputed question. A careful examination on his part failed to reveal any cause, and it seems most likely that unsuitable physical condi- tions will account for the failure of the fruit in these situations. B. P. I.—s9. S. P. I. D.—36. IV. CONGRESSIONAL SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION CIRCULARS, 1902-1903.“ [Circular sent to Senators, Members, and Delegates in Congress.] PLAN OF DISTRIBUTION AND ALLOTMENTS OF CONGRESSIONAL SEEDS AND PLANTS, 1902-1903. Some changes in the plan of conducting the Congressional distribu- tion of seeds, plants, bulbs, etc., during the fiscal year 1902-1903 have been approved by the Honorable Secretary of Agriculture, and in order to aid you in preparing addressed franks your attention is respectfully called to the changes set forth below. Fic. 4.—Map showing the districts into which the United States has been divided for seed distribution purposes. Division of the country.—With a view of handling the seed to bet- ter advantage the country has been divided into six districts, and varieties of seeds and plants particule ly zoarece to each district will “This mroueation consists of a number of anatine aaa by iinon Peabo of the scientific force of the Bureau of Plant Industry and one prepared by the Chief of the Bureau of Soils. These circulars were originally printed to accompany the seeds sent out through the Congressional distribution and consist of descriptions of varieties and directions for their culture. Many of these contain matter that should form part of the permanent records of the Department, and they have therefore been collected for publication in this form.—A. J. Prerers, Botanist in Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, Washington, D. C., May 12, 1908. 23 24 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. be distributed therein. The accompanying small map shows the man- ner in which the divisions haye been made. Vegetable seeds.—There will be, as usual, a distribution of miscella- neous vegetable seeds, and in addition it is planned to furnish a limited number of packages of novelties—that is, seeds of varieties either new or little known and of peculiar merit for distribution in each locality. The miscellaneous yegetable seeds will be put up as usual, 5 packets ina package, and each Senator, Member, and Delegate in Congress will have 12,000 such packages to his credit. There will be 500 packages containing the novelties, each package containing 5 packets. The novelties will be accompanied by a circular describing the varie- ties in full and giving directions for culture and use. There will also be a franked postal card for each collection of the novelties, so that the recipient may, if he desires, signify his willingness to make a report to the Department on the seeds received. Flower seeds. —The number of packages of flower seeds allotted to each Senator, Member, and Delegate in Congress has been increased to 500, and arrangements have been made whereby members having city constituents may exchange vegetable seeds for flower seeds, if they so desire. Details of this arrangement will be furnished later. A special collection of flower seeds will be prepared for those haying strictly city constituents, the varieties chosen being suitable for win- dow boxes, lots, and small dooryards. Cotton and tobacco.—The plan adopted last year of putting up special collections of cotton and tobacco best adapted to the districts into which they are sent will be continued. This work has proved very satisfactory, as through it many valuable varieties have been distributed. Grass seed and forage crops.—Plans for the distribution of these seeds have not yet been fully matured, and a later announcement will therefore be sent out as soon as complete arrangements are perfected. Plants, trees, and grapevines. —The distribution of plants, trees, and grapevines will be similar to that of last year, excepting that the number of trees will be increased to 100 for each Senator, Member, and Delegate. Full information as to the character of the trees, plants, etc., will be forwarded later. Bulbs.—TVhese will be ready for distribution early in November, and they should be distributed promptly in order to secure the best results. Due notice will be forwarded when the bulbs are received. Loose packets of vegetable sced.—In order to enable Senators, Mem- bers, and Delegates to quickly meet small miscellaneous demands for vegetable seed, loose packets of the assortments put up for general distribution will be sent to committee rooms, or elsewhere in Wash- ington, upon receipt of proper orders. Envelopes for forwarding these packets through the mails will also be furnished. This plan will make it practicable to send out packages containing more than five SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 25 packets, if it is desired todo so. In no case, however, can the Depart- ment put up such packets, as the large number of packages to be distributed makes it necessary to use uniform numbers. Franks.—Vhe present session of Congress authorized the Public Printer to furnish the Secretary of Agriculture with the franks of Senators and Members necessary for sending out the seeds. Arrange- ments have therefore been made for securing franks with the facsimile signatures of Senators and Members, together with their respective States, printed thereon. These franks will be furnished at once, in sufficient quantity for vegetable and flower seeds, upon request made to the Secretary of Agriculture. With this arrangement there will be no necessity for using document slips, and all of those made for the seed work will be of uniform size and style. Southern distribution.—lt is planned to make the distribution in sections 1 and 2 at an earlier date than heretofore, and to this end arrangements have been made to begin the work in September. In order to do this, members from these sections are earnestly requested to turn in their addressed slips as early as possible. The following statement shows the amounts of seeds, bulbs, plants, and trees, so far as the allotments have been made, for the fiscal year 1902-3. Each Senator, Member, and Delegate will receive: Vegetable seed, 12,000 packages, 5 papers each. Novelties, vegetable seed, 500 packages, 5 papers each. Flower seed, 500 packages, 5 papers each. Tobacco seed, 110 packages, 5 papers each, to districts growing tobacco. Cotton seed, 70 packages, 1 peck each, to districts growing cotton. Lawn grass seed, 30 packages. Forage crop seed, allotment not yet made. Sorghum seed, allotment not yet made. Sugar-beet seed, allotment not yet made. Bulbs, 10 boxes, 35 bulbs each; or 20 boxes, 17 bulbs each. Grapevines, 8 packages, 5 vines each. Strawberry plants, 10 packages, 15 plants each. Trees, 20 packages, 5 trees each, Note.—One frank will be required for each package given above, and if more than one package is to be sent to one individual it will be necessary to have an addressed frank for each package. The smallest mail sacks used hold approximately 100 packages of vegetable or flower seed, and if it is desired to send less than this number to any one individual it will be necessary, in order to meet the post-office requirements, to have an addressed frank for each package. Over 100 packages, however, may be sent under one addressed frank, provided blank facsimile slips, to the number of packages desired, 26 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. accompany the address. In other words, if it is desired to send 200 packages of seed to one individual, one addressed frank and 199 blank franks, with the name of the Senator, Member, or Delegate printed thereon, will answer. In sending addressed slips to the Department, please, in every case, plainly mark each lot with the name of the seeds or plants the slips are to cover, otherwise the Department will be unable to tell what is wanted. Respectfully submitted. B. T. Gatitoway, Chief of Bureau. Approved: James Wirson, Secretary. Wasuineron, D. C., May 28, 1902. (Cireular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section 1 of the scheme of distribution.] DISTRIBUTION OF NOVELTIES AND SPECIALTIES. SECTION 1. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the varieties, in the hope that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the Department. In making the report, please use the blanks accompanying this circular and return them in the inclosed franked envelope, which requires no postage. CORN. TruckeEr’s FAVORITE. A variety of field white dent corn, introduced in 1899 by T. W. Wood & Sons, which is recommended by them for table use. It has found some fayor as a substitute for sweet corn, but the quality is poor and decidedly inferior to varieties of sweet corn, though much better than the ordinary varieties of field corn. It possesses the advan- tage over sweet corn in that it can be planted earlier, is hardier, and ‘an be grown successfully sometimes where sweet corn does not grow well. In these respects it resembles the Early Adams or Burlington field corn, which is used so largely as sweet corn, but differs from it principally in being larger eared and later. It is second early in season and follows immediately after Early Adams. The habit of the plant is the same as field corn, and the ears are 14-rowed and hand- some. More especially adapted for large truckers than for home gardeners to whom quality is more of a consideration than hardiness. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION, 27 BEET. Crimson GLOBE. An entirely distinct yariety introduced in 1900 by Peter Henderson & Co. Different from other kinds principally in its deep dark crimson color, and valuable on this account as well as for earliness, beautiful globe shape, and perfectly smooth roots, which are entirely free from root hairs, rootlets, and markings. The taproot is also very fine and slender and the top very smooth, with small crown. The roots are, however, very small, but, the leaves being also small and very erect in habit, the plants can be grown very close together and large crops obtained. The leaves are dark green in color. The flesh is a deep crimson and beautifully zoned with dark crimson and a lighter shade; the quality is very sweet and tender, never coarse nor woody. The season is about the same as Detroit Dark Red. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. LETTUCE. ~Woop’s CABBAGE. This appears to be a strain of the well-known Hubbard’s Market and was named and introduced in 1884 by T. W. Wood & Sons, of Rich- mond, Va. This is not at all a new variety or even a distinct sort, but is deserving of attention as an especially pure and even stock of Hub- bard’s Market, from which it was probably developed. The plant is medium early, medium large, thick-leaved, very solid and compact, strictly cabbage-heading in habit, and medium dark solid green in color. It is a good all-round variety, answering splendidly for both forcing under glass and growing outdoors either in early spring or midsummer. The quality is very fine, being tender and sweet and of a slightly buttery flavor. The plants are hardy and slow to go to seed, Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. SQUASH. Woop’s Earuiest PROLIFIC. Originated with market gardeners in Hanover County, Va., and introduced by T. W. Wood &. Sons in 1897. It is similar in all respects to the well-known White Bush Scallop, but is said by the originators to be a week to ten days earlier and with scallops not quite so decided and more evenly rounded on the edge. This variety is a type of the summer squash seen everywhere very early in our markets, and known as cymling in some places and patty- pan in others. The plants are strictly bush in habit and the fruits 28 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. flattish and round in shape, with center enlarged and margins flattened and scalloped. In color the fruits are a creamy white, the surface is very smooth, and the rind is exceedingly hard when the fruit is dead ripe. This is the earliest squash obtainable, and though of good quality it is not equal to the winter varieties which are not obtainable till much later in the season. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. TOMATO. Sparks’s EaRLIANa. Originated by George C. Sparks, of Philadelphia, and introduced in 1900 by Johnson & Stokes of the same city. This variety is unquestionably an improvement in extra early toma- toes. While it is just as early as Atlantic Prize and similar sorts, which have formerly held the lead for smooth early tomatoes, it is an improvement on them in smoothness and size, qualities which are gen- erally gained at the expense of earliness. The fruits are the same bright red color and flattened globe shape as Atlantic Prize, but they are a little larger in size and a considerably larger per cent of them are smooth and salable in the best markets. The vines have fine foliage, are very open in habit, productive, and require but a short time to mature the season’s crop. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. A. J. Preters, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. T. GaLLoway, Chief of Bureau. [Cireular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section 2 of the scheme of distribution. ] SECTION 2. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the varieties, in the hope that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the Department. In making the report, please use the blanks accompa- nying this circular and return them in the inclosed franked envelope, which requires no postage. BEAN. JONEs’S STRINGLESS WAX. Originated by A. N. Jones, of Leroy, N. Y., and introduced by American seedsmen in 1898. It is the result of crossing the Yosemite Wax with a white-seeded cross of the Ivory Pod Wax, and combines the superlative quality and fleshy, absolutely stringless pods of the former with the great productiveness and hardiness of the latter. The SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 29 “shy” bearing and ill-shaped pods of the Yosemite are eliminated, while the seeds being white makes it especially valuable to market gardeners who wish to use it as a shell bean, in case the marketing of string beans proves unprofitable. The pods are very beautiful, of a waxy white color, cylindrical in shape, and of medium size. The plants are very early, very dwarf in habit, and run remarkably even and pure. This variety is similar to the recently introduced Golden Crown Stringless, and also to the old and well-known Challenge Black Wax, from which it differs principally in color of seed and larger vine. Seed furnished by D. M. Ferry & Co., Detroit, Mich. ONION, SouTHERN GRowN YELLOW GLOBE DANVERS. This seed is said by the grower to be specially adapted for the Southern States, and to make better bulbs when planted in the South than seed grown in California even or other sections of the country. The variety is the old and well-known yellow sort, grown so much more extensively than any other and seen everywhere in our markets. It is deeper in shape than the Yellow Danvers or Flat Danvers, but otherwise is the same. The bulbs are a flat globe shape, of medium size, intermediate in season, medium yellow in color, and of a mild flavor. The variety is hardy, productive, a good keeper, and a good general purpose sort. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. MUSKMELON. Rocky Forp. This variety is a strain of the old and well-known Netted Gem, and has been recently developed and grown in immense quantities at Rocky Ford, Colo., whence it has been shipped extensively to all the eastern and northern markets. The variety has been made extremely popular by the Rocky Ford growers, as much on account of the careful ship- ping they have practiced as for the fine melons they have been able to produce in their ideal melon-growing country. The development of the variety is obscure and disputed. It was first introduced by seeds- men in 1899. The melon is very early and productive, and the fruit is oval shaped, shallow ribbed, densely netted, small in size, and mottled green and yellow in color. The flesh is green, of the very best quality, and, though not as rich as some others, is not surpassed in sweetness by any, while it is uniformly good and more universally liked than any other. This seed was carefully selected by D. V. Burrill, of Rocky Ford, Colo., from melons of uniform size that were ideal in every particular. 30 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. TOMATO. QUARTER CENTURY. Originated in Monmouth County, N,J., in 1896 by Dr. William Van Fleet, and introduced in 1900 in trial packets by W. Atlee Burpee & Co. In the following year it was named Quarter Century. It appeared as a sport in the third generation from a cross between Lorillard, a bright scarlet fruit of the ordinary type of foliage, and Dwarf Cham- pion, a purplish-red fruit of dwarf habit. The variety is unquestionably, as claimed by the introducer, a valu- able one, and larger in vine, more productive, and larger fruited than Dwart Champion, which is the recognized standard dwarf variety. It differs also in being a bright scarlet instead of purplish red. The fruits are medium large, very deep or nearly round in shape, perfectly smooth, and of high quality. It is most like Dwarf Aristocrat and Dwarf Stone, but much larger fruited than the former and not quite so deep scarlet in color as the latter. It is claimed to be more dwarf, compact, and erect in habit than any other bush variety. It can be planted as close as 24 feet apart each way. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. RADISH. Wuirer Icicie. Originated by a German grower several years previous to its intro- duction into this country in 1899 by J. M. Thorburn & Co. This variety is a decided acquisition to our list of radishes. It is a long, pure white sort, especially superior to other kinds in its good size and length, combined with earliness and strikingly beautiful color, which is of a rich glossy white, entirely free from purple or yellow tints, and very much the same clear white at the top as at the bottom. The stocks run very even in both color and shape, and in the latter respect are very beautiful and different from other long sorts in retain- ing their fullness to the bottom. The roots are of the very highest quality and rich, tender, and sweet. The plants remain fit for use fairly long before shooting to seed. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond. Va A. J. Prerers, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. (Cireular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section 3 of the scheme of distribution. ] SECTION 3. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the varieties, in the hope 4 SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 31 that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the Department. In making the report, please use the blanks accompany- ing this circular and return them in the inclosed franked envelope, which requires no postage. MUSTARD. OstricH PLUME. Originated in Augusta, Ga., and introduced in 1897 by the N. L. Willet Drug Company of the same city. It is claimed by the introducer to be the most beautiful and perfect mustard in cultivation, and as pretty as an ornamental plant. It is described as a large plant, often weighing as much as 5 or 6 pounds, and with tender plumes, very long and finely crimped. Seed furnished by F. Barteldes & Co., Lawrence, Kans BEANS. Woop’s Eartiresr Harprest. Introduced by T. W. Wood & Sons in 1893, and said by them to resemble the well-known Early Mohawk. The claims for this variety made by the introducers are extreme earliness and hardiness, great productiveness, and fine quality. It is said to excel in these qualities any variety in cultivation; to be able to stand a light frost without injury, and to stand early planting bet- ter than any other yariety; also on account of its productiveness to be suitable for a main crop or for late planting. The pods are extremely tender and make good snaps, and the dry beans are suit- able for winter use as shell beans. The pods are described as very large, long, and flat, and the seeds as white in color. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va. LETTUCE. ALL SEASONS. A very desirable variety introduced in 1897 by J. C. Vaughan, of Chicago, Ill., but it seems never to have gained any general recogni- tion. Excepting that the seed is black instead of white, it might very generally pass as identical with the well-known Deacon, but it differs from that variety in a number of particulars, the most important of which are its slightly larger size, later season, and rounder head. Where Deacon is liked this variety should be tried, for under some conditions it grows better than the Deacon, though generally it is not so sure a header. All Seasons is a large, thick-headed, rather soft, but strictly cabbage- heading variety, light green in color, and medium late in season. The quality is very fine, of a soft texture and buttery flavor, and 32 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. though it can hardly be said to be strictly delicate in flavor, it is abso- lutely free from coarseness or bitterness. Seed furnished by Vaughan’s Seed Store, Chicago, Il. MUSK MELON. Rocky Forp. This variety is a strain of the old and well-known Netted Gem, and has been recently developed and grown in immense quantities at Rocky Ford, Colo., whence it has been shipped extensively to all the eastern and northern markets. The variety has been made extremely popular by the Rocky Ford growers as much on account of the careful ship- ping they have practiced as for the fine melons they have been able to produce in their ideal melon-growing country. The development of the variety is obscure and disputed. It was first introduced by seedsmen in 1899. The melon is very early and productive, and the fruit oval shaped, shallow ribbed, densely netted, small in size, and mottled green and yellow in color. The flesh is green, of the very best quality, and, though not as rich as some others, is not surpassed in sweetness by any, while it is uniformly good and more universally liked than any other, This seed was carefully selected by D. V. Burrill, of Rocky Ford, Colo., from melons of uniform size that were ideal in every particular. WATERMELON. EDEN. Originated by Mr. C. H. Mathis, of South Carolina, a large Southern melon grower, and introduced in 1900 by T. W. Wood & Sons. It is said by the introducers to be a cross of the Kolb’s Gem and Rattle- snake. It very closely resembles the former, but is superior to it in its larger size, brighter striping, and more symmetrical shape. It also resembles the well-known Dixie and recently introduced Iceberg, but differs from them as well as from Kolb’s Gem in the color of seeds, which are white instead of mottled grayish-black, as in these varieties. In what further respects, if any, it differs from Iceberg our trials have not yet fully demonstrated, but it is unquestionably shorter in shape than Dixie. The fruits are of mammoth size, short oval in shape, and brilliantly striped light and dark green. The variety is especially valuable as a shipper, but for home use other varieties of better quality are recommended. The quality is fair, but compared to the finer- grained sorts, such as Peerless and Round Light, it is coarse, stringy, and lacks in sweetness and richness. Seed furnished by T. S. Williams, Columbia, 8. C. A. J. Prrrrrs, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 33 [Circular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section 4 of the scheme of distribution.] SECTION 4. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the varieties, in the hope that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the Department. In making the report, please use the blanks accompany- ing this circular and return them in the inclosed franked envelope, which requires no postage. CORN. CosMOPOLITAN. Originated by E. B. Clark & Co., seed growers of Milford, Conn., and introduced in 1901 by W. Atlee Burpee & Co., of Philadelphia. This is an extra early variety, of good quality and fair-sized ear. It is not quite so early as Cory, First of All, and other first extra early varieties, but is of better quality and the ears are larger. The kernels are wrinkled, very large, broad, flat, and short. Theugh not in the least flinty, the seed germinates very well, and can be sown earlier than the later and more wrinkled varieties. The ears are 10 and 12 rowed, very well filled, about the same diameter from end to end, and very handsome. ~ Seed furnished by W. Atlee Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. LETTUCE. ICEBERG. Originated in Italy, and first introduced into this country in 1894 by W. Atlee Burpee © Co. Marblehead Mammoth, which was introduced the following year, is sometimes thought to be the same. Undoubt- edly stalks of the two are often interchanged, but the true Marblehead Mammoth is more crumpled in leaf and less heading in habit than Iceberg. The variety is a very large, late, extremely hard, strictly cabbage- heading sort, light green in color. The leaf is very crumpled, slightly tinged with red, and very curly at the margin. In quality it is very tender, crisp, and sweet, but not as delicate in flavor as some of the smaller and less coarse-growing sorts. It is not suitable for forcing, but does well outdoors and stands the heat well. The well-known Hansen and New York varieties are very much like it in all respects except color. Seed furnished by W. Atlee Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. MUSKMELON., DrFENDER. This desirable new variety is a result of continued selection of Paul Rose with the especial view of developing fine quality, thick meat, and 27609—No. 25—03 a) v 34 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. thin rind. It was first introduced in 1901 by D. M. Ferry & Co., by whom it was originated. The fruits resemble Paul Rose more than any other, and being considerably larger and more densely netted than that popular variety, it makes a valuable addition to our list of varieties. The fruits are strikingly beautiful in appearance, and especially distinguished by regular oval shape, even shallow ribbing, thick netting, and rich mottled color. The flesh is of a deep red color, very sweet, rich, and melting, without the coarseness and stringiness of some of the large-growing, green-fleshed sorts. Being firm and_ solid, the fruits are well adapted for shipping. They are of medium size, and the plants are productive and early. Seed furnished by D. M. Ferry & Co., Detroit, Mich. RADISH. Wurre Icicur. Originated by a German grower several years previous to its intro- duction into this country in 1899 by J. M. Thorburn & Co. This variety is a decided acquisition to our list of radishes. It is a long, pure white sort, especially superior to other kinds in its good size and length, combined with earliness and strikingly beautiful color, which is of a rich glossy white, entirely free from purple or yellow tints, and very much the same clear white at the top as at the bottom. The stocks run very even in both color and shape, and in the latter respect are very beautiful and different from other long sorts in retain- ing their fullness to the bottom. The roots are of the highest quality, and rich, tender, and sweet. The plants are rather slow to shoot to seed and the roots are fit for use a fairly long time. Seed furnished by W. Atlee Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. ONION. Extra EAarty Brown SpPANISH. This variety has been grown and selected for the past few years by C. C. Morse & Co., seed growers, Santa Clara, Cal., and is introduced for the first time this year. The accompanying description was fur- nished by the growers: ‘*This onion has been grown for many years in Australia, where it is used fora very early market variety. It is extremely early, and can be had in market at least four weeks before Early Yellow Cracker, Yellow Danyers, Australian Brown, Early Red Globe, or Extra Early Red Flat. It isa half-globe variety, and averages about 24 inches in diameter. Its color is brown, much the same but a little lighter than Australian Brown. It is mild and sweet, and, while not a good onion for storage, keeps much better than the Bermudas or any of the early white onions. It ripens down evenly, and seldom has any scallions or SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 35 stiff necks. With us in California it was ready for market August 1— at least one month before the early varieties mentioned above—and now, October 13, it is still in very good condition for market.” Seed furnished by C. C. Morse & Co., Santa Clara, Cal. A. J. Prerers, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. [Cireular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section da of the scheme of distribution.] SECTION 4a. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the varieties, in the hope that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the Department. In making the report please use the blanks accompany- ing this circular and return them in the inclosed franked envelope, which requires no postage. CORN. MEPrROPOLITAN. Introduced in 1898 by Peter Henderson & Co. as a variety combin- ing earliness and good quality to a greater degree than any other. It is claimed to be not only sweet, but to possess also the richness of the later sorts. It is specially recommended to market gardeners as a shipper, and especially to those gardeners who supply the more critical trade. The plant is hardy, dwarf in habit, and extra early in season. The ears are medium sized, 10 to 12 rowed, well filled, and very hand- some, with the broad, thick, shallow kernels of the extra early sorts. LETTUCE. Crisp As Ice. Introduced by the Livingston Seed Company in 1895, Plant is inter- mediate in season, of medium size, dark-green color, very completely, sometimes almost wholly, washed with dark brown, but the inside leaves are well blanched to a light, bright green. The plant makes a firm and well-defined, somewhat ovate-shaped, cabbage head. The leaves, although very thick, are easily broken, and this, together with its unusually dark, somewhat dull brown color, make it both unfit for and unattractive as a general market garden sort. But for home use or where quality is important this variety is one of the very best. It is extremely tender and crisp and of an unusually delicate and sweet flavor, at the same time also slightly buttery. Seed furnished by C. C. Morse & Co., Santa Clara, Cal. 36 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. MUSKMELON. DEFENDER. This desirable new variety is a result of continued selection of Paul Rose with the especial view of developing fine quality, thick meat, and thin rind. It was first introduced in 1901 by D. M. Ferry & Co., by whom it was originated. The fruits resemble Paul Rose more than any other, and, being considerably larger and more densely netted than that popular variety, it makes a valuable addition to our list of varieties. The fruits are strikingly beautiful in appearance, and especially dis- tinguished by regular oval shape, even shallow ribbing, thick netting, and rich, mottled color. The flesh is of a deep red color, very sweet, rich, and melting, without the coarseness and stringiness of some of the large-growing, green-fleshed sorts. Being firm and solid, the fruits are well adapted for shipping. They are of medium size, and the plants are productive and early. Seed furnished by D. M. Ferry & Co., Detroit, Mich, BERT. CrIMsSON GLOBR. An entirely distinct variety introduced in 1900 by Peter Henderson & Co. Different from other kinds principally in its deep dark ‘crimson color, and yaluable on this account as well as for earliness, beautiful globe shape, and perfectly smooth roots, which are entirely free from root hairs, rootlets, and markings. The taproot is also very fine and slender and the top very smooth, with small crown. The roots are, however, very small, but the leayes being also small and very erect in habit the plants can be grown very close together and large crops obtained. The leaves are dark green in color. The flesh is a deep crimson and beautifully zoned with dark crimson and a lighter shade; the quality is very sweet and tender, never coarse nor woody. The season is about the same as Detroit Dark Red. Seed furnished by J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York. ONION, Extra Barty Brown Spanish. This variety has been grown and selected for the past few years by C. C. Morse & Co., seed growers, Santa Clara, Cal., and is introduced for the first time this year. The accompanying description was fur- nished by the growers: ‘This onion has been grown for many years in Australia, where it is used for a yery early market variety. It is extremely early, and SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 3 can be had in market at least four weeks before Early Yellow Cracker, Yellow Danvers, Australian Brown, Early Red Globe, or Extra Early Red Flat. It is a half-globe variety, and averages about 24 inches in diameter. Its color is brown, much the same but a little lighter than Australian Brown. It is mild and sweet, and while not a good onion for storage, keeps much better than the Bermudas or any of the early white onions. It ripens down evenly, and seldom has any scallions or stiff necks. With us in California it was ready for market August 1, at least one month before the early varieties mentioned above, and now, October 13, it is still in very good condition for market.” Seed furnished by C. C. Morse & Co., Santa Clara, Cal. A. J. Preters, PBotanist in Charge. Approved: 3. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. [Cireular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section 5 of the scheme of distribution. } SECTION 5. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the yaricties, in the hope that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the Department. In making the report, please use the blanks accompany- ing this circular and return them in the inclosed franked enyelope, which requires no postage. MUSKMELON. Rocky Forp. This variety is a strain of the old and well-known Netted Gem, and has been recently developed and grown in immense quantities at Rocky Ford, Colo., whence it has been shipped extensively to all the eastern and northern markets. The variety has been made extremely popular by the Rocky Ford growers as much on account of the careful shipping they have practiced as for the fine melons they have been able to produce in their ideal melon-growing country. The development of the variety is obscure and disputed. It was first introduced by seedsmen in 1899. The melon is very early and productive, and the fruits are oval shaped, shallow ribbed, densely netted, small in size, and mottled green and yellow in color. The flesh is green, of the very best quality, and, though not as rich as some others, is not surpassed in sweetness by any, while it is uniformly good and more universally liked than any other. This seed was carefully selected by D. V. Burrill, of Rocky Ford, Colo., from melons of uniform size that were ideal in every particular 38 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. BEAN. Tuorpsurn’s Prouiric MARKET. ‘ A foreign type of bean obtained by J. M. Thorburn & Co. from Vienna, Austria, and first introduced by them in 1894. It is claimed by the introducers to be an enormously productive variety, bearing its pods in thick clusters of 35 to 40 pods to a plant, and exceedingly vigorous, healthy, and remarkably rust proof. The pods are light green in color, very long and perfectly round in shape, solid fleshed, and of a very soft and marrowy texture. The vines are very large and erect in habit; the leaves, very dark; seeds, black; sea- son, late. It is claimed by the originators that for productiveness, solidity of flesh, and roundness of pod it excels any variety now in cultivation. : Seed furnished by J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York. TOMATO. SUCCESS. Originated in 1897 by M. M. Miesse, a market gardener and tomato specialist of Lancaster, Ohio. Introduced in 1900 by Wm. Henry Maule under the name of ‘* Maule’s 1900,” and in the following year called ** Success.” This is an excellent, very large, smooth, deep scarlet variety, similar to many other recently introduced varieties, such as Noble, Century, and Marvel, but said to be superior to them in productiveness, smooth- ness of fruit, and to be more free from any hard or green core. The variety does undoubtedly combine these qualities to a very large degree, and, as claimed, is of excellent quality and a splendid sort for either the canner, trucker, or private gardener. The foliage is of the common large-leaved kind, and the vines are strong and vigorous. The season is second early. The fruits are a deep flat globe shape, or as nearly globular in form as it is possible to obtain a large tomato. Seed furnished by M. M. Miesse & Son, Lancaster, Ohio. RADISH. GLASS. A variety introduced by F. Barteldes & Co. and Northrup, King & Co., as claimed, about ten years ago, the former obtaining his seed from a Denyer (Colo.) market gardener and the latter from Cincinnati market gardeners. The variety is considered by many to be identical with the Cincinnati Market and Long Scarlet Short Top varieties, but a few claim that it is not quite so long and that it possesses to a degree greater than Long Scarlet Short Top the peculiar transparency which gives rise to its name. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 39 The roots are yery long and tapering, exceedingly smooth, free from root hairs, of a brilliant scarlet color, making it altogether the most handsome and showy of the long red varieties. The variety is medium early in season and remains fit for use fairly long before shoot- ing toseed. The flesh is mild and tender. As the tops are very small, the roots can be planted close together. Seed furnished by Northrup, King & Co., Minneapolis, Minn SQUASH. GOLDEN BRONZE. This variety is the result of an accidental cross between the Bay State and Boston Marrow found by Mr. Aaron Low, of Hingham, Mass., in 1896. After being improyed by Mr. Low this variety was sold to James J. H. Gregory & Son, who introduced it in 1899 as ‘* No. 7,” and in the following year named it *‘ Golden Bronze.” The variety is of the same general pointed oval shape as the Boston Marrow, viz. very sloping at stem end and almost blunt at blossom end. The sur- face is also wrinkled as in Boston Marrow, but in color is a dark gray- ish green, turning to a greenish bronze on the upper surface when fully ripe. The flesh is a bright golden yellow, fine grained, and of excellent quality. The variety is early, productive, hardy, and a good keeper. Seed furnished by T. W. Wood & Sons, Richmond, Va A. J. Prerers, Botanist in Charge. Approyed: B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. [Circular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section 5a of the scheme of distribution. ] SECTION 5a. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the varieties, in the hope that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the Department. In making the report please use the blanks accompany- ing this circular and return them in the inclosed franked enyelope, which requires no postage. BEAN. TuHorsury’s Proiteic MARKET. A foreign type of bean obtained by J. M. Thorburn & Co. from Vienna, Austria and first introduced by them in 1S!4. It is claimed by the introducers to be an enormously productive rariety, bearing its pods in thick clusters of 35 to 40 pods to a plant, 40 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. and to be also exceedingly vigorous, healthy, and remarkably rust proof. The pods are light green in color, very long, and perfectly round, solid fleshed, and of a very soft and marrowy texture. The vines are very large and erect in habit, the leaves very dark, the seeds black, and season late. It is claimed by the originators that for productiveness, solidity of flesh, and roundness of pod it excels any variety now in cultivation. Seed furnished by J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York. TOMATO. SUCCESS. Originated in 1897 by M. M. Miesse, a market gardener and tomato specialist of Lancaster, Ohio. Introduced in 1900 by William Henry Maule under the name of *‘ Maule’s 1900” and in the following year called ‘* Success.” This is an excellent, very large, smooth, deep scarlet variety, similar to many other recently introduced varieties, such as Noble, Century, and Marvel, but said to be superior to them in productiveness and smoothness of fruit and to be more free from any hard or green core. The variety does undoubtedly combine these qualities to a very large degree and, as claimed, is of excellent quality and a splendid sort for either the canner, trucker, or private gardener. The foliage is of the common large-leaved kind, and the vines are strong and vigorous. The season is second early. The fruits are a deep flat globe shape, or as nearly globular in form as it is possible to obtain a large tomato. Seed furnished by M. M. Miesse & Son, Lancaster, Ohio. MUSKMELON. Rocky Forp. This variety is a strain of the old and well-known Netted Gem, and has recently been developed and grown in immense quantities at Rocky Ford, Colo., whence it has been shipped extensively to all the eastern and northern markets. The variety has been made extremely popular by the Rocky Ford growers as much on account of the care- ful shipping they have practiced as for the fine melons they have been able to produce in their ideal melon-growing country. The develop- ment of the variety is obscure and disputed. It was first introduced by seedsmen in 1899. The melon is very early and productive and the fruits oval shaped, shallow ribbed, densely netted, small in size, and mottled green and yellow in color. The flesh is green, of the very best quality, and, though not as rich as some others, is not surpassed in sweetness by any, while it is uniformly good and more universally liked than any other. This seed was carefully selected by D. Y. Burrill, of Rocky Ford, Colo., from melons of uniform size that were ideal in every particular. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 41 RADISH. (TLASS. A variety introduced by F. Barteldes & Co. and Northrup, King & Co., as claimed, about ten years ago, the former obtaining his seed from a Denver (Colo.) market gardener and the latter from Cincinnati market gardeners. The variety is considered by many to be identical with the Cincinnati Market and Long Scarlet Short Top varieties, but a few claim that it is not quite so long and that it possesses toa greater degree than the Long Scarlet Short Top the peculiar transparency which gives rise to its name. The roots are very long and tapering, exceedingly smooth, free from root hairs, of a brilliant scarlet color, making it aitogether the most handsome and showy of the long rec yarieties. The variety is medium early in season and remains fit for use fairly long before shooting to seed. The flesh is mild and tender. As the tops are very small, the roots can be planted close together. Seed furnished by Northrup, King & Co., Minneapolis, Minn. SQUASH. GOLDEN HvppBarp. A sport of the well-known Hubbard, introduced in 1896 by Storrs & Harrison Co. An exceedingly valuable introduction and entirely distinct. It is considered by many to be the best fall and winter variety yet introduced and has now become a standard sort. The variety is similar to the Hubbard, except in color, which is a deep orange yellow, witha slight greenish tinge at the extreme blossom end, and although somewhat smaller in size it is more productive than its parent. The variety is of large size, pointed oval in shape, extremely warty, anda good keeper. The flesh is fine grained, very dry, rich, sweet, and in color a deep orange extending clear to the rind, without the objectionable greenish tinge found in the Hubbard. Seed furnished by W. Atlee Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. A. J. Prerers, Botanisé in Charge. Approved: B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. [Circular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section 6 of the scheme of distribution.] SECTION 6. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the varieties, in the hope that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the 42 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Department. In making the report, please use the blanks accompany- ing this circular and return them in the inclosed franked enyelope, which requires no postage. PEA. Tomas Laxton. Originated by Messrs. Thomas Laxton & Co., of Bedfordshire, Eng- land, and first catalogued by American seedsmen in 1901. Said to be across between a seedling of Gradus and a seedling from the extra early varieties. This is another of the new and yery desirable varieties of the large- seeded, large-podded, extra early class of peas which have followed upon the introduction of the Gradus in 1897. It is very much like that variety, but is said to be slightly earlier and hardier. The pods, howeyer, are shorter and not so large and handsome, while in color they are darker, and in shape square instead of pointed at the end. The quality is very good, but not equal to Gradus, and partakes more of the flavor of the ordinary extra early varieties. Its great value lies in its large showy pods, combined with extreme earliness and fair hardiness of plant. Seed furnished by Northrup, King & Co., Minneapolis, Minn, BEET. Rusy Dvtcer. A yery popular beet in England. First introduced in this country in 1899 by Johnson & Stokes. An especially valuable introduction, and very distinet from other globe-shaped beets in its greater depth. The color is a deep red, the shape a deep globe, very full at the top and holding its size well to the bottom, while the surface is very smooth and entirely free from root hairs, rootlets, or markings. The leaves are medium dark red in color and being very small and erect in habit, the variety is there- fore suitable for close planting. The season is early, or about the same as Detroit Dark Red. The flesh is very dark and zoned with deep red and a lighter shade; the quality is fine grained, sweet, and tender. Seed furnished by Johnson & Stokes, Philadelphia, Pa. TOMATO, THORBURN’S EARLIEST. Originated by J. M. Thorburn & Co., and introduced by them in 1902. This variety was obtained by selection of a number of English SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 43 greenhouse sorts grown for several seasons out of doors in the vicinity of New York. It is claimed by the introducers to be the earliest tomato grown and to be five days earlier than the Atlantic Prize, which is the most gen- erally grown extra early sort. This variety is undoubtedly a splendid introduction and extremely early, but of small size. Compared to Atlantic Prize, it is considerably smaller in size but much superior to it in being smoother, less corrugated and scarred, and more of a globe shape. It is similar to Conference and to Bright and Early, but consid- erably earlier than either, and much larger than the latter. The plants have the fine leaf and habit of growth of the extra early varieties. The fruits are bright scarlet, flat globe shape, and perfectly smooth. Specially recommended for forcing, but a splendid outdoor sort also, Seed furnished by J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York. LETTUCE. Har CEentury. A yery old variety of foreign origin, seldom catalogued by American seedsmen. John Lewis Childs, of Floral Park, N. Y.. it seems, was the first American seedsman to catalogue it, or at least the first to claim for it any special superiority. The plant is very dark green in color, of a peculiarly loose, flabby, half-heading habit. It is difficult to make it head well under any con- ditions, and on account of its behavior in this respect, as well as its weak growth and decidedly inferior appearance, it will never be a gen- eral favorite. Its value lies solely in its extra fine quality, for it is exceedingly brittle and tender and of unsurpassed sweetness. The quality is of that delicacy which is free from the buttery quality of some kinds, and the hard crispness, the coarseness, and the strong, slightly bitter quality of some other kinds. The leaves, which are exceedingly brittle but thick, are easily broken. The variety will not stand the least transportation, and is suitable for the home garden only. Seed furnished by Vaughan’s Seed Store, Chicago, Ill. MUSKMELON. Rocky Forp. This variety is a strain of the old and well-known Netted Gem, and has been recently developed and grown in immense quantities at Rocky Ford, Colo., whence it has been shipped extensively to all the eastern and northern markets. The variety has been made extremely popular by the Rocky Ford growers as much on account of the careful ship- ping they have practiced as for the fine melons they haye been able to 44 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. produce in their ideal melon-growing country. The development of the variety is obscure and disputed. It was first introduced by seeds- men in 1899. The melon is very early and productive, and the fruits small and oval shaped, shallow ribbed, densely netted, mottled green and yellow. The flesh is green, of the very best quality, and, though not as rich as some others, is not surpassed by any, while it is uniformly good and more universally liked than any other. This seed was carefully selected by D. V. Burrill, of Rocky Ford, Colo., from melons of uniform size that were ideal in every particular. A. J. Pirnrrers, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau (Circular sent to recipients of seeds of novelties and specialties included in Section fa of the scheme of distribution. ] SECTION 6a. The varieties included in this special distribution are either new or are not as well known as they should be. The seeds are sent out this year, accompanied by full descriptions of the varieties, in the hope that those who receive them will report the results of their trial to the Department. In making the report please use the blanks accom- panying this circular and return them in the inclosed franked envelope, which requires no postage. PEA. Prourric Earty MArKeE?. Originated hy N. B. Keeney & Sons, and first introduced by A. W. Livingston & Sons and William Henry Maule in 1901. The variety is descended from a plant found by Mr. Keeney in Extra Early about twelve years ago. This valuable acquisition to the extra early varieties resembles Alaska, and like it and other extra-early, smooth-seeded sorts is of poor quality but hardy, which latter characteristic enables it to be planted much earlier and ripened pods obtained far in advance of the less hardy but better quality peas. The pods are yery much larger and contain more peas, and the plant is considerably more productive than other extra-early varieties, is a great improvement over them in many respects and only three or four days later. The vine is tall and slender like Extra Early, but considerably larger. The pods are of medium size, light green in color, round, straight, and attractive. Seed furnished by A. W. Livingston & Sons, Columbus, Ohio. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 45 BEET. Rusy Dutcer. A yery popular beet in England. First introduced in this country in 1899 by Johnson & Stokes. An especially valuable introduction, and very distinct from other globe-shaped beets in its greater depth. The color is a deep red, the shape a deep globe, very full at the top and holding its size well to the bottom, while the surface is very smooth and entirely free from root hairs, rootlets, or markings. The leaves are medium dark red in color, and being very small and erect in habit, the variety is therefore suitable for close planting. The season is early, or about the same as Detroit Dark Red. The flesh is very dark and zoned with deep red and a lighter shade; the quality is fine grained, sweet, and tender. Seed furnished by Johnson & Stokes, Philadelphia, Pa. TOMATO. THORBURN’S EARLIEST. Originated by J. M. Thorburn & Co., and introduced by them in 1902. This variety was obtained by selection of a number of English greenhouse sorts grown for several seasons out of doors in the vicinity of New York. It is claimed by the introducers to be the earliest tomato grown and to be five days earlier than the Atlantic Prize, which is the most gen- erally grown extra-early sort. This variety is undoubtedly a splendid introduction and extremely early, but of small size. Compared to Atlantic Prize it is considerably smaller in size, but much superior to it in being smoother, less corrugated and scarred, and more of a globe shape. It is similar to Conference and to Bright and Early, but con- siderably earlier than either, and much larger than the latter. The plants have the fine leaf and habit of growth of the extra-early varie- ties. The fruits are bright scarlet, flat globe shape, and perfectly smooth. Specially recommended for forcing, but a splendid outdoor sort also. Seed furnished by J. M. Thorburn & Co., New York. LETTUCE. Har Century. A very old variety of foreign origin, seldom catalogued by Ameri- can seedsmen. John Lewis Childs, of Floral Park, N. Y., it seems, was the first American seedsman to catalogue it, or at least the first to claim for it any special superiority. 46 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. The plant is very dark green in color, of a peculiarly loose, flabby, half-heading habit. It is difficult to make it head well under any con- ditions, and on account of its behavior in this respect, as well as its weak growth and decidedly inferior appearance, it will never be a general favorite. Its value lies solely in its extra fine quality; for it is exceedingly brittle and tender, and of unsurpassed sweetness. The quality is of that delicacy which is free from the buttery quality of some kinds, and the hard crispness, the coarseness, and the strong, slightly bitter quality of some other kinds. The leaves, which are exceedingly brittle but thick, are easily broken. The variety will not stand the least transportation, and is suitable for the home garden only. Seed furnished by Vaughan’s Seed Store, Chicago, II. MUSKMELON. Rocky Forp. This variety is a strain of the old and well-known Netted Gem, and has been recently developed and grown in immense quantities at Rocky Ford, Colo., whence it has been shipped extensively to all the eastern and northern markets. The variety has been made extremely popular by the Rocky Ford growers as much on account of the careful ship- ping they have practiced as for the fine melons they have been able to produce in their ideal melon-growing country. The development of the variety is obscure and disputed. It was first introduced by seeds- men in 1899. The melon is very early and productive, and the fruits small and oval shaped, shallow ribbed, densely netted, mottled green and yellow. The flesh is green, of the very best quality, and, though not as rich as some others, is not surpassed by any, while it is uniformly good and more universally liked than any other. This seed was carefully selected by D. V. Burrill, of Rocky Ford, Colo., from melons of uniform size that were ideal in every particular. A. J. Prerers, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 47 (Cireular sent to recipients of bulbs, ] DIRECTIONS FOR PLANTING BULBS. The bulbs sent herewith are of three kinds, viz, (1) hyacinth, (2) tulip, and (3) narcissus. To obtain the best results, plant the bulbs as soon as received, in soil well loosened to a depth of at least 10 inches, setting them as follows: The hyacinth bulbs 7 inches apart and + inches deep, the tulip bulbs 5 inches apart and + inches deep, and the narcissus bulbs about 10 inches apart and 5 inches deep. If the hyacinths or tulips are to be grown in pots or window boxes, use rich, well-drained soil: place the pots or boxes in a dark room or cellar for a month or more after planting, or until the roots are formed, and then bring them Boas . : SSNS oc ae Fic. 5.—Hyacinth, tulip, and narcissus bulbs. into the light. Keep the soil in these pots or boxes well watered, but avoid oyerwetting, otherwise the bulbs may rot. [Cireular sent to recipients of cotton seed. | DISTRIBUTION OF COTTON SEED IN 1903. PLAN OF DISTRIBUTING THE VARIETIES. The Bureau of Plant Industry has in progress investigations in the improvement of cotton, and as a foundation for such work it is neces- sary to determine the varieties best suited to each section of the cotton belt. The distribution of cotton seed is thus arranged with the view of furnishing growers with seed of new varieties to test in comparison 45 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. with the varieties they already grow. This will enable them to make comparisons and select varieties best suited to their climatic and soil conditions. Information regarding the success of varieties in different sections is as yet too meager to enable a judgment to be formed as to which will succeed best in a certain locality. In the distribution of cotton seed it is proposed to select, so far as possible, new and little- known yarieties which have proved yaluable in certain localities, and distribute the seed in such a way as to insure their being generally tested throughout the cotton States. It is intended at the end of the season to follow up each package with a circular in order to obtain information in regard to the success in yarious sections of the varieties distributed. Growers receiving the seed are urged to cooperate with the Department of Agriculture by making a careful test of the seed which is sent with this circular. In another part of the circular will be found descriptions of the varieties distributed and a statement of the points on which information is desired. In the distribution the present season several special features have been introduced. The studies of the cotton industry which the Depart- ment has been prosecuting strongly indicate that the growing of long- staple cottons is destined to become much more general in the near future and should be encouraged. Seeds of Griffin and Allen Improved, two of the best long-staple Upland cottons, have thus been procured for distribution. A second special feature of the distribution the present season is the Rivers Sea Island cotton, a variety resistant to the serious malady known as wilt or black-root. This cotton has been produced asa result of breeding experiments conducted in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture. A special circular is sent out with the seed of this variety, and it is therefore not described herein. This seed will be distributed in the Sea Island sections of Georgia and Florida. Seabrook Sea Island cotton will also he sent to the same region. The yarieties of ordinary short-staple Upland cotton selected for distribution this year are Parker, Jones Improved, Excelsior, and King. The last-named yariety has been procured particularly for distribution in the boll-weevil districts of Texas, because it is probably the earliest of all known varieties, and early ripening sorts have been found to escape damage by boll weeyil to a large extent. The varieties are to be distributed to the different Congressional districts as follows: ALABAMA: First, Third, Fifth, and Eighth districts: Jones and Allen. Second, Sixth, Seventh, and Ninth districts: Excelsior and Griffin. Fourth district: Parker and Excelsior. ARKANSAS: First, Second, Third, and Sixth districts: Parker and Allen. Fourth and Fifth districts: Jones and Griffin. Fioripa, First and Second districts: Seabrook and Rivers. PLATE |. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture f Plant Industry, Bureau 25, Bul. PARKER JONES IMPROVED EXCELSIOR SEABROOK MATURE UNOPENED CoTTON BOLLS—PARKéER, JONES IMPROVED, MOORE EXCELSIOR, KING, AND SEABROOK SEA ISLAND (NATURAL SIZE). SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION, 49 GEORGIA: First, Second, and Eleventh districts: Seabrook and Rivers. Fourth, Sixth, Seventh, and Ninth districts: Excelsior and Allen, Third and Fifth districts: Parker and Jones. Eighth and Tenth districts: Parker and Griffin. Louisiana: Third and Fourth districts: Excelsior and Allen. Fifth and Sixth districts: Parker and Griffin. Mississippi: Second and Sixth districts: Jones and Griffin. First, Third, Fifth, and Seventh districts: Parker and Allen. Fourth district: Excelsior and Griffin. Norra Carourya: First, Third, Fourth, and Eighth districts: Parker and Excelsior. Second, Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh districts: Excelsior and Jones. SourH Caro.Lina: First district: Parker and Griffin. Third, Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth districts: Excelsior and Griftin. Second and Seventh districts: Parker and Allen. TENNESSEE: Third and Fourth districts; Parker and Excelsior. Fifth and Eighth districts: Jones and Griffin. Sixth, Seventh, Ninth, and Tenth districts: Parker ‘and Griffin. TEXAs: First, Second, and Thirteenth districts: Excelsior and King. Third, Fourth, Eighth, and Tenth districts: Parker and King. Fifth and Sixth districts: King and Allen. Seventh and Ninth districts: King and Griffin. Eleyenth and Twelfth districts: Jones and King. OxiaHoma: Excelsior and Allen. DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES DISTRIBUTED. SHORT-STAPLE UPLAND VARIETIES. JONES IMPROVED. This is a big-boll Upland cotton (PI. 1), said to have been introduced into America from Algiers by Wyche brothers about the year 1857. The history of the introduction, as given by Mr. J. F. Jones, who has been instrumental in bringing the variety into prominence, is as follows: About 1853 two brothers of a family by the name of Wyche emigrated from Ger- many, one coming to the United States and the other going to Algiers, on the Mediterranean coast, to work for a French colony engaged there in growing cotton. About 1857 the Algerian brother sent a small package of cotton seed to his brother in the United States. Before the brother in this country had time to fully test the merit of the variety he died. The war between the States came on shortly after- wards, when neglect and lack of conyeniences resulted in almost destroying any trace of the variety. In fox hunting over the Wyche plantation I discovered places here and there where there was a wonderful growth of this particular variety. By per- mission I went into the fields and selected some of the seed, having to assist me a Methodist minister by the name of Warren Beggarly, who later sold some of the seed of the variety to the Government. Beggarly died shortly afterwards and left the 27609—No. 25—03 + 50 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. work to me, and since 1877 I have been proprietor of the variety and have had charge of its distribution. From the records you will see that I have furnished seed of this variety to the Government since about 1884, and to our State agricultural farms since about 1877. I have preserved the variety and kept it pure. Mr. Jones claims that this was the first big-boll, white-seeded cotton grown in this country, and that other big-boll types have been derived from it. Culpepper, a big-boll variety distributed last year, is said to be a hybrid of the Wyche (Jones Improved) and Dixon yarieties. It has probably entered into the parentage of many of our best big-boll types. The variety is recommended as deep-rooting, drought-resistant, and as withstanding adverse conditions with little injury. It is a large, robust, vigorous plant, producing heavily under ordinary conditions. It continues to grow late in the season and forms a good top crop when the conditions are favorable. Plant vigorous and prolific, with wide spreading branches from near the base; upper branches usually short. Bolls large, 1} to 2 inches long, ovate, blunt pointed, 5-locked, opening well. Seeds 6 to 10 to the lock, medium large, weighing from 0.13 to 0.14 gram, covered with grayish fuzz, well covered with lint. Lint good for Upland, 1 to 1} inches in length, strong. Per cent of lint 31 to 32 under ordinary conditions. Season medium late. The seed of this variety distributed was grown by James F. Jones, at Hogansville, Ga.. in the season of 1902. ms ' PARKER. Parker cotton (Pl. I) was originated by John M. Parker, sr.,in Boli- var County, Miss., about 1868. It was produced by careful selection, and ever since its production has been grown on the extensive Parker plantations in preference to all other varieties. Mr. John M. Parker, jr., the present owner of the plantations, informs the writer that care has been exercised for years in selecting the seed and preserving the variety in a high state of productivity. In a variety test at Columbia, 8. C., in the season of 1902, this variety gave yery excellent results. The plants were from 3} to 4 feet high, vigorous, and well fruited. In season it was one of the earliest of about fifty ordinary sorts. The lint is very good for an ordinary Upland variety, being strong, hard, silky, and above the ordinary in length, averaging on Mr. Parker’s plantation from 1¢ to 1,3, inches long. Mr. Parker recommends the variety as hardy, vigor- ous, prolific, and easy to pick. Plant of Peterkin type, having an erect central stem, with numerous lateral limbs. Solls medium size, round or ovate, blunt-pointed, 5-locked, opening well. Seeds 7 to 9 per lock, medium size, gray, tufted, well covered. Lint long, 1§ to 1,; inches, white, strong. Per cent of lint, 31 to 33. Season medium early. The seed distributed by the Department of Agriculture was grown by John M. Parker, jr., on the plantation on which the variety origi- nated, at Maxime, Bolivar County, Miss. oO — SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION, EXCELSIOR. Excelsior is a variety of Upland short-staple cotton (Pl. I) which has become popular in certain parts of South Carolina, and was awarded a gold medal at the Charleston Exposition. The variety was produced in 1896 by taking seed from a sport of unknown parentage which exhibited desirable qualities. Since this time the seed has been selected with care to insure its coming true to type and to increase its production. Mr. Moore informs us that every year selections have been made from an experimental breeding patch, culling out inferior stalks and selecting seed from nothing but the best. Under this rigor- ous selection the plants, it is claimed, have increased in productivity and have become uniform in type, showing now little tendency to sport or revert to a poorer type. This variety Mr. Moore recommends as being very prolific and giy- ing large yields. In tests at Columbia, 8. C., in the season of 1902, the plants averaged about 35 feet high and were well bolled. Some doubt exists as to what name can be correctly applied to this cotton. According to Prof. 8. M. Tracy, in a statement published in Bulletin 33, United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Experi- ment Stations, issued in 1896, Mr. C. R. Ezell, of Eatonton, Ga., origi- nated by selection from the variety New Era, a strain to which the name Excelsior was given. Mr. Moore’s Excelsior, according to his state- ment, was originated in 1896, the year of Professor Tracy’s publica- tion. Mr. Ezell’s Excelsior would therefore haye the priority of name. Owing to this confusion of names we would suggest that Mr. Moore’s Excelsior be referred to as Jloore Excelsior, or simply as the Moore cotton. Plant of Peterkin type, with one main stem and spreading lower limbs, the other lateral limbs being comparatively short. Shows some tendency to develop bolls in pairs or clusters. Bolls medium small, ovate or spherical, blunt pointed, 4 to 5 locked, opening well. Seeds small, weighing 0.09 to 0.10 gram, gray, tufted, 7 to 9 per lock. Lint, good ordinary short staple about 1 inch in length. Per cent of lint 32 to 33. Season medium. The seed of this variety distributed was grown by Mr. C. F. Moore, Bennettsville, S. C., in the season of 1902. KING, King, or King’s Improved as it has been called, is a very early variety of Upland cotton (PI. 1), originated by T. J. King, of Louis- burg, N.C. In attempting to improve the cotton grown on his plan- tation, Mr. King made tests of very many varieties, but found none that exactly met the requirements as he recognized them. **1 there- fore determined,” he states, ‘‘to try to mix the two kinds which, between themselves, appeared to possess all the essentials desired, and 52 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. get a composite cotton that combined the good qualities of both varie- ties.” Such a combination he claims to have secured in his King’s Improved. The variety has been widely distributed and tested, and is probably as generally known as. any other cotton variety. It is very distinct from any other of the well-known varieties. King is regarded as one of the best varieties for the northern part of the cotton belt, where the season is too short for late varieties. It is the variety most generally planted late in the spring, after oats, as so-called stubble cotton, its short season enabling it to mature a good crop even in the short time then available. The earliness of the vari- ety and its consequent bearing on the boll-weevil question is the prin- cipal reason for selecting it for distribution the present season. Observation has shown that the damage caused by the boll-weevil increases as the season advances. In the early part of the season the numbers of the weevils are few, but as the season advances they steadily increase, and become so abundant in the latter part of the sea- son that in badly infested fields hardly a boll is permitted to reach maturity. Many of the bolls which are formed before the weeyil has become abundant mature without injury, and the writer has observed many particularly early plants, which, owing to their earliness, escaped damage to a considerable degree and matured a fairly good crop. This feature suggests that one of the most important factors in the control of the boll-weevil is to utilize early-maturing varieties. King is probably the earliest fixed variety known, and as it has given excellent results in tests at the Mississippi Experiment Station, it will probably do well in Texas also. Its use in boll-weevil sections to avoid the ravages of this pest is experimental, and the outcome will be watched with great interest. It is of special importance that grow- ers note the yield of this variety in boll-weevil sections in comparison with other sorts, and be prepared next fall to furnish the Department of Agriculture with a statement of the results obtained. To obtain the best results in sections where the boll-weevil is prevalent, the seed should be planted as early as the season will safely permit. Plant 2} to 5 feet high, rather spreading in habit, with numerous limbs gradually decreasing in length from below upward. Bolls small, nearly round, with small blunt point, 4 to 5 locked, opening well. Seeds medium size, weighing from 0.10 to 0.11 gram, covered with brownish or greenish fuzz. Lint white, strong, three-fourths to 1 inch in length. Per cent of lint usually about 33. Season very early. The seed distributed by the Department of Agriculture was grown by the originator of the variety, Mr. T. J. King, at Louisburg, N. C., in the season of 1902. Lone-SrarLe Upntanp VARIETIES. ALLEN IMPROVED. Allen Improved (PI. II) is a variety of cotton originated in Claiborne County, Miss.. in 1899, by James B. Allen. Other and similar vari- SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 53 eties were earlier introduced by Mr. Allen under the names Allen Yellow Bloom and Allen Hybrid, which haye become distributed throughout the country. Allen Improved was distributed to some extent in 1900, but up to the present time has not been generally dis- tributed. Itis said by Mr. Allen to be a cross between his Yellow Bloom and Hybrid. The variety is recommended because of its pro- ductiveness and its long staple. The bolls when ripe open up wide, like ordinary Upland, letting the cotton hang out and making it easy to pick. It is said to pick easier than the Allen Hybrid and to have ¢ stronger fiber. Mr. Allen states that it has stood the weather better for the past three years than any other variety of long staple he has ever planted, not rotting in wet weather like the Yellow Bloom. It gives an average yield per acre of about 1,500 pounds of seed cotton and from 300 to 400 pounds of lint. The crop of 1900, Mr. Allen states, sold for 17 cents per pound net; that of 1901 for 15 cents; and that of 1902, from which the seed distributed by the Department was taken, for from 164 to 17 cents. Mr. Allen’s cotton is ginned on a saw gin. Plant 3 to 6 feet high, compact, branching like Truitt, with two or three long basal limbs and one main central stem. Bolls of Upland type, medium size, slightly pointed, 4 to 5 locked, opening wide. Seeds medium large size, weighing 0.14 to 0.15 gram, gray tufted, 7 to9 per lock. Lint white, fine, and silky, 13 to 12 inches long, fairly strong. Per cent of lint 27. Time of ripening midseason. The seed distributed was grown by James B. Allen, the originator of the variety, at Port Gibson, Miss., in the season of L902, GRIFFIN. Griffin is a long-staple, big-boll Upland cotton (PI. I1), produced by John Griffin at Refuge plantation, near Greenville, Washington County, Miss. The first selection was made in the fall of 1867, and the seed first planted in the spring of 1868. After about ten years of selection some seeds were distributed among friends in the vicinity of Greenville, and a few bushels were sold. The variety, however, has never been generally distributed. Regarding its origin, Mr. Griffin says: The variety resulted from a cross of the old ‘Green Seed’’ cotton with Sea Island, the cross being made to give a tendency to the Green Seed to produce a longer and finer fiber. The hybrid was from 12 to 16 feet high and very unproductive. It was recrossed five years in succession with pollen of the constantly improved Green Seed. This resulted in reducing the stalk to within a few inches of the length of that of Green Seed, in giving it a larger boll, and in making it nearly as prolific. Every successive crossing was made on stalks which least resembled the Sea Island form and most nearly approximated the Sea Island lint. The selection of the cotton has continued without intermission from 1867 up to the present time (1902). Selection was practiced five years in succession before hybrid- ization was employed, and continued constantly while the latter was going on. There was at first little difference between the two hybrids produced by crossing Sea Island bloom with Green Seed pollen and Green Seed bloom with Sea Island pollen, 54 MISCELLANEOUS FAPERS. The Sea Island was a little more vigorous and had a few more bolls. Near the end of the five years through which both were crossed with constantly improved Green Seed, the Sea Island far surpassed the Green Seed, which was puny and hard to fertilize with the same pollen which had acted well on the other. The lint of the original Green Seed averaged about 1 inch in length. It gained about one-eighth of an inch in length in five years of selection, making it about 1$ inches when first crossed with Sea Island. The first cross gave it a length of about 1} inches, the lint, furthermore, being much finer than that of the original Green Seed. The character of the stalk is still like that of Green Seed, though more compact. The boll is larger, 65 weighing a pound. The lint pulled from the seed by the fingers averages about 2 inches in length, and is very fine. Ginned on a saw gin, it generally averages from 12 to 1} inches in length. The Griffin cotton is earlier than the Green Seed. Griffin cotton is without question one of the very best long-staple Upland sorts that has ever been produced. It has been grown for two successive years in tests conducted by the Department of Agriculture at Columbia, S. C., and has given excellent results and attracted con- siderable attention. Its length of staple here averaged about 14 to 14 inches. Unfortunately the lint is not very uniform in length, and is inclined to be low in strength. In size of boll, ease of picking, and productiveness the variety is very good. A peculiar feature of Griffin cotton is its tendency to produce a few very long fibers. Frequently a group of several dozen fibers will reach a length of 24 or 3 inches. The average yield per acre at Mr. Griffin’s plantation, on Mississippi bottem land not over 20 years old, is about 400 pounds of lint cotton. On fresh land of this sort it yields about 500 pounds of lint cotton per acre. The proportion of lint to seed cotton, Mr. Griffin states, is about 28 per cent. Professor Tracy, at the Mississippi Experiment Station, gave the per cent as 28 to 29. Professor Duggar at the Ala- bama Experiment Station obtained 29.2 per cent from the crop grown at Auburn, Ala. The crop produced at Columbia, $. C., the past season gave about 29 per cent. As an indication of the market value of Griflin cotton, Mr. Griffin gives results of sales as follows: When short staple was selling at 5 cents per pound Griffin sold at 8% cents. Last year (1901) it sold for 12 cents, against 8 cents for short staple of the same grade. In 1900, when short staple cotton was quoted at between 8 and 9 cents, Griffin sold for 15 cents. A part of the crop of the present year (1902), from which the seed distributed was taken, sold for 14 cents, the average price for short staple of the same grade being 8 cents. Mr. Griffin states that his crop is regularly ginned on a saw gin. In the crop this year the first 7 bales averaged 14 inches in length and the last 7 bales 12 inches. Plant vigorous and prolific, with main central stem and several large spreading limbs below; foliage pale green. Bolls medium large, ovate, blunt-pointed, 4 to 5 locked, opening well. Seeds of medium size, weighing about 0.12 to 0.13 gram, gray tufted, 7 to 10 per lock. Lint white, fine, and silky, rather variable in length, ranging from 1} to 2 inches. Per cent of lint about 28 to 29. Season medium. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 55 The seed distributed by the Department of Agriculture was grown by the originator of the variety, Mr. John Griffin, at Greenville, Miss., in the season of 1902. Sra Isnanpd VARIETIES. SEABROOK. This variety (PI. I) was originated ten or twelve years ago by E. L. Rivers, James Island, S. C. Its selection and improvement have been carried on since that time by the present owner, Mr. F. P. Seabrook, of James Island, who has given the most careful attention to the fixing of the desired qualities, the aim being the production of a prolific bearer of medium quality, with a large proportion of lint to seed. The method of selection employed by Mr. Seabrook, which is similar to that of most of the Sea Island planters, is as follows: Several of the best plants in his field are selected and marked. Each of these is picked by itself, the seed cotton weighed, and the lint weighed after ginning to determine the ginning average. The staple is examined critically as to length, fineness, strength, uniformity, and softness. Finally the best plant is selected and the others discarded. The seed from this single stalk is planted by itself, one seed in a hill, and usually produces about 500 plants. The seed from these plants is used to sow a field of about 5 acres, from which the general crop is planted the fourth year. A new plant is chosen from the select field each year, so that the process of improvement is continuous. Plant of compact habit, prolific, and resistant to disease. Bolls of good size, long and pointed, 3-locked, opening well for Sea Island. Lint 2 inches long. Per cent of lint about 28 to 29. The seed of this variety distributed was grown by Mr. F. P. Sea- brook, James Island, S. C., in the season of 1901. RIVERS. The Rivers Sea Island cotton, which is immune to the serious malady known as wilt or ‘‘ black-root,” was produced as a result of special breeding experiments conducted by Mr. E. L. Rivers, of James Island, S.C., in conjunction with the Department of Agriculture. It is highly recommended for cultivation in the Sea Island districts of Georgia and Florida on all soils infected with wilt. A special circular is dis- tributed with the Rivers cotton, and this variety is referred to here simply to show the general plan of the entire cotton distribution for the season. A careful description of the variety and of the experi- ments leading to its production appears in Bulletin No. 27, Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, by Mr. W. A. Orton. 56 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. METHODS OF CULTIVATION AND GINNING. SHORT-STAPLE UPLAND VARIETIES. The methods of cultivation which should be pursued in growing the varieties of short-staple Upland cotton distributed are the same as those used for any ordinary Upland cotton. No exact directions can be given with respect to the distance apart of the rows or the distance between the plants in the row, as the space required by each plant is determined by the richness of the soil in each case. Jones Improved, King, Excelsior, and Parker are all quite similar in size and habit of growth. Under ordinary conditions satisfactory results would be obtained with these varieties by planting the rows 4 feet apart and the plants from 18 to 24 inches apart in the row. On rich soil this dis- tance should be somewhat increased, while on sterile land closer plant- ing would be desirable. LONG-STAPLE UPLAND VARIETIES. Allen Improved and Griffin, while producing a long, fine staple, are in size and general appearance very similar to ordinary short-staple varieties such as Jones Improyed and Truitt, and the same cultural methods are to be recommended as are used with the ordinary short- staple sorts. In picking, preserving, and ginning, however, more care is required if the highest market price is to be realized. Greater rare should be exercised in the picking to avoid getting the fiber mixed with fragments of leaves, bolls, ete. Fiber from immature and weather-stained bolls should also be discarded. Pickers familiar with ordinary cotton methods are liable to be too careless in their endeavor to gather large quantities and increase their wages thereby. In fine grades of long-staple Upland cotton it would probably also be found desirable to spread the seed cotton on a platform in the sun for a few hours to dry before storing it. The difficulty of properly ginning long-staple Upland cottons has been considered an impediment to their general cultivation. It is generally recognized that long-staple Sea Island sorts require to be ginned on a roller gin, as the saw gins tear and break the fiber to such an extent as to greatly reduce its value. It is also very generally sup- posed that the long-staple Upland cottons require to be ginned ona roller gin, and this understanding has preyented many from attempt- ing to grow these cottons, as roller gins are ordinarily accessible only to growers in regions where Sea Island cotton is cultivated Experience has shown, however, that long-staple Upland cottons may be ginned on ordinary saw gins if care is used in the process. Before ginning these cottons the gin saws should be sharpened square across the teeth and then dulled somewhat by use in ginning ordinary short Bul. 25, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTe Il. GRIFFIN ALLEN IMPROVED MATURE UNOPENED AND OPENED COTTON BOLLS—GRIFFIN AND ALLEN IMPROVED (NATURAL SIZE). SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. ante staples. It is also important to run the gin at a lower rate of speed than in ginning ordinary short-staple cottons. If these precautions are observed the long-staple Upland cottons may be very satisfactorily ginned onany ordinary saw gin. As previously stated, Mr. Griffin and Mr. Allen have regularly had their crops ginned on ordinary saw gins, and the product has uniformly sold at from 14 to 16 cents or more per pound. It is also important that growers of long-staple Upland cottons give special attention to the marketing of the product. The writer last season saw seyeral bales of long-staple Upland cotton sold to a buyer at a small interior town in South Carolina for 10 cents which were certainly equal to bales of similar cotton which he saw sold in the New Orleans market the week following at 15 cents, when ordinary cotton was selling at 8} cents. Many of the failures with long-staple Upland cotton have been due to the lack of experience on the part of the grower in the matter of marketing. Many buyers take advantage of the growers’ ignorance and purchase cotton for 10 cents that is worth 15 cents and realize the difference themselves. Until buyers inform themselves on the yalue of long-staple cotton and pay reasonable prices, it will have to be consigned to general long-staple markets such as New Orleans, Savannah, Charleston, ete., or to some of the large New England markets. SEA ISLAND: VARIETIES. The Seabrook selection of Sea Island cotton is adapted to light, sandy land of good fertility. It is planted in rows 5 feet apart, with a distance of from 18 to 20 inches between the plants in the row. Greater care must be given to the cultivation of Sea Island than is usually given to Upland cotton. The land should be thoroughly pre- pared and well fertilized. A suitable rotation with corn, cowpeas, peanuts, or other crops should be practiced in order to avoid the exhaustion of the soil produced by many successive cotton crops. Cultivation should be very frequent. In the Sea Islands the cotton is cultivated on an average of once a week until August. Here the cot- ton is grown on high beds and the soil is drawn up around the plants in cultivation. This method is not recommended for Georgia and Florida, however, where the more economical method of level culture will probably pay the best. Particular care is necessary in picking and handling Sea Island cot- ton in order to obtain the highest price. Sea Island cotton requires to be picked often—every week or ten days—in order to avoid stain- ing by the weather. All trash, bits of bolls, immature and diseased or yellow locks must be picked out by hand. The seed cotton should be spread on a platform and exposed to the sun for several hours to dry before storing. It must be ginned on a roller gin and be packed carefully in bags without high pressure. or (o.8 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. HOW TO GROW PURE SEED OF GOOD QUALITY. It is a well-known fact that varieties of cotton become mixed and impure unless special care is taken to prevent crossing with other yari- eties. If growers receiving seed of any of the varieties sent with this circular desire to grow the same yariety another year, precaution should be taken to plant the seed in an isolated patch, situated as far as possible from any other varieties. It should be at least a quarter of a mile from any other cotton and preferably in a field surrounded by a forest, particularly on the side nearest to other cotton fields. Before any seed is gathered for planting all plants which are not true to the type of the variety should be carefully weeded out. If it is desired to keep the variety up to its full productiveness and better adapt it to local conditions, the planter may easily accomplish this by following a simple and inexpensive method of selection. Before beginning the picking, go oyer the patch carefully and select and mark with a white cloth the best plants; that is, those most productive, earliest in ripening, and haying the largest, best formed, and most numerous bolls. Care should also be exercised to select plants that are true to the type of the variety. Before each picking send a care- ful man over the patch to pick the seed from the selected plants. Preserve such seed separately, gin it separately to avoid mixing, and use this to plant the crop the next year. If this simple method of selection is carried out each year, the yield will doubtless be greatly increased, and as much or more added to the crop than would result from special fertilization or cultivation, though these factors should by no means be neglected. The importance of careful seed selection is seldom fully recognized, and growers are urged to give this factor of cotton culture more careful attention. Herperr J. WEBBER, Physiologist, in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding. Approved: A. F. Woops, Pathologist and Physiologist. REPORT OF RESULTS DESIRED FOR PUBLICATION. In order to determine the comparative values of the different varie- ties of cotton in various parts of the United States, the growers receiying this seed are requested to give it a thorough trial in com- parison with the variety or varieties that they generally grow, and be prepared in the fall of 1903 to report the results of the test to the United States Department of Agriculture. A report will then be requested coyering the following points: (1) Character of the soil. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 59 (2) Character of the season. (8) Total yield of seed cotton produced. (This should be determined by actually weighing the product.) (4) Total yield of lint produced. (Determined by actual weighing.) (5) Size of patch grown. (Determined by actual measurement.) (6) Yield per acre, estimated from the patch grown. (7) Is the variety to be classed as excellent, good, fair, or poor for your section / (8) Name of the variety ordinarily grown by the planter making the test. (9) Yield of ordinary variety this year on same soil as the variety under consideration. It is especially requested that growers carefully note the points enumerated aboye, in order that they may secure the necessary data and be ready to supply accurate information when it is called for next fall. If sufficiently accurate data are furnished, a report will be com- piled and issued giving the results of the various trials in all sections, and this report will be sent to all planters cooperating in the experi- ment. In this way it is hoped to obtain valuable and veliable infor- mation regarding the varieties best adapted to various sections of the cotton belt. Growers receiving this seed, who are willing to cooperate with the Department of Agriculture in making the aboue test, are reque sted to pill in the accompanying franked postal card, which requires no postage, as soon as the seed is received, and return the same to the Department. A. J. Prerers, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. 2, Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. [Cireular sent with seed of Rivers Sea Island cotton.] RIVERS SEA ISLAND COTTON. (A variety resistant to the wilt disease ov ** Black-root.’’ ) HISTORY OF THE VARIETY. This variety, the seeds of which are now distributed for the first time, was originated in connection with the investigations of the United States Department of Agriculture on the cotton wilt, a disease which has done great damage in the South. All other methods of treatment having failed, an effort was made to produce a resistant variety. This was based on the observation that some plants remained healthy, even in the worst infected places, and it was thought that the seed from such stalks might produce other resistant plants. This was 60 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. found to be the case, and several strains haye been produced in this way by saying seed from healthy plants in the worst diseased areas. The seed of the best of these resistant strains is distributed with this circular, the seed having been grown by special arrangement expressly for the Department of Agriculture. Other selections made by the Department or under its direction are also being grown and tested, and will be used for future distribution. The Rivers cotton was originated in cooperation with the Depart- ment of Agriculture by Mr. E. L. Rivers, James Island, S. C., who in 1899 saved the seed of a single plant which had survived the dis- ease, while all surrounding plants had been killed. This seed Mr. Rivers planted in a single row in a badly infected area. The result is shown in the accompanying illustration. In the resistant row nota o Fic, 6.—Row of Rivers Sea Island cotton in wilt-infected field, planted with rows of ordinary Sea Island cotton. single plant died, while the adjoining rows planted with ordinary seed were almost totally destroyed. Sufficient seed was obtained from this row to plant an acre the next year (1901). This land was also infected with the cotton wilt, but only two or three plants became affected, showing the great resistance of the new variety, In 1902, 15 acres were planted. This land was badly infected with wilt and previous crops had been nearly destroyed in portions of the field, so that the land had been abandoned for cotton. The Riyers cotton proyed as resistant here as in the previous years. An occasional plant became diseased and was pulled up, but the field as a whole was perfectly healthy and produced a large crop. These three successful trials of this variety, corroborated by numer- ous experiments carried on by the Department of Agriculture with SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 61 both Sea Island and Upland cotton and by the experience of several cotton planters, demonstrate that the wilt can be overcome by the use of resistant varieties, and this seed is distributed this year in Georgia and T'lorida to enable the farmers to test its merits and erow for them- selves a stock of seed for future planting. DESCRIPTION OF COTTON WILT. The especial feature of this variety is its resistance to the wilt, and since some who receive the seed may not be familiar with that disease, a brief description of it is included here. For more detailed infor- mation write to the Department of Agriculture at Washington for Bulletins 17 and 27 of the Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology. The Wilt Disease is also known as ** Blight” and ‘* Black-root.” It is injurious to Sea Island cotton on the Sea Islands of South Carolina, and in southern Georgia and in Florida, and to Upland cotton over wide areas in several States. It is worst on sandy soils, where it per- sists year after year. Prominent symptoms are the wilting of the plants, which are dwarfed or killed, the brown discoloration of the inner wood of stem and root, and a tufting of the small rootlets. The wilt is caused by a parasitic fungus in the soil, which enters the roots and grows upward through the water-carrying vessels of the stems, which it clogs. It is aggravated by continuous cropping in cot- ton, but can not be remedied by rest or rotation, since the fungus can live in the soil for an indefinite time after it has once obtained a foothold. It is not due to the poverty of the land nor to the use of commercial fertilizers, and can not, so far as known, be cured by add- ing any fertilizer or other substance to the soil. CONTROL OF THE WILT. The only remedy known is the use of resistant varieties. When land is badly affected by wilt and seed of resistant cotton can not be had, some other crop than cotton should be planted. In all cases, even where the disease does not occur or where a resist- ant variety is available, a rotation of crops is to be recommended, such as corn with cowpeas or peanuts; second, velvet beans; third, cotton; or, first, corn with cowpeas or peanuts; second, oats followed by cow- peas; third, cotton. DIRECTIONS FOR PLANTING. In order to fully test the resistant qualities of the variety, this seed should, if possible, be planted on land where cotton has in previous years suffered badly from wilt (black-root). Do not plant Upland cotton near the Sea Island. Much of the ** running out” of the long staple cotton in south Georgia is due to accidental hybridization with 62 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. neighboring fields of short staple cotton. Since only a small quantity of seed can be had, unusual care ought to be taken in planting to make the seed go as far as possible. The land should be well fertilized and eared for in order to produce a large crop of seed. The Rivers cotton is resistant to wilt, hut not necessarily so to rust and other troubles due to poor soil. To secure the best results, therefore, plant the seed on good soil and usa fram 400 to 600 pounds per acre of commercial fertilizer or its equivalent in stable manure or compost. In land of ordinary fertility plant in rows + feet apart, with the plants 18 inches apart in the row. In rich soil make the rows 5 feet apart, with 20 to 22 inches between the plants. The Rivers cotton is a low, compact variety, and can be planted closer than the average Georgia Sea Island cotton. To economize seed in planting, drop by hand 3 to 5 seeds in a hill, cover lightly, and thin out to one in a place. Tn order to give an exact report at the end of the season, the field where this seed is planted should be measured and the yield deter- mined by actual weighing when the crop is picked. PICKING. In picking Sea Island cotton much more care should be taken than is necessary with the Upland cotton. Pick often to avoid injury by the weather. Sun the cotton on a low arbor after picking to dry it, and sort out all trash, yellow, and immature cotton, etc., before gin- ning, as all these impurities injure the sale of the lint. The high prices obtained for the best grades of Sea Island cotton are due in part to the extreme care taken to remove all trash before marketing. / If your trial of this variety results satisfactorily, save all the seed varefully, as it will be dithicult to get more from any source. Gin the cotton separately and clean the gins to avoid mixture with inferior varieties. CHARACTERS OF THE RIVERS COTTON. Plant resistant to wilt, vigorous, compact, pyramidal, branching near the base; limbs small, close-jointed, bearing heavily; bolls medium size, 3 to 4 lobed; seed small, black, well covered; lint 28 per cent; staple 2 inches long, cream-white, fully to extra fine. Time of matur-- ing, early. CONTINUAL SELECTION NECESSARY TO MAINTAIN QUALITY. The qualities of resistance, bearing, ete., characteristic of this cotton, will be found to be thoroughly fixed in the seed distributed. It can not be expected that they will be maintained indefinitely, however, unless careful annual selection of seed is practiced. Though the variety is highly resistant to wilt, there will be occasional individuals reverting to the original type and becoming attacked by the disease. All such should be weeded out and destroyed. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 63 The following method of selection is recommended for keeping up the quality of the variety: 1. To obtain seed for the main crop.—Pull up and destroy all dis- eased or inferior plants and all hybrid or barren stalks, saving seed only from good plants in the general field. 2. To secure an improved stock for future planting.—Select from the general field a few plants of the greatest excellence, marking them with acloth. Leave these unpicked till the middle of the season, then com- pare them critically with reference to bearing, length, and quality of staple, resistance to wilt, etc., and choose from this number a single plant which combines the most desirable qualities. Save all the seed carefully and plant separate from the main crop the next year, one seed in a hill, to secure as great a yield as possible. This cotton planted by itself each time will give sufficient seed the third year to plant the whole crop. This selection should be carried out every year. The propagation from single plants insures a uniformity that can be secured in no other way. This is the method practiced in the Sea Islands, and if it were done in Georgia and Florida there would be less trouble with the ‘* running out” of the cotton. W. A. Orron, Assistant Pathologist. Approved: A. F. Woops, Pathologist and Physiologist. REPORT RESULTS. Special attention ts called to the fact that this is anew variety of great value, and that it can not be bought in the market at any price. For this reason farmers receiving this seed should plant it with care and san the seed. It is desired to know the results of all trials of the Rivers cotton, and every farmer who receives seed is requested to return the accom- panying card with his name and address, signifying his willingness to report at the end of the season. Blanks will then be sent out to be filled and returned. The Department wishes to continue the work of originating and distributing wilt-resistant varieties adapted to the requirements of the various cotton-producing sections, and the active cooperation of farmers will be of great assistance. A. J. PIETERS, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. 64 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. [Circular sent to recipients of seed of Sea Island Cotton No, 224.] SEA ISLAND COTTON NO. 224. U. S$. DepartTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau or Piant Inpustry, Washington, D. C.. February 1, 1903. Dear Str: We send you herewith one peck of seed of Sea Island cotton ‘* No. 224. This is a selection resistant to the wilt disease. It is distributed for trial under our Department number rather than as a named yariety, but if it proves desirable to continue its cultivation, a name will be given to it later. It was originated by selecting from a field badly affected by wilt two plants that had remained healthy. The seed obtained was planted on wilt-infected land the two years following, where it continued to resist the disease, although adjoining cotton was killed. These two successful trials indicate that its wilt resistance is well fixed, and it only remains to establish in this strain the desired commercial qualities, such as length and fineness of staple, uniformity, and productivity. **No, 224” was developed from one of the coarser kinds of cotton grown on the Sea Islands, and more attention was paid to securing wilt resistance than fine quality. For this reason it is not equal to the best varieties grown on the Sea Islands, though it is of the grade of cotton for which there is most demand in the market. The price obtained for the crop of 1902 was 24 cents per pound, but the factor informed us that it was marketed ‘*in such a bright and showy condition that it was placed on that account in a higher grade than its staple warranted.” These facts are stated plainly in order that the planters who test it may not be disappointed in the results. The Department recommends it for its wilt resistance only, but believes that it is worthy of trial as a basis from which desirable strains can be developed by the methods of selection familiar to Sea Island planters. The fact that this is not a fine cotton should not be taken as an indication that quality need be sacrificed in securing resistance to wilt. Our experience leads us to believe that wilt-resistant strains can be obtained of any degree of fineness desired, depending on the quality of the plant chosen at the beginning of the selection. The method of selection that we have found to give best results in breeding wilt-resistant varieties is essentially the same as that usually practiced for improyement of quality. It is necessary that the first selections should be made in a field known to be thoroughly infected with the wilt disease, so that every healthly plant can be assumed to be resistant. Select only those plants that show no trace of the wilt disease. Several of these most prominent resistant plants should be marked and examined critically. Eight or ten that have the finest and longest staple and are most productive should be retained, and the seed of each plant kept separate. The next year these lots of seed \ Piate Ill. Bul. 25, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture Fig. 1.—FiELD INFECTED BY WILT AND ROOT-KNOT. Speckled cowpea, killed. Tron cowpea, resistant; Fia. 3.—ROOT-KNOT ON WONDERFUL Fia. 2.—RooTS OF IRON COWPEA. COWPEA. From adjoining rows in the same field, vil! SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 65 should be planted side by side on badly infected land and the progeny compared carefully with especial reference to power shown of trans- mitting the resistant quality. If the descendants of any plant show many diseased stalks, the whole selection should be discarded. It will be found that in the most resistant strains almost no susceptible plants will appear. Of the resistant strains, only the one haying the best commercial qualities need be retained after the second year; but the first year it is well to start with several plants, as some often turn out to be nonresistant. To insure the maintenance of uniformity and good quality in the resistant variety, the selections should be repeated every year. The evidence we have now shows that the resistance to wilt can be main- tained in this way without difficulty. A resistant variety will run out if neglected, just as any other kind would do. Tipo distributions of secds.—The Department of Agriculture is now growing a number of wilt-resistant selections of Sea Island cotton, which it is intended to distribute among the planters as soon as a sufficient quantity is obtained. Some of these may be better than the “No, 224,” but in the meantime it is hoped that the planters will con- tinue the work of originating resistant strains for themselves, as so many are now doing. W. A. Orton, Assistant Pathologist. Approved: A. EF. Woops, Pathologist and laine (Circular sent to recipients of seed of the Iron cowpea. ] IRON COWPEA. (A variety resistant to wilt and root-knot. ) HISTORY. The Iron cowpea is a variety especially adapted for soil renovation and forage purposes on land where other varieties fail to succeed because of the attacks of wilt, root-knot, and other soil parasites. The seed sent out in two-quart packages accompanying this circular is grown expressly for the Department of Agriculture and is distributed in the Southern States primarily to test its resistance to the diseases gee above, which cause the condition of land commonly known *‘pea-sickness.” In localities where no disease occurs it should be eaiea for hardiness, resistance to drought and weevils, and general value. The origin of the Iron cowpea is uncertain. It was found in culti- vation in Barnwell and Aiken counties, S. C., and its remarkable 27609—No. 25—02 5 66 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. resistance to disease was demonstrated by experiments made by the Department of Agriculture in 1900-2 on the farm of Mr. T. S. Williams, Monetta, 8. C., where the seed now distributed was grown. It was tested on land infested with both wilt and root-knot in com- parison with over forty other varieties, all of which were wholly or partially destroyed by disease, while the Iron variety remained healthy. A photograph of this field is shown in Plate ILI, fig. 1. The Speckled cowpea on the right was treated in every respect like the Iron, but was unable to withstand the disease. In all our trials in South Caro- lina the Iron cowpea has remained free from nematode attacks, but at the Florida Experiment Station it was somewhat affected. It should be understood that under varying conditions different results may be expected, and this variety may not everywhere prove as resistant as in South Carolina. One object of this distribution of the Iron cowpea is to determine its resistance to disease under varying climatic and soil conditions and its suitability for different sections. CHARACTERS OF THE IRON COWPEA. The Iron cowpea is of the Clay type. The seeds are small and hard; color buff, of varying shades. The plant 1s vigorous, erect, or half- trailing; the leaves dark green, with a distinctive bluish luster; time of maturing, medium to late. It blooms and bears continuously through the season, but the pods do not shell out in the field as freely as other sorts. An especially noteworthy feature is that it holds its leaves late in the season, remaining green after other late kinds are dead. It resists the attacks of the wilt fungus and nematode worm, withstands drought well, and the hard seeds are very free from weevil attacks. The seeds will live through the winter in the ground and come up in the spring more freely than any other variety tested. It is reported to be of fair quality as a table pea. The Iron cowpea will be most valuable for soil improvement and forage where other kinds fail. On healthy soils it is doubtful whether it will replace existing standard varieties, as it is no more productive than many others. Its long bearing season is a fault, making haryest- ing more difficult. DIRECTIONS FOR PLANTING. In order to test the disease-resistant qualities of this cowpea it should be planted on land where the ordinary varieties do not grow well, if any such is available. For the purpose of comparison, a few rows of another variety should be planted beside it. The methods of planting and cultivation should be the same as for the common yarie- ties. To secure a good crop of seed, plant from May 20 to July 10, according to the latitude, in drills 3 to + feet apart, at the rate of 2 pecks per acre. “I SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 6 DISEASES OF THE COWPEA. The Iron cowpea is most noteworthy for its resistance to the cowpea wilt disease and root-knot. A full description of these diseases, with accounts of experiments with remedies, etc., is published in Bulletin No. 17, Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agri- culture, and will be sent free on request. A brief account is given here to enable the farmer to recognize these troubles. THE COWPEA WILT. The wilt of the cowpea is common only on light or sandy soils, and occurs principally on land where cowpeas have been grown for several years. It appears about August in spots of varying size, which spread gradually over the field. The plants in these areas turn yel- low, lose their leaves, and die. ‘The stems have a reddish-brown tinge, and, when broken, the inside will also be found discolored. Later, these stems become covered with the light-pink spores of the fungus which causes the disease. This fungus enters the roots from the soil and, growing upward, fills the water-carrying vessels of the stem with its threads, thus shutting off the water supply and causing the death of the plant. Remedies.—The cultivation of the Iron pea is the best means of relief, as it will grow where all other kinds fail. Rotation of crops for two years will give temporary relief, or since the disease does not attack any other crop than the cowpea, velvet beans or other legumes may be substituted. ROOT-KNOT. Root-knot, like the wilt, is most injurious on sandy soil, and the two diseases are often found occurring together. It 1s caused by a minute nematode, or eelworm, which enters the roots and produces large, irregular swellings or galls. These very injurious enlargements should not be confused with the bacterial tubercles found on all healthy cowpea roots. The latter are small and regular in form and greatly benefit the plant by enabling it to draw nitrogen from the air. The accompanying figures illustrate this distinction. A few bacterial tubercles appear on the healthy roots in Pl. III, tig. 2, while the roots in fig. 3 are deformed by root-knot. Root-knot is also produced on several other plants by the same nematode that attacks cowpeas. Cotton, okra, peaches, and most garden vegetables are greatly injured by it. This is the most serious feature of the disease, since the cultivation of the ordinary varieties of cowpea on nematode-infected land so greatly increases the number of the parasites in the soil that succeeding cotton or other crops are much injured. 68 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. Remedies.—It is hoped that work now in progress in the Depart- ment of Agriculture will result in the breeding of varieties of cotton, peaches, ete., which will be resistant to root-knot. At present no remedy is known that will entirely free land in our Southern States from this disease. The sterilization of the soil by heat or toxie chem- icals, clean fallowing, ete., have been recommended, but the best that can be done in ordinary farm practice is to adopt a rotation designed to starve out the parasites by growing a succession of immune crops, to} such as the Iron cowpea, beggarweed, corn, oats, or other grains, grasses, etc. A rotation like the following is suggested for cotton planters: First year, corn, with Iron cowpeas between the rows; sec- ond year, either beggarweed, velvet beans, or oats, followed by Iron cowpeas; third year, cotton. If necessary cotton might also be planted the fourth year, after which the rotation should be repeated, W. A. Orton, Assistant Pathologist. Approved: A. F. Woops, Pathologist and Physiologist. REPORT RESULTS. It is desired to know the results of all trials of the Iron cowpea, and every farmer who receives seed is requested to return the accompany- ing card with his name and address, signifying his willingness to report at the end of the season. Blanks will then be sent out to be filled and returned. A report will be asked for on the character of soil, whether or not infested with wilt or nematodes, manner of planting, character of season, success as a forage crop, yield as compared with other yarie- ties, resistance to disease, etc. A. J. PIETERS, Botanist in Charge. Approved: B. T. GaLttoway, Oh lef of Bureau. [Cireular sent to recipients of seed of Kleinwanzleben sugar beet.] KLEINWANZLEBEN SUGAR BEET. Grown by E. H. Morrison, at Fairtield, Wash., from mother beets of exceptionally high sugar content and purity. The Department of Agriculture wishes to have written reports as to the quality of this seed, as sugar beet seed raising in the United States is a new industry. All requests for either beet or vegetable seed for another year from those sending such reports will be given special consideration. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. 69 Culture.—W hile sugar beets can be successsully grown on a variety of soils, it is usually considered that they thrive best on a.rich, sandy loam, having uniform surface and subsoil. The soil should be deep, with moderately porous subsoil, and either naturally or artificially drained. A good crop can not be grown on shallow soil haying a hard, impenetrable or water-soaked subsoil. A soil that will grow a good crop of corn or potatoes is well adapted for beet culture. Well-rotted manure, phosphates, and potash may be freely used, but Chile salt- peter, if used at all, should be used sparingly. The proper prepara- tion of the soil is a prerequisite to successful growing. The ground should be fall plowed to a depth of 9 or 10 inches, and subsoiled 5 or 6 inches more. The surface should be thoroughly pulverized by disk- ing and harrowing as soon as the frost is out of the ground. After the weeds have a good start, the ground should be again harrowed to destroy them, and finally harrowed the day before seeding. The seed should be eyenly planted in rows 18 inches apart, as early in the spring as the season will permit. Ifa drill is used, 15 to 20 pounds of seed are required to sow one acre, while 10 to 15 pounds are sufficient if sown by hand. Cover the seed to a depth of one-half to 13 inches, according to the condition of the soil and the season. To keep weeds from getting a foothold and the surface loose, cultivation should begin as soon as the seeds have sprouted sufliciently to show the rows and continued as long as it is possible to do so without breaking the lower leaves. Thinning should be done as soon as the plants have four well- formed leaves. This can be most easily done by bunching with a 6-inch hoe, leaving a group of plants every 6 to 10 inches. Thin to one plant to each group, using care always to leave the strongest and healthiest plant, even though the plants are at somewhat irregular distances. Give a thorough hoeing at the time of thinning. Tt is difficult to give general directions for raising sugar beets, as local conditions of soil and climate often make general rules impractic- able, when the individual grower must meet conditions peculiar to his particular locality. —J. E. W. Tracy. Attention is again called to the desirability of a report on this seed. The beets raised from this seed should be hauled to the factory in a separate load from beets grown from any other seed, and a separate test for sugar content and purity should be made. Tf persons receiv- ing this seed will send to the undersigned a postal card stating that they are willing to fill out a report, a blank form will be forwarded to them. A. J. PI®TERS, Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution. 70 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. (Circular sent to recipients of tobacco seed.] PLAN OF DISTRIBUTING TOBACCO SEED, AND CULTURAL DIREC- TIONS FOR THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TOBACCO DISTRIBUTED. For seyeral years the Bureau of Plant Industry and the Bureau of Soils have been cooperating in work looking toward the improvement of tobacco in this country. Under the direction of the Chief of the Bureau of Soils the tobacco seed for the forthcoming Congressional seed distribution was secured from carefully selected and matured plants, in accordance with directions issued by the Department to individual growers. The seed was obtained from the best localities for each yariety, and a plan of distribution worked out whereby the varieties suitable for certain districts will be sent there. The following directions for the distribution and culture of the different types of tobacco have been prepared in the office of the Chief of the Bureau of Soils: PLAN OF DISTRIBUTING TOBACCO SEED. The Congressional districts in which tobacco seed will be distributed “S) and the varieties which it is believed are best adapted to these dis- tricts are as follows: ALABAMA: First district: Florida Sumatra, Florida Cuban, Connecticut Havana. ARKANSAS: Second, Fifth, and Sixth districts: Kentucky White Burley, Virginia Oronoco, Virginia White Stem. CALIFORNIA: Sixth and Seyenth districts: Florida Sumatra, Florida Cuban, Connectieut ~ Havana. ConNECTICUT: First, Second, and Fourth districts: Florida Sumatra. FLORIDA: First and Second districts: Florida Sumatra, Florida Cuban. GEORGIA: Second district: Florida Sumatra, Florida Cuban. ILLINots: Ninth district: Ohio Zimmer Spanish, Connecticut Havana. Nineteenth, Twentieth, and Twenty-second districts: Tennessee Improved Yellow Mammoth, Tennessee Oronoco. INDIANA: First, Third, and Fourth districts: Tennessee Oronoco, Kentucky White Burley, Tennessee Improyed Yellow Mammoth. KENTUCKY: First, Second, and Third districts: Tennessee Improved Yellow Mammoth, Tennessee Oronoco. Fourth and Fifth districts: Tennessee Improved Yellow Mammoth, Tennessee Oronoco, Kentucky White Burley. Sixth, Seventh, and Ninth districts: Kentucky White Burley. Kighth, Tenth, and Eleventh districts: Tennessee Oronoco, Kentucky White 3urley. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. -~T ro Louisiana: Second and Third districts: Kentucky White Burley, Tennessee Improved Yellow Mammoth, Florida Cuban. MARryYLanpb: Second and Sixth districts: Ohio Zimmer Spanish, Connecticut Havana. Fifth district: Maryland Smoking. MaAssAcHUSETTs: First and Second districts: Florida Sumatra. Missouri: First, Second, Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth districts: Tennessee Improved Yellow Mammoth, Tennessee Oronoco, Ken- tucky White Burley. New York: Twenty-fourth, Twenty-seventh, Twenty-eighth, and Twenty-ninth districts: Florida Sumatra, Florida Cuban, Connecticut Hayana, Ohio Zimmer Spanish. Norra Caro.rna: Second, Fourth, Fifth, Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth districts: Virginia Oronoco, Virginia Sun Cured, Virginia Blue Pryor, North Carolina Bright Yellow. Onto: First, Third, Fourth, and Seventh districts: Ohio Zimmer Spanish, Connecticut Havana, Florida Cuban. Sixth district: Ohio Zimmer Spanish, Florida Cuban, Kentucky White Burley. Tenth district: Ohio Zimmer Spanish, Connecticut Hayana, Kentucky White Burley. Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth districts: Maryland Smoking, Ohio Zim- mer Spanish. Twentieth district: Maryland Smoking, Ohio Zimmer Spanish, Florida Cuban. PENNSYLVANIA: Sixth, Seventh, Ninth, Tenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth, Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Nineteenth districts: Ohio Zimmer Spanish, Connecticut Havana, Florida Cuban. Sourn CaRo.ina: First, Second, Third, Fourth, Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh districts: Virginia Oronoco, Virginia White Stem, Virginia Blue Pryor, North Carolina Bright Yellow. TENNESSEE: First, Second, and Third districts: Tennessee Improved Yellow Mammoth, Ten- nessee Oronoco, North Carolina Bright Yellow. Fourth district: Tennessee Improved Yellow Mammoth, Kentucky White Burley. Sixth district: Tennessee Improyed Yellow Mammoth, Tennessee Oronoco, Kentucky White Burley. Fifth, Seventh, Eighth, Ninth, and Tenth districts: Tennessee Improved Yellow Mammoth, Ternessee Oronoco. TEXAS: First, Second, Ninth, and Tenth districts: Florida Sumatra, Florida Cuban, Ohio Zimmer Spanish. VIRGINIA: First, Third, Fifth, Seventh, Eighth, and Ninth districts: Virginia Oronoco, Virginia Sun Cured, Virginia Blue Pryor, North Carolina Bright Yellow. Fourth, Sixth, and Tenth districts: Virginia White Stem, Virginia Sun Cured, Virginia Blue Pryor, North Carolina Bright Yellow. 72 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. West VIRGINIA: Third district: Virginia Oronoco, Virginia Sun Cured, North Carolina Bright Yellow, Kentucky White Burley. Fourth district: Virginia White Stem, Virginia Sun Cured, North Carolina Bright Yellow, Kentucky White Burley. WISCONSIN: First, Second, Third, Seventh, and Tenth districts: Florida Sumatra, Florida Cuban, Ohio Zimmer Spanish, Connecticut Hayana. CULTURAL DIRECTIONS FOR THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF TOBACCO. Frorma Sumatra Toracco (NORTHERN DISTRICTS). A very rich spot should be selected for the seed bed of Sumatra tobacco grown in the North. In the early fall this plot should be plowed and divided into beds 6 feet wide and any desirable length, surrounded by a wall made of boards, 2 inches thick and 12 inches wide, set 2 or 3 inches in the ground. ‘These beds should be highly fertilized with cotton-seed meal and stable manure, well spaded in to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, and the whole covered with leaves, manure, or t keep out the frost during the winter. About April 1 this top dressing should be taken off and the bed again spaded and the soil well pulver- ized, after which another application of cotton-seed meal or cotton-hull ash should be given. This should be raked in and the surface made smooth and loose, making the bed ready to receive the seed. About five days before the time of sowing the seed should be put to sprout in apple-tree punk, made soft with warm water. This should be put in a fruit jar and kept in a warm room. It will be observed that the seed will be slower in sprouting than domestic tobacco seed, and it will not sprout uniformly; that is, all the seed will not sprout at the same time. It is best to wait until nearly all the seed is sprouted before sowing. Mix the seed with bran or cotton-seed meal and sow at the rate of 2 tablespoonfuls of the seed to 100 square yards, after which a heavy roller should be drawn over the bed, thus packing the seed well into the soil, making the surface smooth and preventing the rapid drying out of the soil which would otherwise take place. If the ground is dry, it should be watered immediately after sowing the seed, and this should be continued from time to time as the soil may require. In the absence of rain after the plants are up watering should still be practiced. There are many enemies of the seed bed in the way of insects, so a vareful watch is necessary. As soon as there is any appearance of flea-beetles or horn worms, the bed should be sprayed with paris green mixed with water at the rate of 1 tablespoonful to 2 gallons of water. In order to keep down the insects, the bed should be sprayed at least three times a week. It is safer to protect these early beds with can- vas stretched on frames made over and around the beds. SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. (hc) When the plants are drawn for transplanting, great care should be taken to get as much root as possible. Each person doing this work should be provided with a bucket of water, and as soon as the plants are drawn the roots should be washed to remove all soil that may have stuck to them. The plants are then placed in a basket, roots down, and are immediately set out. The washing of the roots is not gen- erally practiced, but it has been found that plants live and grow better when the roots are clean. After each drawing of the plants from the bed, the soil should be watered, in order to close up the places from which the plants haye been taken. The soil selected for this tobacco should be a light gray sandy loam or sand with a sand or clay subsoil, provided the clay is not closer to the surface than 12 or 15 inches. In order to produce a light, thin wrapper, the sandy soil must be very rich and a large quantity of fertilizer is necessary. The land should be broken up in November or December, allowing the plow to cut from +4 to 6 inches deep, according to the nature of the soil and the quantity of fertilizer used. If a large quantity of fertilizer is used, such as cotton-seed meal and stable or barn manure, it should be thrown broadcast over the field and plowed in. This should be done about six weeks before the time of setting out the plants. Often a second application of fertilizer will be needed in order to give a continuous, rapid growth. The distance between the rows should be 4 feet and between the plants 12 inches. As it is always desirable to get a uniform growth, great care should be exercised to have each plant live. If the ground is moist and showers frequent, watering the plants is unnecessary; but if the ground is dry, they should be watered immediately after setting and, if possible, each day thereafter as long as the plants may require it. After setting the plants they should not be disturbed for at least six days. If the soil becomes packed and hard, a furrow should be run on each side of the row, using a small straight plow and letting it well down. This should be followed immediately by two sweep furrows, which will put the plants on a smooth ridge. The hoe is then used, carefully stirring the soil about. the plants. Thereafter cultivation should be frequent and shallow. As the principal value of Sumatra is its wrapping’ leaves, great care should be exercised to preserve the soundness of the leaf. In topping the Sumatra tobacco only the bud should be taken out, and all the leaves allowed to grow. If the land is exceedingly rich it is found best not to top at all, but to allow the plant to go to bloom. It has been found by experience that Sumatra tobacco should be harvested at an early stage of ripeness, as the leaf will cure riper and be more elastic—that is, it will have more life. It is usual to take 4 or 6 leaves at each priming, thus going over the field four or five times before the whole crop is harvested. 74 MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS. As soon as the first leaves at the bottom of the stalk begin to ripen, harvesting is begun by plucking off or priming the first four leaves at the bottom and transporting them to the curing shed in baskets. There they are strung on strings attached to laths, from 30 to 40 leaves being allowed to alath. The leaves are placed back to back and face to face, so as to prevent cupping or folding over each other. The laths are then hung in tiers in the barn, where they remain until the leaves are cured. When the tobacco is primed from the stalk, it should not take more than two weeks to cure; when it is hung on the stalks, three to four weeks are necessary. The manipulation of the barn or curing shed is governed entirely by the condition of the weather and the nature of the tobacco; so no fixed rules can be given. However, in a general way, it can be said that if a barn is filled with green tobacco and the weather is hot and dry, the ventilators should be tightly closed for about three days, by which time the tobacco should be quite vellow. The barn should then be opened at night and kept closed during the day. This is done to prevent rapid curing, which destroys the life of the leaf and gives uneven colors. If there are frequent showers and but little sunshine, the barn should be kept closed and fires started in small charcoal heaters distributed throughout the barn. These fires should be continued as long as it is necessary to keep the tobacco in proper condition. Where charcoal heaters are not available, wood which has as little odor and as little smoke as possible should be used. It is very important to dry out the barn without giving the tobacco any foreign odors. To obtain the best results the tobacco should become fairly moist and fairly dried out once in every twenty-four hours. When the midribs are thorcughly cured the leaves are ready to be taken to the packing house. To get the tobacco in condition to handle, all the ventilators should be left open for one night, opening them about 6 o’clock in the evening. The next morning the tobacco should be in what is called ‘* good case;” that is, it will have taken up sufli- cient moisture to become soft and pliable. The barn is then tightly closed, in order to retain the moisture, und tbe leaves are taken from the laths. The bottom, middle, and top leaves should be kept separate in the barn. After the tobacco has been taken down and packed it should be taken at once to the warehouse for fermentation and baling. FLortpa Sumatra Topacco (SouTHERN DisTRIctTs). The land for the seed bed should be preferably fresh, rich ham- mock, having a light gray soil, moist but not wet. Dry, thirsty land should be avoided. In selecting the seed bed it is best to secure land sloping from north to south, protected on the north by forests and open on the south to let in the midday sun. The time for sowing the SEED AND PLANT DISTRIBUTION. Mo seed is from March 1 to April 15. Plants should be re vady f for trans- planting about sixty days after sowing. One week before sowing the ceed the bed should be thoroughly cleaned and all straw and leaves carefully raked off, after which the ground should be burned. This is done to destroy all grass and weed seeds or roots which might otherwise come up and choke the tobacco plants. The burning is done in the following manner: After raking the surface well, skids are laid + feet apart, running the full length of the plat to be sown. The following statement regarding an earlier introduction of Spanish almonds than that made by the Department was received from Mr. W. A. Taylor after Mr. Fairchild’s manuscript had been sent to the printer: Since the Jordan almond buds secured by Mr. Fairchild reached this country and were successfully propagated, Mr. John Rock, manager of the California Nursery Company, Niles, Cal., has sent us samples, evidently of the true Jordan variety, grown on trees imported by him in dormant bud in February, 1897. Mr. Rock’s statement regarding his introduction is substantially as follows: In 1896 he requested a French firm to secure buds of the Jordan almond in Malaga, Spain, and to propagate them for him at their nursery in France. This was done, and a lot of dormant budded trees on Myrobolan plum stocks reached him on Feb- ruary 17, 1897. Fearing that the almond would not thrive on the Myrobolan roots, he grafted 100 of these dormant buds on old peach trees, using the entire stock of the Myrobolan plum, with the dormant almond bud upon it, as a scion, the balance being planted out in the usual way. Nearly all grew, but instead of being of one variety they were found to consist of many kinds, most of them resembling the common, hard-shelled almond. They made but a stunted growth and produced nuts in the third and fourth years. Three of the trees bore fruit that was apparently of the Jordan type, the nuts being of an oblong, curved sort. Mr. Rock, early in 1902, sent samples of these nuts to Consul Ridgely at Malaga, who submitted them to dealers there for identification. They pronounced them the true Jordan almond. It would appear from this that the credit for the introduction of the Jordan almond belongs to Mr. Rock, although the Department was not informed of this until after the stock secured by Mr. Fairchild had been established at several points in the United States. THE ALMOND INDUSTRY IN SPAIN. 9 THE ALMOND INDUSTRY IN SPAIN. Almond growing in Spain is a local industry, its main centers being Malaga and Alicante, although other regions along the coast and even the Balearic Islands, it is said, produce small quantities of the nut. The culture is carried on with various degrees of carefulness. Large plantations on the plains about Alicante, carefully tilled and well taken care of, remind one of American orchards, with their straight rows of well pruned trees and cultivated soil (Pl. I, figs. 2and 3). In many fields the almond, olive, fig, and carob trees are mixed, with no attempt at regularity, while in the region about Malaga the foothills are cov- ered with almond trees, between the rows of which grapevines are planted. Whether owing to this mixed culture or for tradition’s sake, the trees are planted far apart, 20-foot intervals being frequent. This does not appear excessive, as the trees reach a large size and live toa ripe old age, fifty years not being uncommon. While the kind of soil no doubt plays a certain part in the produc- tion of a fine almond, the writer does not believe it decides in any way the form of the variety. The best land for almonds in Spain is that of the foothills or sierras. This is a gravelly loam, which during August becomes as dry as dust and breaks up into irregular but not very hard lumps (PI. I, fig. 3). It is of a light yellowish-gray, sometimes reddish color, and is under- laid by a bed of gravel and rock so firm that it is difficult to get a soil auger into it. Such soil, according to Prof. Milton Whitney, Chief of the Bureau of Soils, to whom samples have been submitted, resembles that of the foothills of California.“ The climate of this almond region isa very mild one. Freezes occur in winter and ice a half inch in thickness often forms on the water butts, but a minimum of less than 20° must be uncommon, even in the northernmost limit of almond culture, about Alicante. How severe weather the trees will endure while in dormant bud remains, therefore, to be tested in this country. As regards rainfall in this semiarid region, it is difficult to ascertain the facts, as no reliable published data can be found. From the statements of growers and old inhabitants, “The following is the report of a mechanical analysis of the soil from an almond orchard near Malaga, Spain, made by the Bureau of Soils: Per cent. Or oani cam alle y= eee a= See eee ee ee eae 11. 42 (Guawaly Otro alin, See ee on 8s cos SCO eee 6.96 (Grewal, ab op Okda nin Seat akon ab enaeee l= SSeS See eee 6.56 Wedinmarsand "0: tol0:Zopmm eee ee eeaer.....-----c422 52a 3.12 Bites dO: 25sto) OslsmMbeen see ae meeeeeye . = o0. se cne sect sae e 10. 74 WMenvatimeisandes Oslato!O\0bismmueerecee sae. >. s The water-soluble material is ‘‘0.13 per cent in form of bicarbonates.”’ 10 SPANISH ALMONDS. however, the writer concludes that the months of July, August, and September are practically rainless and that the winter rains are neither frequent nor very abundant. The region is essentially a dry one, verging on the arid, and in sheltered portions of it, at Elche, even the tender date palm is grown. It is the only place in all Europe where this palm is grown extensively or where it bears really edible, though not excellent, fruit. This region is a land of perpetual sunshine, and in it the olive, fig, pomegranate, the famous Malaga grape, and the carob form character- istic cultures, although the center of each of these cultures is not in the immediate locality. The olives, for example, which furnish the Spanish olives of commerce, are grown farther inland, about Granada and Seville; the figs are more important on the Balearic Islands and in southern Portugal; the pomegranates are raised on the salt lands, where figs refuse to do well; the orchards of carobs are largest about Valencia, some distance from the almond region; and the Malaga table grapes have their center about Almeria; the raisin grapes are in the neighborhood of Malaga, it is true, but occur largely in the valleys, while the almonds are generally grown in the foothills. (Pls. II and Woe) VARIETIES OF SPANISH ALMONDS. It is probable that there are a score or more varieties of Spanish almonds which have been propagated by budding, but owing to the antiquated methods in vogue in the almond regions, little reliable information about most of these sorts is obtainable. The writer was astonished to learn how local these sorts are and how little could be learned from one grower about sorts grown in even a neighboring locality. This would not be so surprising if one remembered the dearth of horticultural literature at the disposal of the almond growers. Probably many identical sorts are known by different names in different localities. The English buyers, who were formerly about the only ones, have given names to some of the sorts that are quite different from those known among the growers themselves. The best variety is known in commerce as the Jordan, and yet not once was this name heard applied to the variety by the growers. They call it the ‘‘ Large e fine,” a descriptive name meaning simply ‘‘the large, fine almond.” As to the origin of this name Jordan there is nothing new to offer. It may bea corruption of the French word ‘‘ jardin,” meaning garden, or the name can easily have related to the origin of the first importations into England, erroneously supposed to have come from the River Jordan. If the word Jordan occurred in the Spanish trade the former assump- tion might have some weight, but the term seems to have originated among the English importers. ALMOND INDUSTRY IN SPAIN. 11 The trade names, as distinct from the varietal, relate to the grades more than to the different sorts. They are ‘‘donkeys,” ‘‘ horses,” ‘*tigers,” ‘‘lions,” *‘elephants,” and ‘‘*mammoths,” according to the size of the shelled nuts. The ‘tdonkeys” are small and bring a lower price, while the ‘‘mammoths” are simply the abnormally Jarge nuts found by the sorters who pick over the nuts by hand. These latter bring fancy prices, only a few boxes being secured during the year out of the thousands of all grades which are shipped. As the nuts are all cracked on the plantation by the men, women, and children, and brought down on donkey backs to the small buyers in the villages, to be sent to the large storehouses of the exporters, these latter know their almonds chiefly from the character of the ker- nel. Peculiarities of the American tariff, it is said, make the export of shelled nuts more profitable. Purely mechanical devices for grad- ing these almonds, similar to the gold-coin weighing chutes of banking houses, would do away with much of the unnecessary labor of sorting. There are two more or less distinct types recognized by the export- ers of almonds, but these include several varieties. The Jordan type of nut (see frontispiece and PI. IV, fig. 1) is the long, narrow, but plump sort, with exceedingly hard, smooth shell, truncated base, and somewhat bent apex, with edges free from a sharp knife-like character common to many bitter almonds. The edge view is more or less arrow-shaped, and there is a distinct dorsi-ventral char- acter to the nut. Its length alone distinguishes it from others of the Spanish sorts, it being by far the longest and slenderest type. Char- acters in the foliage may be discovered which will distinguish this from other types. No striking peculiarities were noticed, no oppor- tunity occurring to make very careful comparisons. The fruit itself is rather thin fleshed and covered with a heavy pubescence. The kernel in good specimens nearly fills the cavity of the nut and is covered with a most delicate papery skin. This skin is much thinner and more delicate than that of any other almond in the trade and is one of the most valuable qualities of this variety. In flavor and texture the flesh surpasses in delicacy any other kind. Attempts have been made to grow this Jordan variety in the neigh- borhood of Alicante, but without success. Those of the growers with whom the writer talked knew nothing about the sort, so it seems rea- sonable to assume that these attempts were not made on any considera- ble scale. The Valencia class of nut (PL. IV, figs. 2, 3, and 4; Pl. V, fig. 1; Pl. VI, fig. 1) is radically different in shape from the Jordan, being a short, decidedly heart-shaped form, with a flat, broad kernel, thicker skin, and somewhat less delicate flesh. The longest of these Valencias are often used by shippers for the adulteration of their Jordans, and the extent to which this adulteration goes on is evidenced by the mixed 99 66 12 SPANISH ALMONDS. lot of shapes one sees even among the sugar-coated almonds of the confectioner. Several distinct varieties of almonds are sold by the exporters as Valencias, and a lot of seedling ungrafted trees doubtless contribute their share to make up the bulk of this high but second gerade almond. The two best of the Valencia type found in cultivation in more or less large quantity were the Planeta (PI. I, fig. 1; Pl. LV, fig. 3; Pl. V, figs. 1 and 2), which is the popular yariety grown about Alicante, and the Pastaneta (Pl. IV, fig. 2), which, although superior in flavor and form to the Planeta, is a shier bearer and has proven less profitable. The Planeta is heart-shaped, is much thicker at the base than the apex and with sides unusually straight, while the Pastaneta has a very plump, striking form, truncated at both apex and base. Figures 2 and 3 in Plate IV show these differences distinctly. The Castillet and Fabrica are other sorts of the same general type found growing in a single gar- den at Alicante, and they merit mention here only to point out the fact that there are doubtless a large number of distinct varieties scattered through the orchards of Spain. The Valencia nuts are grown about Alicante, and not, as the name would indicate, about Valencia, which latter is distinctly the citrus province of Spain. The Mollar is a name given to a variety of the soft-shelled almond grown largely for home consumption. (Pl. VI, fig. 1.) It was found growing about Alicante, but the writer suspects it is a name given to any soft-shelled sort. Seedlings without any local names, even, were shown, and some were of sufficient promise to indicate plainly that much can be expected from the seed of these best sorts if judiciously selected. With a yiew of furnishing almond breeders in America with material for selection, a quantity of nuts was secured for distri- bution. The bitter almond, used for stocks, is a little, round, sharp- pointed, plump-formed nut, at once distinguishable from the grafted Sorts:) (EI DVeiior os) METHOD OF PLANTING AND CULTURE. Most of the almond trees of Spain are grafted, and the bitter variety is usually employed as a stock. Few nurseries exist in the region, and these pay little attention to the almond. Not a single nursery of almond trees was seen, and the writer was informed that, in most cases at least, the seeds of the bitter almond were planted in a rough seed bed, the young trees transplanted to the places they were to occupy in the orchard, and when two years old, or even more, were budded. Budding is done in the spring. The trees are not com- monly budded near the ground, but at a height of 2 to 4 feet above it —a fact plainly evident on all the old trees, which show the point of INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA, ie} union of stock and bud some distance above the base of the trunk. (RIS Vie toa sel Vile fies: 1 andi2:) The flowering season is the deciding moment for the almond more than for almost any other fruit, for it is the earliest flowering of all our cultivated fruit trees, and consequently most subject to injury by late frosts. Even in the sierras about Malaga a total loss of the crop sometimes occurs in certain valleys as a result of a local late frost. The flowering season for the Jordan begins in January or February, as nearly as can be made out from the conflicting statements given, and is not appreciably later for the other sorts grown near Alicante. The culture as carried on in Spain is simple enough, and seems to consist, in most localities, of watching for the nuts to ripen and in beat- ing them from the trees when the proper season has arrived, which is in early August. (PI. II], fig.3.) The nuts are easily separated from the dry, leathery flesh, and are spread out on the rocks to dry, or carefully piled in the courtyard for safe-keeping. (Pl. VII, fig. 3.) When dried sufliciently they are cracked and the kernels taken from them, packed in bags and boxes, and shipped by pack mule to the nearest buyer. GUMMOSIS OF THE ALMOND. In some of the almond orchards about Malaga, which were in rather a poor condition, trees were found which were dying from a kind of gummosis that manifested itself in a dying of the bark of the main trunk, a withering and death of the tips of the twigs (Pl. VI, fig. 2),and the formation of gum drops as large as a turkey egg on the trunk and main branches. The fruit of the trees suffering from gummosis was also affected. The shell was discolored in spots, and the kernel was often spotted or the tip covered with a soft gum, which was more or less slimy to the touch. Many trees were seen about the small town of Casara Bonella which were doomed to a speedy death from this disease. Whether or not this gummosis was the effect or the cause of the trouble the writer is unable to say. It seemed to cause the growers no alarm, and was considered by them as a well-known trouble, its prevalence varying with the season. Specimens of the diseased trunks have been submitted to an expert in the Department, and it is possible the cause of the trouble may be discovered. POSSIBILITY OF ESTABLISHING THE JORDAN ALMOND IN AMERICA. The principal difficulty in the successful introduction of the Jordan variety of almond into America will be to find localities suited to almond culture which are not subject to late frosts. The soil conditions, if suited to the growth of other good varieties, will, in all probability, fill the requirements put upon them by this superlative sort. Califor- 14 SPANISH ALMONDS. nians have shown already that they can grow from a half million to two and a half million pounds of almonds per year, and of a quality which ‘* compares favorably with all but the best;” and if regions free from January and February frosts can be discovered there seems no reason to doubt the successful issue of an experiment. Why no other nation than Spain has grown these varieties is not difficult to explain when one realizes that the nuts are exported almost exclusively to England and this country, and that even the French mar- kets do not handle them. The natural inertia and indifference of the growers in Sicily account for the failure to thoroughly test the culti- vation of the Jordan almond there. Although California is the largest almond producer in America, there are small areas in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, and Oregon where growers should be found who are willing to experiment with these introductions. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Frontispiece. Jordan almonds. Natural size. 1. Ventral view. 2. Lateral view. 3. Dorsal view. 4. Base. 5. Apex. 6. Cross section. 7. Nut split to show kernel in position. 8. Base of kernel at left; apex of kernel at right. 9 and 10. Kernel, split. 11. Kernel, edge view. 12. Kernel, lateral view Puiate I. Almond orchards about Alicante.—Fig. 1. A single large tree of the variety Planeta.—Fig. 2. One of the largest almond orchards near Alicante, showing a fine state of cultivation and freedom from weeds and other vegetation.—Fig. 3. Cultivating an almond orchard near Alicante in August. Note the character of the soil and the freedom from weeds. Puate II. Jordan almond orchards about Malaga.—Fig. 1. The low foothills covered with olive and almond trees.—Fig. 2. An old almond orchard among the hills near Cartana. Notice the clean culture.—Fig. 3. Tree of Jordan almond, near the city of Malaga, from which scions were obtained for introduction into the United States. Puare III. Scenes in the Spanish sierras, where the best Jordan almonds are grown.— Fig. 1. The village of Almogia; almond trees in the foreground.—Fig. 2. Scat- tered-almond trees on the mountain side.—Fig. 3. Beating the fruit from an almond tree on the mountain side. Puate IV. Nuts of five varieties of Spanish almonds fresh from the trees. These are shown in ventral and lateral views within the fleshy envelope and lateral view with half of the envelope removed. All figures reduced one-third.—Fig. 1. Variety Jordan from Malaga.—Fig. 2. Pastaneta from Alicante.—Fig. 3. Planeta from Alicante.—Fig. 4. Mollar from Alicante.—Fig. 5. Bitter almond from Malaga, used as stock for the Jordan. Puare V.—Fig. 1. A branch of Planeta almond from Alicante, showing foliage and ripe fruits.—Fig. 2. Tree of Planeta almond growing near Alicante, showing enlargement of trunk due to grafting. Note the clean culture given to the soil. Puate VI. Fig. 1. A branch of Mollar almond from Alicante, showing foliage and ripe fruits.—Fig. 2. A branch of Jordan almond affected with gummosis, from a garden at Casara Bonella, Spain. Pratre VII. Fig. 1. Tree of Jordan almond from which scions were obtained. The enlargement on the trunk is at the point where the tree was grafted.—Fig. 2. Branch of Jordan almond just cut from the tree, showing foliage and ripe fruits. Large almond trees in the background.—Fig. 3. A group of almond growers, descendants of the Moors, in an old Moorish village near Malaga. In the fore- ground are heaps of uncracked almonds. 16 O PLATE I. Fic. 3.—CuLTIVATING AN ALMOND ORCHA A ST ALMOND ORCHARDS ABOUT ALICANTE, Bul. 26, Bureau of Plant | ndustry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE II. Fic. 1.—Low FoorTuitts Covere Fic. 3.—TREE oF JoR ND NEAR MALAGA, FR¢ JORDAN ALMOND ORCHARDS ABOUT MALAGA. Bul. 26, Bureau of Plant ‘ndustry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture PLATE III TAIN SIDE Fic. 3.—BEATING THE FRUIT FROM AN ALMOND TREE ON THE MOUN WHERE THE BEST JORDAN ALMONDS ARE GROWN. THE SPANISH SIER Bul. 26, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE IV. 1. JORDAN ALMONDS FROM MALAGA. 2. PASTANETA ALMONDS FROM ALICANTE. 3. PLANETA ALMONDS FROM ALICANTE 4, MOoLtarR ALMONDS FROM ALICANTE 5. BitteR ALMONDS FROM MALAGA VARIETIES OF SPANISH ALMONDS FRESH FROM THE TREES (REDUCED ONE-THIRD). nade a, go PLaTE V. f Agriculture. Dept S) Bureau of Plant Industry, U 26, Bul j Fic. 1.—BRANCH OF PLANETA ALMOND FROM ALICANTE. Fic. 2.—TREE OF PLANETA ALMOND NEAR ALICANTE. Pate VI. pt au of Plant Industry, U. S De Bul Fic. 1.—BRANCH OF MOLLAR ALMOND FROM ALICANTE. Fic. 2.—DISEASED BRANCH OF JORDAN ALMOND FROM CASARA BONELLA. PLaTe VII. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture , Bureau of Plant Industry 26 Bu Fic. 1.—JORDAN ALMOND TREE FROM WHICH SCIONS WERE TAKEN. Fic. 2.—BRANCH OF RIPE JORDAN ALMONDS JUST PLUCKED FROM THE TREE. Fic. 3.—ALMOND GROWERS, DESCENDANTS OF THE Moors. | Ueoe aE PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 27. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau, LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES, SPAIN; AND THE ORIENT. BY DAVID G. FAIRCHILD, AcricutruraL ExPLoreEr. SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. IssuED NovEMBER 20, 1902, WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. i? Pes ee ‘1,5 , aw fe ity « LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau oF Puant Inpustry, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., September 2, 1902. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith letters and reports from Mr. David G. Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer, regarding agricultural conditions noted by him in trayels in the British West Indies, Philip- pine Islands, Spain, China, Japan, India, and the region of the Persian Gulf, and recommend that they be published as Bulletin No. 27 of the Bureau series. The observations of Mr. Fairchild were made while he was traveling as the assistant of Mr. Barbour Lathrop on expedi- tions planned by him in cooperation with this Department. These reports and letters have been submitted with a view to pub- lication by Mr. A. J. Pieters, Botanist in Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution. Respectfully, —l 3. T. GaLLoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James WILson, vec Secretary of Agriculture. a ne ee ey Tonby: i y DATE ely , ‘, i. - ao , 7 Cran: Os es = hh Sn i heed Sees, i Ge : 4) a ive pee. ta Pu ¥ } ae aa Ce : i ‘ : Ve | by i w ¥ ® ts ; . es . at . : [ ‘ é 7 ‘ .. “ ; 4 ‘ i y + " , Lani a PRE AC B: From time to time Mr. D. G. Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer for the Department, has given in letters to the Secretary of Agriculture his impressions of matters pertaining to agriculture as observed by him in his travels. Mr. Fairchild’s wide experience and his habit of observing closely the agricultural conditions of the countries through which he passes make his communications of especial interest and value. The Secretary of Agriculture directed the publication of these letters, and five of them, written at different times from January 30, 1899, to August 22, 1902, together with three other papers, which from their nature seem to belong here, are included in this bulletin. Mr. Fairchild’s letters are arranged chronologically and are published practically in full. A. J. PIETERS, Botanist in Charge. SEED AND PLantr INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION, Washington, D. C., July 30, 1902. 5 CONE NEES. FAOMICUIGUNEMMUUM ee BTiS MW esti LCS stasis aera = inion sei) in sie soeiec acl aAmMalcanvanienl MvaAtlONe ses: see ae eee ee apis seis sais So ieee vies cio Sinclsc decace Opportunities for agricultural and botanical research in the Philippine Islands. NOT CUliUTaRGON OUMONS IOS PAM a= see ee see eso ce ie Soe snic oe secececees Notestontcondilonsini Chinas mecice-— sae seca ajnona =e 2 aioe aS amiecese Mie p er ersia my cil tren ONkeee ees ee ey ale se seeiecle ais ale loinis ssc ocicmseiok Breeds of milch cattle and carabaos for the Philippine Islands. ..........---- FNC TIC ULEOe Res A PAN wees ean yan rise eects: a cactistiae Uesciecjeseoeee DeseripuonloMplates sae epee = (sila oi as sale eee wala close ses abe eee sseane ae Puate I. II. Til. IW We DUS TRAIL ORS: Fig. 1.—A modern Spanish fanning mill. Fig. 2.—A modern Spanish threshing machine. Fig. 3.—A modern Spanish subsoil INOW onosces ca ncuosn as aneepsodcesossscessursueseosassSogoscs Fig. 1.—Homes of natives on the bank of the Tigris River. Fig. 2.—Scene in a date garden, Bagdad ..........---------- ac Fig. 1.—Sind cow from Karachi, India. Fig. 2.—Delhi carabao from Delhi, India. Fig. 3.—Rump view of Delhi carabao..--... Fig. 1.—Surti milch carabao from Gujarat, India. Fig. 2.—Rump view, Of Surtiomilch (carabao/s.- 42255 322 eee een eee Fig. 1.—Laboratory of Professor Hirase at Hikone, Japan. Fig. 2.— Experiment station buildings at Shizuoka, Japan. Fig. 3.—The plumimarketiotlikeda, Japan ----— 222-2 eee 58 Page. 40 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE IN THE WEST INDIES, SPAIN, AND THE ORIENT. AGRICULTURE IN THE BRITISH WEST INDIES. Port OF SPAIN, Trintpad, British West INpres, , January 30, 1902. Considerable shipments of West Indian yams“ have been arranged for, which I believe will form an addition to the root crops of the Gulf States, and of Florida especially. These yams are the staple food of the Jamaican blacks, and are worthy of general introduction to Ameri- can tables. They are totally distinct from what are usually known in America as yams, belonging to quite a different family of plants. They yield a very large amount of food material per acre, the average of three years’ trial in Trinidad being over ten tons. You will be interested in an account of the preparations which are being made in the British West Indies to establish experiment stations and agricultural colleges for the investigation of problems in tropical agriculture and for the instruction of planters and natives in modern methods. I was present at a special meeting of the Jamaica Institute in Kings- ton, where was discussed the plans for an experiment station to be established in Jamaica. I met there the representative scientists and agricultural educators of the island, and at their request spoke to them on the organization of American agricultural colleges and experiment stations. From the acquaintances made at the meeting I learned that it was their aim to model the new station after the American plan. The Royal West Indian Commission has recommended in its report on the means which should be employed to relieve agricultural depres- sion in the islands, the establishment of a department of agriculture to be supported by Imperial grant, and not, as in India, to he dependent upon the colonial government. The expressed purpose of this new department is the *‘ restoring of the sugar industry to a condition in which it could be profitably carried on, and to encourage the establish- @See p. 12 of this bulletin. 9 10 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. 5 to supplement the staple industry.” The funds at the disposal of the department are £17,500 yearly for ten years, and Dr. D. Morris, formerly assistant director in Kew, has been selected as commissioner. Contrary to my impression before coming here, this department does not include in so far as the expenditure of Imperial funds is concerned all the British West Indies. The colonies of British Guiana with 65 million acres, Trinidad with over one million acres, and Jamaica with more than 24 million acres, were considered by the commission as able to support their own excellent experiment stations, and receive from the Imperial Government no grants in aid, the commissioner haying only advisory power over the independent stations of these colonies. The total area, therefore, which will be affected by the Imperial grant of £17,500 is only a trifle over $25,000 acres, only 580,000 of which are cultivable. This does not necessarily mean that certain aid in the way of agricultural instruction may not be given to the colonies of British Guiana, Jamaica, and Trinidad. Dr. Morris’s plans for the expenditure of the funds intrusted by Parliament to his department have been outlined in the report of the commission published in 1897, as well as somewhat more fully in a speech before the agricultural conference held in Barbados previous to our arrival. They include as principal features the continuance of the very excellent experiments in the breeding of sugar cane which were inaugurated by Dr. Harrison, of British Guiana, while he was still in Barbados, and which have opened up a new field of research and proyed beyond a doubt that the sugar cane is capable of very great improvement by means of crossing and selecting the seedling canes. There have been produced seedling varieties which contain more than one-fourth more sugar per ton of cane than the best Bourbon cane heretofore grown in these islands. The variety known as Barbados No. 147 has yielded three-fourths of a ton more sugar per acre than the Bourbon variety. It should be noted, however, that notwithstanding the great inter- est in the experiments and the number of investigators engaged, there has been no systematic breeding done and the male parentage of the best canes is in no case known, while the female parent is in many ‘ases a matter of conjecture. At least, after diligent inquiry, I have been unable to find any record of hand crosses being made. A second feature of the work will be the introduction of new plant industries, and the various botanical stations already established on the islands of Tobago, Grenada, St. Vincent, Barbados; St. Lucia, Dominica, Monserrat, Antigua, and St. Kitts-Nevis, and the large and excellently equipped botanic gardens in Jamaica, British Guiana, and Trinidad make the systematic work of introduction a much simpler matter; and were the conservatism of the average English planter less great, many new and profitable industries, I believe, could be estab- BRITISH WEST INDIES. Wl lished. This conservatism is sure to play a great rdle in the carrying out of this feature of the work, and I am more fully convinced than ever that the American cultivator when he does once enter the field of tropical agriculture will make his mark, as he has in the agriculture of temperate regions, by introducing into the markets of the world a host of new food products. My attention has been called to a large number of tropical fruits that could be grown successfully in Porto Rico and which would bear shipment by fast steamer to New York, where, if once properly advertised, they would make a market for themselves and become as common as the pomelo or Japanese persim- mon. These fruits are as yet nothing but seedlings, as no work in their amelioration has been done. What they could be bred into, the experienced American horticulturist can easily conjecture. A third feature of the department’s prospective work has to do with the establishment of agricultural schools on the islands of Dominica, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and St. Kitts-Nevis for the manual training of orphans and destitute children; the employment of teachers in agricultural science in the higher schools and colleges; courses in agriculture of a normal character, to which the teachers in the elemen- tary schools will be invited; and small grants to elementary schools teaching the theory of agriculture. In connection with the educa- tional part of the plans of the new department, traveling teachers or instructors will be sent about the islands, holding meetings similar to the farmers’ institutes in America. Agricultural exhibitions or fairs in the different islands will be fostered by small grants for prizes, ete. The Imperial Government has already advertised for a new steam- ship line direct from Jamaica to the mother country, with a view to the encouragement of the Jamaica fruit trade, and a second to run between Trinidad, Barbados, and Canada (Halifax). No provision is made to develop the fruit trade with New York, although Dr. Morris informed me that this might ultimately be done. The fear that our tariff might at any time be changed to their detriment has decided the authorities to encourage trade with the mother country and Canada only. After a somewhat careful study of the institutions of Jamaica, Barbados, and Trinidad, it becomes evident to me that there is not as yet what an American would consider a modern experiment station in the West Indies. There are well-equipped chemical laboratories and comfortable, well-arranged, botanical laboratories, but no happy com- binations of botanist, entomologist, chemist, and agriculturist, which make up an American experiment station, The most fully equipped botanical garden and the most profitable place in the West Indies for American students who wish to learn the elements of tropical agriculture is here in Trinidad, where a comfort- able laboratory and an unusually rich economic botanical garden, under 12 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. the able management of Mr. J. H. Hart, would enable a young Ameri- can to pursue any line of research relating to the culture of tropical plants. Mr. Hart’s interest in American methods and his acquaint- ance with American characteristics would make him a very profitable associate for any student who could be sent. The key to the situation lies in the breeding of tropical plants, and already here in Trinidad the first successful attempts at grafting cocoa have been made. Cocoa, coffee, tea, and many other of the tropical food plants will soon be propagated by grafting, and a host of new and better varieties will be developed by hybridizing and selecting. In conclusion, I wish to call attention to the object of the expedition which Mr. Lathrop is conducting, which is not to study exhaustively any one country, but to get an idea of its possibilities and ascertain whether or not it would be worth while to send an explorer into it to study its resources, spending months in such study, and at the same time to pick up such seeds and plants as would be of evident utility should they succeed when introduced into America. Only such species as are already successful as food or otherwise economic plants in the countries visited will be sent. We have already sent, or arranged to have sent, the yams above mentioned, a collection of the celebrated Barbados sweet potatoes; four of the most noted varieties of East Indian mangoes; a number of plants of the *‘Trinidine” lime, the largest lime I ever saw; cut- tings of a new yariety of Poincettia, the showiest foliage plant I have ever seen; a collection of Trinidad varieties of Hibiscus, some of which are the showiest of their kind, and will surely be appreciated; a quan- tity of the ** Para” grass, one of the most highly prized forage grasses of the Tropics, which will succeed admirably in Florida, it is believed; and seeds of the cashew tree, which bears what in the opinion of the connoisseurs is the most delicious of all table nuts, the cashew nut. The cultivation of this tree could be made to develop into an industry similar to the pecan industry of Louisiana, if properly introduced into Porto Rico or southern Florida. JAMAICA YAM CULTIVATION. The cultivation in Jamaica of the vegetables known as yams seems to date from a remote period, as no one, even of the oldest inhabitants, seems able to recollect when any of the varieties now grown were not sold on the markets. Yam culture has, however, within the last ten years, greatly increased, perhaps doubled, and in the eastern portion of the island the patches devoted to it are more numerous than those given up to any other plant, save the banana, which to-day forms the principal export fruit of the island. Fully 40 per cent of the native women who walk to market with baskets of produce on their heads, at this time of year at least, have their baskets filled with yams. The JAMAICA YAM CULTIVATION. 13 yam forus certainly one of the most important articles of exchange at the large markets, and it would be no exaggeration to say that it is the staple food plant of the Jamaica blacks and a most important vegetable of the Europeans and half-castes. Just when and by whom the yam was introduced into Jamaica, I have not been able to discover. It is not, however, indigenous, although some of the varieties which will be mentioned later are probably of Jamaican origin. The culture of this vegetable is not, as might be supposed, confined to the native blacks, but is given serious attention by some of the most intelligent planters on the island. Especially suited as the yam is to culture in the higher altitudes, it forms a part of many coffee planters’ business to grow a certain number of yams for their own consumption and for sale to the blacks. The profits from such culture are not great, but the business is reasonably remunerative. So far as the consular digest shows, no yams are exported to America, although were a taste for the finest variety created, there would certainly be a good market for it, as it is a vegetable of sufli- ciently characteristic flavor to win for itself a place on the finest hotel tables and attract the attention of the most exacting. The variety which is so superior to all others, is known by the name of ** }impie,” and is worthy the serious consideration of Florida and Louisiana planters as a vegetable to be grown for the highest-priced or fancy markets. Certainly, a baked Yampie is more palatable than a baked Irish potato, and the crisp skin of the baked root has a flavor not pos- sessed by any vegetable, so far as I know. The culture of the plant is not so simple as might be supposed at first sight, and, as in the treatment of many plants, different varieties (in this case species, botanically speaking) require different methods. The Yampie is a vine resembling our American species of smilax somewhat, with clusters of large fleshy roots like sweet potatoes. It is propagated by what are called ‘* heads,” which are no more than the extremities of the enlarged roots, containing adventitious buds which under suitable condititions are able to develop into new vines. These heads are planted (in Jamaica, at any time of year almost) in hills 6 to 8 feet apart each way, 3 heads being placed 6 inches or so apart in each hill, and a stout 8-foot pole is driven near one of the heads, upon which the vigorous vines are trained. Planted in rich soil they grow without any attention other than the cultivation necessary to keep the weeds down, and from each single head several vines spring. These vines draw their nourishment from the head, sucking it dry as a squeezed orange, and by the time the vines are established on their own roots they begin forming underneath the heads the fleshy roots which form the crop. In the course of five or six months these roots are large enough to harvest. The roots are gathered without destroy- 14 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. ing the vines, and sometimes three or more crops are taken from one planting. After the harvest of the deeply buried roots, the portions above are allowed to grow and *‘ make heads,” as they say here. These heads are used to start a new plantation, being cut into large pieces, each containing several buds, and are then buried or covered in a pile, together with straw or leaves, until the buds start, when they are planted as just described. From one head several of the edible roots are produced, but the proportionate increase in comparison with sweet potatoes is in the latter’s favor. The yield is not more than three or four times what is planted. So far as I could ascertain, it is the gen- eral practice in Jamaica to plant large heads, the larger the better, or at least large cuttings of the root itself. Nosuch system of sprouting is employed as with the sweet potato: in fact, the idea prevails that the young plant is dependent for too long a time upon what nourish- ment it draws from the head to make such a method possible. Only feeble plants would result. Of the recognized varieties of yams, the Negro yam, Lucy yam, or Blue Vine yam, which are considered by Mr. R. W. Miles, one of the best informed growers of these plants in the island, as synonymous or at least only slightly different varieties, is that bearing in the shortest time from planting. If planted in April it matures its crop in October. The White yam, although requiring longer to mature, is a much better keeper; in fact, it can be kept for months with perfect ease if the broken surfaces are painted with a mixture of quicklime and water. The Affoo or Yellow yam is extensively grown, but is considered no better than the White and is inferior in keeping qualities. The Yampie isa poor keeper and from the difficulties in its culture, as well as its great inferiority in size, is, for amount of nutriment furnished, a much more expensive product. Slight bruises injure the roots and deeays start in very quickly. The yam plantations are more abundant and successful in the cooler moist regions of the island, I am informed, and from all appearances it is reasonable to assume that the plant requires a great deal of moisture. Should an attempt be made to grow these yams in America it could only hope for success in regions where either the rainfall is heavy enough, over 20 inches a year, or where water for irrigation is at command. This is not stating that the plant can not withstand a reasonable amount of dry weather. The heads ought to be planted as soon as danger from frost is past in spring; advantageously, in boxes inacold frame. Two months would be no exorbitant estimate for starting the heads, and they might well be planted in February under acold frame. When planted in hills the heads should be well covered, the earth being drawn up well about the base of the vine, as with sweet potatoes. To maintain sufficient heads for planting the follow- PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 15 ing season, the crop should be removed without disturbing any more than necessary the base of the vine and that collection of irregular root tips which forms the incipient head. The latter should be covered and allowed to remain as long as possible before digging. Experience would teach what modifications of the methods in vogue here would be necessary in the Southern States of America. It seems certain that the cultivation of these superior varieties of yams, especially of Yampie, would be lucrative if such yams were intro- duced into our northern markets and people were informed how they should be prepared. The Jamaica Cookery Book, issued in 1897, gives four or more different methods of preparing the Jamaica yam, but omits the important recipe for baking, although the baked Yampies are more palatable than any other form of prepared yam. The crisp browned skin of a Yampie baked for ten minutes in a quick native oven is especially palatable. OPPORTUNITIES FOR AGRICULTURAL AND BOTANICAL RESEARCH IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. S. 8. “° TONKIN,” MessaGerteE MaratiMe, BETWEEN SINGAPORE AND COLOMBO, April 17, 1900. The agricultural and botanical institutions in the city of Manila are in the most dilapidated condition. In 1897 the more or less exten- sive herbarium and collections of natural history, as well as the library of scientific books relating to the Philippines, was accidentally burned. There are now existing in the city only a few miscellaneous works on the fauna and flora of the islands and a small but neatly kept museum of zoological and botanical specimens in the Jesuit Academy, in charge of Padre Simon. Some works on forestry which were formerly in the office of the Inspection de Montes, or inspection of lands, were sought for in vain. The office building was occupied by the Twenty-seventh Regiment and crowded with camp stoves and other army supplies, looking as little as possible like a forestry department. It is evident that this depart- ment was given more than usual attention by the Spanish colonial government, and as evidence of this Captain Ahern, of the board of claims, informed us that the forest laws were far more carefully drawn up and more comprehensive than those of our own country. Judging from the large quantities of very excellent timber which have been used in the construction of churches and houses, the forests must have contained and still possess a wealth of exceptionally good tropical wood. Polished floors made of 14-inch boards, as straight as if newly laid and without a check, are a great rarity elsewhere in the Tropics, and such a floor as that of the Jesuit Church, which is as 16 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. smooth as marble, made of large squares of hard wood, would bea novelty anywhere. In the astronomical observatory is a dark mahog- any-brown table top, 6 feet wide and 12 feet long, of native ‘‘ harra” wood, which shows the large size to which these forest trees some- times grow, and corroborates the statements made in works of travel as well as by officers that large forests of giant trees exist, into the hollow stumps of some of which it is possible to ride on horseback. With such valuable timbers, the problem of their protection and proper exploitation becomes an important one, notwithstanding the well-understood fact that comparatively few tropical cabinet woods pay for exportation to Europe or America. The Dutch have shown in Java what can be done in the forestry management of a tropical island, and their system is well worth study. There are the remains of a botanical garden near the heart of the city which was formerly under the directorship of Dr. Regino Garcia, aman of intelligence and a botanist. Dr. Garcia was in the employ of the Spanish Government from 1866 to January 31, 1899, and received from that and other governments various decorations and diplomas for expositions of Philippine products. At present the garden is in charge of an American, and his supervision extends to the public plazas and roadways. The garden itself contains only about six or seven acres, lying between the two principal driveways to the ‘‘ Lunetta” or promenade. During the insurrection prior to the American occupa- tion, the iron fence about the garden was removed and many of the best specimens of plants dug up or cut down. The larger trees were roughly pruned and hacked to pieces, and so far as possible everything which could serve as a shelter for the insurgents against the fire from the wailed city near by was pulled down. A small two-story frame building of five rooms and a gate-keeper’s lodge were, however, left standing, and the former is being put into a habitable condition. As to labels, those most perishable and yet necessary adjuncts of a botanic garden, there are practically none, nor could I discover that there existed any list of the few hundred plants contained in the garden. A redetermination of most of the species will be necessary. Although I have seen botanic gardens which were little more than heterogeneous collections of ill-kept plants and lawnless stretches of bare earth, this garden in Manila is at present the worst I have ever seen. The street tree planting which is going on deserves careful direc- tion in the selection of trees best suited for avenue purposes. Noth- ing could add more to the general comfort of the citizens of Manila than a replanting of the numerous small plazas and the setting out and protection of shade trees along such streets as are wide enough to admit them. It is no doubt true that many street trees which served to shelter the insurgents were cut down by the Spanish, but such sad PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. if looking wastes as the ** Lunetta,” are evidences that there never has been in Manila anything worthy the name of a park. Maps of the city show that a series of parks and avenues could be easily arranged with the walled city as a starting point, which would greatly improve and beatitify the place, and the old moat and canal, if properly handled, could be transformed into one of the most pic- turesque spots in the Orient. I do not believe the botanical work done in the islands was ever great, and when compared with what Holland has done for her colonies it is as nothing. It would be unfair in this connection to omit to mention the very creditable work of Soler y Vidal on the forest flora of the islands, or to fail’to allude to the other Spanish botanists who have contributed to a knowledge of the Philippine botany, but considering the length of the occupation and the richness of the plant world one is forced to the conclusion that valuable botanical opportunities have been wasted. The agricultural problems to be solved and the botanical explora- tions to be made are very attractive, and offer an interesting life to any young man who is willing to work for the interests of a native race like the Filipinos and identify himself with the development of a rich tropical archipelago. Some of the questions which, according to certain prominent busi- ness residents, are most evidently worthy of consideration, pertain to the work of plant introduction and plant pathology: others relate to the complicated matters of native labor, imperfect means of transpor- tation, and want of modern machinery; but the most important in the minds of all the business men, planters as well as exporters, is the quick pacification of the country districts and the regulation of the custom-house and other municipal departments. The cultivation of tea is a possibility, but the profits will depend largely on the price of labor, which has been gradually rising since the American occupation of the islands. Coffee of a reputed excellent quality was once grown in the islands, but the trees were destroyed by an insect pest, of which, Dr. Garcia informs me, the life history has been, in part at least, studied out. Whether the Ceylon coffee-leaf disease is already in the islands or not was not ascertained. Good grades of cotton have been produced and the culture of Sea Island and Egyptian varieties has been suggested as likely to yield profitable returns and form an article of export. It is probable that some of the many islands possess a climate especially suited for cotton culture. The small island of Lombok, in the Dutch East Indies, it is said, grows a good quality of cotton for export, and its culture is entirely in the hands of the natives. T316—No. 27—02 2 18 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. The Manila hemp industry is still a monopoly, although the plant grows well in other tropical regions, and could be easily cultivated in the Straits Settlements, according to Dr. Ridley of the Botanic Gar- dens in Singapore. According to information furnished by one of the largest hemp exporters in Manila, the methods of culture are those practiced with any semiwild plant, it being grown over a large area of forest land, especially in the regions about Albay. The problem of increased production is not the cultivation of more hemp plants to a given area but the invention of a machine of large capacity for extract- ing the fibre. With the old hand machines, which require only three men to work them,and are carried on the heads of the operators into the forests of the hemp plant, the extraction is done so slowly that for every stalk which is cut and stripped into fiber at least five are left to decay in the field. The rapidity with which the fiber deteriorates after the stalks are cut has so far prevented the work of extraction being done at one central point. Increased means of transportation might make such a central factory possible. The manager of one of the largest tobacco factories, for which Manilais famous, asserted that the quality of the leaf received from the native growers was inferior to what it had been twenty years ago, and although it was well known that the original seed was imported from Habana, that no late importations of good tobacco seed from Cuba had been made. The distribution by the Government of a large quantity of the best Cuban and Sumatran seed is an experiment well worth making, and the careful selection of the seed from the best Manila- grown strains a matter of prime importance, considering the very large dividends paid by the Sumatra companies out of sales made principally in America, and the possibility of there being produced in the Philip- pines a cigar wrapper equal to the famous Sumatran. There is a great variety of native-made fabrics which are most diaphanous in nature. These are woven in plain but pretty patterns, and are so universally worn by the natives of even the poorest classes that they give the street and market scenes an appearance of neatness and bright color not met with elsewhere in the East. These fabrics are made from the Manila hemp fiber and that of the native pineapple, and are often shot with threads of bright-colored silk. Though of a harsh texture, and objectionable when worn next the skin, they are easily washed and starched, and are of great durability. The Chinese of Singapore are said to pay big prices for this pineapple cloth, of which they make their loose, comfortable jackets. It is possible that improved machinery and an increasing Chinese demand may make the manutacture of these Manila fabrics a paying industry. As yet the fiber of the pine is obtained chiefly by means of primitive machines worked by hand. The prospects for rubber cultivation are as yet unexplored. There SPAIN. 19 may be localities where the Para rubber trees can be grown and will yield paying amounts of rubber, but the occurrence of a pronounced dry season on most of the islands will probably reduce the flow, as it does in Ceylon, below the point of profitable cultivation. An early survey of the islands with this in view should be made, and experi- mental groves set out if necessary. The employment of an expert acquainted with rubber cultivation might save the colony much time and money, as he could point out the regions in which rubber trees would be most likely to succeed. For the orchid hunter the rich and little explored island of Min- danao will yield many new treasures. It is considered by an orchid fancier and successful orchid breeder of Manila as the most promising island in the archipelago for this family of plants. The Manila markets have a large variety of native vegetables and fruits, but the absence of such a superior vegetable as the alligator pear and the great scarcity of the tropical yam, upon which the blacks of Jamaica live, indicate that there are many lines along which profit- able plant introductions can be made. Although the inertia of the Oriental native will be a constant drawback to the work of introducing new cultures, such successful examples as those furnished by the introduction of the cotton plant into Egypt during our civil war, and the civilizing effects of the intro- duction of coffee among the savage head hunters of northern Celebes in 1882 should be encouragement enough to induce our Government to try on a larger scale the civilizing ‘effects of the introduction and improvement of tropical plants in the islands. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IN SPAIN. BARCELONA, SPAIN, August 6, 1901. Before leaving southeastern Spain, where I have been successful in getting the finest almonds in the world for our California growers, it gives me pleasure to write a few general impressions of the country. The idea grows on one, with a prolonged stay, that this region is agriculturally now so far behind that it will have hard work to catch up. The price of farm labor in southeastern Spain has dropped to an equivalent of 21 cents a day. Spanish as well as foreign capital is chary of investment in new undertakings. There is wealth here, but the Spaniard can get 5 per cent on Government bonds and hesitates to exploit a mine or go into sugar beet raising lest some change in the tariff regulations will injure his business; he prefers, therefore, to invest his money in bonds and live quietly on the interest they bring. For- eign capital is afraid of changes and invests cautiously. Certain com- panies advertise that buyers will be charged for any changes due to new Government regulations. 20 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. The operations of the farm in southern Spain (Andalusia especially) are exceedingly primitive. Egyptian methods are not so crude in many respects. In some places the subsoil plow seems to be entirely unknown, and I have seen a wheat stubble field of at least 100 acres being worked over by mattoeks; 15 to 20 men were working their way laboriously across the field. The absence of cattle is most striking in southern Spain, no fodder except small patches of alfalfa under: irrigation being obtainable. In place of cattle, large herds of mixed-bred goats are kept, and every- where their high-tasting milk is served. The nly butter used is in the hotels and houses of foreigners, and it is sod that most foreigners prefer to go without it. Swedish and Danish brands are sold. Consul Ridgely, of Malaga, informed me that the duty on butter from America would have to be lowered before any conside i.e import could be made. My impression is that it will not be big market, for the people have gone without butter for so many centuries. Farm machinery of American and Erelish make is being imported slowly. The agent in Madrid for an uerican pump manufacturer told me that his assistant who tried to sell an English reaper in a southern village was mobbed by the laborers and came near losing his life. Thrashing machines of large size are quite out of the question. IT am told that the farmers will not combine and buy one, and are so jealous of one another that even a traveling thrashing machine would have a very hard time. Few farmers have enough grain to warrant their purchasing a machine for their own use The old thrashing floor of Biblical times is in evidence everywhere. Every village has an open space outside the town where thrashing and winnowing by hand are done. I have seen 25 men and 20 mule !at work on one of these floors, taking about two weeks to do what a 10-horse thrasher would accomplish in two days; every farmer with his own stack, thrashing- board, and mule. There is one point regarding the thrashing machine which is com- plained of throughout the Levant. It does not crush and break up the straw sufficiently. In Egypt the straw is considered quite as valuable as the wheat, being fed to live stock as “‘tibbin.’”? The old style of thrashing floor prepares the straw admirably for this stock feeding. Furthermore, the straw-chopping machines known here do not prepare the straw satisfactorily. Commercial fertilizers are beginning to be used, but unfortunately spurious imitations have been sold, and they have prejudiced many farmers against them. The principal cultures in Spain are the almond and raisin industries of the extreme southeast, the hard wheat of the interior dry *esions, the Valencian orange and lemon plains of the northeast coast, and the olive orchards about Sevilla. SPAIN. 21 The almond orchards are scattered through many provinces and as a rule are small, the dry sierras and sheltered hillsides being pre- ferred. There are several sorts which are shipped to the New York market, but the best. and the one that formed the principal object of my visit to Spain is the ‘* Jordan.” This has long been coveted by Californian almond growers, and as it is a distinct variety I see no reason, except the difficulty of finding valleys in California free from January and February frosts, why the plants sent will not grow as well there as they do in Spain. These are the finest almonds in the world and enormous qu: i:tities are sent to America. The raisin industry !.s suffered very severely from Phylloxera, and is localized in a few towns along the coast, Almeria being one of the centers. Gradually all vines are being grafted on American resist- ant roots. I under id that these raisin varieties have been already introduced into Cal) ornia, but my time was so taken up with the almonds that I did not learn much about this culture. Spanish wheat is not as a rule of first quality. The tender wheats, Tam told, are lacking in gl, on, and the hard wheats make a variety of macaroni inferior to that produced by Russian ** Taganrog” wheat. I made some small preliminary purchases of tender and hard wheats which I believe will show resistance to black rust and be valuable on the plains. There may be in the world other plains more fertile and highly cul- tivated than that of Valencia, but I have never seen them. The orange and lemon orchards extend on both sides of the railway as far as the eye can see, and the train travels for hours through them. Last year over three million boxes (of 100 fruits each) and thousands of freight cars loaded with unboxed frui were exported; largely to England. ‘This province of Valencia is the richest in Spain, except Catalonia, in which Barcelona is situated. Unlike Catalonia, its wealth comes from its exports to foreign countries, whereas Barcelona’s wealth is built up on the sales of manufactured articles sold in the other provinces of Spain. Barcelona is said to have more industries than all the rest of Spain put together. The methods of culture in Valencia are rational, and although the land is in the hands of small owners, I am told, there is a uniformity of varieties and more or less cooperation in the matter of shipping. I do not believe they yet understand the art of shipping as Califor- nians do. The difference in gauge of their railways from those in France makes a transshipment at the border necessary, in which trans- shipment much time is lost and damage done. The beet-sugar industry flourished very well for a few years, but is now. T 1m informed, being greatly overdone. Nowhere in the world does sugar cost more than in Spain. The import duty is something excessive, and it is no wonder the first beet-sugar factories made money. 22 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. Olives for pickling and export to America and England, and olives for oil, form, second to the cultivation of the vine for wine purposes, the next greatest culture. Many thousands of the olive trees were planted by the Moors a century or more ago, and the good and bad varieties are mixed together. The crop is a precarious one, insect pests being abundant, but a good year will yield very heavy returns, up to 80 per cent, I have been told. Forests of olives of many miles extent are traversed on the railways from Malaga to Barcelona. The vine is in evidence everywhere and wine is said to be ** cheaper than water” in some places. The methods of preparation are not as a rule modern and the wines are strong, and fetch (with some special exceptions) low prices on the market. The culture of wine grapes is no longer very profitable. NOTES ON CONDITIONS IN CHINA. CoLompBo, CryiLon, January 4, 1902. We remained in Shanghai only so long as was necessary for the Japanese steamer on which we left San Francisco to unload her cargo of American dried fruit, tinned beef (with the Department inspection tags on it), and American flour. European and American business in the city of Shanghai is boom- ing. Many new houses are in process of construction, and of late the white population has considerably increased. New enterprises are seeking to get a foothold everywhere; office rents are high, and it is often well-nigh impossible to get suitable office rooms. The missionaries, displaced by the troubles, are returning to their posts, and foreign merchants claim that the outlook for trade improve- ment is most favorable in this region, as Shanghai, at the mouth of an immense waterway, is and must remain the great distributing point of all central China. I am informed that American trade is more than holding her own against that of other countries, and the impression seems to be that she has decided natural advantages and should be able to keep them. Japan’s trade has greatly increased here of late, and she is not only an active but may become a dangerous competitor. A twelve days’ stop in Hongkong enabled me to go to Canton in search of the south Chinese peaches and plums, scions and trees of which, I am happy to write, are now en route to Washington, together with some promising leitchees, bamboos, and persimmons for Cali- fornia and Florida. Canton, one of the largest of Chinese cities, said to havea population of more than two millions, lies seven hours by steamer up the great West River from Hongkong, which latter is for south China what Shanghai is for central China, the great distributing point. CHINA. 23 The Cantonese metropolis lies in an extensive, fertile delta of rice fields and orchards, through which in every direction run navigable canals and river branches that form favorite retreats for the Chinese pirates, and the steamers plying on these waterways are provided with stands of loaded arms and quick-firing guns. Two years ago, after a good deal of travelin the Orient, I found Canton one of the most inter- esting places in the world, and a second visit has not led me to change my mind, although many Americans see nothing more in it than a “disgustingly filthy place.” A chair ride through the streets of this immense metropolis (al- though filthy and as narrow as the alleys of a steamer passage way) presents many curious sights, and suggests possibilities of future development along lines favorable to any business in competition with western commerce and manufactures. One can not fail to have forced upon him the tremendous amount of physical and mental power which lies waiting to be employed in more lucrative occupations than the careful chopping of a sheep’s entrails or the making of exquisitely beautiful images of rice paste, which sell for a few cents apiece. The precision of movement, the concentration, the earnestness of application, and the continual activity which are now exerted on the pettiest trifles, can not fail, when employed in the manufacture of arti- cles which the white man wants, to have a marked influence upon the market supply of such goods. Whether you watch the countless junks or sampans along the waterways, or jostle with the crowds in the narrow thoroughfares, the impression is the same; you are in the midst of two millions of the most industrious, temperate, and philosophically minded people in the world. Canton was the home of many an emigrant Chinaman, and his abilities as a workman can be best understood if seen both in his own land and in the countries to which he has emigrated. This populous city, which is almost entirely built up in one or two story houses, covers many miles of territory, and is surrounded by rice fields, orchards, taro patches, and groves of guava, while the fertile foothills in the interior are clothed, I am told, with orchards of chestnut, peaches, and plums, which supply in their season the fruit markets of the Cantonese. Rice is the staple food, and there are many varieties suited to dis- tinctly different uses. They even export to their relatives in America (smuggling it out of Canton because the export of rice is prohibited by imperial law) a variety which they consider superior to any of our home-grown sorts. The gardens of citrus fruits, leitchees, carambolas, and guavas are often surrounded by taro patches and paddy fields. Everywhere one is impressed by the quantity of marsh plants cul- tivated. These in their several varieties play a most important role 24 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. in the food economy of the Chinese, and we have much to learn from them regarding methods of handling our swamp lands. ** As is well known, the Chinese are good gardeners, and although one is disappointed to tind how crudely they graft and propagate their plants, he must admire their appreciation of the value of manure, how- ever disgusting the manner of its collecting may be. The secret of their success seems to be in the attention they give to each individual plant. They live with and care for it as a stable boy does his pet racing thoroughbred. Two horticultural practices struck me as especially interesting. The Jin Tan peonies, which are the Chinaman’s pride, and for which he is willing to pay as high asa gold dollar apiece for each blossom, are grown in one of the towns near Tientsin until some time in Decem- ber, when they are imported by the thousand into Canton, a week or more journey by steamer. Here they are repotted and brought into bloom in time for the Chinese New Year. A variety of jasmine is started in a similar way in Canton, grown until flower buds begin to form and then is sent in great quantities to Tientsin, where it is planted in pots, brought into flower, and the fra- grant blossoms are used to mix with the tea leaves during the drying process, in order to give them the desirable aroma. Should the matter of their use promise to improve the market value of the tea production of our country we will make it a point for investigation next autumn, securing, if desirable, a quantity of the plants for propagation. The Chinese and Japanese papers, by the way, have all printed telegrams regarding the success of the efforts of the Department of Agriculture in the home production of tea, and producers and shippers in Japan and China are much interested in the financial outcome of the experi- ments. though as yet they seem to be quite skeptical, believing the cost of picking will be too great. There are two new elements which haye recently combined to dis- turb the set conditions in this part of China—the American occupation of Manila and the war about Pekin. The former has led to a remark- able increase in prices of labor, hotel accommodations, and food products. Coolie wages have greatly increased in Hongkong since the Spanish-American war, and there is much complaint about the scarcity of Chinese labor in the dockyards and other new important enterprises that are being started. Hotel prices are 50 per cent higher than they were before the war, and residents claim that the general cost of living has doubled in the last five years. The effect of the Boxer troubles will be far reaching, for the Chinese Government, in order to pay the war indemnity, has levied a tax of the equivalent of 5 American cents a year on each rafter of every house in the country. Already the Viceroy in Canton is having great difficulty in collecting the taxes,and white people living there CHINA. 25 say that this tax is arousing a great deal of animosity toward foreign- ers, and that one of the results of the war, it is believed, will be to change the ideas of the wpper-class Chinaman regarding Western methods and make him more willing to accept them. The common people in the coast and river ports have been most unfavorably impressed by reports of alleged brutality of foreign troops, and, I am told, their opinion of the white man has been decidedly lowered. Foreigners come in for a share in the war tax, and already pay about 5 per cent ad valorem duty on practically everything imported. Already American flour is being imported in large quantities into China, and is sold cheaper there than the native wheat can be grown and ground. The growth of our agricultural as well as other exports to China will, I believe, be a phenomenal one, and will include many classes of vanned and dried goods from our orchards, and preserved meats and dairy products from our farms and ranches. There are, aside from these purely American products, many strictly Chinese things as yet unknown to our cultivators. which might probably be grown profitably for export into the Orient, such as the red watermelon seeds, of which the consumption must be enormous; the ** Chinese olives,” of equal importance; the wood oil tree, the product of which is used for all classes of painter's work; ginger, water chestnuts, dried persimmons, and a host of other products. The discovery of such new industries can only be made by the pres- ence of trained observers who are not stationed so long in the regions as to lose touch with American conditions, but remain long enough to thoroughly master the methods of cultivation of the crops and secure the necessary seeds and plants for introduction. Tecan give no adequate idea of the impression of wealth as a field for plant introduction work which this short visit to Canton has given me. It is worthy of all the attention which has been given to it in the past, and will amply reward any efforts which may be made in the future. The great interest, however, of a visit to Canton is in the attempt one is continually and almost involuntarily making to forecast the probable development of the Chinese race. From the close contact with the peasant classes of the various countries they visit into which your agricultural explorers are forced, they are placed, perhaps, in positions peculiarly advantageous for com- parisons of the relative intelligence, industry, and endurance of the different races. The value of comparisons regarding the capacity of different races does not generally depend so much on long acquaintance with the customs of a single nationality as on a comparative knowledge of the inhabitants of many different countries. 26 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. The Chinaman is a marvel of industry and accuracy, and is probably developing with all the rapidity which his centuries of inherent con- servatism will permit. The farming class is, so far as I have observed, more intelligent about its own affairs, quicker, and vastly more industrious than the peasant class of Europe. These Chinese peasants are not as a rule unwilling to learn, and are quick to appreciate the value of tools which are really improvements over their own. The delight which a Chinese mulberry grower showed at the sight of a pair of modern pruning shears which I was using, could hardly have been equaled by a peasant in southern Europe. There are everywhere the most unmistakable signs of progress, and the sooner Americans come to look upon China as a growing commercial nation the better it will be for our interests. The accounts of the Chinaman’s wonderful ability to imitate have not been exaggerated, but his reputed want of the inventive faculty does not stand the test. These conceptions are falsely colored, either by the blind prejudice of the transient visitor to China or the disap- pointment of the old white resident, who forgets how moderately the average workman of any old civilization is equipped with inventive powers. One among many examples of their ingenuity will serve to illus- trate how false this idea is. In Taku, during the construction, recently, of some very large iron flat boats or lighters with which to unload or coal the incoming steamers, the problem of lowering these heavy iron boats that had been constructed on a high framework became a puzzling one. Large derricks and expensive steam cranes were discussed. One of the Chinese master workmen suggested placing under the lighters a large number of columnar close-woyen wicker baskets packed with sand. Then by knocking out the stays formerly employed the lighter would rest on the pillars of sand, and by puncturing the baskets the sand would gradually run out, allowing the heavy boat to settle to the desired level. his inexpensive suggestion of the Chinaman was fol- lowed by the European constructors, proving a complete success and saving much time and money. Throughout China, the Europeans carry on their business by means of Chinese clerks, called **‘ compradors.” ‘The comprador is an absolute necessity, and from being a mere accountant and interpreter he grad- ually rises to a position of control, becomes often immensely wealthy, and supports the European who originally hired him. This course of affairs is of frequent occurrence; so common, in fact, that the Euro- peans are often spoken of as merely the employees of the wealthy Chinese. That the Chinaman understands how to accumulate wealth is so well known as to need no emphasizing. Ina Hongkong paper I saw bo PERSIAN GULF REGION, 7 recently the notice of the death of a Chinaman worth $5,000,000. in gold. One of the principal steamship lines between Hongkong and Manila, nominally American, is reported to be controlled entirely by its wealthy Chinese comprador. The biggest English shipping company in China, which owns a large fleet of coasting steamers, employs only Chinese crews on its ships, and even sends the crews to England to come out with the new steam- ers they are building in large numbers. Even the new Japanese pas- senger line on the Pacific employs Chinese stewards. Last year the carrying trade of the China coast is said to have increased over 40 per cent. In 1898, scarcely a single steam Jaunch was owned in Canton, while to-day I am informed that there are between 300 and 400, mostly owned and in large part built entirely by Chinese. In the Chinese dockyard at Canton over eighty of these big, strong launches were turned out last year. The Hongkong and Wampoo Dock Company, of Hongkong, pays so well that its stocks are quoted at $290 silver, and all of the laborers are Chinese, only the managers and draftsmen being Europeans. Plans are now in progress to build in Hongkong the largest dockyard in the world, one slip of which is to be 900 feet long, or 100 feet longer than the largest slip in the new Krupp yard at Kiel. This work will be done by Chinese. Near Canton, I am informed, a wealthy Chinese syndicate proposes to build dikes and reclaim several thousand acres of land to be used for rice growing. An officer in the British army assures me that the Chinese arsenal at Tientsin is manufacturing cannon and small arms which fall very little short of being as good as those of European manufacture, and this without even the supervision of Europeans. These are some of the facts that are being talked about here in the East, and they are unmistakable straws to my mind, showing that the awakening of China is going on with a rapidity which will soon aston- ish those Westerners who refuse to recognize the course things are taking. THE PERSIAN GULF REGION. Yoxwouama, Japan, April 8, 1902. I have just returned from a trip up the Persian Gulf to Bagdad in search of dates, hard wheats, and whatever else of interest was to be found, and take the first occasion to send a brief account of conditions in the Persian Gulf and lower Mesopotamia. The region is a difficult one to get into, being a long way out of the beaten track of travel, and I find that even in a place lying so near on the map as Bombay there is little to be found out about it. 28 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. Owing to the rigidness with which the Turkish quarantine laws are enforced, few English people from India go into the region, although there are regular weekly steamers of the British-India line going up the gulf, which, though small, are not very uncomfortable. The trip from Bombay to Bagdad and back required two months, and the greater part of this time was spent in travel. The collections made during the trip include 224 date palms, representing 45 of the best varieties from the various noted date-growing regions; a number of Persian and Arabian hard wheats, in quantities large enough for preliminary trials: and several interesting fodder plants, about which latter, however, it is impossible to predict anything. The main object of the trip being to secure the best dates and hard wheats, I feel it has been on the whole very successful; and predict an important future for some of the dates, which are sorts far superior to any that come on our markets from this region and are likely to ripen earlier than the north African varieties, which latter character- istic is considered by those interested in this new industry a most important one. The purchases which I have made and shipped for Mr. Lathrop include over 100 different things, and weigh about 10 tons. They left Bombay the 6th of last April and full particulars regarding them went forward, Recent affairs at the Arabian port of Koweit have attracted the atten- tion of the public to the question of the political control of the Persian Gulf. This trip along its shores tends to strengthen one’s impression that affairs in that region are gradually coming to a head, and that it will not be long before important political changes in Persia and Arabia will take place. Both the Arabian and the Persian coasts of the Gulf, as seen from the steamer, are precipitous barren cliffs or stretches of desert sand. Little indication of wealth is in sight, and the towns, with their flat- roofed mud houses and filthy streets, indicate the undeveloped nature of the country. There are extensive tracts of territory in the interior, I am informed, where the subterranean streams of fresh water come to within 8 feet of the surface of the soil. But it was only after leay- ing the Gulf of Persia and starting up the broad river Shat-el-Arab, which is formed by the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates, that I began in some small measure to realize the extent of the unimproved lands of the Sultan’s possessions in Arabia. Chaldea and Mesopotamia are Biblical places to whose present conditions I had never given any thought, and the actual conditions of the region were a great surprise to me. It is easy to understand where the great wealth of Babylon and Nineveh came from after traveling for five and one-half days up a muddy river which so nearly fills its banks that the inhabitants of the village have only to reach down from them to wash their bands in its waters. On both sides as PERSIAN GULF REGION. 29 far as the eye can reach stretch level plains of alluvium which is so fine that one could hunt all day without finding a stone the size of a man’s fist. The Tigris, for over 700 miles in length, from Basrah to Mosul, resembles more a huge crooked irrigation canal than anything else, and, with the exception of a stretch of 70 miles of date gardens between Mahammera and Kurna, the lands on both banks as far as one can see are practically unimproved desert. Searcely a shrub or plant of any size has been spared by the wan- dering tribes of Arabs, who grub up even the smallest roots for fire- wood. Yet much of this region, it is supposed, was once covered with vegetation, and at one time supported many millions of people. The recent excavations are revealing every year more evidences of the former immense wealth of this remarkable country, which has remained so many centuries neglected. There exists perhaps nowhere in the world such a single area of unimproved fertile desert land which is capable of irrigation. That the region has been irrigated is shown by the ruins of old canals which are supposed to date back, some of them, to Babylonian times, and which, according to recent surveys of a French engineer sent out by the Turkish Government, could be repaired and put into operation. One of the principal canals of this old system, the Nahr Wan, is over 185 miles long, and must, with its thirty branches, have irrigated many millions of acres of land which are now as barren of vegetation as the deserts of California. The soil is adobe, remarkably like the Nile silt, and capable with- out manuring of growing almost any crop which will mature ina sub- tropical climate. The occasional gardens of the native sheiks, or chiefs, along the river are full of all sorts of citrus fruits, apricots, peaches, and pome- granates, proving the suitability of the soil. The fine hard and soft wheats grown there attest, further, its value for grain-growing pur- poses, and yet with all this immense territory, through which I traveled for nearly a week, the largest place on the banks of the Tigris between Basrah and Bagdad was a town of less than 4,000 inhabitants. The situation partakes of the incredible. No one 1 met in the country, not even the Turkish official in charge of the Sultan’s estate, or Sheik Kassem Kedery, one of the wealthiest chiefs of the place, could give any idea as to the number of millions of acres there are in this fertile valley, which is almost as level as the table I am writing on. As in the valley of the Nile, patches of salt land are to be seen here and there, but to wash this salt out there is a water supply all the year round waiting to be tapped by canals. The winter climate is as delightful as that of California in the same season, but the summers are about as hot as anywhere in the world. 30 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. There are very few native inhabitants, but these few are sober, and, as Orientals go, industrious; and yet this whole region is almost as barren as the desert of Sahara. The recent discoveries of oil on the Persian side of the Karun River, one of the tributaries of the Shat-el-Arab, are possibly the beginning of anew era for Mesopotamia, and the Anatolian railway through Asia Minor to Bagdad, for which Germany holds the concession, although looked upon only as a yery remote possibility by the white residents, may open up this neglected corner of Arabia to planters with large resources. The concession for the exploitation of the oil recently discovered at Kasr-i-Sherin was granted by Persia to an English millionaire mine owner, and it is interesting to note that the new oil fields lie in dis- puted territory between Arabia and Persia. If the borings, which are being made by an American expert, should prove the existence of really extensive oil fields, Turkey may put in a claim for the territory and the matter become subject for an international dispute. From an agricultural standpoint these great valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates will haye to be reckoned with as a future center of production of grain, cotton, dried fruits, wool, and live stock. They are capable of pro- ducing all of these in quantities only limited by the amount of water which the river can supply. The Euphrates is said to be a sluggish stream, with many sand banks and comparatively littie water, but the Tigris is a river varying in width from 250 to 500 yards, in its narrowest banks only reaching 50 yards, and flowing at a rate of from six-tenths of a mile to 4 miles an hour. America’s interests in the gulf are represented by less than a score of missionaries, whose medical work, whatever the Mohammedans may think of their missionary work, is highly spoken of. There are good opportunities for American trade in wind-mills, farm machinery, piece goods, etc., and through the efforts of Mr. Hurner, our yice-consul at Badgad, a contract is being made by which an American company is to build a steel bridge across the Tigris to take the place of the present most dilapidated pontoon affair of almost pre-Babylonian simplicity. Whether Americans will ever take a hand in the opening up of this wonderfully fertile region or not, they can not fail to be interested in it as a country of immense agricultural wealth and a possible future competitor in the markets of the world. The principal plant industry of the country, the culture of the date, is dependent in a measure upon the American market, which is the biggest buyer of the best quality of this fruit. MILCH CATTLE AND CARABAOS. 31 BREEDS OF MILCH CATTLE AND CARABAOS FOR THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. During a stay in Ceylon and a yisit to Poona, India, my attention was called to the question of the milk supply of these tropical regions. Notwithstanding the marked improvement in the methods of milk sterilization, the continued use of canned milk and butter becomes finally, to anyone living in the Tropics, unpleasant, and the question of securing fresh dairy products is a most important one for the com- fort of European residents. The best breeds of milch cattle, like Jerseys, Guernseys, and Hol- steins. when introduced into the Tropics very quickly degenerate. They are not suited to its climate and can not be easily acclimatized. They soon grow thin and sickly, cease giving large quantities of milk, and die. In Ceylon several attempts to acclimatize them have been made, but with no success, and I am told that the dairymen who have made these trials have been obliged to return to the use of the South Indian or Madras breeds. Recently, however, the Sind cattle have come into prominence as a milch breed, and the introduction of this breed into other parts of India has been a great success. It is a remarkably vig- orous race, and the cows are much better milk producers than the South Indian or Madras breed. A visit made to the agricultural college in Colombo was very inter- esting in this connection. In the college herd the three breeds were represented. The bulls of the Sind variety are great, handsome fellows, with immense humps on their shoulders, for they belong to the Bos ndicus species. They were dark chestnut in color, with black extremities, and one could find nowhere healthier-looking animals than these Sind specimens which were some time ago imported from Karachi. The cows were sleek coated, with large udders and fine broad backs—pic- tures of health. The Madras animals were of that long-legged, lean type which is so common in the Oriental Tropics, and the cows had small udders and peaked backs; while the Jersey bull which had been brought down from one of the high altitude tea estates, for breeding purposes, was a sad enough sight, pale about the eyes and mouth, sway- backed, and with hind legs all out of shape, though not nearly so ill- conditioned as the pitiful looking, emaciated cows of the same breed, which were seemingly in the very last stages of consumption. The object lesson could not have been more conyincing nor the con- trast between the perfect health of the Sind cattle and the mangy appearance of the European race more striking. ; The statement by Mr. Drieberg, the director, that without the Sind cattle it would be impossible to make up the Ceylon dairy was quite significant. 32 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. While in Poona, India, the site of the Bombay Agricultural School, I saw more of this Sind breed of cattle and learned that although it deserved all that it was credited with in Ceylon, it has been superseded, for butter-making purposes, at least in the Bombay presidency, by the milch carabaos. The carabao or water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis, Lyd.) is a well-known object in Manila, and its use as a beast of burden thoroughly under- stood, but, so far as I am aware, little attention has been paid to it as a milk producer. Unthinking prejudice, which prevents us from eating many excel- lent things, may play the same rédle in Manila that it does in Ceylon, and forbid the employment of buffalo milk. If this is so it is a great pity, for there is a race of water buffaloes which come from Delhi, India, that gives over 30 pounds of milk per day, while the best Sind cattle give only 18, and this buffalo milk is so rich in fat that 12 to 13 pounds of it make a pound of butter, whereas 20 pounds of milk of a Sind cow are required. These Delhi buffaloes are easier to keep, less expensive, and cleaner (having almost no hair) than ordinary cattle. They sell for about 180 rupees, or $56 gold, in Bombay, and can be bought at Dawans, the buffalo market, near Grant Road Station, but could be best secured by applying to Mr. Mollison, director-general of agriculture for India, at Poona, who could probably be prevailed upon to arrange to have good specimens picked out. ‘ In general, the animals are priced according to the amount of milk they give, 10 rupees being added to the price for every two additional pounds of milk given per day. Another good variety of milch buffalo is that from Gujarat, called the Surti. It yields only about 20 pounds of milk per day, and is sold at from $33 to $36 gold. The cost of keeping this variety per day amounts at Poona to only 16 ‘cents gold, and it is considered the most economical race by Mr. Kelkar, the foreman in charge of the college herd. According to him, a dairy should have both buffaloes and Sind cattle. The buffaloes are better for butter production, and the cattle are superior for milk purposes, because the milk fetches a better price, being, in fact, much preferred to that of the buffaloes, which has a bluish color and a slight, though not disagreeable, odor. Both the buffaloes from Delhi and Gujarat and the Sind cattle are well worth introducing into the Philippines. The buffaloes should be tested for butter making, though they cost more to feed than the Sind cattle, which latter will prove, however, especially useful for milk. Breeding animals of these different races might be secured through Director Mollison, of Poona, who could arrange for their shipment to Manila through such a well-known shipping firm as Latham & Co., of Bombay. JAPAN. 33 As regards the quality of the butter made from buffaloes’ milk, I can only judge from its general use in the Bombay presidency that it is in no way really objectionable, though its white color is not so attractive nor its aroma so full as that of Danish butter. The introduction of these good milch breeds of cattle and buffa- loes would add materially to the comfort of the white people in the Philippines, and deserves the serious attention of the Department of Agriculture. AGRICULTURE IN JAPAN. Sreamsuip HoncKona, EN ROUTE TO SaN FRANCISCO, - ‘ August 22, 1902. The most startling fact about Japan is the small area of cultivation that almost completely supplies the wants of a large population. According to statistics supplied by the Government, out of the less than 147,000 square miles in Japan proper not more than 19,000 square miles are cultivated, which means that an agricultural area one-third the size of Illinois comfortably supports some 42,000,000 people, and this means that every square mile of cultivation supports on the aver- age about 2,200 persons. This becomes still more interesting from the other fact that the agriculture which supports these millions is one in which animal hus- bandry is almost totally lacking. To the Occidental an agriculture without farm food animals of any kind is hard to imagine, but to Orientals, who do not know the taste of dairy products nor relish the most delicate beefsteaks or mutton chops, the care of live stock seems a disagreeable and even degrading business. No considerable herds of cattle are said to exist in the islands, and sheep, hogs, and goats are nowhere bred to any extent. A few work bulls and cows are kept in stalls, and from these the foreigners get their supply of beef, which is of very good quality. Small quantities of these animals are exported from Kobe to Manila and China. This lack of domestic animals and the resulting absence in the country of stable manure or crops grown for fodder give to the farming of Japan a peculiar feature. That this one-sided agriculture is a mistake, the most progressive of Japanese agriculturists frankly admit. It necessitates, or at least has brought about, a rotation in many sections of the country of barley and rice. Such a rotation, and a still simpler one of rice followed by a season of fallow must have gradually decreased the fertility of the soil had not the system of collection and distribution of night soil been so extensively developed. T36—No. 2(—02—_3 34 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. If instead of barley the Japanese farmer could have grown a leguminous winter fodder crop, such as the Egytian fellah has for centuries cultivated, he could have prevented, in part at least, this impoyerishing process. With no animals to feed there has naturally been no development of fodder crops in Japan, but the necessity to fertilize with seaweeds, liquid manures, and straw ashes has given the peasant an appreciation of the value of manures which is surprisingly in advance of that of Western nations. Comparing the keen knowledge of fertilizers shown by the Japanese peasants with that of the Greek, Italian, or Spanish farmers, or even with the small farmers of our country, one appreciates how advanced they are along these lines of farming and what an enormous waste of nitrogenous materials is continually going on in Europe and America. The peasant classes of Japan are the cleanliest personally of any in the world, and with an income which is so small that an American farmer would starve to death on it, they live happily and surround themselves with comforts which even many of our fairly well-to-do people do not possess. When compared with the peasants of any European country the Japanese live more comfortably by 50 per cent, at an actual cost of less than half what the European spends. They have learned by centuries of experience how to best utilize the vege- table products of their country. Their bamboo utensils, mud-thatched roofs, paper screen walls, cheap straw and rush mats, homemade, dura- ble clothing, exquisite inexpensive wood and lacquer work, and multi- tude of pliable paper articles are some of the luxuries in which, com- pared with the European peasants, they are rich. This remarkable frugality and intelligent use of trifles enables the Japanese farmer to get along on an income of less than S100 gold a year, and on this to support a family of four or five persons. The capital of these peasants is so small as a rule that a thrifty American farmer could buy out a small village of them. One hundred gold dollars would in many thousands of cases pay for all the belong- ings of a comfortably situated family. From the standpoint of foreign money, therefore, the Japanese farmer is a poor man, and a tax which would scarcely be felt by our landowners would be a heavy burden for him. With the increasing tastes among all classes for better food and greater conveniences and the steady increase in population, it seems probable that the development of the agricultural resources of the country will not much more than keep pace with the increasing home demands, and that for some time to come, at least, Japan’s exports of the products of the farm will be very limited. The commodity of which she has an abundance, however, is human energy, and it is a pitiful sight to an American to see the wastage of manual labor that JAPAN. on is expended in the rice fields of this country. Small, irregular fields owned by conservative families make the use of labor-saying machinery practically impossible, evenif the bitter conservatism of the laborers would permit machines to be used which would take away the only occupation they have. A wrong impression of this interesting agriculture would be given were one to fail to mention the efforts which the General Government and the provincial governments are making to improve it. In fact, no country except the United States has made such rapid progress as Japan in the establishment of institutes of agricultural research. She has copied our system and adapted it to her different conditions. Within the last five or six years there have been established in the provinces nine well-equipped experiment stations, which compare favorably in their corps of specialists with those which were started in America only a few years ago. One central station at Tokyo con- trols these branch stations, or at least has supervision over them, and disburses every year $90,000 gold to the party of experts, twenty- six assistants, over seventy employees, and a hundred or so laborers, who carry on this work. In addition to these nine branch stations, there are a large number of municipal and prefectural stations scat- tered through the country, and even one private station supported by a marquis, formerly one of the Daimios, or feudallords. Several of these institutes of research were visited and the excellence of their equipment was a surprise. ‘They were, as a rule, neat, wooden labor- atories, supplied with good apparatus and small working libraries, and were surrounded by white-staked experiment plots, or provided with glass houses for experiments with chemical fertilizers or breed- ing cases for noxious insects. The directors and assistants are many of them industrious, enthu- siastic men, who enjoy nothing so well as the use of their microscopes or to study the habits of injurious insects. They delineate with extraor- dinary skill the characters of the parasites, either fungous or insect. Chemical fertilizers monopolize the largest share of the attention of these stations. The large number of factories of rape-seed cake, ete., necessitates a correspondingly large number of analyses by the chem- ists, and as many of the stations are directed by chemists who have passed through the agricultural college of Komaba, where Professor Loew (formerly in the United States Department of Agriculture) is actively engaged in teaching, it is natural that the tendency of the lines of research should be chemical. No provision has been made for any local control over these stations by practical farmers, such as compose our boards of control in America. As a result of this separation from the practical farmer there is naturally a great lack of appreciation of the work done by the stations. This tendency toward too close laboratory work and too little practi- 36 LETTERS ON AGRICULTURE. cal experimentation on the farm may be explained by the fondness of Japanese students for quiet contemplation. Microscopic and artistic descriptive work appeals to them more than practical field experiments. This, it is said, is a deplorable feature of Japanese medical education also, the young doctors mastering thoroughly the theory of medicine, but rarely learning it'as an art. This increased interest in scientific plant cultivation in Japan is unmistakable, and with the introduction of compulsory school educa- tion several years ago and the formation in every district of agricul- tural societies, the quick dissemination and assimilation of new facts relating to the different plant industries are practically assured. Bul- letins, illustrated with photographs and charts for the instruction of the farmers, are being printed by the thousand, and in the middle schools the sciences related to agriculture are taught much as they are in America. Eyen in many of the primary schools, gardens of named plants for the instruction of the children are to be found. These changes would come slowly with any other race than one which, like the Japanese, is saturated with a love for plants. The lowest-born cooly knows more about the care of a potted plant than 90 per cent of the educated classes of America or Europe. They are a race of plant artists, and care for fancy varieties of flowers as other nations do for pet animals. Yet it is a surpri-ing fact that notwithstanding this love for plant life the Japanese are not great plant breeders, and artificial hybridization is a process not well understood by them. One of the effects of Western civilization upon the country will be the gradual introduction of more meat into the daily diet of the peo- ple. Already the number of butcher shops in all of the principal cities is increasing, and the number of animals slaughtered is three or four times what it was ten years ago. The growing taste of the Japanese for foreign food is recognized as a fact by many old resident Americans. Whether the Government will succeed in making stock raising an important industry in the country is a debatable question. The tea industry has received a new stimulus through the removal of the duty in our country, but the president of the largest association of tea growers in Japan stated that it will not lead to any considerable increase in the tea-growing area. Ata recent meeting of the associa- tion a resolution was passed haying for its object the improvement of the quality of the exported article rather than the increase of the quan- tity. The exporters say that the change in the tariff has had the effect of raising the price at which the Japanese producers sell to them. Within the last two or three years, machinery has been introduced successfully into a number of tea-firing factories, and one of these fae- tories where 10 men now do the work which it required 100 to do before was visited. The rolling of the fresh leaf is still done by hand, however, although the central experiment station experts are working JAPAN, Bil upon several new inventions along this line which they hope to per- fect. At present they do about the same class of rolling that the Jackson rollers do in Ceylon and India. People who have studied the question think that Japan as an agri- cultural exporting nation will hardly become important for many years. There is, however, a possibility that the industries of canning and drying fruits may be given an impetus by the Government in the near future, and that Japanese fruit growers will ultimately export large quantities of cheap canned goods of this character to China and India. Japanese canned peaches which sell at 123 cents a quart are not at all bad, and it is said that 17,000 of these cans were put up last year by one establishment. That the Japanese are reaching out after Chinese trade seems to be an acknowledged fact, and with their greater facilities for learning the language they should be able to introduce the Western products which they manufacture into parts of China now inaccessible to Europeans and Americans, and will very probably play an important rdéle in the opening up of China. ne otk ‘ isa ee Fp ey aoa 1s JD eoee Madey Prare J: Il. Ill. IW 40 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Fig. 1.—A modern Spanish fanning mill. Fig. 2.—A modern Spanish thrashing machine. Fig. 38.—A modern Spanish subsoil plow. Fig. 1.—Homes of the natives on the bank of the Tigris River. Fig. 2.—Scene in a date garden, Bagdad. Fig. 1.—Sind cow from Karachi, India. This cow gives 18 pounds of milk, or less than 1 pound of butter, per day. It costs in Karachi $19 to $22. Fig. 2.—Delhi carabao from Delhi, India. This animal has given over 30 pounds of milk per day. Cost, 180 rupees, or over $50. Fig. 3.—Rump view of Delhi carabao, showing large udder. Fig. 1.—Surti milch carabao from Gujardt, India. This animal yields 20 pounds of milk, or 13 pounds of butter, per day, at a cost of 16 cents a day for feed. It is considered one of the most economical of all the milch breeds of buffalo. It costs in Bombay $33 to $36. (Photograph taken on experiment farm at Poona, India.) Fig. 2.—Rump view of Surti milch earabao (same animal as in fig. 1), showing udder. . Fig. 1.—Interior view of laboratory of Professor Hirase, at Hikone, show- ing the equipment of a botanical laboratory ina middle school in Japan. Fig. 2.—Exterior view of the experiment station buildings at Shizuoka, Japan, one of many such experiment stationsin the country. Fig. 3.— The plum market of Ikeda, showing the auctioning off of freshly picked fruit at this center of plum culture in Japan. O Bul. 27, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE Iz Fia. 2.—A MODERN SPANISH THRASHING MACHINE. Fic. 3.—A MODERN SPANISH SUBSOIL PLOW. S . < hi 2 races i e ) 4 ; ‘ Bul. 27, B 1 of Plant Indusiry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLaTE Il. FiG. 1.—HOMES OF THE NATIVES ON THE BANK OF THE TIGRIS RIVER Bul. 27, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE III. Fia. 1.—SIND COW FROM KARACHI, INDIA Fie. 2.—DELH! CARABAO FROM DELHI, INDIA. Fic. 3.—Rump VIEW OF DELHI CARABAO. PLATE IV. a of Plant Industry, U 27, Bureau Bul Fic. 1.—SurRT! MILCH CARABAO FROM GUJARAT, INDIA. Fic. 2.—RumMP VIEW OF SURTI MILCH CARABAO. Bul. 27, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLaTE V. WER Fia. 1.—BOTANICAL LABORATORY, HIKONE, JAPAN Fig. 2.—EXPERIMENT STATION BUILDINGS, SHIZUOKA, JAPAN. Fia. 3.—THE PLUM MARKET, IKEDA, JAPAN. | 4 é i Toes f i i ‘ Pes DEPARTMENT ‘OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN No. 28. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. BY GieeN ee CLOMGERINS 5 ASSISTANT BoTrantst IN TrRoprIcaAL AGRICULTURE, BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. IssuED JANUARY 17, 1903. g a, Nae Qa SS WoSSss> WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. iy | Ve LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. Department oF AGRICULTURE, Bureau or Prant Inpustry, Orrick OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., September 27, 1902. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper on The Mango in Porto Rico, by G. N. Collins, Assistant Botanist in Tropical Agricul- ture, and respectfully recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 28 of the series of this Bureau. The paper has been submitted for publication by the Acting Botanist in Charge of Botanical Investiga- tions and Experiments. Respectfully, B. T. Gattoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wi1son, Secretary of Agriculture. ’ 7 i ‘ain : E \ dpe i ae : Vek. “lh aaa at oy hier ame. wh tea gal he aay MD di R hia) ; 3 fn b pata he SE dove Tis 3°) 0. 2 GRR tae Aree see tae Fil 2) Yithes NEA end ee : , : ; i uh : i eX T +e EN, a he ‘ 1 * - ‘ ~~ i F im, : ; , e iy ¢ ~~ o é Pokal Gate The mango is a fruit highly esteemed throughout the Tropies, in most places outranking in popularity both the banana and the orange. European residents in the Tropics almost universally acquire a fond- ness for the mango, and in England the demand for it is steadily increasing, it having been found possible to make importations from India, notwithstanding the immense distance. The mango is as yet little known in the United States, having been represented in our markets only by fruit of inferior varieties. These give no suggestion of the qualities of the better sorts and tend rather to discourage than to increase the demand. If an effort similar to that which brought the banana into favor in the United States could place an adequate supply of good mangoes before the public, there is no apparent reason why this new tropical fruit should not repeat the history of its now popular predecessor. Porto Rico is favorably located for the growth of the mango, the south side of the island especially possessing the right climatic cond1- tions. The trees are very prolific and remarkably free from diseases. High-grade varieties are already growing in different parts of the West Indies, Florida, Centra: America, and Mexico, and their intro- duction into Porto Rico should be attended with little difficulty. This bulletin, written by Mr. G. N. Collins, under the direction of Mr. O. F. Cook, botanist in charge of investigations in tropical agri- culture, and based largely upon observations made by the author while engaged in a botanical exploration in Porto Rico in cooperation with the recently established Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, discusses the possibilities and requirements of the mango there, and it is hoped that it will help to establish the growing of mangoes as one of the profitable industries of the island. , Lyster H. Dewey, Actina Botanist. Orricr or BoTranicaL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS, Washington, D. C., September 18, 1902. 5 CONTENTS: ATOCONOM Fc 4 5 AS RES SEUSS SMEOR SAS EHS S <> SERA SOs aa eae ee setae IDSC ORGI 2.3. 5 He ed BEA A ee aE 5m ote Soi oe ae EES (OWE ee SAG es Sec Ge OOS IET Oe ee eS EO ee a eee @ulttune mess ae eee ae se tel cies cis sec he seer See Pap ese SR a ee ESS Seoeie ae Requirements sees. asset omnis nije se peqe eae seria siaie aids ae oes aseclccees WethrodsrolspropacatlOnied saa eee cee emee em oon nies iaeeidis ne neosenec nance Hv oe eta fe iaps siete fs See ela ayes hia oso obehee sas NkayeriIno saws mem eshe nee ese ol tea haa topisatctionssfee sh ace Tee relo\. lojate Gobet Se Se ee Seer ee ne Sen eee eee Gul tive longer este soe eee Ne seca meee en ances esecnaitsecncsiccs IIRC ASCH ee ee ee se esas eee oe Senses seesaw cee wait cs ces se ame osees The canning of the green or ripe fruit...........--.-----.-------------- Manmaladevan diaellivare. mee sceene senate ee en cas eens sata ern ee lnurine yaa epee ars seat eerie oe eee eats seioetal- aco aclceemeis mise AMIGO OG en aascossetedsbesosSeeeeQGane Gana ee Or ees C OBE E Ee eeee ee SeeeEEe Wedicinalepropentlcssere te secrete eae alee ee aisiasom)- ciate Ses omeiereise ea TOG) TEs, BG | NGG SS See ook ses bene ses e soc see soerE seeeeeSeseessac (Cen rr eee eS ee Sea Seles sian aie = wale eiale aici mais Io = ss atate iss Hires Ane ORNL OLLOPRIC On serene es oe ee seta Meee c ee at nes Soa sojsemetaanee IBReRe DL GIS ts DLS Peete nN rece en ean aut fo ceasceee ase iBesthlocalities=eascee sso seche es SBE SSE BOC Se ese ermas POELORRICA NE OLIN Gee ease te acre vara eer oe elanele ois \aclats Sane salen mass Nina) dle WER Eta GY 5 3a Go ne decane Danae sen See BS aaaeeaeeeeeasepbS INemraonne = Soon ee See on Seco OOOO EEE Dates Bee EE Ena aeeHeeHes sce Tel O COLON wae tsa oe ae eee ne = meee meteors ieee nce sec cise nee maaoee NENTS) CEOS, She Gdeaemode eases aoe Oe a aae eee ese e Dp aaSEeoeecoccs NRO jl SCescece soon aca hap ta Bene eaten a Hare se SB BeSeEaEeeeeeas WENT IER) S55 Soassooses Soe b bbs suo Ge sabe nes SseeRSberaose sao scs Wein cOsmnan (aren eee tate) siete ia ee ek ere coin a= ceialee ecient INIENAYE0) TOSS! 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Hit. IV. Wo VI. Vile VII. IX. X. XI. XII. XII. XIV. XV. ME LUST RA TIONS: Grove of mango trees between Cabo Rojo and Joyua, P. R----.-.--- Mango tree in fruit, Tapachula, Mexico.-........-.....---.------- Branch of mango tree, with fruit, Tapachula, Mexico.........----- Fig. 1.—Mango tree growing in dry region near San José, Guate- mala. Fig. 2.—Section of ‘‘ Redondo’’ mango fruit, Ponce, P. R-- Mango seeds: 1, ‘‘Cocha;’’ 2, ‘‘ Largo;’’ 3, ‘‘China.”’ Guatemala Citic tesa cee Sa cos esas boc See eee ee se oes a ee Eee Fig. 1.—Mango fruit, showing method of peeling. Fig. 2.—Mango | fruit, showing method of packing. « Fig. 3.—Mango fork......-.-- “Mavyacuez: mango truit, san) Juan, eo lR ees sone ase ee Mango fruits, Porto Rico: Fig. 1.—‘‘ Melocoton.”’ Fig. 2.—‘‘ Rosa.”’ Fig. 3.—‘“‘ Largo.” Fig. 4.—‘“‘ Mangotina”’............-...---- ‘CPina?4mangonnite (San) J Can ewe es ase ee aes ‘Margo 2 amanrosinults once, ih. voss- sees ee eee ee ‘SManpo 2omangortruite, San: Juan sbt Rises ae ese ate ete Se OWOSS AS OMTUITES, 2a oeN te) MLE yw kee Re eens * Redondosmango fruits, Ponce PR -se esses = see eee “Manila”? mango fruits, City of Mexico-.--...-....-....-.------- “China? mangouruits; (Guatemalay@ityes see ese =n 8 ) B. P. I.—36. B. 1. & E.—49. Pee MANGO IN PORTO RICO. INTRODUCTION. The mango is considered by many to be the finest of tropical fruits, though on this point there is much diversity of opinion, occasioned to a great extent by difference in taste, but still more by the great diver- sity in the fruit itself, which varies enormously in different localities, there being large areas where the mango is common and where not a single good variety is to be had. Persons forming their opinion of the fruit in such localities usually indorse the proverbial statement that the mango is “‘a mass of tow saturated with turpentine.” On the other hand, those acquainted with the fruit at its best are almost unanimously enthusiastic in their praise. Elphinstone, the historian of India, says: The mango is the best fruit of India, at once rich and delicate, and all other fruits are comparatively insipid beside its intensity of taste. There is something in it that is nothing less than voluptuous. A taste for mangoes, at least for the varieties existing in Porto Rico, has in most people to be cultivated; but once acquired, it is like a taste for olives, and becomes almost a craving. The milder flavored varieties, in which no taste of turpentine is to be detected, are usually enjoyed even by the novice, but after one becomes familiar with the fruit a slight taste of turpentine ceases to be disagreeable. The fiber, however, that exists in the poorer varieties is an unmitigated evil, and renders the eating of a mango a serious operation, to which one must devote his entire attention and may need to conclude with a bath. In the varieties where the fiber is the worst, one can not even have recourse to slicing the meat from the seed, as in that case the cut ends of the fibers are stiff enough to irritate the tongue. Good mangoes are produced in America, but as yet in such small quantity that few persons have had an opportunity to taste any but inferior fruit. Sample lots of the more common and poorer varieties are frequently shipped to northern markets, and have doubtless done much to hinder the growth of the trade, A first impression is very lasting, and first impressions of the mango based on such fruit are likely to be anything but favorable. Asan example, mangoes are frequently 9 10 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. to be found in the Washington market, but we have never seen one that could be called good, even in comparison with the Porto Rican fruit. This impression formed in the minds of the novelty-loving public will doubtless be difficult to dispel; but if really good mangoes could be placed in the markets their increase in popular favor would be certain and the growing of mangoes might become a profitable pursuit. In spite of the fact that in all mango-producing countries the natives consider the fruit wholesome and perfectly safe, prejudice against it exists among some military officials and others, who condemn the fruit as positively dangerous. During the Spanish war this prejudice was so strong that the soldiers in Porto Rico were prohibited from eating the mango, and many beautiful trees were cut down. This unjust prejudice probably arose from eating the fruit when unripe, in which state, like most other fruits, it is unwholesome. Soldiers, hungry for fresh fruit and quite unfamiliar with the mango, might easily mistake the green for the ripe, especially as in Porto Rico some of the varieties when ripe still remain green in color. All varieties become mellow when ripe, however, and if eaten in that condition can not but be wholesome. It is commonly believed in Porto Rico that the mango and rum should never be partaken at the same time. This again probably applies to the green fruit. In some parts of India the natives at one season of the vear live almost exclusively on mangoes, apparently without harm; and among the writers consulted all commend it as extremely wholesome except Sir George Birdwood, who states that the fruit is apt to act injuriously on the kidneys. On the other hand, the mango is considered by most authorities to have medicinal properties decidedly beneficial. An extract from the Pharmacographia Indica, in Watt’s Dictionary, describes the fruit as ‘‘invigorating and refreshing, fattening, and slightly laxative and diuretic.” DESCRIPTION. The mango tree (Mangifera indica) varies in height, according to the variety, from little more than a bush to a tree 50 to 70 feet high, with a trunk 6 to 10 feet high and 2 feet or more in diameter. The leaves are lanceolate, about 1 foot in length, tapering gradually to a narrow point, with a smooth, shining surface. The young leaves are first pink, then red before turning green. The top is rounded and very dense. (See Pls. I, I], I1].) The bark is gray and smooth. The flowers are small, reddish-white, or yellowish, borne in large upright racemes. The fruit varies greatly, according to the variety. In some kinds it is not more than 2 or 3 inches in greatest diameter, while others are three or four times that size, some weighing as much as 4 pounds. In form they vary from nearly spherical to long and ORIGIN. 14t narrow like a cucumber, straight or crooked. The most common yarie- ties are usually from 2 to 4 inches in length, more or less kidney-shaped, with the *‘nak,” or stigmatic point, more or less produced. In color they may be green, yellow, or red. In composition the difference is no less pronounced. In some the seed is large (see Pl. IV, fig 2), and the thin flesh between it and the skin consists almost entirely of fiber attached to the seed, while in others the seed is small, and in some so nearly aborted that it is easily cut with a knife. In the best varieties the fiber is almost entirely wanting and the entire fruit consists of a mass of juicy, usually orange-colored pulp. This in some varieties is so firm that it may be sliced with a knife: in others it is soft enough to be eaten with a spoon. The characters usually utilized in distinguishing varieties of the fruit are the size, color, and form; the extent of the depression at the stem; the location and prominence of the *‘nak” or stigmatic point; the color and thickness of the flesh and the amount of fiber contained; the presence or absence of a turpentine flavor. The seeds of different varieties are also very distinct. A glance at Pl. V will give some idea of the diversity, and although these characters are quite as constant as those more commonly used, they seem never to have been utilized in the description of varieties. The Anacardiaceae, to which the mango belongs, include also the turpentine tree (Pistdcia terebinthus), the original source of turpen- tine, and it seems not at all unlikely that the characteristic odor of the mango is in reality due to the presence of turpentine or some closely allied substance. Exudations of a transparent resinous substance sim- ilar to that of the turpentine tree are frequently to be noticed in the mango. ORIGIN. The mango (Mangifera indica) is said by De Candolle to be native in South Asia or the Malay Archipelago, and recent authors report it as wild in the forests of Ceylon and the regions at the base of the Himalayas, especially toward the east, at an altitude of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet. The species has been so long under cultivation that it would be extremely difficult to locate definitely the place or places where it was actually domesticated. The general region is, how- ever, without doubt that given above. Of the 37 species of Mangi- fera enumerated in Index Kewensis, all are from the Indo-Malayan region except two—one, described by Oliver, from West Africa, and one, by M. Dessousseaux, from the island of Mauritius. Engler and Prantl describe the genus as containing 27 species from the East Indies and the Malay Archipelago. Its culture is very ancient, as shown by references in Sanskrit mythology and ancient Hindu folklore. For so old and so useful a plant, its distribution was comparatively 12 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. limited until historic times. To the west, it had not passed the Red Sea, being unknown in Egypt, while to the east it had apparently not reached the islands of the Pacific. According to Rumphius (1750) it was introduced into some of the islands of the Malay Archipelago within the memory of living men, though the variety of native names would argue an earlier introduction. The species is not well adapted for distribution by natural agencies, and man has probably been chiefly responsible for its dissemination. In the New World it seems to have been first introduced into Bra- zil, although it is not known at what date. The earliest record of its introduction into the West Indies appears in Hughes’s Natural History of Barbados, 1750, where it states: ** This tree or its seed was recently brought from Rio Janiero and grows only at the Guiney plantation.” The date of this importation is more definitely placed at about 1742 or 1743 by letters published in Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, etc., 1786, page 217. In 1782 Captain Mar- shall, of Lord Rodney’s squadron, captured a French vessel, bound from the island of Réunion or Mauritius to Santo Domingo, that had on board many valuable plants, among which was the mango, said to have been in the form of grafted stock. These were planted in the botanic gardens of Mr. Hinton East at Gordon Town, Jamaica. Two kinds—one labeled No. 11 and the other No. 32—have since been known by these designations, No. 11 being one of the most popular varieties in Jamaica at the present time. The mango is now a common fruit throughout the Tropics of the world. It has been developed to the highest state of perfection in its home in India, where the number of well-marked varieties is enor- mous. Mr. Maries, of Durbhungah, has collected over 500 varieties, 100 of whicb he characterizes as good. Thirty-four of these varieties he describes in Watt’s Dictionary of Economic Products of India. Ceylon is also famous for its mangoes. Both the east and the west coasts of Africa have several good varieties. In Australia the culture is fast increasing, and it bids fair to become one of the most popular fruits. One very fine variety is said to exist in the island of St. Helena. The mango is the most highly prized fruit of Guam, where there is a fine seedling variety. Its cultivation in that island is, how- ever, not a success, owing probably to the thin soil, which affords such a shallow footing that the hurricanes uproot the trees in all exposed localities. In the Hawaiian Islands, Mr. William C. Stubbs@ reports: ‘‘The mango is receiving perhaps more attention just now than any other fruit. As many as twelve or fifteen varieties have already been introduced. It is a delicious fruit, and decidedly orna- mental in any ground.” In the New World, Trinidad and Jamaica «Bul. No. 95, Office of Experiment Stations, U. 8. Dept. of Agriculture, Report on the Agricultural Resources and Capabilities of Hawaii, p. 40. CULTURE. 13 have the largest collections, although the drier regions of Central America and Mexico may be found to offer better seedling varieties. In spite of the many discouraging frosts that have visited Florida, planters of that State are actively engaged in propagating good vari- eties by budding, grafting, and inarching, and, if visited with no fur- ther misfortune, will in a few years produce considerable quantities of high-grade fruit. CULTURE. REQUIREMENTS. The mango will grow in a variety of conditions, and it seems to have little preference as to soil, the most important requirement being a deep soil that is well drained. As to climate, it is much more exact- ing, and the fact that the tree may thrive well in a given locality and yet fail to produce fruit should be kept always in mind. It may be considered as proven that the mango will be prolific only in regions subjected to a considerable dry season. On the moist north side of Porto: Rico the trees grow luxuriantly, but they are not nearly so prolific nor is the fruit of such good quality as on the dry south side, and in the very dry region about Yauco and at Cabo Rojo the fruit seemed at its best, while its abundance was attested by the fact that fine fruit was selling as low as 12 for a cent. In Guatemala and Mexico the mango was found at its best only in regions where severe dry seasons prevailed. This position is amply supported by reports of the mango in other localities. The moist conditions that prevail at the Botanic Gardens of Trinidad are reported by Mr. Hart’ to be very unfavorable to the production of mangoes, a decided improvement being noticed in particularly dry seasons. This was also found to be the case in Jamaica, reports from different parts of the island? all agreeing that the mango fruits but sparingly in moist localities, and in such is much more prolific in dry seasons. Rains at the time of flowering seem to be especially injurious. It has been suggested by Mr. Hart and others that the moist weather interferes with pollination. If this is accomplished by insects the damp weather may easily affect their operations. Information on this point seems entirely wanting and investigation might be well repaid. In cases where the. trees do not flower the explanation is probably to be found in the fact that the mango, like so many other plants, needs some check to its growth to induce the formation of blossoms. Where the dry season is lacking, artificial means of checking the growth are often resorted to, and old trees that have never borne fruit are some- times made to produce enormous crops. «Bul. Royal Bot. Gardens, Trinidad, July, 1899, Vol. ILI, pp. 190-194. b Jamaica Bul., November and December, 1901, Vol. VIII, pp. 161-178. 14 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. The tree is seldom seen at high altitudes, but this may also be due to the fact that high altitudes are often moist. At Senahu, Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala, trees were seen growing at an altitude of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet. They looked strong and healthy but were with- out signs of fruit or flowers, and it was said that these trees had never been known to produce fruit. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. SEED. The mango grows readily from seed, and this is the only method of propagation practiced in Porto Rico. For transporting the seed long distances it is, of course, necessary to remove the pulp, and the best results have been obtained with cleaned seeds, dried on the outside and packed so as to conserve the moisture without molding. Packed in this way, several successful importations of seed have been made from the East Indies to Florida. The ease and rapidity with which mangoes can be propagated by means of seed are decided advantages, but the results are very uncer- tain, and very few of the really desirable varieties can be maintained by this method. There are a few good varieties in different parts of the world the seedlings of which appear to produce fruit identical with the parent. Much could doubtless be done to improve the mango in Porto Rico by the growth of seedlings from selected fruit, and really good varie- ties might be originated. Cross fertilization of the flowers might pro- duce new varieties and increase the chances of producing good forms. On the other hand, if the mango follows the analogy of other fruits, it might be worth while to try the experiment of self-pollinating some of the best varieties, with the idea that the reproductive fertility would be thus impaired and the size of the seed reduced. A more expeditious method of reducing the size of the seed might be to cross-fertilize with the pollen of some variety or perhaps species so distantly related that partially or completely sterile hybrids would be secured. Breeding experiments of all kinds require, however, so much time that for practical purposes the introduction of superior varieties existing in other countries is certainly the first step to be taken. INARCHING. This, and methods to be described later, provide means of propa- gating good varieties, so that the fruit of the new plant will be identi- cal, or nearly so, with that of the parent. No greater variation need be expected than that occurring on a single tree. In India and wherever the cultivation of the mango is carried on to any great extent, inarching is by far the most common method of INARCHING. nD propagating. An article in the Sugar Journal and Tropical Cultivator describes the process as follows: The best method of propagating good varieties of mangoes is by means of inarch- ing, which is a very simple process. It is performed usually between a large tree of superior variety growing in the ground and a seedling growing in a pot—small, cheap flowerpots about 8 or 9 inches deep and 6 inches diameter do well for the purpose. The soil should be good potting soil, with a fair proportion of manure. A single large mango stone should be planted in each pot. The seedlings are ready for inarching, if well grown, in ten months or so; if not well grown, they should be older. Two-year-old seedlings are very successfully inarched. The stem of the seedling should in each be fairly thick, with the wood fairly developed—near the root the stem will be somewhat thicker than an ordinary workingman’s smallest finger. Any number of seedlings in pots can be inarched in one tree by erecting a stage [for their support] under the lower branches. The stem of the branch to be inarched should be about the same thickness as the stem of the seedling, and like the seedling, should be fairly developed wood. The juncture where the inarching is performed should be about 6 or 8 inches from the root of the seedling and about a foot or so from the growing point of the branch, unless the branch is making new vigorous growth, in which case the distance will be more. ) made into a pickle, with salt, mustard oil, chilies, and other ingre- dients; (c) made into preserves and jellies by being boiled and cooked in sirup; (d) boiled, strained, and with milk and sugar made into a custard known as mango- fool; (e) dried and made into the native ‘‘ambchur,’’ used for adding acidity to certain curries; (f) when very young cut into small pieces, mixed with a little salt, and sliced chilies and milk added, it forms a ‘‘tasty’’ salad. When ripe (a) it is made into curry which has a sweet, acid, not unpleasant, taste; (b) it is cut into small pieces and made into a salad with vinegar and chilies (the sour fruit is sometimes so used); (c) the juice is syueezed, spread on plates, and allowed to dry; this forms the thin cakes known as amb-sath. The kernels are eaten in times of famine, and by the poorer classes in many parts of India they are boiled and eaten as greens. They are also ground with meal and mixed with various other ingredients to form the relish known as am-khatai. When stuffed with coriander, turmeric, and other spices, and boiled in mustard oil, they are esteemed a great delicacy. THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. PRESENT STATUS. The mango is one of the most common fruits in Porto Rico, and during the season when this fruit is ripe it is eaten in larger quantities than any other, with the possible exception of the banana, which lat- ter is used more as a vegetable, cooked in one form or other. That it is a popular as well as common fruit is shown by the fact that when mangoes are scarce people are willing to pay comparatively high prices for them, and this in spite of their being looked upon as luxuries rather than as staple artieles of food. Porto Rico seems very well adapted to the production of mangoes and, as the plant is strictly tropical and very susceptible to cold, would seem to have a decided advantage over Florida, where good varieties are already successfully grown, but where, except in the extreme southern part, the danger of injury from cold is very great. A really high-grade mango is unknown in Porto Rico, and the first steps toward making their exportation profitable is the introduction from the other islands, or from Florida, Mexico, or the East Indies, of grafted stock of the best varieties. Even seedlings of improved forms would without doubt be a great advance, but until the quality is in some way improved the shipping of mangoes in other than small lots will scarcely prove profitable, as the sale of the mango in its present 26 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. form will be largely limited to those who have at some time lived in a country where the fruit is grown and have already acquired a liking for it. With this class even poor mangoes will always find a market, if good ones are not to be had. That mangoes of the best varieties can be grown in America has been demonstrated, although only small quantities are as yet produced. Mr. D. G. Fairchild, who. has had excellent opportunities to test mangoes in all parts of the world, says that with the possible excep- tion of the Bombay Alphonse the finest mango he ever tasted was one of the variety known as ‘**‘ Mulgoba” and grown in Florida. The mango grows in all parts of Porto Rico, but is more common on the drier south side of the island, where the trees will occasionally be seen growing so thick as to suggestan orchard. (See Pl. I.) Itcan scarcely be said to be cultivated at all, as few trees are planted and most of the fruit is obtained from trees that have spread spontane- ously. It seems to prefer dry hill slopes, and was seen iu the greatest profusion about Cabo Rojo. Trees are seldom seen growing about houses. This may, however, be due to a superstition that the shade of the mango is dangerous, our Porto Rican driver on one occasion preferring to have his horses stand in the hot sun rather than in the shade of the deadly mango. If the tree is propagated artificially at all, it is by means of seeds. The only indication that any grafted stock exists in Porto Rico was a statement heard in Yauco to the effect that the variety known as Melocoton is from grafted stock brought from Martinique. The importation may have been made, but even if such is the case it has been of little value, as it has since been propagated only through seedlings. The season of ripe mangoes in Porto Rico is from May to August. By selecting proper varieties this might be prolonged, since in some parts of India it extends over a period of six months. This would be a great advantage in shipping the fruit to temperate regions, as at present the season coincides with the season of temperate fruits, which places the mango at a decided disadvantage. BEST LOCALITIES. Mango plantations in Porto Rico, to be most profitable, should with- out doubt be located in the drier parts of the island, where, as has been said, the trees are not only more prolific, but the fruit is better formed and more free from blemishes. The whole south side, a nar- row strip across the western end, and the northwest corner would seem to be well adapted. The southwestern part of the island is at present producing the best mangoes. In this region there are many more or less extensive tracts of low-priced land unsuited to the growing of other crops, but apparently adapted to the mango. PORTO RICAN FORMS. 2 Mango trees are common about San Juan, but this region is so moist that the trees are not prolific and the fruit is frequently deformed and spotted. PORTO RICAN FORMS. There are a great many forms of the mango in Porto Rico, but at present their classification is little more than a list of names. The same name is applied in different parts of the island to distinct fruits, and, again, what appears to be the same form will receive distinct names in different localities. In any given market, however, consid- erable agreement will be found as to the terminology of forms, though the fruit is evidently picked in bulk and sorted before being offered for sale. Insome markets this is carried much farther than in others. The fruit of the same tree seems always to be very nearly uniform, but as the mango comes true to seed only to a limited extent and the fruit in Porto Rico is all from seedlings, an almost endless variety is naturally to be expected. True varieties—that is, varieties propagated by asexual methods—do not exist in Porto Rico, and the following descriptions are intended to assist in fixing the vague terminology of the market forms and if possible to stimulate further observation as to whether these come true to seed. These forms should not be confused either with true horti- cultural varieties or, until further investigation, with races that are known to come true to seed. The forms described below are those that fell under immediate notice, the name most commonly in use being appended. Mango de Mayaguez (Pl. VI1).—A small yellow form, with compara- tively large seed, but with good flavor, soft flesh, and few fibers. This form, for sale in the San Juan markets, is considered one of the finest. It has very little of the turpentine taste, but its flavor did not appear to be any better than that of several others, while its small size and thin flesh make it seem on the whole inferior. In shape it is asymmetrical, with depressed stem. The color in the early part of the season is a uniform yellow; later many specimens were seen with one side red. Mangotina (Pl. VIL, fig. 4).—A very small yellow form, with one side red. Similar to the Mango de Mayaguez seen at San Juan but longer, with rounder base and the stigmatic point nearer the apex. Melocoton ** peach” mango (P\. VIL, tig. 1).—A small yellow and red form seen at Yauco, said to have come from grafted stock brought from Martinique. Base very square, stem slightly depressed, skin thin, meat with very few fibers, mild in flavor. Mango de rosa (Pl. VII, fig. 2).—A nearly spherical form seen at Yauco, yellow in color, with one side a beautiful red. The skin is very thin, the meat comparatively free from fiber, very mild and pleasant, without a trace of the turpentine flavor. bo THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. Mango pita (Pl. [X).—A short, thick form found in the San Juan market before the middle of June, green, slightly asymmetrical, with rather oblique base, stem depressed. The meat is thick, of good tex- ture and flavor. Mango largo (Pls. VIII and X).—A form common on the south side of the island and at Mayaguez. Long, nearly straight, stem not depressed, green in color. The flesh is very firm, moderately thick, and with very few fibers. At Yauco slightly shorter specimens were called ‘* Mangotina,” a name used very loosely in all markets, this form selling there at 10 for 1 cent. The flavor is fine, though the taste of turpentine is pronounced, and to those who do not object to this feature it will appeal as one of the best Porto Rican forms. Mango mango (P\. XI.)—A large, rather straight form, with a very square base, somewhat resembling ‘‘ largo,” but slightly more sym- metrical and thicker. Large quantities were seen in the San Juan market on June 22; a month later none were to be found. The flesh was fairly thick and of good quality. This name may possibly be a contraction of mangon, which would be not at all inapplicable, as this is one of the largest Porto Rican forms. Stahl gives mangé as the common name of Mangifera indica in Porto Rico. Mango jobos (Pl. X11).—A common form in the San Juan market in the early part of the season. A very poor kind, considered to be the wild or unimproved form. It is green in color, with a large seed and very stringy meat, frequently ripening uneyenly and having a strong turpentine flavor. In form it is slightly asymmetrical, stem not depressed. Mango redondo (Pl. XII and Pl. IV, fig. 2).—A large, thick-meated form, common in the Ponce market. In form it is quite symmetrical, witha decidedly depressed stem. In color it varies from green to red, the difference being in some instances so marked as to suggest a distinct type. The color seemed the only difference, however, and the market people insisted that the green and red might come from the same tree. The flesh is very juicy, moderately free from fibers, and of a yery good flavor. VARIETIES TO BE INTRORUCED. There are probably hundreds of excellent varieties and forms grown in India and elsewhere that might profitably be introduced into this country, but it would perhaps be better to introduce a yery few of the best sorts and get them thoroughly established than to dissipate energy on a great number. As early as 1869 some seventeen varieties of Indian mangoes were successfully introduced into Jamaica. These have since been propa- gated and new importations made until there exists in Jamaica a con- VARIETIES TO BE INTRODUCED. 29 siderable number of Indian mangoes. The best varieties are, however, confined to gardens, and very few of the choicer kinds are exported. There are also a few Indian varieties in Trinidad and Florida. Among the varieties of mangoes that should be introduced into Porto Rico, the following may be mentioned: Mulgoba.—* Form roundish, oblique, reniform; size large, weigh- ing from three-fourths pound to 1 pound; surface smooth and undu- lating; color yellow, beautifully blushed with red and faintly dotted with numerous brown dots; skin thin, tough, tenacious; seed reniform, oval, rather large; fiber scanty, fine, and tender; flesh rich, apricot yellow, very tender, melting and juicy, sweet, rich, fragrant; quality very good. ‘The Mulgoba surpasses in flayor and quality the seedlings pre- viously grown, but its most distinctly marked features of superiority are the tenderness of the flesh and absence of the objectionable fiber and strong turpentine flavor common to most of the seedlings grown in this country. “The tree is a strong, symmetrical grower, and appears to be abundantly productive.” “ Grafted stock of this variety was secured by the Division of Pomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, in 1889 and placed with fruit growers in southern Florida. After a narrow escape from the freeze of 1895 the surviving tree has done well, and the variety has been successfully propagated. This variety should be at once intro- duced into Porto Rico. Alphonse, Aphoos, or Alfoos, is perhaps the most noted of mangoes. Woodrow says: It is universally admitted to be the finest of all mangoes. In flavor its fruit is indescribable; it seems to be a subtle blending of all agreeable flavors. In weight the fruit averages 8 ounces, and in color green, enriched by a crimson glow on the exposed side, and in shape oblong, slightly thickened at the upper end, and without gs any prominent stigmatic point or beak. The leayes vary much in size and shape, and with difficulty can be dincaeniehed from common yarieties; but among the choice varieties the leaves of the Alphonse may be known by the bright red midrib apparent until the leaves are nearly ripe. The branches of the inflorescence are of a rich rosy color. In manner of growth or habit this variety is rather stunted and irregular, rarely forming a graceful tree. It is also very delicate and apt to give way before insect attacks more than other varieties; but as its fruit is valuable it should be kept free from insects and otherwise protected in proportion to the price the fruit brings. ? This is a very early variety and so highly prized in India that as much as $19 a hundred is sometimes paid by dealers for selected fruit. In June, 1902, several inarched plants of this variety, all from a Sl ingle tree known to produe e Super ior fruit. were sent from Bombay by aW. A. Taylor, hes U. Bipape. of eee 1901, p. 390. > Gardening in India, pp. 226, 227 30 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. Mr. D. G. Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Some of these were sent out at once through the Divi- sion of Pomology to experienced growers in Florida, where they were budded on healthy stock and are now doing well. Budding was also successfully accomplished from the remaining plants held in the green- houses at Washington, and the variety seems now safely established. A letter from Col. J. G. E. Griffith,” Hodges, Black River, Jamaica, states that after three attempts he imported in 1901 six Alphonse and six Paeree plants, eight of which are now doing well. Five of these are believed to be Alphonse. Every effort should be made to preserve this valuable variety, and budded or inarched stock should be introduced into Porto Rico as soon as possible. It might also be desirable to secure one or two of the late fruiting forms. Several varieties, grouped in Watt’s Dictionary under the name of Budayas, are said to fruit as late as September or October, whereas the Alphonse fruits in May. No. 11.—This variety, the original stock of which was among the first mangoes introduced into Jamaica by Captain Marshall, in 1782, is still the most popular variety in the island. It isa fine fruit, though somewhat stringy, and is said to come true to seed. Mr. Hart iden- tifies this variety with the Reine Amelie of Martinique. As Martin- ique received a large part of its early introduced plants from Mauritius, the source of this variety in Jamaica, this identification doubtless means identity of origin, and the fact that these distinct strains are still identifiable would argue great constancy for this variety. Budded stock of this variety is also growing in Florida. Manila (P\. XIV).—A Mexican race, almost entirely free from fiber, and of a mild, pleasant flavor. The skin is uniformly light yel- low and thin; the flesh is also light colored and firm. ‘The seed is very thin and small in proportion to the amount of flesh. This is a really high-grade mango, not unlike the Mulgoba in flavor. Its shipping qualities have not been tested, but perfectly ripe fruit purchased in Mexican markets kept in good condition for several days. This mango was very popular in the City of Mexico about the end of June. It was sold in all the markets and hawked on the streets, the price being usually + cents apiece Mexican. The uniformity of the fruit as it appeared in the different markets, taken with the absence of asexual methods of propagation in Mexico, would argue that it is a form that comes true to seed. If this is the case, it would certainly be one of the most desirable mangoes for Porto Rico, and seed should be secured at an early date. The name of this race suggests that it came from the Philippine «Bul. Bot. Dept. Jamaica, Vol. VIII, pts. 11 and 12. VARIETIES TO BE INTRODUCED. 31 Islands, and indeed it is not impossible that it was brought to Mexico from those islands by one of the Spanish galleons that during the seventeenth century plied regularly between the Philippines and Mexico. A form resembling this in Guam is there commonly supposed to have come from the Philippines, but as ships only touched at Guam on the return voyage from Mexico the fruit must have reached Guam by way of America, and would naturally have become established in both countries. Possibly a further confirmation is to be found in the occurrence of the same or a very similar form in Cuba, known as the Philippine mango. Mango china.—A very fine seedling race, common in the markets of Guatemala City, and considered the finest mango of that region. The form of the fruit is characteristic, being very thin and almost cir- cular in outline, with a prominent blunt ‘‘ nak,” located some distance from the apex. The flesh is thick and remarkably free from fiber for a seedling, mild and aromatic, without suggesting turpentine. This variety differs from others examined in having pronounced longitudinal ridges on the seed, which is thin and very broad. (See Pl. V, fig. 1.) Like the Manila of Mexico, this form apparently comes true to seed. It could easily be secured and would certainly be an improvement on anything at present in the island. By some this form is called Mango de brea. This name is, howeyer, more appropriately applied to another form m which the fruit is more or less coated with a pitch-like exudation, /7ea meaning pitch. There are a number of excellent varieties and forms already grow- ing in other islands of the West Indies, which it might be desirable to introduce. The fact, however, that Indian fruit is outselling the West Indian in the London market would indicate that the best Indian vari- eties should receive the most attention. It is possible that the best kinds are not exported from the British West Indies where mangoes as good as Indian varieties may be growing, but where under the unfavorable conditions they do not bear sufficient fruit to permit of being exported. These same mangoes, if transplanted to the south side of Porto Rico, might become much more prolific, and on account of the ease with which they could be introduced the subject should receive careful attention. In Bulletin No. 20 of the Botanical Department of Trinidad, July, 1889, Mr. J. H. Hart describes the Trinidad varieties, some of which would appear to be very excellent. Among the most desirable kinds may be mentioned the following: Gordon.—A fine large fruit. The seedlings are said to produce fruit almost identical with those of the grafted stock, and are thought to bear better. 32 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. /cters.—One of the finest flavored of all Trinidad mangoes, said to bear regular crops. In Trinidad this variety is very subject to sour- ing in the center of the fruit. This would probably be much less troublesome in Porto: Rico. Julic.—A fine, large mango, with thin, long seed; commences to bear when very young. On the west coast of Africa and in some other localities the mango has two seasons of bearing ripe fruit, about six months apart. At Esquintla, Guatemala, where the mango grows luxuriantly and is very prolific, this appears to be the case, as many trees were seen bearing flowers and nearly ripe fruit at the same time, April 16. If this is a difference in kind and not due to climatic conditions these forms should be imported, as the placing of a new fruit on the market would be greatly facilitated could it be done in the winter, when competition with native fruits would be less. BEST METHOD OF INTRODUCING NEW VARIETIES. The introduction of new varieties from the East Indies has been attended with much difficulty. Seeds can, of course, be secured at com- paratively small expense, but in most of the cases on record only a small percentage have germinated, and these, after the trouble and delay of bringing them to bearing, are likely to produce fruit with only a slight resemblance to the variety desired. Hitherto the most successful importations have been in the form of inarched stock in Wardian cases. This, though a very satisfactory method, is very expensive, and a less costly plan would greatly encour- age lmportations. Experiments in packing cuttings, suitable for budding, so that they may be sent through the mails, have been made by Mr. D. G. Fair- child. He recommends the following method: Have a cylindrical tin case made, 10 inches long, 2 inches in diameter, with a well- fitting cap 2 inches long, in which to send the cuttings through the post. This case should be fitted in a cloth sack before dispatching. Cut scions about 10 inches long, making sure that they have good buds on them. Dip the cut ends in collodion or melted beeswax, wrap each scion in a strip of light tin foil, and wrap these again in oiled paper. Pack not more than four or five in each case, with slightly moist- ened sawdust. Be careful to put the address on the tag. The first shipment of mango cuttings packed in this manner arrived in rather poor condition, the sawdust in which they were packed being apparently too moist. Buds, which were immediately placed in the healthy stock, showed signs of life, but it is still too early to report the success or failure of the experiment. The sending of a second shipment, packed in drier sawdust, was so delayed that the severe heat encountered on the voyage resulted in an entire loss. Experiments PACKING AND SHIPPING. 33 with this method of packing are being continued by Messrs. Taylor and Fairchild, as the system has not as yet received a fair trial. Experiments made by Mr. H. Knight, in Queensland, on the keep- ing quality of mango cuttings proved that cuttings carefully packed in cocoanut fiber would remain alive and in good condition for at least three and one-half months. Cuttings were tried in both moist sand and cocoanut fiber that had been boiled, washed, and squeezed dry. The cuttings were packed in tight tins. At the end of two months, of 14 cuttings packed in moist sand, all were dead but one, while after three and one-half months all the cuttings in the cocoanut fiber were alive and had shoots from 2 to + inches long. This length of time is ample for the introduction of new varieties from India to this country, but the cuttings thus experimented with were doubtless kept at a reasonably uniform temperature, and it must not be inferred that they would have survived a voyage to the West Indies where, owing to the changes to which they would be subjected, they would probably have deteriorated much more rapidly. The fact that the cuttings made sprouts, while indicating the success of this method of preserving the life of the cuttings, would not be desirable if the cuttings were to be used for budding. This could, however, doubtless be prevented by drier packing. The introduction of new varieties by means of cuttings that can be sent through the mails would be such a simple and economical method that it is well worthy of experiment, but in view of the difficulties which many haye experienced in budding the mangoes it may be well not to place too much dependence on this method until budding has been successfully accomplished from cuttings thus treated. The propagation and dissemination of the finer varieties of the mango might well be one of the lines of activity of the experiment stations recently established in the tropical possessions of the United States. PACKING AND SHIPPING. The packing and shipping of mangoes is a question of great impor- tance, as the success or failure of their production on a commercial scale is to a large extent dependent on its proper solution. With the poorer varieties, it is a comparatively simple matter, and the fruit wrapped in paper and packed in cases comes through in very good shape. With the finer varieties the question is, however, much more difficult. Sample lots of the best varieties grown in the West Indies have been shipped long distances, as from Jamaica to London, and have arrived in good condition. In larger lots it would doubtless be much more difficult, but with proper care it would seem that the loss need not be serious. The 8992—No. 28—02 3 34 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. advisability of shipping in cold storage has never been properly tested. but the general opinion seems to be that low temperatures injure the flavor of the fruit. Mr. J. H. Hart, Superintendent of the Royal Botanical Gardens of Trinidad, recommends” a temperature some 8~ or 10> below that in which the fruit was ripened. ‘* Pick the fruit,” he says, ** when fully formed or ‘ full,’ handle without bruising, or, as I wrote many years ago of oranges, ‘handle as you would eggs,’ choose well-formed and uninjured fruit, pack so that fruit receives no undue weight or pressure, place for transit ina well-ventilated part of the ship,and nearly every kind of fruit can be carried successfully for yoyages of from six to fourteen days or more, mangoes of the best kind among the number ;” while experiments in shipping mangoes from Australia would indicate that a temperature of about 35° was the most satisfactory. There can be no doubt that questions of ventilation and of packing so that the fruit is not subjected to undue pressure are of more importance than the exact temperature, and the instructions of Mr. Hart will, if followed, allow good fruit to reach the northern markets in prime condition. The United States consul at Bombay, William Thomas Fee, in his report for October, 1901, states that in the large shipments of man- goes now being sent from India to London the fruit is packed in the cast-off boxes used for shipping oil to India, and that it arrives in good condition. M. Nollet, director of the garden at Martinique, has succeeded in making small shipments from that island to Paris with a loss not exceeding 10 per cent. The fruit was wrapped in soft paper and packed one dozen in a box, the interstices filled with sawdust and the whole placed in cold storage. The fruit is usually picked when of full size, but before it has com- pletely ripened, and is placed in shade to complete the process. In some parts of India it is buried in the ground to ripen, as this is sup- posed to make it sweeter. To establish a market for Porto Rican mangoes, it will be necessary for some individual or company to undertake to grade, pack, and ship the fruit on a scale sufficiently large to enable commission merchants to receive regular consignments and feel confidence in the uniform quality and condition of the shipments. Growers may hesitate to embark in the production of mangoes on a large scale before a market is assured, but a market will not be assured until the supply can meet the above conditions. A large and well-organized plantation could probably best meet these requirements, but, in the absence of such, the neighboring planters of mangoes might very advantageously cooperate «Bul. Royal Bot. Gardens, Trinidad, 1897-99, Vol. IIT, p. 192. MARKET. 35 by combining their crops and placing the grading, packing, and ship- ping of the fruit in the hands of one person. The industry might thus be suecessfully launched without serious risk to individual planters. MARKET. Although a local market already exists in Porto Rico, the only out- look for making the growing of mangoes profitable is in a trade with the temperate regions. Such a trade can hardly be said to exist in this country, for, although small lots are frequently sent North and are disposed of at from 5 to 10 cents apiece, they have been sold merely as novelties; for the few larger shipments that have been made there was no sufficient demand, and to avoid total loss prices had to be lowered so that Porto Rican mangoes have been sold in Washington at the rate of 2 for 5 cents. What can be done with mangoes of the best quality in this country is still a matter of conjecture; but in view of the unanimously favor- able opinion of those who have tasted good varieties, it would seem that it is merely a question of being able to produce good fruit and to ship it in good condition. The history of the mango in Florida affords some very encouraging data regarding profits to be derived from mango culture. The follow- ing, quoted from Bulletin No. 1, Division of Pomology, U. S$. Depart- ment of Agriculture, refers to trees growing in the neighborhood of Tampa Bay: One grower on the point sold, from eleven trees in the fourth year from the seed, fruit which brought him $219. In their sixth year he shipped bushels to various places, realizing at Chicago 60 cents per dozen, and the fruit shipping well. Another dealer received from the produce of one of his bearing trees $66:in its sixth year. These mangoes were probably of inferior varieties, as Mr. Willian: A. Taylor states“ that prior to 1889 none but seedling mango trees were grown in Florida. On the other hand, the quantities were so small that the fruit was probably sold as a novelty and the profits realized give little idea of how larger and continued shipments would fare. In England the trade is much farther advanced. There has been a small trade between Jamaica and England for a number of years. The following, copied from the Bulletin of the Botanical Department of Jamaica, No. 39, January, 1893, page 23, is a statement of the number and value of mangoes exported during the years 1887 to 1892, to which is added the approximate price per LOO. «Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901, p. 390. 36 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. Number and value of mangoes exported from Jamaica, 1887 to 1892. | DN pproxi- Year exported. Number.) Value. alae nee | 100. ce: 8 d, 258,060 203 2 6 $0.38 222,020! 158 12 6) 35 18,388 | 19 19 0O -53 170,988 | 100 19 6) 29 999,584 258 9 0 | 42 | 60 eae 6 0 The following statement is also made: Pa This export will never be of any great value unless the fruit is picked by hand and packed with care, for the least bruise is fatal. Good mangoes would doubtless fetch a good price in New York. Large shipments of fine East Indian mangoes are now being received in London and not only arrive in good condition, but are bringing fancy prices, quite outselling the West Indian fruit, to which they are much superior. This is decidedly encouraging, for if there is a demand for good mangoes in England, why not in the United States? And if it is possi- ble to successfully ship fine varieties from India to London, there ought surely to be no difficulty in shipping from Porto Rico to New York. SUMMARY. The essentials for making the cultivation of mangoes in Porto Rico a profitable industry may be summarized as follows: (1) The introduction and propagation of good varieties, meaning (@) fair-sized fruit, moderately free from fiber and with little of the tur- pentine flavor; (2) fruit that will stand shipping; (c) early and late fruiting varieties, and if possible varieties bearing two crops a year. (2) Care in picking, packing, and shipping, that the fruit may reach the market in good condition. (8) A general supervision of the shipping by some responsible per- son or firm, insuring uniformity and regularity of supply. (4) The placing of good fruit before the public in such quantities that the price need not be excessive, and that the supply can he regu- lar and continuous during the fruiting season. If these conditions can be met, an increasing demand may be expected, and there seems no reason why the commercial production of mangoes should not be added to the agricultural industries of Porto Rico. Ea. es) ‘ a) a! a i ; 7 ia ‘oe ; 7 lad iow - had ‘ = ‘ nid Su ae) i e ile , 7 a ’ PLATE 1. Il. II. . Fig. 1.—Mango tree, growing in dry region near San José, Guatemala. VI. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Grove of mango trees between Cabo Rojo and Joyua, Porto Rico. These trees were injured by the hurricane of 1899, and have not regained their typical form. Mango tree in fruit, Tapachula, Mexico; estimated to be bearing about 5,000 mangoes. Branch of mango tree, with fruit, Tapachula, Mexico. Fig. 2.—Section of ‘‘ Redondo” ral size. ) mango fruit, Ponce, Porto Rico. (Natu- . Mango seeds: Fig. 1.—‘‘Cocha.” Fig. 2.—‘‘Largo.”’ Fig. 3.—‘‘China.”? Guatemala City, Guatemala. (Natural size.) Fig. 1.—Mango fruit, showing method of peeling. (Naturalsize.) Fig. 2.— Crate of mangoes shipped from Florida to Washington, D. C., showing a successful method of packing. (Photograph loaned by W. A. Taylor. ) Fig. °.—Mango fork. (Natural size. ) ““Mango de Mayaguez”’ fruit, San Juan, Porto Rico. (Natural size.) . Mango fruits: Fig. 1.—‘‘Melocoton.” Fig. 2.—‘‘Rosa.” Fig. 3.— “Largo.’’? Fig. 4.—‘‘ Mangotina.’’ Yauco, Porto Rico. (Natural size. ) ““Mango pina’’ fruit, San Juan, Porto Rico. (Natural size.) ‘*Mango largo’’ fruit, Ponce, Porto Rico. (Natural size. ) “Mango mang6’’ fruit, San Juan, Porto Rico. (Natural size. ) “Mango jobos”’ fruit, San Juan, Porto Rico. (Natural size. ) “Mango redondo”’ fruit, Ponce, Porto Rico. (Natural size. ) ““Manila’’ mango fruit, City of Mexico. (Natural size. ) “Mango china”’ fruit, Guatemala City, Guatemala. (Natural size.) 38 O PLATE I. of Agriculture U.S. Dept Industry Bureau of Plant 28. Bul GROVE OF MANGO TREES, BETWEEN CABO ROJO AND JOYUA, P. R. Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture t t PLATE Il. MANGO TREE IN FRUIT, TAPACHULA, MEXICO PLATE Ill. HULA, MEXICO > TREE WITH FRuiT, T APA‘ BRANCH OF MANG( hs fa) rene Si f Wide PLATE IV. of Agriculture, Dept 72) Bu Fic. We —MANGO TREE GROWING IN DRY REGION NEAR SAN JOSE, GUATEMALA. FIG 2.—SECTION OF ‘‘'REDONDO” MANGO FRuIT, PONCE, P. R. (NATURAL SIZE). Bure 1u of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE V. MANGO SEEDS, GUATEMALA CITY 1, **Cocha;”’ 2, ‘‘ Largo NATURAL SIZE). China Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE VI. Fia. 1.—MANGO FRUIT, SHOWING METHOD OF PEELING NATURAL SIZE Fia. 2.—MANGO FRUIT, SHOWING METHOD OF PACKING Fia. 3.—MANGO FORK Fut SIZe ' i ¢ . - ? 3 : & iT) . : M 4 “ 4 ‘| s é Vl vy i . } fr ‘ 6 if . ¢ ‘ P, ' \ j i ¥ f ; ' i) 7 / c ! y és . D } 7 r “ : . ‘ iu of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculturs PLaTe VII. ““MAYAGUEZ’? MANGO FRUIT, SAN JUAN, P. R. (NATURAL SIZE). PLATE VIII. Fis. 3 LARGO. Fic, 4.- MANGOTINA MANGO Fruits, Porto Rico (NATURAL SIZE). Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. PLATE IX “PINA’”? MANGO FRUITS, SAN JUAN, P. R. (NATURAL SIZE). PLATE X. Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture (NATURAL SIZE). “ LARGO"? MANGO FRUITS, PONCE, P. R. Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XI eal “MANGO” MANGO FRUITS, SAN JUAN, P. R. (NATURAL SIZE). Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XII. *JoBos'? MANGO FRuITS, SAN JUAN, P. R, Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XIII, **REDONDO”? MANGO Fruits, Ponce, P. R. (NATURAL SIZE), Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE XIV “MANILA”? MANGO FRUITS, CiTy OF MExico (NATURAL SIZE). Bul. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV “CHINA”? MANGO FRUITS GUATEMALA CiTy (NATURAL SIZE). FRONTISPIECE 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bu SHdVHYSOXOINOLOHd SH1 HOS N3xVL 3Y3aM SNOILOAG HOIHM WOHS LOOY 3HL JO SLYVdg 3H1L ONILVOION| ONY S3AV37] NO SNOILVINOON| DNIMOHS ‘LNV1d dINYNL Uss.] DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY —BULLETIN NO. 29. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau THE EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS: A SERIES OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS, ACCOMPANIED BY AN EXPLANATORY TEXT. BY ERWIN F. SMITH, PATHOLOGIST, LABORATORY OF PLANT PATHOLOGY, VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issurep January 17, 1903. WL SaaS We ss WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DeparTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bureau or Prianr Ixpustry, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., October 7, 1902. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a technical paper on “The Effect of Black Rot on Turnips: A Series of. Photomicrographs, Accompanied by an Explanatory-Text,” and respectfully recommend that it be published as No. 29 of the series of bulletins of this Bureau. The paper was prepared by Dr. Erwin F. Smith, in charge of the _ Laboratory of Plant Pathology, Vegetable Pathological and Physio- logical Investigations, and was submitted by the Pathologist and Physiologist. Respectfully, B. T. GaLLoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. Pe EAC Ee. Dr. Smith’s studies of the bacterial organism causing the black or brown rot of turnips dealt with in this paper were begun in September, 1896. In other papers he has discussed the morphology and cultural peculiarities of the parasite and has pointed out methods for limiting the spread of the disease. In this paper he confines his attention to the action of the parasite on the host plant, demonstrating by means of the microscope and camera the ability of the organism to destroy cell walls, and illustrating various stages in the progress of the disease. The paper is timely in that the ability of bacteria to destroy cell walls in living plants is still disputed in many quarters and is a subject left untreated in most of the text-books. The paper is technical and is designed for the use of investigators in plant pathology. ALBERT F. Woops, Pathologist and Physiologist. OFFICE OF THE PATHOLOGIST AND PHYSIOLOGIST, Washington, D. C., October 6, 1902. CONTENTS. Page. GLO UCLON VERE Cem ea ne Serie ne eins. cette ses dae csectecwlccce at cous 9 CronerslaconsideraulOunpermeracace serisciscis- sei oaesec- clecmenodecceeemacs 10 Pianists osunei Cultures! 2 sa5)2 \2 cocoate awe ele eee oseeeesneemenc eas ies 11 MiermeqnodtominoculaiontetCes aac oe tcc c= Soe cco eset cceieieaoewaos secs 12 Runa LOMpuy nt Chenesttedes ca Naps cmias occas as aame eRe tiecneis ceamnep = 13 Technique employed in study of diseased plant.........-...--.-.----------- 13 Specialiaccountjoimune diseased plamt-< =< = 2-2-2 sec osc osqes-c sanesocee ns o-e 15 Results of synchronous inoculations into other plants .........-------------- 19 WERCnIptlOneOlaplatesae ese ee eee lac. oaenn eccle cee aiinns = ancinsoce seers nee 20 7 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Diagrammatic representation of inoculated turnip plant-.-.-.-..------ Frontispiece. Puate I. Il. Il. XIII. . Margins of bacterial cavities, showing progre Fig. 1.—Bacterial cavity in turnip root. Fig. 2.—Bacteria in vessel of turmip)root; highly macniticd === eee a= see ee sss ae See ee eee Cross section of lower part of root of turnip plant shown in frontispiece- Cross section of turnip root higher up than Pl. II.---..-----.------ . Fig. 1.—Cross section of turnip root just under the leaves. Fig. 2.— Shows bacterial oecupation of vessels of root at same level as fig. 1. . Fig. 1.—Vertical section of turnip root, showing bacteria in vessels. Fig. 2.—Vertical section of turnip root, showing bacteria in vessels- . Fig. 1.—Cross section of turnip root, showing bacteria confined to a single vessel. Fig. 2.—Cross section of turnip root, showing bac- terial occupation of several vessels. Fig. 3.—Cross section of turnip root, Showing several vessels and many parenchyma cells occupied _ by bacteria. Fig. 4.—Bacteria wedging apart parenchyma cells. Fig. 5.—Bacteria wedging apart parenchyma cells. Fig. 6.—Bac- teria of the black rot magnified 1,000 times; cover glass prepara- LOD ei at:< o Soc se ee a tee ses cee ene ee . Figs. 1 and 2.—Cross sections of turnip root, showing occupation of NCC (21 eee ee ee Seles Se tae Be ee Ree eee bRaSoSeccce . Fig. 1.—Bacteria occupying intercellular spaces in the parenchyma of the turnip root. Fig. 2.—Bacteria escaping from a small bundle into the surrounding tissues sssee sees see ee a eee . Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate early stages in the formation of bacterial cavities inthe turnip root) | SS... ce. cee ee oe ae eee eee . Figs. land 2 illustrate later stages in the formation of bacterial cavities in the turmip noot,..2¢. <5 2s. Joc s2ceeesee ee a tose ee econ eee ssive destruction of the cell walls; more highly magnified than in Pl. XI__......-.-.-..- . Fig. 1.—Longitudinal section through turnip root near the cambium, showing bacterial cayities. Fig. 2.—Small portion of the larger cavity of figs hichiy macnified= se. acess. eee ee aaa eee Figs. 1 and 2.—Additional details from the larger cayity in Pl. XII, figs ost Sees eon Cea malaise ao SC a SR See 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 “A B. P. I.—37. V. P. P. I.—98. THE EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS.’ INTRODUCTORY Very few persons would now have the hardihood to deny the exist- ence of plant diseases due to bacteria, but great ignorance still exists respecting this class of diseases, and particularly respecting the capac: ity of these bacteria for destroying cell walls and making their way, unaided by other organisms, from one part of the plant to another. Even so good a physiologist as H. Marshall Ward, in so recent a book as Disease in Plants (1900), knows nothing about the destruction of cel- lulose by bacteria, and is inclined to think that, in most cases of ‘* bacte- rial” disease, fungi act as carriers of the bacteria or forerunners. The writer has found so much of interest attached to the study of his slides that he is prepared to believe that photographs of them will be of more or less general scientific interest. The behavior of Pseudo- monas campestris when inoculated into cruciferous plants is not unique, and this particular organism has been selected accidentally, rather than for any special reason, to illustrate what I have to say at this time. The writer possesses alcoholic material of equal interest from many kinds of plants inoculated with various bacteria and a single turnip plant attacked by one organism has been selected for these illustrations, principally because the material proved excellent and appeared to be sufficient for the purpose in hand. The figures will also serve to illus- trate how much may be learned from the careful examination of a single specimen. The following study is purely morphological, and it, of course, raises various questions which can be settled only by the isolation of a cytase. Judging by the time required for cruciferous plants to get into the condition shown in inoculated plant No. 53,’ the enzymic action on the cell walls must be rather slow, and experimental evidence with the precipitated substances containing the enzyme would probably be less readily obtained than in case of those bacteria which act on the tissues very rapidly. The isolation of the enzyme, and the study of its action were tempting subjects, but the writer’s time was very fully occupied with other matters, and the requisite leisure could not be found. This @This disease is also called brown rot. +The plant from which sections were cut for nearly all of these illustrations. 9 10 E¥FECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS. is the less to be regretted, however, since we may confidently expect this phase of the subject to be treated very fully and satisfactorily in the forthcoming papers of Jones and Potter.” GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. So far as I can determine from sections, /’s. campestris is capable not only of destroying the middle lamella, but also of dissolving the cell wall proper. This it does slowly. At first I thought that I detected a swelling of the walls prior to their disappearance, but sub- sequent comparative measurements of the walls supposed to be swollen with normal walls left me in doubt. Fresh material, which has not been examined to this end, might give a very different result. That the solution of the cell walls is progressive is shown by the fact that many of the walls still remaining in the bacterial masses are only one- third to one-fourth as thick as the walls of adjacent uninjured cells. In certain cases where the bacterial mass lies up against the wall of a cell on one side and not on the other, there has been a distinct thinning of the wall on the side next to the bacteria. The difficulty of making exact determinations is increased by the considerable variability in thickness of the walls in the normal parts of the plant. Russow’s cellulose test gave very distinct pictures of the gradual solution and final disappearance of the cell wall. The uninjured cell walls gave a blue reaction, those in process of solution stained feebly or not at all. Sections were also stained in carbol fuchsin, picro- nigrosin, iron hematoxylin, and Fleming’s triple stain. The vesseis of the root are distinguished very readily from the other parts of the root by the safranin of the triple stain, which picks out the lignified reticulations. The bacteria are stained well by carbol fuchsin, by iron hematoxylin, and by nigrosin. The closed bacterial cavities in this root vary in size from openings involving only two or three adjacent cells to spaces formed by the destruction of hundreds, even thousands, of cells. They are full of bacteria when not so exposed that the latter have diffused out into the alcohol. In many cases parenchyma cells are squeezed together from without and the bacteria do not enter them until they are crushed out of all “Since this was written Mr. Potter’s paper has been published. He finds that individual bacteria of Ps. destructans bore small holes through membranes previously softened by an enzyme, and in this way enter the cells. Such observations are of course enormously complicated by the minuteness and abundance of the bacteria, and one must be on guard against appearances, which are often deceptive, particu- larly with dry lenses. Potter’s statements, however, are positive, and are based on a number of observations with both fresh and fixed stained material, so that for the present, and so far at least as regards the species in question, we may accept his statements as substantially correct. They will probably soon be verified or contra- dicted by other observers. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 11 semblance to cells, but in other cases cells which seem to belong to the parenchyma are filled relatively early without being crushed. These are generally nonlignified wood cells bordering on or lying in the vicinity of the vascular bundles. Probably the organisms bore their way through the cell wall in the manner described by Potter, but the writer has never been able to make out clearly any such penetration. The writer will be pleased at any time to show the slides from which these photographs were made to anyone who is interested, and in exceptional cases will mail slides, or material from which sections may be cut, to those who are particularly interested, this especially because all reproductive processes are imperfect, the gelatin prints being inferior to the negatives and the latter to the microscopic image of the sections. Most of the sections were cut and the photographs made early in 1901, but other work got in the way and delayed the comple- tion of the paper. Most of the negatives were, however, exhibited in the form of lantern slides at several places early in 1901, e. ¢&., University of Michigan, Michigan Agricultural College, The Botanical Seminar of Washington, and the substance of the paper was presented before the Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology at its fifth annual meeting in New York, December 30,1901, where the lantern slides were again exhibited. The following statements will be made plainer by a brief account of the structure of the turnip root. As may be seen from Pls. II and ILI, the basal and swollen part of the turnip root consists of a small pith, a large cylinder of xylem, a narrow cambium cylinder, and a phloem cylinder, beyond which is a cylinder of cortical parenchyma surrounded by cork. In other words, the structure is that of many dicotyledonous stems. The upper part of the root bas a larger pith and better differentiated medullary rays. The xylem part of the root contains much wood parenchyma, which is not always easily distin- guishable from the medullary rays. The only lignified parts are the reticulations in the vessels. These stain a bright pink with safranin and come out quite distinct from the surrounding wood parenchyma in many of the photographs. PLANT FURNISHING THE CULTURES. On PIL. I, fig. 1, is shown the cross section of a turnip root, the interior of which has been destroyed by the bacterium of the brown rot, Pseudomonas campestris (Pammel) Smith. This root was collected in September, 1896, from a field near Baltimore. Turnips attacked by brown rot often live for a long time, but the diseased root does not enlarge much radially. This one, like many others observed by the writer, had the form of a carrot root rather than that of a turnip root, although it was several months old. The walls of the cavities in such roots are usually black or brown, and hence the 12 EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS. common name. Frequently there is no external indication of the cavity. For a painting in perspective of such a root see Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologie, 2 Abt., III Bd., Pl. VI, fig. 1. THE METHOD OF INOCULATION, ETC. On the frontispiece will be found a diagrammatic representation of a turnip plant inoculated with a pure culture of Pseudomonas cam- pestris. This figure is intended to represent plant No, 53, which was inoculated on the blades of two leaves by means of delicate needle punctures. The plant was then some weeks old and about 9 or 10 or possibly 12 inches high. The material used for inoculation con- sisted of a well clouded, moderately turbid bouillon culture (eleven days old), which had been used for control in thermal-death point experiments, and which was just beginning to throw down a small amount of yellow precipitate. In other words, the culture was still in active growth and in excellent condition for purposes of inoculation. The original source of the organism was the interior of a turnip such as that which furnished the cross section shown on PI. I, fig. 1. The inoculations were made in the following manner: Selecting two leaves five or six remoyes from the lowest leaf, some of the germ- laden fluid was first removed from the tube on the end of a sterile platinum loop and placed on the clean surface of the leaf blades, and then from 75 to 100 delicate pricks were made through this fluid into the leaf, by means of a fine-pointed steel needle, which was passed through the ‘fame before and after use on each plant. Finally, a fresh loop of the bacterial liquid was lifted out of the tube and spread over these punctures. The punctures of themselves did not do the plant any serious injury. The inoculated leaves were covered for an hour or two after the punctures by means of clean white paper—i. e., until sunset. This was done partly to avoid insolation and partly to prevent a too rapid evaporation of the fluid from the surface of the leaf. The leaf surfaces were not sterilized before inoculation for three reasons: (1) Because it was desired to have the inoculations made under condi- tions simulating as nearly as possible those occurring naturally; (2) because numerous experiments had already shown that with a proper selection of plants such as those used for this series of inoculations, needle punctures unaccompanied by bacteria did not lead to disease; (8) because exposure of the delicate leaves to mercuric chloride or other strong germicides for a time sufficient to destroy all surface spores would, probably, in spite of subsequent washings, have left enough poison on the leaves to inhibit the growth of the parasite, if not to seriously injure the plant. The pricked area on each teaf included perhaps 2 to 3 square centimeters. SYMPTOMS WHICH RESULTED. 13 SYMPTOMS WHICH RESULTED. The history of this plant, which was examined nearly every day, is as follows: ; December 19, 1896.—Plant inoculated. December 28.—A slight yellowing of part of the pricked areas. December 80.—Yellowing and wilt over the whole of the pricked area on one leaf and over one-fourth of the pricked area on the other leaf. January 2, 1897.—A marked progress of the disease on each leaf. The wilt now involves from 5 to 8 square centimeters on each leaf, and has run out to the margin of each leaf near the apex. January 4.—The wilt now involves from 10 to 15 square centimeters on each leaf. January 8.—The wilt is still confined to the two inoculated leaves, about 30 square centimeters on each leaf blade being involved. The advancing part of the diseased area is dull green and flabby. The brown veining on these leaves is not nearly so conspicuous as in the cabbage and kale plants which were inoculated at the same time and from the same cultures. January 16 (28th day).—Up to this time there have been no constitutional symp- toms—that is, no leaves have shown symptoms except those which were inoculated. February 9 (52d day).—This plant is now badly dwarfed and the top is dying. The four large outer leaves which remain haye shriveled nearly to their base, and the bundles in the base of the petioles are plainly blackened. One small leaf is now wilting and shows a distinct blackening of its veins. One other small upper leaf is still green and normal in appearance. This leaf is but slightly developed. The plant was now pulled up and examined. The rootlets were sound. The main root axis, which was about 3 inches long and one- half inch in diameter in the largest part, was smooth, white, and sound externally. The root was now washed and inspected critically. A most careful examination of the surface of the root gave no indication as to the cause of the disease. The root was then cut open cross- wise in three places, namely, at the top, in the middle swollen part, and at the base of the swollen part. In the upper cut, which was made about one-eighth inch under the crown of leaves, the bundles were decidedly black, and many were occupied by the bacteria; there were various small bacterial cavities but no large cavity. In both of the other sections of the root there were small cavities here and there, the affected xylem was pale brown, and in the middle part the whole inner tissue seemed to be softening. The bark part of the root was perfectly sound. TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED IN STUDY OF DISEASED PLANT. When examined microscopically, the vessels of some of the bundles were found to be full of bacteria. The vessels of other bundles were free, or filled in part. No fungus threads were present. The root had a turnipy smell when cut. Before putting the specimen into alcohol two tubes of potato were inoculated from the interior. Both 14 EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS. yielded a prompt and very abundant growth of the same organism with which the plant had been inoculated fifty-two days before, and no other organism appeared in the tubes. The root remained in strong alcohol for more than four years—i. e., untilan opportunity was found for making sections. Portions of it were then placed successively in absolute alcohol, alcohol and chloroform, pure chloroform, cold chloro- form containing paraftin, warm chloroform with more paraffin, and finally pure melted paraffin. When thoroughly infiltrated with par- affin, they were suitably embedded and cut on the Reinhold-Giltay microtome with a very sharp knife. The sections were floated out and cemented to clean glass slides by means of sterile, distilled water containing one-half per cent of gelatin, freshly prepared. Mild heat was used in straightening out the wrinkles in the sections and the excess of water was removed by setting the slides on end. When dry, the slides were gently warmed until the paraftin was melted, and were then placed in turpentine or xylene until the paraftin had been removed. They were then passed in succession, gently, into Coplin staining jars containing a mixture of turpentine or xylene and absolute alcohol, pure alcohol, graded mixtures of alcohol and water, and finally Ziehl’s car- bol fuchsin, in which they were allowed to remain from three to five minutes. The excess of stain was remoyed by leaving the slides in a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and water until the proper differen- tiation in color had been secured. They were then passed rapidly through graded alcohols into absolute alcohol, and from that into a mix- ture of alcohol and xylene, into pure xylene, and finally into Canada balsam or Dammar balsam dissolved in xylene. Ina very few of the sections here shown, viz, Pl. I, fig. 2, and Pls. II and IV, nigrosin was substituted for carbol fuchsin. A series of sections (cross and longi- tudinal) from this root were prepared, stained, and studied, and the results obtained are illustrated by means of the accompanying photo- micrographs. The fixing of the root in strong alcohol was considered necessary in order to prevent the bacteria from diffusing out into the fluid. Even 95 per cent alcohol does not entirely prevent diffusion in case the bac- terial cavities are large, but does so quite satisfactorily in case of single vessels or small cavities. The knife used for making the sections was very sharp, and did not shove or tear them to any extent, but the strong alcohol in which the material was fixed did, of course, cause more or less twisting and shrinking of the delicate parenchymatous tissues. During the process of hydrating, staining, bleaching, dehy- drating, and mounting the cell walls were also occasionally broken and displaced. Observations on the fresh root left no doubt that the vessels were the primary seat of the disease, but the exact limits of the bacterial occupation remained to be determined from properly infiltrated material. This has now been accomplished. The manner of fixing, of infiltrating, TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED. 15 and of cutting, and the subsequent fastening to the slide and careful manipulation during the removal of the paraftin, the hydrating, stain- ing, differential bleaching, dehydrating, and mounting processes leaves no doubt whatever that the location of the bacteria in the tissues, as shown in the photomicrographs, is the same as in the fresh root. There has been no tearing of these bacterial masses or shoving or crowding of them into parts of the root where they were not originally present, such as would naturally occur in making sections of living or uninfil- trated material. In some cases the more delicate parts of the root have been broken a little in places, as already mentioned, but only to a slight extent, which in no way interferes with one’s judgment as to the effect of the bacteria upon the root. Indeed’ the process of fixing renders the bacterial layer tougher and less liable to shoving or rupture by the knife than any other part of the root, as may be readily seen from an inspection of my sections. The bacteria in the sections have taken a deep purple stain, and, there being very little ground stain, the individual rods stand out clearly under the oil- immersion lens, much more clearly than in the photomicrographs. The sections are remarkably good, but owing to their thickness (6 sto 10 2) a number of layers of bacteria lie one behind the other and seriously interfere withthe photographic image. Very likely also a more expert photomicrographer would be able to make more out of the sections than the writer. Attempts were made to cut thinner sections, but the material did not seem well adapted to very thin sections. In those 2-4 uv thick there was so much shoving together and tearing that they could not be used. SPECIAL ACCOUNT OF THE DISEASED PLANT. On Pl. If may be seen across section of the lower part of the root, magnified 50 times. The section was taken from the point marked **3” on the frontispiece. The bleaching process subsequent to the staining has been carried so far that the root is only slightly stained, except where there is bacterial occupation of the vessels and wood parenchyma. The actual size of this section is indicated by a circle at the bottom of the plate. The extent of bacterial occupation and disorganization in the inte- rior of the root is very interesting. In one of the cross sections of this root, made higher up than that shown on Pl. II and involving less than one-half the circumference, the writer counted 93 distinct centers of bacterial infection and 15 bacterial cavities, involving in cross section from 50 to 300 cells each. Ina cross section from nearly the same level as Pl. I, 146 distinct groups of bacteria were counted in the vessels. In the photograph here reproduced it will be observed that the bacteria are confined to the inner portions of the root, princi- pally to the vessels and the surrounding nonlignified wood parenchyma. 16 EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS. There are no bacterial pockets in the bark part of the root (phloém and cortical parenchyma), forming the outer 30 to 60 rows of cells. The bacterial foci, of which there are about 130 in this section, are also for the most part at a considerable distance from the center of the root—i. e., in the outer part of the xylem, which, consequently, we may assume either to have been the first portion of the root to become infected or else to have been that part most readily attacked by the organism. ‘The cayities are all or nearly all on the rim of the xylem. There are many infected bundles farther inward in the xylem, but cavities are wanting in that part of the root and are still very small in the outer xylem at this level, and are not clearly visible with this magnification. Farther up the root (Pl. III) the cavities are larger, and only the smaller and medium-sized ones have retained their bacte- rial contents intact. The sections agree, however, in that the outer part of the xylem has suffered most, and in that all parts external to the cambium are free from infection. Fig. 2 of Pl. I shows a single small vessel magnified 2,000 times. It is from the inner part of the root and is filled with the bacteria. It corresponds to one of the vessels of Pl. II. Pl. II is from a cross section in the middle swollen part of the root. (Frontispiece, at point marked ‘**2.”) In comparing it with Pl. I, it should be remembered that the magnification is notthe same. Theactual size of the section is shown on the lower left-hand side of the plate. From the largest cavities the bacteria have diffused out into the aleohol, and only the borders of these cavities are still occupied by the organ- ism. That these open places are also true bacterial cavities and not due to anything else is shown by an inspection of the serial sections, an open cavity in one giving place to a bacterially filled cavity in another, and all being free from fungi and insect injuries. Two of the largest of these full cavities may be seen in the upper part of the picture. On the lower left-hand side of this section is an irregular oblong cavity, which was made by a platinum loop thrust into the tissue to remove some of the organism for cultural purposes. Pl. LV, fig. 1, represents a cross section taken from the top of the root (frontispiece, point marked ‘‘1”), showing transition into stem. The magnification is too small and makes evident much less than the section, but suffices for orientation, and shows that there is no surface wound or large cavity. The pith and the cortical parenchyma are entirely free from the bacteria. Most of the phloém is also free, but bacteria are present in it at the point marked **Y.” Fig. 2 is a detail from the same slide, more highly magnified. A study of Pls. Il, IM, and IV, and of corresponding longitudinal sections not here represented, shows that while the vascular system of the plant is very badly infested, the bulk of the tissue is still free from the bacteria; i. e., at least nine-tenths of it, including all of the SPECIAL ACCOUNT. ag outer portion of the root which has come into direct contact with the fungi and bacteria of the soil, and which would be more or less rotted if the organism had entered the plant from the earth. If the infection had been from the soil, the root would also have contained a mixture of things and not one species in pure culture, and certainly not Ps. cam- pestris, since the soil was not obtained from cabbage fields, and all the numerous uninoculated turnip plants grown in it remained entirely free from this disease. The following photomicrographs are all made from sections of this root at level No. 2. (See frontispiece and Pl. II.) Pl. V, fig. 1, represents a longitudinal section through a small bun- dle fully oceupied by the bacteria and deeply stained. The magnifica- tion is not sufficient to show the individual organisms, but it can be made out quite clearly that the surrounding parenchyma is not ocecu- pied and that there is as yet no disorganization of the tissues. The second figure on this plate is a longitudinal section through two small vascular bundles. The knife passed through the middle of the lower bundle and the extreme margin of the upper one. The tissue around the upper bundle is just becoming hollowed out into a cavity; that around the lower one is still intact and unoccupied by the bacteria. The vessels themselves are crowded full of the organism. Three of the reproductions on Pl. VI are from cross sections of small bundles, i. e., bundles similar to those illustrated in Pl. V. In the lower right-hand corner is a cross section showing a single vessel occupied by the bacteria, the rest of the tissue being entirely free. In the lower left-hand corner are several vessels so occupied; the larger one, however, contains only a narrow film of bacteria (around the walls), which may have entered from above or below, or at this level, through the side of the vessel next to the more fully occupied part of the bundle. The surrounding tissue here is also entirely free from these organisms. The upper figure on this plate corresponds more nearly to the lower figure on Pl. V. Here several vessels are occupied, together with their connective tissue and the surrounding parenchyma, and we have the first stage in the formation of a bacterial cavity. The left-hand side of this figure is shown more highly magni- fied on Pl. EX, fig. 1. The middle figures at the left show the manner in which the bacteria crowd apart parenchymatous cells, multiplying first in the intercellular spaces and either dissolving or splitting apart the middle lamella, probably both. The middle figure at the rightis a cover glass (smear) of Ps. campestris stained with carbol fuchsin and magnified 1,000. It was made directly from the vessels of a cabbage plant and is the only figure not taken from the turnip. On PI. VU are two additional figures showing early stages in the occupation of small bundles. Nonlignified wood-parenchyma cells are also occupied, at least in fig. 2. The surrounding tissues are 9228—No. 29—02 2 18 EFFECT OF BLACK ROT OT TURNIPS. entirely free from bacteria. In both figures the bacterial contents of vessels have fused. This I take to haye occurred through natural openings rather than through openings made by the bacteria, because occasionally in cross sections of unoccupied bundles I find reticula- tions thinning out and disappearing in the same way. In the lower figure a few of the cell walls have been broken and displaced slightly in mounting. The upper figure on Pl. VIII shows an early stage in the destrue- tion of the parenchyma, the intercellular spaces are occupied by the bacteria, but the cells themselves are still free and have not been wedged apart, as in figs. and 5, Pl. VI. The granular matter in the center of the cells is protoplasmic material. The lower figure shows in cross section a very small vascular bundle. The two reticulated vessels are filled and the bacteria have found their way outside of these into the intercellular spaces which are filled and greatly enlarged, the cells being crowded apart and, in case of one of the lower ones, crushed in. Two or three nonlignitied cells are also filled. Pl. LX shows two stages in the formation of bacterial cavities. In the upper figure there is more or less vagueness in the cell walls. one of which, on the right-hand side, has almost entirely disappeared. This figure shows a single vessel in the center (comparable to fig. 1, Pl. V). The surrounding cells which are so fully occupied by the bacteria are nonlignified wood cells of the fleshy root. In the lower figure there has been a greater softening of tissue and a considerable cavity is in process of formation. Here in the center (from right to left) are at least four vessels, und there is probably a fifth vessel just above the cell marked X. The reader’s attention is called particularly to the vagueness of the cell walls and to the open cavity which is shown in the lower middle part and the left-hand part. The whole forms a very instructive and typical picture of the way in which cavities are brought about by the mechanical and solvent action of this organism. The tissue for a long distance around both of these foci is sound and entirely free from bacteria, and, as in the other cases, the bacteria could have entered these bundles only as a result of the leaf inoculations already described. On Pl. X are shown two figures illustrating a further advance in the destruction of the parenchyma of the root and the formation of bac- terial pockets. The cells are separated from each other by masses of bacteria, are crushed in, and are slowly dissolving, their walls becoming vaguer and yaguer until at the middle of the cavity they can not be seen at all. Fine examples of this gradual destruction of the cell walls are to be seen in both of these figures. The reader’s attention is called in particular to the right-hand side of the upper figure, showing bacterial occupation of the intercellular spaces which usually precedes the formation of an open cavity. In the upper part of the upper figure, in the last one of the second row of cells at the SPECIAL ACCOUNT. i9 left, is a fine example of the way the cells are crushed together and loosened from their surroundings. Similar examples may be seen at the bottom of this figure, and in fig. 2. In fig. 2 observe particularly the condition of the cells next above the unoccupied cells marked X, Y, and Z. The two figures shown in Pl. XI are from the margin of bacterial cavities similar to those shown on Pl. X, but more highly magnified. Here also the cell walls are in all stages of separation and decomposi- tion. In the middle of fig. 1, and at the left side of fig. 2, cell walls may be seen in all stages of solution. In none of these serial sections is there to be found any trace of fungus threads or of insect or other animal devastation, the entire injury being due to an enormous multi- plication of the organism which was inoculated into the leaves of the plant, and which found its way into the root through the vascular bun- dles of the petioles. Part of the injury is plainly mechanical, due to crowding, and part is chemical, due undoubtedly to the solvent action of acytase. Had the plant been allowed to remain in the soil a few weeks longer, the result must have been the fusing of these various small cavities into one or more large cavities. We should then have had a phenomenon like that shown on PI. I, fig. 1. Pl. XI, fig. 1, is from a radial longitudinal section showing cam- bium and phloem at the right (top) and xylem (wood parenchyma) at the left with cavities close to the cambium. Fig. 2 is a detail from the larger of these cavities taken at the point marked X. Pl. XIII is a continuation of XII, showing details from the larger cavity taken at the points marked Y and Z. Here again cell walls are crushed and undergoing solutions, and the bacteria are present in incalculable numbers and no other organisms are present. In the upper part of fig. 1, at the right, the bacteria may be seen wedging apart two parenchyma cells. Similar phenomena may be seen in the upper right- hand corner of fig. 2. RESULTS OF SYNCHRONOUS INOCULATIONS INTO OTHER PLANTS. At the same time and from the same culture as turnip No. 53 twenty- eight other plants were inoculated as follows: Four rape, 6 radish, 6 cabbage, 5 kale, 3 turnip, and four Roman hyacinth. Twenty-three of the 28 plants contracted the disease, as follows: Four rape—1 plant became diseased constitutionally, 3 showed only local symptoms; 5 radish—3 developed constitutional symptoms, 2 local symptoms only; 6 cabbage—all 6 developed constitutional symptons, and No. 42 was illustrated in 1897 in 2te Abt., Centralblatt f. Bakt. (III Bd., Taf. V1, fig. 5), and in the same journal in 1901 (VII Bd., Taf. VIII and IX); 5 kale—3 developed constitutional symptoms, 2 only local symptoms; 3 turnips—1 developed only local symptoms, the others showed also constitutional symptoms. The hyacinths did not become diseased. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Frontispiece.—Turnip plant No. 53, showing place of inoculation (on leaves) and Prate I. Il. It. Velie Vit. VIII. XII. indicating by figures the part of root from which sections were taken for the photomicrographs. Diagrammatic. The illustrations were all made from the root of plant No. 53, except fig. 1, Pl. I, from another turnip, and fig. 6, Pl. VI, which was made from a cabbage plant attacked by the same disease. Fig. 1.—Cross section of turnip plant, showing bacterial cayity. Natural infection. From a field near Baltimore. Zeiss planar. x 44 circa. Fig. 2.—Single vessel from PI. II, showing bacterial occupation. Stained with nigrosin. x 2000. Cross section of ewer part of the root (Frontispiece, 3), differentially stained with safranin and picro-nigrosin to bring out location of the bacteria. x 50. 2 Cross section of a part of the middle portion of the root (Frontispiece, 2), differentially stained with carbol fuchsin, showing numerous bacterial cavities. x 15. . Fig. 1.—Cross section, extreme upper portion of the root (Frontispiece at point marked 1), differentially stained. Zeiss, 70mm. x 23. Fig. 2.— Detail from the same section (at X) more highly magnified. Zeiss, 16mm. x 186. . Fig. 1.—Longitudinal section in middle of root (Frontispiece, 2) showing reticulated vessels filled with the bacteria and surrounding tissue free from infection. x 154. Fig. 2.—Longitudinal section from same level as Fig. 1, showing vessels filled with the Psewdomonas, anda cavity around the upper bundle. x 136. Fig. 1.—Cross section, middle of root, differentially stained, showing a single vessel pac ked with the bacteria. This may be compared with figs, Pl: x 520. Fig. 2.—Cross section from same portion of the root hitforentislly stained, showing a small bundle partly occupied by the Pseudomonas. The larger vessel contains only a rim of bacteria. The surrounding tissue is free from bacteria. x 460. Fig. 3.—Cross see- tion, middle of root, differentially staimed, showing vessels and non- lignified wood parenchyma oceupied by the bacteria. In the middle portion the cells have begun to disorganize and a bacterial cavity is in process of formation. x 385. Figs. 4 and 5.—Bacteria separating cell walls. x 1000. Fig. 6.—Ps. campestris. Smear preparation from a cab- bage stem, stained with carbol fuchsin. x 1000. Figs. 1 and 2.—Cross sections, middle of root, differentially stained, show- ing small bundles very fully occupied by the Pseudomonas. Fig. 1 x 475. Fig. 2x 470. Fig. ‘1.—Cross section, middle of root, differentially stained, showing par- enchy ma cells with bacteria multiplying in their intercellular spaces. The cell cavities are free. x 1000. Fig. 2.—Cross section, middle of root, differentially stained, showing disorganization of a small bundle. x 1000. . Figs. 1 and 2.—Cross sections, middle of root, differentially stained, show- ing formation of bacterial cavities. Zeiss apochromatic 3 mm. oil immer- sion objective 1.40 N. A. and compensating ocular No. 4. Cramer’s slow isochromatic plates, Zettnow’s color screen, with sunlight. x 1000. . Figs. 1 and 2.—Cross sections, middle of root, differentially stained, show- ing well developed, small cavities filled with the Pseudomonas and with remnants of the disorganized cells, the latter conspicuous only on the margins of the cavity. x 340. . Figs. 1 and 2.—Cross sections, middle of root, differentially stained, show- ing margins of cavities with cell walls in all stages of solution. x 1000. . Fig. ‘1.—Radial longitudinal section, middle of root, differentially stained, showing one large cavity and sey eral small ones. Bark part of root at right-hand side. x85. Fig. 2.—Detail from upper left-hand corner (X) of - fig. 1. x 475. Details from fig. 1, Pl. XII, showing various stages in the separation and solution of cell walls. Fig. 1 is from XII,1, Y. Fig. 2 is from XII, 1, Z. x 475. 20 O Sul. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE |. 2 BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO. RORSTON Bui. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE ll BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bul. 29, Bureau of Plent Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture d Veet ee, yA C Eateries ou Seeman eelth, ‘ Sa CERO at Amaia need, Crp 3 SPL ay es eee < Fan 4 be one 4 ¢ RAM AQ ASK . AS NGC NNR ae Nat. Size. BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. PLATE III. Bul. 29, Bureau of Plant Industr y, U. S. Dept of Agriculture PLATE IV. . =f 7 "pi inn pa ee P Digs —H* Oi ieee ; < ii PEW} if ‘ wh a nf fe Aa See oe S ~ a el eel 7 Oe Bop 4 BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Saiite ‘Ante - - B 9 hom an : | age. - fi - PLATE VI. OF THE TURNIP. 20 BROWN PAMMEL) SMITH. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS fete LY, TE dg SAR." “HLINS (JTAWWYd) SIYLSSdWVO SYNOWOGNASd ra “dINYNL AHL JO LOY NMOYD L “WX S4LVI1d ‘ainyinoiady yo ydeqg *s “A ‘Aaysnpu] iuejg jo neaing '6Z ° Ls {eh FRONTISPIECE. iculture. dustry, U. S. Dept. of Agr ‘GQOHLSIN MAN AB G3GGNg SNVO3q YNI1G33S U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 30. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. meoOIOING THE PHCAN: BY GEORGE W. OLIVER, Expert. SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION, IssuED DECEMBER 9, 1902. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U.S. Department oF AGRICULTURE, Bureau oF Prant Inpustry, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., October 15, 1902. Str: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper by Mr. George W. Oliver, Expert in the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, on ‘* Budding the Pecan.” Owing to the increased interest in nut culture in this country Mr. Oliver’s method of rapidly propagating the pecan by budding is worthy of careful attention, and I respectfully recommend that the paper be published as a bulletin of the regular series of this Bureau. Respectfully, B. T. GaLLoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMES WILson, Secretary of Agriculture. CONTENTS. Mihi culties;encountered!in' pecan budding*... -.--.-.-<2-<.- ssc cececceses Nybivgubespecanishouldube budded soe. 5.22082 joc he tose cs coe asesoessaesee RMIsin pyseedlINpIStOCKS ya: seaser ccs secs cee cie Soe ke acieeeseee escceseeee Selec Onmoig onman ty Duds ye ew ses sa Sas See ec wie ciscseehiseeec ce seeianceeens TLGYOaMTAOTA. OLE LVS] oVDLG LS) 5 St i ANE, Aa ee ee ee ips a Ss Experiments! with buds of the current season. --.-....-.-------------------- An improved method of budding. .-...-..--.---- Size Ren see eeee eee OthermethodstoMbudding = sa. 25 25- - 222 caste cease ce cpelincnceacteseestosee SAUER DUC aM LOW NO WG este eo ae oc e wien eleleyeieinis emia sere eeemcaicieie csi AirADAD ant nea UCGeduttees es sonia sales cess one else -incaeecineeciense WEscrip ONL plated see se epee ewcon acicteiac nic cicaisoce cee eecesceeeeeeceeses “ PEGS TRATIONS: Page. Seedling pecans budded by new method..................----.----- mrontepices Puare I. Fig. 1.—Pecan branch, summer condition. Fig. 2.—Pecan branch, PEEL OTE GONG tl ON == ee Ss eee = Seren eae ei aes op ee ae 20 Il. Fig. 1.—Pecan branch, fruiting condition. Fig. 2.—Seven-year-old pram chnofe Acorn lAciniostae se = ase - = aaece tee eens sear 20 Ii. Fig. 1.—Patch budding; method of removing section of bark from stock; bud prepared ready for inserting. Fig. 2.—Seedling pecan stock; preliminary incisions in bark; bud ready for inserting. Fig. 3.—Seedling pecan stock; bark raised ready for bud._.-_-.-- 20 IV. Fig. 1.—Seedling pecan stock; bud in position ready to be tied. Fig. 2.—Budded seedling pecan; bud inserted and tied. Fig. 3.— Budded seedling pecan; method of wrapping with strip of waxed GGT 2 3 5 c3 SS anes ne sop Bae PEER ee BER EeRaAe on secenoSeosabeoce 20 V. Fig. 1.—Budded seedling pecan; method of covering with paper to prevent injury from sun. Fig. 2.—Triangular budding; seedling stock prepared ready for bud; bud ready to be inserted .......--- 20 Walesa chwo fy pean rae ae ecto) a\< 2 she niet one 2 = scien tee tele eteeeeeee ae 20 VII. Three-year-old budded pecan trees, recently transplanted _-.-..-.-.-- 20 B. P. I.—3s. Ss. P. I. D.—29. PO DENG TEE PHAN: DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN PECAN BUDDING. The propagation of the pecan has hitherto been one of the principal drawbacks to the successful cultivation of this nut tree. According to the published experiences of growers who have given attention to propagation by budding and grafting, the percentage of successful unions in the total number of plants worked has been small. Although the young budded or grafted trees are sold at very high prices, the work is unremunerative from the nurseryman’s point of view. Much of the work of pecan propagation has doubtless been along similar lines to those favorable to the propagation of well-understood subjects. such as the apple, peach, and other fruit trees. Consequently the pecan has earned the reputation of being difficult to work on stocks of the same or allied species. This is not to be wondered at, as mistakes are very easily made in the selection of working material, time of operating, etc. The writer is convinced, however, that if budding be performed as herein described the pecan will reward the careful oper- ator with a high percentage of unions. The principal trouble encountered in pecan budding is undoubtedly due to the selection of wrong material from the tree to be propagated. Ry the methods usually adopted a success not above the average was attained, and it is easy to understand why small trees budded from choice yarieties can not be sold at less than from $1 to $3 each. By the use of a method which has been devised for budding the pecan and. the selection of 1-year-old buds the outlook is good for very success- ful propagation. It will be seen where some of the trouble lies if the budding of the peach is compared with that of the pecan. In the case of the former a shoot of the current year’s growth will by the latter part of August give a very large number of buds which can be worked successfully. This is not the case with the pecan. True, a number of likely looking buds are formed on a shoot of the current season, but by the method of budding in use at present not many of the buds on a shoot are used. Two or three at the base are generally selected, but, as will be expiained later, there is great danger of unsatisfactory results through using even the best of these buds. 9 10 BUDDING THE PECAN. WHY THE PECAN SHOULD BE BUDDED. In the pecan region of the Southern States there are at least fifty named varieties, nearly all of which are well worthy of perpetuation on account of the large size and fine flavor of the nuts. These choice varieties of the pecan are as yet but little known, owing to the very smal] number of trees in cultivation. In the course of time, however, as they are more widely grown, they will become the most prized of all the nuts for domestic use, and it is probable that when the supply is large enough they will be preferred abroad to the best Persian wal- nuts. The nuts of the choicer varieties of pecan, owing to the sup- posed difficulty of bud propagation, are much in demand at fancy prices for the purpose of raising young plants. It has been ascertained, however, that seedlings from nuts of the choice varieties do not come true, resembling in this particular many of our popular fruit trees. Many of these seedling pecans bear nuts not much superior to the common wild forms. With the knowledge now acquired as to the liability of varieties to vary in their seedlings through the agency of cross fertilization, it would indeed be remarkable were the seedlings to produce nuts equal in size and flavor to those of the mother tree. The chance trees which bear large nuts are found wild in widely differ- ent parts of the South. The nuts from these trees are much above the average not only in point of size, but also on account of other desirable qualities. Being peculiarly situated, and as they can not depend wholly upon their own pollen to aid in the reproduction from seed, there is nothing to prevent pollen from undesirable forms gaining access to the pistillate flowers, thus securing a reduction of the size or a decrease in the flavor of the nuts borne by the seedlings. After Waiting several years for the seedling trees to bear, this naturally causes the grower a good deal of disappointment. So, necessarily, as with apples, peaches, and other fruits, the only way in which the choice varieties of the pecan can with certainty be perpetuated in a manner to permit of being handled by dealers, is by budding or grafting on seedling stocks. RAISING SEEDLING STOCKS. Up to the present time it has not been demonstrated that there is a better stock for the reception of buds or grafts of the pecan than seedling stocks of the same species. In raising pecan seedlings for stocks it is advisable to select seeds from trees at the northern limit of the pecan belt, because, while seedlings from that section will thrive throughout the belt, those from the extreme south can not be expected to prove as hardy and thrifty at the northern limit as those trees which are growing wild in that section. The seed nuts should be secured as early as possible after they are ripe, so as to make certain of preventing loss through drying out. RAISING SEEDLING STOCKS. a1 Stratification should be begun late in the fall. For this purpose it is most convenient to use boxes, say, 3 feet long, 1 foot wide, and 3 inches deep. A mixture of sand and ashes in about equal propor- tions is a good medium in which to imbed thenuts. A layer of this material 1 fag thick should be placed in the bottom of a box, then a layer of pecans as close together as possible. It is not advisable to put more than a single layer in a box, because of the brittle nature of the root, the nuts being somewhat irregular in sprouting. Each box is then filled with the sand and ashes, and all the boxes used should be piled together to a convenient height. They should occupy a shel- tered position out of doors, and be covered with a considerable thick- ness of straw, mats, or old sacking until the nuts show signs of germinating, which will usually occur toward the end of April. To give facilities for inserting the buds on the north side of the seedling stocks, the nuts are then planted in rows running east and west. The rows should be 3 feet apart and the nuts placed 5 inches apart in the row. It is not possible the first season to raise seedlings which are large enough to be used as stocks, but in order to secure a good, stout growth, so as to have them large enough for working the second season, the soil should be deeply worked with a plow, rolled and, when necessary, harrowed several times until it is well pulverized. The remaining part of the work must be done by hand. The position to be oecupied by the seedlings is marked by the aid of a stick with a notch cut in one end. This is run along the line, leaving a well-defined mark in the soil. With a spade a trench is dug about 5 inches deep. In the bottom of the trench about 2 inches of equal parts of leaf soil and sand are placed. The nuts are carefully laid on this. In planting those which have the root developed to a length of more than 1 inch, a hole is made in the soil with the fingers and the root placed init. If the soil be dry, water is given. Fine soil is then raked level over the nuts and slightly firmed with the end of the rake. The operation is finished by a mulch of 1 inch half-rotted leaves, cut cornstalks, or other material. This prevents baking of the soil after rains and supplies a surface which is easily pierced by the sprouts. The nuts thus treated should germinate very evenly, and at the close of the first season should show a stem above ground of about 12 inches in length. Many of the seedlings will attain a thickness of three-eighths of an inch close to the ground. The taproot will average fully 24 feet in length and will be supplied with quite a number of very small fibrous roots. By the middle of the following June the seedlings will average over half an inch in diameter near the ground, making excellent stocks for budding. SELECTION OF DORMANT BUDS. After a series of trials with buds of the current season’s growth and those of the preceding season, none but those which were formed 12 BUDDING THE PECAN. during the season preceding the operation of budding are recommended for use. The dormant buds (PI. I, fig. 1, A) during the month of June are ready to burst into active growth when given the slightest en- couragement. Moreover, they can be very easily removed from the bud stick, together with a section of thick, solid bark. The bark on the old wood can be handled without being injured in any way, and it is in every particular splendidly adapted for successful work. After the union has taken place and the stocks are cut back, the bud will give a stronger growth and attain a greater length than growths from the current season’s buds. In using buds from the current season’s wood (PI. I, fig. 1, B) many difficulties will be encountered, and the results will be found disappointing. Until the season is pretty well advanced the current year’s bark is very thin and more or less succu- lent, and it can not be removed from the wood without being bruised. Sometimes, even when the greatest care is exercised by the operator, it will split lengthwise and be rendered useless. Again, especially up to the latter part of July, the cuticle is very apt to peel, and where it does stay on it is almost certain to be bruised in the operation of tying. Another serious objection is the presence of the leaf stalk. This, shortly after the bud is inserted, will shrivel up and fall, or it can easily be detached; but the scar left, which in most cases is a large one, is, it is thought, the channel through which a large part of the sap of the bark is lost before it has had an opportunity to unite with the cambium of the stock. LOCATION OF THE BUDS. It is important that the position which the dormant buds occupy on the branches be accurately understood, so that the proper ones may be selected for the work of budding. They are to be found on the branches made the year preceding that in which it is desired to insert the buds. The pecan trees which have been examined in the vicinity of Washington show exceedingly few growths from terminal buds. The growth of a season starts from one of tbe large axillary buds near the apex of the preceding year’s growth (Pl. I, fig. 2, A). Two or more of these buds may produce growths, but commonly only one. In fruiting branches the nut cluster takes the place of the terminal bud on the young wood, as seen in Pl. II, fig. 1. The strong shoots from these axillary buds when 1 year old are the ones which give good material for budding. Each bud will be found immediately above a leaf scar of the preceding season (PI. I, fig. 1, A). Those buds which are nearest the base of the shoot are the smallest and firmest; consequently they are the best fitted for the work. Regard- ing the period during which buds retain their power of bursting into active growth, Pl. I, fig. 2, shows a 7-year-old branch of an allied species of hickory (//icor/a laciniosa) with three small growths from EXPERIMENTS—IMPROVED METHOD. 13 dormant buds made during the present season, together with a bud quite dormant and evidently able to persist for some time. Inthe selec- ‘tion of bud wood it is preferable to cut the branches from the tree to be propagated in the early part of the day, choosing shoots as large in diameter as possible and those which show the greatest number of short, plump buds. Immediately on severing the branches from the tree the growth of the current season is severed and discarded, and the 1-year-old bud sticks are wrapped in dampened newspapers. If necessary, they can in this manner be kept for several days without danger of -drying out. EXPERIMENTS WITH BUDS OF THE CURRENT SEASON. In a recent series of budding experiments with the current season’s buds the work began June 6. The buds selected were principally the small, plump ones found at the base of the soft wood (Pl. I, fig. 1, B). At that date the buds were slightly immature; consequently, when a large section of bark was removed from the wood it showed signs of injury. The cuticle peeled easily, and even with ereat care in removing buds with sections of bark attached and in placing and tying them in position, the percentage of unions was small. Up to the end of July separate lots of the current year’s buds were worked at intervals of one week, the percentage of unions increasing slightly with each week. Patch budding (PI. ILI, fig. 1), which is merely a modification of annular budding, was the method used. Taking everything into consideration, the results obtained could by no means be considered satisfactory. AN IMPROVED METHOD OF BUDDING. An improved method, which has been demonstrated to be a perfect way in which to bud the pecan and one by the use of which there are very tew failures, is as follows: For the reception of the bud make two transverse cuts in the bark of the seedling stock (Pl: II, fig. 2) a few inches above the ground line, these two cuts, about 1 inch apart, te be connected by a longitudinal incision. The bark at each side of the longitudinal cut is then raised far enough (PI. III, fig. 3) to admit of the insertion of the section of bark on which the bud is situated (Pl. III, fig. 2, A). The rectangular section of bark when prepared for insertion must be of exactly the same length as the cut in the stock. It is taken from the stick of buds by making two transverse cuts through the bark at equal distances from the bud. Two longitudinal cuts are then made through the bark, leaving the bud in the center of the patch, which should be a little over 1 inch long and five-eighths of an inch wide. The patch must be raised carefully from the bud stick to guard against breaking and with as little bending during the operation as possible. When the operator finds that he does not 14 BUDDING THE PECAN. succeed at the first triai, it will be advisable to practice for a time on wood which is of no value. The stick of buds should be grasped firmly in the left hand, with the knife held by the fingers of the right, the thumb resting on the bud stick. Insert the point of the knife at one end of one of the longitudinal cuts, pressing the blade toward the thumb; this pressure will start the bark. Next insert the end of the handle of the knife, gradually removing the section. The patch is prepared for insertion by first cutting the two ends as straight as pos- sible, using a very sharp knife. The outer bark at the sides (PI. 111, fig. 2, A) is then shaved off, so that the edges will make a perfect fit when under the bark of the stock (PI. IV, fig. 1). When the bud is securely in place, the two wings of bark on the stock are bound firmly over the bud section with raffia (Pl. LV, fig. 2), and, as a preventive against the admission of water during the process of uniting, a little soft grafting wax may be smeared across the upper transverse cut and the whole wrapped with a narrow strip of waxed cloth (Pl. IV, fig. 3). The wrapping should be started at the bottom, each wrap being half covered by the succeeding one; this will effectually keep out moisture during wet weather. Asa protection against the heat of the sun, strips of paper, 8 inches long by 6 inches wide, should be tied around the stem of the stock an inch or two above the bud, but covering it (Pl. V, fig. 1), allowing the bottom part to remain open. After the sixth day the paper covering should be removed, and after the tenth day the waxed cloth may be taken off. By the fifteenth day the buds will have united sufticiently to allow of the removal of the raffia. This method of budding will be found to give an exceedingly satisfactory union. Experience has shown that with carefully selected buds from 1-year-old wood and healthy, vigorous growing seedling stocks, every section of bark will unite. OTHER METHODS OF BUDDING. Sometimes, when the seedling stocks are small and the size of the section of bark necessary for the union will more than cover half of the circumference of the stem of the stock, a quick growth on the part of the stock will produce a swelling immediately above the upper transverse cut in the bark. This can be averted by the use of a tri- angular patch bud (Pl. V, fig. 2), with one of the angles pointing upward. In using this method care must be taken that the three sides of the bud section should exactly fit the sides of the space pre- pared for them. It will be found advisable to smear a small quantity of soft grafting wax over the cut parts after the bud is in position and before tying with raftia. This makes an exceedingly neat union and is best used with small buds. Large ones need a larger section of bark attached. In patch budding (PI. ILI, fig. 1) a rectangular piece of bark, similar in size to that given in PI. ILI, fig. 2, is taken from the bud stick. A STARTING BUDS INTO GROWTH. 15 corresponding piece is removed from the stock and the section from the bud stick carefully fitted in its place. It is then tied with a strand of dampened raffia, but this is used only to keep the bud firmly in place; the top and bottom of the section are left uncovered, because there is a danger of the raftia injuring the eut ends, which are held tightly in place by narrow strips of waxed cloth covering all but the bud. A wrapping of paper is then given, as already described. The principal objection to this method of budding is that the sides of the bark are apt to rise somewhat during the growth of the stock. This, while in no way injuring or retarding the growth of the bud, does not have a very neat appearance for some time after the union is effected and may have a tendency to weaken the point of union, besides giving opportunities for harboring noxious insects. STARTING BUDS INTO GROWTH. It is desirable that the buds be started into growth as soon as possible after it has been ascertained that the union has taken place. Buds which are united to stocks having a large section of bark attached are liable to have more or less of the bark decay during the winter months. This occurs principally with young buds, especially when they are worked on 1-vear-old wood. This would seem to be common to all the species of the hickory family, but where 1-year-old buds are used the danger is lessened considerably. However, in the latter case they lose their vigor in proportion to the time they remain on the stock without being encouraged to break. In order to force the bud into growth it is necessary that the top of the seedling stock be removed, leaving only one or two healthy leaves at the base of the present season’s growth. Ina few days the buds in the axils of these leaves will push out, and they should be removed as soon as they can be handled, and on down the stem the small dormant buds formed in the axils of the leaves of the preceding season will burst into active growth and must be rubbed off at once. By this time the scion bud will have swollen considerably, and in a month’s time it will have developed several full-sized leaves. With buds inserted up to the end of June there is abundant time for the devel- opment of a good-sized shoot. The terminal buds of these shoots reach maturity in the majority of cases, but this is of little consequence, as one of the lateral buds will push out strongly the following spring. The practice of tying the growth of the scion to the top of the stock is a good one; it not only saves the soft growth from being whipped about by the wind, but it also secures a close, upright growth. At the beginning of the second season all of that part of the stock which is above the union should be carefully removed, not with a pair of pruning shears, but with a sharp knife, so as to leave a cleanly cut surface, with the bark uninjured. The cut surface should be covered with melted grafting wax to prevent decay. 16 BUDDING THE PECAN. TRANSPLANTING BUDDED TREES. The pecan is usually regarded as a difficult subject to deal with in transplanting. A large percentage of the trees die back after being placed in their permanent positions from nursery rows. However, if certain precautions be observed it will be found that there is no ground for the supposed difficulty, as the pecan will withstand the ordeal of transplanting in a young state quite as well as any other forest tree. In transplanting the pecan its requirements must be carefully con- sidered. In a young state it is a very deep-rooting subject, and any attempt to change its nature by coaxing the roots to grow near the surface of the soil will end disastrously. Pl. VII shows part of a row of 3-year-old budded trees, which were planted during the spring of 1902, after being out of the ground for several weeks. In this row there are about 40 plants, and only one of them shows signs of poor health. The work of removing these trees from nursery rows was evidently carried out with no more care ‘than is ordinarily bestowed on young forest trees, except that a fairly successful attempt was made to save as many roots as possible. A few of the large roots were mutilated, and during a journey of a week or more from the nurseries the roots became dry. The mutilated roots were pruned and the cut surfaces covered with melted grafting wax to prevent decay. They have been treated since coming to the nursery of the U.S. Department of Agriculture as described below, and the result is a lot of young trees with new growths in every way satisfactory. To insure the growth of the trees after transplanting, it is very necessary to avoid excessive trimming of the branches and roots. There must be at least one healthy undisturbed shoot of the previous season left on the plant untouched, because the large, plump axillary buds near the tip of the shoot will come into leaf with greater cer- tainty and more quickly than will older buds on cut-back growths. Especially is this the case after the tree has undergone removal, involy- ing the tremendous disturbance of the root system, which almost com- pletely robs the plant for the time being of its water supply. Seedlings in nursery rows with undisturbed roots, when trimmed down to the small lateral buds on 1 or 2-year-old wood, will start as readily, if not as strongly, as the buds near the end of the most recent growth. It must be remembered that the terminal buds of the pecan very seldom grow. They sometimes do so in seedlings, but very seldom after a cer- tain age. This is shown in Pl. I, fig. 2, Pl. I, fig. 1, and Pl. VI, which represent the growths made during three seasons. In PI. I, fig. 2, the large, plump bud near the terminal contains the flowering branch. The branch shown in PI. II, fig. 1, is developed from this bud. Pl. VI shows a still further development. The small, dead stump between the two living shoots represents the position occupied TRANSPLANTING BUDDED TREES. 17 by the nuts the preceding year, while the two shoots are from two of the large buds near the nut. (PI. IT, fig. 1.) In transplanting young trees, especially those which are to a certain extent weakened by the operation of budding, it is impossible to save all of the lateral roots during the operation of digging from the seed rows. It is, however, very desirable that as few as possible be sacri- ficed. Very careful lifting will pay for the extra labor. In seedling trees the taproot is usually severed much too near the collar and at too early a stage. It must be allowed to grow the first and second seasons if the seedlings are to be budded, because when removed at the end of the first season or the beginning of the second the weak growth will render it impossible to perform any budding operations during that year. Therefore, it is not till the third year that the tap- root can be interfered with, but it is well not to risk touching it until the growth of that season is completed, for the reason that although the shoot made from the inserted bud makes considerable growth the same season it is put on, it will make very large growth the season following. The budded seedlings will then bear removal. They may have a small part of the taproot removed and be either planted permanently or in nursery rows. The budded seedlings of the present day, if the variety be a good one, are retailed at about $2.50 apiece. When the tree brings that amount—and the supply is understood to be far short of the demand—it should be furnished with good roots. If it is worth that sum to the purchaser, it is cer- tainly entitled to a little further expenditure of time and care in the preparation of suitable conditions under which to grow. The reten- tion of roots at least 24 feet below the surface of the soil is desirable. If the ground in which the young trees are to be placed is not com- posed of good soil to that depth, it should be supplied. A good start the first year after planting means everything to the future tree; a bad start will, in the majority of cases, mean a sickly tree for a long time and an unprofitable investment in the end. With the roots deep in good, light, loamy soil the tree is to a certain extent independent of moisture from the surface. When growth begins in earnest, the roots will grow in the direction of the food supply. The severance of a large portion of the taproot saves a good deal of labor in dig- ging and planting, but it means a complete defeat of nature’s method in supplying the wants of the tree. Anyone who tries the two methods and compares the results will be convinced in one season in favor of large roots. As a further precaution, the roots should be plunged in liquid mud the moment they are free from the soil and never be exposed fora minute longer than is necessary, as they too often are, to the drying influence of the air. After taking from the mud, the roots should be 9496—No 80—02——2 18 BUDDING THE PECAN. ( wrapped in damp sacking, moss, or any other material which will hold moisture, and kept in this condition until they are about to be planted. They should then be again plunged in liquid mud, and while this is hanging to the roots they should be planted. When the soil has been well firmed about the roots of the tree and the hole is about two-thirds filled with soil, the remaining space should be filled with water. When this has disappeared, fill in the rest of the soil. A mulch of short grass, stable litter, or half-decayed leaves left on during the summer will supply favorable conditions. If these little details are faithfully attended to there is little danger that unsuccessful results will follow. A little extra expense is involved at first, but careless handling will be far more costly in the end. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Frontispiece. Part of row of seedlings budded by new method on June 26, 1902; photographed August 15, 1902. Puate I. Fig. 1.—Branch of pecan, showing growth of two seasons, with old and new buds. A, l-year-old dormant buds; B, current season’s buds; C, small plump buds at base of growth, from which the leaves fall early. Fig. 2.—Twig of pecan; top part of season’s growth, showing buds during winter; A, flower bud; B, terminal bud. Il. Fig. 1.—Fruiting branch of pecan, developed from bud shown in Plate I, fig. 2, A. A, buds from which the growth of the following season is developed, the buds, B, remaining dormant. Fig. 2.—Seven-year-old branch of Hicoria luciniosa. A, growth made from buds which stayed dormant during seven years; B, dormant bud in good condition. III. Fig. 1.—Patch budding. Two-year-old seedling pecan with piece of bark removed.