<B 


Mr 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


DISTRICT  REPRESENTATIVES 


BULLETIN  208 


Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing 

Conditions 

IN 

ONTARIO  COUNTY 

BY 

J.  H.  Hare,  B.S.A.,  Whitby 

(District  Representative  for  Ontario  County) 
AND 

T.  A.  Benson 

(Assistant  District  Representative) 


Printed  by  L,  K.  CAMERON,  Printer  to  tlie  King'8  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 
TORONTO,  ONT.,  January,  1913. 


/V 


BULLETIN   208.]  [JANUARY,  1913. 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

DISTRICT  REPRESENTATIVES 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions 

IN  ONTARIO  COUNTY 

LIBRARY 

By  J.  H.  Hare  and  T.  A.  Bknson.  now  v^j^jc 

^ botanicai^^ 

QAkDEN 

INTRODUCTION. 

In  Circular  140  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
entitled,  "  The  Egg  Trade  of  the  United  States/'  there  is  reported  a  loss 
of  17  per  cent.,  due  to  the  marketing  of  stale  and  bad  eggs.  It  is  further 
reported  in  the  "  Care  of  Market  Eg:gs,"  Bulletin  No.  16  of  the  Dominion 
Department  of  Agriculture,  that  this  percentage  of  loss  as  reported  for 
the  United  States  is  a  conservative  estimate  for  that  which  is  sustained 
in  the  Canadian  trade.  Over  two  hundred  Canadian  egg  dealers  advanced 
that  opinion  and  some  would  have  the  figure  placed  still  higher.  This 
means  that  for  every  30  dozen  case  marketed,  there  is  a  loss  equal  to 
the  value  of  5  dozen  eggs. 

This  tremendous  toll  naturally  has  a  very  serious  effect  upon  those 
concerned  with  the  production  and  consumption  of  eggs.  By  reason  of 
this  loss  or  "  shrinkage  "  the  producer  is  made  to  accept  a  lower  price 
for  his  eggs.  Produce  dealers  are  put  to  the  extra  expense  of  employing 
experts  to  examine  carefully  all  of  their  receipts  for  the  purpose  of  reject- 
ing those  that  are  not  fit  for  food.  Where  eggs  are  not  examined,  as 
in  the  case  of  practically  all  those  that  do  not  go  through  the  hands  of 
large  produce  dealers,  the  consumer  finds  himself  paying  out  his  good 
money  for  eggs  of  which  upwards  of  20  per  cent,  are  badly  deteriorated, 
or  perhaps  entirely  unfit  for  use.  And  that  is  not  all.  What  is  still  more 
serious  to  the  industry  is  that  when  a  consumer  has  many  such  experi- 
ences he  naturally  learns  to  regard  eggs  with  a  degree  of  suspicion.  When 
possible  he  makes  it  a  point  to  substitute  something  else  for  eggs.  In  this 
way  the  consumption  of  eggs  is  very  materially  curtailed,  the  demand  is 
lessened,  and  their  reputation  as  a  dependable  food  product  is  very  seri- 
ously impaired. 

Another  prominent  feature  of  present  conditions  is  the  pronounced 
indflference  with  which  the  great  majority  of  people  regard  the  poultry 
enterprise.  It  may  safely  be  said  that  the  poultry  industry  suffers  more 
^from  unjustifiable  neglect  than  does  any  other  branch  of  agriculture. 


2 

And  what  is  still  more  surprising  is  that  this  is  particularly  true  of  the 
farmer  himself.  There  is  absolutely  no  justification  for  such  indifference, 
not  even  from  a  straight  financial  point  of  view.  By  making  a  fair 
comparison;  that  is,  taking  into  consideration  the  capital  and  labor  in- 
volved, the  farmer's  poultry  will  yield  returns  equal  to  if  not  greater  than 
any  which  can  be  derived  from  any  other  branch  of  his  business. 

Having  some  knowledge  of  these  facts,  and  a  special  interest  in  poultry 
work,  the  writers  of  this  report  some  time  ago  determined,  if  possible, 
to  find  just  where  the  above  stated  loss  in  eggs  occurred,  who  was  respon- 
sible for  it,  endeavor  to  increase  interest  in  poultry,  at  least  in  Ontario 
County,  and  to  establish,  if  possible,  some  marketing  system  whereby  the 
heavy  loss  in  eggs  might  be  curtailed  or  perhaps  entirely  eliminated. 


Fig.  I. — A  Typical  Farm  Flock. 


To  accomplish  this,  it  was  deemed  necessary,  first  of  all,  to  obtain 
more  extensive  and  complete  information  as  to  actual  conditions  under 
which  farm  eggs  are  marketed,  following  their  course  carefully  from 
the  country  producer  to  the  final  consumer  in  the  larger  town  or  city. 
It  was  also  thought  necessary  to  make  a  careful  examination  of  actual 
poultry  conditions  upon  a  large  number  of  farms.  Although  this  phase 
of  the  investigation  was  confined  entirely  to  Ontario  County,  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  conditions  in  that  County  are  fairly  represen- 
tative of  the  entire  Province.  In  order  to  make  the  investigation  of  farm 
conditions  unmistakably  representative  in  its  character,  three  different 
sections  of  the  County  were  chosen,  and  in  each  section  a  block  of  farms 


selected.     All  farms  in  each  selected  block  were  investigated.     The  fol- 
lowing form  was  used  in  recording  the  information : 

ONTARIO  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

OFFICE  OF  DISTRICT  REPRESENTATIVE,  WHITBY. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Investigations. 

Form  used  for  Investiprating  Conditions  on  the  Farm. 


Name  of  farmer 

Address  

Date  


CHARACTER  OF  FARM: 

Size   

Crops  raised 

Stock  kept   

Possible  accommodation  for  colony  houses 

POULTRY  ACCOMMODATIONS: 
Houses- 
Number  

Kind 

Size 

Exposure 

Location  and  drainage  

Kind  of  floor  

Floor  space  per  hen  

Light    

Ventilation    

Draughts    

General  convenience  

Roosts,  kind 

-  Roosting  accommodation 

Cleanliness,  frequent  removal  of  droppings 

Scratching  material    


Nests — 


Kind 

Proportionate  number 

Cleanliness   

Location    


Runs  or  Range — 


Character    . 
Drainage  . . 

Shade    

Cultivation 


POULTRY  KEPT: 


Varieties   , 

Number Males Females 

Breeding  

Ages  


Vigor 

Health 

Special  diseases   

Insect  pests 

Natural  or  artificial  incubation  . 
Natural  or  artificial  brooding 

Late  or  early  hatching 

Success  in  rearing  chicks 


EGG  PRODUCTION : 

Quantity  produced  (a)  summer  months 
(b)    winter  months 

Frequency  of  gathering 

By  whom  gathered 

In  what 

Weight  of  eggs  per  dozen  

KEEPING  FOR  MARKET: 


Where   

In  what  temperature 

Freedom   from   contamination    

How  long  kept  •  • 

Grading  

Eggs  found  in  stolen  nests 

Washing  eggs  

How  marketed  

Distance  from  market  

Name  and  address  of  person  to  whom  sold 

Separation  of  males  from  flock  out  of  breeding  season 
Separation  of  cockerels  from  pullets   

METHODS  OF  FEEDING: 


Drink  

Variety  of  grain  feed 

Grain    feeds    

Animal   feeds    

Grit    ■  •  •  •  • 


Shell  , 

Feeding  of  chicks  and  young  stock 

While  the  primary  object  of  this  farm  investigation  was  to  gather 
data  with  reference  to  actual  poultry  conditions,  advantage  was  taken  of 
the  opportunity  to  record  certain  interesting  statistics  which  have  been 
summarized  in  the  following  table : 

Table  No.  i,  Showing  Acreage  and  Hen  Population  on  448  Ontario 

County  Farms. 


Section 

of 
Comity 

No.  of  farms 
investigated 

Total 
acreage 

Average  size 

of  farms  in 

acres 

Total  No. 
of  hens 

Average  Na,  \--f 

""fX""    heusper 
acre 

North.... 
Centre. .. 
South.... 

112 
180 
156 

13,211 
21,576 
16,873 

117.9 
119.8 
108.1 

7,685 
10,108 
10,137 

68.6 
56.7 
64.9 

.58 
.46 
.60 

Total.... 

448 

51.660 

115.3 

27,930 

63.4        '       .55 

INVESTIGATION  OF  FARM  POULTRY  CONDITIONS. 
Ths  Farmer's  Attitude  Toward  Poultry. 

Particular  note  was  taken  in  this  investigation  of  the  attitude  of  the 
farmer  towards  his  poultry.  To  record  this  information  the  following 
classification  was  made : 

First,  "  Uninterested  Poultrymen,"  or  those  farmers  who  had  practi- 
cally no  business  interest  in  their  poultry. 

Second,  those  whom,  for  convenience  sake  and  for  the  want  of  a  better 
name,  we  have  designated  as  "  Indifferent  Poultrymen." 

Third,  "  Interested  Poultrymen,"  or  the  more  progressive  farmers,  who 
gave  evidence  of  having  some  desire  to  make  the  most  out  of  their 
poultry. 

Our  findings  are  as  follows : 

Uninterested  poultrymen   29.4  per  cent. 

Indifferent  poultrymen   32.0  per  cent. 

Interested  poultrymen ,  38.6  per  cent. 

It  is  evident  from  these  figures  that  almost  two-thirds  of  the  pro- 
ducers of  our  market  eggs  are  either  indifferent  or  entirely  uninterested 
so  far  as  the  business  management  of  their  poultry  is  concerned.  From 
such  a  disclosure  it  is  not  difficult  to  understand  or  believe  the  claim 
which  often  has  been  made,  that  the  loss  due  to  the  marketing  of  stale 
and  bad  eggs  is  largely  the  result,  either  of  indifference  or  carelessness, 
and  is  therefore  almost  wholly  preventable. 

TabIvE  No.  2. — Showing  Proportion  of  Large  and  Smali,  Flocks  on 

448  Ontario  County  Farms. 


Section 

of 
County 

No.  of  farms 
investigated 

Percent,  of  farms 

with  less  than  60 

hens  in  flock 

Percent,  of  farms 

with  from  60  to  100 

hens  in  flock 

Percent,  of  farms 
with  more  than 
100  hens  in  flock 

North 

Centre 

South 

112 
180 
156 

30% 

68% 

56.6% 

49.1% 
17.7% 

28.2% 

20.9% 
14.3% 
15.2% 

Total 

448 

51.5% 

31.7% 

16.8% 

Flocks  on  Most  Farms  Too  Small. 

It  will  be  noticed  in  this  table  that  for  the  centre  section  there  is 
recorded  a  very  large  proportion  of  small  flocks.  As  a  matter  of  fact 
the  farmers  in  this  section  have  had  the  least  success  in  the  production 
of  winter  eggs.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  size  of  the  flock 
contributes  at  least  something  to  the  farmer's  success  with  poultry.  From 
observations  made  in  this  investigation  the  rule  seems  to  be,  the  smaller 
the  flock  the  less  interest  there  is  in  poultry.     Where  flocks  are  larger, 


usually  the  success  attained  is  greater,  and  the  general  conditions  are 
better.  A  flock  of  seventy-five  and  upwards  is  usually  regarded  as  a 
commercial  enterprise,  and  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  the  neces- 
sary time  to  give  it  what,  in  the  farmer's  estimation,  is  proper  care. 
Ordinarily  small  flocks  do  not  receive  this  attention.  They  are  maintained 
principally  for  the  convenience  of  the  home,  to  supply  it  with  eggs  and 
fowl.  If  there  is  a  surplus,  it  is  sold  in  any  convenient  way;  perhaps 
given  to  the  local  grocer  in  trade  for  groceries  and  other  household  neces- 
sities, or  if  sold  for  cash  to  a  travelling  huckster,  the  housewife  is  gener- 
ously awarded  the  proceeds. 

It  is  generally  accepted  that  in  order  to  manage  a  farm  economically, 
there  should  be  some  provision  made  for  poultry.  And  since  it  is  also 
accepted  that  poultry  may  be  made  one  of  the  most  profitable,  if  not  the 
most  profitable  department  of  the  farm,  it  stands  to  reason  that  the  flock 
should  be  of  a  commercial  size.  For  these  and  other  obvious  reasons,  a 
farmer  should  keep  a  flock  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  hens. 

Age  to  Which  Hens  are  Kept. 
In  a  large  number  of  instances  no  system  of  selling  oflf  hens  which  have 
outHved  their  usefulness  as  layers,  is  practised.  It  is  common  knowledge 
among  good  poultrymen  that  a  hen  becomes  less  useful  as  an  egg  pro- 
ducer as  she  grows  older.  Mr.  F.  C.  Elford,  in  his  recent  publication 
entitled  "  Farm  Poultry,"  says :  "  Many  such  experiences  have  gone  to 
prove  that  as  each  year  a  hen  grows  older  her  egg-laying  ability  decreases 
25  per  cent."  Flocks  containing  a  large  proportion  of  hens,  three  to  five 
years  old,  are  quite  common,  and  on  many  farms  some  hens  are  kept  as 
long  as  they  will  Hve.  For  ordinary  farm  purposes  hens  older  than  two 
years  should  not  be  retained.  A  good  plan  is  to  leg-band  all  pullets. 
Place  the  bands  on  the  left  leg  one  year  and  on  the  right  leg  the  following 
year,  and  so  on,  alternating  each  year.  In  this  way  there  will  be  no 
difficulty  in  identifying  the  older  fowl. 

Table  No.  3. — Showing  How  Flocks  are  Bred  on  448  Ontario 

County  Farms. 


Pure  Bred  Flocks 


Breed 


Barred  Plymouth  Rock . 

White  Wyandotte 

White  Leghorn 

Silver  Grey  Dorking 

Silver  Laced  Wyandotte 
Buff  Orpington 


Total. 


No.  of 
farms 


53 
6 
5 
3 
2 
1 


70 


Percent, 
of  total 


11.8 

1.3 

1.1 

.7 

.4 

.2 


15.5 


Crossbred  and  Mongrel  Flocks 


Breed  predominating 


Barred  Plymouth  Rock . 

Black  Minorca 

White  Leghorn 

Rhode  Island  Red 

Brown  Leghorn 

White  Wyandotte 

Buff  Orpington 

Black  Spanish 

Silver  Grey  Dorking. . . . 

Houdan 

SilverSpangledHamburg 

White  Rock 

Ancona 

Total 


No.  of 
farms 


207 

44 

32 

26 

22 

19 

8 

5 

4 

4 

3 

3 

1 


Percent, 
of  total 


46.2 

9.8 

7.1 

5.8 

4.9 

4.2 

1.8 

1.1 

.9 

.9 

.7 

.7 

.2 


378 


84.3 


General  Practice  in  Breeding. 

There  seems  to  be  prevalent  among  many  farmers  the  erroneous  idea 
that  much  crossing  of  breeds  is  a  helpful  practice  in  the  production  of 
a  heavy  laying  strain  of  fowl.  This  contention  is  borne  out  by  the  fact 
that  only  15.5  per  cent,  of  the  farmers  visited  keep  their  flocks  pure. 
(See  Table  3.)  Certain  first  crosses  may  get  useful  birds  if  intelligently 
mated,  but  for  a  flock,  the  chief  purpose  of  which  is  to  produce  eggs, 
the  pure-bred  bird  is  unquestionably  the  more  profitable.  If  the  farmer 
after  making  one  cross  always  returned  to  the  use  of  the  original  breeds, 
the  results  would  be  less  serious,  but  the  mistake  which  is  almost  universal, 
so  far  as  those  having  mongrel  flocks  are  concerned,  is  to  continue  using 
the  cross-bred  birds  for  breeding  purposes  without  even  the  slightest 
effort  at  a  proper  selection.  The  inevitable  result  is  the  reversion  to  a 
degenerate  and  much  less  useful  class  of  mongrel  fowl. 

Regular  inbreeding  without  regard  to  defects  or  good  qualities  in  the 
fowl  mated  is  another  serious  mistake  which  many  farmers  make.  This 
indiscriminate  breeding  invariably  results  in  a  lack  of  size  in  the  offspring, 
a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  product,  and  a  general  debility  of  the  flock. 
Such  a  practice  should  be  strongly  condemned. 

Still  another  practice  which  has  a  strong  influence  toward  reducing 
the  size  of  fowl,  and  indirectly  the  eggs  they  produce,  is  that  of  breeding 
from  late  hatched  birds  that  have  not  attained  their  full  maturity.  In 
other  cases,  eggs  for  hatching  have  been  kept  too  long  before  setting,  and 
in  places  not  conducive  to  the  preservation  of  their  freshness.  Still 
other  flocks,  not  properly  fed,  and  compelled  to  live  in  unsanitary  houses, 
produce  eggs  that  when  hatched,  the  offspring  showed  marked  evidences 
of  debility  and  weakness. 

Under  ordinary  circumstances  the  farmer  should  choose  one  of  the 
heavier  general  purpose  breeds,  keep  the  breed  absolutely  pure,  and  prac- 
tice careful  selection  in  choosing  those  birds  from  which  to  breed,  instead 
of  taking  settings  from  the  general  flock  as  is  the  common  practice. 

Serious  Mistakes  in  Incubation. 


As  a  rule,  farmers  do  not  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  early  hatch- 
ing of  chickens.  Winter  egg  production  is  quite  impossible  unless  pullets 
have  been  matured  early  and  considerably  before  the  cold  winter  weather 
sets  in.  To  accomplish  this  early  maturity,  the  chickens — having  refer- 
ence particularly  to  the  heavier  breeds — should  be  hatched  before  the 
end  of  May.  It  is  evident  from  the  following  table  that  a  large  majority 
of  farmers  make  the  serious  mistake  of  hatching  too  late  in  the  season. 


8 

Table  No.  4. — Showing  Practice  of  Farmers  With  Reference  to 
Spring  Hatching  on  448  Ontario  County  Farms. 


Section  or  County 

Number  of  farms 
investigated 

Percent,  of  farmers 

who  complete  hatching 

before  May  20th 

Percent,  of  farmers 

who  fail  to  complete 

hatching  before  May  20 

North 

112 
180 
156 

12.4% 
10.1% 
27.3% 

87.5% 

Centn 

South 

89.8% 
72.6% 

Total 

448               I               16.6% 

83.3% 

Other  errors  in  this  connection  that  are  common  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  farmers  visited  are :  The  use  of  eggs  produced  by  unhealthy 
and  mismanaged  parent  stock;  the  setting  of  broody  hens  in  the  laying 
pen  where  they  are  constantly  subject  to  noise  and  disturbance;  failure  to 
rid  the  body  of  the  setting  hen  from  lice  and  mites ;  no  attempt  at  having 
the  season's  hatches  come  off  at  about  the  same  time,  in  order  to  have 
chicks  of  an  even  age ;  and  the  indiscriminate  selection  of  eggs  regardless 
of  size  and  imperfections.  Naturally  the  hatchability  of  such  eggs,  and 
the  livability  of  chicks  hatched  therefrom  must  be  greatly  reduced.  In 
this,  together  with  a  combination  of  bad  conditions  resulting  in  high 
percentages  of  infertility,  weak  germs  and  mortality,  may  be  found  the 
explanation  for  the  tremendous  loss  experienced  during  the  incubating 
and  brooding  seasons. 


Artificiae  Methods  of  Incubation  and  Brooding. 

Artificial  incubation  and  brooding  is  not  general  among  farmers,  as 
may  be  seen  from  a  study  of  Table  No.  5.  There  are  several  reasons  for 
this,  which  might  be  summarized  as  follows :  Low-priced,  unreHable 
incubators,  being  advertised  and  sold  on  easy  payment  terms;  a  lack  of 
knowledge  of  the  most  rudimentary  laws  of  incubation,  such  failure 
being  either  the  result  of  carlessness  or  a  disposition  to  discard  these 
instructions  for  some  supposedly  better  original  methods;  low-priced 
brooders — veritable  death-traps — a  menace  to  chick  life  even  in  the  hands 
of  an  expert;  the  feeding  of  chicks  too  soon  after  hatching;  the  rearing 
of  chicks  upon  soured  or  otherwise  contaminated  land  upon  which  many 
generations  of  chicks  have  been  reared  and  the  land  having  had  prac- 
tically no  cultivation  during  this  time.  All  of  these  and  other  preventable 
errors  bring  disaster,  and  result  in  a  sweeping  condemnation  of  artificial 
methods. 


9 

Tabls  No.  5. — Showing  Methods  of  Incubation  and  Brooding  on 

448  Ontario  County  Farms. 


Incubation                                      • 

Brooding 

Section 

of 
County 

No.  of 
farms  in- 
vestigated 

Natural 

Artificial 

Combin- 
ation 

Natural 

Artificial 

Combin- 
ation 

North 112              102 

Centre 180              173 

South 156              134 

3 

6 

15 

7 
1 

7 

1 

103 
173 
140 

3 

6 

10 

6 
1 
6 

Total 448 

409            24              15 

416 

19        \      13 

Methods  of  Feeding. 

Commencing  with  the  newly  hatched  chicks  various  methods  of  feed- 
ing prevail.  Many  of  these  might  be  relied  upon  to  bring  success  if  proper 
attention  were  given  to  other  important  details.  Bread  crumbs  fed  dry, 
or  soaked  in  either  milk  or  water  and  squeezed  dry,  small  wheat,  oatmeal, 
cornmeal,  and  shorts  figure  prominently  as  foundation  rations.  In  a  fair 
proportion  of  instances  a  moderate  amount  of  care  is  exercised  in  the 
feeding  of  chicks,  but  in  many  cases  where  chicks  begin  to  die,  due  to 
errors  previously  enumerated,  interest  is  soon  lost,  the  chicks  are  neglected, 
and  those  surviving  are  compelled  to  take  "  pot-luck "  with  the  older 
birds.  Sometimes  they  forsake  their  own  quarters — usually  unsanitary — 
for  the  houses  occupied  by  the  adult  fowl,  where  evil  conditions  are  per- 
haps of  longer  standing,  and  where  the  "  red  mite "  holds  undisputed 
sway.  It  often  happens,  however,  that  some  of  the  young  birds  which 
have  come  along  fairly  well,  through  fear  of  the  older  birds  will  remain 
in  their  original  quarters,  or  take  to  some  outlying  shed  where  develop- 
ment is  much  more  rapid  and  satisfactory. 

The  feeding  of  the  adult  birds  during  the  summer  season  is,  with  a 
large  proportion  of  the  farmers  visited,  either  entirely  neglected  or  done 
in  a  very  haphazard  and  irregular  manner.  The  mistaken  impression 
that  hens  do  not  require  attention  in  the  summer  season,  seems  to  prevail 
very  largely.  Then,  too,  the  fact  that  hens  will  abundantly  repay  a  little 
extra  attention  given  them  during  the  moulting  period,  is  not,  as  a  rule, 
considered.  The  result  is  that  all  birds  to  be  kept  over  winter,  enter  the 
cold  season  in  a  condition  very  unfavorable  for  egg  production.  For 
good  advice  in  this  connection  we  cannot  do  better  than  quote  from 
Prof.  W.  R.  Graham  in  his  recent  bulletin  on  "  Farm  Poultry."  In  refer- 
ence to  the  methods  of  feeding  the  summer  laying  stock  at  the  O.  A.  C, 
he  says :  "  At  the  present  time  our  plan  of  feeding  is  to  scatter  whole 
grain  in  the  litter  both  morning  and  evening.  The  grains  used  are  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  and  occasionally  buckwheat  and  corn.  Green  food  is  sup- 
plied in  the  form  of  grass,  etc.,  in  the  runs.  Sour  milk  is  given  as  drink." 
As  to  the  methods  of  feeding  the  winter  laying  stock  the  following  is 
written :     "  Equal  parts  of  wheat,  corn  and  buckwheat  are   fed  both 


10 

morning  and  evening.  The  morning  feed  is  fed  the  previous  evening  after 
the  hens  have  gone  to  roost,  by  sowing  it  on  the  htter  and  then  turning 
the  Htter  over ;  the  straw  is  now  on  top  and  the  grain  below,  and  when 
the  hens  get  up  in  the  morning  they  start  to  dig  out  the  grain,  and  are 
kept  busy  all  forenoon.  At  noon  we  feed  mangels,  cabbage  or  clover  hay. 
The  night  feed  consists  of  the  whole  grain  fed  in  troughs,  and  what  the 
birds  do  not  eat  is  taken  up.  Rolled  oats  are  kept  constantly  before  the 
hens  in  hoppers.     Buttermilk  only  is  given  as  drink." 


Fig.  2. — Farm  poultry  house  amid  filthy  surroundings. 

Dearth  of  Scratching  Material. 
A  very  important  factor  contributing  to  the  general  experience  of  no 
winter  egg  production  is  the  lack  of  exercise.  To  ensure  vigor  and 
health  in  hens — which  conditions  are  absolutely  essential  to  a  maximum 
egg  yield — scratching  material  must  be  liberally  supplied,  and  the  birds 
induced  to  exercise  by  scattering  at  least  a  part  of  their  feed  in  a  dry 
litter  of  straw  or  leaves,  which  should  be  from  six  to  ten  inches  deep. 
Though  there  is  usually  an  abundance  of  scratching  material  close  at 
hand,  it  may  be  said  that  practically  all  farmers,  either  through  ignor- 
ance or  pronounced  indifiference,  fail  to  attend  properly  to  this  simple 
but  very  important  matter. 


11 

Unsanitary  Conditions  Propagate  Disease. 

Objectionable  Locations. — It  is  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  the 
poultry-house  separated  from  the  barnyard  by  any  great  distance.  In 
many  cases  the  fowl  are  allotted  a  section  of  the  main  stock  stable  or  they 
are  given  the  entire  run  of  an  outbuilding  situated  very  close  to  the  barn- 
yard. While  there  are  certain  advantages  in  such  a  location  where  the 
fowl  may  pick  up  grain  and  feed  that  would  otherwise  go  to  waste,  there 
are  serious  evil  effects  of  this  arrangement.  In  the  wet  season  of  the 
year  most  barnyards  are  in  a  very  muddy  and  dirty  condition,  and  during 
this  time  it  is  difficult  to  keep  eggs  clean  and  attractive  in  appearance. 
Moreover,  under  these  conditions,  the  fowl  not  only  have  access  to,  but 
are  often  forced  to  drink  the  filthy  barnyard  drainage  water.  This 
greatly  facilitates  the  spread  of  disease,  and  in  view  of  that  fact  it  would 
seem  advisable  to  discourage  such  a  location.  The  nearby  orchard  or 
lane  not  too  far  from  the  buildings  is  much  to  be  preferred. 


Fig,  3. — A  typical  farm  poultry  house — light  and  ventilation  entirely  inadequate. 

House  Sanitation. — The  health  of  the  average  farm  flock  is  not  as 
a  rule  well  looked  after.  In  a  few  cases  regular  and  systematic  cleaning 
of  the  house  is  observed,  but  these  are  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule. 
In  a  very  considerable  proportion  of  the  poultry  houses  examined  the 
term  "  filthy "  does  not  exaggerate  the  conditions  found.  The  usual 
practice  is  to  allow  the  droppings  to  accumulate  for  several  months  before 
any  attempt  is  made  at  a  proper  cleaning.  In  some  instances  houses  are 
provided  with  dropping  boards,  and  where  these  are  neglected  the  condi- 


12 

tion  of  the  roosting  pen  is  often  much  worse  than  where  there  is  no 
dropping  board. 

The  majority  of  houses  are  lighted  by  means  of  a  small  all-glass 
window  about  four  feet  from  the  ground,  usually  in  the  south  side,  but 
not  infrequently  in  the  north,  east  or  west.  In  some  instances  no  light 
whatever  is  provided.  The  question  of  ventilation  is  seldom  considered. 
An  occasional  opening  of  the  door  in  the  winter  season  is  usually  re- 
garded as  sufficient  to  supply  the  necessary  fresh  air.  In  many  houses 
draughfts,  especially  floor  draughts,  are  particularly  bad.  Such  conditions 
as  these  contribute  very  materially  to  the  propagation  of  disease. 


Fig.  4. — A  good   farm  poultry  house;    (a)    cotton  screen  between  the  windows; 
(b)  runways;  (c)  frame  covered  with  cotton  for  windows. 

Note. — By  making  provision  for  still  more  glass  and  cotton  the  front  of  this 
house  could  be  greatly  improved. 

Table  No.  6. — Showing  Prevalence  of  Disease  on  448  Ontario 

County  Farms. 


•  •  "Section  of  County 

Number  of  farms  inves- 
tigated 

Percent,  of  flocks  showing, 
serious  disease 

North       

112 
180 
156 

21.5% 

PpTitrp       

10.5% 

South        

15.4% 

Total 

448 

15.8% 

The  Prevalence  oe  Disease. 

One  of  the  most  surprising  discoveries  made  in  this  investigation  was 
the  high  percentage  of  flocks  that  were  more  or  less  affected  with  disease. 
It  is  difficult  to  estimate  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  the  losses  suffered 
.by  farmers  from  this  trouble.     In  some  instances  flocks  were  found  to 


13 

have  been  so  seriously  affected  that  large  numbers  of  the  affected  birds 
were  entirely  lost  through  illness. 

The  investigation,  in  this  particular  alone,  discloses  a  very  deplorable 
condition  of  affairs,  and  points  to  the  imperative  need  of  giving  these 
farmers  such  education  and  instruction  as  will  enable  them  not  only  to 
diagnose  the  important  diseases  but  to  treat  them  intelligently. 

Insect  Pests. 

Body  Lice. — It  is  generally  admitted  to  be  a  most  difficult  matter  to 
keep  a  flock  of  adult  fowl  absolutely  free  from  body  lice,  but  given  a  fair 
chance,  hens  in  good  health  will  keep  them  sufficiently  under  control  to 
prevent  causing  any  serious  trouble.  There  are  several  different  species 
of  lice  that  infest  hens.  Of  these  two  are  very  common  and  are  generally 
known  as  body  lice.  The  species,  Menopon  pallidum,  is  probably  the 
most  common,  and  it  is  a  rare  thing  to  find  a  farm  flock  which  is  not 
seriously  troubled  with  this  pest.  They  are  exceedingly  active  and  may 
be  found  on  all  parts  of  the  body.  They  often  crawl  on  the  hands  when 
handling  or  plucking  fowl.  Another  important  species,  Menopon  biseri- 
atum,  is  found  confined  to  special  regions  of  the  body.  Although  capable 
of  crawling,  it  is  usual  for  them  to  remain  stationary,  sometimes  with 
the  head  buried  in  the  skin  and  the  body  erect.  Body  lice  breed  and  spend 
their  life  on  the  body  of  the  fowl.  The  eggs  or  nits  are  laid  upon  the 
down  feathers  about  the  vent  and  can  often  be  found  there,  hanging  in 
clusters.  It  is  estimated  that  the  second  generation  from  a  single  louse 
may  number  2,500,  and  a  third  generation  125,000,  and  that  all  of  these 
may  be  produced  within  eight  weeks.  Thus  it  is  that  a  flock  considered 
to  be  quite  free  from  lice,  is  often  found  to  be  infested  after  being 
neglected  for  only  a  few  weeks.  Exercise,  proper  feeding,  and  pure  air', 
all  help  to  keep  the  birds  in  a  condition  unfavorable  to  the  existence  of' 
lice.  Good  sanitation  is  imperative.  It  is  necessary  to  provide  sunny,  ' 
well-ventilated  houses,  in  which  there  is  no  dampness  and  no  accumula-'  '! 
tion  of  droppings.  A  suitable  dust  bath  should  be  provided  and  placed  ' 
in  a  sunny  part  of  the  house.  In  this  box,  earth,  or  sandy  loam  should  ■ 
be  placed,  rather  than  coal  ashes,  as  the  earth  is  beneficial  to  the  skin  of 
the  birds  in  addition  to  ridding  them  of  lice.  A  few  handfuls  of  powdered 
sulphur  will  add  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  dust  bath.  All  flocks  should  be 
carefully  watched  and  frequently  examined  for  lice,  particularly  young 
stock,  so  much  of  which  is  ruined  by  lice  and  mites. 

Red  Mites. — The  so-called  red  mite  is  undoubtedly  the  most  virulent 
and  aggressive  enemy  of  the  farm  flock.  The  natural  color  of  the  insect 
is  grey.  It  is  only  when  gorged  with  blood,  like  the  musquito,  that  it 
becomes  red. 

Few  farmers  appear  to  realize  the  enormity  of  the  ravages  of  these 
mites,  and,  having  no  knowledge  of  their  life  history  or  habits,  they  are , 
ignorant  of  the  best  methods  of  eradication.     Instances  of  broody  hens 
leaving  the  nest  due  to  mites  are  common.    The  investigators  have  fre- 


14 

quently  examined  poultry  houses,  after  being  told  that  the  flock  was 
absolutely  free  from  all  insect  pests,  and  discovered  myriads  of  red  mites 
merely  by  lifting  a  roost  or  nest  box.  At  this  the  farmer  would  express 
the  utmost  surprise.  Without  doubt  these  mites  are  responsible  for  a 
large  proportion  of  prevalent  disease.  The  birds  are  thereby  reduced  to 
a  condition  which  leaves  them  an  easy  prey  to  disease  germs.  Further- 
more, such  conditions  render  the  fowl  utterly  useless  as  layers  of  winter 
eggs.  This  undoubtedly  is  the  explanation  of  many  flocks  failing  to  lay, 
even  where  special  efforts  are  made  to  obtain  eggs  during  the  winter 
season. 

In  a  recent  bulletin  (1911)  published  by  the  Maine  Agricultural  Ex- 
periment Station,  and  edited  by  Messrs.  Pearl,  Surface,  and  Curtis,  there 
is  given  some  excellent  advice  upon  methods  of  prevention  and  treat- 
ment for  red  mites.  It  reads  as  follows : — "  Clean,  dry,  well  ventilated 
houses  which  get  plenty  of  sunlight,  are  seldom  badly  infested.  The  first 
step  in  eradicating  or  controlling  the  pest  is  thoroughly  to  clean  the  houses. 
Remove  the  droppings  and  all  the  old  nesting  material.  Clean,  and,  when 
possible,  scrub  or  wash  with  a  stream  from  the  hose,  all  the  perches, 
nests,  floors  and  walls,  with  a  mixture  composed  of  three  parts  kerosene 
and  one  part  crude  carbolic  acid.  Work  the  mixture  into  all  cracks, 
crevices  and  joints  of  the  building. 

"  With  this  spray  it  is  necessary  to  make  two  or  more  applications 
at  intervals  of  a  few  days  to  destroy  the  mites  which  hatch  after  the  first 
application.  The  liquid  may  be  put  on  with  a  hand  spray  pump  or  with  a 
brush.  Cleanliness,  fresh  air,  and  sunlight  are  cheap  and  effective  pre- 
ventatives." 

Another  spray  successfully  used,  and  which  is  less  expensive  is  kero- 
sene emulsion.  This  is  made  up  of  kerosene  (coal  oil),  2  gallons;  rain 
water,  i  gallon;  soap,  14  lb.  Dissolve  the  soap  in  water  by  slicing  and 
boiling;  take  from  fire,  and  while  hot  pour  in  kerosene  and  chum  vigor- 
ously for  five  minutes.  For  use  dilute  with  nine  parts  of  water  so  that 
the  above  three  gallons  of  stock  emulsion  will  make  thirty  gallons  of  the 
spray  mixture. 

According  to  the  following  table  the  examination  of  poultry  houses 
on  448  Ontario  County  farms  revealed  the  fact  that  75  per  cent,  of  them 
were  more  or  less  seriously  infested. 

Table  No.  7.— Showing  Prevalence  oe  Red  Mites. 


Section  of  County 

Number  of  farms  inves- 
tigated 

T  Percent,  of  "flocks  infested 

North      

112 
180 
156 

llAfo 

Centre 

78.4% 

South 

76.5% 

Total 

448 

75.4% 

15 

CARE  OF  EGGS  UPON  THE  FARM. 

Collecting  Eggs. — The  frequent  and  regular  collection  of  eggs  from 
the  poultry  house  is  not  viewed  with  sufficient  importance  by  the  majority 
of  farmers.  The  usual  practice  is  to  gather  the  eggs  but  once  a  day  during 
both  winter  and  summer.  While  this  may  suffice  at  certain  times  of  the 
year,  collections  should  be  made  more  often  during  the  hatching  season 
when  broody  hens  are  continually  invading  the  laying  pen.  In  the  hot 
midsummer  weather,  and  during  the  colder  part  of  the  winter,  a  similar 
practice  should  obtain.  If  frequent  collections  are  not  made  during  these 
periods  the  loss  due  to  frozen,  heated  and  hatched  eggs,  though  not 
apparent  to  the  farmer,  will  nevertheless  be  great. 

A  general  lack  of  system  is  also  evident  on  many  farms.  The 
responsibility  of  collecting  eggs  is  seldom  allotted  to  one  person.  The 
result  is  that  on  some  days  no  collections  are  made,  or,  if  one  is  given 
the  work  who  is  not  familiar  with  the  location  of  all  the  nests,  some  may 
be  overlooked  and  left  until  a  day,  or  perhaps  several  days,  latter.  A 
surprising  discovery  in  this  investigation  was  the  fact  that  11.8  per  cent, 
of  the  farmers  visited  were  so  uninterested  in  their  poultry  that  no  special 
provision  whatever  had  been  made  for  nests.  In  the  case  of  others  there 
were  far  too  few  nests  for  the  number  of  hens  kept,  and  in  still  others 
too  many,  a  condition  which,  in  winter,  favors  the  chilling  and  freezing 
of  eggs.  These  facts  are  evident  from  a  study  of  Table  No.  9.  It  is  little 
wonder  that  when  the  product  of  such  farms  is  candled  and  graded,  there 
is  found  a  very  heavy  shrinkage.  Few  of  the  above  difficulties  arise  where 
there  is  provided  one  clean,  inviting  nest  for  every  five  hens  in  the  flock. 

Table  No.  9. — Showing  Relation  oe  Number  oe  Nests  to  Number 
OF  Hens  on  448  Ontario  County  Farms. 


No.  of  farms 

Percent,  of  total 

Nests  provided  * 

53 

11.8 

No  special  provision  for  nests 

by 

13.1 

From    2  to  10  nests  per  lOO^birds 

145 

32.4 

From  10  to  20  1  "        "  100  «  " 

103 

22.9 

From  20  to  30      "        "  100     " 

49 

10.9 

From  30  to  40      "        "  100  i  " 

??o 

8.7 

From  40  to  46      "        "  100  •  " 

Improper  Methods  oe  Keeping  Eggs  Preparatory  to  Marketing. 

The  mistake  of  storing  eggs  in  improper  places,  preparatory  to  mar- 
keting, is  common  with  many  farmers.  There  seems  to  be  a  general  lack 
of  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  an  ^gg  is  a  very  perishable  product.  Few 
realize  that  the  heat  of  an  adjoining  room  or  the  odor  of  some  strong- 
smelling  vegetable,  is  sufficient  greatly  to  reduce  the  quality  of  eggs.  The 
source  of  trouble  in  many  instances  is  the  holding  of  eggs  in  a  damp 
cellar,  or  in  a  small  room  or  pantry,  adjoining  a  heated  kitchen.  Eggs 
should  be  kept  in  a  cool  room  free  from  draught,  dampness  or  any  foul 
odors,  and  in  a  temperature  not  exceeding  sixty  degrees.  Usually  such 
a  place  may  be  found  in  a  cool  dry  cellar  or  cellar-way. 


16 

Washing  Eggs. 

Careless,  neglectful  methods  in  the  poultry  house  as  well  as  wet  and 
dirty  ranges  often  result  in  a  large  proportion  of  dirty  eggs.  It  is  the 
common  practice  of  some  of  the  most  self-respecting  farmers  or  their 
wives  to  carefully  wash  these  stained  or  otherwise  soiled  eggs.  For 
immediate  consumption  such  eggs  are  as  good  as  those  that  are  unwashed,, 
but  for  storage  purposes  they  are  not  so  valuable.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  soluble  portion  which  serves  as  a  hindrance  to  evaporation,  and 
a  protection  against  the  entrance  of  organisms  of  deterioration,  is  washed 
from  the  surface  of  the  shell.  Moreover,  such  a  practice  is  liable  to 
dampen  the  membrane  which  is  immediately  beneath  the  shell.  When 
this  membrane  is  wet,  germs  of  putrefaction  effect  an  entrance  much  more 
readily,  thus  rendering  the  egg  more  subject  to  contamination. 


Fig.  5.— A  "  found  "  nest. 

Marketing  of  Partially  Incubated  Eggs. 
Unfortunately  cases  of  this  dishonest  practice  are  not  wanting. 


It 


certainly  can  hardly  be  claimed  that  such  a  practice  results  from  ignorance. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  marketing  eggs  from  stolen  nests,  which  is  an 
all  too  common  practice,  as  borne  out  by  the  candlers  of  large  city  egg 
dealers.  Many  of  these  eggs  are  found  in  the  fields  or  in  favorite  hiding- 
places  about  the  buildings.  While  accumulating  before  discovery,  they 
are  probably  being  subjected  to  dampness  from  frequent  rains  or  exposed 
to  the  direct  rays  of  the  hot  sun.  Both  of  these  factors  cause  eggs  to 
deteriorate  very  rapidly. 


17 

REMOVAL  OF  Male  Birds  After  the  Breeding  Season. 

It  is  remarkable  how  few  farmers  appreciate  the  importance  of  infer- 
tility in  market  eggs.  To  make  provision  for  the  infertility  of 
an  egg  does  not  necessarily  guarantee  the  absolute  preservation  of  its 
good  quality;  but  such  an  egg,  being  free  of  the  active  germ  cell,  wiM 
not,  under  ordinary  storage  conditions,  deteriorate  seriously.  The  great 
bulk  of  eggs  which  are  spoiled  for  purposes  of  consumption  are  the  fertile 
eggs,  which,  having  been  subjected  to  heat  above  seventy  degrees,  undergo 
partial  incubation.  If  the  heat  is  continuous  and  strong  enough,  the 
development  of  the  chick  will  continue;  but  if  it  ceases  or  is  intermittent, 
putrefaction  at  once  sets  in  and  the  eggs  become  bad.  Such  eggs  are 
known  to  the  trade  as  "  blood  rings,"  "  floats,"  "  heavy  floats,"  or  "  rots," 
depending  upon  the  degree  of  deterioration  they  have  undergone.  Few 
farmers  have  any  knowledge  of  these  facts,  and  consequently  practically 
none  have  made  any  effort  to  ensure  infertility.  They  seem  to  have  the 
erroneous  impression  that  the  presence  of  the  male  bird  is  essential  to 
the  production  of  a  maximum  number  of  eggs;  but  it  has  been  proved 
beyond  all  question  of  doubt  that  such  an  arrangement  is  not  necessary, 
and  for  the  reasons  set  forth,  is  highly  undesirable. 


REVIEW   OF   PRESENT   METHODS,  OF   MARKETING  EGGS 

AND  CONSEQUENT  LOSSES. 

The  Flat  Rate  System  and  the  Country  Merchant. 

The  farmer  is  not  the  only  one  accountable  for  the  heavy  shrinkage 
in  market  eggs.  Along  the  course  of  trade  through  which  eggs  pass,  there 
are  other  handlers  commonly  known  as  "  middlemen,"  with  whom  should 
be  placed  much  of  the  responsibility.  This  is  true  because  of  the  system 
which  they  invariably  employ  in  the  purchase  of  the  farmers'  eggs.  This 
system  is  known  as  the  "  case  count,"  or  "  flat  rate  "  system,  and  consists 
of  paying  one  common  price  for  all  eggs. 

The  country  merchant,  who  is  usually  the  first  to  receive  the  farmer's 
eggs,  is  in  the  habit  of  receiving  weekly  or  semi-weekly  quotations  from 
large  egg  dealers,  and  upon  these  quotations  he  bases  his  price.  The  evil 
feature  of  this  system  is  in  the  fact  that  no  consideration  whatever  is' 
given  to  the  question  of  quality.  The  farmer  who  is  in  the  habit  of 
supplying  the  merchant  with  an  attractive  lot  of  clean  and  strictly  fresh 
eggs  receives  no  more  in  price  than  the  farmer  whose  eggs  are  small, 
soiled,  stale,  or  part  of  which  are  bad  and  entirely  unfit  for  consumption. 
The  result  is  that  the  farmer  is  in  no  way  induced  to  properly  care  for 
the  product  upon  the  farm.  There  is  also  held  out  to  unscrupulous  pro- 
ducers the  temptation  to  include  in  the  case  prepared  for  the  market,  eggs 
that  are  known  to  be  of  questionable  quality.  Though  the  merchant 
to  whom  such  eggs  are  sold  has  absolute  knowledge,  or,  at  least,  well- 
founded  suspicions,  that  the  eggs  brought  in  by  the  farmer  are  not  fresh 
as  represented,  he  usually  prefers  to  accept  them  without  making  the 
slightest  complaint.  The  merchant's  policy  is  to  cultivate  as  large  a  trade 
as  possible  in  eggs.    He  knows  that  by  so  doing  other  departments  of  his 


18 

business  will  be  proportionately  increased.  As  a  result  he  is  strongly 
tempted  to  bid  high  for  eggs,  seeking  to  outdo  his  competitors,  knowing 
that  if  he  chances  to  lose  on  the  eggs  he  handles  he  can  very  easily  make 
the  loss  good,  simply  by  inflating  proportionately  the  cost  of  the  miscel- 
laneous articles  the  farmer  desires  to  purchase  or  take  in  trade. 

Still  ano'ther  practice  of  some  local  merchants  is  to  advertise  two 
prices;  one  a  cash  price,  and  the  other  a  trade  price,  usually  about  two 
cents  higher  than  the  cash  price.  If  the  farmer  is  determined  to  have  cash 
he  is  forced  to  be  satisfied  with  the  lower  price.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
consents  to  take  groceries  or  other  goods  in  trade  for  his  eggs,  he  is 
represented  as  being  paid  the  higher  price.  In  reality  this  higher  one  is 
not  the  real  price,  but  a  fictitious  one  which  is  set  by  the  merchant  for  no 
other  purpose  than  to  secure  the  farmer's  trade.  Upon  the  account  form 
rendered  by  the  merchant  there  may  be  represented  goods  to  the  value  of 
the  eggs  figured  out  at  the  higher  price,  but  at  the  same  time  the  merchant 
is  often  careful  to  increase  the  cost  of  the  goods  taken  in  trade  equal  to 
the  advance  given  for  eggs,  or  in  some  other  way  make  up  the  difference. 


Fig.  6. — Careless  handling  of  returned  egg  cases. 

Note. — The  paper  fillers  in  these  egg  cases  were  thoroughly  soaked  by  a  drench- 
ing rain.    This  is  one  of  the  causes  of  mouldy  and  musty  eggs. 

Another  evil  of  this  "  case  count,"  or  "flat  rate  "  system,  is  that  the 
innocent  suffer  with  the  guilty.  Those  farmers  who  are  supplying  the 
markets  with  strictly  fresh  eggs,  and  of  first  quality  in  other  respects  as 
well,  suffer  from  the  low  price,  caused  by  the  presence  of  inferior  eggs 
supplied  by  others  who  are  careless,  or  perhaps  dishonest  in  their  dealings. 
Commission  merchants  know  what  shrinkage  to  count  on  at  certain  sea- 
sons of  the  year,  and  naturally  they  pay  a  price  which  is  sufficiently  low  to 
cover  at  least  a  portion  of  that  shrinkage.  And  not  only  does  the  unoffend- 
ing farmer  suffer  by  reason  of  this  present  antiquated  system  of  market- 
ing ^gs,  but  the  equally  innocent  consumer  is  at  the  same  time  charged 
a  higher  price  to  assist  in  covering  the  shrinkage  or  so-called  loss  suffered 
"by  commission  merchants. 


ly 

Tnt  Huckster. 

The  travelling  egg  buyer,  commonly  known  as  the  huckster,  figures 
very  prominently  in  the  egg  trade  of  Ontario.  His  custom  in  some  sections 
is  to  call  at  the  doors  of  the  farm  houses  and  solicit  the  purchase  of  the 
farmer's  eggs.  In  other  sections  he  will  estabhsh  himself  in  some  con- 
venient central  point — usually  a  small  village  in  the  midst  of  a  good 
trading  section — and  announce  to  the  farmers  in  the  community  that  on  a 
certain  day  he  will  receive  their  eggs.    As  a  rule,  there  is  little  or  no  com- 


_  .^Mik^  ..^k^a^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BH^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B 

Fig.  7. — Market  day  in  a  country  town. 

petition,  and  needless  to  say  he  buys  at  his  own  price.  From  here  he 
passes  on  to  another  point,  duplicating  the  practice  on  the  following  day. 
From  the  standpoint  of  quality  in  eggs  received  by  the  larger  markets, 
those  received  from  the  huckster  generally  compare  very  favorably  with 
those  coming  from  other  sources.  It  is  the  usual  practice  of  the  huckster 
to  make  regular  weekly  collections.  Where  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of 
selling  to  him  regularly,  such  eggs  are  fair  in  quality.  But,  with  this 
system,  the  price  received  by  the  farmer  is  usually  not  so  high. 


30 

While  the  huckster,  as  a  rule,  makes  regular  weekly  shipments  to  the 
larger  markets,  careless  or  deliberate  holding  of  eggs  is  sometimes  his 
practice.  In  one  instance  which  came  under  our  notice,  a  large  quantity 
of  eggs  was  left  over  by  a  huckster  in  an  ordinary  shed  for  a  whole  week 
during  the  hottest  weather  experienced  in  the  summer  of  191 1.  His 
excuse  for  holding  these  eggs  was  that  his  waggon  was  overloaded,  and 
that  if  the  eggs  were  shipped  by  express  or  freight,  his  profit  would  be 
too  small.  However,  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  at  that  particular  time  the 
market  price  for  eggs  was  on  the  upgrade. 


Fig.  8. — Candling  and  grading  eggs. 

The  Locai,  Market. 

In  many  small  country  towns,  particularly  in  districts  surrounding 
large  consuming  centres,  there  have  been  established  market  places  which 
are  utilized  by  farmers  on  a  set  day  of  each  week,  for  the  exclusive  pur- 
pose of  selling  poultry,  eggs  and  butter  to  visiting  agents  of  large  produce 
firms.  It  is  often  stated  in  support  of  the  local  market  that  this  system 
is  superior  to  all  others,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  keen  competition 
between  the  buyers,  and  because  of  this,  high  prices  rule.  But  the  most 
superficial  investigation  will  give  one  well  founded  suspicions  that,  as  a 


21 

rule,  there  is  no  trace  of  the  avowed  competition,  but  in  its  stead,  an 
arrangement  to  pay  a  certain  fixed  price.  Here,  too,  all  eggs  are  bought 
■on  the  "  case  count  "  basis. 

Though  these  are  the  most  important  methods  by  which  farmers  dis- 
pose of  their  eggs,  there  is  still  one  other  that  is  worthy  of  notice.  A 
certain  proportion  of  the  better  and  more  progressive  farmers,  in  seeking 
to  obtain  a  higher  price  for  their  eggs,  pass  by  one  or  more  middlemen 
and  deal  directly  with  large  produce  houses,  retail  stores,  or  with  the  final 
<:onsumer.  Such  eggs  are  generally  of  a  higher  grade  and  are  acknow- 
ledged by  those  accustomed  to  receiving  them,  to  be  of  a  better  class  than 
eggs  marketed  in  any  other  way. 


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Fig.  9. — Spoiling  eggs  by  subjecting  them  to  the   direct   rays  of   the  hot  sun — a 
common  mistake  of  the  retailer. 


CANDLING  AND  GRADING  MARKET  EGGS. 

While  by  no  means  all  eggs  delivered  to  the  larger  markets  are  candled, 
there  is  that  portion  of  the  trade,  handled  by  the  large  produce  dealers, 
vvhich  is  carefully  examined  and  graded.  The  process  of  candling  con- 
sists simply  in  the  examination  of  the  tgg  in  a  dark  room  before  an  open- 
ing in  a  shield  covering  a  small  incandescent  light  or  coal  oil  lamp.  Before 
such  a  light,  an  &gg  appears  comparatively  transparent,  sufficiently  so  to 
enable  the  expert  to  determine  the  extent  to  which  the  contents  of  the 
egg  have  evaporated,  or  the  degree  to  which  the  tgg  has  deteriorated  in 
quality.    The  illustration  (Fig.  8),  which  is  a  flashlight  photograph,  shows 


22 

very  clearly  the  nature  of  the  apparatus  used,  the  candler  at  work,  and 
also  the  various  grades  made  of  the  eggs  after  examination.  This  process 
of  course  is  costly,  taking  considerable  time  and  expert  service,  adding 
not  only  to  the  cost  of  eggs  to  the  consumer,  but  to  the  reduction  of  the 
farmer's  receipts. 

However,  it  is  fortunate  for  the  general  public,  at  least  of  large  con- 
suming centres  where  such  establishments  are  operating,  that  such  eggs 
are  to  be  had,  and  that  they  are  subjected  to  such  careful  examination. 
In  buying  candled  eggs  consumers  may  feel  comparatively  sure  that  the 
eggs  they  are  purchasing  are  as  represented. 

The  Town  or  City  Retailer. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  portion  of  the  trade  which  comes  from 
the  country  storekeeper,  the  huckster,  or  the  farmer,  directly  to  the  retail 
merchant,  which,  as  a  rule,  is  not  candled  or  graded.  Consumers  in  vil- 
lages and  outlying  towns  are  supplied  with  this  class  of  ungraded  eggs 
almost  entirely.  Consequently  they  have  to  assume  the  entire  risk.  This 
practice  undoubtedly  results  in  a  great  curtailment  of  consumption,  and 
indirectly  loss  to  the  industry.  To  illustrate  the  truth  of  this  general 
statement  it  may  be  said  that  the  housewife,  in  buying  bad  eggs  is  so 
disgusted  that  the  next  time  when  eggs  are  desired,  she  determines  that 
something  more  dependable  must  be  bought.  The  consequence  is,  fewer 
eggs  are  purchased,  the  price  goes  down  and  the  reputation  of  this  com- 
modity is  seriously  injured. 

Nor  is  the  retail  merchant  always  free  from  blame  in  the  matter  of 
selling  deteriorated  eggs.  Often  his  zeal  for  business  seemingly  overcomes 
his  reason  and  he  apparently  forgets,  or  is  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  eggs 
take  on  strong  odors  in  a  favorable  atmosphere,  as  in  a  room  where 
kerosene  is  stored ;  that  they  become  mouldy  and  musty  if  placed  in  damp 
locations ;  and  that  they  actually  hatch  into  chickens  if  placed  in  a  suitable 
temperature.  The  merchant  is  often  as  much  in  need  of  education  as 
the  farmer. 

THE  NEED  OF  EDUCATION. 

The  poultry  industry  is  in  need  of  a  great  awakening.  The  farmer 
should  be  aroused  and  made  to  see  that  his  poultry  is  in  reality  one  of  the 
best  revenue  producing  branches  of  his  farm ;  that  there  is  a  distinct  place 
in  his  business  for  poultry ;  that  his  flock  should  be  made  larger  and  thus 
put  on  a  better  commercial  basis;  and  that  he  would  be  abundantly 
rewarded  with  better  results  if  he  directed  the  management  of  his  poultry 
according  to  the  few  well  established  and  generally  recognized  successful 
methods.  He  should  be  made  to  realize  that  as  a  matter  of  fact,  he,  and 
not  the  middleman,  suffers  heavily  by  reason  of  the  loss  due  to  spoiled 
eggs.  Such  work  as  this  may  be  accomplished  by  the  distribution  of  more 
educational  literature,  by  more  public  discussion,  by  the  agricultural  press, 
and  through  the  agency  of  the  Government's  agricultural  experts. 


23 

THE  DEMONSTRATION  POULTRY  HOUSE. 

During  the  past  few  years  a  great  deal  of  effective  teaching  has  been 
done  by  means  of  demonstration.  One  branch  of  agriculture,  namely, 
fruit-growing,  seems  to  have  lent  itself  very  readily  to  this  method.  The 
District  Representatives  who  are  located  in  fruit-growing  sections,  have 
taken  advantage  of  this,  and  by  the  management  of  demonstration 
orchards  have  wonderfully  increased  the  interest  taken  by  farmers  in  the 
proper  care  and  management  of  their  fruit  trees.  The  success  achieved 
along  this  line  suggested  to  us  the  possibility  of  the  adoption  of  the  same 
idea  in  connection  with  poultry.  Our  desire  was  to  work  out  some  means 
of  illustrating  to  farmers,  a  good  type  of  poultry  house,  pi'oper  appli- 
ances to  install  in  the  house,  proper  methods  of  feeding,  and  chief  of  all, 
to  demonstrate  the  possibility  of  winter  egg  production,  fn  the  fall  of 
the  past  year  the  house  as  illustrated  by  Fig.  lo  was  built.  It  was  loaned 
to  an  energetic  and  enterprising  farmer  on  condition  that  the  flock  it 
contained  be  managed  and  fed  according  to  directions  given.  The  results 
in  winter  egg  production  were  excellent.  The  pullets  were  not  of  a  bred- 
to-lay  strain,  but  were  early  hatched,  healthy,  vigorous  birds  from  pure- 
bred stock. 


Fig.   10. — Demonstration  poultry  house. 


This  scheme  was  eminently  successful  in  arousing  the  interest  of  the 
farmers  in  that  locality.  Everyone  had  the  privilege  of  making  an 
examination  of  the  house  and  enquiring  as  to  methods  of  management, 
etc.  Surprising  advantage  was  taken  of  this  privilege  and  the  effect  upon 
production  during  the  first  winter  season  was  very  marked. 


24 

A  BREEDING  STATION. 

Such  a  poultry  house  which  has  been  so  effectively  used  as  a  Demon- 
stration house  may  also  serve  the  purpose  of  what  in  European  countries 
would  be  called  a  Breeding  Station.  The  house  should  contain  well-bred 
utility  hens,  that  the  eggs  and  offspring  therefrom  would  be  of  such  a 
character  as  to  effect  improvement  in  the  farmer's  flock.  If  the  farmer 
or  poultryman  who  has  the  management  of  the  station  is  at  all  successful 
in  getting  good  results  he  should  have  no  difficulty  in  finding  ready  sale, 
at  moderate  prices,  for  eggs  during  the  hatching  season  and  for  male 
birds  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  This  line  of  work  is  most  essential  as  a 
part  of  a  poultry  improvement  campaign.  In  fact,  one  cannot  hope  to 
make  poultry  educational  work  effective  unless  there  is  provided  some 
source  from  which  farmers  may  secure  improved  breeding  stock. 


CO-OPERATION  IN  THE  MARKETING  OF  EGGS. 

The  egg  trade  requires  a  marketing  system,  the  working  or  selling 
principle  of  which  is  based  upon  quality.  What  is  known  to  the  trade  as 
the  "  loss  off "  system  should  be  adopted  in  place  of  the  "  case  count " 
system  which  is  now  so  universal.  So  long  as  the  latter  system  prevails, 
proper  and  sanitary  methods  of  production  and  care  of  this  very  perish- 
able product  will  be  discouraged.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  present 
method  amounts  practically  to  the  placing  of  a  premium  on  careless  and 
dilatory  methods.  By  reason  of  this  basis  of  buying  eggs,  educational 
work  is  rendered  difficult  if  not  very  largely  fruitless.  The  farmer  is 
repeatedly  advised  to  improve  the  breeding  of  his  poultry  stock  in  order 
to  weed  out  the  small  Qgg,  to  keep  his  poultry  house  and  nests  in  a  clean 
and  inviting  condition  in  order  to  reduce  the  number  of  stale  eggs  through 
hens  stealing  their  nests,  to  gather  the  eggs  twice  daily,  to  keep  them 
stored,  preparatory  to  marketing,  in  a  clean,  cool  place,  and  to  market 
them  more  frequently.  To  follow  this  advice  is  most  essential  if  it  is 
the  desire  to  produce  eggs  of  the  highest  quality.  But  it  entails  some 
little  care  which  the  poultry  department  of  the  average  farm  is  not  in  the 
habit  of  receiving.  Therefore,  when  given  such  advice,  the  farmer 
naturally  asks  this  question:  "What  are  we  going  to  get  for  it?"  So 
long  as  the  "  case  count "  system  of  marketing  continues,  the  answer 
which  must  follow  is,  "  Practically  nothing."  The  system  is  at  fault, 
therefore  the  system  must  necessarily  be  changed.  The  price  paid  for 
eggs  should  be  based  upon  the  quality  of  the  product  at  the  time  of  sale. 
Such  a  system  would,  by  the  encouragement  of  better  methods  of  caring 
for  and  marketing  the  product,  very  greatly  assist  in  preventing  the 
heavy  loss  which  the  Canadian  egg  trade  now  sustains. 

The  produce  of  all  Co-operative  Marketing  Associations  (which  are 
commonly  known  as  "  Egg  Circles  "  where  eggs  only  are  handled)   is 


25 


sold  on  a  quality  basis.  The  members  also  are  paid  according  to  the 
grade  of  the  product  which  they  supply  to  the  management  of  the  Asso- 
ciation. This  is  one  of  the  leading  and  most  important  features  of  such 
an  organization.  The  success  of  the  movement  has  been  very  largely  due 
to  the  strict  observance  of  that  principle. 

The  organization  of  Co-operative  Egg  Marketing  Associations  is, 
therefore,  one  method  of  instituting  and  enforcing  the  system  of  buying 
eggs  on  a  quality  basis.  Such  an  organization  has  also  the  advantage  of 
cheaper  transportation  where  large  quantities  of  eggs  are  shipped.  In 
some  cases  unnecessary  middlemen  may  be  eliminated.  Such  an  organ- 
ization also  facilitates  more  frequent  shipment  and  greater  dispatch  in 
placing  the  product  upon  the  market.  Where  good  management  is  em- 
ployed, the  members  also  derive  benefit  from  the  expert  salesmanship  of 
the  manager. 

The  Movement  in  Ontario  County. 


About  two  years  ago  a  movement  was  started  in  Ontario  County  to 
establish  the  co-operative  system  of  selling  poultry  products.  The  work 
commenced  with  the  handling  of  eggs.  Egg  Marketing  Associations 
were  formed  in  two  of  the  most  promising  sections.  It  was  our  desire 
that  the  farmers  should  try  out  the  scheme  for  themselves.  If  the 
result  showed  no  improvement  over  present  methods,  the  matter,  of 
course,  could  be  dropped.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  proved  to  be  a  useful 
and  remunerative  organization  the  movement  would  naturally  grow,  and 
that  growth  being  largely  spontaneous,  progress  would  therefore  be  much 
more  satisfactory.  Eight  organizations  have  since  been  formed.  Accord- 
ing to  the  last  reports  the  present  membership  is  over  500  farmers.  The 
total  membership  has  increased  one  hundred  per  cent,  in  the  past  year, 
and  this  has  been  very  largely  due  to  farmers  voluntarily  asking  for 
organizations  or  for  permission  to  join  one  or  other  of  the  organizations 
already  established.  In  the  case  of  one  organization,  No.  7,  with  head- 
quarters at  Cannington,  the  business  has  averaged  over  $1,000  per  month 
for  the  past  ten  months.  The  movement  has  made  a  natural  growth,  its 
development  being  entirely  due  to  the  success  of  those  organizations 
which  were  first  established.  In  all  cases  the  extension  of  the  movement 
has  taken  place  in  those  sections  surrounding  and  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  established  organizations.  This  is  the  best  evidence  which  we 
can  give  of  what  the  farmers  themselves  think  of  the  movement,  or  of 
the  "Co-operajtive  Marketing  Association. 

The  growth  and  popularity  of  the  movement  has  been  brought  about 
largely  because  of  the  increased  prices  which  the  members  of  these 
organizations  have  been  receiving  over  and  above  prevailing  local  market 
prices.  It  is  difficult  to  obtain  accurate  figures  showing  the  advance  in 
price  which  members  have  been  getting,  because  of  the  influence  which 
the  movement  has  on  local  market  prices;   but,  to  give  approximate 


26 

figures,  the  advance  in  the  spring  and  summer  sesasons  has  ranged  from 
one  to  three  cents,  and  in  the  fall  and  winter  months  from  three  to  as 
high  as  twelve  cents.  This  premium  which  the  "  marked "  eggs  from 
these  organizations  have  been  bringing  on  the  near  city  markets  is 
directly  due  to  an  improvement  in  quality.  However,  the  quality  even 
yet  is  by  no  means  perfect.  A  great  deal  more  remains  to  be  done  than 
that  which  is  already  accomplished.  But  the  fact  remains  that  some 
improvement  has  been  made,  and  because  of  that  improvement,  the  eggs 
have  commanded  a  higher  price. 

Though  this  increased  price  is  largely  responsible  for  the  rapid 
growth  which  the  movement  has  made,  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  this 
is  not  by  any  means  the  only  benefit  to  be  derived  from  a  Co-operative 
Marketing  Association.  In  the  writer's  estimation,  it  is  the  least  im- 
portant. The  chief  virtue  of  such  an  organization  is  the  effect  which  it 
has  upon  the  farmer's  attitude  toward  his  poultry,  and  the  handling  and 
marketing  of  eggs.  By  reason  of  the  better  prices  and  general  satisfac- 
tion which  this  system  gives,  farmers  are  particularly  desirous  of  remain- 
ing with  the  organization  after  once  having  joined.  In  order  to  retain 
his  membership  the  farmer  must  carefully  follow  the  rules  and  regula- 
tions as  outlined  in  the  Constitution  and  By-laws.  In  order  to  do  this, 
he  seeks  advice  and  instruction  from  the  management  of  the  organization. 
In  this  way  the  old-time  indifferent  farmer  is  changed  into  a  keenly  in- 
terested one.  He  becomes  remarkably  receptive  and  even  looks  to  the 
management  to  guide  him  in  the  detailed  management  of  this  part  of  his 
business.  This  offers  a  wonderful  opportunity  for  doing  most  effective 
educational  work. 

The  following  is  a  suggested  Constitution  and  By-Laws  for  a  Co- 
operative Marketing  Association. 

CONSTITUTION  AND  BY-LAWS. 
Constitution. 

1.  The Co-operative  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Association  has 

for  its  object  the  increasing  of  the  profits  to  poultry  raisers  by  Co-operation. 

2.  The  Association  seeks  to  reach  its  object: 

(a)  By  marketing  eggs  and  poultry  of  only  the  best  quality. 

(b)  By  selling  eggs  and  poultry  delivered  to  its  members  at  the  highest 
possible  price. 

(c)  By  buying  for  its  members  grit,  feed,  shell,  and  such  other  supplies 
as  are  needed  in  the  production  of  poultry. 

(d)  By  buying  such  pure  bred  stock  and  eggs  as  may  be  needed  in  im- 
proving and  supplementing  the  stock  already  kept  by  the  members. 

(e)  By  the  dissemination  of  poultry  know^ledge. 

3.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  Association  shall  be  held  during  the  first  two 
weeks  in  January  of  each  year. 

4.  Notice  of  the  annual  meeting  shall  be  given  each  member   by  the  Secre- 
tary not  more  than  one  week  previous  to  the  date  of  this  meeting. 


27 


5.  Special  meetings  may  be  called  at  any  time  upon  call  of  the  President, 
by  written  notice  mailed  to  each  member  five  days  before  the  meeting. 
Special  meetings  shall  be  called  by  the  President  whenever  required  to  do  so 
in  writing  by  any  ten  members. 

6.  At  the  annual  meeting  a  Board  of  seven  Directors  shall  be  elected,  of 
whom  four  present  and  voting  shall  constitute  a  quorum  at  any  board  meeting. 

7.  The  Directors  shall  be  elected  for  a  period  of  two  years  except  at  the 
time  of  organization,  when  four  shall  be  elected  for  two  years  and  three  for 
one  year.  In  succeeding  election  all  members  elected  to  the  Directorate  shall 
be  elected  for  the  full  period  of  two  years.  A  retiring  member  may  be  re- 
elected. 

8.  The  officers  shall  consist  of  a  President,  Vice-President,  Secretary  and 
two  Auditors. 

9.  The  President,  Vice-President  and  Secretary  shall  be  chosen  by  the 
Directors  from  among  themselves  at  the  first  board  meeting  after  the  annual 
meeting.  The  Auditors  shall  be  elected  at  the  annual  meeting  at  the  time  of 
the  election  of  Directors. 

10.  The  Directors  may  select  three  of  their  number  to  act  as  an  Executive 
Committee  (the  President  to  serve  as  Chairman)  to  have  general  charge  of 
the  afifairs  of  the  Association. 

11.  The  President  shall  preside  at  all  meetings.  He  shall  call  meetings  of 
the  Board  of  Directors  and  members  when  necessary,  and  shall  advise  with 
and  render  such  assistance  to  the  Manager  as  may  be  in  his  power.  In  his 
absence  the  Vice-President  shall  have  and  exercise  all  rights  and  powers  of 
the  President. 

12.  The  Secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  the  proceedings  of  all  meetings, 
and  of  all  receipts  and  disbursements  and  report  the  condition  of  the  finances 
annually  or  as  often  as  the  Directors  shall  desire. 

13.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  be  responsible  for  the  work  of  the  As- 
sociation. They  shall  closely  supervise  the  work  of  the  Manager  and  shall 
deal  with  misdemeanors  of  members.  They  shall  carry  on  educational  work 
among  members  of  the  Association  by  the  distribution^  of  educational  litera- 
ture, and  by  arranging  for  educational  meetings  from  time  to  time. 

14.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Auditors  to  examine  the  accounts  of  the  As- 
sociation twice  during  the  year  (July  ist  and  January  ist).  The  July  report 
of  the  Auditors  shall  be  made  to  the  Board  of  Directors,  and  the  January 
report  at  the  general  meeting.  The  Auditors,  however,  possess  the  right  to 
examine  the  accounts  whenever  they  so  desire. 

15.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  employ  a  business  Manager  who  shall  also 
act  as  Treasurer  of  the  Association.  The  business  Manager  shall  not  be  a 
member  of  the  Board  of  Directors. 

16.  When  a  vacancy  shall  occur  through  any  cause  in  any  of  the  offices 
established  by  the  Constitution  and  By-laws  of  the  Association,  it  shall  be 
filled  at  the  next  regular  or  special  meeting. 

17.  The  Directors  of  the  Association  have  full  power  to  expel  any  member 
who  refuses  or  neglects  to  comply  with  the  rules  of  the  Association. 

18.  All  the  elections  shall  be  by  ballot,  plurality  electing,  conducted  by  two 
scrutineers  appointed  by  the  Chairman. 

19.  This  Constitution,  or  any  part  thereof,  may  be  amended  at  any  regular 
or  special  meeting  by  a  two-thirds  affirmative  vote  of  the  members  present. 


28 
By-Laws. 

1.  The  Manager  shall  have  charge  of  the  affairs  of  the  Association  in  detail 
under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Directors. 

2.  The  remuneration  of  the  Manager  shall  from  time  to  time  be  fixed  by  the 
Directors,  and  may  be  by  way  of  salary  or  commission. 

3.  Members  of  the  Association  are  subjected  to  the  following  regulations: 

(a)  They  must  deliver  all  eggs  not  to  be  used  for  their  own  housekeeping 
or  breeding  purposes  at  a  time  and  place  determined  by  the  Board  of  Direc- 
tors. All  eggs  must  be  unbroken,  clean,  fresh,  of  good  size,  and  not  more 
than  one  week  old. 

(b)  Before  being  delivered  all  eggs  must  be  starhped  at  the  broad  end 
with  the  stamp  supplied  by  the  Board  of  Directors.  The  stamp  is  the  property 
of  the  Association  and  must  be  returned  to  the  Manager  when  membership 
ceases. 

(c)  Only  false  eggs  of  gypsum,  china,  etc.,  may  be  used  as  nest  eggs. 

(d)  Eggs  must  be  gathered  twice  a  day,  and  kept  in  a  cool  room,  free 
from  draught,  dampness  or  any  foul  odors,  and  in  a  temperature  not  exceeding 
60  degrees  nor  lower  than  45  degrees. 

(e)  No  member  shall  be  permitted  to  dispose  of  eggs  through  the  As- 
sociation, from  other  hens  than  his  own. 

4.  Membership  may  be  obtained  by  all  poultry  keepers  living  in  the  vicinity 
of  upon  payment  of  an  entrance  fee  of  thirty  cents.  Only  those 
will  be  admitted  who  will  strive  to  promote  the  aims  of  the  Association,  and 
whose  applications  are  accepted  by  the  Board  of  Directors. 

5.  Application  for  membership  must  be  made  to  the  Board  of  Directors  in 
writing,  the  application  specifying  the  number  of  hens  which  the  applicant 
keeps.     Entrance  fees  must  be  paid  on  acceptance  by  the  Board  of  Directors. 

6.  An  annual  membership  fee  of  25c  shall  be  imposed  upon  each  member  at 
the  beginning  of  each  year,  the  said  membership  fee  to  be  used  for  defraying 
the  running  expenses  of  the  Association.  Where  a  balance  remains  at  the 
close  of  the  year  it  shall  be  carried  over  to  the  following  year,  and  held  as  a 
reserve  fund.  In  case  membership  fee  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  running 
expenses  of  the  Association,  a  special  fee  may  be  levied  by  the  Board  of 
Directors,  sufficient  to  meet  the  liabilities  of  the  Association. 

7.  In  case  members  do  not  observe  the  rules  of  the  Association,  a  system 
of  fines  may  be  adopted  and  enforced  by  the  Board  of  Directors. 

8.  If  the  Association  should  become  dissolved,  the  profits  which  remain 
after  all  debts  have  been  paid,  shall  be  divided  among  the  remaining  mem- 
bers. The  deposits  shall  first  be  paid  back,  after  which  any  remaining  assets 
shall  be  distributed  among  those  members  who  have  belonged  to  the  Associa- 
tion at  least  one  year,  the  said  distribution  to  be  made  in  proportion  to  the 
value  of  the  eggs  delivered  by  each  member. 

9.  These  by-laws  may  be  amended  at  any  regular  or  special  meeting  by  a 
two-thirds  affirmative  vote  of  the  members  present. 

It  is  the  experience  of  the  writers  what  if  those  in  charge  of  Co- 
operative Marketing  Association  formulate  a  very  arbitrary  set  of  rules 
and  stipulate  that  a  violation  of  the  said  rules  will  result  in  immediate 
expulsion,  the  outcome  will  be  disastrous.  Some  theoretical  co-opera- 
tors may  object  to  this,  but  we  question  if  any  other  policy  will  work  out 
in  practice.  Strict  observance  of  the  rules  should,  of  course,  be  kept 
continually  before  the  members  as  being  the  secret  of  success,  but  it  must 


39 

be  kept  in  mind  that  the  average  farm  flock  does  not  as  yet  command 
much  interest  from  the  farmer,  and  is  not,  as  a  rule,  looked  upon  as  a 
business  proposition.  It  becomes  important,  therefore,  first  to  enlarge 
his  view  of  the  enterprise ;  to  enable  him  to  see  the  advantage  of  the  bet- 
ter methods  agreed  upon  by  the  Association  and  by  means  of  this  educa- 
tion, he  will  soon  develop  into  a  desirable  member. 

The  egg  gatherer  is  usually  the  manager  of  the  organization.  He 
collects  the  eggs  on  a  certain  day  each  week,  candles  and  prepares  the 
same  for  shipment,  and  delivers  them  to  the  shipping  station.  He  also 
receives  the  returns  for  the  shipment,  reserves  his  commission,  pays  the 


Fig.  II. — Egg  collector  of  an  Ontario  County  Egg  Circle. 

freight  or  express  charges,  places  to  the  credit  of  the  Association  Bank 
Account  any  fraction  of  a  cent  which  would  make  payment  to  the  farmers 
difficult  and  with  the  balance  he  returns  to  the  members  as  high  a  price 
as  possible,  of  course  making  deductions  where  bad  or  inferior  eggs  are 
delivered. 

A  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Association  is  not  unlike  a  co-operative 
fruit  growers'  association.  They  are  alike  in  this  particular,  at  least,  viz., 
that  success  depends  to  a  very  great  extent  upon  the  energy,  ability  and 
honesty  of  the  manager  employed;  and  so  important  is  this,  that  unless 
an  association  is  able  to  secure  a  man  of  such  character,  it  had  better 
give  up  the  idea  altogether,  and  thus  avoid  the  disappointment  of  failure. 


30 


A  FEW  CONCRETE  CONCLUSIONS. 

1.  In  the  investigated  district,  only  38.6  per  cent,  of  the  farmers  ap- 
peared to  be  taking  a  business-like  interest  in  their  poultry. 

2.  The  great  majority  of  farm  flocks  are  composed  of  cross-bred  or 
mongrel  fowl.  Such  indifferent  and  neglectful  methods  of  breeding  as 
are  indicated  by  the  type  and  quality  of  birds  commonly  found  on  most 
farms  naturally  result  in  a  lack  of  size  and  uniformity  in  market  eggs 
and  dressed  fowl,  and  an  increase  in  constitutional  weakness. 

3.  Old  hens  are  not  profitable  egg  producers.  This  fact  is  not  re- 
garded by  the  majority  of  farmers. 

4.  Allowing  male  birds  the  freedom  of  the  flock  after  the  breeding 
season  is  practised  almost  universally.  The  discontinuance  of  this  prac- 
tice would  greatly  reduce  the  shrinkage  in  market  eggs. 

5.  Hatching  too  late  in  the  season  is  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  farm- 
ers' mistakes.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  little  or  no  winter 
egg  production. 

6.  The  feeding  of  farm  hens  in  midsummer  is  often  very  seriously 
neglected. 

7.  The  incomplete  ration  is  another  factor  contributing  to  poor  winter 
results.  Eggs  cannot  be  manufactured  unless  all  of  the  necessary  con- 
stituents are  supplied,  viz.,  grain  (including  whole  grain  and  dry  mash), 
animal  food,  green  food,  grit,  and  oyster  shell. 

8.  Lack  of  exercise  when  confined  is  another  important  reason  for 
poor  results  in  winter  egg  production.  Scattering  the  grain  in  a  deep, 
dry  litter  of  straw  will  overcome  this  difficulty. 

9.  The  great  majority  of  farm  poultry  houses  are  unsanitary,  ill- 
ventilated  and  insufficiently  lighted. 

10.  Disease  is  prevalent  to  an  alarming  extent. 

11.  The  Red  Mite  is  the  chief  enemy  of  the  farm  flock.  This  pest, 
which  is  common  everywhere,  is  a  potent  factor  in  destroying  the  useful- 
ness of  otherwise  productive  and  profitable  flocks. 

12.  The  reason  for  hens  stealing  their  nests  is  found  usually  to  be  in 
an  uninviting  condition  of  the  hen  house  and  nests,  or  the  supply  of  an 
insufficient  number  of  nests.  Nearly  12  per  cent,  of  the  farmers  visited 
have  provided  no  nests  whatever. 

13.  Hatched,  mouldy,  musty  and  stale  eggs  are  largely  due  to  eggs 
being  laid  away  in  hidden  nesits,  inattention  to  broody  hens,  or  to  ir- 
regularity or  infrequency  in  making  egg  collections. 

14.  The  perishable  nature  of  an  egg  is  too  little  understood.  Damp- 
ness, excessive  heat  (above  60  degrees),  strong  odors,  draughts,  delay  in 
marketing,  are  factors  which  very  quickly  destroy  the  freshness  and  good 
quality  of  eggs. 


31 


15-  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  majority  of  Canadian  egg  dealers,  that  the 
Canadian  Egg  Trade  sustains  a  loss  of  at  least  17  per  cent.  This  means 
that  for  every  30-dozen  case  marketed,  there  is  a  loss  equal  to  the  value  of 
five  dozen  eggs.  This  loss  is  very  largely  the  result  of  defective  methods 
of  production  and  marketing. 

16.  The  chief  fault  of  the  present  method  of  marketing  eggs  is  the 
"case  count,"  or  "flat  rate"  system  of  buying  and  selling  the  product. 

17.  Eggs  should  be  bought  and  sold  on  merit.  The  price  received  or 
paid  should  be  strictly  in  accord  with  the  quality  of  the  product. 

18.  To  allow  as  much  for  inferior  eggs  as  for  eggs  of  the  highest 
quality  is  practically  the  same  as  placing  a  premium  on  careless  and 
dilatory  methods. 

19.  The  basis  of  payment  of  an  Egg  Selling  Association  or  an  Egg 
Circle  is  that  of  quality.  Only  first-class  eggs  receive  a  first-class  price. 
All  eggs  are  paid  for  according  to  their  grade,  as  shown  by  the  process  of 
candling. 

20.  In  an  Egg  Circle,  members  have  the  advantages  of  more  frequent 
marketing,  cheaper  transportation,  the  elimination  of  unnecessary  mid- 
dlemen, access  to  the  latest  and  best  in  poultry  knowledge,  and  expert 
salesmanship,  all  of  which  naturally  result  in  the  elimination  of  loss,  a 
higher  class  product,  a  keen  demand  for  their  product,  and  larger  net 
profits. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

PCBLISHED  BY  THB  ONTABIO  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGBICUI.TURE,  TORONTO. 

sierial 
No.         Date.  Title.  Author 

i69    Feb.       1909    Legume   Bacteria:    Further   Studies   of  (  g   p  Edwards 

Nitrogen    Accumulation   In   tlie   Legu-  <  g"  B^riow 

minosse ( 

170  Mar.      1909    Mitchell-Walker  Test  Bottle  |  W.o!  Walker.^" 

I  Insects  Affecting  Vegetables C.  J.  S.  Betbuno. 

171  April      1909  |  j,^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^^  Vegetables.  {  f  ^h^owIU*'"" 

172  May      1909    Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revisod)  Dairy  School. 

173  Oct.       1909    Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

174  Dec.      1909    Farm  Underdrainage:  Does  it  Pay?...  W.  H.  Day 

175  Dec.      1909    Farm  Drainage  Operations  W.  H.  Day 

176  Dec.      1909     Bacterial    Blight    of    Apple,    Pear    and 

Quince  Trees  D.  H.  Jones. 

177  Dec.      1909    Lime-Sulph ar  Wash   |  ^-  (i'aesar "^"^ 

178  Dec.      1909    Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  /  W.  I*.  Gamble 

Muck  Soils   \    A.  Ei  Slater. 

179  Feb.      1910    Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Plant- 

ers (No.  147  revised)   Fruit  Ex.  Stations 

180  April    1910    Flour  and  Breadmaklng J  ^  "^  pu?dy. 

181  June     1910    The  Teeth  and  Their  Care 6nt.  Dental  Soc'y. 

182  July     1910    Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

183  Aug.     1910    Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-Making  Dairy  Branch. 

184  Nov.     1910    Uses  of  Vegetaoles,  Fruits  and  Honey 

185  Nov.     1910    Little  Peach   Disease  L.  Caesar. 

186  Dec.      1910    Children:  Care  and  Training J.J.  Kelso. 

187  Jan.       1911     The  Codling  Moth   L.Caesar 

188  April    1911    Weeds  of  Ontario  (No  128  revised) J.  B.  Howltt. 

189  May      1911    Farm  Poultry  (No.  151  revised)  W.R.Graham. 

190  May      1911    Bee  Diseases  In  Ontario Fruit  Branch. 

191  June     1911    Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

192  July      1911    Agricultural  Co-operation S.  E.  Tod.<L 

193  Nov.      1911    Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

194  Dec.      1911    Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch. 

195  Jan.      1912    Insecticides  and  Fungicides.  r  R.  Harcourt. 

(No.  154  revised)  \  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

196  Jan.      1912    Tomatoes  A.  G.  Turney. 

197  Feb.      1912    Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

198  Feb.      1912    Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

199  Feb.      1912    Onions  A.  McMeans. 

200  April    1912    Fruit  Jnlces L.  Meunler. 

9fti     Mav     1019  /Peach   Growing  in  Ontario    F.M.Clement. 

^ui    May     131Z  I  pg^j.j^  Diseases   L.  Caesar. 

202  May     1912    Grape  Growing  In  Niagara  Peninsula  T.  B.  Revett. 

203  May     1912    Cabbage  and   Cauliflower    A.  McMeans. 

204  June     1918    Decay  of  the  Teeth Ont.  Dental  Soc'y. 

«06    Sept    1912    Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised).  /  Staff  of  Dairy 

Part    I.    Cheese-making    and    Butter-  \        School, 
making ( 

206  Nov.      1912     Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised) 

II.  Dairying  on  the  Farm Dairy  School. 

207  Dec.       1912    Ice  Cold  Storage  on    the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

208  Jan.        1913    Farm     Poultry     and     Egg     Marketing/  J.  H.  Hare. 

Conditions  in  Ontario  County \  T.  A.  Benson. 


Ontario   Department  of  Agriculture 


ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE 


BULLETIN  209 


A  Revised  Edition  of  No.  155 


Farm    Forestry 

By 

E.  J.  ZAVITZ,  B.A.,  M.S.F. 

Professor  of  Forestry 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  FEBRUARY.  1913 


BULLETIN  209]  [MARCH,  1913 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

ONTARIO   AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE 

(A  Revised  Edition  of  No.  155) 


Farm  Forestry 


E.  J.  ZAVITZ 

IXTEODUCTION. 

This  bulletin  has  been  prepared  to  assist  the  farmer  and  small  landowner 
of  the  Province  of  Ontario  to  give  more  rational  treatment  to  the  wooded  and 
waste  portions  of  his  land. 

Xo  space  is  devoted  to  arguments  showing  why  the  woodlot  should  be  cared 
for  nor  why  waste  lands  should  be  planted.  It  is  assumed  that  the  reader  is 
beyond  that  stage  and  desires  to  make  improvements  if  they  can  be  made  in  a 
practical  manner. 

Through  such  mediums  as  the  agricultural  press,  the  Farmers'  Institutes,  and 
Experimental  Union,  much  has  been  done  to  advance  the  cause  of  farm  forestry, 
Many  prominent  men  in  agriculture  have  seen  the  need  of  conserving  a  portion 
of  our  woodlands  and  re-planting  the  non-agricultural  soil,  which  should  never 
have  been  denuded. 

Owing  to  the  peculiar  nature  of  a  forest  crop,  in  that  it  takes  so  long  from 
the  planting  to  the  hanest,  the  individual  is  very  liable  to  shirk  his  responsi- 
bility. It  has  been  found  in  the  older  countries  of  Europe  that  Forestry  must 
have  the  aid  and  supervision  of  the  State  if  anything  like  a  rational  policy  is  to 
exist.  It  is  fitting  that  the  farmer  should  receive  all  possible  assistance  in  im- 
proving conditions  which  will  in  many  cases  benefit  posterity  more  than  the 
present  generation. 

An  endeavor  has  been  made  to  make  this  publication  practical  for  the 
farmer,  and  as  far  as  possible  technical  language  has  been  avoided.  Various 
things  have  been  suggested  which  might  not  be  practical  for  the  large  landowner. 
However,  the  farmer  is  especially  fitted  to  carry  out  work  as  outlined  in  tliese 
pages,  as  he  has  a  knowledge  of  plant  life  in  relation  to  the  soil ;  he  has  the 
equipment  for  such  work  and  he  can  personally  superintend  and  give  it  future 
inspection. 


LIST  OF  FOEEST  TEEES  IN  ONTAEIO. 

Most  species  of  our  native  trees  have  synonymous  names  varying  with  locality. 
An  example  of  this  is  the  common  maple  of  Ontario,  which  is  called  Sugar  Maple, 
Eock  Maple,  and  Hard  Maple.  To  avoid  confusion  in  this  publication  it  is  neces- 
sary to  agree  upon  some  common  name. 

Canadian  and  American  species  have  been  given  the  vernacular  and  scientific 
names  adopted  by  Bulletin  ISTo.  17,  of  the  Division  of  Forestry,  IT.  S.  Department 


of  Agriculture.  The  names  adopted  in  Bulletin  IT  are  in  almost  every  case 
known  in  Ontario :  so  it  has  been  felt  advisable  to  conform  to  this  standard.  One 
exception  is  the  Hornbeam   (Ostrya  virgimana),  which   in  Ontario  is  commonly 

called  Ironwood. 

The  adopted  names  are  given  in  large  type  with  the  synonymous  names  in  par- 
entheses. 

TREES  IXDIGEXOrS  TO  ONTARIO. 
Scientific  Xame.  Common  Xame. 

I  \BiES  BALSAME^        BALSAM  FiE.     fBalsam;    Canada  Balsam.) 

■">'  \cER  >-EGrxDO   (Negundo  aceroides) Box  Eldek.     (Ash-leaved  Maple;   Cut-leaved 

Maple;      Xegundo      Maple;      Three-leaved 
Maple;  Manitoba  Maple.) 

3.  Acer   nigkvm    Black  Maple. 

4    \ceb   PExxsYLVAXiciTM    Stkiped  Maple.      (Moosewood.) 

o'    \CER    Ri-ERUM     Red    Maple.     (Swamp    Maple:    Soft  Maple; 

Water  Maple ;   White  Maple. ) 

6  \CER  SACCHARixrM   (Acer  dasvcarpum).SiL\-ER  Maple.     (Soft  Maple;  White  Maple.) 

7  \CER  s\ccH\RrM    (Acer  saccharinum)  ..  Sugar    Maple.       (Hard     Maple;    Sugar-tree; 

Rock  Maplt?;    Black  Maple;   Maple.) 

8  AiiELAXcHiER   CAXADEXsis    Servkeberry.        (June-berrv;     Shad     bush; 

Service  tree;   May  cherry;   Shad-berry.) 

9.  AsiMiXA    TRILOBA    Papaw.     (Custard   Apple.) 

10.  Bettxa  lltea    Yellow  Birch.     (Gray  Birch;  Swamp  Birch; 

Silver  Birch.) 

II  BExrLA.   p\ptrifeba    Paper  Birch.     (Canoe  Birch;   White  Birch; 

Silver  Birch;  Large  White  Birch.) 

12.  Bettla  Populifglia  White  Birch.      (Gray  Birch.) 

13.  CAKPixrs    carolixtaxa    Blue  Beech.       (Water    Beech;     Hornbeam; 

Iron  wood.) 

14.  CA.STAXEA    dentata     (Catsauca     vesea) 

(Castanea  vulgaris)    Chestnut.     (Sweet  Chestnut.) 

15    Celtis    occidextalis    Hackberry.     (Sugarberry ;    Nettle-tree.) 

le'  CoRXUS  FLORIDA    Flowerixg  Dogwood.     (Dogwood ;  Boxwood.) 

17.  CoBxus  altebxifolia    Blue    Dogwood.       (Dogwood;     Purple    Dog- 

wood.) 

18.  Fagus  atboptjxicea  (Fagus  ferruginea) .  Beech.     (Red  Beech;  White  Beech.) 

19.  Fraxixus  americaxa  White  Ash.     (Ash ;   American  Ash.) 

20.  Fraxixus      xigra     (Fraxinus      sambuci- 

foiia)    Black  Ash.     (Hoop  Ash;  Basket  Ash.) 

21.  Fraxixus       pexxsylvaxica       (Fraxinus 

pubescens)    Red  Ash.     (Brown  Ash;  Black  Ash.) 

22.  Fraxixus     laxceolata     (Fraxinus    vir- 

idis )     Greex  Ash.     ( Blue  Ash ;  White  Ash.) 

23.  Fraxixus   quadbaxgulata    Blut:  Ash. 

24.  Gymxocladus      dioicus       (Gymnocladus 

canadensis )     Coffee  Tbee. 

25.  HAiiAMELis  virgixiaxa   WiTCH  Hazel.     (Winter  Bloom.) 

26  Hicobia  ov\T\  (Carva  alba)    Shagbabk.      (Hickory;    Shellbark    Hickory; 

Shagbark  Hickory;    Shellbark.) 

27  HicORiA  MixiMA   (Carva  amara)    Bitterxut.       (Hickory;    Bitternut;     Swamp 

Hickory;   Pig  Nut.) 

28.  HicoRiA  ALBA  (Carya  tomentosa)    Mocker  Nut.     (Hickory;   W^hiteheart  Hick- 

ory.) 

29.  HicoBiA  glabba  (Carya  porcina)    Pigxut.     (Hickory;  Bittern iit) 

30  Jugl\xs  xigba.   Black  Walxut.     (Walnut ;  W  alnut-tree.) 

31  JuglVxs  cixere\  Buttebxut.     (White  Walnut.) 

39'  JuxiPEBUs  vibgixiaxa   RED  JuxiPEB.     (Red  Cedar;  Cedar;  Juniper.) 

33    Labix  larictxa  (Larix  americana)    Tam.\rack.      (Larch;   American  Larch.) 

34'  Liriodexdrox    tulipifera    Tulip-Tree.      (White-wood;    Yellow    Poplar; 

Tulip  Poplar.) 
34.  Magnolia  acuminata    Cucu^iber  Tree. 

36.  MoRUS  rubra   Red  Mltberry. 

37.  Nyssa  stlvatica    (Nyssa  multiflora) ...  Black  Gum.      (Sour-gum;    Tupelo;    Pepper- 

idge.) 


38.  OsTRYA  \-iBGiMAXA    HoRXBEAM.     (Hop  hombeam;  Ironwood  ) 

39.  PicEA  MARIANA   (Picea  nigra)    Black  Spruce.     (Spruce.) 

40.  Picea  caxadexsis   (Picea  alba)    White  Spruce. 

41.  Picea  rubexs    Red  Sprlce. 

42.  Pixrs  rigida    Pitch  Pixe. 

43.  Pixu.s  -STROBus   White  Pixe.      (Pine.) 

44.  Pixr s  RESixosA  Red  Pixe.     ( Norway  Pine. ) 

45.  Pixu.s  DiTABicATA  (P.  banksiaua)    Jack  Pixe.     (Scrub  Pine;  Grav  Pine.) 

46.  Plataxus  OCCIDEXTAI.IS    Sycamore.      (Button-wood;    Plane-tree;    But- 

ton-ball.) 

47.  PoPUEUs  TBEMrxoiDEs  AsPEX.     (American  Aspen:  Poplar;  Popple.) 

48.  PoPTTLrs  graxdidextata    Largetooth  Aspex.     (Poplar;   Popple.) 

49.  PoPULus  BAXSAMiFERA    Balm  OF  GiLEAD.     (Balsam;  Balsam  Poplar; 

Cottonwood;   Poplar.) 

50.  PoPULUs  DELT0IDE.S  (Populus  mouillfera) .CoTTox^vooD.      (Carolina  Poplar;    Poplar.) 

51.  Pruxus    serotixa    Black  Cherry.     (Wild  Black  Cherry;   Wild 

Cherry;    Rum  Cherry.) 

52.  PRrxr.s  pexxsylvaxica  Wild   Red   Cherry.        (Pin   Cherrv;    Pigeoa 

Cherry;  Wild  Cherry.) 

53.  Pruxu.s  virgixiaxa  Choke  Cherry.     (Wild  Cherry.) 

54.  Ptelea  trifoliata    Hoptree. 

55.  Pybus  AMERIC.A.XA  (Sorbus  americana)  . .  MotxTAix  Ash. 

56.  Pyrus  coroxakia   (Malus  coronaria) ....  Sweet  Crab. 

57.  QuERcrs  alba  White  Oak.     (Stave  Oak.) 

58.  QrERcrs  macrocarpa   Bur  Oak.     (Mossy  Cup  Oak;  Blue  Oak  ) 

59.  QuERcrs   prixus    Chestxut  Oak. 

60.  QuERcrs  AcrMixATA  Chixquapix  Oak. 

61.  QuERcrs  RiTBRA   Red  Oak.     (Black  Oak:   Spanish  Oak  ) 

62.  QcERCus    cocciXEA    Sc-UiLET  Oak.     (Red  Oak:  Black  Oak  ) 

63.  QrERcrs  PALrsTRis    Pix    Oak.      (Swamp   Spanish    Oak;    Swamp 

Oak;  Water  Oak.j 

64.  QrERCTTs  PLATAxoiDEs  (Quercus  bicolor) .  Swamp  White  Oak.     (Swamp  Oak  ) 

65.  QrERcrs  velutixa  (Quercus  tinctoria )..  Yellow  Oak.     (Black  Oak.) 

66.  Rnrs   hibta    Staghorx  SrMACH. 

67.  Salix  xigba  Black  Willow.     (Willow.) 

68.  Salix    amygdaloides    Almoxdleaf  Willow.     (Willow.) 

69.  Salix  flttviatilis   (Salix  longifolia)    . . .  Loxgleaf  Willow.      (Sandbar  Willow.) 

70.  Salix  discolor   GLArcors  Willow.       (Pussy  Willow;      Wil- 

low.) 

71.  Salix  cordata  mackexzieaxa Mackexzie  Whjlow.     (Heart-leaved  Willow.) 

72.  Sassafras    sassafras      (Sassafras    offic- 

iiiale)     Sassafras.      (Sassifrax;    Sassafac  ) 

73.  Thuya   occidextalis    Aeborvitae.      (White   Cedar;    Cedar;    Amer- 

ican Arbor  Vitae.) 

74.  TiLiA  AMERicAXA   Basswood.        (Linden ;     American     Linden; 

Whitewood.) 

75.  TsrGA  caxadexsis    Hemlock.      (Hemlock  Spruce:    Spruce.) 

76.  Ulml-s  PrBESCEXs   (Ulmus  fulva) Slippery  Elm.     (Red  Elm. ) 

77.  ULMrs   AMERICAXA    White  Elm.     (Soft  Elm ;  Swamp  Elm.) 

78.  Ulmus  Racemosa    Rock  Elm.     (Cork  Elm;  White  Elm.) 

TREES  INTRODUCED  FROM  UNITED  STATES. 

Abies  coxcolor   White  Fir.     (Balsam  Fir.) 

Abies  xobilis Noble  Fir.     ( Red  Fir. ) 

AESciLrs  GLABRA   Ohio  Buckeye.      ( Buckeyc. ) 

Catalpa  catalpa  (Catalpa  bignonoides).CATALPA. 
Catalpa  speciosa  H.^dy  Catalpa. 

Chamaecyparis     thyoides     (Chamaecy- 

paris  sphaeroidea)    White    Cedar.       (Swamp    Cedar;    Juniper.) 

Conxus  coTixoiDES  (Rhus  cotinoides) . .  Americax  Smoke-Tree. 

Gleditsia  triacaxthos    HoxEY  Locust. 

Picea  exgelm.vxxi   Exgelmaxx  Spruce. 

Picea  parryaxa  (Picea  pungens)    Blue  Spruce.     (Colorado  Blue  Spruce.) 

I*ixus  POXDEROSA    BuLL  PiXE.     (Yellow  Pine.) 

Psel-dotsl"ga      taxifolia      ( Pseudotsuga 

douglassii)    Douglas  Spruce.     (Red  Fir;    Douglas  Fir.) 

RoBixiA  PSEUD.\CAciA Black  Locust.     (Locust.) 


Fig  1. — Sugar  maple  woodlot,  showing  good  reproduction. 


Fig.  2. — Original  pinery,  now  covered  with   woodlot  of  hardwoods, 

as  maple,  beech  and  ash. 


TREES    INTRODUCED   FROM   OTHER  COUNTRIES. 

1.  Abies  xordmaxxiaxa  Normaxn's  Fir. 

2.  Acer  pseudo-platmus  Plaxe   Tree.     (Sycamore.) 

3.  Acer    plataxoides    Norway  Maple. 

4.  AEScrLrs  hippocastaxtm    Horse-Chestxut. 

5.  AiLAXTHUs    glaxdulosa    (China)     Ailaxthus. 

6.  Betula  alba    Silver  Birch. 

7.  Carpixus  betulus  Europeax  Horxbeam. 

8.  Fagus  sylvatica  Exjropeax  Beech. 

9.  Fraxixus  excelsior   Europeax  Ash. 

10.  GixGKO  biloba    (China)    Gixgko    (Japanese  Maidenhair  Tree.) 

11.  JUGLAXS    REGIA     EltroPEAX   WaLXUT. 

12.  Larix  europaea  Larch. 

13.  Morus  alba  (China)    White  Mulberry. 

14.  PiNUS    AUSTRIACA     BLACK    Or    AUSTRIAX    PiXE. 

15.  Pixus  sylvestris Scotch  Pine. 

16.  Pixus  mugho  Mucho  Pixe. 

17.  Picea  excelsa Norway  Spruce. 

18.  PoPULUs  alba  White  Poplar. 

19.  populus  pyramidalis lombardy  poplar. 

20.  Quercus  peduxculata  Exglish  Oak. 

21.  Salix  alba    White  Willow. 

22.  Salix  fragilis   Crack  Willow. 

23.  TiLiA  EUROPAEA  LixDEX.      (Lime-tree.) 

24.  Ulmus    campestris    Exglish  Elm. 

25.  Ulmus  moxtaxa  Scots  or  Wych  Elm. 


THE  WOODLOT. 


Introduction. 


The  forest  lias  been  spoken  of  as  an  organism,  and  the  forest  tree  finds  its  best 
development  as  one  of  a  eommunit}'.  Soil  conditions,  leaf  litter,  vegetable  mould 
or  humus,  undergrowth  and  the  influence  of  the  trees  upon  each  other  are  all  im- 
portant factors  in  the  proper  development  of  the  forest  tree.  The  woodlot,  being 
small  in  area,  often  lacks  protection,  and  there  is  great  difficulty  in  keeping  the 
above  factors  properly  balanced. 

The  woodlot  is  a  part  of  the  farm  which  in  too  many  cases  has  been  neglected 
and  looked  upon  as  of  no  real  value  in  its  relation  to  the  farm.  It  has  furnished 
the  owner  with  fuel  ami  building  material  and  frequently  revenue  by  the  sale  of  a 
few  logs  to  the  local  mill.  In  many  cases,  however,  the  woodlot  has  not  been  con- 
sidered as  being  a  permanent  resource  or  a  necessary  part  of  the  farm  economy. 

In  early  days  the  woodlot  was  considered  important  as  being  a  source  of  fuel, 
but  when  the  farmer  discovered  the  charms  of  anthracite  coal  one  of  the  most 
evident  arguments  in  favor  of  its  existence  seemed  to  pass  away.  At  the  present 
time  many  farmers  in  older  Ontario  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the  supply  of  coal 
for  fuel.  Local  mill  operators  have  frequently  been  allowed  to  go  through  tlie 
woodlot  and  take  out  the  best  timber,  leaving  only  a  slash.  The  owner  has  felt 
satisfied  with  the  ready  cash  that  sucli  an  operation  left  him  and  quick  returns  is  a 
strong  argument  in  favor  of  denuding  the  land. 

No  arguments  are  advanced  in  these  pages  to  show  that  the  use  of  the  land 
for  wood  crop  production  would  give  greater  financial  returns  than  its  use  for  other 
farm  purposes.  Neither  will  we  discuss  the  percentage  of  land  which  should  be 
under  trees,  as  this  is  a  question  which  must  be  settled  by  the  individual  owner. 
Many  farmers  in  Ontario  find  that  from  the  standpoint  of  labor  and  management 
they  are  limited  in  the  amount  of  land  which  they  can  profitably  cultivate. 


The  following  pages  take  it  for  granted  that  the  owner  desires  to  make  the 
woodlot  a  permanent  and  paying  part  of  the  farm. 

Ground  Fires  as  Related  to  the  Woodlot. 

Injury  to  Soil.  Fire  should  never  be  allowed  to  run  through  the  woodlot.  By 
burning  off  the  leaf  litter  and  vegetable  mould  or  humus  the  soil  is  greatly  weak- 
ened. As  was  pointed  out  in  previous  pages,  the  healthy  development  of  the  forest 
is  dependent  upon  the  humus  condition  of  the  soil. 

Injury  to  Be  product  ion.  Ground  fires  also  destroy  the  seed  and  young 
growth  and  make  it  much  more  difhcult  for  seeds  to  germinate  in  the  future.     The 


Fig.  3. — Effects  of  ground  fires  on  wliite  oalc. 


natural  seedbed  of  humus  soil  covered  with  the  leaves  gives  a  protected,  natural 
seedbed  which  is  necessary  for  reproduction. 

Injury  to  Old  Trees.  Ground  fires  frequently  pass  through  the  woods  in 
spring  and  by  the  middle  of  the  summer  the  woods  seem  to  have  recovered.  This 
is  not  the  case,  for  usually  large  trees,  which  seem  to  bave  bark  thick  enough  to 
withstand  the  small  amount  of  heat  of  a  ground  fire,  are  injured  in  a  manner  not 
at  once  visible  to  the  observer.  Tlio-  heat  from  a  ground  fire,  which  it  seems  is 
too  small  to  injure  a  tree  with  heavy  hark.  rrc(|ucntly  affects  the  tree  very  ser- 
iously.   The  injury  is  of  two  kinds. 

By  burning  ofE  the  humus  ami  h'tter  tlie  soil  is  loft  un])r()tected  so  that  it 
lacks  moisture  during  the  dry  season,  as  well  as  weakening  the  soil  in  regard  to 


8 

food   supply   for   the   trees.      Frequently   the   burning   kills    the   shallow   roots   or 
leaves  them  unprotected. 

The  living  tissue  beneath  the  bark  of  the  tree  close  to  the  ground  becomes 
so  heated  that  it  is  either  killed  or  partly  destroyed.  The  first  visible  effect  may 
be  seen  in  the  form  of  a  fungus  growth  about  the  base  of  the  tree.  This  parasitic 
fungus  gradually  weakens  tlie  tree,  making  it  subject  to  insect  pests,  and  finally 
causing  its  death,  but  the  real  and  first  cause  was  the  innocent  looking  ground 
fire. 

Stock  Grazing. 

Probably  one  of  the  most  serious  hindrances  to  the  proper  growth  and  de- 
velopment in  the  woodlot  has  been  caused  by  grazing.  There  were  many,  a  few 
years  ago,  who  claimed  that  grazing  did  not  injure  the  woodlot. 


..:.A2:r^-^  ■ . 


^:L'- 


•^r*. 


Fig.  4.— Showing  grazed  woodlot  on  the  left,  and  protected  woodlot  on  the  right. 

Experience  has  shown,  however,  that  in  the  Ontario  woodlot  grazing  must 
always  be  injurious.  Many  examples,  as  in  Fig  4,  miay  he  seen  in  Ontario  where 
the  comparison  of  grazed  and  ungrazed  woodlots  show  the  result.  While  the 
injury  is  admitted  by  many,  there  are  those  who  claim  that  the  woodlot  is  of  more 
value  in  protecting  the  cattle  during  the  heat  of  the  day  and  giving  them  pas- 
turage than  for  wood  producing  purposes.  It  is  very  difficult  to  compare  the 
rental  value  of  the  woodlot  used  for  purposes  of  pasturage  and  that  of  the  woodlot 
used  exclusively  for  wood  production.  One  thing  is  certain,  that  to  have  a  perma- 
nent woodlot,  where  conditions  are  favorable  for  tree  groAvth  the  stock  must  be 
excluded. 


Domestic  animals  are  frequently  classed  as  to  the  amount  of  injury  they 
inflict  on  the  woodlot.  From  the  standpoint  of  browsing  the  degree  of  injury  may 
be  placed  in  the  following  order:  Goats  and  sheep,  horses,  cattle,  swine,  the  first 
mentioned  being  the  most  injurious  and  the  last  being  least. 

Injurious  effects  of  allowing  stock  to  run  in  the  woodlot  may  be  discussed  in 
its  relation  to  the  soil,  the  reproduction  of  young  growth  and  the  older  trees. 

Soil.     While  the  effects  of  grazing  on  the  soil  miay  be  least  noticeable,  it  is 


Fig.  5. — Tops   of  trees   dying   from  effects   of   stock   grazing. 


very  important.  Destruction  of  young  growth  soon  opens  the  woodlot  to  drying 
winds  which  carry  off  the  humus-forming  leaves  and  greatly  lessen  the  moisture 
content  of  the  soil.  Light  begins  to  enter  and  xeach  the  ground,  causing  grass 
and  weeds  to  sitart  which  soon  develop  a  stiff  sod.  Trampling  of  the  soil  causes 
it  to  become  impervious,  thus  allowing  the  water  to  run  off'  rapidly  instead  of  being 
held  in  the  soil  as  is  the  case  in  normal  conditions.  After  these  unfavorable  con- 
ditions have  come  to  prevail,  the  tree  seeds  find  it  very  hard  to  germinate  and 
soon  there  is  no  reproduction  taking  place. 


10 

Young  Growth.  The  leaves  and  tender  branches  of  the  young  growth  in  the 
woodiot  are  eagerly  browsed  hy  the  animals.  Some  species  of  trees  are  less  liahle 
to  browsing  than  others.  The  Ironwood  seems  to  be  particularly  immune  from 
browsing,  so  that  in  many  Ontario  woodlots  that  have  been  grazed  the  larger 
percentage  of  the  young  growth  is  composed  of  Ironwood. 

Cattle  have  been  noticed  standing  in  good,  fresh  clover,  greedily  devouring 
the  leaves  from  limbs  of  Sugar  Maple  which  were  thrown  into  the  pasture.  Evi- 
dentl}^  they  enjoyed  a  change  in  diet. 

Old  Trees.  The  trampling  of  the  soil,  the  desti-uction  of  young  growth, 
which  should  protect  the  soil  from  sun  and  wind,  and  the  formation  of  an  im- 
pervious sod,  all  aid  in  lessening  the  vigor  of  growth  of  the  standing,  full  grown 
trees.  In  this  case  the  injurious  effects  are  scarcely  noticeahle  to  the  common 
observer  owing  to  his  lack  of  knowledge  as  to  what  healthy  tree  growth  actually 
means.  The  annual  amount  of  wood  production  is  fiar  below  what  it  should  be 
when  the  soil  conditions  are  in  an  abnormal  state  from  grazing. 

Many  woodlots  contain  trees  that  have  not  reached  maturity,  but  whose  tops 
are  dying.  Such  trees  are  spoken  of  as  being  stag-headed.  Stag-headedness  is 
caused  by  lack  of  nourishment  and  moisture  in  the  soil,  a  result  of  grazing. 

Weed  Trees. 

Many  woodlots  contain  a  large  percentage  of  weed  trees  or  inferior  species. 
Weed  trees  such  as  Ironwood,  Hawthorn,  and  Blue  Beech  have  gradually  taken 
possession  as  an  undergrowth. 

Everything  seems  to  favor  the  development  of  these  species.  In  cutting  opera- 
tions these  trees  are  seldom  disturbed.  The  stock  in  grazing  prefer  the  leaves  and 
branches  of  the  better  species,  thus  giving  these  weed  trees  another  advantage. 
The  seedlings  of  the  Ironwood  and  Blue  Beech  seem  very  hardy  and  vigorous  and 
can  stand  a  great  amount  of  shade,  so  that  they  get  an  early  start  in  the  struggle 
for  possession  of  the  soil.  When  once  the  Ironwood  has  obtained  a  footing  its 
dense  foliage  so  shades  the  ground  that  better  species  cannot  develop  beneath  it. 
In  many  woodlots  from  seventy-live  to  eighty  per  cent,  of  the  trees  under  three 
inches  are  made  up  of  Ironwood. 

Inferior  Species. 

The  question  of  the  inferiority  of  a  species  is  relative  and  depends  on  local 
conditions. 

Inferior  species,  as  Poplars  and  Slippery  or  Red  Elm,  are  often  growing  on 
soils  which  are  capable  of  producing  much  better  species.  Then  in  some  cases  the 
woodiot  has  gradually  become  filled  with  Sugar  Maple  when  it  might  be  wise  to 
introduce  other  species. 

Defective  and  Overmature  Trees. 

The  average  woodiot  contains  many  defective  and  overmature  trees.  The 
defective  trees  are  of  various  descriptions.  Trees  with  old  fire  scars,  trees  injured 
while  young  by  the  felling  of  neighboring  trees,  trees  wantonly  scarred  by  the  care- 
less blow  of  an  axe,  trees  broken  and  deformed  by  wind  or  snow,  are  all  forms 
which  should  gradually  be  removed.  Overmature  trees  frequently  show  a  tendency 
to  become  stag-headed,  and  if  left  standing  gradually  deteriorate  in  value.  Such 
trees  are  a  menace  to  the  surrounding  growth  and  frequently  in  felling  destroy 
more  than  their  own  value. 


11 


■■rsM- 


Improvement  Cutting. 

Cutting  operations  wliich  aim  to  overcome  the  above  defects,  namely,  weed 
trees,  inferior  species,  defective  and  overmature  trees,  are  spoken  of  as  ''  improve- 
ment cuttings." 

In  the  farm  woodlot  all  cutting  for  firewood  should  be  made  from  such  trees. 
It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  it  is  advisable  to  go  through  the  woods  and  cut 
down  all  the  above  mentioned  trees  without  regard  to  the  future  of  the  area  thus 
cut  over.     The  first  consideration  should  he  to  protect  the  soil,  that  is,  do  not  cut 


Fig.  6. — White  Pine,  planted  in  open  spot  in  tlie  woodlot. 

down  a  tree  or  a  group  of  trees  unless  you  are  certain  that  there  will  follow  an- 
other crop.  If  you  do  not  get  reproduction  the  following  season  it  is  almost  cer- 
tain that  grass  and  weeds  will  come  in  and  the  soil  will  soon  lose  its  valuable 
character  as  related  to  tree  growth.  Whether  you  can  depend  on  the  area  repro- 
ducing from  the  seed  of  neighboring  trees  or  whether  it  will  be  necessary  to  use 
artificial  means  can  only  be  judged  by  local  considerations. 

Thin  Borders  and  Open  Spots. 


The  borders  of  woodlots  become  thin  owing  to  various  factors.  This  outside 
portion  of  the  woods  is  more  subject  to  winds  and  storms  which  cause  windfalls, 
dry  out  the  soil  and  blow  away  the  leaves  which  should  go  to  form  vegetable  motild. 
Frequently  the  border  is  overcut,  as  the  owner  does  not  trouble  going  to  the  in- 


12 

terior  of  the  woods  for  his  fuel,  etc.  In  time  the  soil  deteriorates,  grass  and  weeds 
follow,  and  then  we  have  the  characteristic  border  which  is  neither  woodland  nor 
pasture. 

The  development  of  large  open  grassy  spots  in  the  woodlot  is  usually  due  to 
the  effects  of  grazing.  The  old  trees  have  been  taken  out  and  the  young  growth 
destroyed  by  the  stock  until  grass  has  taken  possession  and  formed  an  impervious 
sod  in  which  the  tree  seeds  find  it  impossible  to  develop. 

The  above  conditions  may  be  improved  in  the  case  of  the  thin  borders  by 
planting  evergreens  or  coniferous  trees  about  the  border  in  order  to  form  a  wind- 
break. Norway  Spruce  and  White  Pine  will  be  found  to  be  two  of  the  best  species 
for  this  purpose.  One  or  two  rows  of  White  Pine  planted  along  the  fences, 
especially  on  the  west  side  of  the  woods,  which  is  the  side  most  subject  to  winds 
in  Ontario,  would  make  a  sjDlendid  protection. 

Open  spots  in  the  woods  if  covered  with  grass  could  be  improved  by  roughly 
breaking  the  sod  and  allowing  the  seeds  to  reach  the  mineral  soil.  Such  break- 
ing can  be  done  with  a  disk-harrow  or  plow.  In  some  cases  where  there  is  no 
young  growth  to  injure,  it  may  be  advisable  to  turn  in  hogs  as  they  frequently 
make  a  good  seedbed  by  their  rooting  in  search  of  grubs,  seeds,  etc. 

These  measures  are  to  be  adopted  when  the  surrounding  trees  are  bearing 
seed.  If  there  is  little  chance  of  such  areas  being  seeded  from  neighboring  trees, 
or  if  the  owner  desires  to  introduce  better  species  into  his  woodlot,  he  may  resort 
to  planting. 

Planting  of  this  nature  may  be  done  by  using  the  young  plants  or  by  sowing 
seed.  With  the  exception  of  nut  trees,  it  will  be  advisable  to  use  i^lants  rather 
than  seed.  Methods  of  planting  the  woodlot  are  similar  to  the  methods  of  plant- 
ing described  elsewhere.  While  the  general  methods  are  similar,  there  are  many 
bare  spots  which  may  need  special  attention  owing  to  the  small  amount  of  light 
which  is  able  to  reach  the  ground.  When  l^reaking  the  sod  with  disk  or  plow  is 
impracticable  it  is  usually  possible  to  break  spots  about  twelve  to  fifteen  inches 
square  with  the  mattock.     In  these  spots  nuts  can  be  dibbled  or  plants  inserted. 

The  success  of  planting  and  the  vigor  of  growth  depends  on  the  question  of 
light  as  well  as  the  condition  of  the  soil.  In  general  the  locations  that  have 
enough  light  to  allow  a  development  of  grass  may  be  successfully  filled  with  young 
tree  growth. 

The  woodlot  should  have  a  definite  boundary  with  a  l)elt  of  evergreens  espe- 
cially on  the  side  from  which  the  prevailing  winds  come.  Too  many  woodlots 
have  no  definite  boundary,  but  are  surrounded  by  slash.  Keep  a  definite  boundary 
well  stodked  with  trees  and  soon  the  woodlot  will  have  every  acre  productive. 

Coppice. 

Coppice  is  a  form  of  growtb  in  tlie  woodlot  which  is  little  understood  by  the 
^average  owner.  Trees  are  reproduced  from  seed,  cuttings,  suckers  and  shoots. 
"Coppice  growth  originates  from  shoots  or  suckers  developing  from  the  stump  or 
root  collar  of  previous  trees.  The  new  shoots  depend  u]>on  the  root  system  of  the 
original  tree  for  nourishment.  In  Fig.  7,  one-year-old  shoots  may  be  seen  which 
have  developed  from  a  Chestnut  stump.  All  native  deciduous  or  hardwood  trees  have 
the  power  of  reproducing  in  thi^  wav,  especially  wliere  trees  are  cut  young  and 
at  the  proper  season.  Evergreens,  with  a  few  exceptions,  as  Arborvitse.  never  re- 
produce in  thi'5  way.     Certain    species,    as   Chestnut.  Basswood,   the   Oaks.   Elm, 


13 

t 

Poplar,  Birch  and  Soft  Maples  seem  to  develop  these  shoots  more  freely  and  vigor- 
ously than  other  species. 

In  many  woodlots,  especially  in  the  southern  part  of  the  Province,  a  large 
percentage  of  the  growth  is  of  this  nature  rather  than  of  seedling  origin.  Fig.  8 
shows  at  least  two  generations  of  coppice.  An  old  Chestnut  stump  aibout  three  feet  in 
diameter  has,  growing  from  its  base,  a  coppice  Chestnut  about  twenty-six  inches 
in  diameter,  and  from  this  is  growing  a  six-incii  Chestnut  which  is  the  third 
generation.  The  twenty-six  inch  tree  developed  from  the  root-system  of  the  old 
stump,  l)ut  in  time  produced  a  root  system  of  its  own  which  is  now  helping  to  sup- 
port the  six-inch  tree.  In  this  case  the  coppice  is  developing  before  the  parent 
tree  has  been  cut.  In  Fig.  7  the  coppice  probably  developed  after  cutting  of  the 
parent  tree. 


Fig.  7. — One  year  old  Chestnut  Coppice. 


To  obtain  good  tree  growth  of  coppice  after  cutting  certain  considerations 
must  bcigiven  attention. 

Age  of  Parent  Tree.  Coppice  from  overmature  trees  will  not  produce  strong 
growth,  ^s  the  old  roat  system  has  lost  its  vigor.  Coppice  loses  its  vigor  of  growth 
by  following  the  system  too  far,  the  tliird  and  fourth  generations  becoming  weak 
and  decrepit— -In  many  woodlots  dwarf(Ml  and  stunted  growth  exists  from  the 
above  causes.  .;  : 

Time  of  Ciiifing.     Coppice  is  best  produced  by  cutting  in  late  winter  or  early 
sj)ring.     Late  fall  or  early  winter  cutting  often  allows  frost  and  moisture  to  loosen 
the  bark.       The  coppice  shoots  originate  'benieath  this  outer  'bark,  and   if  it  is  de-- 
stroj'ed  there  is  small  clinnoc  of  shoots  developing. 

HeigliJ  of  Sfinii/i. — In  culling  with  a  view  of  obtaining  coppice,  the  stump- 
should  be  cut  as  closelv  to  tlic  uToiiinl  as  i)ossil)lo.     It   is  dc^ii-ablo  to  obtain  result- 


14 

ing  shoots  as  near  the  ground  as  possible.  Oopi^ice  which  originates  high  up  on 
the  stump  does  not  become  vigorous.  Frequently  we  find  trees  in  the  woodlot 
with  the  hase  partly  rotted,  and  such  trees  are  often  of  coppice  origin.  In  this 
case  the  shoots  developed  from  a  high  point  on  the  original  stump  with  the  result 
that  as  the  old  stump  decayed  the  new  coppice  growth  was  left  weakened  at  the 
point  of  contact. 


Fig.  8. — Three   generations  of  Chestnut  Coppice. 


Numher  of  Sprouts  on  Stuinp.  As  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  8,  a  great  many 
sprouts  may  develop  from  one  stump.  It  will  be  found  that  in  a  few  years  a  few 
of  these  will  outgrow  the  others.  Not  more  than  three  of  these  sprouts  should 
be  left  for  a  final  crop.  After  the  first  year  a  large  proportion  of  the  poorer  sprouts 
could  be  cut  out,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure  the  others.     In  another  year  or 


15 

two  the  rest  of  the  poorer  sprouts  should  be  taken  out,  leaving  two  or  three  of 
the  strongest.  Those  to  remain  should  be  chosen  with  regard  to  their  location 
on  the  stump,  having  thought  as  to  what  their  future  development  will  be. 

Frequency  of  Application.  As  was  pointed  out,  coppice  loses  its  vigor  of  re- 
producing after  a  few  cuttings.  When  two  or  three  generations  of  trees  of  cop- 
pice origin  have  been  taken  oif  it  is  advisable  to  endeavor  to  obtain  new  growth 
of  seedling  origin.  Nuts  may  be  dibbled  in  where  favorable  spots  can  be  found, 
or  planting  may  be  resorted  to  if  desired.  In  any  case  the  area  should  be  grad- 
ually restocked  with  trees  of  seedling  origin. 


Fig.  9." — Chestnut   Coppice,    five    years    old,    in    need    of   thinnint 


FOREST    TREE    PLANTING. 


Intkuduction. 

The  rapid  disappearance  of  the  forest  from  southern  Ontario  has  brought 
many  to  feel  the  advisability  of  reforestation.  In  the  days  when  the  for^t  was  an 
obstacle  to  agricultural  development  there  v\'ere  many  hillsides,  ridges  and  other 
forms  of  poor  soil  cleared,  which  would  have  been  better  left  under  forest  con- 
ditions. 

As  the  nature  of  forest  planting  becomes  better  understood  many  will  under- 
take this  work  who  at  present  are  deterred  by  the  fear  of  cost  or  lack  of  know- 
ledge. Many  confaise  forest  planting  with  park  or  orchard  planting,  and  do  not 
understand  how  plantations  can  be  made  within  reasonable  costs.  In  forest  plant- 
ing small  plants,  with  well  formed  roots  especially  adapted  for  transplanting,  are 
used,  and  the  operation  of  planting  is  much  more  simple  than  that  of  orchard 
planting.  The  following  pages  will  endeavor  to  describe  the  various  operations 
employed  in  forest  planting. 


16 

Time  of  Planting. 

The  transplanting  or  moving  of  a  plant  should  be  done  at  a  time  when  it  will 
least  interfere  with  its  growth.  If  the  transplanting  can  be  carried  on  without 
disturbing  the  soil  about  the  roots  and  without  subjecting  the  plant  in  its  new  sur- 
roundings to  adverse  conditions,  the  operation  might  be  performed  almost  any 
month  of  the  year. 

In  the  rough  operation  of  forest  planting  the  plant  must  be  handled  at  a 
season  when  it  is  in  a  dormant  condition.    For  the  climatic  conditions  of  southern 


Fig.  10  illustrates  a  plantation  of  Scotch  Pine  made  about  twenty-five  years  ago. 
This  was  a  gravelly  hillside  of  small  value  for  cultivation.  At  a  very  small  cost  it  was 
replanted,  and  to-day  is  a  valuable  asset  to  the  farm. 


Ontario,  the  early  spring  seems  to  be  the  most  suitable  season  for  this  work. 
The  end  of  April  to  the  end  of  May  will  in  general  be  the  safest  time,  in  spring, 
to  plant. 

Planting  of  evergreens  may  also  be  successfully  carried  on  between  the  mid- 
dle of  August  and  the  middle  of  September.  Where  there  is  no  winter  protection, 
and  the  young  plants  are  subject  to  the  sudden  changes,  without  a  snow  cover,  as 
often  happens  in  southern  Ontario,  fall  planting  may  receive  considerahle  injury. 

Transplanting  larger,  ornamental  evergreens  is  done  at  other  seasons  than 
those  mentioned  above,  but  this  form  of  planting  must  not  be  confused  with  forest 
planting. 

Material  foe  Planting. 

The  possibility  of  successful  forest  planting  at  a  low  cost  depends  largely 
upon  the  size  and  quality  of  the  plant  used  in  the  operation.  In  reforesting,  a 
small  plant  is  used  with  a  well  developed  root-system,  as  shown  in  Pig.  11. 

The  small  plant  can  be  producecl  at  a  low  cost,  and  it  can  be  placed  in  the 
ground  with  little  labor.     In  handling  and  transplanting  the  small  plant  there  is 


17 

little  injury  to  the  root-system,  so  that  it  has  better  chances  of  becoming  estab- 
lished than  a  larger  plant  or  tree. 

Care  of  Planting  Material  in  Handling. 

The  protection  of  the  plant,  from  the  time  it  leaves  the  nursery  until  it  is 
safely  placed  in  its  final  location,  is  very  important.  The  roots  of  trees  (espe- 
cially of  evergreens)  are  very  liable  to  injury  from  wind  and  sun  and  should  be 
protected  from  dryiiig  out. 


Fig.  11. — ^Common  size  of  evergreen  transplant  ready  for  final  planting.     Note  the- 
stocky  tops  and  fibrous  root-systems,  which  enable  the  plant  to  stand  adverse  conditions; 
White  Pine  on  the  left,  Scotch  Pine  on  right. 

When  nursery  stock  is  transferred  from  the  nursery  lines  direct  to  the  plant- 
ing area,  the  roots  can  be  protected  by  layering  in  wet  moss,  chaff,  or  by  the  use 
of  wet  burlap. 

Where  the  prospective  planter  receives  his  nursery  stock  from  a  distance  by 
freight  or  express,  it  should  not  be  left  lying  at  the  office  any  longer  than  possil)le. 
The  trees  should  be  unpacked  at  convenient  places  on  or  near  the  grouiui  to  be 
planted.  The  plants  are  usually  tied  in  bundles  of  25,  50  or  100.  In  taking  them 
out  the  roots  should  be  dipped  in  water,  the  bundles  opened  up,  and  then  "  heeled 
in,"  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  13.      If  possible  the    trees    should    be    "'Mieeled 


18 

gathers  in  the  sleeve  to  the  vanishing  point,  a  feat  of  no  mean  order.  Mrs.  A. 
does  not  api^rove  of  French  seams  in  shirt  waists  and  she  says  all  scams  to  look 
well  shonld  be  of  a  good  width,  an  inch  or  three-qnarters  of  an  inch  at  least. 

When  we  l)egan  the  skirts,  each  one  was  given  a  pattern  which  could  ije 
used  for  a  2,  3,  or  4:  piece  skirt,  and  we  used  this  pattern  with  a  panel  for  our 
separate  skirts,  and  are  using  it  again  as  a  3  or  4  piece  skii-t  in  the  one-piece 
dress.  We  were  given  very  clear  directions  for  cutting  the  jianel  and  had  no 
difficulty  in  doing  it  without  the  pattern.  When  basted  up  the  skirts  fitted  per- 
fectly. We  were  shown  how  to  pin  the  belt  on  and  how  to  get  tlie  length,  each 
member  of  the  class  doing  this  for  some  other  member.  Mrs.  A.  gathers  the 
edge  of  the  heui,  distributing  the  fulness  so  a-^  to  do  away  with  all  ])laits. 

The  kimona  waist  seemed  to  be  the  object  of  the  greatest  interest  and  many 
were  the  conversations  on  the  relative  merits  of  a  kimona  and  a  waist  of  the  set-in 
sleeve  variety.  We  were  given  no  pattern  for  the  kimona  waist,  but  ^[rs.  A's. 
instructions,  as  in  the  draughting  of  the  panel,  were  most  explicit  and  umler  her 
watchful  eye  there  were  no  mishaps.  The  little  3  inch  square  which  she  used  under 
the  arm  was  a  surprise  to  most  of  us,  and  being  placed  so  as  to  draw  on  the  bias 
will  prevent  tearing  which  has  always  been  a  serious  defect  in  the  kimona  waist. 
When  through  we  each  had  a  shirt  waist,  a  skirt,  a  one-piece  dress  and  perfect 
fitting  patterns  for  each  of  these,  which  we  shall  be  able  to  use  for  ourselves  with 
profit  and  pleasure;  for  surely  we  must  be  better  qualitied  after  our  course  with 
Mrs.  Altenburg  to  meet  the  difficulties  that  so  often  present  themselves  in  dress- 
making. 

Extract  from  Commuxic  atiox  Deceived  from  Miss  Frances  Bevax,  Axcaster. 

Our  Branch  his  just  finished  the  class  in  dressmaking  under  Mrs.  Altenburg, 
and  everyone  is  more  than  pleased  with  it. 

Each  woman  has  such  pretty  new  things  and  so  beautifully  made,  quite 
elaborate  silk  dresses  and  some  muslins,  but  one  and  all  are  satisfied,  with  the  one 
exception;  one  woman  who  made  a  print  dress  has  been  so  angry  with  herself  for 
not  making  up  better  stuff.  She  was  rather  skeptical  about  the  class  and  thought 
any  old  thing  would  do,  but  when  she  saw  the  lovely  dresses  of  the  others  she  wished 
she  had  something  better. 

The  class  has  done  the  Institute  a  world  of  good.  We  charged  each  non- 
member  25c.  extra,  so  they  should  become  members,  and  already  they  are  showing 
great  interest  in  the  work  of  tlie  W.  T..  and  attend  tiie  meetings. 


19 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

WOMEN'S  INSTITUTES 

Application  for  Special  Course  of  Lectures  1913-14 

Name  of  Institute    

Course  chosen  (Cooking,  Home  Nursing,  or  Sewing)    

(make  X  through  the  Course  chosen) 
Numher  who  have  definitely  promised  to  take  advantage  of  the  Course,  if  arranged 

for   

Number  of  additional  persons  who  will  probably  take  advantage  of  the  full  Course 


Probable  number  who  will  take  advantage  of  occasional  lectures 
Prospects  for  class  of  school  girls   


Place  where  regular  class  will  be  held   .  .  . 
Place  where  school  girls'  class  will  be  held 
Day  of  week  preferred 


Accommodation  for  board  and  lodging  for  demonstrator 


Time  chosen  for  Course,  October  6th  to  December  13th 

January  5tli  to  March  14th   . . 

March  16th  to  May  23rd 

(make  X  opposite  time  preferred) 
Remarks 


Branch  President 
Branch   Secretary 

Place   

Date 


Note This  form  to  be  filled  in  and  forwarded  to  the  District  Secretary  or  Geo  A  Putnam.  Su- 
perintendent of  Institutes.  Parliament  Buildings.  Toronto.  Ont.  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible 
If  application  is  sent  direct  to  the  Department,  the   District  Secretary  should  be  notified. 


20 

Where  hardwoods  as  White  Ash,  Ehn,  Maple,  Oak  and  Chestnut  are  being 
planted  upon  cultivated  soil  and  where  the  planting  material  is  cheap  and  the 
operation  can  be  done  at  a  low  cost,  it  will  pay  to  plant  even  as  close  as  4  x  4 
feet  apart  each  way,  so  that  soil  protection  may  be  obtained  as  early  as  possible. 

N"uniber  of  plants  required  to  plant  an  acre  in  squares : — 

3  ft.  X  3    ft 4,840  plants. 

4  ft.  X  4    ft 2,722       " 

5  ft.  X  5    ft 1,742       " 

6  ft.  X  6    ft 1,210       " 

The  area  may  be  planted  in  regular  lines  if  the  roughness  of  the  site  does  not 
prevent  it,  but  if  the  land  is  broken  by  stumps,  rocks,  etc.,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
distribute  the  plants  wherever  possible. 

The  more  regularly  the  planting  is  done  the  easier  it  will  be  to  find  and  pro- 
tect the  plant  and  to  replace  dead  plants  if  necessary.  The  following  diagrams 
illustrate  two  methods  of  regular  distribution  over  an  area,  although  in  ordinary 
planting  the  spacing  must  be  carried  out  in  a  rough  manner.  Alternate  distribu- 
tion takes  more  plants  for  an  acre,  but  gives  the  individual  plant  more  growing 
space. 


i 

Fig.  15. — Two   methods   of   spacing   plants — alternate   and   opposite. 
Pkepaeation  of  Soil  and  Methods  op  Planting. 


In  Ontario,  forest  planting  will  usually  be  done  on  soils  unfit  for  agriculture, 
where  it  will  be  impossible  to  cultivate.  Forest  planting  on  large  areas  as  a  purely 
commercial  proposition  would  likely  preclude  cultivation,  even  if  possible,  as  the 
initial  expenditures  in  this  work  must  be  kept  as  low  as  possible. 

Occasions  may  arise  when  cultivation  of  the  soil  will  be  advisable  where  finan- 
cial investment  is  not  the  chief  consideration,  and  where  the  equipment  and  work 
•tan  be  obtained  as  on  the  average  farm.  Where  cultivation  is  advisable  the  land 
should  be  fallowed  and  the  planting  may  be  done  similar  to  that  described  in  the 
following  pages. 

Planting  may  be  done  by  running  furrows  in  which  the  plants  should  be 
placed  before  the  soil  has  time  to  become  dry.  If  the  soil  is  so  loose  that  it  will 
not  "hold  up"  in  the  furrow,  allowing  the  roots  to  be  properly  placed,  then  the 
planting  may  be  done  as  in  Fig.  31. 

In  most  cases  cultivation  for  one  or  two  years  will  give  the  trees  such  a  start 
that  the  grass  and  weeds  will  not  afterwards  interfere  with  tlieir  development. 
Some  slow  growing  trees  may  need  cultivation  a  little  longer,  but  this  question 
must,  in  the  end,  be  judged  on  the  spot. 


21 


On  rough  land  or  soil  which  would  wash  if  cultivated,  planting  furrows  may 
be  run  out  as  shown  in  Figs.  16,  17. 

These  furrows  should  be  as  shallow  as  possible  so  that  the  roots  in  planting 
will  not  be  placed  below  the  good  soil.     The  plant  should  be  placed  near  the  heel 


Fig.  16. — Shallow    plow    furrows    for    forest    planting,    run    upon    sandy-loam    hillsides. 

of  the  furrow  as  shown  in  Fig.  17,  where  it  will  be  protected  for  a  while  against 
grass  and  will  receive  some  protection  from  Avind. 

In   cases  of  running  furrows   of  this   nature   on   a  hillside,   plowing  should 
commence  on  the  highest  point,  so  that  rolling  turf  will  not  interfere  with  the 


Fig.  17. — Shallow  planting  furrow,  showing  plants  placed  on  the  protected  side. 


operations.  Furrows  should  not  be  run  witli  the  slope  or  "up  and  down"  the  hill 
as  washing  might  occur.  If  cases  arise  where  this  cannot  be  avoided  it  would  be 
well  to  throw  pieces  of  turf  back  into  the  furrow  to  prevent  chances  of  washing. 


/w-Zv 


The  plants  should  be  transferred  from  the  spot  where  they  are  "  heeled  in  '^  or 
packed,  to  the  planting  hole  by  carrying  in  a  pail.  Usually  the  plants  are  small 
enough  so  that  100  or  200  can  be  carried  in  a  12-quart  pail  as  shown  in  Fig.  19. 


Fig.  18. — Furrow   on   liillside,   showing  plant   placed    in    good    soil    at    (a), 


Fig.   19. —  Showing   the   use   of   the   pail    in    carrying   plants    along   planting   line. 

This  pail  should  be  filled  with  enough  water  so  that  the  roots  will  be  well 
covered.  It  is  often  recommended  that  the  i-oots  should  be  puddled  before  plant- 
ing. The  writer  has  found  that  a  satisfactory  puddle  can  be  made  only  when 
dealing  with  a  heavy,  clay  soil.     Ordinary  soils,  common  to  forest  planting,  settle 


01 


to  the  bottom  of  the  pail  and  only  increase  its  weight.  Plants  should  be  trans- 
ferred direct  from  the  pail  to  the  planting  hole  and  not  dropped  ahead  of  the 
planter. 


Fig.  20. — Planting  on  loose,  sandy  soil  where  only  the  spade  is  needed,  and  where 
planting  gangs  of  two  prove  most  satisfactory.  One  man  opens  the  hole,  the  other 
places  the  plant  and  firms  the  soil  about  the  roots. 


^.    /'] 


■^/ 


i 


Pig.  21.— Planting  in  loose  soil. 


Planting  can  best  be  done  by  two  working  together,  one  preparing  th'^  plant- 
ing hole,  the  other  placing  the  plant  and  covering  it.  The  planting  hole  may  be 
made  in  several  ways,  depending  upon  the  hioseness  of  the  soil.  In  comparatively 
loose  soil  the  planting  hole  may  be  made  by  driving  in  the  spade  and  moving  it 


24 


backward  and  forward  as  shown  in  Fig.  21.  In  some  cases  there  is  danger  of  an 
air  space  being  left  at  the  lower  point  of  the  spade,  and  this  should  be  guarded 
against.  If  the  soil  is  very  loose  and  sandy,  the  plant  may  need  to  be  placed  in 
position  before  the  spade  is  removed  to  prevent  the  filling  up  of  the  planting- 
hole. 


1  % 


m 


/,"! 


/  'i 


ii\ 


Wif^^(tW&&M 


I  'I  / 


Fig.  22. —  (a)   Grub  hoe.     ib)    Planting  mattock-      (e)    Sod  removed  from  planting  hole. 

The  planting  hole  may  also  be  made  by  using  the  mattock  or  grub  hoe.  (Fig. 
22).  The  soil  is  loosened  with  one  of  these  tools  and  the  planting  hole  can  be 
made  with  the  broad  edge  of  tbe  tool. 


Fig.  23. —  Showing  use  of  mattock  in  planting  on   rough   ground   with  stiff  turf. 


If  it  is  desired  to  plant  in  rough  conditions  where  the  running  of  furrows  is 
impracticable,  other  methods  may  be  followed.  Where  there  exists  a  dense  turf 
in  stony  soils  the  mattock  or  grub  hoes  (Fig.  22),  may  be  of  great  service.  The 
sod  can  be  cut  off  with  the  grub  hoe  or  mattock  and  the  soil  loosened  with  a  pick, 
or  in  case  of  using  the  mattock  by  using  the  picklike  part  of  the  mattock.     In 


25 

very  rough  ijlanting  one  man  can  handle  the  mattock  and  prepare  the  phmting 
spot,  another  prepare  the  planting  hole  with  the  spade,  and  a  third  do  the  planting. 
Uowever,  no  definite  rules  can  be  laid  down,  and  the  arrangement  must  be  settled 
for  the  individual  case.  In  some  lands  it  might  take  two  men  with  mattocks  to 
prepare  ground  for  one  planter. 


4-   6 


Planting  of  Nuts. 

Species  which  have  seeds  and  seedlings  subject  to  man}^  dangers  if  sown  in 
rough,  wild  places  should  be  reproduced  by  using  the  nursery  plant. 

Many  of  the  nut  tree  species,  however,  can  best  be  propagated  by  planting 
the  nuts  in  final  position  rather  than  by  using  nursery  stock.  Nut  tree  seedlings 
are  generally  quite  hardy  after  germination,  making  it  quite  safe  to  plant  them 
in  rough  places. 

The  common  nut  trees  growing  in  Ontario  are  White  Oak,  Bur  Oak,  Red 
Oak,  Black  Oak,  Beech,  Chestnut,  Bitternut  Hickory,  Shagbark  Hickory,  Butter- 
nut, and  Black  Walnut.  Of  the  above 
species,  Eed  Oak  and  Chestnut  give  pro- 
raise  of  being  the  most  useful  and  prac- 
tical in  waste  lands,  especially  where 
the  soil  is  light  and  sandy.  Eed  Oak, 
White  Oak,  Chestnut,  Shagbark  Hick- 
ory, and  Black  Walnut  are  found  natur- 
ally in  loamy  soils.  Bur  Oak  and  Bit- 
ternut Hickory  are  found  in  the  heavier 
classes  of  soils. 

The  collecting  of  nut  seeds  need  not 
be  described,  as  everyone  has  had  some 
experience.  Care  should  be  had  not  to 
gather  such  nuts  as  Black  Walnuts  too 
green.  The  safest  time  to  collect  is  after 
the  nuts  have  naturally  fallen  to  the 
ground. 

White   Oak  acorns    in    the    southern 
part  of  the  Province  frequently  germin- 
ate  in   the   autumn    shortly   after   fall- 
ing.    Acorns  which  have  started  to  ger- 
minate  will  need   careful  treatment  in 
handling.      If   the  acorns   are  collected 
upon  falling  to  the  groimd  and  placed 
in  a  cool,  dry  place,  there  will  be  little 
danger  of  autumn  germination. 
Nuts  may  be  planted  in  the  autumn  or  stored  and  planted  in   the   spring. 
Autumn  planting  has  some  drawbacks.     The  edible  nuts  are  frequently  found  by 
squirrels  or  other  rodents  before  they  have  germinated.     In  wet  soils  and  cold, 
damp  seasons  the  nuts  may  lose  their  germinating  power  from  decay. 

The  care  and  storage  of  nuts  needs  some  attention.  The  nut  may  have  the 
husk  taken  off,  although  there  is  less  danger  of  drying  out  if  it  is  not  removed. 
Drying  out  is  the  greatest  danger  to  be  feared  after  nuts  have  been  collected.  In 
no  case  should  they  be  placed  in  artificially  heated  rooms.     After  collection  the 


Fig.  24. — Showing  root  develop- 
ment of  one  year  old  white  pine 
and  red  oak. 


26 

nuts  should  be  spread  out  in  some  dry,  cool  place  for  a  few  days  until  they  are 
well  matured.  Care  should  he  taken  both  in  storing  and  maturing  not  to  leave 
nuts  piled  so  deep  that  they  might  heat.  While  maturing  they  should  be  turned 
over  occasionally. 

Seed  may  be  stored  by  putting  them  on  a  well  drained  spot  and  covering 
them  with  leaves  or  hay  over  which  may  be  placed  a  light  covering  of  brush. 
Storing  in  a  pit,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25,  is  a  safe  method.  Layers  of  nuts  (a)  six  to 
ten  inches  deep  covered  with  leaves  or  small  twigs  (h)  and  topped  off  with  soil 
(c)  three  to  four  inches  in  depth,  provides  good  storage.  A  light  covering  of  brush 
or  hay  over  the  pit  will  prevent  washing  of  the  top  dressing  of  soil.  A  ditch  at  the 
side,  as  in  Fig  25,  (d),  will  give  drainage.  The  bottom  of  the  ditch  should  be 
well  below  the  general  level. 

Nuts  can  also  be  safely  stored  by  stratifying  them  in  sand.  Stratifying  seed 
is  done  by  making  a  layer  of  sand  and  then  a  layer  of  seed  mixed  with  sand.  This 
may  be  done  in  a  well  drained  trench  or  in  a  box.  In  the  case  of  storing  in  a  box 
the  box  should  be  covered  lightly  with  soil.  If  left  standing  unprotected  it  will 
dry  out  and  injure  the  seed. 


Fig.  25. — Cross  section  of  pit  for  storing  nuts. 


The  preparation  of  the  planting  area  will  be  similar  to  that  described  in 
previous  pages.  Where  planting  is  to  be  done  in  sod  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut 
away  a  square  of  sod,  as  in  Fig.  22.  Planting  the  nut  is  very  simple  and  may 
be  done  with  a  sharp-pointed  stick'  or  dibble.  With  this  instrument  a  hole  is  made 
in  the  planting  spot  and  the  nut  dropped  in.  In  loose  soils  the  nut  can  be  suffi- 
ciently covered  by  a  stamp  of  the  heel.  When  the  soil  is  heavy  it  may  be  necessary 
to  cover  the  nut  by  prodding  with  the  dibble.  The  nut  should  be  planted  deeper 
in  loose  than  in  heavy  soils.  The  depth  should  be  from  two  to  three  inches, 
depending  upon  the  looseness  of  the  soil. 

Bed  Oak  and  Black  Walnut  should  not  be  planted  alone  to  form  a  plantation. 
These  species  do  not  form  crown  cover  or  canopy  enough  to  protect  the  soil  and 
obtain  the  desirable  forest  soil  condition.  Mixtures  of  Eed  Oak  and  White  Pine 
will  probably  give  good  results,  although  our  lack  of  experience  with  native  species 
makes  it  difficult  to  advise  mixtures.  In  many  waste  lands  there  are  spots  in  which 
the  soil  is  better  than  that  of  the  general  area.  In  waste  sand  lands  there  are 
frequently  low  areas  where  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil  is  better  than  the 
average.  In  planting  such  lands  where  the  White  Pine  is  being  used  to  stock  the 
area,  these  spots  could  be  filled  with  Red  Oak. 


27 

Planting  ix  Swa:mp  ok  Marshy  Land. 

Frequently  there  exists  on  the  farm  a  portion  of  low  or  swamp  land  which 
has  been  cleared  of  trees,  but  which  cannot  be  drained  satisfactorily  for  cultiva- 
tion. 

Swamp  land  planting  presents  certain  difRculties  which  make  it  advisable  to 
give  definite  instruction  as  to  treatment.  When  continual  overflowing  exists  during 
spring  or  rainy  seasons,  little  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  practical  planting.  Before 
spending  time  or  money  in  swamp  planting  the  possibilities  of  future  drainage 
should  be  considered.  Many  swamp  soils,  when  drained,  will  become  valuable 
agricultural  lands.  In  exceptional  cases,  where  tree  growth  is  desired,  mounds  can 
be  thrown  up  on  which  lowland  species  can  be  planted. 

In  most  Ontario  types  of  swampland  there  exist  many  spots  which  are  higher 
and  better  drained  than   the  main   part   of  the  swamp.      On   such  spots,   in  the 


Fig.   26. — Proper  and   improper  methods   of  attaching   wire   fence   to  tree. 

natural  conditions  in  Ontario,  we  frequently  find  White  Pine  thriving  well.  The 
better  class  of  such  spots  may  be  planted  with  White  Pine,  White  Spruce,  Arbor- 
vit£e,  Wliite  Elm.  Eed  Maple  and  Silver  Maple.  The  poorer  parts  of  the  area  may 
be  stocked  by  using  cuttings  or  slips  of  Poplar  and  Willow. 


Planting  Clumps  for  Protection  of  Stock. 

On  stock  and  dairy  farms  clumps  of  trees  afford  valuable  in-otociion   during 
the  heat  of  the  day.    It  is  a  common  sight  to  see  animals  retreat  to  tlie  shelter  of 


28 


trees  which  may  happen  to  stand  in  the  fieUl.  In  permanent  pastures  and  even 
in  fields  occasionally  used  for  pasturage  small  clumps  of  trees  could  be  planted  in 
corners  on  waste  portions  of  the  field  if  any  existed.  It  would  l)e  necessary  to 
fence  in  such  planting  and  give  it  protection  till  the  trees  reached  a  size  of  three 
or  four  inches  in  diameter. 

Deciduous  trees  as  Box  Elder,  White  Elm,  or  Soft  Maples,  would  be  best 
suited  for  such  work.  Box  Elder  and  White  Elm  grow  fast,  develop  plenty  of 
shade,  and  stand  the  abuse  to  which  they  must  be  subjected  by  the  animals. 

PROTECTION  Belts. 

Belts  or  rows  of  trees  are  frequently  planted  for  protection  to  orchards,  fields 
or  buildings.  There  is  no  doubt  about  the  advantage  of  such  planting.  Stock  in 
protected  barns  will  need  less  feed.    Protected  houses  will  need  less  fuel.     Orchard 


Pig.  27. — Stock  protection  clump  of  White  Elm  and  Box  Elder  in  the  background. 

or  field  crops  benefit  by  having  prottection.  The  drying  winds  of  summer  do  less 
harm  where  tree  protection  exists.  Orchards  heavy  w^th  fruit  are  often  protected 
so  that  loss  from  wind-falls  and  broken  branches  is  lessened.  Protected  fields  of 
clover,  fall  wheat,  etc.,  hold  the  snow  longer  in  the  spring,  which  gives  protection 
from  frosts  and  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation. 

Throughout  the  Province  of  Ontario  the  prevailing  winds  are  westerly,  which 
should  be  taken  into  considera;tion  in  planting  shelter  belts.  That  is,  to  protect 
buildings  or  fields  it  is  wise  to  plant  on  west,  southwest  and  northwest  sides. 

The  most  satisfactory  protection  is  to  be  had  by  planting  evergreens,  as  Nor- 
way Spruce  or  native  White  Spruce.  These  evergreens  give  protection  both  sum- 
mer and  winter  by  forming  a  dense  growth  down  to  the  ground.  Arborvitse,  Hem- 
lock and  White  Pine  are  sometimes  used  in  such  planting,  but  the  spruces  are  the 
best. 

Where  one  row  of  Spruce  is  to  be  planted,  the  trees  should  be  spaced  from  six 
to  ten  feet  apart.  When  two  rows  is  desired  the  trees  should  be  eight  to  ten  feet 
apart  in  the  row  and  the  rows  eight  feet  apart.  The  trees  should  be  planted  alter- 
nately as  in  Fig.  15.  Where  trees  are  to  be  planted  as  a  protection  to  buildings, 
it  may  be  advisable  to  plant  a  mixture  of  evergreens  in  clumps  rather  than  a 
straight  row  of  Spruce.     This  would  require  more  space,  but  would  have  a  better 


29 

appearance.    In  such  planting  the  trees  should  not  be  planted  too  near  the  building, 
as  they  may  become  a  nuisance  when  full  grown. 

Planting  material  may  be  of  two  kinds.  Small  seedlings  from  ten  to  twelve 
inches  in  height,  costing  about  eight  dollars  per  tliousand,  or  transplants  which 
may  be  anywhere  from  ten  inches  to  several  feet  in  height,  costing  fifteen  dollars 
and  upwards  per  thousand.  If  the  prospective  planter  does  not  feel  like  paying 
prices  for  large  transplants  it  may  be  of  advantage  to  buy  the  small  seedling  or 
transplant  and  keep  it  a  year  or  so  in  the  garden  where  it  can  be  cultivated  till 
ready  for  final  planting.  Ten  to  twelve  inch  planits  can  be  put  in  the  garden  in 
rows  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  apart  and  ten  to  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
Planting  can  be  done  as  described  in  previous  pages. 


r 


*Av   ,'>■»'■»    ««^ 


X 


^i^  •  V        ■"  f. 


Fig.   28. — Protection  belt   sheltering   peach   orchard. 


Planting  Along  Permanent  Fences. 

The  question  of  securing  fence  posts  at  a  reasonable  rate  and  their  short 
life  after  being  placed  in  the  ground  is  a  problem  confronting  the  agriculturist  in 
Ontario.  One  solution  of  the  problem  may  be  found  in  planting!-  trees  along  per- 
manent fences.  In  a  short  time  it  will  be  possible  to  attaeli  Ibe  wires  to  these 
trees. 

The  trees  can  be  planted  every  sixteen  feet  or  even  every  eight  feet  as  the  owner 
desires.  Strong,  vigorous  plants  should  l)e  chosen  for  such  work,  and  in  case  of  using 
evergreens,  transplants  should  be  used  as  the  fence  lines  are  frequently  filled  with 
dense  grass  and  weeds  which  will  endanger  the  young  plant.  More  attention  can 
be  given  the  making  of  planting  holes  and  the  actual  planting  than  in  the  case 
of  waste  land  planting.  Where  a  rail  fence  now  exists  and  there  is  no  chance  to 
cultivate,  the  planting  hole  should  be  made  by  culling  away  a  large  sod  nl)ont  two 


30 

feet  square,  as  in  Fig.  22.  Ocasionally  it  may  be  practical  to  cultivate  a  strip 
four  to  six  feet  wide  along  a  fence  which  can  he  moved  a  few  feet  after  the  trees 
have  grown.  Preparation  of  this  strip  by  summer  fallowing  will  give  results  in 
future  tree  growth  which  will  repay  the  effort.  Whether  planting  is  done  in 
planting  holes  or  on  a  prepared  strip,  future  cultivation  will  give  best  results. 
This  cultivation  should  be  carried  on  for  two  years  at  least — longer  will  pay — until 
the  trees  have  become  well  established.  It  will  be  an  advantage  to  mulch  the  tree* 
with  grass  or  old  manure.  The  trees  should  be  inspected  during  the  summer  to 
see  that  weeds,  etc.,  do  not  overshadow  them.  In  case  the  owner  does  not  want 
large  trees  along  cultivated  fields,  the  firsf  planting  can  be  done  every  sixteen  feet 
and  a  few  years  later  trees  can  be  planted  between.  AYlien  the  first  trees  become 
too  large  they  can  be  cut  off  the  height  of  a  common  fence  post  and  later  the  fence 
can  be  attached  to  the  younger  generation  of  trees  as  the  older  ones  decay. 

The  choice  of  species  for  this  work  must  be  given  some  consideration.  The 
fastest  growing  species  will  be  Box  Elder,  Hardy  Catalpa,  and  Black  Locust.  In 
the  southern  portions  of  the  Province  and  in  the  best  classes  of  fresh,  moist  soils 
Hardy  Catalpa  may  prove  valuable  for  this  purpose.  Black  Locust  will  grow  on 
the  poorest  of  locations  and  will  be  of  more  general  value  than  Hardy  Catalpa. 
Sugar  Maple  may  be  employed  in  this  work,  although  the  growth  w^ill  be  slower 
than  the  preceding  species  and  it  requires  very  good  soil.  Some  may  desire  to  plant 
nut-producing  trees  so  that  a  return  may  be  had  from  nut  crops.  Black  Walnut. 
Shag-bark  Hickory,  and  Chestnut  would  be  the  most  valuable  in  this  case.  The 
Chestnut  would  grow  on  the  lighter  soils,  while  the  Black  Walnut  should  be  planted 
in  good,  rich  soil.  If  evergreens  are  desired.  ?^orway  Spruce,  White  Spruce,  Larch 
and  ArborvitiE  will  give  best  results.  The  Arborvitse  should  be  placed  in  moist  soil, 
while  Larch  will  stand  dry,  poor  locations. 

In  placing  wire  on  trees,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  tree  more  than 
necessary.  Fig.  26  shows  two  methods  common  in  Ontario.  Where  the  strip  of 
wood  is  used  in  which  to  place  staples,  the  tree  gradually  forces  the  strip  over  the 
head  of  the  nail  and  in  time  it  may  be  necessary  to  put  in  new  nails.  As  a  rule, 
large  bolts  or  heavy  spikes  are  used  to  fasten  this  strip  to  the  tree.  The  use  of 
such  large  fastenings  is  unnecessary  and  usually  a  much  smaller  nail  will  hold  just 
as  well.  For  an  inch  and  a  half  strip  two  and  a  half  inch  nails  are  sufficiently 
large. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  the  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture,  Toronto. 


Serial 
No.    Date. 

167 

Oct. 

1908 

168 

Oct. 

1908 

169 

Feb. 

1909 

170 

Mar. 

1909 

Title. 


Author, 


171    April     1909 


172  May  1909 

173  Oct.  1909 

174  Dec.  ~  1909 

175  Dec.  1909 

176  Dec.  1909 


177 

Dec. 

1909 

178 

Dec. 

1909 

179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206  Nov.  1912 

207  Dec.   1912 

208  Jan.   1913 

209  March  1913 


,,r.^  ,    r,  ,Tr  ,,       ,»  •  X         mi.  I  J-  W.  Mitchell. 

Mitchell-Walker  Moisture  Test  <  ^   q   talker. 

The  Perennial  Sow  Thistle  and  some  other 

Weed  Pests   J-  E.  Howltt. 

Legume  Bacteria:  Further  Studies  of  Nitro-  f  S.  F.  Edwards, 

gen  Accumulation  in  the  Leguminosse  . .  \  B.  Barlow. 

•»T-i.    1-    11  -rrr    n  m       4.    T,    ^.^■^  (  J-     W.    Mitchell. 

Mitchell-Walker  Test  Bottle   j  ^    q    Walker 

r  Insects  Affecting  Vegetables   C.  J.  S.  Bethune. 

1  Fungus  Diseases  Affecting  Vegetables   . . . .  |  j'  -yy    Ealtham, 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)    ...  Dairy  School. 

Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

Farm  Underdrainage:  Does  it  Pay? W.  H,  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   D-  H.  Jones. 

^  ._,.„-    ,  f  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  |  l.  Caesar. 

Character   and    Treatment   of    Swamp    or  j  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Muck   Soils    \  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario   Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Ex.  Stations. 

Flour  and  Breadmaking  |  ^  A^^Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care   Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit   Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making   Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey  

Little   Peach  Disease    L.  Caesar. 

Children:   Care  and  Training  J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth   L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)    J.  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (151  revised)    W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural  Co-operation  S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch. 

Insectides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised  |  ^  L^Fulm^r 

Tomatoes   ,  A.   G.   Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario '.  Morley  Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

Onions   A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices  L.   Meunier. 

J  Peach   Diseases    F.  M.  Clement. 

(  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario   L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revftt. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    .  .    ( 

Part  I.    Cheese-making  and  Butter-making  J  Staff  of  Dairy  School. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . .  1  Dairy  School. 

Part  IL     Dairying  on  the  Farm  I 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm .'  R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  /  i*  ?•  J*^*"®- 

\  T.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)    E.  J   Zavitz 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 


BULLETIN  210 


Strawberry  Culture 


AND 


The  Red  Raspberry 


By 

F.  M.  CLEMENT,  B.S.A. 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  MARCH.  1913 


BULLETIN  210J  [MARCH,  1913 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

.  FRUIT  BRANCH 

Strawberry  Culture 

F.  M.  Clement 

The  object  of  this  bulletin  is  not  to  attempt  any  technical  description  of  the 
strawberry  from  a  botanical  point  of  view,  or  discuss  methods  of  improvement  or 
selection,  but  to  sum  up  in  a  simple,  practical  manner  the  methods  of  culture  as 
practised  by  the  most  successful  growers  in  the  Province.  The  writer  has  had 
the  opportunity  of  not  only  gromng  strawberries  commercially  and  observing  the 
methods  practised  on  the  nearby  farms,  but  has  visited  the  sections  of  the  Pro- 
vince that  have,  an  established  reputation  and  observed  the  methods  practised  there. 

The  strawberry,  unlike  our  tree  fruits,  is  not  limited  to  any  narrow  range 
of  territory,  but  is  found  both  growing  wild  and  in  the  gardens  in  the  coldest  and 
warmes't  parts  of  the  Province.  The  comparative  ease  with  which  the  plant  is 
cultivated,  and  the  high  quality  of  the  fruit,  both  for  canning  and  dessert,  make 
it  a  general  favorite  No  kitchen  garden  is  complete  without  its  few  rows.  It  is 
the  first  fruit  to  ripen  in  the  spring,  and  just  at  a  time  when  fresh  fruit  is  most 
relished.  The  season  opens  about  the  middle  of  June,  with  the  earliest  varieties 
and  continues  from  four  to  six  weeks,  depending  on  the  weather,  and  especially 
the  rainfall.  But  while  it  is  grown  everywhere  for  home  use,  it  is  the  commercial 
side  that  we  are  lat  present  most  interested  in,  because  the  methods  in  vogue  in  the 
commercial  plantings  can  readily  be  copied  into  the  gardens.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  commercial  plantation  is  no  place  for  the  fads  of  some  small  gardeners.  In 
some  few  sections  of  the  Province  a  number  of  growers  have  given  intensive  cultiva- 
tion their  careful  attention,  and  years  of  successful  experience  have  put  them  in 
the  foremost  rank  as  specialists  in  their  line.  It  is  to  these  men  that  we  must 
look  for  the  newest  ideas,  and  it  is  to  them  that  the  writer  extends  his  sincerest 
thanks  for  the  valuable  assistance  given  him  at  different  times.  Also  in  some  few 
instances  the  writer  has  copied  paragraphs  from  other  bulletins,  because  his  own 
experience  and  observation's  did  not  cover  the  point  in  question,  but  in  every  case 
credit  has  been  given  to  the  author. 

Location  and  Soil. — Almost  any  location  on  the  farm  will  do  for  straw- 
l)erries,  provided  the  soil  is  suitable.  A  warm  southern  slope  is,  however,  to  be 
preferred  for  early  fruit,  if  it  is  sufficiently  protected  (perhaps  I  should  say 
exposed)  to  be  free  from  eiarly  spring  frosts  or  frosts  during  the  blossoming  season. 
The  blossoming  season  is,  liowever,  to  some  extent  at  least,  under  the  control  of 
the  grower,  as  it  may  be  delayed  for  a  few  days  or  a  week  by  not  removing  the 
winter  mulch  from  the  rows  until  growth  has  started,  or  until  the  plants  begin  to 
suffer  from  the  cover.  A  warm  southern  slope  is  on  the  other  hand  not  conducive 
to  the  greatest  quantity  because  of  the  \\'arm  winds  and  drying  sun  during  the 


picking  season.     If,  however,  the  soil  is  fairly  retentive  of  moisture  there  is  no 
serious  objection  to  such  a  slope. 

The  soil  factor  is  decidedly  important,  because,  while  the  berry  is  grown  on 
a  great  variety  of  soils,  from  the  lightest  sau'de  to  the  heaviest  clays,  it  naturally 
prefers  a  deep,  warm  sand  loam,  that  is  retentive  of  moisture.  Whether  such  a 
soil  can  he  miade  too  rich  or  not  is  a  disputed  point.  The  writer  does  not  believe 
it-  can,  provided  the  cultural  methods  are  intensive,  and  especially  where  straw- 
berries are  grown  as  a  regular  crop  and  have  a  place  in  the  rotation.  But  the 
fertilizers  applied  must  be  balanced.  At  the  same  time,  while  maximum  crops 
might  be  expected  under  such  ideal  conditions  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  other 


The  Type  of  Plant  Necessary  for  a  Large  Yield. 


soils  will  not  produce  profitably.  Even  a  light  sand  may  be  made  to  yield  good 
returns  by  the  application  of  large  quantities  of  farmyard  manure.  The  problem 
is  as  mucii  one  of  moisture  retention  as  of  fertility.  Fiarmyard  manure  and  com- 
mercial fertilizers  may  be  applied  in  large  quantities,  at  the  Avill  of  the  grower, 
but  for  the  water  supply,  except  where  irrigation  plants  have  been  installed,  we 
are  entirely  dependent  on  nature.  The  same  facts  apply  to  a  olay  soil,  except 
that  when  intelligent  cultural  methods  are  exercised,  commercial  fertilizers  are 
not  required  to  such  a  large  extent.  Farmyard  manure,  however,  instead  of  tending 
to  make  the  clay  hea\'ier  as  it  does  the  sand,  makes  it  lighter  and  easier  to  cultivate 
and  in  this  way  more  retentive  of  moistuTe.     Very  heavy  applications  of  farmyard 


manure  are  someitimes  desirable  on  both  sand  and  clay,  thirty  to  forty  tons  per 
acre  not  being  considered  too  heavy. 

While  plenty  of  moisture  is  very  desirable,  standing  water  is  very  harmful. 
Strawberry  plants  are  always  weakened  by  being  under  water,  even  for  a  few 
hours,  and  m'any  times  they  do  not  survive  the  shock.  A  water-logged  or  puddled 
soil  is  not  desirable  for  the  same  reason  that  it  is  not  desirable  for  other  plants. 

In  the  experience  of  the  writer  the  fruit  from  the  clay  sioils  is  sweetest,  but 
comiparatively  smaller  tban  the  fruit  from  tbe  lighter  soils.  Generally  also  the 
picking  season  is  about  one  week  shorter. 

Underdraimage  will  improve  most  soils  for  the  production  of  strawberries 
and  especially  clay  soils  that  are  inclined  to  puddle. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Begin  to  prepare  the  land  at  least  one  year 
previous  to  planting.  If  the  field  is  in  sod  fall  plow  and  grow  a  crop  of  corn, 
potatoes  or  roots.  A  heavy  applioation  of  farmyard  manure  may  be  applied  for 
this  crop,  because  then  an  opportunity  is  afforded  to  free  the  soil  from  any  weed 
seeds  th'at  miay  be  added  with  the  manure.  Fall  plow  again,  and  if  a  second 
dressing  of  manure  is  to  he  applied,  let  it  be  either  in  late  fall  or  in  ^vinter.  The 
manure  wnll  then  work  into  the  soil  much  better.  Any  manure  that  is  applied 
when  the  field  is  being  prepared  for  the  plants  in  the  spring  should  be  well 
rotied,  because  strawy  manure  tends  to  loosen  and  dry  out  the  soil,  especially  if 
the  season  is  unfavorable.  In  most  cases  it  is  not  advisable  to  use  a  sod  at  all, 
especially  if  it  is  inclined  to  be  tough  from  age.  Strawberries,  like  other  crops, 
should  1)0  in  a  regular  place  in  a  rotation.  The  grower  then  knows  what  is  com- 
ing and  begins  to  prepare  the  ground  much  in  advance  of  the  crop.  A  good  one 
year  clover  sod  is  the  choice  next  to  a  well-manured  piece  of  land  that  has  been 
under  cultivation  several  years.  This  should  be  fall  plowed  and  manured  in  the 
winter.  The  only  serious  objection  lies  in  the  fact  that  such  lands  are  often 
infested  with  White  Grubs.  A  two-year  sod  or  older  is  even  less  desirable  than  a 
one  year. 

Bone  meaj,  muriate  of  potash  or  wood  ashes  may  be  added  with  the  final 
cultivation  before  planting.  Cultivate  thoroughly  about  two  and  a  half  or  three 
inches  deep  so  that  all  manure  is  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil.  The  soil 
cannot  be  in  too  fine  tilth  for  the  plants.  Land  that  is  infested  with  couch  grass, 
chickweed  or  any  other  serious  pes(t  should  not  be  used. 

Marking.- — The  marking  out  of  the  field  is  accoanplished  in  various  ways 
as  the  marking  depends  on  the  manner  in  which  the  plants  are  to  be  set.  The  old 
way  of  plowing  a  furrow,  spreading  the  roots  of  the  plants  on  the  bottom  or  against 
the  side  of  the  furrow  and  covering  by  hand  is  no  longer  largely  practised  by  the 
best  growers.  A  field  marker,  such  as  is  used  for  corn,  but  set  the  proper  ^vidth, 
is  the  quickest  way.  There  is  no  necessity  of  marking  deeply.  If  the  soil  is 
somewhat  dry  on  top  rolling  ahead  of  the  marker  with  a  land  roller  will  tend 
to  bring  the  moisture  to  the  surface  and  fewer  plants  will  be  lost  if  set  in  moist 
soil.  Do  not  roll  a  clay  that  is  likely  to  pack.  The  cultivator  must,  however,  follow 
the  planting  as  soon  as  possible,  and  as  close  to  the  plants  as  posisible,  without 
covering,  to  check  evaporation. 

The  distance  of  planting  varies  all  the  way  from  tliree  to  four  feet  between 
the  rows.  At  four  feet  apart  the  plants  are  set  from  fifteen  to  twenty-four  inches 
apart  in  the  rows;  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  is  a  good  average.  With  three  feet 
between  the  rows,  the  plants  are  set  from  two  to  three  feet  ar[:)art  in  the  rows. 
This  latter  distance  has  the  advantage  of  making  a  large  number  of  comparatively 
narrow  rows,  when  the  plants  have  ceased  running,  instead  of  fewer  comparatively 


wide  rows.  Eighteen  or  twenty  inches  between  the  rows  is  plenty  space  for  the 
pickers  to  work,  and  in  the  matted  row  system  the  best  berries  are  usually  found 
on  the  outside  of  the  rows.  Then  why  not  grow  as  many  narrow  rows  as  possible? 
The  plants  may  be  set  in  rows  both  ways.  Tliis  has  the  distinct  advantage 
of  permitting  of  cultivation,  both  ways  until  the  plants  begin  to  run.  Time  is 
saved  in  hoeing,  of  course,  but  an  objection  is  found  in  the  fact  that  if  a  plant 
does  not  grow,  too  great  a  distance  is  left  to  be  filled  in  by  runners  from  the 
nearest  plants.  All  vaoancies  must  consequently  be  filled  as  they  occur.  The 
greater  distances  apart  of  planting  are  gradually  losing  ground  in  favor  of  a 
medium  distance  of  about  forty  inches  between  the  rows  by  twenty-four  to  thirty 
inches  in  the  row. 


Hill  System. 

Choice  of  Plants. — Plant  only  the  best.  Many  growers  are  still  making  the 
mistake  of  setting  plants  from  the  edge  of  the  now.  In  this  way  they  unconsciously 
■select  the  last  runners  that  were  formed  the  previous  year,  most  of  which,  because 
of  their  lateness  in  forming,  have  not  yet  developed  strong  root  systems.  Such 
nmners  can  not  be  expected  to  make  first  elass  parent  plants.  It  is  much  to  be 
preferred  to  dig  up  all  the  row,  the  best  row  in  the  patch,  and  select  from  this  only 
the  best  plants,  those  with  large,  white,  healthy  roots.  Do  not  set  the  old  black 
rooted  parent  plant  or  any  plant  tbat  has  been  weakened  ]>y  disease,  frost  or 
water.     The  poorer  plants  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  the  dark  and  discolored 

roots. 

The  strength,  heallth  and  vigor  of  the  plants  may  be  improved  by  setting  aside 
a  row  or  two  of  selected  plants  to  be  saved  for  planting  the  following  year.  In 
these  rows  space  the  runners  carefully;  allowing  from  four  to  six  inelies  square 
to  each  plant.  This  will  permit  of  a  strong  uniform  development  of  crown  and 
root.     There  is  just  as  much  individuality  in  the  strawberry  as  in  ilie  apple. 


Ill  some  cases,  however,  it  is  not  possible,  for  the  grower  to  raise  his  own 
plants,  and  consequently  he  may  have  to  purchase  from  a  distance.  Also 
new  varieties  are  often  shipped  from  a  distance.  For  the  information  of  those 
who  may  ha^•e  to  make  such  purchases  I  quote  the  following  from  W.  'T.  Macoun, 
^'  Small  Fruit  Culture,"  Central  Experimental  Farm,  page  5 : 

"  If  the  plants  for  setting  out  are  obtained  from  a  distance,  they  should  be  ordered 
to  arrive  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible  after  the  soil  can  be  worked,  and  planted  soon 
after  their  arrival.  It  is  often,  however,  not  convenient  to  plant  at  once;  but  in  any 
case,  the  parcel  containing  the  plants  should  be  opened  up  when  it  arrives,  otherwise 
they  are  liable  to  heat  or  dry  out,  either  one  of  which  conditions  should  be  avoided  if 
possible.  The  plants  should  now  be  heeled  in  in  some  place  where  the  soil  is  well  drained. 
Open  a  trench  sufficiently  deep  to  cover  the  strawberries  well,  and  so  that  the  crown 
will  be  just  above  the  ground.  Now  place  the  plants  close  together,  but  in  a  single  row 
in  the  trench.  Another  trench  is  now  opened  parallel  with  the  first  and  about  six  inches 
from  it,    using  the  soil  to  cover  the  roots  of  the  plants  in  the  first  trench.    The  soil  should 


Narrow  Matted  Row  System. 


be  firmly  packed  or  tramped  against  the  roots  so  that  the  moisture  will  come  into  close 
contact  with  them.  If  loosely  heeled  in,  they  are  very  likely  to  dry  out  and  the  plants 
die.  Other  trenches  should  be  dug  parallel  with  the  first  two,  if  needed.  By  the  time 
the  field  is  ready  for  planting  these  heeled-in  plants  will  have  made  new  roots,  and  be 
in  better  condition  for  planting  than  if  they  had  been  set  out  at  once." 

Setting  the  Plants.— Tiro  plants  may  be  .^^et  in  either  spring  or  fall,  but 
usually  nothing  is  gained  by  fall  planting.  Unless  the  plants  become  Avell  estab- 
lished and  nuake  .some  growth  there  is  a  po.«sibility  that  a  large  share  of  them  will 
not  survive  the  winter.  Spring  is  the  recognized  time.  As  soon  as  the  plant? 
ha^•e  developed  tvvo  or  three  sets  of  leaves  they  shonld  be  carefully  dug  with  a 
fork,  pruned,  and  set  at  once.  Do  not  allow  thicm  to  ^\Ti'lt.  If  the  day  is  very 
drying  cover  them  carefully  vrith  a  sack  or  cloth  as  they  are  packed  into  the 
planting  liasket.     Sometimes  the  plants  develop  too  much  top  before  the  grower 


is  ready  to  transplant,  in  which  case  it  is  well  to  remove  all  but  two  sets  of  leaves. 
Many  ga-owers  do  not  pnine  the  roots  at  all,  but  growth  starts  quicker  if  they 
are  cut  back  from  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  total  length.  A  safe  rule  to 
follow  when  transplanting  any  phmt  is  to  leave  as  mnch  root  and  as  little  top  as 
can  be  done  consistently. 

Two  men  or  a  man  and  a  boy  are  employed  in  each  gang  to  set  the  plants 
and  they  may  use  either  a  spade,  trowel  or  dibble.  The  spade  seems  to  be  the 
most  popular  tool,  though  the  dibble  is  used  a  great  deal.  The  man  with  the 
spade  wailks  backward  following  the  marks  and  makes  a  three  cornered  hole  by 
pushing  the  spade  into  the  ground  with  the  left  foot,  about  three  or  four  inches, 
shoving  it  slightly  from  him  and  then  with  his  foot  still  holding  one  side  of  the 
spade  pulling  the  top  toward  him.     This  makes  a  three  cornered  hole  into  which 


1/. 


M-. 


*•  -^w 

'%^*^ 


The  Wide  Matted  Row  System  Before  Picking  Time. 


the  boy  places  the  plant,  holding  it  firmly  until  the  spade  is  removed.  The  foot 
is  then  used  to  pack  the  earth  firmly  around  the  plant.  The  boy  is  expected  to 
place  the  plant  at  the  proper  depth  and  hold  it  in  place  until  the  soil  is  firmed. 
This  method  is  much  superior  to  working  the  spade  backward  and  forward,  as 
it  does  not  pack  the  sides  of  the  hole  or  leave  an  open  space  below  the  plant. 
Also  with  a  little  practice  it  is  much  quicker.  Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
injure  or  cover  the  crown  of  the  plant  when  tramping.  Also  care  must  be  taken 
not  to  plant  too  deep  or  too  shallow.  The  crown  should  be  even  with  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 

The  dibble  is  used  in  a  similar  way.  It  is  a  wedge  shaped  piece  of  wood 
about  six  inches  long,  which  is  pressed  into  the  earth  by  the  foot.  It  should  be 
shod  with  a  thin  piece  of  iron  or  steel. 

A  surer  way  of  securing  a  stand,  especially  if  the  soil  is  dry  and  the  weather 
is  unfavorable,  is  to  use  a  trowel  as  mentioned  above.     The  roots  are  then  spread 


at  a  depth  where  there  is  moisture  and  covered  carefully.    The  method,  though,  is 
very  slow,  and  is  not  advised  where  conditions  are  at  all  favomble  to  growth. 

A  planting  machine,  such  as  is  used     for  cabbage  and  tobacco  in  some  parts 


Planted  too  Shallow. 


Planted  Proper  Depth. 


Planted  too  Deeply 

of  the  Province,  might  be  used  where  very  large  areas  are  planted,  but  so  far, 
to  the  knowledge  of  the  writer,  it  has  not  proved  entirely  satisfactory. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  must  be  thorough  and  continuous.      It  should  be 
begun  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  set  and  continued  till  early  fall  or  later   if  weeds 


Strawberry   PlantinK:. 

start.  The  coming  crop  of  fruit  depends  on  the  vigorousness  of  the  parent  plants. 
Early  cultivation  should  lie  quite  deep,  l)ut  lessening  as  the  season  admnces,  as 
soil  dries  to  the  depth  of  cultivation,  and  runners  do  uot  set  well  when  too  far 
from  moisture.  They  will  scarcely  root  at  all  during  a  very  dry  time.  Care  must 
be  taken  also  not  to  allow  the  cultivator  to  injure  the  roots  of  the  parent  plants, 
from  too  close  deep  cultivation:  it  is  better  when  using  unskilled  labor   to  keep 


some  distance  from  the  plants  and  then  loosen  the  snrface  soil  close  to  them  with 
a  hoe.  Hoeing  should  be  thorough  and  regular,  because  if  weeds  once  get  a  start 
among  the  new  plants  and  runners  the  labor  is  much  increased. 

A  careful  man  with  the  hoe  can  do  much  toward  increasing  the  CTop.  Every 
new  plant  formed  by  the  runner  should  have  a  space  of  at  least  four  or  five 
inches  square,  and  while  it  is  not  practicable  to  space  the  runners  by  hand  the 
man  with  the  hoe  can  do  mucli  to  prevent  crowding.  If  a  runner  is  placed  where 
wanted  and  a  little  earth  put  on  it.  leaving  the  terminal  bnd  free,  it  will  take 
root  and  grow  where  covered.  Many  growers  make  the  mistake  of  conserving  all 
the  runners  no  matter  how  great  in  number  they  may  l>e.  This,  of  course,  is 
advisable  where  they  are  not  of  sufficient  number  to  make  a  matted  row,  but 
if  new  plants  average,  as  stated  previously,  one  to  al^out  four  or  five  inches  square 
there  is  nothing  'lost  and  sometimes  much  gained  by  cutting  out  the  surplus. 

The  following  quotation  is  taken  from  the  Department  of  Pomology  report, 
in  the  Eeport  of  the  Ontario  x4.gricultural  College  for  1910,  and  shows  quite 
conclusively  the  value  of  the  careful  spacing  of  the  runners;  if  one  year's  experi- 
ments as  here  quoted  can  be  accepted  as  conckisive. 

The  following  table  shows  results  secured  in  spacing  strawberry  runners  by 
hand  instead  of  allowing  them  to  find  their  places  naturally: — 

Bow  Xo.  1.  Row  Xo.  2. 

Runners  hand-layered:  Runners  layered  natui'ally 

29  lbs.  3^4   ozs.  U  lbs.  1134  ozs. 

"The  figures  given  represent  the  yields  for  thirty  feet  of  measured  row.  Plants  were 
set  at  eighteen  inches  in  the  row,  with  rows  four  feet  apart.  Runners  were  spa'jed  to  six 
inches  in  the  case  of  Row  No.  1,  and  evenly  distributed  around  the  parent  plant  to  a  total 
width  of  fifteen  inches.  A  large  number  of  surplus  runners  were  removed  entirely. 
Row.  No.  2  was  somewhat  wider  than  Row  No.  1  and,  of  course,  contained  a  much  larger 
number  of  plants. 

"It  will  be  noted  that  these  yields  are  at  the  rate  of  10,600  pounds  of  fruit  per  acre 
from  the  plants  spaced  by  hand,  and  5,348  pounds  per  acre  from  those  which  were 
allowed  to  form  runners  without  interference — a  difference  of  .5,242  pounds  per  acre  in 
favor  of  the  former.  The  variety  was  Parson's  Beauty.  The  specific  reason  for  the  great 
difference  in  the  yields  lies,  no  doubt,  in  the  fact  that  the  season  was  particularly  dry, 
and  the  conclusion  to  be  drawn  is  that  crowded  plants  suffer  much  more  under  such 
conditions  than  those  not  crowded.  In  order  to  prepare  for  seasons  like  1910,  it  would 
most  certainly  pay  to  take  the  extra  time  necessary  in  preventing  over-crowding  of 
plants  in  the  row." 

The  man  witli  the  hoe  is  also  expected,  in  the  new  j^lanting.  to  carefully  pinch 
off  all  bUossoms  as  they  appear  at  the  beginning  O'f  the  season.  A  plant  cannot 
produce  both  fruit  and  runners  well,  and  just  at  this  time  it  is  well  to  conserve 
all  energies  for  the  production  of  plants. 

When  cultivating  it  is  good  practice  to  always  culti'^iate  the  same  way  on 
each  row,  or  the  same  way  on  either  side  of  the  row  at  each  cultivation.  By  taking 
this  precaution  many  runners  are  not  disturbed  that  otherwise  would  be. 

All  surplus  runners'  that  extend  beyond  the  required  width  of  row  should 
be  removed  either  by  hand  or  with  the  cultivator. 

Matted  Row  or  Hill  System. — The  matted  row  is  the  system  followed 
in  all  the  large  commercial  plantings,  because  it  has  the  distinct  advantage  of 
producing  large  quantities.  It  has  been  argued  that  l)erries  of  largest  size  and 
highest  quality  cannot  be  produced  in  this  way,  which  may  or  may  not  be  true; 
good  fruit  is,  nevertheless,  produced.  In  the  hill  system  the  plants  are  set  twelve 
to  fifteen  inches  apart  in  the  row  and  from  twenty-four  to  thirty  inches  apart 
between  the  rows,  and  all  runners,  as  well  as  all  blossoms  are  pinched  off  as  soon 


9 

as  they  form  the  first  year.  This  permits  of  marked  development  of  tlie  parent 
plants  and  the  forming  of  a  large  crown  or  a  number  of  crowns  and  when  blossom- 
ing time  comes  instead  of  one  or  two  average  flower  stems,  as  from  each  plant 
formed  from  runners  in  the  matted  row,  we  have  a  number  of  strong  flower  stems 
from  one  pLant  whose  energies  have  been  conserved  for  this  purpose  alone.  In 
this  way  we  get  a  large  hevry  of  excellent  quality,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  tlie  quantity 
])rodueed  on  an  average  is  equal  to  that  of  tlie  matted  row.  However,  in  the 
home  garden  or  where  there  is  a  special  trade  at  a  remunerative  price,  the  practice 
of  hilling  is  not  to  be  discouraged.  The  extra  labor  entailed  of  keeping  the  plants 
within  bounds  makes  the  system  impractical  in  the  average  commercial  plantation. 
Another  disadvantage  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  loss  of  a  single  plant  from  grubs, 
ice,  water,  etc.,  leaves  a  large  space  in  the  row  from  which  no  returns  can  be 
obtained.  The  individual  plants  also  sutfor  more  in  di'v  weather  because  of  the 
less  protection  to  the  crow.ns. 

The  following  systems  of  forming  the  rows  are  copied  from  "  Small  Fruit 
Culture,"  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Maeouii.  They  are  not  practical  in  extensive  commercial 
plantings,  l)ut  are  of  value  in  the  home  garden  or  when  producing  fruit  for  a 
special  trade. 

"  The  so-called  single  hedge  and  double  hedge  row  systems  are  merely  modifications 
of  the  matted  row.  The  runners,  instead  of  being  allowed  to  form  indiscriminately,  are 
most  of  them  removed  and  the  rest  placed  where  it  is  desired  for  them  to  grow.  In  the 
single  hedge  row  system,  two  to  four  runners  are  left  on,  and  these  are  placed  in  line 
with  the  row  on  each  side  of  the  parent  plant. 

"  When  grown  in  this  way  the  rows  are  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet  apart  and 
the  original  plants  about  two  feet  or  more  apart  in  the  rows.  When  the  row  is  formed 
the  plants  are  six  to  eight  inches  apart  in  a  single  row. 

"  In  the  double  row  system,  six  runners  are  left  to  each  plant  in  the  row  and  two 
on  each  side  of  the  original  row,  all  about  equal  distances  apart.  Trained  in  this  way, 
the  original  rows  should  be  about  three  feet  apart  and  the  plants  two  feet  or  more 
in  the  row." 

WiXTER  Protection  and  Mulcitixg. — If  the  soil  is  at  all  inclined  to  be  wet, 
or  subject  to  standing  water,  furrows  should  be  opened  here  and  there.  Even  on 
tiled  land  and  land  with  an  open  subsoil  this  is  good  practice.  Oftentimes  dur- 
ing a  tliaw  in  winter  water  collects  in  Low  places  and  unless  the  furrows  are  opened, 
and  sometimes  even  then,  ice  forms  and  destroys  the  plants. 

A  good  heavy  row  of  plants  is  sometimes  all  the  protection  that  is  needed, 
es])eeially  in  the  parts  of  the  Province  where  there  is  a  fair  snow  fall  and  the 
wintci-  temperature  is  fairly  uniform.  But  snowfall  and  steady  weather  cannot 
always  be  depended  upon.  A  steady  cold  when  the  plants  are  at  all  protected  is 
not  S'O  injurious  as  freezing  and  thawing.  Strawberries,  like  wheat,  will  not  stand 
this,  unless  there  is  a  heavy  top,  and  even  then,  some  plants  are  weakened. 
Generally  it  is  best  to  supply  the  cover  liy  mulching  the  rows  with  a  light  covering 
of  Farmyard  numure  or  straw.  This  covering  does  not  need  to  be  heavy,  but  still 
of  sufficient  thickness,  ahout  two  or  three  inches,  to  prevent  drifting  and  freezing 
and  thawing.  Straw  will  answer  if  manure  is  scarce.  Sometimes  straw  is  given 
the  preference  because  it  does  not  settle  so  heavily  on  the  rows  and  tend  to  smother, 
especially  if  there  is  a  heavy  fall  of  snow  weighing  it  down.  The  mulch  should 
be  applied  as  soon  in  late  fall  or  early  winter  as  there  is  sufficient  frost  to  hold 
the  waggon  nicely.  Xo  damage  can  at  this  time  be  done  to  the  cultivated  and 
consequently  loose  ground.  Do  not  wait  too  long,  as  the  mulch  is  better  under 
the  snow  than  on  top  of  it. 

Manv  growers  do  not  make  a  praclici'  of  I'emoving  tli(>  muh-h  from  the  rows 
in  the  spring,  hut   I'alher  loosen  it  u])  well  to  permit  the  plants  to  work  their  way 


10 

through.  The  mulch  must  be  light  in  such  cases.  The  better  way  is  to  rake 
between  the  rows  all  rough  or  coarse  materials  to  act  as  a  mulch  there,  where  it 
will  conserve  moisture  and  tend  to  keep  the  fruit  clean  or  free  from  dust.  This 
may  be  done  quite  early  in  the  spring,  or  about  the  time  that  here  and  there  in 
the  patch  a  few  leaves  begin  to  blanch  from  too  much  cover  or  protection.  If  it 
is  desired  to  produce  early  fruit,  the  mulch  may  be  raked  between  the  rows  much 
earlier  or  as  soon  as  there  is  any  sign  of  life  or  growtli.  The  early  growth  may  be 
delayed  some  days  by  not  removing  the  mulch,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  this  is  a 
desirable  practice,  except  in  special  cases,  such  as  when  early  blossoms  are  liable 
to  frost  injury  or  it  is  desired  to  cater  to  a  late  market.  There  is  one  serious 
objection  to  the  mulch  and  that  is,  unless  the  manure,  or  straw,  is  practically 
free  from  weeds  such  a  number  of  seeds  are  scattered  over  the  field  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  keep  the  patch  free  from  them.  This  applies  even  more 
strongly  when  the  patch  is  to  be  kept  for  a  second  or  third  crop.  Because  of  this 
objection  many  of  the  best  growers  do  not  mulch  at  all,  but  rather  manure  heavily 
before  the  plants  are  set,  a.nd  depend  on  them  to  make  sufficient  growth  to  protect 
themselves.  It  seems  safer,  though,  as  a  rule,  to  mulch  with  as  clean  manure  as 
can  be  obtained,  and  chance  damage  from  weeds  rather  than  damage  from  freez- 
ing. Also  in  some  cases  the  rough  or  strawy  part  of  the  mulch  is  removed  entirely 
from  the  field  and  the  spaces  between  the  rows  well  cultivated  until  the  picking 
season  opens.  This  method,  however,  is  not  to  be  commended,  as  it  not  only  re- 
moves a  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  that  would  make  humus,  but  detracts  from 
the  quality  and  appearance  of  the  fruit  by  exposing  it  to  diist  and  dirt. 

Renewing  the  Plantation. — It  is  doubtful,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  if  it 
pays  to  fruit  a  plantation  more  than  one  year.  Weeds,  insects  and  diseases,  get  a 
strong  foothold,  and  generally  the  fruit  is  smaller  and  produced  in  less  quantity, 
though  some  growers  claim  greater  quantity.  The  fruit,  however,  ripens  a  little 
earlier,  and  consequently  commands  a  high  price,  but  the  season  is,  as  a  rule,  shorter. 

Some  growers  argue  that  since  it  takes  the  better  part  of  two  years  to  fruit 
a  patch,  it  should  be  renewed,  as  the  second  crop  is  then  produced  in  one  year. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  admitted  that  the  work  of  renovation  must  be  done  just 
at  the  time  when  there  is  a  rush  of  other  work,  and  at  a  time  when  the  soil  is 
usually  hard  and  dry.  There  are  many  oases,  in  rich  sandy  soils,  especially, 
where  it  no  doubt  pays  well  to  renovate ;  but  since  no  comparative  figures  of  yields 
and  returns  are  available  we  must  for  the  present  at  least,  leave  the  point  to  the 
individual  preference  of  the  grower.  He  alone  knows  what  is  best  for  his  par- 
ticular location — after  some  years  of  experience. 

There  are  a  number  of  systems  of  renovation  recommended,  and  not  one  of 
them  is  simple  or  easily  accomplished.  At  hest  it  is  a  difficult  task.  In  every 
case,  however,  the  patch  should  first  be  mowed  and  raked,  or  if  at  all  possible 
burned  over. 

Cleaning  by  hand-hoeing,  narrowing  the  rows  and  thinning  the  plants,  is 
slow  but  sure,  and  has  given  good  results. 

A  furrow  may  be  plowed  on  either  side  of  the  row,  away  from  it,  and 
narrowing  it  to  about  eight  or  ten  inches.  The  remaining  part  of  the  row  is  then 
hand-hoed  and  the  weeds  unless  in  too  great  quantity  pulled  into  the  furrow. 
The  whole  is  then  levelled  by  cross-harrowing.  Some  plants  will  be  injured  by 
this,  but  with  care  a  sufficient  number  will  be  left  to  reproduce  the  row. 

Again  a  furrow  may  be  plowed  on  either  side  of  tlie  row  and  thrown  on  to 
it,  and  the  whole  levelled  with  a  drag  harrow.     The  plants  under  fair  weather 


11 

conditions  will  then  start  afresh,  coming  up  through  any  small  quantity  of  soil 
that  may  have  been  left  on  them.  The  hoe  must  then  he  used  to  cut  out  any 
weeds  that  are  left,  to  straighten  up  any  injured  plants,  or  to  bank  up  any  plants 
that  have  had  the  earth  drawn  away  from  them. 

A  few  growers  recommend  narrowing  the  rows  to  about  ten  inches  with  the 
plow,  by  plowing  away  and  then  filling  the  furrow  with  well-rotted  fannyard 
manure.  The  row  is  then  cleaned  of  weeds  and  thinned  with  the  hoe  and  the 
whole  levelled  with  the  drags.  Some  plants  will  be  destroyed  by  the  drags,  but 
the  remaining  ones  enriched  by  the  manure  are  expected  by  fall  to  produce  a  heavy 
row.     In  a  favorable  season  they  will  do  this. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  leave  all  the  old  plants  in  the  narrowed  row  as  a  great 
many  growers  do.  Fewer  strong  healthy  plants  will  make  a  good  row  by  fall. 
At  the  same  time  it  is  not  well  to  thin  too  much.  Some  have  recommended  to 
leave  the  plants  as  much  as  sixteen  inches  apart,  but  in  a  dry  season  this  involves 
a  great  deal  of  risk;  better  leave  the  plants  fairly  close,  and  if  too  many  runners 
are  produced  cut  out  some  in  the  fall. 

Picking. — The  picking  and  marketing  of  the  fruit  is  the  biggest  problem 
that  the  grower  has  to  face.  Where  only  small  areas  are  grown  the  necessary 
assistance  can  usually  be  obtained  from  the  neighboring  families  or  nearby  villages, 
but  when  many  acres  are  grown  other  provisions  for  handling  must  be  made  early 
in  the  season.  The  pickers  must  be  ready  when  the  fruit  is.  Generally  on  the 
best  managed  fruit  farms  there  is  work  for  a  number  of  people  from  early  spring 
till  late  fall.  The  strawberry  plants  must  be  set,  tomatoes  transplanted,  weeds, 
etc.,  kept  under  control;  and  again,  when  the  strawberry  season  is  over,  there  is 
the  old  patch  to  renovate  and  raspberries,  currants  and  other  fruits  to  pick,  etc. 
In  many  cases  the  grower  engages  one,  two,  three  or  more  families  of  Indians 
and  houses  them  in  fairly  comfortable  shacks.  These  people,  with  a  little  ex- 
perience, make  very  good  workmen ;  but  they  must  be  kept  busy,  and  consequently, 
if  picking  and  general  farm  work  is  spread  out  well  over  the  season  the  problem 
of  assistance  is  solved  for  a  time  at  least. 

Italians  and  Poles  are  used  similarly,  and  make  very  good  workmen,  indeed, 
but  are  not  so  easily  handled  as  a  class.  The  women  and  girls  make  the  best 
pickers,  and  when  properly  directed  have  helped  many  a  grower  out  of  a  serious 
difficulty. 

Tlie  berries  are  ready  to  pick  when  they  are  from  three-fourths  to  all  red 
in  color.  They  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  over-ripe,  which  does  not  take  long, 
esipecially  if  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry.  If  over-ripe  and  dry  they  sour,  and 
if  over-ripe  and  damp  they  mould.  There  still  seems  to  be  a  feeling  among  many 
growers  that  "  strawberries  are  strawberries,"  and  that  there  is  no  place  for  grading 
according  to  size,  quality,  etc.  But  such  is  not  the  case.  Medium  to  large  berries 
of  good  color  and  not  over-ripe  always  bring  a  higher  price  than  fruit  of'all  sizes, 
especially  if  it  is  shrivelled  and  "mussy"  looking.  Small,  green  berries  here  and 
there  in  the  box,  and  some  that  are  decaying  from  being  left  too  long  on  the 
vines,  always  detract  from  the  appearance.  It  is  a  safe  rule  to  remember  that 
someone  is  expected  to  eat  every  berry  put  in  the  box,  and  that  previous  to  eating 
someone  is  expected  to  make  them  look  attractive,  and,  lastly,  that  a  good  berry 
increases  demand,  while  a  poor  berry  decreases  it. 

Why  not  take  as  much  pride — a  few  are  already  doing  so — in  the  pickino-, 
grading,  packing  and  marketing  of  the  strawberry  as  in  the  apple,  pear,  peach  or 
plum?  It  is  a  smaller  fruit,  and  very  perishable,  but  when  marketed  attractively, 
is  in  great  demand. 


12 

Yields  and  Returns. — We  are  many  times  asked  coiicerniiig  yields,  as  tlie 
prospective  grower  has  heard  of  some  almost  fabulous  quantity  being  produced  on 
an  acre.  But  the  average  grower  does  not  get  anything  like  the  number  of  boxes 
per  acre  that  is  sometimes  reported.  The  writer  knows  a  number  of  instances 
where  patches  of  one  acre  or  more  have  yielded,  under  good  average  conditions,  but 
no  irrigation,  four  hundred  twenty-four  box  crates  or  more  per  acre.  Such 
patches,  though  not  i-are,  are  exceptioual.     Ahnut  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  to 


two  hundred  and  seventy-five  crates  of  abo^e  size  is  a  good  yield,  and  would  be  above 
the  average,  if  the  poorest  of  the  growers  were  taken  into  consideration.  The 
yield  depends  quite  'as  much  on  the  individuality  and  experience  of  the  grower  as 
on  any  other  factor. 

Following  are  the  fis:ures  of  two  leadiiiu'  horticulturists,  aud  thouuh  figures 
in  fruit  production  can  never  1)e  accepted  as  absolute  they  are  given  to  show 
ap])roximately  what  is  possible  and  as  a  guide  to  the  prospective  grower.  No 
tW'O  growers  estimate  yie'lds  and  cost*  alike,  and  consequently  averages  only  can 
be  quoted. 


13 

By  Mr.  Eol)t.  Thompson,  Manager,  St.  Catharines  Cold  Storage  and  Forward- 
ing Co.,  in  1910.  The  price  per  hox  has  increased  considerably  since  these  esti- 
mate? were  made. 

OxE  Acre  of  Strawberries. 

Rent  of  one  acre  $10  00 

Taxes     3  00 

Management    50  00 

Plowing    2  00 

Cultivating    2  00 

Plants,  7,000  at  $3.00  per  1,000  21  00 

Planting     5  00 

Fertilizers    17  00 

Hoeing  and  Cultivating   (8  times) 41  00 

Winter  covering 25  00 

Delivering   12  00 

Profits,  over  and  above  allowance  for  manage- 
ment      28  00 

$216  00 

300  crates  or  7,20^0  boxes  at  3  cts.  on  the  plants   $216  00 

By  \\.  T.   Macoun,   Central  Experimental   Farm,   Ottawa,   from   his   address 
l)efore  the  Standing  Committee  of  the  Senate  on  Agriculture  and  Forestry: 

Cost  of  Growing  Oxe  Acre  or  Strawberries. 

(6,000  boxes.) 

Rent  of  land    (2  years) $10  00 

Preparation   of    land    4  00 

Fertilizers    30  00 

Plants    36  00 

Planting   5  00 

Cultivation    15  00 

Mulching    10  00 

Boxes     21  00 

Picking 60  00 

Crates  and  marketing 25  00 

$216  00 
Selling  6,000  boxes  at  5c.  per  box   $300  00 

Net    Profit     $84  00 

Varieties. — The  choice  of  varieties  for  commercial  plantings  is  very  im- 
portant, and  perhaps,  in  no  otlier  frnit  have  we  sncli  a  wide  eli'oice.  Tn  the  leadinu' 
berry  sections  of  the  Niagara  l\'ninsula  the  "Williams  is  planted  almost  entirely 
as  the  m.ain  crop,  while  in  some  other  sections  of  the  Province  this  variety  is 
considered  one  of  the  poorest.  Some  varieties  seem  to  be  adapted  to  sandy  soils 
and  very  warm  conditions  generally,  while  others  seem  to  prefer  heavier  soils  and 
cooler  conditions.  A  variety  that  does  excellently  on  one  fai'iii  may  lu'  of  a  gi-eat 
deal  less  value  on  a  farm  less  than  a  mile  away,  or  iiiiU'cd,  jusi  owr  ihc  rciiee.  i^aeh 
grower  mnst  select  foi-  liimsclp  tlic  \ariety  that  does  best  wilh  him  umlcr  his 
special  conditions  and  care.  No  man  can  select  this  variety  or  \ai-ii'ti(.'s  for  him:  he 
must  find  out  for  himself  from  test  plots,  or  rows,  or  experience. 

Strawhc'iiT  tlowers  may  be  either  perfect  or  imperfect,  deiu'ndiiig  on  the 
variety.  Imperfect  flcnvers  are  those  which  have  ])istils  only:  peid'ect  llowei's  are 
those  in  which  both  stamens  and  pistils  ai-e  jji'esent.  A  variety  with  peid'ect  flowers 
can  fertilize  itself,  and  no  othci-  \ariety  need  be  ]ilanted  near  it,  as  fai-  as  pollina- 


14 

tion  is  concerned,  but  a  variety  with  imperfect  flowers  must  have  a  variety  with 
perfect  flowers  planted  near  it  or  no  fruit  will  be  produced,  at  least  the  fruit  pro- 
duced will  be  small  and  deformed.  In  such  oases  one  row  of  plants  with  perfect 
flowers   should   be   planted   to   about   every   three   rows   of   plants   with   imperfect 


Imperftct  Flower 


Perfect  Flower 


flowers.     Do   not   put   the   imperfect    variety    on   one    side   of   the    field   and    the 
perfect  variety  on  the  other  side,  but  rather  mix  them  up  in  the  above  proportions. 
The  following  is  a  good  list  from  which  varieties  for  commercial  plantings 
may  be  selected. 


Splendid. 

Beder  Wood. — Perfect  flower,  early,  plant  vigorous,  producing  numerous 
runners,  a  good  pollenizer,  valuable  on  account  of  its  earlinesfe. 

Michel  or  Michel's  Early. — Perfect  flower,  very  early,  hardy,  and  on  some 
soils  very  productive,  largely  planted  and  quite  popular;  quickly  crowded  off  the 
market  by  the  later  berries. 


15 


Glen   Mary. — Perfect  flower,   ripens   in   niidseason,   numerous   runners,   and 
quite  popular  on  account  of  its  productiveness. 


Sample 


Sample. — Imperfect,  medium  to  late  season,  large  berry  of  medium  to  high 
quality,  numerous  runners,  and  quite  popular  on  some  of  the  lighter  soils  in  the 
Province. 


Williams. — Perfect,  medium  late,  hardy,  numerous  runners,  fruit  has  white 
or  green  tip,  good  shipper  and  oanner,  very  popular,  more  largely  planted  than  any 
other  variety  in  the  Niagara  Peninsula. 


16 

Senator  Dunlop. — Perfect^  medium  early,  large  size,  good  (|uality,  iiuiner- 
ous  runners,  at  one  time  quite  popular. 

To  the  above  list  we  might  add:  Buster,  Parson's  Beauty,  Ruby,  Splendid, 
Warfield,  Brandywine,  William  Belt,  Pride  of  Michigan,  Uncle  Jim. 

It  is  not  recommended  for  anyone  to  discard  an  old  and  tried  variety  that 
has  been  doing  well  for  years  for  some  new  variety.     It  is  much  better  to  first  try- 


Williams. 


Duulop 


out  the  neAV  variety  on  a  small  scale,  and  then  if  it  proves  eipial  to,  or  better  than 
the  old  varietv  it'may  be  planted  more  largely.  Not  one  in  twenty  of  tlie  new 
varieties  introduced  proves  better  than,  or  equal  to.  the  old  established  varieties. 

Stick  to  the  varieties  that  are  doing  best  with  you.    They  may  not  be  included 
in  this  list,  but  they  suit  your  conditions.     Change  to  the  new  varieties  gradually. 


17 

INSECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

White  Geubs.— White  Grubs  are  by  far  the  most  serious  pest  that  we  have 
attacking  the  strawl)erry,  because  tliey  usually  do  their  most  damage  to  the  young 
p]a]]ts  as  they  are  set  in  the  spring,  by  eating  the  roots.  When  damaged  thus  the 
plants  turn  brown  and  die.  In  such  cases  there  is  no  remedv,  except  to  dio-  into 
tJie  ground  at  the  base  of  old  jdant,  destroy  the  grub  if  he  can  he  found  and  then 
replant. 

The  best  remedy  is  prevention.  The  wlute_  grub  is  the  larva  of  the  June 
beetle,  and  lives  and  feeds  in  the  ground  at  least  "two  years.  If  tlie  soil  is  plowed 
am  cultivated  yearly  or  not  allowed  to  remain  in  gnatss  or  sod  for  more  than 
one  year  the  larva?  cannot  mature,  as  such  cultivation  destroys  them.  Strawberries 
two  years  in  succession  encourages  them.  In  any  case  strawlierries  should  not  be 
planted  on  land  that  has  heen  in  sod  one,  two,  or  more  years,  unless  it  is  known 
that  such  land  is  free  from  this  pest.  Grow  corn,  i^otatoes,  or  roots  and  free 
the  soil  of  these  pests  first. 

Stkawberry  LExVF  Eollee.— As  far  as  is  known  to  the  writer  this  pest  has 
not  proved  serious  in  Ontario,  and  only  ojie  instance  is  known  to  him  where  it  was 
sufficiently  troublesome  to  demand  treatment.  The  pest,  may  be  identified  bv  the 
damage  it  does.  The  larva^  fold  the  leaves  by  drawing  the  upper  surfaces  together 
and  fastening  with  Ijands  of  silk.  Tliey  then  eat  away  from  the  inner  side  all 
green  portions  of  the  leaves. 

The  remedy  is  to  spray  with  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  in  forty  gallons 
of  water  before  the  leaves  are  folded  or  just  when  the  larva?  are  first  noticed  to 
be  working.  Eepeat  again  at  intervals,  but  not  when  the  plants  are  in  bloom,  or 
after  the  fruit  is  set.     The  3'oung  plants  nuiy  l)e  sprayed  at  any  time. 

Steawberey  Leai^  Spot  is  the  only  disease  kno\ra  to  the  writer  that  is  serious, 
and  even  this  shows  up  largely  only  on  plantings  that  have  been  kept  the  second 
and  third  years.  Spraying  wiih  Bordeaux  Mixture  in  early  spring  lias  been 
recommended  for  this,  and  when  c^arried  (Hit  thoroughly,  brightens  the  plants  and 
gives  them  a  healthier  color.  The  hest  method  is  prevention.  When  renewing  a 
patch  for  the  second  year,  if  possible,  mow  and  rake  off  or  burn  all  the  old  plants 
and  weeds  that  may  have  collected.  Experimental  work  has  not  demonstrated 
that  burning  the  old  plants  is  entirely  effective,  but  it  is  the  method  practised 
by  the  l)est  o-j-n^wers. 


19 


The  Red  Raspberry 


F.  M.  Clement 


The  object  of  this  Bulletin  is  not  to  give  a  detailed,  botanical  or  horticultural 
description  of  the  red  raspberry,  but  to  put  into  readable  form  a  few  facts  that  may 
be  of  value  to  the  grower.  The  information  was  collected  in  the  Orchard  Survey 
of  Clinton,  Louth,  Grantham,  and  Niagara  townships  in  the  summer  of  1910,  by 
conversing  with  practical  men  and  getting  their  opinions  and  methods,  also  by 
observing  the  methods  of  the  leading  growers  in  Elgin  and  adjoining  counties  when 
District  Eepresentative  in  1911-12.  In  no  case  are  the  statements  theory  only. 
All  are  backed  up  by  the  best  practices  of  the  best  growers. 

The  red  raspberry  (Ruhus  strigosus)  is  indigenous  to  Ontario,  and  grows 
wild  in  profusion  in  almost  all  sections  of  the  Province.  It  is  especially  adapted 
to  the  above  and  adjoining  townships,  and  grows  wild  everywhere  in  the  woods 
there.  The  black  raspberry  {Ruhus  occidentalis)  is  also  very  common,  growing 
wMd  almost  everywhere,  but  is  not  cultivated  as  largely  as  is  the  red.  Almost  every 
farmer  has  a  small  patch  of  both  species,  producing  sufficient  for  family  use. 
These  small  patches  were  not  considered  when  quoting  figures  previously  and 
neither  is  their  cultivation  considered  here.  The  black  raspberry  (black  caps) 
bears  fruit  and  produces  new  plants  in  a  manner  distinct  from  the  red,  ai^d 
requires  different  conditions  and  treatment;  consequently  it  is  not  included  in  this 
discussion. 

Extent  of  the  Industry.  The  marked  growth  of  our  home  cities,  the  extension 
of  private  trade  and  the  operations  of  canning  factories  have  done  much  to  stimulate 
the  production  of  this  fruit.  It  is  not  long  since  raspberries  were  considered  only 
a  garden  product,  but  the  above  mentioned  factors  have  operated  in  such  a  manner 
that  patches  of  six  or  seven  acres  are  by  no  means  rare.  The  four  townships 
to-day,  including  both  young  and  old  commercial  plantations,  have  almost  as 
great  an  acreage  as  they  have  of  plums  or  pears.  (If  bushes  between  rows  of 
trees  were  considered  commercial  crops  rather  than  fillers  the  acreage  would  be 
greater.)  Good  plantations  may  be  found  in  almost  any  part  of  the  townships, 
but  in  the  sections  east  of  Port  Dalhousie  and  both  east  and  west  of  Jordan  Harbor 
they  are  made  a  specialty. 

To  understand  why  they  are  made  a  specialty  in  these  two  localities  is  quite 
an  easy  matter,  but  to  understand  why,  though  both  sections  should  specialize,  the 
one  section  should  choose  one  variety  entirely,  and  the  other  another  variety  almost 
entirely,  is  not  so  easy  In  the  Jordan  section  the  Cuthbert  is  the  choice,  while  in 
Port  Dalhousie  section  the  Marlboro'  is  preferred.  A  few  men  have  some  of  both 
varieties,  but  taken  as  a  whole  the  facts  are  as  stated  above.  This  would  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  Cuthbert  and  Marlboro'  are  best  adapted  to  certain  conditions, 
and  soils  that  are  distinct;  or  conditions  under  which  one  variety  thrives  best  are 
not  exactly  suited  to  the  other.     Let  us  see,  if  possible,  what  these  conditions  are: 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  Cuthbert  is  of  better  quality  tlian  the 
Marlboro',  though  many  do  not  think  so.  Usually,  too,  under  the  same  conditions 
the  Cuthbert  is  the  heavier  yielder.  But  the  Marlboro'  has  the  advantage  of  being 
a  week  or  ten  days  the  earlier,  and  this  gains  for  it  the  top  price  in  the  market. 


20 

Where  the  Marlboro'  is  chiefly  grown  the  soil  is  a  little  heavier  and  apparently 
has  a  little  drier  and  heavier  snbsoil  than  where  the  Cuthbert  thrives  best.  This 
dryness  is  an  advantage  in  producing  the  required  earliness,  although  it  can  be 
expected  to  reduce  the  yield. 

Where  the  Cuthbert  thrives  best  the  soil  is  sand  and  sandy  loam,  very  deep,. 
with  sand  or  gravel  subsoil,  which  retains  the  moisture  and  holds  the  water  table 
near  the  surface.  This  moisture  is  a  very  considerable  factor  in  dry  seasons.  The 
aim  on  those  soils  is  to  get  a  large,  well  ripened  berry,  full  of  quality,  which  selh 
for  an  even  price  throughout  the  season.  The  Cuthbert  fills  this  requirement  best. 
Both  varieties  are  grown  on  the  shore  of  the  lake  and  both  are  grown  some  distance 
from  the  shore.  No  explanation  is  offered  why  both  varieties  are  not  grown  largely 
in   both  sections,  but  in  the  opinion   of   the  writer   it  is   a  case   of   the  growers 


A  Profitable  10  acre  Raspberry  Patch 


adapting  themselves  to  the  market  demands  and  conditions,  and  becoming  some- 
what prejudiced  against  the  variety  not  best  suited  to  those  conditions.  The  only 
other  differences  noticeable  in  the  two  sections  are  those  of  the  slight  diiterences 
in  the  soil  and  subsoil  mentioned  previously,  and  the  difference  in  the  moisture 
content. 

Varieties.  Cuthbert  and  Marlboro'  are  the  only  two  varieties  grown  largely 
at  present,  but  the  Herbert  is  coming  in  very  fast.  At  present  this  latter  variety  is 
represented  by  a  large  number  of  small  patches  only,  but  it  is  highly  recommended, 
and  in  a  few" years  might  be  expected  to  take  a  leading  place,  because  of  its  heavy 
yielding  qualities  and  its  extreme  hardiness.  Other  varieties  are  grown  to  a  small 
extent,' but  are  not  recommended  for  the  inexperienced.  A  number  of  them 
winter-kill  very  easily,  or  have  some  other  quality  unsuited  to  the  commercial 
plantation,  and  consequently  are  not  of  the  kind  for  the  beginner  to  experiment 
with. 


21 

Ciithbert:  Is  the  heaviest  growing  variety  witli  bright  crimson  fruit,  small 
seeds,  first  class  shipping  and  dessert  quality;  it  ripens  in  mid-season,  and  the 
bush  is  medium  to  very  hardy. 

Marlboro' :  Is  a  medium  heavy  grower,  light  red  fruit,  ripening  early,  large 
seeds,  good  shipping  and  fair  dessert  quality;  the  bush  is  only  medium  hardy. 

Herbert :  Is  a  goo;l  grower,  heavy  producer,  first-class  shipping  and  dessert 
quality.  The  experiment  stations  put  it  first  in  productiveness,  but  some  growers 
do  not  favor  it  because  of  its  spreading  hal)it ;  that  is,  it  is  not  so  upright  a  grower 
as  the  Cuthbert  and  Marlboro',  and  the  fruit  is  inclined  to  be  a  little  soft. 


Cuthbert. 


Soils.  The  raspberry  is  adapted  to  soils  of  various  grades,  but  in  no  case 
are  they  doing  exceptionally  well  on  heavy  clay.  They  are  best  adapted  to  a  sand, 
sandy  loam  or  a  loam.  A  foot  of  good  sand  loam  with  a  heavy  subsoil  seems  to  give 
good  results,  especially  with  the  Marlboro'.  Moisture  content  is  a  very  important 
factor;  so  important,  indeed,  that  if  the  soil  is  not  natui'ally  moist,  or  if  there  are 
not  frequent  showers  during  the  ])icking  season,  the  fruit  di'ics  up  on  the  bushes. 
The  season  of  1911  will  long  be  remembered  as  an  exani])le  of  this.  When  jdanted 
on  a  heavy  clay  the  soil  must  he  miide  mellow  by  heavy  api)licntions  of  baruyai'd 
manure. 

While  moisture  is  important,  standing  water  is  vei'v  hnitliii.  As  in  tlie  case 
of  the  peach,  ilie  soil  must  he  thoi'ou^iidy  di-aiin'il.  till'  pi'd'ci'icl  :  or  if  this  is  not 


32 

possible,  first-class  surface  drainage  will  do.  Any  standing  water  weakens  the 
plants,  and,  if  continued,  destroys  them.  Surplus  water  in  the  soil  is  equally 
hurtful.  Do  not  plant  on  a  wet  soil;  but  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  retentive 
of  moisture  to  give  good  results. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil  for  Planting.  It  is  a  very  common  practice  to  set  the 
young  plants  without  any  consideration  of  what  has  been  growing  on  the  field 
previously,  or  what  condition  physically  and  chemically  the  soil  may  be  in.  But 
such  indiscriminate  plantings  are  not  recommended.     The  soil  that  has  previously 


Marlboro 


been  well  fertilized  and  cultivated  for  one  year  at  least  and  cleaned  of  weeds 
invariably  gives  the  best  results,  by  forcing  the  immediate  growth.  A  profitable 
crop  is  produced  in  one  year  earlier  this  way,  and  the  labor  of  caring  for  the  plants 
for  that  one  year  is  saved.  The  effect  of  first-class  soil  on  the  young  plants  is  very 
remarkable,  and  a  number  of  patches  planted  thus  now  show,  at  one  year  of  age, 
as  great  a  growth  as  the  majority  at  two  on  the  poorer  soils. 

A  hoe  crop  of  corn,  tom^atoes,  potatoes,  or  roots,  well  fertilized,  is  recommended 
as  a  crop  for  the  year  previous  to  planting. 

Plants  and  Planting.  The  best  plants  to  use  are  the  young  shoots  that  come 
up  in  the  fall  after  the  last  cultivation,  or  those  that  come  up  in  the  very  early 


23 


spring  if  they  are  strong  and  healthy.  Only  the  very  strongest  and  best  growing 
of  these  plants  should  be  used,  taking  care  not  to  transfer  any  disease  from  the  old 
to  the  young  plantations.  Eeproduction  is  from  the  healthy  roots,  not  the  canes. 
The  transplanting  of  the  old  canes,  or  even  one-year  canes,  on  the  new  plantations 
is  not  recommended.  It  is  only  the  roots  of  these  that  have  any  value,  as  the  tops 
die  down  every  year.  Also  there  is  much  more  danger  of  transferring  insect 
pests  and  disease  when  the  old  canes  are  used.  The  transplanting  may  be  done 
in  early  fall,  but  spring  seems  more  suitable.  Early  spring  is  preferable,  but  trans- 
planting may  be  continued  till  June. 


Herbert. 

Distance  to  Plant.  The  distance  apart  to  plant  is  a  disputed  point.  Much 
depends  on  the  tastes  and  ambitions  of  the  individual  growers  and  the  growing 
habits  of  the  plants  or  varieties  used.  The  Cuthbert  and  Herbert  are  much  stronger 
and  heavier  growers  than  the  Marlboro',  and  consequently  must  be  planted  at  a 
greater  distance. 

For  the  Marlboro'  the  hill  system  is  practised  almost  entirely,  and  the  distance 
is  invariably  3  by  6  feet.  This  distance  may  seem  a  little  close,  but  the  best  patches 
and  those  that  are  yielding  the  best  returns  are  almost  witliout  exception  set  at 
this  distance.  Where  the  Cuthbert  and  Herbert  are  in  hills  they  are  started  for 
the  most  part  at  4  by  8  feet,  but  it  is  very  seldom  that  either  variety  is  kept  in 
hills  very  long,  as  the  heavy  growth  soon  fills  up  the  rows  unless  thorough  and 
frequent  cultivation  is  practised.  Where  the  row  system  is  followed  the  distance 
apart  varies  from  6  to  9  feet.     On  a  smaller  area,  or  where  extremely  intensive 


24 

culture  is  practised,  the  writer  recommends  narrower  distances,  but  where  land 
is  more  plentiful  and  help  scarcer  the  greater  distance  is  recommended,  as  it  allows 

of  cultivation  with  a  two-horse  cultivator  or  disc.  A  distance  of  7I/2  or  8  feet 
is  a  good  average  for  all  varieties.  The  hill  system  is  recommended,  however, 
wherever  possible  because 

1.  It  saves  labor  in  cultivating,  and  cultivation  saves  moisture. 

2.  Sunlight  can  reach  a  greater  portion  of  the  plant,  which  is  very  important 

for  early  rij^ening  and  lessening  of  disease;  also  a  diseased  hill  can  be 
removed  entirely. 

3.  Because  they  are  much  easier  to  pick  and  there  is  less  likelihood  of  leaving 

ripe  fruit,  as  the  picker  can  get  on  all  sides  of  the  l)ush. 

4.  It  enhances  the  quality  of  the  fruit. 

When  setting  out  the  plantation  the  planting  in  hills  is  very  strongly  recom- 
mended, even  though  the  grower  may  prefer  the  row  system.  By  setting  the  plants 
from  three  to  four  feet  apart  in  hills  the  patch  may  be  cultivated  both  ways  for 
the  first  season  at  least;  much  longer,  usually.  When  this  method  is  followed, 
from  two  to  four  healthy  plants  are  put  in  each  hill — three  is  a  good  number — 
and  in  two  years'  time  they  will  have  run  together  and  filled  up  the  row  entirely 
if  they  have  been  well  cared  for  and  allowed  to  do  so.  The  planting  indiscrimin- 
ately from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  apart  in  the  row  is  not  recommended,  as  the 
labor  of  keeping  them  clean  the  first  two  years  will  be  much  greater  than  when 
planted  as  recommended  above. 

Priming.  In  order  to  he  able  to  prune  a  raspberry  well  it  is  necessary  to 
understand  its  manner  of  growth  and  fruiting.  New  shoots  are  sent  up  from  the 
underground  root  stocks  during  the  entire  growing  season  of  each  year.  It  is  on 
these  that  the  fruit  is  produced,  or  in  other  words  it  is  produced  on  the  new  or 
one  year  wood.  Sometimes  the  new  or  early  spring  shoots  produce  fruit  in  late 
summer  or  early  fall,  but  this  is  never  in  commercial  quantity. 

Cntting  Bacl\  During  the  growing  season  keep  down  the  new  growth  between 
the  rows,  by  cultivation.  By  the  time  the  fruit  is  ripening  the  new  canes  in  the 
rows  will  be  as  high,  and  in  some  seasons  much  higher,  than  the  old  canes.  Eor- 
merly  it  was  at  this  season  that  the  greater  part  of  the  cutting  back,  or  removing 
the  tops  to  the  heights  of  the  old  canes,  was  done.  Excessive  growth  hides  fruit 
when  picking,  and  sometimes  it  is  so  excessive  that  it  causes  much  inconvenience 
in  passing  between  the  rows.  But  now  that  practice  is  being  discarded  by  many 
of  the  best  growers  and  the  canes  are  being  left  untouched  until  late  winter  or  the 
following  spring.  A  few  good  growers  still  cut  back,  because  it  causes  the  plants 
to  send  out  side  shoots  or  laterals  and  take  more  of  the  tree  or  bush  form ;  also  the 
picking  can  be  done  more  conveniently  when  the  new  canes  are  thus  cut  back. 
But  notwithstanding  these  advantages  we  have  to  face : — ■ 

1.  The  risk  of  a  heavy  winter  and  the  freezing  back  of  the  canes  where  cut. 

2.  The  freezing  and  consequent  loss  of  the  tender  laterals  forced  out  from 

the  cutting  back. 

3.  The  risk  of  small,  poor  quality  fruit  on  many  small  branches  or  laterals. 

The  freezing  back  is  the  greatest  risk.  The  advantage  of  not  cutting  back 
lies  in  the  fact  that:  (1)  Not  being  cut  back  no  excessive  growth  or  branching  is 
forced  out  and  consequently  the  bushes  are  hardier;  (2)  The  tenderest  part  of  the 
l)ush  is  the  tip  of  the  branch,  and  if  these  do  freeze  they  may  be  removed  in  the 
spring  without  permanent  injury;  (3)  The  fewer  good  laterals  sent  out  in  the 
spring  produce  a  higher  quality  of  fruit,  because  they  are  fewer  in  number,  have  not 


25 

been   ^yeakened   by  the   winter,   and  produce   the   fruit  nearer   the  main   stem   or 
source  of  food  sup2Dl3\ 

There  are  some  good  advocates  of  both  methods,  and  good  patches  under 
both  systems  of  pruning;  but  in  the  colder  sections  of  tlie  Province,  especially,  it 
is  highly  recommended  not  to  cut  back  till  the  following  spring. 

The  thinning  out  of  the  rows  or  hills  is  not  usually  done  until  very  late  winter 
or  early  spring.  This  is  best  done  when  the  ground  is  still  frozen  or  before 
growth  starts,  leaving  only  the  hardiest  and  healthiest  and  only  from  five  to 
seven  good  canes  in  the  hills.  A  few  more  may  be  left  in  the  rows  but  the  canes 
should  not  be  closer  than  six  or  eight  inches,  and  the  rows  more  than  a  foot  wide. 
The  grower  should,  with  a  little  practice,  be  al)]e  to  space  the  plants  fairly  evenly 
in  the  rows.  This  work  should  be  done  sufficiently  early  to  remove  all  insect  pests 
that  have  wintered  in  the  old  canes.  These  begin  to  move  with  the  first  growino- 
weather.  A  great  m^any  growers  remove  the  old  canes  in  early  fall  or  late  sprin^y^ 
but  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  spring  is  preferred. 

If  the  effects  of  the  winter  are  not  plainly  noticeable  at  this  time,  the  cuttino- 
back  may  be  left  a  little  later  or  till  growth  has  started,  when  the  frozen  tips  are 
much  more  easily  distinguished,     'i'he  earlier  pruning  is  recommended,  however. 

In  the  colder  sections  of  the  province,  where  winter  injury  or  freezino-  is 
common,  the  practice  of  tbinning  out  the  old  canes  in  the  hills  in  tlie  fall  is  followed 
quite  largely.  The  canes,  wliich  may  be  from  four  to  seven  feet  long  are  then 
laid  down  in  the  line  of  the  row  and  covered  with  eartli.  This  method  of  protection 
is  expensive,  but  gives  fair  results. 

Another  method  is  to  keep  the  young  plants  cut  back  to  about  eighteen  to 
twenty-four  inches  during  the  summer.  This  causes  them  to  send  out  quite  strono- 
laterals  and  then  the  plants  in  tree  form  being  quite  low  are  protected  bv  snow 
during  the  winter. 

In  the  Niagara  Peninsula,  however,  where  the  investigation  was  made,  no 
protection  is  given  except  that  which  follows  from  good  cultivation,  manurin"-, 
and  pruning  practice. 

CuUivation.  The  cultivation  must  be  thorough.  A  few  days'  delay  often 
gives  tbe  grass  and  weeds  a  start,  and  wlien  once  they  take  possession  of  the  rows  it 
is  a  very  difficult  task  to  get  rid  of  them.  :\Iany  of  the  best  growers  cultivate  twice 
a  week  from  early  spring  up  to  the  picking  season,  and  some  cultivate  even  between 
the  picking.  It  is  best  to  cease  cultivation  with  the  opening  of  the  picking  season, 
or.  at  most,  to  give  one  or  two  cultivations  later.  This  would  be  to  clean  up  the 
patch,  loosen  the  soil  and  give  the  young  shoots,  if  they  are  required  for  planting 
the  next  year,  a  chance  to  grow.  Loosening  the  ground  between  the  rows  after  each 
picking  conserves  a  great  deal  of  moisture  and  is  advised  if  it  can  be  done  with- 
out injury  to  the  fruit  and  plants.  Too  late  cultivation  tends  to  produce  new 
growth  late  in  the  fall,  which  is  not  as  hardy  as  the  older  wood,  and  is  consequently 
more  likely  to  be  injured  bv  th"  winter.  Many  good  patches  have  been  severely 
injured  by  practising  late  cultivation. 

Fall  plowing  up  to  the  plant  and  cultivating  and  hoeing  the  earth  away  in 
the  spring  as  much  as  is  required  to  remove  the  weeds  and  form  a  nnilch  is 
recommended.  Quite  a  number  of  growers  ]ilow  away  from  the  plants  in  the 
spring  as  it  gives  a  much  better  chance  to  remove  the  refuse  from  the  row.  Also 
this  plowing  covers  up  any  manure  or  nnilch  that  may  have  been  applied  in  the 
winter.  The  plantations  of  the  best  growers  are  not  intercropped  after  the  first 
year;  the  soil  then  has  all  it  can  do  to  support  the  berries  and  without  first-class 
care  and  attention  it  will  not  do  even  this. 


36 

Ottawa  Bulletin  No.  56  gives  the  figures  of  an  experiment  conducted  to 
determine  the  advisability  of  cutting  back  in  the  summer  or  leaving  the  plants 
unpruned.  In  almost  every  instance  there  is  a  considerable  margin  in  favor  of  the 
unpruned  rows.  This  is  contrary  to  the  beliefs  of  many  growers,  but  the  experiment 
shows  quite  conclusively  that  it  will  pay  growers  to  investigate  before  arriving 
at  conclusions. 

There  are  more  patches  suffering  from  poor  soil  than  from  soil  that  is  too 
rich.  But  the  first  season — that  is,  the  spring  the  plants  are  set — a  single  row  of 
tomatoes,  corn  or  potatoes  may  be  grown  between  the  rows  of  raspberries.  Straw- 
berries are  sometimes  used,  but  as  the  vines  spread  out  a  great  deal  and  require 
much  moisture,  and  the  fruit  is  not  removed  till  the  following  summer,  when 
growth  has  almost  ceased,  they  are  not  recommended,  though  some  apparently  get 
good  results. 

Manuring.  The  scientific  manuring  of  the  raspberry  is  just  in  the  experi- 
mental stage.  As  a  rule  even  in  the  best  patches  no  regular  method  is  followed. 
But  barnyard  manure  is  the  standby  of  all.  There  is  a  danger  when  this  is  used 
in  quite  large  quantities — say  twenty  tons  per  acre  every  year — of  producing  an 
excess  of  cane  or  wood  growth.  The  general  practice,  where  the  land  has  been 
built  up  or  is  already  in  good  heart,  is  to  apply  about  ten  tons  per  acre  of  good 
manure  annually.  This  adds  a  sufficient  quantity  of  humus  and  with  commercial 
preparations  keeps  the  soil  in  fair  condition.  Where  the  soil  is  poor  a  much  larger 
quantity  must  be  added  at  first.  This  may  be  applied  and  plowed  under,  either 
in  the  spring  or  fall  or  applied  as  a  mulch  in  the  fall  and  plowed  under  in  the 
spring. 

Commercial  preparations  are  gradually  coming  into  favor,  but  it  cannot  be 
said  that  as  yet  any  number  of  growers  have  reached  a  standard  and  are  applying 
them  in  regular  quantities.  Various  quantities  are  applied  ranging  from  two 
hundred  to  six  hundred  pounds  or  more  per  acre.  This  is  usually  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  pounds  of  bone  meal  or  superphosphate  to  one  of  muriate  of  potash. 
No  quantity  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  used.  The  growers  depend  on  manure  largely 
for  their  supply  of  nitrogen,  because,  except  in  special  cases,  it  is  much  cheaper. 
The  following  is  recommended  for  a  yearly  application  on  soil  that  is  in  good 
heart,  and  it  will  replace  in  the  soil  the  quantity  of  fertilizer  constituents  removed 
by  one  hundred  crates  of  fruit 

12  tons  of  barnyard  manure, 

100  lbs  muriate  of  potash, 

200  lbs.  bone  meal. 

The  nitrate  of  soda  cannot  take  the  place  of  barnyard  manure,  but  preparations 
other  than  those  mentioned  containing  the  same  quantities  of  available  potash 
and  phosphorus  may  be  used. 

Piclcing  and  PacMng.  The  picking  and  packing  is  usually  done  by  help  ob- 
tained in  the  neighborhood,  but  where  the  areas  under  this  fruit  are  exceptionally 
large  it  is  necessary  to  employ  much  outside  labor.  The  Indians  have  proved 
very  satisfactory  workers  where  it  is  possible  to  get  them.  The  labor  question  is 
very  acute  at  times,  so  much  so  that  in  a  few  cases  some  berries  have  gone  to  waste 
each  year.  This  fact  would  lead  one  to  suppose  that  raspberry  production  had 
almost  reached  its  maximum  in  the  Niagara  Peninsula,  but  the  well-known  law 
that  '^demand  draws  labor"  seems  to  work  exceptionally  well  here;  so  much  so, 
that  though  the  acreage  is  increasing  rapidly  each  year,  the  quantity  that  wastes 
each  year  is  not  increasing  any  more  proportionately. 

The  fruit  is  picked  directly  into  quart  boxes,  and  should  be  carefully  selected 
and  sorted  while  picking,  as  nothing  is  gained  in  quality  and  appearance  by  extra 


27 

handlings.  It  is  then  packed  into  twenty-four  box  crates  for  delivery.  The  days 
for  picking  cannot  be  fixed.  The  producer  must  use  his  own  judgment,  as  all 
depends  on  the  variety  of  berry  and  the  weather  during  the  ripening  season.  The 
ripe  fruit  must  not  be  left  too  long  on  the  bushes  or  the  least  wind  will  cause  it 
to  fall  off  and  waste.  IST'either  should  it  be  picked  w'hen  hard  and  green,  as  it 
greatl}'  detracts  from  the  attractiveness  of  the  package. 

Careful  handling  is  very  essential.  Jarring  on  the  road  to  market  settles  the 
package  and  spoils  the  fruit.  Throwing  it  into  or  out  of  the  waggon  has  the  same 
effect.  The  practice  of  filling  the  boxes  well  with  choice  red  fruit  cannot  be  too 
highly  recommended.  Do  not  allow  the  picked  fruit  to  stand  in  a  hot  or  moist 
place,  as  it  soon  spoils. 

Selling.  There  are  several  methods  of  disposing  of  the  fruit,  but  the  special 
order  trade  and  the  commission  market  take  the  largest  quantity.  This  includes 
the  quantities  sold  through  the  co-operative  associations.  The  canning  factories 
take  a  very  large  quantity  where  they  are  used  for  making  jam,  and  at  present  this 
demand  seems  to  be  increasing  much  faster  than  the  supply. 

Returns.  Following  is  a  list  of  patches  showing  the  acreage,  yield  and 
returns  as  quoted  to  me  by  the  growers.  These  are  not  given  as  an  average,  but 
represent  some  of  the  very  best  patches  for  the  season  of  1909.  The  figures  are 
much  higher  than  the  general  average,  but  show  a  possible  average  under  good 
conditions. 


Yield  Price 

Acreage.                                           (Crates)  (F.O.B.)  Value 

1   125  $1  80  $225  00 

1   150  1  80  270  00 

%   75  1  80  135  00 

1%   190  1  80  342  00 

6  350  180  630  00 

4  350  1  70  595  00 

SVa   523  1  90  993  70 

4  310  1  80  558  00 

1   85  1  80  153  00 

11/2  40  2  12yo  85  00 

%      250  1  80  450  00 

1   70  1  80  126  00 

3%   350  2  00  700  00 

2   115  1  82  209  30 

1   20  2  00  40  00 

V2      75  2  00  150  00 

2   180  1  80  324  00 

iy2   200  2  00  400  00 

114   190  1  80  342  00 

1  75  2  30  172  50 

2   95  2  15  204  25 

5  200  2  00  400  00 

2   200  1  65  330  00 

3 75  1  68  126  00 

3   350  1  74  609  00 

1%   450  1  80  810  00 

2^.     200  180  360  00 

1  60  1  80  108  00 

5  500  1  65  825  00 

1   150  1  80  270  00 

21/2   200  1  80  360  00 

1   150  1  75  262  50 

Total.  .681/2      6,353                                         $11,565  25 

Or,  each  acre  in  the  above  patches  averaged  92.7  crates,  which  sold  for  $1.82 
per  crate,  or  $168.83  f.o.b. 


28 

Diseases, 

Anthracnose  (Gla'osporiunt  VeneiiDit)  is  distinguished  by  the  drying  up  of 
the  leaves  and  the  dying  of  the  canes,  especially  at  the  tips.  Small  purplish  spot^ 
appear  at  first  on  both  leaves  and  wood,  but  later  the  centre  of  theiii  becomes  gray 
and  sunken,  giving  a  bird's-eye  effect. 

Remedy :  Control  measures  have  not  been  effective.  Prevent  from  spreading 
by  cutting  out  and  destroying  as  soon  as  noticed. 

Orange  Rust  {Gymnoconia  Peckiana).  This  is  a  very  serious  disease,  but  it  is 
easily  distinguished  by  the  yellowisih  rust  that  appears  on  the  leaves  and  canes.  It 
attacks  the  plant  at  all  stages,  and  though  the  plant  may  not  be  killed  outright  it 
is  so  weakened  that  it  is  valueless. 

Remedy:  Control  measures  are  ineffective.  The  diseased  plants  must  he  cut 
out  and  destroyed  as  soon  as  they  appear.  The  least  delay  only  allows  the  disease 
to  spread  still  further.     Spraying  is  ineffective. 

Crown  Gall  {Pseudomonas  tumefaciens) .  This  attacks  the  roots,  producing 
galls  or  growths  thereon  which  causes  the  weaJvening  of  the  plants  and  makes  them 
unjirofitahle.    It  is  the  same  as  that  which  attacks  the  peach. 

Control :  By  digging  out  and  destroying.  Do  not  plant  in  the  same  field  for 
three  or  four  years. 

Injueious  Insects. 

Snowy  Tree  Cricket.  The  only  injury  done  by  this  insect  is  in  depositing  the 
eggs  in  the  canes.  They  are  noticed  in  rows  from  one  to  two  inches  running 
lengthwise  of  the  canes.  Otherwise  the  insect  is  beneficial,  feeding  upon  injurious 
plant  lice.  The  cutting  out  and  destroying  of  the  old  canes  in  winter  or  early 
spring  keeps  it  under  control. 

Raspberry  Cane  Borer.  The  injury  is  done  by  the  insect  making  two  girdles 
around  the  cane  about  a  half  an  inch  apart  hetween  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  The 
egg  hatches  and  the  larva  bores  down  in  the  pith  of  the  cane.  This  causes  the  top 
or  injured  portion  to  wilt  and  die. 

Control:  By  cutting  off  and  destroying  the  wilted  parts.  Take  care  to  cut  well 
below  the  girdle. 

Root  Borer.  The  injury  here  is  done  by  the  larva  or  a  clear  winged  moth 
which  bores  in  the  root  from  the  cane  just  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  canes 
in  the  spring  appear  to  be  winter  killed.  The  damage  is  worst  in  the  old  planta- 
tions. 

Control:  By  keeping  the  plants  healthy  by  exercising  good  care  and  cultiva- 
tion.    Dig  out  and  destroy  all  weakened  plants. 

Raspberry  Saiv  Fly.  The  damage  is  done  by  the  larvae  of  the  fly,  green  in 
color,  eating  the  tender  green  portions  of  the  leaves,  leaving  only  the  veins.  The 
fly  deposits  the  eggs  on  the  leaves  and  the  larvae  begin  feeding  as  soon  as  hatched. 

Control:  If  early  in  the  season  spray  the  plants  with  two  pounds  of  lead 
arsenate  in  forty  gallons  of  water.  If  the  fruit  is  ripe  or  ripening  the  larvae  may 
be  jarred  off  by  hand  on  to  the  hot  dust  between  the  rows.  It  is  not  well  to  use 
the  poison  on  the  ripe  or  ripening  fruit,  because  of  discoloration.  White  hellebore, 
either  dusted  over  the  plants  or  steeped,  one  ounce  in  two  gallons  of  water  and 
sprayed  over  the  foliage,  is  a  very  good  remedy. 


LIST   OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  the  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture,  Toronto. 
No.        Date.  Title.  Author. 

168  Oct.       1908      The  Perennial   Sow  Thistle  and  some  other 

Weed  Pests   J.  E.  Howitt. 

169  Feb.       1909      Legume  Bacteria:  Further  Studies  of  Nitro- f  S.F.Edwards. 

gen  Accumulation  in  the  Leguminoaaj  . .  \ 

170  Mar.      1909      Mitchell- Walker  Test  Bottle   |  W.  O.  WalkS-." 

{    Insects  Affecting  Vegetables  

171  April     1909  |   p^^^^^  ^.g.^g^^  Affecting  Vegetables  . . . .  {  J;  ;^-  i^^^^' 

172  May      1909      Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)    . . .  Dairy  School. 

173  Oct.       1909      Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash, 

174  Dec.       1909       Farm  Underdrainage:   Does  it  Pay   W.  H.  Day. 

175  Dec.       1909      Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

176  Dec.       1909      Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  ar.d  Quince 

Trees   D.  H.  Jones. 

177  Dec.       1909      Lime-Sulphur  Wash   |  l.'  Caesar^^^' 

178  Dec.      1909       Character   and    Treatment    of    Swamp    or  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Muck   Soils    A.  E.  Slater. 

179  Feb.      1910      Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters  Fruit  Ex.  Stations. 

180  April     1910      Flour  and  Breadmaking  ■[  ^  a.^  Purdy. 

181  June     1910      The  Teeth  and  Their  Care   Ont.  Dental  Society. 

182  July      1910      Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch 

183  Aug.       1910      Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making Dairy  Branch 

184  Nov.       1910      Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey   

185  Nov.       1910      Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

186  Dec.       1910      Children:   Care  and  Training  J.  J.  Kelso. 

187  Jan.       1911      The  Codling  Moth    L.  Caesar. 

188  April    1911      Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)    J.  E.  Howitt. 

189  May      1911      Farm  Poultry  (151  revised)    W.  R.  Grahom. 

190  May      1911       Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch 

191  June     1911      Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch 

192  July      1911      Agricultural  Co-operation  S.  E.  Todd. 

193  Nov.      1911      Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

194  Dec.      1911      Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch 

195  Jan.      1912       Insectides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised  |  j^  j    pyjjjjer 

196  Jan.      1912      Tomatoes   A.  G.  Turney. 

197  Feb.      1912      Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

198  Feb.      1912      Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

199  Feb.       1912      Onions  A.  McMeans. 

200  April     1912      Fruit  Juices L.  Meunier. 

201  May       1912      Peach  Growing  in  Ontario F.  M.  Clement. 

Peach  Diseases  L.  Caesar. 

202  May      1912      Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

203  May      1912      Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  A.  McMeans. 

204  June     1912      Decay  of  the  Teeth  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

205  Sept.     1912      Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    ..  ( 

Part  I.    Cheese-making  and  Butter-making  )  Staff  of  Dairy  School. 

206  Nov.     1912       Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revi&cd)    ..   )  Dairy  School. 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm ( 

207  Dec.       1912       Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

f  J    H    Hare 

208  Jan.      1913      Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  ^  ,p'  a  Benson. 

209  March    1913      Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz. 

210  March  1913      Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.  F.  M.  Clement. 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 


BULLETIN  211 


Fruits  Recommended  for 

Planting 

In  Various  Parts  of  Ontario 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  MARCH,  1913 


BULLETIN   211J  [FEBRUARY,  1913 

Ontario    Department    of    Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 

(A  Revision  of  No.  179) 


Fruits  Recommended  for  Planting 

In  Various  Parts  of  the  Province  of  Ontario 


Owing  to  the  continual  demand  for  information  regarding  the  best  varieties 
of  fruit  for  planting,  the  Department  has  found  it  necessary  to  prepare  a  list  which 
will  serve  to  the  best  advantage  all  those  interested.  The  tendency  of  all  com- 
mercial orchardists  is  to  reduce  the  number  of  varieties  planted  to  the  smaller 
number,  which  will  ripen  so  as  to  cover  the  season,  and  some  have  gone  so  far  as 
to  reduce  their  number  of  varieties  even  less,  so  as  to  specialize  in  those  best  adapted 
to  their  locality  and  soils.  This  practice  is  highly  to  be  commended,  and  in  the 
lists  given,  only  varieties  that  have  proven  their  merits  are  mentioned.  The  growers 
are  recommended  to  choose  those  varieties  which  they  may  prefer,  and  not  neces- 
sarily to  .plant  all  that  are  suggested  for  their  district. 

The  general  list  has  been  prepared  from  the  actual  work  of  the  experimentalist 
under  Department  super\dsion.  The  district  lists  have  been  submitted  by  the 
various  experimenters  and  successful  growers,  and  contain  those  varieties  which 
seem  to  be  especially  adapted  in  the  section  for  which  they  are  recommended. 

The  boundaries  given  for  the  various  districts  are  merely  suggestive,  as  it  is 
impossible  to  define  these  definitely,  one  merging  gradually  into  the  other. 

There  are  many  varieties  not  mentioned  in  the  lists  which  may  do  well  under, 
special  conditions,  but  are  not  generally  considered  so  desirable  as  those  mentioned. 

Finally,  in  selecting  a  list  of  varieties  from  those  recommended  in  this  pub- 
lication, we  would  draw  the  attention  of  the  grower  to  the  importance  of  limiting 
the  number  of  varieties  as  closely  as  possible,  and  also  to  study  his  soil  and  the 
market  conditions.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  going  to  one  or  two  of  the  growers 
in  his  section  and  asking  him  for  his  opinion  as  to  most  successful  varieties.  It 
cannot  be  too  highly  impressed  upon  one's  mind  that  the  effect  of  soil  conditions 
on  varieties  is  very  important,  and  cannot  be  watched  too  closely  if  the  greatest 
results  are  aimed  at.  The  markets  to  which  one  intends  to  cater  should  ever  be 
borne  in  mind,  as  the  days  are  fast  ending  when  the  grower  can  promiscuously 
pick  his  fruit  and  sliip  to  any  commission  house  and  expect  a  good  price.  Varieties 
that  have  characteristics  which  lend  themselves  to  the  more  up-to-date  methods 
and  long  distance  shipments,  must  be  chosen  in  those  districts  which  have  and  are 
developing  distant  markets.  The  above  suggestions  are  mainly  for  commercial 
fruit  growers.  Those  who  arc  only  planting  a  few  trees  for  their  own  use  will 
find  no  difficulty  in  selecting  varieties  from  the  domestic  list  given  in  this  Bulletin^ 


APPLES. 

Oeneral  Lists  of  the  Most  Valuable  Varieties  for  Market  Approved  hy  the  Board 

of  Control. 

SuMMEfi:     Astrachan,  Duchess. 

Fall:     Gravenstein,  Wealthy,  Alexander,  Mcintosh,  Pameiise,  Blenheim.    ■ 

Winter:    King,  Hubbardston,  Greening,  Cranberry,  Baldwin,  Spy,  Stark. 

Varieties  especially  adapted  to  Home  Use. 

Summer:     Transparent,  Primate,  Sweet  Bough,  Duchess. 

Fall:     Chenango,  Gravenstein,  Wealthy,  Mcintosh,  Fameuse,  Blenheim. 

Winter:     King,  Wagener,  Swayzie,  Greening,  Tolman,  Spy. 

Hardy   Apples   Recommended  for   Sections   North   of   Latitude   46   Degrees,   or 
Approximately  in  a  Line  with  the  Ottawa  River. 

Summer:  Transparent,  Lowland  Easpberry,  Charlamoff. 
Fall  and  Winter  :    Duchess,  Wealthy,  Hibernal,  Longfield,  Patten,  Whitney, 

Hyslop,  Milwaukee. 

CRAB  APPLES. 

Whitney  :    A  large  crab  of  high  quality,  suitable  for  planting  in  the  extreme 
north  where  other  apples  will  not  succeed.     May  be  used  for  dessert  or  cooking. 
Martha:     An  early  crab  of  fair  quality. 
Transcendent:    Yellowish  crab,  season  early  autumn. 
Hyslop:    Dark,  rich,  red  crab,  of  late  season,  quality  only  fair. 

CHERRIES. 

Hardy  varieties  suitable  for  any  portion  of  the  Province  bounded  by  Lakes 
Ontario,  Erie,  Huron  and  the  Georgian  Bay:  Orel,  Richmond,  Montmorency, 
fiussian  207.     For  southern  sections  see  district  lists. 

PEACHES. 

General  List  for  Niagara  District  Only. 

St.  John,  Early  Crawford.  Greensboro,  Champion,  *Brigdon  or  Garfield,  Fitz- 
gerald, *Reeves,  *Niagara,    Elberta,  Carmen,  Beers  Smock. 

*Very  similar  and  any  of  these  varieties  may  be  set,  but  all  are  not  needed 

to  cover  the  season. 

PEARS. 

Giffard,  Clapp,  Bartlett,  Boussock,  Flemish  (hardy,  subject  to  spot),  Howell, 
Louise,  Duchess,  Bosc,  Clairgeau,  Anjou,  Kieffer. 

PLUMS. 

Americana:  These  are  extremely  hardy  and  desirable  where  the  European 
sand  Japanese  varieties  cannot  be  grown.  Aitken,  Cheney,  Bixby,  Mankato,  Wolf, 
Hawkeye,  Stoddard. 

European:  Bradshaw,  Imperial  Gage,  Gueii,  Shipper  Pride,  Lombard  (liable 
to  overbear,  requires  thinning),  Quackenboss,  Yellow  Egg,  Grand  Duke,  Golden 
Drop  (Coe),  Reine  Claude  (one  of  the  best  for  canning). 


Japanese:     These  are  a^parenrtly  quite  as  hardy  as  the  European  varieties: 
Ked  June,  Abundance,  Burbank,  Climax. 

QUINCES. 

Fuller,  Orange    (the  leading  market  variety    in    Ontario),    Champion    (for 
southern  Ontario  only,  as  it  ripens  too  late  for  other  sections). 

GEAPES. 

Blacl:     Moore,  Campbell,  Worden,  Concord,  Wilder. 
Red:     Delaware,  Lindley,  Agawam,  Vergennes. 
}Yhite :     Diamond,  Niagara. 

For  Noethern  Sections: 

Black:     Champion,  Moore,  Campbell,  Worden. 
Red:    Moyer,  Brigliton,  Delaware,  liindley. 
White:     Winchell,  Diamond. 


BLACKBERRIES. 
Agawam,  Snyder,  and  for  southern  sections,  Kittatinny. 

CURRANTS. 

Blach:     Black  Victoria,  Champion,  Lee,  Boskoop  Giant,  Saunders. 
Bed:     Cherry,  Fay,  Red  Cro.ss,  Victoria,  Wilder. 
White :    Grape. 

GOOSEBERRIES. 

American  Varieties:     Pearl,  Downing,  Red  Jacket. 

English  Varieties:  Crown  Bob,  Whitesmith,  Industry,  Keepsake.  Not  recom- 
mended on  account  of  mildew,  unless  to  be  thoroughly  sprayed  with  the  lime 
sulphur  mixture. 

RASPBERRIES. 

Blach:    Hilborn,  Older,  Gregg,  Smith  Giant. 
Purple :    Columbian,  Shaflfer. 
Red:     Marlboro,  Herbert,  Cuthbert. 
White:     Golden  Queen, 

r 

STRAWBERRIES. 

Commercial:  Bederwood  (P.),  Splendid  (P.),  Warfield  (Imp.),  not  suited 
to  light  sandy  soil,  Greenville  (Imp.),  Williams  (Imp.),  Saunders  (P.),  Sample 
(Imp.),  Irene  (Imp,),  Buster  (Imp.),  Parsons  Beauty  (P.). 

Note. — These  varieties  vary  somewhat  in  order  of  tlieir  ripening  season.  In 
selecting  varieties  for  planting,  perfect-flowered  varieties  should  be  included  to 
fertilize  those  having  imperfect  flowers. 


NIAGAEA  DISTRICT. 

(Including  the  Niagara  Peninsula  from  the  Niagara  River  to  Hamilton  and  north 

to  the  escarpment.) 

RoBEET  Thompson,  St.  Cathaeines. 
Apples  : 

Commercial:    Astrachan,  Duchess,  Gravenstein,  Blenheim,  Wealthy,  Wagener, 
Mcintosh,  Hubbardston,  King,  Greening,  Baldwin,  Spy. 
Peaes:  Gift'ord,  Clapp,  Bartlett,  Bosc.  Duchess  (Dwarf),  Anjou,  Kieffer. 
Plums:    Red  June,  Climax,  Shiro,  Burbank,  Arctic,  German  Prune,  Shropshire 

Damson,  Grand  Duke,  Monarch,  Reine  Claude. 
Strawbeeeies  (For  long  distance  sMpments)  :     Williams,  Brandy  wine. 

E.  D.   Smith,  Winona. 
Cheheies  : 

Sour:  Richmond,  Montmorency,  English  Morello. 
Sweet:  White — Gov.  Wood,  Napoleon. 

Black — Knight,    Tartarian,    Mezel,   Windsor,    Schmidt   Bigarreau    (for   clay 
only). 

Egbeet  M.  Smith. 

Peaes:    Giffard,  Bartlett,  Howell,  Louise,  Flemish,    Duchess    (dwarf),    Anjou, 

Kiefier. 
Plums:    Burbank,  Bradshaw,  Lombard,   Grand  Duke,   Monarch,   Reine   Claude, 

Shropshire  Damson,  German  Prune,  Fallenburg,  Washington  for  deep,  dry 

soil. 

Geapes  : 

Black:  Champion,  Worden,  Wilder,  Concord. 
Red:  Delaware,  Lindley,  Agawam,  Vergennes. 
White:  Diamond,  Niagara. 

S.  H.  Rittenhouse,  Joedan  Haeboue. 

Peaches:   St.  John,  Early   Crawford,   Fitzgerald,   Elberta,  Lemon   Free,  Beers 

Smock. 
Raspbeeeies : 

Red:  Marlboro,  Cuthbert. 

Black:  Gregg. 
Blackbereies  :  Kittatinny. 
Strawbeeeies  :  Dunlap,  Ozark,  Sample,  Williams,  Stevens. 

F.  G.  Stewart,  Homer. 
Chereies  : 

Sour:  Richmond,  Montmorency.  (The  English  Morello,  Ostheim  and  Wragg 
ripen  late  here,  and  are  apt  to  be  stung  before  they  are  harvested.) 

Sweet:  White — Gov.  Wood,  Elton,  Napoleon,  Spanish.  Black — Tartarian, 
Elkhorn,  Windsor. 


5 

J.  W.  Smith  &  Sons,  "Winona. 

Peaches:  Triumph  (5)  ;  Leamington  (5)  ;  St.  John  (15)  ;  Early  Crawford  (10)  ; 
N'ew   Prolific    (10)  ;   Champion    (5)  ;   Eareripe    (10)  ;   Elberta    (20)  ;   Late 
Crawford  (5)  ;  Lemon  Free  (10)  ;  Beers  Smock  (5). 
The  figures  refer  to  the  percentage  of  each  variety  that  this  firm  recommends 

for  planting. 

C.  E.  FisHEK  &  Sons,  Qtteenston. 

Peaches : 

Sneed   (White),  Triumph,  Carman   (White),  St.  John,  Fitzgerald,  Jacques, 
Peeves,  ISTiagara,  Elberta,  Late  Crawford,  Beers  Smock. 

2Vo/e:— The  Triumph  requires  a  rich,  sandy  loam  well  fertilized  every  year 
with  well-rotted  compost  manure  applied  during  early  winter,  and  in  spring  just 
before  plowing  a  heavy  application  of  muriate  of  potash  and  pure  hone.  Proper 
pruning  of  tree  and  thinning  of  fruit  are  essential. 


FONTHn^L  DTSTETCT. 
(Including  Townships  of  Pelham,  Stamford  and  Thorold.) 

G.  C.  Brown,  Fonthill. 

Apples  :  Astrachan,  Duchess,  Greening,  Fameuse,  King,  Baldwin,  Spy. 
Cheeries  : 

Sour:  Pichmond,  Montmorency. 

Sweet:  Tartarian,  Knight,  Napoleon,  Gov.  Wood,  Windsor. 
Peaches:  Triumph,  Greensboro,  St.  John,  Fitzgerald,  Elberta,  Golden  Drop  or 

Banner,  Lemon  Free,  Smock. 
Grapes:  Moore,  Worden,  N'iagara,  Delaware,  Concord,  Lindley. 
Currants : 

Red:  Cherry,  Perfection,  Prince  Albert. 
Raspberries  : 

Bed:  Cuthbert. 
Blackberries  :  Eldorado,  Snyder. 
Strawberries:  Lovett,  Williams.  Sample,  Parsons. 


BTJPLIN'GTON'-OAKVTLLE  DISTEICT. 

(Including  the  southern  part  of  the  counties  bordering  on  Lake  Ontario  be- 
tween Hamilton  and  Toronto.) 

A.  W.  Peart,  Burlington. 
Apples  : 

Dnchess,  Wealthy,  Eibston,  Greening,  Blenheim,  King,  Baldwin,  Spy. 


Cherkies  : 

Dyehouse,  Richmond,  Windsor,  Montmorency,  English  Morello. 
Pears  : 

Wilder,  Clapp,  Bartlett,  Boussock,  Louise,  Duchess   (dwarf),  Anjou,  Kieffer, 
Lawrence,  Nelis. 
Plums  : 

European:   Bradshaw,   Niagara,   Imperial   G-age,   Lombard,   Prince  of  Wales, 
Yellow  Egg,  Peine  Claude,  Staunton. 

Japanese :  Eed  June,  Abundance,  Burbank. 
Grapes : 

Black :  Moore,  Wordem,  Concord. 

Red:  Moyer,  Delaware,  Lindley,  Massassoit. 

White :  Diamond,  Niagara. 
Blackberries:  Snyder,  Western  Triumph,  Agawam. 
Currants  : 

Blaclc :  Lee,  Naples,  Saunders,  Champion,  Victoria. 

Red:  Cherry,  Fay,  Pomona,  Wilder,  Victoria. 

White:  Grape,  Imperial. 
GoosFBERRiEs :   Pearl,  Downing,  Red  Jacket. 
Raspberries  : 

Red:  Marlboro,  Herbert,  Cuthhert. 
Strawberries:  Bcderwoorl,  Dunlap,  Williams,  Gibson,  Glen  Mary,  Leader. 


W.  F.  W.  Fisher,  Burlington. 

Apples:  Duchess,  Wealthy.  Mcintosh,  Fameuse.  Ribston,  King,  Baldwin,  Spy. 
Pears:  Lawson,  Clapp,  Bartlett,  Duchess,  Anjou,  Nelis. 
Plums  : 

European:  Bradshaw.  Imperial  Gage,  Lombard,  Peine  Claude,  Grand  Duke. 

Japanese :  Red  June,  Abundance,  Burbank. 
Currants : 

Blaclc:  Champion,  Victoria.  Boskoop  G-iant. 

Red:  Cherrv.  Fav.  Wilder. 
Gooseberries:  Downing.  Josselvn  or  Red  Jacket. 
Raspberries  Marlboro.  Herbert.  Cuthhert. 
Strawberries:  Dunlap,  Gibson,  Haverland,  Bubach,  Glen  Mary,  Williams. 


W.  G.  Horne,  Clarkson. 

Apples:    Early    Harvest,    Astrachan.    Duchess.    Wealthy,    Blenheim.    Greening. 

Fameuse.  Spv.  Baldwin,  Golden  Russett.  Tolman. 
Pears:  Clapps,  Bartlett,  Anjou,  Clairgeau,  Kieffer. 
Cherries  : 

Sour:  Dyehouse.  Richmond.  Montmorency,  Morello. 
Grapes:  Moore,  Worden.  Concord.  Delaware. 
Blackberries  :  Snvder.  Western  Triumph. 
Raspberries  :  Cuthhert,  Herbert. 

Strawberries:  Sample,  Williams,  Glen  Mary. 


LAKE  EEIE  DISTEICT. 

(Including  approximately  the  Counties  of.  Haldimand,  Norfolk,  Elgin,  Wel- 
land,  excluding  FontMll  District.) 

Jas.  E.  Johnson,  Simcoe. 

Apples:  Wealthy,  Fameuse,  Mcintosh,  Baldwin,  Greening,  King,  Spy. 
Stkawberries  :  AVarfield,  Dunlap,  Splendid,  Sample,  Enhance. 
Cherries  :  Richmond,  Montmorency. 
Peaches:  St.  John,  Fitzgerald,  Crosby,  Elberta,  Smock. 


ESSEX  PENINSULA. 
(Including  Essex,  Kent  and  Pelee  Island.) 

J.  L.  HiLBOEN,  Leamington. 

Apples:  Duchess,  Blenheim,  Baldwin,  Stark,  Hubbardston,  Spy. 

Cherries:  Richmond,  Montmorency,  Windsor. 

Peaches:  Dewey,  St.  John,  New  Prolific,  Engle,  Kalamazoo,    Elberta,    Banner, 

Golden  Drop,  Lemon,  Free. 
Pears:  Bartlett,  Anjou,  Duchess. 

Plums:  Burbank,  Lombard,  Imperial  Gage,  Yellow  Egg,  Peine  Claude. 
Grapes : 

Black:  Champion,  Moore,  Concord. 

Red:  Brighton,  Vergennes,  Catawba. 

White:  Diamond,  Niagara. 
Blackberries:  Mersereau,  Eldorado,  Kittatinny. 
Currants : 

BlacJc :  Victoria,  Champion. 

Red:  Cherry,  Fay,  Wilder. 

White :  Grape. 
Gooseberries:  Pearl.  Downing,  Whitesmith. 
Raspberries  : 

BlacJc:  Kansas,  Hilborn,  Gregg. 

Red:  Marlboro,  Cuthbert. 

Yellow :  Golden  Queen. 

Purple :  Columbian. 

J.  Atkin  &  Son,  Leamington. 

Apples:  Red  Astrachan.  Duchess,  Blenheim,  King,  Hubbardston,  Baldwin. 

Pears:  Bartlett,  Duchess,  Keiffer. 

Plums  :  Burbank,  Grand  Duke,  Lombard,  Peine  Claude. 

Cherries:  Montmorency,  Windsor,  Napoleon,  Tartarian. 

Peaches:  Dewey,  St.  Johns,  New  Prolific,  Champion,  Kalamazoo,  Engle,  Banner, 

Late  Crawford,  Lemon  Free,  Smock,  Salway. 
Currants : 

Red:  Fav,  Red  Cross,  Perfection,  Loudon. 

Black:  Victoria,  Saunders,  Lee. 


8 

BRANT  DISTRICT. 

(Including  Counties  of  Brant,  Oxford,  Middlesex  and  soutli-westem  part  of  Perth.) 

J.  C.  Harris,  Ingersoll. 

Apples:  Duchess,  Gravenstein,  Blenheim,  Ribston,  Alexander,  Greening,  Baldwin, 

King  (top  grafted).  Spy. 
Raspberries:  Cuthbert,  Columbian. 
Strawberries:    Warfield,    Dunlap,    Bederwood,    Haverland,    Williams,    Sample, 

Enhance. 

C.  W.  Gurnet,  Paris. 

Apples:  Blenheim,  King,  Baldwin,  Spy,  Greening. 


FOREST  DISTRICT. 
(Including  the  County  of  Lambton.) 

D.  Johnson,  Eorest, 

Apples:  Duchess,  Greening,  Baldwin,  Hubbardston,  Golden  Russet,  and  (if  grafted 
on  Tolman)  King  and  Spy. 

Cherries:  Richmond,  Montmorency. 

Peaches:  For  those  parts  of  the  County  influenced  by  the  lake:  St.  John,  Fitz- 
gerald, Late  Crawford,  Engle,  Kalamazoo,  Elberta,  Smock. 

Plums:  Bradshaw,  Imperial  Gage,  Reine  Claude. 

Raspberries:  Marlboro,  Cuthbert. 

Strawberries:  Dunlap,  Warfield,  Williams,  Belt,  Bederwood. 


LAKE   HURON   DISTRICT. 
(Including  Counties  of  Huron  and  Bnice.) 

D.  F.  Hamlink,  Goderioh. 

Apples:  Astrachjan,  Duchess,  Greening,  Blenheim,  Mcintosh,  Fameuse,  King,  Tal- 

man,  Baldwin,  Spy,  Stark,  North  Star. 
Peaches  :  St.  Joihn,  Early  Crawford,  Fitzgerald,  Elberta,  Longhurst  and  Smock. 
Cherries:  Richmond,  Olivet,  Montmorency. 
Pears:  Clapp,  Bartlett,  Louise,  Clairgeau,  Anjou. 
Plums  : 

Japanese:  Burbank. 

European:   Bradshaw,    Imperial    Gage,    Shipper   Pride,   Lombard,   Monarch, 
Grand  Duke. 
Grapes  :  Champion,  Moore,  Word  en,  Niagara,  Concord. 
Blackberries:  Agawam,  Eldorado. 
Currants  : 

Black:  Champion,  Naples,  Saunders,  Victoria. 

Red:  Fay,  Cherry,  Perfection,  Albert. 

White:  Grape. 


Gooseberries:  Pearl,  Downing, 
Easpberries : 

Black:  Conrath,  Hilborn. 

Red:  Marlboro,  Herbert,  Cuthbert. 

White:  Golden  Queen. 
Strawberries:  Brandywine,  Glen  Mary,  Williams,  Dunlap. 


GEORGIAN  BAY  DISTRICT. 

(Including  northern  portions  of  the  Counties  of  Grey  and  Simcoe,  bordering  on 

the  Georgian  Bay.) 

J.  G.  Mitchell,  Clarksburg. 

Apples:   A&trachan,   Duchess,    Gravenstein,    St.   Lawrence,   Alexander,    Wealthy, 

Twenty-Oz.,  Mcintosh,  Greening,  King,  Baldwin,  Spy. 
Cherries:  Richmond,  May  Duke,  Montmorency,  Olivet. 
Peaches:  Triumph,  Fitzgerald,  Early  Crawford,  Tyhurst,  Crosby. 
Pears:  Clapp,  Bartlett,  ^Flemish,  Duchess,  Anjou,  Clairgeau. 
Plums:  Red  June,  Lombard,  Archduke,  Yellow  Egg,  Golden  Drop,  Reine  Claude 
Grapes : 

BlacJc:   Champion,  Campbell,  Worden. 

Red:  Delaware,  Brighton,  A'^ergennes,  Salem. 

White :  Winchell,  Diamond,  Niagara. 
Currant : 

Black:  Lee,  Champion. 

Red:  Cherry,  Fay. 

White :   Grape. 
Gooseberries  :  Houghton,  Pearl,  Downing,  Red  Jacket,  Industry. 
Raspberries  : 

Red:  Marlboro,  Herbert,  Cuthbert. 

BlacJc:  Hilborn,  Older,  Gregg. 


LAKE  SIMCOE  DISTRICT. 

(Including  the  northern  and  eastern  section  of  Simcoe  and  northern  sections  of 
York  and  Ontario  bordering  on  Lake  Simcoe.) 

G.  C.  Caston,  Craighurst. 
Apples:  Duchess.  Peerless,  Alexander,  Wolf,  Blenheim,  Pewaukee,  Stark,  Baxter, 

Fallawater,  Fameuse,  Seek,  and  the  following  if  topworked  on  hardy  stocks: 

Greening,  King,  Ontario,  Baldwin,  Spy. 
Cherries:  Orel  M,  Ostheim,  Montmorency,  Dyehouse,  English  Morello. 
Pears:  Clapp,  Bartlett. 
Plums:  Burbank,  Staunton. 

Grapes:  Campbell,  Moyer,  Moore,  Diamond,  Winchell. 
Blackberries:  Agawam,  Eldorado. 
Currants : 

BlacJc:  Naples,  Victoria.  i 


10 


Eed:  Fay,  Versaillaise,  Cherry. 

White:  Grape. 
GoosEBEKRiES :  Pearl,  Downing. 
Raspbeeries:  Marlboro,  Herbert,  Cuthibert. 


GUELPH  DISTRICT. 

(Including  the  high  inland   Counties  of  southwestern   Ontario,   i.e.,  Wellington, 

Waterloo,  nortlivvestern  section  of  Perth,  south  part  of  Grey,  Dufferin, 

and  northwest  section  of  Peel  and  Halton.) 

Prof.  J.  W.  Crow,  O.A.C,  Guelph. 

Apples:  Duchess,  Alexander,  Wealthy,  Fameuse,  Mcintosh. 

Crab  Apples:  Whitney,  Martha. 

Cherries  :  Richmond,  Montmorency. 

Pears:  Clapp,  Flemish,  Seckel,  Sheldon,  Anjou. 

Plums:  Bradshaw,  Imperial  Gage,  Shipper  Pride,  Lombard,  Reine  Claude,  Glass. 

Grapes : 

Black :  Moore. 

Red:  Moyer. 

White:  Winchell. 
Currants  : 

Black:  Victoria,  Champion,  Saunders. 

Red:  Red  Cross,  Victoria,  Fay. 

White:  Grape. 
Gooseberries  : 

American:  Pearl,  Downing. 

English:  Whitesmith,  Industry. 
Raspberries  : 

Black:  Older,  Smith  Giant. 

Red:  Marlboro,  Herbert,  Cuthbert. 

Purple:  Columbian. 

White :  Golden  Queen. 
Strawberries:  Bederwood  (P.),  Splendid  (P.),  Warfield  (Imp.),  Williams  (P.), 

Parsons  (P.). 


LAKE   ONTARIO   DISTRICT. 

(Including  the  southern  portions  of  the  Counties  bordering  on  the  Lake  Ontario 

shore  from  Toronto  to  Trenton.) 

Elmer  Lice:,  Oshawa. 

Apples:  Gravenstein,  Mcintosh,  Fameuse,  Blenheim,  Greening,  Baldwin,  Spy. 

(If  further  varieties  are  required  add  Golden  Russet  (for  wet  spots),  Cran- 
berry, Fallawater,  Stark  (liable  to  be  overplanted). 

W.  H.  Dempsey,  Trenton. 

Apples:  Duchess,  Gravenstein,  Alexander,  Fameuse,  Mcintosh,  Greening,  Baldwin, 
Spy,  Ben  Davis,  Stark. 


11 

Cherries:  Eichmond,  Montmorency. 

Pears  :  Giffard,  Clapp,  Boussock,  Hardy,  Bosc,  Clairgeau,  Lawrence. 

P.  A.  Greer,  Wellington. 

Raspberries:  CTitht)ert,  Columbian. 
Strawberries  :  Dunlap,  Sample,  Parson. 

A.  B.  Arnott,  Trenton. 

Blackberries:  Snyder'. 
Grapes  : 

Black:  Moore,  Worden,  Concord. 

Red:  Brig-hton,  Lindley,  Agawam,  Massasoit. 

White:  Niagara,  Pocklington. 


ST.   LAWEENCE   VALLEY  DISTRICT. 

(Including  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  from  Kingston  to  the  eastern 

boundary  of  the  Province.) 

Harold  Jones,  Maitland. 

Apples:   Duchess,    St.   Lawrence,  Alexander,    Wolf,    Wealthy,    Scarlet    Pippin, 

Fameuse,  Mcintosh,  Baxter,  Tolman,  Golden  Russet. 
Cherries:  Richmond,  Montmorency,  Orel,  English  Morello. 

Pears:  Flemish  (if  grown  in  sod),  Ritson  (not  so  hardy  in  fruit  bud  as  Flemish). 
Plums  : 

American :  Aitkin,  Bixby,  Mankato,  Cheney,  Wolf,  Schle;^',  Brackett,  Hawkeye, 
Stoddard. 

European:  Glass,  Raynes,  Mount  Royal,  Lunn. 
Gooseberries:  Golden  Prolific,  Downing. 
Raspberries:  Her'bert. 
Strawberries:  Belt,  Williams,  Wolverton,  Climax,  Saunders,  Miller. 


OTTAWA  DISTRICT. 

(Including  the  Ottawa  Valley  and  the  eastern  portion  of  the*  Province  not  else- 
where enumerated,  south  of  latitude  46  deg.). 

W.  T.  Macoun,  Horticulturist,  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa. 

Apples:   Transparent,    Lowland   Raspberry,    Duchess,    St.    Lawrence,    Wealthy, 

Alexander,  Mcintosh,  Fameuse,  Wolf,  Milwaukee,  Baxter,  Scott. 
Crab  Apples:  Whitney,  Martha,  Hyslop. 

Cherries:  Orel  25,  Vladimir,  Minnesota,  Ostheim,  Cerise  d'Ostheim. 
Pears  :  Flemish  in  most  favored  parts. 


12 
Plums  : 

Americana  and  Nigra:    Aitkin,    Bixby,    Mankato,    Cheney,    Wolf,    Schley, 
Brackett,  Hawkeye,  Stoddard. 

European:  Early  Eed  (Eussian),  Mount  Eoyal,  Glass,  Montmorency,  Eaynes, 
Perdrigon. 
Geapes: 

Black:  Early  Daisy,  Mamito,  Worden,  Merrimac,  Wilder. 

Bed:  Moyer,  Brighton,  Delaware,  Lindley. 

White:  Winchell,  Diamond. 
Blackberries:  Agawam,  Snyder. 
Currants : 

Black:   Saunders,   Collins,  Prolific,  Black  Victoria;  Boskoop   Giant  is   very 
promising. 

Red:  Pomona,  Victoria,  Dutch  and  Wilder  in  the  most  favored  parts. 

White:  Grape. 
Gooseberries:  Pearl,  Downing  and  Eed  Jacket. 
Easpberries  : 

Black:  Hilborn,  Older,  Cumberland. 

Bed:  Marlboro,  Herbert.    . 

Yellow:  Golden  Queen. 
Strawberries:  Bederwood  (P.)j  Splendid   (P.),  Warfield   (Imp.),  not  suited  to 

light  soil;    Greenville  (Imp.),   Parson  Beauty  (P.),    Pocomoke  (P.),  Sample 

(Imp.),  Buster  (Imp.). 


ALGOMA  DISTEICT. 

(Including  the  islands  of  Manitoulin  and  St.  Joseph,  and  a  limited  portion  of 
the  northern  and  eastern  shore  of  the  Georgian  Bay.) 

Chas.  Young,  Eichard's  Landing. 

Apples:   Transparent,    Charlamoff,   Astraehan,   Duchess,    Peacb,     St.    Lawrence, 

Alexander,   North   Star,   Colvert,   Gideon,   Mcintosh,  Winter   St.   Lawrence, 

Wolf,  Baxter,  Longfield,  Louise,  Wealthy,  Patten. 
Crab  Apples:  Whitney,  Hyslop,  Isham. 
CHERrxiEs:  If  near  the  influence  of  the  water,  Eichmond,  Montmorency,  English 

Morello,  Orel  25  and  Ostheim. 
Plums  : 

European:  Glass,  Lombard,   Pond,   Trabesh    (Eussian),   Goliath    (Eussian). 

Americana:  Cheney,  Wolf,  Hawkeye,  Stoddard,  City. 
Grapes:  Campbell,  Moore,  Winchell,  Janesville. 
Currants : 

Black:  Saunders,  Champion,  Victoria. 

Bed:  Dutch,  Versaillaise. 

White:  Grape. 
Gooseberries:  Golden  Prolific,  Pearl,  Downing,  Eed  Jacket,  Champion. 
Easpberries  : 

Bed:  Marlboro,  Louden. 

White:  Brinckle  Orange  (for  quantity  only). 
Strawberries  :  Clyde,  Haverland,  Glen  Mary,  Brandywine. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 


PCTBLISHED  BY  THE  ONTARIO  DEPARTMENT  OF  AgrICULTUEE,  TOBONTO. 


Serial 
No. 


Date. 


Title. 


Author. 


167  Oct.       1908      Mitchell-Walker  Moisture  Test |  w.'o'.  Walker!" 

168  Oct       1908      The  Perennial  Sow  Thistle  and  some  other 

Weed  Pests   J.  E.  Howitt. 

169  Feb.       1909      Legume  Bacteria:  Further  Studies  of  Nitro-  f  S.  F.  Edwards. 

gen  Accumulation  in  the  Leguminosae  . .  \  B.  Barlow. 

f  T    W    Mitohell 

170  Mar.       1909       Mitchell-Walker  Test  Bottle  |  ^    o_  Walker.' 

C  Insects  Affecting  Vegetables  C.  J.  S.  Bethune. 

171  April     1909  jp^^g^^  j^^,^,,^  Affecting  Vegetables  ....  {  J;  ^^i^^'Lm. 

172  May      1909      Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)   . . .  Dairy  School. 

173  Oct.       1909      Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

174  Dec.       1909      Farm  Under  drainage:  Does  it  Pay? W.  H.  Day, 

175  Dec.       1909      Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

176  Dec.       1909      Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees D.  H.  Jones. 

177  Dec.       1909      Lime-Sulphur  Wash  I  j^'  Qaesar. 

178  Dec.      1909       Character    and    Treatment    of    Swamp    or  )  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Muck   Soils    I  A.  E.  Slater. 

179  Feb.      1910      Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised )    Fruit  Branch 

(  "R.   "FTs-rcourt 

180  April     1910      Flour  and  Breadmaking  |  ^   ^    Purdy. 

181  June     1910      The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

182  July      1910      Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit   Branch. 

183  Aug.      1910      Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making  Dairy  Branch. 

184  Nov.      1910      Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

185  Nov.      1910      Little  Peach  Disease    L.  Caesar. 

186  Dec.       1910      Children:   Care  and  Training  J.  J.  Kelso. 

187  Jan.       1911      The  Codling  Moth L.  Caesar. 

188  April     1911      Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)    J.  E.  Howitt. 

189  May      1911      Farm  Poultry  (151  revised)    W.  R.  Graham. 

190  May      1911       Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

191  June     1911      Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

192  July      1911      Agricultural  Co-operation  S.  E.  Todd. 

193  Nov.      1911       Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

194  Dec.      1911      Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch. 

195  Jan.      1912       Insectides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised  (  h    L^Ful^mer. 

196  Jan.      1912      Tomatoes A.   G.   Turney. 

197  Feb.       1912      Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

198  Feb.      1912      Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

199  Feb.       1912       Onions   A.   McMeans. 

200  April     1912       Fruit  Juices  L.  Meunier. 

9M     TJtotT      1 01 9     \  Peach   Diseases    F.  M.  Clement. 

zui    May       ivii     I  pg^^,j^  Growing  in  Ontario   L.  Caesar. 

202  May      1912      Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

203  May      1912      Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  A.  McMeans. 

204  June     1912      Decay  of  the  Teeth  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

205  Sept.     1912       Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    . .    f 

Part  I.    Cheese-making  and  Butter-making  J  Staff  of  Dairy  SchooL 

206  Nov.     1912       Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   ..  1  Dairy  School. 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm \  ^ 

207  Dec.       1912       Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

208  Jan.       1913      Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  f  J.  H.  Hare. 

in   Ontario   County    \  T.  A.  Benson. 

209  March    1913     Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz. 

210  March  1913       Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.  F.  M.  Clement. 

211  March  1913      Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters...  Fruit  Branch 

(No.  179  revised.) 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT   BRANCH 


BULLETIN  212 


An  Orchard  Survey 

of  Dundas,  Stormont  and  Glengarry 


By 
F.  S.  REEVES,  B.S.A. 


as 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  APRIL,  1913 


BULLETIN  212]  [APRIL,  1913 

Ontario    Department    of    Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 


An  Orchard  Survey 

of  Dundas,  Stormont  and  Glengarry 

F.  S.  Reeves 

Eecognizing  the  importance  of  developing  the  apple  industry  in  these  and 
neighboring  counties,  the  Department  deemed  it  advantageous  to  prepare  this  survey 
in  order  to  show  what  had  been  accomplished,  and,  if  possible,  to  more  strongly 
demonstrate  what  may  be  achieved  by  developing  orchards  of  varieties  of  apples 
which  seem  to  be  especially  adapted  to  this  section,  and  which  at  the  same  time 
are  commanding  the  highest  prices  on  our  Canadian  markets.  To  do  this  every 
apple  orchard  was  visited  and  careful  notes  made  and  the  whole  information 
compiled  for  the  use  of  the  farmers  in  this  section. 

In  order  to  obtain  explicit  information  as  to  the  existing  orchard  conditions, 
a  farm-to-farm  survey  was  made.     Individual  ferms  for  each  orchard  were  used 
and  contained  the  following  information :  Owner's  name,  post:oflBce,  county,  location, 
township,  acres  in  farm,  acres  in  fruit,  number  and  age  of  bearing  trees,  acres 
bearing,  distances  of  planting,  number  and  age  of  non-bearing  trees,  acres  non- 
bearing,  site,  aspect,  planting  plan,  nature  of  other  crops  in  the  orchard,  varieties^ 
type  of  soil,  depth,  sub-soil,  drainage,  tillage — kind  and  frequency,  cover  crop,  num- 
ber of  years  tillage  and  sowing  of  cover  crop  has  been  practised,  kind  of  sod,,, 
number  of  years  in  sod,  method  of  treatment  of  sod;  fertilizers,— kind,  quantity 
and   frequency   applied;   pruning— time,   method,    frequency,    severity,   thinning; 
spraying— machinery,  mixtures  and  times  of  applying,  diseases,  insects,  present, 
condition  of  orchard,  packages  used,  where  and  by  whom  packing  was  done,  yields,, 
prices,  income  per  acre,  where  and  how  sold,  and  remarks  on  any  subject  pertaining 
to  the  orchard  not  contained  in  the  above.    Most  of  the  farmers  were  able  to  supply 
fairly  accurate  information,  so  that  the  data  gathered  can  be  relied  upon.  With  but 
few  exceptions,  no  farmers  kept  any  records  or  accounts  of  their  orchards,  and  for 
this  reason  prices  and  yields  for  two  years  back  only  were  obtainable,  as  beyond  tliat 
it  would  be  merely  guess  work  and  unreliable  as  subject  matter  for  this  survey.    In 
all,  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  orchards  were  visited,  and  as  much  time  as  was 
required  was  spent  with  all  farmers  who  showed  a  disposition  to  seek  any  informa- 
tion, or  could  be  induced  to  talk  of  their  experiences,  both  favorable  and  adverse,  of 
the  apple  industry. 

Tekeitoet  Coveeed. 

The  territory  covered  is  the  first  concession  bordering  along  the  north  bank  of 
the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver  from  Summerstown  in  Glengarry  County  to  the  western 


2 

boundary  of  Dundas  County,  a  distance  of  about  forty-five  miles,  and  a  portion  of 
Matilda  Township,  in  Dundas  County,  extending  back  from  the  river  four  or  five 
miles.  This  territory  was  chosen  because  it  was  the  most  accessible,  and  where  the 
greatest  number  of  orchards  could  be  visited  in  the  least  time.  It  is  not  to  be 
inferred  that  this  district  is  better  for  the  growing  of  apples,  because  fruit  of  the 
best  quality  is  being  produced  fifteen  to  twenty  miles  from  the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver ; 
in  fact,  all  the  well-drained  lands  throughout  the  whole  three  counties  are  equally 
well  adapted  to  the  culture  of  apples. 


Eesults  in  the  Best  Orchards. 

Some  idea  of  the  profits  of  fruit  growing  in  this  section  may  be  gathered  from 
the  examples  of  a  few  orchards :  Ernest  Farlinger,  Morrisburg,  sold  his  crop  on 
the  trees  from  one  and  one-third  acres  of  orchard  containing  forty-three  Mcintosh 
Eed  trees  and  three  Wealthys,  for  $400  in  1910,  and  for  $225  in  1911.  Elory 
Casselman,  Dundela,  sold  his  crop  on  the  trees  from  four  acres  of  orchard  contain- 
ing all  Mcintosh  Eed  trees  for  $350  in  1910  and  for  $550  in  1911.  Harold  Willard, 
Morrisburg,  sold  his  crop  from  two  acres  of  orchard  for  $350  in  1910.'  W.  Gr. 
Eobertson,  of  Iroquois,  has  an  orchard  of  three  acres,  and  the  varieties  grown  are 
Fameuse,  Mcintosh  Eed,  Eusset  and  Ben  Davis.  Prior  to  1900,  when  Mr.  Eobert- 
son came  to  the  place,  the  orchard  had  been  neglected,  but  after  being  pruned  and 
sprayed  it  soon  became  profitable.  In  1908  he  sold  his  crop  for  $290,  in  1909  for 
$516,  and  in  1910  for  $340.  "  The  1911  crop  at  this  date  is  not  sold.  These  orchards 
the  past  two  years  have  been  sprayed  systematically  with  lime-sulphur.  Previous  to 
1910,  Mr.  Eobertson  sprayed  with  Bordeaux  Mixture.  Dr.  Harkness,  of  Irena,  has 
a  six  acre  orchard  of  Fameuse  and  Mcintosh  Eed  set  out  by  himself  in  1871  and 
1872.  This  orchard  is  thoroughly  sprayed  each  year.  The  returns  for  several  years 
back  are  as  follows:  1905.  $1,§93;  1906,  $1,233;  1907,  $1,720;  1908,  $948;  1909, 
$1,383.  In  each  case  this  is  a.fter  paying  freight  and  commission.  Barrels  and 
work  average  from  $300  to  $400  a  year.  iVndrew  Fawcett,  Inkemian,  who  has  five 
acres  of  orchard,  sold  his  crop  on  the  trees  for  $900  in  1911,  but  in  1910  he  sold 
scarcely  any,  as  his  crop  was  ruined  by  the  apple  scab.  This  orchard  was  sprayed 
with  lime-sulphur  in  1911. 

The  table  below  compares  the  results  from  the  best  11  sprayed  and  pruned 
orchards,  against  the  best  11  unsprayed  and  unpruned  orchards. 


1910. 

1909. 

Number 

of 
orchards. 

•Number 

Average  per  acre. 

Bbls. 

Price 
per 
bbl. 

'Price 

per 

acre. 

Bbls. 

Price 
per 
bbl. 

Price 
per 
acre. 

of 
acres. 

Unsprayed    and    un- 
pruned orchards . . . 

Sprayed    and   pruned 
orchards  

24 
52 

$    c. 
2.22 

8.80 

$     c. 
53.34 

172.00 

39 

58 

$   c. 
1.60 

2.87 

$    c. 
62.20 

165.46 

11 
11 

51 

38 

Possibilities. 

Climatic  and  Topographical. — ^There  is  no  question  about  the  fact  that  the 
climate  and  topography  is  suited  to  the  production  of  apples  of  first-class  quality, 
of  certain  varieties.     It  is  beyond  the  experimental  stage.     Some  few  orchards 


where  good  cultural  methods  are  practised  are  producing  good  crops  annually,  and 
have  been  doing  so  for  a  large  number  of  years.  This  is  the  home  of  the  Mcintosh 
Eed  apple,  and  nowhere  in  the  world  is  it  grown  to  greater  perfection  and  of  better 
quality. 

In  the  portions  of  Dundas  County  covered  by  this  survey,  the  land  lies  fairly 
level  or  gently  undulating;  while  in  the  portions  of  Stormont  and  Glengarry  it  is 
of  a  rolling  nature,  the  country  being  traversed  east  and  west  by  gravelly  glacial 
moraines.  The  slopes  of  these  ridges  offer  ideal  sites  for  apple  orchards,  but  in  the 
more  level  parts  of  the  counties  a  good  deal  of  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  selection 
of  the  site  for  an  orchard. 

Transportation. — There  is  no  lack  of  transportation  facilities  east  and  west. 
The  Grand  Trunk  railroad  traverses  the  whole  three  counties  about  a  mile  north 
of  the  river,  and  the  Canadian  Pacific  railroad  about  eighteen  miles  further  north. 
The  St.  Lawrence  river  affords  an  excellent  means  of  transportation  by  water,  being 
in  direct  communication  with  Montreal,  itself  a  large  market,  and  the  port  for 
direct  ocean  trans-shipment  to  the  O^d  Country  markets.  Fruit  could  be  loaded  at 
various  points  every  four  or  five  miles  along  the  river  and  taken  direct  to  Montreal, 
landing  there  in  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  hours  after  shipment.  The  New  York 
and  Ottawa  railroad  traverses  Stormont  County  north  and  south,  here  opening  up 
a  good  deal  of  country  and  giving  better  communication  with  the  east  and  west  lines 
and  with  Ottawa.  There  are  great  possibilities  for  an  electric  railroad  running 
in  the  same  direction  further  west  in  Dundas  County,  and  should  such  an  under- 
taking be  consummated  it  would  have  a  great  influence  in  reviving  orchard  culture 
in  that  part  of  the  county.  But  the  best  and  cheapest  transportation  is  by  water, 
and  no,  doubt  were  fruit  shipped  in  larger  quantities  an  excellent  service  would  be 
developed  on  the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver,  for  at  the  present  time  there  are  many  local 
freight  and  passenger  boats  plying  up  and  down  the  river  which  would  welcome  an 
opportunity  of  handling  fruit  to  Montreal  if  it  were  offered  in  large  enough  quan- 
tities. The  New  York  and  Ottawa  railroad  opens  up  a  line  of  communication 
directly  into  the  heart  of  Kew  York  State  and  to  New  York  City.  Waddington  in 
New  York  State  is  connected  with  Morrisburg  by  ferry,  and  is  in  direct  communica- 
tion with  the  New  York  Central  lines. 

ft 

Labor. — ^This  problem  is  one  of  the  most  perplexing  questions  confronting  the 
farmers  of  Ontario,  and  is  no  less  acute  in  this  district  than  elsewhere.  The  farms 
have  been  depleted  of  their  youth  by  the  rapid  growth  of  Western  Canada,  and  the 
general  exodus  cityward.  Perhaps  this  is  a  good  sign  of  the  prosperity  of  Canada, 
and  a  good  thing  for  the  country  as  a  whole,  as  it  signifies  good  opportunities  for 
young  men  and  the  rapid  growth  of  the  country.  But  it  has  worked  havoc  on  the 
farms  of  this  district.  Everywhere  is  heard  the  same  plaint,  "  The  boys  have  gone 
west  or  to  the  city  and  we  cannot  get  help."  In  consequence,  something  must  be 
neglected,  and  invariably  the  first  thing  neglected  is  the  orchard.  There  is  a 
remedy  for  this  state  of  affairs,  and  it  must  be  approached  in  an  unbiased  state  of 
mind.  Men  can  procure  higher  wages  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  naturally 
they  go  there.  In  the  first  place,  they  should  receive  better  pay  on  the  Ontario 
farms  so  that  they  would  not  be  so  easily  enticed  away.  Most  farmers  expect  the 
men  to  work  very  long  hours  for  a  wage  much  below  that  paid  in  other  lines  of 
business.  Farmers  are  receiving  more  for  their  produce  now  than  formerly,  and 
especially  is  this  true  of  the  fruit  products;  therefore  they  should  be  able  to  pay 
better  wages.  The  more  progressive  farmers,  however,  find  that  it  pays  them  to  pay 
better  wages  and  treat  their  men  well ;  they  get  more  intelligent  work,  done  with  ^ 


better  spirit  and  feeling  towards  the  employer.  But  the  greatest  difficulty  seems  to 
be  in  getting  men  at  all ;  therefore,  an  effort  should  be  made  to  get  men  from  else- 
where. The  system  of  building  cottages  and  employing  more  married  men — men 
who  are  less  roving  in  their  disposition,  and  hence  will  not  leave  for  every  little 
difficulty  that  arises — is  a  system  worthy  of  trial  and  one  that  should  be  encouraged, 
as  it  partly  solves  the  social  side  of  the  problem,  besides  having  other  advantages 
both  for  the  employer  and  employee. 

Pruit  culture  works  well  in  connection  with  dairying,  a  good  deal  of  the  work 
coming  at  a  time  when  other  farm  work  is  not  so  pressing.  The  pruning  can  all  be 
done  in  the  late  winter,  when  the  weather  is  not  too  disagreeable.  Thus  it  has  a 
tendency  to  provide  work  all  the  year  round  on  the  farm,  the  lack  of  which  is  partly 
responsible  for  the  system  of  hiring  men  for  the  summer  only  and  leaving  them  to 
seek  other  employment  during  the  winter.  The  consequence  of  this  practice  is  felt 
in  the  spring,  by  the  reluctance  of  men  to  engage  to  work  on  the  farm  when  they 
know  that  as  the  next  winter  approaches  they  will  have  to  turn  to  the  town  again 
for  work. 

MarTcets. — Most  of  the  fruit  that  is  not  consumed  locally  goes  to  Montreal  or 
Ottawa,  while  a  small  percentage  is  shipped  direct  to  Europe.  In  Montreal  and 
Ottawa  there  is  an  ever  extending  and  growing  market,  close  at  home,  with  easy  and 
quick  transportation  facilities.  These  are  the  natural  markets  for  this  district,  and 
besides  there  are  excellent  shipping  facilities  at  the  port  of  Montreal  for  the  Old 
Country  markets.  There  are  also  great  possibilities  for  building  up  United  States 
markets  for  the  best  grade  of  winter  apples.  New  York,  Boston,  and  all  the  New 
England  manufacturing  towns  are  within  easy  reach,  and  as  yet  the  Canadian  apple 
is  almost  unknown  in  those  markets. 

Land  Values. — Along  the  river  front,  the  value  of  improved  land  varies  from 
$60  to  $100  per  acre,  and  about  the  same  price  prevails  in  the  back  concessions. 

The  whole  of  this  land  is  not  adapted  for  the  location  of  apple  orchards,  but  an 
average  of  twenty- five  per  cent,  of  the  land  is  so  adapted ;  and  taking  the  farm  as  a 
whole  the  price  is  very  reasonable,  and  perhaps  may  be  considered  a  little  low  if 
the  possibilities  of  fruit  growing  are  taken  into  consideration.  From  the  results  of 
the  well-managed  orchards  quoted  in  the  opening  of  this  report,  farms  with  good 
orchards  may  be,  with  a  very  conservative  estimate,  valued  at  four  or  five  times 
their  present  value. 

Eecommendations. 

Size  of  Orchards. — The  average  size  of  the  orchards  is  about  an  acre  in  extent, 
very  rarely  was  one  encountered  of  four  or  five  acres,  while  there  are  a  few  about 
eight  or  ten  acres,  and  two  orchards  only  of  fourteen  acres.  These  two  are  young 
orchards  partly  one  and  partly  two  years  old.  The  majority  of  the  orchards 
are  not  full,  and  very  little  attempt  is  made  to  replace  dead  trees,  so  that 
in  a  few  years  a  great  m.any  orchards  will  become  fields  with  a  few  trees  scattered 
about  them,  unless  a  revival  of  the  orchard  industry  takes  place.  There  are  approxi- 
mately 19,396  bearing  trees  and  6,368  non-bearing  trees  in  this  district. 

In  order  to  make  orcharding  profitable  and  interesting,  it  should  be  taken  up 
on  a  scale  that  will  give  the  grower  good  returns  and  make  it  profitable  to  install  all 
the  latest  improvements  for  its  handling.  Also,  he  should  grow  fruit  of  one  variety 
in  large  enough  quantities  that  he  can  demand  the  attention  of  buyers  as  a  factor  in 
the  market.  This  means  that  shipping  must  be  done  by  the  car-load,  and  wherever 
possible  they  should  be  of  one  variety.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  one 
variety  only  should  be  grown,  but  that  the  varieties  should  be  grown  in  large  ejiough 


quantities  to  ship  each  by  the  car  load.  These  ends  will  best  be  gained  by  an  orchard 
of  at  least  five  acres  in  extent,  and  the  larger  they  are,  the  better,  up  to  a  reasonable 
size  for  the  management  of  one  individual,  and  that  limit  depends  upon  the  business 
ability  of  the  grower. 

Soils  and  Locations.— Tiie  apple  thrives  on  a  variety  of  types  of  soil.  In  this 
section  they  are  thriving  and  giving  good  results  on  all  gradations  from  heavy  clay 
to  light  sandy  and  gravelly  soils.  But  they  must  be  all  well  underdrained,  either 
naturally  or  artificially.  To  use  a  common  expression,  "An  apple  tree  mil  not 
thrive  with  wet  feet,"  and  this  will  soon  become  evident  where  a  grower  tries  to 
grow  an  orchard  on  poorly  drained  soil. 

Air  drainage  is  also  a  very  important  factor  in  location,  and  for  these  reasons 
it  will  be  wise  to  select  land  that  lies  high  and  dry,  and  if  the  soil  is  in  the  least 
retentive  of  moisture  in  its  character  it  should  be  underdrained.  Air  drainage  is 
important  because  the  trees  will  not  thrive  in  stagnant  air  and  because  of  the  danger 
of  late  spring  and  early  fall  frosts ;  therefore  it  may  be  emphasized  that  the  location 
should  have  good  air  as  well  as  water  drainage.  Along  the  St.  Lawrence  Eiver  front 
the  air  drainage  is  good,  as  the  proximity  of  the  water  and  the  rapid  current  serves 
to  keep  the  air  always  in  motion;  even  on  the  stillest  nights  there  will  always  be  a 
current  of  air  towards  the  water  and  flowing  along  with  the  current. 

Varieties. — There  is  a  great  number  of  varieties  planted  in  this  district,  but  the 
majority  of  them  have  little  or  no  commercial  value. 

The  following  is  a  list  found  growing  in  this  section:  Salome,  Bietigheimer, 
Pine,  Tolman,  Fall  Pippin,  Eusset,  Mcintosh,  Duchess,  Fameuse,  Astraclian,  St. 
lyawrence,  Ben  Davis,  Greening,  Wealti^.y,  Alexander,  Mann,  Tetosky,  Stark,  Twenty 
Ounce,  Peach,  Baxter,  Spitzenburg,  Maiden  Blush,  Gideon,  Haas,  Yellow  Trans- 
parent, Spy,  Blue  Pearmain,  Blenheim,  Langford,  Broekville  Beauty,  Bellflower, 
Canada  Red,  Pewaukee,  Baldwin,  Early  Harvest,  Milwaukee,  Wagener,  Seek,  Wolf 
River,  Whitney. 

It  will  easily  be  seen  on  glancing  at  the  above  list  that  these  varieties  must  have  • 
only  been  planted  in  very  small  numhers.     Nevertheless  it  bears  out  the  fact  that 
there  must  be  a  great  future  for  the  production  of  apples  of  suitable  varieties  which 
have  been  found  to  be  the  best  in  this  section. 

A  list  is  hereby  given  of  the  varieties  recommended  for  this  section  by  the 
Department  of  Agriculture: — 

Transparent,  Lowland-Raspherry,  Duchess,  St.  Lawrence,  Wealthy,  Alexander, 
Mcintosh,  Fameuse,  Wolf,  Milwaukee,  Baxter,  Scott,  Scarlet  Pippin,  Tolman. 

Crab  Apples:    Whitney,  Martha,  Hyslop. 

The  best  varieties  for  the  district  are:  Mcintosh  Red,  Fameuse  or  Snow,, 
Scarlet  Pippin,  and  Wealthy  for  commercial  purposes,  while  a  few  other  select 
varieties  may  be  grown  in  small  quantities  for  domestic  use.  The  Mcintosh  Red  is 
the  best  apple  suited  to  this  climate  and  locality.  It  is  an  early  winter  apple  of  good 
color,  large  size,  excellent  quality,  good  packer,  good  shipper,  and  keeps  until  March 
and  April.  It  is  well  known  in  all  markets  and  commands  the  highest  price.  The 
Fameuse  is  perhaps  the  best  known  apple  in  eastern  Ontario.  The  Scarlet  Pippin 
is  not  so  well  known,  but  is  highly  recommended  by  successful  fruit  growers  of  this 
locality.  It  is  a  good  shipper  and  keeper,  being  at  its  best  in  January.  These  three 
varieties  are  early  winter  apples.  The  Wealthy,  a  fall  apple,  is  well  known  on  the 
markets.  It  is  large,  of  good  color,  a  good  shipper  and  packer  and  of  good  quality; 
its  season  is  from  Octoher  to  January.  The  Duchess  is  another  good  fall  variety, 
ripening  in  the  latter  part  of  August,  but  its  keeping  qualities  are  not  good,  it 


6 

being  rather  a  precarious  crop  to  handle,  although  its  beauty  in  color  commands  for 
it  the  top  prices  on  the  market. 

Nursery  Stock. — The  nursery  stock  planted  the  last  few  years  has  been  of 
'•nther  poor  quality,  with  crooked  and  ill-shaped  trunks  and  poorly  formed  heads, 
and  a  great  percentage  of  them  three  or  four  year  old  trees.  But  that  has  been  the 
least  of  its  faults.  Much  bitter  reproach  has  been  hurled  at  the  nursery  stock 
peddlers  who  sold  trees  for  standard  varieties,  and  when  they  came  into  bearing 
they  turned  out  to  be  anything  but  what  was  ordered,  and  invariably  were  common, 
worthless  trash  of  no  commercial  value  •  whatever.  The  orchard  business  has  lost 
many  good  supporters  on  this  account,  who,  through  lack  of  knowledge  of  reliable 
firms  and  of  details  with  regard  to  the  purchase  of  nursery  stock,  have  become  dis- 
gusted and  neglected  their  opportunities  in  apple-growing. 

A  few  farmers  should  act  together  to  buy  nursery-stock.  They  should  make 
investigations  as  to  the  best  and  most  reliable  firms,  and  then  send  a  man  to  the 
nursery  to  inspect  the  stock  he  is  buying  and  make  a  bargain  for  a  large  quantity ; 
thus  the  farmers  will  be  sure  of  getting  good  trees  and  in  good  condition.  By  buy- 
ing co-operatively,  a  cheaper  rate  will  be  secured,  the  freight  will  be  comparatively 
less,  and  with  large  shipments  packing  will  be  done  better  and  delivery  will  be  more 
prompt.  But  most  important  of  all,  they  will  be  able  to  rely  upon  the  trees  being 
true  to  name. 

Strong  unbranehed.  whips  are  the  best  trees  to  plant,  but  they  must  have  dili- 
gent and  intelligent  care,  because  they  are  young  and  almost  invisible,  one  might 
say,  after  they  are  planted  in  the  field,  and  will  suffer  more  from  neglect  than  other 
trees.  Two  year  old  trees  are  very  good,  but  older  trees  should  not  be  bought,  as  they 
are  frequently  culls  and  left-over  stock  of  a  nursery.  Good  nursery  stock  should 
be  healthy,  well-grown,  free  from  all  insects  or  insect  injury  and  disease.  The 
straight  whip  should  be  five  or  six  feet  in  height  with  a  good,  well-branched  root 
system,  and  a  large  percentage  of  small  fibrous  roots.  The  two  year  old  tree  should 
have  a  well  branched  and  evenly  balanced  head,  formed  between  two  and  three  feet 
above  the  roots,  so  thait  when  it  is  planted  the  head  will  be  one  and  a  half  to  two  and 
a  half  feet  above  the  ground,  and  it  should  have  the  same  character  of  root  system 
as  the  unbranehed  whip. 

Distance  Apart  por  Planting. 

The  greatest  objection  to  the  old  orchards  throughout  this  section  is  that  they 
were  planted  too  closely  together,  the  distance  varying  from  15  x  15  to  20  x  24,  with 
a  few  exceptions  where  the  trees  were  planted  30  x  30.  Th  result  of  this  close  plant- 
ing has  been  to  force  the  trees  up,  making  the  operations  of  picking,  spraying  and 
pruning  more  expensive  and  inadequate,  and  at  the  same  time  lessening  the  pro- 
duction of  marketable  fruit.  The  trees  in  an  apple  orchard  should  be  set  far  enough 
apart  to  allow  the  full  development  of  the  tree  without  crowding,  and  in  no  case 
s'hould  standard  long  lived  trees  be  planted  less  than  35  feet  apart  both  ways. 
Varieties  which  are  slow  growing  and  do  not  attain  such  a  growth  as  the  Mcintosh, 
and  are  more  like  the  Wealthy  and  Duchess,  may  be  planted  at  a  lesser  distance,  and 
even  tben  must  be  kept  in  hounds  by  means  of  pruning. 

Management  of  Young  Orchards. 

Planting. — Over  the  portion  of  Dundas  County  covered  by  this  survey  there 
has  been  a  great  revival  of  orchard  planting  in  the  past  year^or  two,  and  at  the 
present  time  there  is  a  large  number  of  young  trees  sold  for  next  year's  planting. 


This  in  a  large  measure,  in  the  writer's  opinion,  is  the  result  of  the  stimulus  started 
by  the  demonstration  work  done  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  near  and  around 
Morrisburg  during  the  last  two  years.  In  the  other  two  counties  only  one  or  two 
new  orchards  have  been  planted,  and  they  are  of  small  extent.  The  planting  as  a 
rule  has  been  poorly  done,  although  a  few  of  the  planters  understood  their  work. 
Many  trees  have  been  planted  too  shallow,  and  very  little  or  no  pruning  has  been 
done  at  the  time  of  planting. 

The  trees  should  be  planted  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  the  weather  and  soil  con- 
ditions will  permit.  A  large  hole  two  feet  in  diameter  and  a  foot  deep  should  be 
dug,  pkcing  the  top  soil  in  one  pile  and  the  bottom  soil  in  another.  The  roots 
should  be  all  pruned  back  to  a'bout  six  inches  long  and  all  dead  and  injured  roots 
taken  off  back  to  healthy  tissue;  they  should  be  spread  out  evenly  in  the  hole  and  a 
little  top  soil  work  in  around  them  by  hand.  The  soil  should  be  tramped  in  around 
the  tree  as  fii-mly  as  possible,  and  the  tops  pruned  back  to  balance  them  up  with  the 
roots.  If  the  tree  is  a  straight  whip,  the  top  should  be  cut  off  about  two  feet  ahove 
the  ground,  and  the  two  year  old  trees  should  be  pruned  back  to  three  or  four  main 
limbs,  and  these  again  pruned  to  six  or  eight  inches  long.  No  watering  should  be 
necessary,  hut  if  the  planting  season  should  be  unseasonably  hot  and  dry,  as  the  past 
one  has  been,  water  should  be  used.  Apply  it  just  above  the  roots  and  not  on  top  of 
the  ground.     See  that  surface  soil  around  the  tree  is  left  loose. 

Cultivation. — Fifty-five  per  cent,  of  the  young  orchards  have  been  cropped  with 
corn  or  potatoes  between  the  trees,  eight  per  cent,  were  sown  to  grain,  while  thirty- 
seven  per  cent,  were  planted  in  sod.  With  young  orchards,  it  is  in  the  interest  of 
economy  to  raise  other  crops  between  the  rows  of  trees,  but  upon  no  consideration 
should  these  crops  he  allowed  to  encroach  upon  the  trees.  The  youno-  trees  when 
first  planted  should  have  at  least  three  feet  each  side  of  them  which  should  be  kept 
cultivated  so  as  to  secure  a  dust  mulch  that  will  conserve  the  moisture.  This  dis- 
tance should  be  increased  yearly  as  the  trees  increase  in  size  and  require  the  ground. 
Cultivation  should  continue  once  a  week  or  after  every  rain  during  the  summer  up 
until  the  15th  of  June,  when  it  should  cease  and  a  cover  crop  be  sown  at  the  last  cul- 
tivation. Those  trees  that  were  cultivated  with  the  corn  or  potatoes  have  made  an 
average  of  a  foot  and  a  half  growth  during  the  season ;  those  in  the  sod  grew  about 
half  as  much.  Those  planted  amongst  the  grain  liave  made  a  little  growth,  and  in 
some  cases  no  more  than  kept  alive,  while  a  larger  percentage  of  them  have  died.  A 
cultivated  crop  is  hest  to  grow  in  the  young  orchard,  as  then  there  will  be  a  better 
chance  to  give  the  trees  thorough  cultivation ;  and  about  once  in  three  or  four  year? 
clover  or  some  other  leguminous  crop  should  be  grown  as  a  cover  crop  to  add  humus 
and  nitrogen  to  the  soil,  unless  liberal  coatings  of  manure  are  worked  in  annually 
or  biennially. 

It  has  been  strongly  recommended  by  the  largest  growei's,  and  by  Professor 
Macoun,  of  Ottawa,  that  bearing  orchards  should  be  kept  in  sod,  which  should  be 
occasionally  broken  up  and  then  re-seeded.  This  practice  is  to  ensure  necessai-y 
protection  from  winter  injury,  which  is  a  great  factor  in  this  section. 

Fertilizing. — ^The  majority  of  orchards  have  had  ample  manure  applied  to 
them,  but  it  has  not  been  applied  in  the  right  manner.  In  a  great  many  cases  it 
is  piled  around  the  trees  and  up  against  them,  and  is  sometimes  taken  from  the 
trunks  and  sometimes  left  there  over  winter.  Most  farmers,  however,  realize  the 
danger  from  mice  in  this  latter  practice,  although  they  pile  against  the  tree  in 
summer.  Their  arguments  are  that  it  retains  moisture  around  the  tree  abd  saves 
hand-hoeing  the  weeds  from  around  the  trunks. 


8 

The  manure  should  be  spread  around  the  same  way  as  for  any  other  crop  and 
worked  into  the  soil,  but,  of  course,  it  must  be  applied  within  reach  of  the  roots  of 
the  young  tree.  The  roots  usually  extend  farther  than  the  branches.  It  is  a  mis- 
taken idea  that  the  manure  should  be  applied  close  around  the  trunks,  because  the 
most  of  the  feeding  roots  of  the  tree  a;re  at  the  ends  of  the  larger  roots,  although  a 
small  proportion  of  them  are  distributed  all  along  the  main  roots. 

Artificial  fertilizers,  with  the  exception  of  wood  ashes,  are  not  used  at  all.  A 
few  farmers  are  using  their  wood  ashes  on  the  orchard,  but  they  apply  them  the 
same  way  as  they  do  the  barnyard  manure.  Wood  ashes  should  be  applied  about  the 
rate  of  fifty  bushels  per  acre  and  should  be  spread  and  worked  in  the  same  way  as 
the  manure.  Young  trees  should  not  require  heavy  fertilizing  every  year.  If  they 
are  making  good  growth  of  two  or  three  feet  of  new  wood  and  look  healthy,  with  a 
dark  green  hue  to  their  foliage,  they  have  sufficient  of  the  elements  available  in  the 
soil  for  their  immediate  use. 

Pruning. — This  is  a  feature  of  orchard  work  that  has  been  absolutely  neglected 
in  the  care  of  young  orchards,  with  the  exception  of  the  little  pruning  some  of  the 
trees  receive  at  planting  time. 

The  young  trees  should  be  carefully  pruned  and  trained  each  year.  A  few 
principles  may  be  in  place  here,  but  there  is  no  stated  rule  to  lay  down,  and  the 
[>runer  must  rely  largely  upon  his  own  judgment.  In  the  first  place  he  must  have 
an  ideal  and  prune  intelligently,  always  with  that  ideal  in  view.  All  crossing,  weak 
and  ill-formed  limbs  should  be  taken  out,  and  no  weak  crotches  left  that  will  in 
after  years  break  down  with  the  load  of  fruit.  The  head  should  be  kept  fairly  well 
thinned,  so  that  there  may  be  free  circulation  of  air  and  sun  through,  and  so  that 
the  tree  will  not  be  induced  to  grow  too  higli,  as  it  will  surely  do  if  allowed  to 
become  too  dense,  when  the  lower  limbs  will  die  from  lack  of  sun  and  air.  The 
height  of  heading  a  tree  is  a  point  for  much  controversy,  but,  if  the  fact  that  the 
limbs  of  a  low-headed  tree  will  tend  to  grow  upward,  is  borne  in  mind,  it  will  easily 
be  seen  that  the  limbs  of  a  low-headed  tree  v/ill  interfere  with  cultivation  no  more 
than  those  of  a  high-headed  tree,  as  these  latter  will  grow  out  and  tend  to  droop  to 
the  ground.  The  advantages  are  obviously  greater  in  performing  every  other  opera- 
tion on  the  low-headed  tree  than  on  the  high-headed  tree. 

Effect  of  Winds. — Many  of  the  young  trees  have  become  badly  distorted  by  the 
prevailing  winds  where  they  are  exposed  to  its  full  force.  The  whole  tree  becomes 
lop-sided  and  leans  badly  to  the  east,  and  the  new  growth  each  year  is  blown  up  and 
turned  towards  the  centre  of  the  tree,  thus  making  the  top  unbalanced  and  the 
^'entre  too  dense.  If  the  orchard  is  not  naiurally  sheltered  from  the  prevailing  wind, 
a  wind-break  of  spruce,  pine,  or  cedar  should  be  planted  on  the  north  and  west  sides, 
about  the  same  time  the  apple  trees  are  planted;  these  will  grow  at  the  same  rate  or 
a  little  faster  than  the  apple  trees,  and  will  protect  them  from  the  full  fury  of  the 
north-west  and  westerly  gales.  It  is  a  good  practice  when  planting  the  orchard  to 
slightly  lean  the  trees  against  the  prevailing  wind,  and  they  will  straighten  up  later 
under  the  influence  of  the  wind. 

Pests. — Most  of  the  young  orchards  were  badly  attacked  with  the  Oyster-shell 
scale  or  Oyster-shell  bark  louse,  the  apple  aphis,  and  in  some  cases,  the  Buffalo  tree 
hopper.  The  disease  known  as  the  apple  tree  canker  was  also  found,  even  in  one 
vear  planted  orchards.  Young  trees  attacked  by  the  Oyster-shell  scale  should  be 
sprayed  with  lime-sulphur,  either  commercial  or  home-made,  of  a  strength  of  one 
gallon  to  nine  or  ten  of  water,  before  the  leaf  buds  burst.  The  Buffalo  tree  hopper 
is  best  controlled  by  cultivation,  and  any  diseased  areas  should  be  cut  out  and 
destroyed  by  burning.  , 


I 

Management  of  Bearing  Orchards. 

Every  orchard  should  be  sprayed  at  least  four  times  each  season: — 

1.  With  lime-sulphur,  commercial  or  home-made,  diluted  1  to  9  or  10  of  water, 
and  applied  just  before  the  leaf  buds  open.  No  poison  is  necessary.  This  applica- 
tion Id  lis  oyster-shell  scale,  blistermite,  hud  moth,  and  helps  to  ward  off  cankers  and 
apple  scab. 

2.  With  lime-sulphur,  commercial  or  home-made,  diluted  1  to  40  of  water  and 
two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  per  barrel  as  a  poison,  applied  just  before  the  blos- 
some  open.  This  application  destroys  all  feeding  caterpillars,  such  as  American 
tent  caterpillars,  canker  worms,  case  bearers,  and  bud  moths,  and  helps  to  control 
apple  scab  and  cankers. 

3.  Immediately  after  the  blossoms  fall  and  'before  the  calyces  close,  using  the 
same  mixture  as  in  No.  2.  This  application  is  chiefly  for  the  control  of  the  codling 
moth  and  apple  scab,  but  also  helps  control  the  lesser  apple  worm  and  curculio. 

4.  The  fourth  application  about  two  weeks  after  No.  3,  using  the  same  mix- 
ture. This  application  is  chiefly  for  the  control  of  the  apple  scab,  and  also  for  any 
leaf-eating  insects  that  may  have  escaped  the  other  sprays. 

Fuller  information  on  spraying  can  be  obtained  from  Mr.  E.  P.  Bradt, 
B.S.A.,  District  Eepresentative  of  the  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Morris- 
burg. 

Diseases. — The  apple  tree  canker  is  found  in  every  orchard  and  a  few  cases  of 
nectaria  canker  and  collar  rot  have  also  been  found.  These  cankered  areas  should 
be  cut  out  back  to  good  healthy  bark  and  tissue,  the  wound  disinfected  with  corrosive 
sublimate — 1  to  1,000 — or  carbolic  acid,  and  then  covered  with  a  coat  of  pure  paint. 
If  the  canker  has  girdled  a  whole  limb  or  is  on  a  small  limb  it  may  be  cut  off.  All 
cankered  wood  should  be  destroyed  by  burning. 

Pruning. — This  is  probably  the  first  thing  that  should  be  improved  in  orchard 
practice  in  these  three  counties.  Practically  all  the  pruning  has  amounted  to  is  the 
cutting  out  of  dead  limbs  and  those  that  interfere  with  cultivation.  In  those 
orchards  that  are  in  sod  the  lower  limbs  are  destroyed  by  stock.  As  a  consequence 
of  this  method  of  pruning  a  great  majority  of  the  trees  have  become  very  high,  with 
long  scaffold  branches,  and  with  only  a  small  fruit-bearing  area  over  the  top. 

A  little  judgment  is  all  that  is  necessary  in  pnming  a  bearing  orchard.  The 
tree  should  be  kept  fairly  thin  in  the  top  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  sun  and  air 
through  it,  and  to  produce  full  maturity  of  the  fruit  on  all  parts  of  the  tree.  Narrow 
and  weak  crotches  should  not  be  left  wherever  it  can  be  avoided,  as  they  often  break 
down  under  their  load  of  fruit,  causing  a  bad  gap  in  that  part  of  the  tree  which  will 
take  many  years  to  fill  up  again  with  new  wood.  All  crossing,  diseased  and  deformed 
limbs  should  be  taken  out  and  the  pruner  should  always  endeavor  to  keep  the  top  of 
the  tree  well  balanced  and  symmetrical  in  form. 

Culture. — It  might  be  said  that  most  all  the  bearing  orchards  are  in  sod,  as  only 
seven  per  cent,  of  them  are  cultivated,  and  of  those  only  two  or  three  in  the  whole 
district  covered  by  the  survey  are  clean  cultivated  and  a  cover  crop  sown. 

Nevertheless,  one  successful  orchardist  of  this  district  prefers  to  have  his 
orchard  in  sod  after  it  is  ten  years  of  age,  although  he  frankly  admits  that  a  culti- 
vated orchard  will  yield  larger  crops  than  an  uncultivated  one,  and  strongly  advo- 
cates the  cultivation  of  young  orchards.  His  reasons  are  that  an  orchard  that  is  well 
manured,  sprayed  and  pruned  will  give  good  yields  while  in  sod,  and  that  about  once 
in  every  twenty  years  we  get  a  severe  winter  which  will  injure  the  trees  if  the  orchard 
is  cultivated. 


10 

The  cover  crops  u>sually  sown  are  clover,  hairy  vetch,  common  vetch,  peas,  rye, 
and  huckwheat.  The  clover,  peas,  common  vetch,  and  hairy  vetch  are  plants  of  the 
legume  family,  and  add  nitrogen  as  well  as  humus  to  the  soil ;  while  rye  and  buck- 
wheat serve  the  purpose  of  retarding  the  wood  growth  of  the  trees  in  the  fall  and 
add  humus,  they  are  not  nitrogen-producing  plants  and  do  not  supply  any  actual 
fertility.  The  common  vetch  is  recommended  as  the  best  cover  crop  to  grow.  It 
makes  a  dense  matted  growth  over  the  ground  and  serves  to  help  hold  the  snow  in 
winter,  which  protects  the  roots  from  severe  freezing.  Common  vetch  must  not  he 
confused  with  hairy  vetch,  as  the  latter  lives  over  the  winter,  and  should  it  not  be 
plowed  in  the  spring  immediately  the  soil  conditions  will  permit,  will  commence  to 
grow  and  rob  the  trees  of  the  nourishment  that  they  require  early  in  the  spring. 

Fertilizers. — It  is  unnecessary  to  impress  the  importance  of  fertilizers,  as  every 
farmer  appreciates  the  necessity  of  applying  manure  to  the  trees,  but  it  is  done  in 
these  three  counties  in  a  very  haphazard  manner.  Some  have  applied  a  little  annu- 
ally, and  a  great  many  biennially,  while  a  few  men  have  applied  it  not  quite  so 
frequently.  The  manure,  and  wood  ashes  in  the  few  cases  where  the  latter  has  been 
used,  is  thrown  in  a  heap  around  and  close  to  the  trunks  of  the  trees.  The  manure 
when  heaped  in  this  way  around  tlie  tree  starts  to  ferment  and  generates  heat,  and 
besides  the  danger  of  harboring  mice,  will  cause  an  unhealthy  condition  of  the  bark 
around  the  root  collar,  which  provides  an  entrance  for  that  form  of  the  canker 
disease  known  as  collar  rot. 

For  these  bearing  orchards  the  manure  and  wood  ashes  should  be  spread  evenly 
over  the  ground  the  same  way  as  for  any  other  crop,  as  the  feeding  roots  of  these 
large  trees  extend  out  around  as  far  and  farther  than  the  limbs,  while  only  a  small 
proportion  of  them  are  upon  the  main  roots  near  the  trunk.  If  the  orchard  is  in 
sod,  a  liberal  coating  of  manure  should  be  applied  every  year.  But  if  it  is  cultivated, 
a  leguminous  cover  crop  plowed  down  every  third  year  and  a  coat  of  manure  every 
second  or  third  year  will  be  a  good  system  of  manuring.  In  this  section  of  country, 
where  dairying  is  practised  on  an  extensive  scale,  there  is  an  abundance  of  manure 
on  nearly  every  farm,  and  liberal  applications  could  be  applied  to  the  orchard  annu- 
ally without  fear  of  depleting  the  fertility  of  the  fami  for  the  benefit  of  the  orchard. 

The  use  of  artificial  fertilizers  should  be  undertaken  very  carefuUy,  and  too 
much  emphasis  cannot  be  put. upon  the  fact  that  artificial  fertilizers  will  give  their 
best  results  only  when  used  along  with  farmyard  manure,  and  that  it  should  never 
be  entirely  replaced  with  fertilizers ;  rather,  they  should  be  used  in  conjunction  with 
farmyard  manure.  Furthermore,  the  full  results  of  fertilizers  can  be  obtained  only 
when  they  are  used  in  conjunction  with  the  best  of  cultivation,  consequently,  the 
presence  of  humus  and  thorough  cultivation  should  always  be  associated  with  the 
use  of  artificial  fertilizers. 

In  those  orchards  that  are  receiving  liberal  applications  of  farmyard  manure 
annually,  and  where  leguminous  cover  crops  are  sown,  there  will  scarcely  be  any 
need  to  add  nitrogen  in  any  other  form.  Too  much  nitrogen  will  produce  a  strong, 
succulent  growth  of  wood  and  leaves  too  late  in  the  fall  and  will  tend  to  retard  the 
inaturity  of  the  fruit  and  to  lessen  its  quality. 

Phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  the  only  other  two  constituents  of  plant  food 
liable  to  be  deficient  in  the  soil.  Potash  in  the  form  of  muriate  of  potash  or  sulphate 
'of  potash  should  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  150  to  200  pounds  per  acre,  and 
phosphoric  acid  in  the  form  of  superphosphate,  or  Thomas  phosphate  or  basic  slag, 
should  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  from  300  to  400  pounds  per  acre.  A  good  plan 
would  be  to  divide  the  orchard  into  four  parts  and  apply  the  potash  and  phosphoric 


11 

a-cid  mixed  to  one  part,  the  potash  alone  to  one  part,  the  phosphoric  alone  to  onfe 
part,  and  no  artificial  fertilizer  on  the  other  part.  By  this  means  some  idea  of  the 
requirements  of  the  soil  may  be  learnt  and  the  beneficial  results  from  each  fertilizer 
together  and  separately  may  be  studied.  The  fertilizer  should  be  applied  broad- 
cast over  the  ground,  preferably  immediately  after  plowing,  and  cultivated  in  with 
a  disc,  spring-toothed  cultivator  or  spike-tooth  harrow.  Potash  and  phosphoric 
acid  fertilizers  may  be  applied  at  any  time  through  the  season. 

Eeady  mixed  fertilizers  are  not  recommended  at  all. 

Thinning. — ^This  is  an  item  of  orchard  practice  unheard  of  in  this  district. 
The  Department  of  Agriculture  has  thinned  the  apples  on  a  few  trees  in  several 
places  near  Morrisburg  this  season  (1911)  as  a  demonstration  and  experiment. 
The  apples  were  left  one  to  a  spur  and  four  or  five  inches  apart,  and  results  have 
shown  a  more  even  quality,  larger  size  and  better  coloring  of  fruit.  The  other 
advantages  of  thinning  the  fruit  on  the  trees  are : — 

1.  It  regulates  the  crop  that  the  tree  has  to  mature,  and  lessens  the  liability  of 
splitting  and  breaking  of  limbs. 

2.  It  gives  the  tree  a  better  chance  to  mature  its  fruit  buds  for  next  season's 
crop,  and  so  has  a  tendency  to  produce  crops  every  year,  instead  of  a  heavy  crop  one 
year  and  none  the  next. 

3.  It  lessens  the  labor  of  handling  culls  at  picking  time. 

4.  It  relieves  the  tree  of  the  work  of  maturing  these  culls. 

The  price  of  thinning  has  been  computed  at  five  cents  per  barrel,  and  this  price 
alone  is  saved  in  the  reduced  number  of  culls  to  handle. 

The  thinning  may  be  done  at  any  time  during  the  summer,  but  is  best  done 
when  the  apples  are  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  as  then  the  dormant  fruit  buds  have 
a  good  chance  to  develop.  The  fall  apples  may  be  left  until  they  have  developed,  so 
that  the  fruit  taken  ofi"  can  be  sold  as  early  cooking  apples,  and  in  this  way  a  little 
remuneration  may  be  obtained  to  pay  for  the  work  of  thinning.  The  method  is  to 
first  take  ofl:  all  the  injured,  small  and  ill-formed  fruit,  then  to  leave  only  one  apple 
to  a  spur  and  to  thin  them  to  from  four  to  five  inches  apart ;  or  to  leave  two  apples 
on  one  spur  and  none  on  the  next,  and  not  leave  the  clusters  of  two  closer  than  at 
least  six  inches  to  the  next  cluster. 

Picking  and  Packing. 

Here  is  a  vital  point  in  the  upbuilding  of  the  fruit  industry.  The  respect  and 
confidence  of  the  market  is  gained  only  by  the  quality  of  the  picking,  packing  and 
grading,  and  according  to  such  will  the  reputation  of  a  fruit  district  as  a  whole  be 
established.  The  picking  should  be  done  by  careful  and  intelligent  men.  Long 
ladders  should  be  dispensed  with  as  much  as  possible  and  step-ladders  used  in  their 
place.  A  specially  constructed  apple  basket  should  be  used,  and  in  the  picking  the 
welfare  of  the  tree  must  be  borne  in  mind  as  well  as  the  gathering  of  the  fruit  in 
the  quickest  possible  manner.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  pull  off  or  knock  off  any 
more  fruit  spurs  than  is  absolutely  unavoidable,  nor  to  break  down  branches,  and  a 
srood  deal  of  care  is  always  necessary  in  putting  a  ladder  up  into  a  tree. 

Nearly  all  the  fruit  in  this  district  that  is  sold  for  local  consumption  is  not 
packed  at  all,  but  simply  put  into  some  receptacle  and  taken  to  town.  The  most  of 
the  packing  for  shipment  is  done  by  apple  buyers  who  realize  the  value  of  good 
packing  and  try  to  conform  to  the  laws  regarding  packing  and  grading.  The  'barrel 
is  the  only  package  used  here.  It  was  the  first  kind  of  package  used,  and  the 
markets  have  been  built  up  by  it,  and  all  the  facilities  for  handling  have  become 


12 

adapted  to  its  use,  so  that  it  will  be  hard  to  displace.  There  is  a  permanent  place 
for  the  barrel  package,  although  the  box  package  should  be  introduced  for  high 
grade  and  fancy  fruit  of  the  Mcintosh  and  Fameuse  types.  For  these  varieties 
the  box  package  is  specially  adapted,  as  it  gives  a  distinctive  feature  to  this  class 
of  fruit,  and  a  trade  may  be  catered  to  "w*hich  is  not  ordinarily  reached  by  the 
barrel. 

CO-OPERATION'. 

Purchasing  Supplies. — ^The  purchasing  of  nursery  stock  heretofore  has  been 
done  through  agents.  Up  to  the  present  all  the  spray  material  used  was  either  made 
at  home  or  purchased  through  the  District  Eepresentative,  but  no  doubt  as  soon  as 
large  quantities  are  used  agents  will  be  sent  into  the  field  to  solicit  orders. 

Co-operation  is  a  remedy  for  many  of  the  ills  of  this  method  of  purchase.  The 
advantages  of  buying  nursery  stock  under  a  system  of  co-operation  was  explained 
under  the  head  of  Nursery  Stock.  The  advantages  of  buying  co-operatively,  other 
orchard  supplies,  such  as  spraying  machinery,  spray  material,  boxes,  barrels,  and 
other  orchard  appliances,  are  just  as  great.  A  body  of  farmers  of  one  community 
can  get  a  cheaper  rate  by  buying  in  large  quantities,  can  get  a  uniform  article,  and 
when  buying  an  article  about  the  merits  or  demerits  of  which  they  are  not  familiar, 
can  employ  a  man  who  understands  the  commodity  in  question,  and  thus  save  them, 
many  dollars  by  buying  the  exact  thing  they  require. 

Selling. — Co-operation  in  the  selling  end  is  a  sound  business  proposition,  both 
to  the  grower  and  to  the  buyer.  As  stated  previously,  uniformity  in  grade  and  pack 
is  most  important,  and  with  a  community  of  small  fruit-growers  this  is  impossible 
to  get  unless  the  work  is  done  under  the  supervision  and  control  of  an  association. 

The  following  are  a  few  of  the  advantages  in  co-operation  for  selling  purposes : 

1.  A  better  price  can  be  realized,  and  for  the  following  reasons. 

2.  A  better  and  more  uniform  grade  of  quality  and  packing  is  put  up. 

3.  Large  quantities  of  an  even  grade  can  be  put  on  the  market  which  will 
attract  the  attention  of  buyers,  most  of  whom  find  it  more  profitable  to  buy  in  large 
quantities. 

4.  A  good  deal  of  the  middle-men's  profit  will  find  its  way  to  the  producer,  by 
the  elimination  of  many  small  buyers  and  jobbers. 

5.  A  good  deal  of  time,  trouble  and  worry  is  saved  to  the  individual  grower  by 
having  one  man  to  find  the  market  for  a  lot  of  fruit  instead  of  many  men  looking 
for  a  market,  each  with  a  small  amount  of  fruit. 

6.  An  association  brings  the  growers  into  closer  touch  with  each  other  where 
they  can  compare  notes,  and  discuss  their  individual  troubles  and  experiences  to 
the  mutual  benefit  of  all. 

Co-operation  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized,  as  the  experiences  of  associa- 
tions in  the  handling  of  fruit  in  other  parts  of  Ontario  has  definitely  proven  that  it 
is  a  good  thing  in  practice  and  will  work  out  to  the  advantage  of  the  entire  district. 

Most  of  the  fruit  shipped  from  this  district  is  handled  by  independent  buyers 
who  buy  for  as  low  as  they  possibly  can,  and  some  irresponsible  men  have  bought 
more  fruit  than  they  can  handle,  have  let  it  fall  ofE  the  trees,  and  then  refused  to 
pay  for  it.  Therefore  let  it  be  urged  upon  the  farmers  of  Dundas,  Stormont  and 
Glengarry  Counties  that  co-operation  in  the  fruit  business  is  one  of  the  essentials 
of  success  and  a  foundation  for  a  thriving  apple  industry. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  the  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture,  Toronto. 


Serial 
No.        Date. 

168  Oct.       1908 

169  Feb.      1909 

170  Mar.      1909 

171  April     1909 


172 

May 

1909 

173 

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1909 

174 

Dec, 

1909 

175 

Dec. 

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Dec. 

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Feb. 

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April 

1910 

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June 

1910 

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July 

1910 

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Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

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202 

May 

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203 

May 

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204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan. 

1913 

209  March    1913 

210  March  1913 

211  March  1913 

212  April    1913 


Title.  Author. 

The  Perennial  Sow  Thistle  and  some  other 

Weed  Pests   J-  E.  Howitt. 

Legume  Bacteria:  Further  Studies- of  Nitro-  f  S.  F.  Edwards, 

gen  Accumulation  in  the  Leguminosae  . .  \  B.  Barlow. 

f  J   W   Mitchell 

Mitchell-Walker  Test  Bottle  |  -^^    q    "vvalker. 

'  Insects  Affecting  Vegetables  C.  J.  S.  Bethune. 

^.  .^    X-       TT      4.  1,1  r  J.  E  Howitt. 

Fungus  Diseases  Affecting  Vegetables  |  j,  w.  Eastham. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)   ...  Dairy  School. 

Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

Farm  Underdrainage:  Does  it  Pay? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations  W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   ^-  H.  Jones. 

f  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  ■!  l.  Caesar. 

Character   and   Treatment   of   Swamp    or  j  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Muck  Soils   I  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits   Recommended    for   Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch 

„,  ^  „       ,      ,  .  f  R.  Harcourt. 

Flour  and  Breadmaking  |  m.  A.  Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit   Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making  Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

Children:  Care  and  Training  J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth   L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)   J.  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (151  revised)   W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  In  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural  Co-operation  S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch. 

Insectides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised  {  ^  L.^Furmer. 

Tomatoes  A.   G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

Onions  A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices  L.  Meunier. 

[  Peach   Diseases    F.  M.  Clement. 

/  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario   L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    . .    f 

Part  I.    Cheese-making  and  Butter-making  j  Staff  of  Dairy  School. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . .    |  Dairy  School. 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm  { 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  f  J.  H.  Hare. 

in  Ontarib  County   \  T.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry   (No.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.  P.  M.  Clement. 

Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters.  . .  Fruit  Branch 

(No.  179  revised.) 
Orchard  Surveys  in     Dundas,    Stormont    and 

Glengarry F.  S.  Reeves. 


I 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 
BULLETIN  213 

(A  Revised  Edition  of  No.  197) 


BEE  DISEASES 

In  Ontario 

By 
MORLEY  PETTIT,  Provincial  Apiarist 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  APRIL  1913 


BULLETIN  213] 


APRIL,  1913 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT    BRANCH 

(A  Revised  Edition  of  No.  197) 


Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario 

By  MORLEY  PETTIT 

Provincial  Apiarist 


Much  dissatisfaction  with  bee-keeping  as  a  business  is  caused  by  so-called 
"  bad  luck,"  really  due  to  a  definite  bee  disease  which  any  beekeeper  can  learn  to 
cure.  Bees  are  quite  as  liable  to  disease  as  any  other  live  stock,  and  to  be  able  to 
treat  such  disease  intelligently  is  quite  necessary  to  success. 


A  Healthy  Colony. 


Bee-moths  are  often  blamed  for  the  ravages  due  to  disease ;  but  moths  never 
destroy  a  healthy,  normal  colony,  as  they  only  feed  on  the  deserted  combs  after  the 
bees  are  nearly  all  gone.  Heavy  winter  losses  can  often  be  attributed  to  disease. 
In  fact,  whenever  a  colony  is  not  doing  well  the  exact  cause  of  its  failure  should 
be  carefully  sought. 


3 

On  the  other  hand,  disease  often  makes  its  appearance  in  the  best  colonies 
in  the  apiary,  because  infection  is  usually  carried  by  robbing,  and  that  is  gen- 
erally done  by  strong  colonies.  If  not  checked  on  the  start  it  soon  spreads  through 
the  whole  apiary,  and  from  it  to  other  apiaries  in  the  neighborhood. 

The  inspectors  of  apiaries  can  do  a  great  deal  for  the  health  of  bees  in  Ontario ; 
but  to  be  of  real  value  their  work  must  be  supplemented  by  the  earnest  efforts  of 
individual  beekeepers.  Every  one  should  be  his  own  inspector,  carefully  examining 
every  comb  of  every  colony  in  the  apiary  at  least  once  a  year,  remembering  that 
it  is  far  better  to  detect  it  on  the  start  in  strong  colonies  than  to  wait  until  they 
are  practically  ruined  and  the  disease  has  spread  through  the  whole  neighborhood. 
Only  one  cell  of  infectious  disease  makes  it  necessary  to  treat  even  the  best  colony 
in  the  apiary. 


,.-^!i::..ii-i4fe.vJJ>iS 


A   Sinicoe   County   Apiary. 

When  a  case  of  infectious  disease  is  suspected  the  beekeeper  must  notify  the 
Minister  of  Agriculture,  Toronto,  or  the  Provincial  Apiarist,  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College,  Guelph,  who  will  see  that  the  case  is  attended  to  as  soon  as  possible. 

In  writing  it  is  best  to  give  full  particulars,  such  as  township,  concession  and 
lot,  numher  of  colonies,  names  and  addresses  of  neighbor  beekeepers  and  size  of 
their  apiaries,  probable  extent  of  disease  territory,  etc.,  so  the  Provincial  Apiarist 
can  judge  the  amount  of  time  inspector  will  need  to  spend  in  the  neighborhood. 
Personal  information  will  be  considered  strictly  confidential.  If  the  case  cannot 
have  inmiediate  attention  by  the  Inspector,  the  'beekeeper  should  go  ahead  and  treat 
the  diseased  colonies  according  to  directions  given  in  this  bulletin. 

Examining  an  Apiary  foe  Disease. 

The  diseases  which  cause  the  most  damage  in  Ontario  attack  the  developing 
brood,  causing  much  of  it  to  die  in  the  comb,  and  so  reducing  it  that  the  colony 
soon  dwindles  from  lack  of  young  bees  to  replace  the  old. 


When  examining  an  apiary  for  disease  the  prime  consideration  is  to  avoid 
robbing.  The  best  time  is  during  a  good  honey  flow  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
season. 

It  is  necessary  to  have  a  good  smoker,  a  hive  tool  for  taking  out  combs,  and 
a  supply  of  wooden  toothpicks  for  testing  the  brood. 

In  opening  the  hive  just  enough  smoke  should  be  used  to  keep  the  bees  in  sub- 
jection.    Eemove  each  comb  in  turn  from  the  brood-chamber  and  examine  the 
brood.    It  is  best  to  sit  on  a  box  close  to  the  hive  with  your  back  to  the  sun,  and 
hold  the  comb  so  that  it  will  shine  into  the  cells,  and  throw  a  strong  light  directly 
on  the  lower  sides  and  bottoms  of  the  cells.    If  there  is  no  disease,  the  empty  cells 
will  be  bright  and  clean,  and  the  uncapped  larvae  will  be  plump  in  form  and  of 
a  pearly  white  color.    At  first  a  number  of  cells  of  capped  brood  should  be  opened 
with  the  pick,  until  you  are  ouite  familiar  with  the  outward  appearance  of  healthy 
capped  brood.    Cappings  which  to  any  but  the  ibest-trained  eye  appear  quite  healthy 
often  cover  dead  larvae.    When  diseased  cells  are  present  they  are  quite  frequently 
found  around  the  lower  edge  of  the  comb.     If  any  of  the  brood  cappings  appear 
darker  than  the  rest,  or  are  flat,  sunken,  or  perforated,  they  should  be  opened  to 
see  whether  the  brood  they  cover  is  dead.    Healthy  brood  is  sometimes  found  under 
flat,  or  perforated  cappings;  but  there  is  a  difference  in  appearance  which  experi-  ' 
ence  soon  teaches  one  to  detect.     Brood  sometimes  develops  without  ever  being 
fully  capped.     This  is  no  indication  of  disease.     When  each  hive  is  finished  the 
pick  used  there  should  be  left  in  the  hive,  and  if  any  honey  is  daubed  on  hands  or 
tools  they  must  be  washed  thoroughly  (before  opening  the  next  hive. 

There  are  three  brood  diseases  prevalent  in  the  apiaries  of  Ontario ;  American 
Foul  Brood,  European  Foul  Brood,  and  Sacbrood,  formerly  called  Starved  or 
Pickled  Brood.  All  three  are  infectious.  The  first  two  will  spread  and  do  great 
damage  if  not  checked;  the  last  does  no  serious  harm  in  Ontario  apiaries. 

Distribution. 

American  Foul  Brood  is  pretty  evenly  distributed  all  over  that  portion  of 
Ontario  lying  south  and  west  of  the  Trent  Valley.  European  Foul  Brood  is  spread- 
ing rapidly  from  three  main  centres  of  infection,  so  that  the  following  counties  are 
now  more  or  less  diseased:  Carleton,  Russell,  Prescott,  Renfrew,  Lanark,  North- 
umberland, Hastings,  Prince  Edward  and  Welland,  with  a  few  cases  in  Peterboro 
and  Lincoln. 

These  two  diseases  are  costing  the  Province  of  Ontario  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  dollars  annually,  not  only  in  loss  of  bees  and  honey  and  of  fruit,  clover  seed  and 
buckwheat,  but  also  in  their  disheartening  effect  on  the  men  engaged  in  the  indus- 
tries concerned. 

Much,  however,  is  being  done  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture  towards  re- 
storing a  well-grounded  confidence  in  beekeeping  as  a  business  by  various  methods 
of  instruction.  To  be  effectual  this  government  work  must  be  supplemented  by  an 
earnest  effort  on  the  part  of  beekeepers  themselves  to  keep  their  bees  in  a  healthy 
condition.  American  Foul  Brood  must  be  reported  and  treated  whenever  discovered. 
So  far  as  is  known  the  race  of  bees  does  not  affect  the  virulence  of  this  disease.  It 
is  different  with  European  Foul  Brood,  which  simply  cannot  be  cured  in  common 
black  bees.  Those  who  introduce  Italian  queens  to  their  colonies  ahead  of  the 
disease,  or  even  at  the  time  of  treating,  are  saved  heavy  loss  and  are  able  to  build 
lip  a  good  business.  It  is  no  more  possible  to  check  the  spread  of  European  Foul 
Brood  among  black  bees  than  it  is  to  stop  a  fire  that  is  sweeping  over  a  town  of  dry 


wooden  buildings.  But,  as  in  a  fire-swept  town,  progressive  men  will  rebuild  better 
than  before,  so  in  the  disease-swept  counties  progressive  beekeepers  are  now 
making  more  money  than  ever  by  the  use  of  the  well-bred  Italian  bees  which  they 
were  compelled  to  adopt. 

American  Foul  Brood. 

This  disease  is  caused  by  bacteria  known  to  scientists  as  Bacillus  Larvae  (not 
B.  Alvei,  as  was  formerly  supposed).  It  reaches  the  healthy  young  larvae  by  means 
of  infected  food  unsuspectingly  fed  to  them  by  the  nurse  bees.  In  most  cases  the 
larva  dies  when  nearly  ready  to  seal  up,  and  most  of  the  cells  containing  infected 
larvae  are  capped.  The  dead  larva  softens,  settles  to  the  lower  side  of  the  cell 
in  a  shapeless  mass,  at  first  white  or  yellow,  changing  to  coffee-color  and  brown. 
At  this  stage  it  becomes  glutinous,  so  that  if  it  is  picked  with  a  toothpick  the  con- 


piG_  1. — American  Foul-Brood  comb,  showing  irregular  patches  of  sunken  cappings  and 
scales.  The  position  of  the  comb  indicates  the  best  way  to  view  the  scales.  (U.S. 
Dept.  of  Ag.  Far.  Bui.  442.) 

tents  will  rope  out  half  an  inch  or  so  when  the  pick  is  slowly  withdrawn.  It  ad- 
heres to  the  cell  so  it  cannot  be  lifted  out  entire.  It  has  the  odor  of  a  poor  quality 
of  glue.  When  the  larva  dries  it  forms  a  tightly  adhesive  scale,  of  very  dark  brown 
color. 

"  Pupae  also  may  die  of  this  disease,  in  which  case  they,  too,  dry  down  (fig.  2, 
0,  d),  became  ropy,  and  have  the  characteristic  odor  and  color.  The  tongue  fre- 
quently adheres  to  the  upper  side  wall,  and  often  remains  there  even  after  the 
pupa  has  dried  down  to  a  scale.  Younger  unsealed  larvae  are  sometimes  affected. 
Usually  the  disease  attacks  only  worker  brood,  but  occasional  cases  are  found  in 
which  queen  and  drone  brood  are  diseased." — {U.  S.  Dept.  of  Ag.  Farmers'  Bui. 
442.) 

Where  the  infected  larvae  are  capped  the  cappings  turn  a  darker  color  and 
become  flat  or  sunken;  the  workers,  perceiving  that  something  is  wrong,  usually 
start  to  tear  off  the  capping,  but,  discovering  the  condition  of  the  contents,  they 


5 


generally  leave  it  with  a  small  perforation  in  the  centre  until  quite  dry,  then  the 
capping  is  removed,  and  in  time  honey  may  be  stored  in  the  cells  containing  the 
scales  of  disease.  The  millions  of  disease  spores  then  float  out  into  the  honey, 
which  becomes  a  medium  for  carrying  the  disease  to  other  healthy  larvae  by 
robbing,  in  the  same  or  some  other  apiary.  Some  of  the  honey  is  also  carried  into 
the  supers,  to  make  room  for  alterations  in  the  brood  nest,  and  is  marketed  in  the 
form  of  bottled  or  section  honey.  It  goes  into  many  homes  especially  in  towns 
and  cities.  The  wooden  sides  of  the  sections,  and  many  of  the  empty  bottles,  or 
washings  from  them,  are  thrown  out  by  housekeepers  and  cleaned  up  by  bees  of  the 
neighborhood,  and  the  disease  is  carried  home  to  their  healthy  brood.  This  is 
why  our  inspectors  find  more  disease  in  the  apiaries  around  towns  and  cities  than 
elsewhere. 


Fig.  2. — American  Foul  Brood:  a,  &,  /,  normal  sealed  cells;  c,  ;,  sunken  cappings,  show- 
ing perforations;  g,  sunken  capping  not  perforated;  h,  I,  m,  n,  q,  r,  larvae  affected 
by  disease;  e,  i,  p,  s,  scales  formed  from  dried-down  larvae;  d,  o,  pupee  affected  by 
disease.     Three  times  natural  size.     (U.S.  Dept.  Ag.  Far.  Bui.  442.) 


The  Treatment. 

Now,  to  be  cured  of  this  disease  a  colony  must  be  freed  from  all  this  infected 
brood,  comb  and  honey.  To  do  this  we  simply  take  it  away.  But  in  the  operation 
some  precautions  are  necessary.  We  must  see  that  the  colony  will  get  healthy  food 
as  soon  as  the  unhealthy  food  is  taken  away,  and  have  means  for  building  new 
comb  at  once.  So  the  operation  should  be  performed  during  a  honey  flow,  and  to 
make  it  perfectly  sure  it  is  a  good  plan  to  insert  a  division  board  feeder  of  sugar 
syrup.  We  must  take  precautions  against  starting  robbing,  or  causing  the  treated 
colony  to  scatter  to  other  hives  or  swarm  out,  be  lost,  and  carry  infection  to  other 
places.  So  the  operation  should  be  performed  in  the  evening,  when  the  bees  are 
settling  down  for  the  night,  and  the  entrance  should  be  covered  with  queen-exclud- 


ing  metal  to  hold  the  queen  in  case  of  swarming  out  the  next  morning.    A  regular 
queen-excluder  laid  on  the  bottom  board  under  the  brood  chamber  will  answer  the 
latter  purpose.     It  would  be  even  better  to  clip  the  queeni  so  she  cannot  fly,  then 
leave  the  excluder  off.    They  should  also  be  given  a  clustering  space  to  occupy,  as 
in  the  case  of  a  natural  swarm.    Whenever  bees  are  disturbed  in  their  hives  they 
will  fill  their  honey  sacs  with  honey  from  the  comb.    As  this  will  happen  when  the 
hive  is  being  treated,  and  some  of  this  diseased  honey  might  be  stored  in  the  new 
combs,  it  is  necessary  to  make  them  eat  it  before  they  can  find  a  place  to  put  it.  To 
make  sure  of  this,  not  one  bit  of  comb  of  any  kind  can  be  left  in  the  hive.    Even 
sheets  of  foundation  are  unsafe,  as  some  cells  can  be  so  quickly  drawn  out,  enough 
to  deposit  a  little  infected  honey.    The  hive  must  be  quite  empty  so  far  as  comb  or 
foundation  is  concerned,  except  that  very  narrow  starters  of  foundation,  not  more 
than  one-half  inch  wide,  may  be  placed  in  the  frames  to  indicate  where  the  combs 
are  to  be  built.    Thus  the  diseased  honey  will  be  consumed  in  wax  secretion  before 
any  of  it  can  be  deposited  in  the  hive. 

Method  of  Tkeatment. 

When  there  is  a  good  honey  flow  on,  the  colonies  should  first  be  prepared  for 
treating  by  removing  from  the  hive  every  comb  which  does  not  contain  brood.  This 


Fig.  3. — The  ropiness  of  American  Foul  Brood.     (U.S.  Dept.  Ag.  Far.  Bui.  442.) 

will  include  all  the  super  combs  and  probably  two  or  more  next  the  walls  in  the 
brood  chamber.  These  must  be  put  under  cover  immediately  and  destroyed  as 
soon  as  possible.  The  remaining  brood  combs  should  be  loosened  and  spread  apart 
to  facilitate  rapid  handling  later.  When  all  diseased  colonies  are  thus  prepared 
during  the  day  it  will  he  a  short  matter  to  finish  the  treatment  in  the  evening. 

When  bees  have  nearly  stopped  flying  for  the  night,  each  prepared  colony  is 
treated  as  follows:  First  remove  it  from  its  stand,  then  set  in  its  place  a  clean, 
disinfected  hive  containing  clean  frames  with  half-inch  starters,  and,  if  convenient, 
a  division  board  feeder  with  thin  sugar  syrup.  If  the  queen  is  not  clipped  the  en- 
trance of  this  hive  must  be  covered  with  queen-excluding  metal.  Now  shake  the 
bees  from  the  combs  of  the  old  hive  into  the  new ;  but  if  any  fresh  nectar  flies  out 
in  shaking  it  will  be  necessary  to  brush  instead  of  shaking.  Get  these  combs  im- 
mediately under  cover,  and  clean  up  very  carefully  any  honey  that  may  be  around, 
so  that  robbers  from  healthy  colonies  cannot  carry  home  disease. 

When  the  diseased  colonies  are  weak  in  bees,  two  or  three  of  them  should  be 
united  to  form  one  good  colony  with  which  to  start  the  cure.  But  in  doing  this, 
diseased  colonies  must  be  united  with  their  next  door  neighbor,  and  not  carried  to 
another  part  of  the  apiary,  as  flying  bees  will  be  sure  to  return  and  may  enter  ad- 
joining healthy  colonies,  carrying  disease. 


You  have  now  made  an  artificial  swarm,  which  must  be  given  the  conditions 
a  new  swarm  likes,  or  it  will  leave  and  carry  its  disease  to  parts  unknown,  or  perhaps 
into  some  healthy  hive  in  the  apiary.  A  new  swarm  likes  plenty  of  ventilation 
and  shade  and  also  plenty  of  clustering  room.  To  satisfy  this  natural  desire  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  to  place  an  empty  hive  under  the  one  containing  the  starters 
for  a  few  days.  This  simple  precaution  will  generally  prevent  the  swarming  out 
which  so  often  happens  in  treating  foul  brood. 

All  combs  from  the  supers  as  well  as  from  the  brood-chamber  of  the  diseased 
colony  must  be  either  burned  or  melted  and  boiled  thoroughly  before  the  wax  is 
fi:.  to  use  again.  The  honey  that  is  removed  is  entirely  unfit  for  bee  feed,  and 
should  be  burned  or  buried  deep  enough  to  be  out  of  the  reach  of  any  bees. 

On  the  third  evening  after  the  first  operation  the  starters  and  what  combs 
have  been  built  must  all  be  removed.  This  time  the  bees  should  be  given  full 
sheets  of  foundation,  and  the  cure  is  complete. 

If  directions  have  been  followed  carefully  and  thoroughly,  the  above  treat- 
ment should  be  successful.  To  make  sure,  however,  the  brood  must  be  examined 
again  in  about  three  weeks  and  again  the  following  season. 

If  the  disease  reappears  in  any  colonies  they  must  be  treated  again. 

Saving  Brood. 

Brood  from  badly  diseased  colonies  is  of  no  value,  and  dangerous,  and  should 
be  burned,  buried  or  otherwise  destroyed  at  once.  Brood  from  colonies  having  only 
a  few  cells  diseased  may  be  placed  over  an  average  colony  slightly  diseased,  and 
the  queen  caged.    In  ten  days  treat  as  given  above. 

Saving  Combs, 

It  is  never  safe  to  use  super-combs  that  have  been  on  diseased  colonies.  Even 
though  they  may  appear  white  and  clean,  germs  of  the  disease  are  apt  to  lurk  in 
them  from  year  to  year.  To  melt  these  down  is  no  serious  loss,  as  the  wax  will 
more  than  make  foundation  for  new  ones. 

Disinfecting. 

Hives  which  have  formerly  contained  diseased  colonies,  or  in  which  diseased 
combs  have  been  stored  or  carried,  should  be  burned  over  inside  with  a  gasoline 
or  oil  torch. 

Fall  Treatment. 

If  the  disease  is  discovered  late  in  the  season,  and  the  colony  is  still  strong, 
leave  it  until  November,  take  the  diseased  combs  away,  and  supply  honey  from  a 
healthy  colony,  in  full  sealed  combs.  Be  sure  that  the  combs  are  all  sealed,  and 
that  they  are  from  a  colony  which  has  no  disease. 

If  the  colony  is  not  strong  enough  to  be  worth  this  treatment  it  should  be 
destroyed  at  once,  as  one  great  source  of  spread  is  the  spring  robbing  out  of  combs 
left  by  the  winter  death  of  such  colonies. 


8 


EUROPEAN  FOUL  BROOD. 

Until  1907  the  only  infectious  brood  disease  known  to  exist  in  Ontario  was  the 
one  already  described.  But  another  then  made  its  appearance.  It  is  called 
European  Foul  Brood  (Sometimes  "Black  Brood"). 

European  Foul  Brood  has  destroyed  the  apiaries  in  great  areas  of  different, 
states  in  the  Republic  to  the  south  of  us.     It  is  now  known  to  be  rampant  in  at 
least  nine  counties  of  Ontario.     In  one  way  it  is  much  more  to  be  dreaded  than 
American  Foul  Brood,  because  it  runs  its  course  and  destroys  an  apiary  much  more 
rapidly,  and  because  the  method  of  spread  is  not  fully  understood. 

As  was  stated  above,  nothing  but  the  introduction  of  Italian  queens  by  the 
beekeepers  concerned  will  check  its  spread. 


Pig.  4. — European  Foul  Brood:  a,  j,  k,  normal  sealed  cells;  6,  c,  d,  e,  g,  i  I,  m,  p,  g, 
larvae  affected  by  disease;  /,  h,  n,  o.  dried-down  larvae  or  scales.  Three  times 
natural  size.     (U.S.  Dept.  Ag.  Par.  Bui.  442.) 

The  best  description  of  this  disease  which  has  been  published  is  found  in  U.  S. 
Department  of  Agriculture  Farmers'  Bulletin  442,  "  The  Treatment  of  Bee  Dis- 
eases," by  E.  F.  Phillips,  Ph.D.  It  is  as  follows :  "  European  foul  hrood  was 
formerly  called  Talack  brood,'  or  'iSTew  York  bee  disease.'  The  name  TDlack  brood'  was 
a  poor  one,  for  the  color  of  the  dead  brood  is  rarely  black,  or  even  very  dark  brown. 
European  foul  brood  usually  attacks  the  larva  at  an  earlier  stage  of  its  development 
than  American  foul  brood,  and  while  it  is  still  curled  up  at  the  base  of  the  cell 
(Fig  .  4,  r).  A  small  percentage  of  larvae  dies  after  capping,  but  sometimes  quite 
young  larvae  are  attacked  (Fig.  4,  e,  m).  Sunken  and  perforated  cappings  are 
sometimes  observed,  just  as  in  American  foul  brood  (Fig.  3,  c,  g,  j).  The  earliest 
indication  of  the  disease  is  a  slight  yellow  or  gray  discoloration  and  uneasy  move- 
ment of  the  larva  in  the  cell.  The  larva  loses  its  well-rounded,  opaque  appearance 
and  becomes  slightly  translucent,  so  that  the  tracheae  may  become  prominent 
(Fig.  4,  &),  giving  the  larva  a  clearly  segmented  appearance.    The  larva  is  usually 


flaiteaea  against  the  base  of  the  cell,  but  may  turn  so  that  the  ends  of  the  larva 
are  to  the  rear  of  the  cell  (Fig.  4  /?.),  or  may  fall  away  from  the  base  (Fig.  4,  e,  g, 
I).  Later  the  color  changes  to  a  decided  yellow  or  gray  and  the  translucency  is 
lost  (Fig.  4,  q,  h).  The  yellow  color  may  be  taken  as  the  chief  characteristic  of 
this  disease.  The  dead  larva  appears  as  a  moist,  somewhat  collapsed  mass,  giving 
thfi  appearance  of  being  melted.  When  the  remains  have  become  almost  dry  (Fi''. 
4^  c),  the  tracheae  sometimes  become  conspicuous  again,  this  time  by  retaining 
their  shape,  while  the  rest  of  the  body  content  dries  around  them.  Finally,  all 
that  is  left  of  the  larva  is  a  grayish-brown  scale  against  the  base  of  the  cell  (Fig.  4, 
/,  h),  or  a  shapeless  mass  on  the  lower  side  wall  if  the  larva  did  not  retain  its 
normal  position  (Fig.  4,  n,  o).  Very  few  scales  are  black.  The  scales  are  not 
adhesive,  but  are  easily  removed,  and  the  bees  carry  out  a  great  many  in  their 
efforts  to  clean  house. 

"  Decaying  larvae  which  have  died  of  this  disease  are  usually  not  ropy  as  in 
American  foul  brood,  but  a  slight  ropiness  is  sometimes  observed.  There  is  usually 
little  odor  in  European  foul  brood,  but  sometimes  a  sour  odor  is  present,  which  re- 
minds one  of  yeast  fermentation.  This  disease  attacks  drone  and  queen  larvae* 
almost  as  quickly  as  those  of  the  workers. 

'European  foul  brood  is  more  destructive  during  the  spring  and  early  summer 
than  at  other  times,  often  entirely  disappearing  during  late  summer  and  autumn, 
or  daring  a  heavy  honey  flow._  Italian  bees  seem  to  be  better  able  to  resist  the 
ravages  of  this  disease  than  any  other  race.  The  disease  at  times  spreads  with 
startling  rapidity  and  is  most  destructive.  Where  it  is  prevalent  a  considerably 
larger  percentage  of  colonies  is  affected  than  is  usual  for  American  foul  brood. 
This  disease  is  very  variable  in  its  symptoms  and  other  manifestations  and  is  often 
a  puzzle  to  the  beekeeper," 

One  exception,  however,  will  be  taken  to  the  above  description.  In  most  cases 
examined  in  Ontario  the  odor  is  found  to  be  very  pronounced  and  offensive,  like 
decayed  fish;  in  fact,  on  a  warm,  moist  morning  it  is  noticed  on  entering  the 
apiary,  and.  when  a  diseased  comb  is  held  up  for  inspection,  is  almost  sickening. 

Use  Same  Treatment  and  Italianize. 

The  same  treatment  already  described  for  American  Foul  Brood  is  effectual, 
if  appKed  to  the  whole  apiary  at  once.  But  the  cure  is  only  permanent  when  pure- 
bred Italian  queens  are  introduced  to  all  black  or  hybrid  stocks.  It  is  quite  im- 
possible to  cure  an  apiary  of  black  bees  of  European  Foul  Brood  without  intro- 
ducing pure  Italian  queens  to  all  colonies. 

We  know  of  no  reason  why  this  plague  should  not  sweep  over  Ontario  as  it 
has  over  most  of  the  United  States,  If  it  does  all  apiaries  of  black  bees  will  be  prac- 
tically destroyed  within  the  next  few  years.  Its  progress  in  the  districts  mentioned 
above  has  been  appalling.  Xo  Grovemment  expenditure  can  touch  the  situation 
without  the  co-operation  of  the  men  themselves  whose  property  is  in  danger.  There 
is  a  remedy,  however,  right  to  hand.  Pure-bred  leather-colored  Italian  bees  are 
almost  immune  to  European  Foul  Brood. 

It  is  very  important,  then,  that  all  apiaries,    especialhj   in   or   near   infected 

neighborhoods,  should  he  Italianized  at  once,  without  waiting  for  a  destructive 

outbreak  of  disease. 

*The   tendency   of  tbls   disease   to   attack   queen   larvje  is  a  serious   drawback   in 
treatment.     Frequently  the  bees  of  a  diseased  colony  attempt  to  supersede  their  queen, 
but  the  larvae  in   the   queen  cells   often   die,   leaving  the  colony   hopelessly   queenless. 
The  colony  is  thus  depleted  very  rapidly. 


10 

SACBEOOD. 

A  disease  slightly  resembling  Foul  Brood  is  called  by  some  "  Starved  Brood," 
and  by  others  "Pickled  Brood."  It  has  recently  been  described  and  named  by 
White  "Sacbrood."  The  most  positive  difference  in  the  diagnosis  of  this  disease 
is  the  absence  of  ropiness  and  of  the  glue-pot  smell,  which  are  always  found  in 
American  Foul  Brood.  In  Sacbrood  the  larva  decays  from  the  inside,  leaving 
the  skin  tough  and  in  its  natural  shape;  in  European  Foul  Brood  or  American 
Foul  Brood,  the  skin  of  the  larva  softens  as  the  contents  bgcome  glutinous,  and 
all  the  natural  wrinkles  become  smooth  as  the  mass  settles  to  the  lower  side  of 
the  cell.  In  Sacbrood  the  larva  often  dries  up  so  as  to  become  loose  in  the  cell  and 
fall  out  when  the  comb  is  inverted.  In  American  Foul  Brood  it  always  cements 
fast  to  the  lower  cell  wall,  so  it  cannot  be  removed  without  tearing  the  cell.  Euro- 
pean Foul  Brood  attacks  the  larva  generally  at  an  earlier  stage  in  its  existence 
than  Sacbrood. 

"  Sacbrood  is  an  infectious  disease  of  the  brood  of  bees  caused  by  an  infect- 
ing agent  that  is  so  small,  or  of  such  a  nature,  that  it  will  pass  through  the  pores 
of  a  Berkefeld  filter."     (U.S.  Dept.  of  Ag.,  Bureau  of  Ent,  Cir.  No.  169.) 

Ee-queening  with  vigorous  queens  from  other  apiaries  will  often  effect  a  cure 
and  it  often  disappears  of  its  own  accord, 

SoiiE  Peecautions. 

Since  disease  is  so  widely  distributed  some  precautions  should  be  observed  by 
all  beekeepers. 

1.  Great  care  should  be  taken  in  spring  to  prevent  robbing,  particularly  if 
any  diseased  colonies  are  in  the  apiary  or  neighborhood. 

2.  Since  honey  is  the  means  of  transmitting  disease  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  never 
feed  honey  to  the  bees.  Syrup  made  from  granulated  sugar  is  quite  as  good  as 
the  best  of  honey  for  winter  stores. 

3.  So  far  as  possible  supply  your  home  market  with  honey,  to  avoid  the  danger 
of  infected  honey  being  shipped  in. 

4.  When  buying  queens  it  is  a  safe  rule  to  destroy  the  cages,  candy,  and  worker 
bees  that  accompany  them,  using  a  fresh  cage  for  introducing. 

5.  Persons  buying  bees  from  any  beekeeper  in  Ontario,  can  get  information 
from  the  Provincial  Apiarist  as  to  the  condition  of  the  apiary  in  question. 


INSPECTION  OF  APIAEIES. 

The  Inspection  of  Apiaries  is  provided  for  by  an  Act  passed  by  the  Legislative 
Assembly  of  the  Province  of  Ontario  which  allows  the  appointment  of  what  inspec- 
tors are  required  by  the  Lieutenant-Governor  in  Council  upon  the  recommendation 
of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture.  The  duties  and  powers  of  these  inspectors  are  also 
defined,  and  provision  is  made  to  ensure  the  prompt  reporting  and  careful  treat- 
ment of  cases  of  disease. 


11 

The  following  is  a  copy  of  the  Act: 

An  Act  for  the  Suppression  of  Foul  Brood  Among  Bees. 

1.  This  Act  may  be  known  as  The  Foul  Brood  Act. 

2. —  (1)  The  Lieutenant-Governor  in  Council  upon  the  recommendation  of  the  Minis- 
ter of  Agriculture  may  from  time  to  time  appoint  one  or  more  Inspectors  of  Apiaries 
to  enforce  this  Act. 

(2)  The  Inspector  shall,  if  so  required,  produce  the  certificate  of  his  appointment 
on  entering  upon  any  premises  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties. 

(3)  The  remuneration  to  be  paid  to  an  Inspector  under  this  Act  shall  be  determined 
by  order  of  the  Lieutenant-Governor  in  Council,  and  shall  be  payable  out  of  any  sum 
appropriated  by  the  Legislature  for  the  enforcement  of  this  Act. 

3. —  (1)  The  Inspector  shall,  whenever  so  directed  by  the  Minister,  visit  any  locality 
in  Ontario  and  examine  any  apiary  to  which  the  Minister  directs  him,  for  the  purpose  of 
ascertaining  if  the  disease  known  as  "  foul  brood  "  exists  in  such  apiary. 

(2)  If  the  Inspector  finds  that  foul  brood  exists  in  a  virulent  or  malignant  type, 
he  shall  order  all  colonies  of  bees  so  affected,  together  with  the  hives  occupied  by  them, 
and  the  contents  of  such  hives  and  all  tainted  appurtenances  that  cannot  be  disinfected 
to  be  immediately  destroyed  by  fire  under  his  personal  direction  and  superintendence. 

(3)  Where  the  Inspector  who  shall  be  the  sole  judge  thereof  finds  that  the  disease 
exists,  but  only  in  a  milder  type  and  in  its  incipient  stage,  and  is  being  or  may  be 
treated  successfully,  and  the  Inspector  has  reason  to  believe  that  it  may  be  entirely 
cured,  then  he  may  omit  to  destroy  or  order  the  destruction  of  such  colonies  and  hives. 

4.  The  Inspector  may  order  the  owner  or  possessor  of  any  bees  dwelling  in  box  or 
immovable  frame  hives  to  transfer  them  to  movable  frame  hives  within  a  specified  time, 
and  in  default  the  Inspector  may  destroy,  or  order  the  destruction  of  such  hives  and 
the  bees  dwelling  therein. 

5.  Any  owner  or  possessor  of  diseased  colonies  of  bees,  or  of  any  infected  appliances 
for  bee-keeping,  who  knowingly  sells  or  barters  or  gives  away  such  diseased  colonies 
or  infected  appliances  shall  incur  a  penalty  of  not  less  than  $50  or  more  than  $100, 
or  he  may  be  imprisoned  for  any  term  not  exceeding  two  months. 

6.  Any  person  whose  bees  have  been  destroyed  or  treated  for  foul  brood,  who  sells 
or  offers  for  sale  any  bees,  hives  or  appurtenances  of  any  kind,  after  such  destruction 
or  treatment,  and  before  being  authorized  by  the  Inspector  so  to  do  or  who  exposes  in 
his  b€e-yard,  or  elsewhere,  any  infected  comb,  honey,  or  other  infected  thing,  or  conceals 
the  fact  that  said  disease  exists  among  his  bees,  shall  incur  a  penalty  of  not  less  than 
$20  and  not  more  than  $50,  or  he  may  be  imprisoned  for  a  term  not  exceeding  two  months. 

7.  Any  owner  or  possessor  of  bees  who  refuses  to  allow  the  Inspector  to  freely 
examine  bees,  or  the  premises  in  which  they  are  kept,  or  who  refuses  to  destroy  the 
infected  bees  and  appurtenances,  or  to  permit  them  to  be  destroyed  when  so  directed  by 
the  Inspector,  shall,  on  the  complaint  of  the  Inspector,  incur  a  penalty  of  not  less  than 
$25  and  not  more  than  $50  for  the  first  offence,  and  not  less  than  $50  and  not  more  than 
$100  for  the  second  and  any  subsequent  offence,  and  the  convicting  Justice  shall  by  the 
conviction  order  the  said  owner  or  possessor  forthwith  to  carry  out  the  directions  of 
the  Inspector. 

8.  Where  such  owner  or  possessor  of  bees  disobeys  the  directions  of  the  said  Inspec- 
tor, or  offers  resistance  to  or  obstructs  him,  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  may,  upon  the  com- 
plaint of  the  Inspector  cause  a  sufficient  number  of  special  constables  to  be  sworn  in, 
who  shall,  under  the  directions  of  the  Inspector,  proceed  to  the  premises  of  such  owner 
or  possessor  and  assist  the  Inspector  to  seize  all  the  diseased  colonies  and  infected 
appurtenances  and  burn  them  forthwith,  and  if  necessary  the  Inspector  or  constables 
may  arrest  the  owner  or  possessor  and  bring  him  before  a  Justice  of  the  Peace  to  be 
dealt  with  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  preceding  section. 


9.  Before  proceeding  against  any  person  before  a  Justice  of  the  Peace,  the  Inspector 
shall  read  over  to  such  person  the  provisions  of  this  Act  or  shall  cause  a  copy  thereof 
to  be  delivered  to  him. 

10.  Every  owner  or  possessor  of  bees  and  any  other  person  who  is  aware  of  the 
existence  of  foul  brood  either  in  his  own  apiary  or  elsewhere  shall  immediately  notify 
the  Minister  of  the  existence  of  such  disease  and  in  default  of  so  doing  shall  incur  a 
penalty  of  $5. 

11.  Each  Inspector  shall  report  to  the  Minister  as  to  the  inspection  of  any  apiary 
in  such  form  and  manner  as  the  Minister  may  direct,  and  all  reports  shall  be  filed  in  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  and  shall  be  made  public  as  the  Minister  may  direct  or 
upon  order  of  the  Assembly. 

12.  The  Ontario  Summary  Convictions  Act  shall  apply  to  all  prosecutions  for  offences 
against  this  Act. 

13.  The  Act  passed  in  the  6th  year  of  the  reign  of  His  late  Majesty  King  Edward 
the  Seventh,  and  section  27  of  the  Act  passed  in  the  10th  year  of  the  said  reign, 
chaptered  26,  are  repealed. 

Inspectors''  Duties. 

It  will  be  seen  by  Sec.  3  that  it  is  an  inspector's  duty  to  work  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture  or  the  one  he  may  appoint  to  administer  the 
Act.  Where  foul  brood  is  found  he  is  to  destroy  by  fire  the  worst  cases,  especially 
where  the  beekeeper  is  not  making  a  successful  effort  to  cure.  It  is  only  in  cases 
where  "  the  inspector  has  reason  to  believe  that  it  may  be  entirely  cured  "  that  he 
"  may,  in  his  discretion,  omit  to  destroy." 


Teansfeering  Bees. 

Persons  having  bees  in  the  kind  of  hives  described  in  Sec.  4,  will  make  it  easier 
for  the  inspectors  and  themselves  as  well  by  making,  preparations  for  trans- 
ferring as  soon  as  possible.  The  following  is  one  method  of  performing  this  opera- 
tion: 

The  best  time  to  transfer  bees  out  of  box  hives  into  frame  hives  is  at  the 
beginning  of  the  swarming  season.  Choose  a  time  when  as  many  bees  as  possible 
are  in  the  field  and  nicely  out  of  the  way.  About  10  a.m.  will  probably  be  the  best 
time  if  it  is  a  warm,  still  day.  The  following  appliance  will  be  needed:  a  good 
smoker,  a  bee  veil,  a  hive  tool  of  some  sort  such  as  a  screwdriver  or  a  wall  scraper 
used  by  paperhangers,  and  the  new  hive,  preferably  ten-frame  Langstroth  with 
wired  frames  filled  with  sheets  of  foundation. 

Blow  a  little  smoke  in  at  the  entrance  to  the  hive,  tip  the  old  hive  over  side- 
ways and  blow  in  more  smoke  to  drive  the  bees  down  among  the  combs ;  let  it  stand 
upside  down  to  one  side  and  place  the  new  hive  where  it  formerly  stood,  with  the 
entrance  exactly  in  the  place  of  the  old  one.  Put  down  a  newspaper  in  front  of 
the  new  hive  with  one  edge  under  the  entrance.  The  bees  returning  with  pollen 
and  honey  now  alight  and  go  into  the  empty  hive.  Place  a  small  box  over  the 
inverted  hive  large  enough  to  receive  the  whole  cluster  of  bees.  Now  drum  on  the 
sides  of  the  hive  with  a  couple  of  sticks  until  the  bees  run  into  the  box  above, 
■which  should  be  removed  as  soon  as  a  majority  of  them  have  gone  up  into  it  and 
placed  to  one  side  until  the  bees  cluster  like  a  swarm;  then  dump  the  bees  down 
on  the  newspaper  in  front  of  the  new  hive  and  let  them  run  in  in  the  same  manner 
that  a  new  swarm  is  hived.    It  will  be  best  to  watch  for  the  queen,  because  if  the 


13 

queen  is  not  with  them  they  will  all  return  to  the  old  hive.  Set  the  old  hive  up- 
right on  its  hottom  board  just  to  one  side  of  the  new  hive  and  let  it  stand  there  for 
two  weeJis  until  nearly  all  the  brood  is  hatched,  then  transfer  the  bees  from  it  again 
into  the  new  hive.  At  that  time  the  old  combs  can  be  taken  out  and  melted  down 
into  beeswax. 

Disposing  of  Bees  or  Appliances. 

Section  5  puts  a  heavy  penalty  on  disposing  of  diseased  bees  or  appliances  in 
any  way,  and,  according  to  Section  6,  persons  whose  bees  have  been  treated  or 
destroyed  for  disease  shall  not  dispose  of  any  bees  or  appliances  whatever  without 
permission  from  the  inspector,  or  expose  in  the  apiary  or  elsewhere  any  infected 
material  or  honey  on  penalty  of  fine  or  imprisonment. 

Information  Concerning  Location  of  Disease. 

Sections  7,  8  and  9  give  inspectors  power  to  act.  Section  10  requires  every 
person  who  is  aware  of  the  existence  of  foul  brood  to  report  the  same  to  the  Minis- 
ter of  Agriculture,  and  Section  11  requires  the  inspectors  to  report  on  all  their  work 
to  the  same  authority. 


AMEEICAN  FOUL  BEOOD. 

From  the  reports  of  the  inspectors  of  apiaries  of  recent  years,  we  find  that 
American  Foul  Brood  is  prevalent  in  the  following  townships.  This  does  not  mean 
that  townships  not  mentioned  in  this  list  are  guaranteed  to  be  free  from  this 
disease,  because  the  apiaries  of  Ontario  have  not  all  been  inspected  as  yet: 

BRANT:      Brantford,   Dumfries   South. 

BRUCE:    Arran,   Brant,   Bruce,   Carrick,   Culross,   Elderslie,   Greenock,   Kincardine, 
Kinloss,  Paisley,  Saugeen. 

DUPFERIN:     Garafraxa  East,  Luther  East,  Mono. 

DUNDAS :     Winchester. 

DURHAM:     Darlington. 

ELGIN:     Dorchester  South,  Malahide. 

ESSEX:     Maidstone,  Rochester,  Sandwich  East,   Sandwich  West. 

FRONTENAC:     Kingston  Township. 

GREY:    Artemesia,    Collingwood,    Derby,    Euphrasia,    Glenelg,   Keppel,   Normanby, 
Osprey,  St.  Vincent,  Sullivan,  Sydenham. 

HALDIMAND:     Cayuga,  Dunn,  Rainham,  Walpole. 

HALTON:    Esquesing,  Nelson,  Trafalgar. 

HURON:     Grey,  Morris,  Turnberry,  Wawanosh  West. 

KENT:   Harwich,  Howard,  Romney,  Tilbury  East. 

LAMBTON:     Bosanquet,  Moore,  Warwick. 

LANARK:     Lanark. 

LEEDS:     Bastard,  Kitley,  Yonge. 

LINCOLN:     Grantham,  Grimsbv. 

MANITOULIN:      Bidwell,  Gordon. 

MIDDLESEX:     Adelaide,  Delaware,  Lobo,  London,  McGillivray,  Westminster,  Wil- 
liams East,  Williams  West. 

MUSKOKA:     Draper,  Muskoka. 

NORFOLK:     Charlotteville,  Townsend,  Walsingham,  Windham,  Woodhouse. 

ONTARIO:      Brock,  Pickering,  Reach,   Scott,  Thorah,  Uxbridge,  Whitby  East. 

OXFORD:     Blenheim,  Dereham,  Norwich  North,  Norwich  South,  Zorra  East. 

PEEL:     Albion,  Caledon,  Chinguacousy,  Toronto. 

PERTH:     Blanshard,  Downie,  Easthope  North,  Easthope  South,  EUice,  Elma,  Fullar- 
ton,  Mornington,  Wallace. 

SIMCOE:     Adjala,  Essa,  Gwillimbury  West,  Innisfail,  Nottawasaga,  Orillia,  Sunni- 
dale,  Tay,  Tecumseh,  Tiny,  Vespra. 

STORMONT:     Cornwall. 

VICTORIA:     Bexley,  Eldon,  Mariposa. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

PUBLIBHED  BY  THE  ONTARIO  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  TORONTO. 

No.        Date.  Title.  Author. 

169  Feb.       1909      Legume  Bacteria:  Further  Studies  of  Nitro- f  S.F.Edwards. 

gen  Accumulation  in  the  Deguminosaj  . .  \ 

170  Mar.      1909      Mitchell- Walker  Test  Bottle   |  ^^^^-  ^^Iker!^' 

(    Insects  Affecting  Vegetables   

171  April     1909  |   ^^^^^^  j).g,^33g  Affecting  Vegetables  . . . .  {  j;  W-  ^^if^f^' 

172  May      1909      Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)   ...  Dairy  School. 

173  Oct.        1909       Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

174  Dec.       1909       Farm  Underdrainage:   Does  it  Pay   W.  H.  Day. 

175  Dec.       1909      Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

176  Dec.       1909       Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   D.  H.  Jones. 

177  Dec.       1909      Lime-Sulphur  Wash  {  g;  q^^^^^^^' 

178  Dec.      1909       Character    and    Treatment    of    Swamp    or  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Muck   Soils    A.  E.  Slater. 

179  Feb.      1910      Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters  Fruit  Ex.  Stations. 

180  April     1910      Flour  and  Breadmaking  {  ^-  J^ p°"^y 

181  June     1910      The  Teeth  and  Their  Care   Ont.  Dental  Society. 

182  July      1910      Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch 

183  Aug.      1910      Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making Dairy  Branch 

184  Nov.       1910      Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey  

185  Nov.       1910      Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

186  Dec.      1910      Children:   Care  and  Training  J.  J.  Kelso. 

187  Jan.       1911      The   Codling  Moth   L.  Caesar. 

188  April     1911      Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)   J.  E.  Hewitt. 

189  May       1911       Farm  Poultry   (151  revised)    W.  R.  Grahom. 

190  May      1911       Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch 

191  June     1911      Bee-keepiug  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch 

192  July      1911      Agricultural  Co-operation  S.  E.  Todd. 

193  Nov.      1911       Tuberculosis  of  FjwIs S.  F.  Edwards. 

194  Dec.      1911      Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch 

195  Jan.      1912       Insectides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised  |  J'  J^^p^i^g^^ 

196  Jan.       1912       Tomatoes   A.  G.  Turney. 

197  Feb.       1912      Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

198  Feb.       1912       Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

199  Feb.       1912       Onions  A.  McMeans. 

200  April     1912       Fruit  Juices  L.  Meunier. 

201  May       1912      Peach  Growing  in  Ontario F.  M.  Clement. 

Peach  Diseases  L.  Caesar. 

202  May      1912      Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

203  May      1912      Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  A.  McMeans. 

204  June     1912      Decay  of  the  Teeth Ont.  Dental  Society. 

205  Sept.     1912      Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   ..  { 

Part  I.    Cheese-making  and  Butter-making  )  Staff  of  Dairy  SchooL 

206  Nov.     1912       Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . .  j  Dairy  School. 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm ( 

207  Dec.       1912       Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

208  Jan.      1913      Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  f  J.  H.  Hare. 

in  Ontario  County  \  T.  A.  Benson. 

209  March    1913       Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz. 

210  March  1913       Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.  F.  M.  Clament. 

211  March  1913      Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters...  Fruit   Branch. 

(No.  179  revised.) 

212  March  1913       An  Orchard  Survey  in  Dundas,  Stormont  and 

Glengarry F.  S.  Reeves. 

213  April    1913       Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


LIVE  STOCK  BRANCH 


BULLETIN  214 


Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario 

Does  It  Pay? 


By  LIVE  STOCK  BRANCH 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  MAY,  1913 


BULLETIN   NO.  214]  [MAY,  1913 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

LIVE  STOCK  BRANCH 


Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario 

DOES  IT  PAY? 

"  Sheep  Kaising  iu  Ontario— Does  it  Pay  ?"  was  the  question  which  the  Ontario 
Sheep  Breeders'  Association  wished  to  have  answered  in  a  manner  which  would  be 
satisfactory  to  all  concerned.  While  every  other  class  of  live  stock  was  increasing 
and  receiving  increased  attention  from  ithe  farmers  of  the  Province,  sheep  were 
receiving  less  attention  each  succeeding  year,  and  were  decreasing  in  numbers, 
having  decreased  from  1,797,313  in  1900  to  1,040,245  in  1911. 

To  be  able  to  give  a  satisfactory  answer  to  this  question  and  to  promote  a 
greater  interest  in  sheep  raising  throughout  the  Province,  it  was  felt  that  it  would 
be  an  advantage  to  have  a  number  of  Illustration  Stations  located  at  different 
points  throughout  the  Province,  with  the  object  of  demonstrating  the  profits  which 
could  reasonably  be  expected  under  ordinary  conditions  from  a  small  flock  of 
grade  ewes.  The  co-operation  of  the  Live  Stock  Branch  of  the  Ontario  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  was  obtained  in  this  work  and  a  grant  received  to  defray  the 
cost  of  supervising  the  work. 

The  following  is  the  general  outline  of  the  work  which  was  recommended: 

1.  That  there  should  be  eight  demonstration  stations  as  follows:  (a)  Six 
stations  located  at  different  points  throughout  the  Province  where  lambs  should  be 
dropped  not  earlier  than  April  20th,  and  marketed  during  the  following  winter; 
(6)  one  station  located  in  Muskoka  devoted  to  raising  of  summer  lambs,  and  (c) 
one  station  located  near  Toronto  devoted  to  raising  early  lambs. 

2.  That  the  flock  at  each  station  should  consist  of  from  ten  to  twelve  good 
grade  ewes  to  be  owned  and  supplied  by  the  person  in  charge  of  the  station,  and 
a  pure-bred  ram  to  be  supplied  by  the  Department. 

3.  That  each  station  should  be  in  charge  of  a  good  average  farmer  with  ex- 
perience in  the  handling  of  grade  sheep,  and  who  was  able  to  supply  suitable 
accommodation  for  the  flock,  and  who  would  agree  to  keep  accurate  account  of  all 
expenses  of  feeding  and  care,  and  make  detailed  report  of  same  as  required. 

4.  That  the  person  in  charge  of  the  work  should  be  encouraged  to  keep  some 
of  his  best  ewe  lambs  for  the  improvement  of  the  flock. 

5.  That  the  rams  should  represent  Shropshire,  Southdown,  Dorset  Horn,  Hamp- 
shire, Oxford,  Leicester,  Lincoln,  and  Cotswold. 

6.  That  the  general  supervision  of  the  work  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
two  inspectors  who  should  be  expert  sheep  men. 


7.  The  farmers  iu  charge  o±"  stations  should  be  required  to  refer  all  questions 
of  feeding,  breeding,  care,  and  marketing  to  the  inspectors. 

Nine  stations  were  finally  located  in  the  following  Counties:  Brant,  Middle- 
sex, York,  Huron,  Simcoe,  Muskoka,  Victoria,  Lanark  and  Leeds,  and  the  flocks 
and  rams  selected.  In  locating  the  stations  the  aim  was,  as  far  as  possible,  to  have 
represented  the  different  conditions  throughout  the  Province. 

Mr.  John  Campbell,  of  Woodville,  and  Lt.-Col.  Eobert  McEwen,  of  Byron, 
were  appointed  as  Inspectors  to  supervise  the  work.  Before  the  experiments  were 
commenced,  they  inspected  and  valued  the  flocks. 

The  following  tables  and  summary  show  the  results  obtained.  In  this  finan- 
cial statement  the  expenses  for  the  year  are  the  cost  of  feeding  the  flock  of  ewes 
and  ram  from  the  beginning  of  the  breeding  season  in  the  fall  of  one  year  to  the 
beginning  of  the  breeding  season  in  the  fall  of  the  succeeding  year,  plus  the  cost 
of  feeding  the  lambs  from  weaning  time  until  they  were  marketed.  Each  flock 
was  charged  with  six  per  cent,  on  the  investment  represented  by  the  Inspectors' 
valuation,  and  where  any  losses  occurred  the  full  cost  was  charged  against  the 
flock.  In  no  case  was  credit  given  for  the  bonus  of  $3  per  head,  this  was  given 
simply  as  an  inducement  to  the  farmer  to  keep  accurate  accounts.  The  results 
shown  here  are  what  any  farmer  might  reasonably  expect. 


REPORT  OF  SHEEP-FEEDING  EXPERIMENTS. 

During  the  first  year  the  lambs  raised  at  all  Stations,  except  Brown's  Corners 
and  Windermere,  were  sold  when  about  one  year  old.  The  lambs  from  the  Station 
at  Brown's  Corners  were  intended  to  be  marketed  as  early  spring  lambs,  while 
those  from  Windermere  were  to  be  sold  during  the  summer  to  hotels  in  the  neigh- 
borhood doing  a  tourist  trade.  At  Brown's  Corners  some  of  the  lambs  were  not 
dropped  early  enough  to  be  sold  at  the  highest  price,  and  some  were  carried  over 
until  the  following  spring,  the  Station  being  credited  with  the  price  of  the  lambs 
when  sold  and  charged  with  the  expense  of  feeding  during  the  winter. 

During  the  second  year  the  lambs  at  six  of  the  Stations  were  sold  when  about 
one  year  old.  The  lambs  from  the  Station  at  Brown's  Corners  were  marketed  as 
early  spring  lambs.  Those  at  Windermere  were  sold  for  the  summer  hotel  trade. 
The  lambs  at  Paris  were  sold  at  various  dates  in  the  fall,  for,  as  good  prices  were 
offered  for  them  at  that  date,  it  was  not  considered  that  it  would  be  profitable  to 
feed  them  over  winter. 

Perth. 

This  Station  was  in  charge  of  Isaac  M.  Kenyon,  who  had  ten  grade  ewes  and  a 
Southdown  ram. 

First  Year.  The  sheep  were  brought  to  the  barn  on  December  20th.  During 
the  winter  they  were  fed  500  pounds  of  hay  valued  at  $3.25 ;  4,000  pounds  of  un- 
threshed  peas,  $12;  2,000  pounds  turnips,  $5;  150  pounds  mixed  bran  and  grain. 
$1.50.  Total  value  of  the  winter  feed  for  ewes  and  ram  $23.75  or  an  average  cost 
per  head  of  $2.16.  Fifteen  lambs  were  dropped.  All  lambs  were  docked  and  the 
wethers  castrated  on  May  10th.  The  eleven  fleeces  weighed  69  pounds  after  being 
washed,  and  sold  at  24  cents  per  pound,  value  $16.56. 

On  May  1st  the  sheep  and  lambs  were  turned  out  to  pasture  on  cheap  rough 
land  and  the  pasture  for  the  season  was  valued  at  $2.     In  the  fall  the  lambs  had 


the  run  of  a  field  of  rape  and  also  in  some  well  cobbed  corn.  The  winter  feeding 
of  the  lambs  began  on  December  20th,  and  consisted  of  a  daily  ration  of  60  pounds 
clover,  green  peas  and  oats,  30  pounds  turnips,  and  13  pounds  bran  and  oats,  the 
feed  costing  40  cents  per  day  or  a  total  up  to  March  6th  of  $30.40,  an  average  of 
$3.03.  On  this  date  12  of  the  lambs  were  sold  at  $6.35  per  hundred  and  3  were 
kept  for  breeding  purposes  at  the  same  valuation.  The  weight  of  the  15  lambs  was 
1,500  pounds,  realizing  $93.75.  Total  receipts  of  lambs  and  wool,  $110.31;  ex- 
penses $59.55;  profit,  $50.75. 

Second  Year.  The  sheep  were  brought  to  the  barn  on  December  15th.  Dur- 
ing the  winter  they  were  fed  700  pounds  of  hay,  valued  at  $3.80;  4,000  pounds 
green  peas  and  600  pounds  green  oats,  valued  at  $15;  2,000  pounds  roots,  valued 
at  $5;  175  pounds  grain,  valued  at  $1.75;  total  value  of  winter  feed  for  ewes  and 
ram,  $34.55,  an  average  cost  per  head  of  $3.33.  16  lambs  were  dropped  and  15 
lived.  Dogs  worried  the  flock  in  September,  causing  a  loss  of  two  ewes  and  two 
lambs  for  which  nothing  was  recovered.  The  eleven  fleeces,  after  washing,  weighed 
71  pounds  and  sold  at  33  cents  per  pound,  value  $16.33.  On  April  26th,  the  sheep 
and  lambs  were  turned  out  to  pasture  on  cheap  rough  land,  pasture  for  the  season 
being  valued  at  $2.  On  May  10th,  the  lambs  were  docked  and  the  males  castrated. 
The  winter  feeding  of  the  lambs  commenced  on  January  1st.  They  were  fed 
3,700  pounds  of  hay,  valued  at  $14.80;  1,000  pounds  green  oats,  valued  at  $5; 
1,800  pounds  of  roots,  valued  at  $3;  130  pounds  of  bran,  valued  at  $1.20.  $2  was 
charged  for  pasturing  lambs  from  time  of  weaning  until  winter  feeding  com- 
menced, a  total  of  $36,  or  $3  per  head.  On  March  11th,  the  13  lambs  were  sold 
at  $7.50  per  hundred;  the  weight  of  lambs  was  1,170  pounds,  realizing  $87.70. 
Total  receipts,  wool  and  lambs,  $104.03;  total  expenses,  including  $13.00  for  two 
ewes  worried  by  dogs,  $70.95;  profit,  $33.08.     Profit  for  two  years,  $83.83. 

Fairfield  Bast. 

Edwin  Johns  had  charge  of  this  Station.  The  flock  consisted  of  10  grade 
Leicester  ewes,  valued  at  $6.50  per  head  and  a  Cotswold  ram. 

First  Year.  The  feed  for  the  ewes  and  ram  during  the  winter  consisted  of 
3,050  pounds  of  hay,  $18.35;  1,500  pounds  pea  straw,  $3.50;  3,775  pounds  roots, 
$4.63;  10  bushels  oats,  $4.05;  150  pounds  bran,  $1.65.  The  pasture  for  the  sum- 
mer was  valued  at  $13.  This  makes  a  total  cost  of  feed  during  the  year,  $43.43,  or 
$3.95  per  head.  Two  of  the  ewes  in  this  flock  were  lost.  One  died  shortly  before 
lambing,  and  the  other  about  two  weeks  after.  The  cause  was  not  discovered  in 
either  case.  The  ram  also  died  in  the  spring.  He  had  been  ailing  all  winter  with 
what  appeared  to  be  paralysis  of  the  throat.  The  sheep  were  not  dipped.  The 
clip  amounted  to  85  pounds,  and  sold  at  13>4  cents,  $11.47. 

The  flock  produced  15  lambs.  Two  of  these  were  injured  during  the  sum- 
mer by  a  train  and  had  to  be  slaughtered.  The  railway  company  allowed  a  claim 
of  $12  for  the  two.  Thirteen  lambs  went  into  winter  quarters  and  were  fed  3,440 
pounds  mixed  clover,  green  peas  and  oats,  worth  $14.56;  963  pounds  of  straw,  96 
cents;  1,365  pounds  mangles,  $1.60;  1,950  pounds  mixed  bran,  oats  and  peas, 
$19.50,  total,  $36.63,  or  an  average  cost  of  $3.83.  The  lambs  were  sold  on  April 
25th  at  7  cents  per  pound.  The  total  weight  was  1,707  pounds  at  $7,  or  a  total  of 
$119.49.  Including  the  $13  for  the  two  lambs,  the  total  receipts  were  $131.49,  or 
an  average  of  $8.77.  Total  receipts,  lambs  and  wool,  $143.96;  expenses,  $123.39; 
profit,  $19.57. 


Second  Year.  The  flock  was  taken  off  pasture  on  November  35th.  During  the 
winter  they  were  fed  3,430  pounds  of  hay,  valued  at  $13.74;  4,445  pounds  straw, 
valued  at  $6.84;  234  pounds  of  roots,  valued  at  28c.;  576  pounds  grain  valued  at 
$6.12.  Total  winter  feed,  $36.98,  an  average  of  $3.36.  Thirteen  lambs  were 
dropped  and  11  lived.  The  eleven  fleeces  weighed  97  pounds,  and  sold  for  14c. 
per  pound,  bringing  $13.58.  On  May  1st  the  sheep  and  lambs  were  turned  out  to 
pasture,  which  was  valued  at  $10  for  the  summer.  On  May  20th,  the  lambs  were 
docked  and  the  rams  castrated.  The  lambs  were  weaned  in  August,  and  were  put 
to  winter  feed  on  December  1st.  They  were  fed  3,500  pounds  of  clover  hay,  worth 
$14;  1,060  pounds  of  turnips,  valued  at  $1.77,  and  1,985  pounds  bran,  peas  and 
oats,  valued  at  $1  per  hundred,  a  total  cost  of  $35.62,  an  average  of  $3.23  per 
head  for  winter  feeding.  On  April  20th,  nine  of  the  lambs  were  sold,  the  other  two 
being  kept  for  breeding,  and  valued  the  same  as  those  sold.  The  total  weight  of 
the  11  lambs  was  1,282  pounds,  at  $6.50  per  hundred,  $83.33.  Total  receipts  for 
lambs  and  wool,  $96.91;  total  expenses,  which  include  feed  of  ewes  and  ram,  feed 
of  lambs,  pasture  and  interest  on  investment  at  6  per  cent.,  $80.63 ;  profit,  $16.28. 
Profit  for  two  years,  $35.85. 

WOODVILLE. 

D.  C.  Ross  was  in  charge  of  this  Station.  He  started  with  12  grade  Leicester 
ewes,  valued  at  $8  each,  and  a  Leicester  ram. 

First  Year.  The  feed  for  the  winter  consisted  of  3,000  pounds  hay,  $15; 
3,000  pounds  straw,  $5;  125  bushels  turnips,  $7.50;  420  pounds  oats,  $4.20; 
some  unthreshed  peas,  valued  at  $2;  $10  was  charged  for  the  pasture.  Total, 
$43.70;  average  per  head,  $3.36.  130  pounds  of  unwashed  wool  was  sold  at  13>^ 
cents  per  pound  for  $17.55.  The  sheep  were  not  dipped.  During  the  year  one  of 
the  ewes  died  and  was  replaced. 

Eighteen  lambs  were  dropped.  After  weaning,  their  feed  cost  $39.11,  or  $2.30 
per  head.  It  consisted  of  3,375  pounds  hay,  $11.81;  270  bushels  turnips,  $16.20; 
21  bushels  oats,  $6.30;  1,860  pounds  unthreshed  peas.  $4.80.  One  of  the  lambs 
was  sold  in  November  and  13  on  March  27th.  Four  of  the  ewe  lambs  were  kept 
in  the  flock.  These  were  weighed  at  the  time  the  others  were  sold,  and  charged 
for  at  the  same  price.  The  selling  price  was  $6.65,  and  the  weight  2,339  pounds, 
making  $156.54.  The  November  lambs  sold  for  $6.32,  total,  $162.86,  or  $9.05  per 
head.    Total  receipts,  lambs  and  wool,  $180.41 ;  expenses,  $98.07 ;  profit,  $82.34. 

Second  Year.  The  feed  for  the  winter  consisted  of  6,370  pounds  hay,  worth 
$22.29,  and  10,920  pounds  roots,  valued  at  $10.92,  total  $33.21,  an  average  of 
$2.55  for  winter  feeding.  Fifteen  lambs  were  dropped  and  14  lived.  On  May  10th, 
all  lambs  were  docked,  and  the  rams  castrated  on  June  1st.  The  13  fleeces  weighed 
135  pounds  and  sold  for  13jf^c.  per  pound,  bringing  $18.22.  Summer  pasture  for 
the  flock  was  valued  at  $9,  The  lamhs  were  weaned  in  August  and  put  into  winter 
feeding  November  17th.  During  the  feeding  period  they  were  fed  1,500  pounds 
of  hay,  worth  $9;  230  bushels  turnips  charged  at  6  cents  per  bushel,  $13.80;  a 
quantity  of  straw  worth  $4.50;  994  pounds  of  grain,  valued  at  $12.42,  a  total  of 
$39.72,  averaging  $2.84.  On  March  17th,  12  of  them  were  sold  and  the  two  which 
were  kept  for  breeding  valued  the  same  as  those  sold.  The  weight  of  the  14  was 
1,720  pounds,  at  $7  per  hundred,  brought  $120.40.  Total  receipts,  lambs  and 
wool,  $138.62.  expenses,  including  dip  and  interest  on  investment,  $90.02;  profit, 
$48.60.    Profit  for  two  years,  $130.94. 


DUNTEOON. 

John  McKee  had  at  this  Station  10  grade  Leicester  ewes,  valued  at  $8  per  head, 
and  a  Shropshire  ram. 

First  Year.  Winter  feeding  consisted  of  .,100  pounds  of  Alfalfa  hay  and 
1,430  pounds  of  clover  hay,  value,  $14.08.  A  quantity  of  straw  fed  was  valued 
at  $5.  They  also  got  7  bushels  of  oats,  $2.53;  70  pounds  bran,  77  cents.  The 
pasture  for  the  summer  was  worth  $13.75,  and  zeuoleum  dip  75  cents,  making  the 
cost  of  the  year's  feed  $36.87,  an  average  of  $3.35.  The  castrating  and  docking 
was  done  on  May  25th.  The  clip  of  unwashed  wool  was  109  pounds,  which  sold 
at  13  cents  per  pound,  realizing  $14.17.  Zenoleum  solution  was  used  for  dipping. 
One  of  the  ewes  died  during  the  fall. 

There  were  11  lambs  in  the  jBock.  The  winter  feeding  of  these  started  on 
October  28th  and  continued  until  March  17th,  when  they  were  sold.  The  winter 
feeding  cost  $29.10,  or  $2.65  per  head.  The  feed  consisted  of  4,200  pounds  of 
Alfalfa  at  $8  per  ton,  $16.80;  and  1,230  pounds  of  oats  and  barley  at  $1  per 
hundred,  $12.30.  The  11  lambs  weighed  1,365  pounds,  and  sold  at  $7,  or  $95.55, 
an  average  of  $8.69.  Total  receipts,  lambs  and  wool,  $109.72;  expenses,  $80.27; 
profit,  $29.45. 

Seco7id  Year.  The  flock  was  fed  in  the  barn  2,300  pounds  of  hay,  valued  at 
$12.80,  and  were  allowed  pea  straw  at  will,  which  is  put  in  at  a  nominal  charge 
of  $5;  roots  valued  at  $1.56,  and  264  pounds  grain,  worth  $2.82,  a  total  of  $22.18, 
an  average  of  $2.01  for  winter  feeding.  Ten  lambs  were  dropped,  of  which  9  lived. 
The  flock  went  to  pasture  April  20th,  for  which  $12  is  charged.  The  shearing  was 
done  May  23rd.  The  eleven  fleeces  weighed  90  pounds  and  brought  14  cents  per 
pound,  $12.60.  After  weaning,  the  lambs  were  allowed  the  roughage  of  the  farm. 
During  the  feeding  period,  they  were  fed  2,400  pounds  hay,  worth  $9.60,  and  540 
pounds  grain,  valued  at  $6.75.  On  March  5th  they  were  sold  for  8  cents  per  pound. 
The  weight  of  the  nine  was  915  pounds,  bringing  $73.20.  Total  receipts,  $85.80; 
expenses,  $57.58;  profit,  $28.22.    Profit  for  two  years,  $57.67. 

Paris. 

This  Station  was  in  charge  of  W.  A.  Crichton,  who  started  with  10  grade 
Shropshire  ewes,  worth  $8  each,  and  a  Hampshire  ram. 

First  Year.  The  flock  was  fed  during  the  winter  5,120  pounds  of  hay,  $23.04; 
82  bushels  roots,  $8.20;  9  bushels  oats,  $3.60.  The  pasture  for  this  flock  was 
valued  at  $17.50,  making  a  total  cost  for  the  year  of  $52.34,  or  $4.76  per  head. 
The  sheep  were  not  dipped.  Seventy-seven  pounds  of  wool  was  sold  at  14  cents 
amounting  to  $10.78.  The  ewes  were  in  particularly  good  health  in  the  spring, 
and  considerable  credit  for  this  was  thought  to  be  due  to  the  exercise  they  got. 
This  was  attained  by  having  a  feed  rack  at  each  end  of  the  yard,  and  with  feed  in 
both,  the  sheep  were  continually  running  back  and  forth. 

The  lambs  numbered  16.  One  was  sold  in  November  and  the  balance  kept 
until  May  1st.  The  winter  feeding  of  the  lambs  consisted  of  2,250  pounds  of  hay, 
$9;  13,500  pounds  roots,  $18;  3,000  pounds  oats,  $30;  and  2,250  pounds  ensilage, 
$3 ;  total,  $60,  or  $4  per  head.  The  lamb  sold  in  the  fall  went  away  before  feed- 
ing commenced,  and  brought  $8.  The  remaining  15  when  sold  weighed  2,150 
pounds,  and  sold  at  7  cents  per  pound,  bringing  in  $150.50.  Total  receipts  for 
lambs,  $158.50,  an  average  per  head  of  $9.91.  It  should  be  noted  that  at  this 
Station  the  charges  for  pasture  and  also  for  some  of  the  feed  are  high.  Total 
receipts,  $169.28;  expenses,  $118.64;  profit,  $50.64. 


6 

Second  Year.  During  the  Winter  the  flock  was  fed  4,915  pounds  of  hay, 
valued  at  $18.40;  4,680  pounds  roots,  $5.46;  and  $3.60  was  allowed  for  360  pounds 
grain,  making  a  total  of  $27.46,  an  average  of  $2.49  for  winter  feeding.  The 
pasture  for  the  flock  was  valued  at  $15.75.  In  all  18  lambs  were  dropped,  one 
ewe  raising  two  pair  of  twins  during  the  year.  In  January  she  dropped  a  pair, 
which  were  sold  for  Easter,  bringing  $11.  In  October  she  dropped  another  pair, 
which  were  sold  in  February  for  $15.  The  other  lambs  were  not  fed  over  winter, 
but  sold  at  various  times  in  the  fall,  $97  being  received  in  all.  The  flock  yielded 
73  pounds  of  wool,  which  sold  for  15  cents  per  pound,  $10.95.  Total  receipts, 
$107.95;  total  expenses,  which  include  $8  for  a  ewe  which  died,  and  $2,  which  is 
the  difference  between  the  value  and  insurance  received  on  one  killed  by  lightning, 
were  $60.11;  profit,  $47.84.     Profits  for  two  years,  $110.75. 

Eedgrave. 

This  flock  was  in  charge  of  John  Pritchard,  and  the  first  year  consisted  of  9 
grade  Leicester  ewes  and  an  Oxford  ram.  An  extra  ewe  was  put  in  for  the  second 
year. 

First  Year.  During  the  winter  the  ewes  and  ram  were  fed  5,000  pounds  hay, 
$24.75;  73>4  bushels  turnips,  $4.41;  149  pounds  oats,  $1.50;  147  pounds  bran, 
$1.65.  The  summer  pasture  was  valued  at  $10,  and  dip  and  salt,  72  cents,  making 
the  total  cost  for  the  year's  feed  $43.03;  average  per  head,  $4.30.  The  sheep 
produced  65  pounds  of  wool.  This  was  washed  and  sold  at  21  cents  per  pound, 
or  $13.65.  One  of  the  ewes  died  on  July  17th  from  an  unknown  cause.  She  was 
replaced  by  a  ewe  valued  at  $5.25.  $4.80  was  received  from  neighbors  for  the  use 
of  the  ram. 

Twelve  lambs  were  raised.  After  weaning  they  were  allowed  the  run  of  1^ 
acres  of  orchard  sown  with  rape.  As  this  land  had  been  cultivated  and  would 
not  have  been  used  for  any  other  crop,  the  value  of  $5  was  placed  on  what  the 
lambs  used.  The  lambs  were  given  2,400  pounds  of  hay,  $7.20 ;  pea  straw,  valued 
at  $4;  120  bushels  of  turnips,  $7.20;  1,440  pounds  mixed  grain,  $14.40,  total, 
$37.80;  average  per  head,  $3.15.  The  lambs  were  shipped  to  the  Toronto  market 
on  March  15th.  They  weighed  at  Toronto  1,225  pounds,  and  the  net  price  was 
$6.80,  totalling  $83.36;  per  head,  $6.95.  Eeceipts,  $101.81;  expenses,  $92.34: 
profit,  $9.47. 

Second  Year.  The  feed  for  the  winter  consisted  of  4,950  pounds  hay,  $14.85 ; 
4,500  pounds  roots,  worth  $4.50;  330  pounds  of  grain  at  a  cent  a  pound.  Pasture 
for  the  summer  was  $15.  Total  for  the  year,  including  75  cents  for  dip,  $38.40, 
an  average  of  $3.49  for  the  year's  feeding.  Sixty-two  pounds  of  wool  sold  for 
$12.60.  One  ewe  died,  evidently  from  an  affection  of  the  lungs.  Ten  lambs  were 
raised,  all  of  which  were  fed  through  the  winter,  their  feed  consisting  of  1,500 
pounds  of  hay,  valued  at  $6 ;  4,400  pounds  of  roots,  valued  at  $4.44 ;  1,099  pounds 
of  grain,  worth  $12.58.  Total,  $32.97.  They  were  sold  March  5th,  at  $7.50  per 
hundred  and  weighed  1,370  pounds,  bringing  $102.75.  Total  receipts,  lambs  and 
wool,  $114.75.  Expenses,  including  loss  of  $6.50  for  ewe  which  died,  $83.65 : 
profit,  $31.09.     Profit  for  two  years,  $40.56. 

Hyde  Park. 

A.  M.  Dickie  had  under  his  charge  12  grade  Lincoln  ewes,  which  were  valued 
at  $8  per  head  and  a  Lincoln  ram. 


First  Year.  The  winter  feeding  for  the  flock  amounted  to  6,032  pounds  of 
hay,  $30.16;  1,625  pounds  straw,  $4.00;  110  bushels  roots,  $13.20;  370  pounds 
grain,  $4.62;  salt,  50  cents.  The  flock  pastured  on  the  roadside  during  the  sum- 
mer. Zenoleum  was  used  for  the  dip,  and  cost  $1.50.  The  total  cost  of  feeding 
the  ewes  and  ram  was  $53.98,  an  average  of  $4.16.  A  considerable  quantity  of  the 
hay  charged  to  ewes  was  removed  in  cleaning  racks  each  day  and  fed  to  cattle. 
As  no  record  was  made  of  the  amount  taken  no  allowance  could  be  made.  The 
wool  clip  weighed  132  pounds  and  sold  at  13  cents  per  pound,  $17.16. 

One  of  the  ewes  was  not  with  lamb.     The  balance  produced  15  lambs.     The 
winter  feeding  of  these  included  4,865  pounds  of  hay,  $19.46;  116  bushels  mangles, 
$11.60,  and  2,502  pounds  bran,  $27.52,  total,  $58.58;  per  head,  $3.91.    They  were 
all  sold  on  April  6th  at  $6.50  per  hundred,  1,980  pounds,  $128.70 ;  per  head,  $8.58. , 
Total  receipts,  $145.86;  expenses,  $119.82;  profit,  $26.04. 

Second  Year.  The  winter  feed  for  this  flock  consisted  of  4,360  pounds  hay, 
worth  $19.62;  6,000  pounds  straw,  valued  at  $6;  4,200  pounds  roots,  worth  $7; 
430  pounds  grain  at  a  cent  a  pound.  Pasture  for  the  summer  was  $3.  Total  for 
the  year,  including  50  cents  for  dip,  $40.42,  averaging  $3.11.  The  clip  amounted 
to  138  pounds  and  sold  for  13  cents  per  pound,  $17.94.  Fourteen  lambs  were 
raised,  they  were  charged  $5  for  pasture  from  time  of  weaning  to  start  of  winter 
feeding.  They  were  fed  3,520  pounds  of  hay,  worth  $21.12;  5,700  pounds  of  roots, 
valued  at  $9.50;  1,690  pounds  grain,  worth  $21.12;  total  $56.74.  They  were  sold 
March  18th  for  $7.25  per  hundred,  bringing  $114.27.  Total  receipts,  $162.21; 
expenses,  $104.42;  profit,  $57.79.     Profits  for  two  years,  $83.83. 

WilNDERMERE. 

Wm.  Aitkins  was  in  charge  of  this  Station,  where  he  had  12  grade  Shrop- 
shire and  Oxford  ewes  and  a  Dorset  ram.  The  ewes  were  valued  at  $6.50  per  head. 
At  this  Station  it  was  decided  to  have  the  lambs  marketed  during  the  first  sum- 
mer. 

First  Year.  The  winter  feeding  of  the  flock  consisted  of  3,480  pounds  hay, 
$26.10;  50^  bushels  turnips,  $3.03;  10  bushels  oats,  $4.20;  304  pounds  bran, 
$3.80,  and  a  quantity  of  ensilage,  valued  at  $1.  The  flock  was  allowed  to  run  on 
the  road  side  so  that  no  charge  was  made  for  pasture.  Zenoleum  dip  was  used. 
It  cost  75  cents.  The  total  cost  for  feed  was  $38.88,  an  average  per  head  of  $2.99. 
The  wool  from  the  flock  weighed  lOOJ^  pounds  and  sold  at  13  cents,  bringing  in 
$13.06. 

Fifteen  lambs  were  raised  and  as  they  were  sold  before  being  weaned  no  charge 
was  made  for  feed.  Twelve  lambs  were  sold  for  $5  each,  and  the  remaining  3  were 
kept  in  the  flock  at  a~  valuation  of  $6  each.  The  total  return  from  the  lambs  was. 
therefore,  $78,  an  average  of  $5.20.  Total  receipts,  $91.06;  expenses,  $45.06: 
profit,  $46. 

Second  Year.  He  fed  during  the  winter  6,550  pounds  hay  worth  $24.00, 
straw  valued  at  50  cents  and  ensilage  the  same  value,  with  a  quantity  of  grain, 
$7.50.  The  flock  pastured  on  the  road  and  nothing  is  charged  for  it.  Feed  for 
the  year,  including  75  cents  for  dip  amounted  to  $33.25,  average,  $2.56.  Twelve 
lambs  were  raised  and  sold  for  $5  each  during  the  summer  before  weaning,  so  that 
nothing  is  charged  for  feeding  them,  over  and  above  feed  of  the  ewes.  Receipts,  98 
pounds  of  wool  at  12>4  cents  per  pound,  $12.25;  lambs.  $60.  Total.  $72.25;  total 
expenses,  $39.43 :  profit,  $32.82.     Profits  for  two  years.  $78.82. 


Brown's  Corners. 

This  Station  was  iu  charge  of  Wm.  Little.  The  flock  consisted  of  13  ewes, 
one  being  a  Cotswold  grade,  3  Shropshire  grades,  3  Oxford  grades,  one  Lincoln 
Griade,  and  4  Dorset  grades,  and  a  Southdown  ram.  The  ewes  were  considered  to 
be  worth  $8.00  each. 

First  Year.  They  were  fed  during  the  winter,  3,100  pounds  hay,  $15.50; 
1,000  pounds  straw,  $1;  90  bushels  turnips,  $5.40;  22  bushels  oats,  $8.80;  700 
pounds  bran,  $8.20,  dover  chaff  and  oil  cake,  75  cents;  total,  $39.65;  average,  $3.05 
The  wool  weighed  80  pounds  and  sold  at  15  cents  for  $12.  It  was  intended  tha.f 
the  lambs  from  this  Station  should  be  placed  on  the  Easter  market.  As  Easter 
came  unusually  early  in  the  spring,  and  plans  had  not  been  made  long  enough 
ahead  the  previous  fall,  it  was  found  impossible  to  get  any  of  the  lambs  ready 
before  Easter.  The  first  lamb  was  dropped  on  February  11th.  During  the  spring, 
6  lambs  were  sold  for  $46.  Two  were  taken  into  the  flock  for  breeding  purposes 
at  that  time  at  an  average  of  $7.50  each.  The  remaining  5  lambs  were  held  over 
and  marketed  in  the  spring  of  1911.  These  were  dressed  by  Mr.  Little  and  sold 
for  $48.07.  This  makes  the  total  receipts  from  the  lambs,  $109.07;  average  per 
head,  $8.39.  The  5  lambs  that  were  kept  until  1911  were  placed  on  the  road 
during  the  summer  of  1910,  were  fed  one-half  ton  threshed  alsike,  $3.00;  323 
pounds  oats,  $3.42;  65  pounds  pease,  87  cents;  60  bushels  roots,  $4.80;  total, 
$12.09;  average  per  head,  $2.42.  Total  receipts,  $121.07;  expenses,  $59.00;  profit, 
$62.07. 

Second  Year.  The  flock  was  fed  2,700  pounds  hay,  $16.20;  2,250  pounds 
dover  chaff  valued  at  $6.75;  6,720  pounds  roots  worth,  $8.96;  2,154  pounds  grain, 
valued  at  $24.26.  They  pastured  on  the  road  and  were  only  charged  50  cents  for 
summer  with  50  cents  added  for  dip.  The  cost  for  the  year  was  $57.17,  an  average 
of  $4.76.  The  lambs  were  sold  for  the  spring  trade  and  received  no  feed  which 
is  not  charged  in  the  feed  of  the  ewes.  22  of  them  were  raised,  which  indicates 
that  this  flock  is  very  prolific.  They  were  sold  at  various  times  and  at  various 
prices,  realizing  in  all  $168.  103  pounds  of  wool  brought  $14.99.  The  total 
receipts  were  $182.99;  expenses,  $64.43;  profit,  $118.56.  Profit  for  two  years, 
$180.63. 


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14 

When  we  consider  the  results  of  these  experiments  we  are  bound  to  agree 
with  the  Sheep  Breeders  who  claim  that  "Sheep  liaising  in  Ontario  Pays." 

The  flocks  in  this  set  of  experiments  were  handled  under  ordinary  farm  con- 
ditions and  under  every  condition  likely  to  be  met  with  throughout  the  Province, 
and  every  one  of  them  showed  a  reasonable  and  some  of  them  a  remarkably  grati- 
fying surplus  in  each  of  the  two  years  during  which  the  experiment  was  carried 
on.  It  would  appear  from  the  report  of  the  Station  at  Brown's  Corners  that 
where  a  farmer  is  so  situated  that  he  can  cater  to  the  early  spring  or  Easter  trade, 
that  it  is  an  unusually  profitable  line  to  follow,  this  flock  in  the  second  year 
giving  almost  as  much  profit  as  the  value  of  the  flock.  The  flock  at  Windermere, 
where  the  lambs  were  sold  for  the  summer  hotel  trade,  was  also  very  profitable, 
giving  an  average  profit  of  $39.41  per  year.  While  these  two  flocks  may  have 
had  especially  favorable  conditions,  the  other  seven  flocks  which  were  kept  under 
conditions  no  more  favorable  than  any  farmer  in  the  Province  enjoys,  gave  a  total 
profit  for  two  years  of  $543.43,  an  average  of  $38.81  per  year  per  flock, 

"Sheep  Eaising  in  Ontario  Pays."  Try  it  with  a  flock  of  ten  or  twelve  grade 
ewes  and  a  pure  bred  ram  and  increase  the  profits  from  your  farm. 


HANDLING  AND  MAPtKETING  WOOL. 

Some  years  ago  one  of  the  reasons  given  for  sheep  raising  not  being  more  pro- 
fitable than  it  was,  was  the  comparatively  poor  price  paid  for  wool,  and  no  doubt 
there  was  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  it.  If  a  better  price  had  been  obtained  for  wool, 
it  would  have  increased  the  profits  from  sheep  raising  and  thus  induced  the  farmers 
of  the  Province  to  keep  more  sheep.  This  is  not  true  to  the  same  extent  to-day, 
and  buyers  claim  that  if  the  clip  of  wool  was  properly  handled  they  would  be  able 
to  pay  still  higher  prices. 

With  the  object  of  determining  what  improvements  in  the  marketing  of  wool 
would  be  most  likely  to  have  the  desired  result,  inquiries  were  made  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  firms  throughout  the  Province  manufacturing  woolen  goods  asking  them 
what  classes  of  goods  they  manufactured,  the  kinds  of  wool  used,  where  they  pur- 
chased it,  the  amount  of  Canadian  wool  used,  and  what  criticisms  they  had  to  offer 
with  reference  to  it,  and  what  suggestions,  if  any,  they  would  make  with  reference 
to  the  marketing  of  it.  From  the  replies  received  from  these  various  manufacturers 
the  following  conclusions  are  drawn : 

London  rules  the  wool  markets  of  the  world,  and  when  our  manufacturers 
cannot  obtain  what  they  want  nearer  home,  they  buy  their  supplies  there.  If  we  do 
not  supply  their  demands  and  they  go  to  London,  we  will  suffer  to  a  certain  extent 
because  our  wool  is  constantly  in  competition  with  wools  produced  in  Australia  and 
other  parts  of  the  world,  where  proper  care  is  taken  to  place  it  upon  the  market 
in  the  very  best  condition.  We  have  no  wool  market  nor  any  system  of  selling.  We 
do  not  offer  large  enough  amounts  for  sale  at  a  time  to  make  it  worth  while  for  a 
buyer  to  go  any  distance.     This  can  be  remedied  if  more  sheep  were  to  be  raised. 

That  almost  every  known  breed  of  sheep  is  kept  in  Ontario,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Merino,  and  no  two  breeds  of  sheep  produce  exactly  the  same  kinds  of  wool, 
although  the  Lincolns  and  Cotswolds  produce  very  similar  wools. 

Eoughly  speaking,  there  are  three  great  classes  of  wools: 

(1)   Clothing  wool — short. 

(3)  Delaine — fine,   strong,   short   wools    (Worsteds). 

(3)   Combing — long  wools. 


16 

That  for  the  fine  classes  of  goods  the  wools  have  to  be  imported,  but  for  the 
coarser  clothings,  blankets,  etc.,  for  which  there  is  a  large  and  growing  market, 
our  Canadian  wools  cannot  be  outclassed.  The  rapid  growth  of  some  of  our  estab- 
lishments manufacturing  such  goods  and  using  Canadian  wool  only  is  sufficient 
proof  of  this.  The  "Cornwall"  blanket,  which  had  a  world-wide  reputation  for 
its  quality  was  made  entirely  of  Canadian  wool  and  would  still  be  famous  but  for 
the  use  of  cheaper  materials. 

The  question  of  breeds  of  sheep  and  kinds  of  wool  is  not  so  important  as  the 
proper  care  of  the  wool  while  it  is  on  the  sheep  and  at  shearing  time;  uses  can  be 
found  for  the  wool  from  every  breed  of  sheep,  provided  it  is  properly  cared  for.  In 
many  cases  the  weeds  are  not  combatted  and  the  sheep  are  allowed  to  wander  all 
over  the  farm,  gathering  up  burrs  and  bootjacks  as  trophies.  After  these,  too,  often 
comes  a  straw  or  hay  stack,  which  adds  its  quota  of  foreign  material  to  the  wool. 

While  many  provide  proper  places  and. take  care  of  their  sheep,  a  great  many 
more  do  not.  In  many  cases  the  sheep  are  underfed  during  the  winter,  which  causes 
them  to  lose  flesh.  When  this  occurs,  a  weak  spot  in  the  wool  fibre  can  be  found 
which  detracts  greatly  from  its  value  as  the  wool  will  become  clotted  and  will  not 
divide,  making  it  impossible  to  properly  comb  or  card  it.  To  provide  wool  of  good 
quality,  the  sheep  must  be  kept  in  clean  quarters  and  fed  well  enough  to  be  in  a 
healthy  condition. 

Breeds  should  not  be  crossed,  as  it  produces  a  nondescript  wool  which  is  not 
well  suited  for  any  particular  purpose  and  consequently  is  not  very  marketable. 
Excessive  inbreeding  or  anything  which  weakens  the  constitution  of  the  flock  will 
have  a  bad  effect  on  the  quality  of  the  wool. 

Though  the  producer  may  not  always  take  proper  care  of  the  wool  while  it  is 
on  the  sheep,  there  should  be  no  excuse  for  not  delivering  it  in  better  shape.  A 
great  many  fleeces  are  rolled  up  without  being  trimmed  in  any  way,  including  all 
the  burrs  and  dirt  which  they  originally  contained.  Too  often  the  fleece  is  tied  up 
with  binder  twine  and  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  prevent  strands  of  the  hemp  from 
being  mixed  with  the  wool.  This  vegetable  material  will  not  take  the  dye  whicli 
is  used  for  the  wool,  and  it  therefore  detracts  greatly  from  the  value  of  any  piece 
of  cloth  into  which  it  happens  to  find  its  way.  The  manufacturer  prefers  to  obtain 
unwashed  wool,  as  he  has  to  furnish  machinery  for  washing  and  scouring  anyway 
and  they  do  it  more  thoroughly  than  the  farmer  can  do  it  with  the  means  at  his 
disposal.  It  is  also  better  for  the  sheep  as  there  is  no  delay  in  shearing  due  to 
waiting  for  warmer  water. 

The  producer,  however,  is  not  altogether  to  blame;  the  practice  of  selling  to 
jinall  dealers  is  a  great  drawback.  They  pay  an  average  price,  and  if  a  man  has 
only  a  small  quantity,  no  matter  what  the  quality,  he  cannot  command  any  higher 
price.  Too  often  the  dealers  cannot  distinguish  between  the  various  wools,  and 
oases  are  on  record  where  they  have  l)ought  unwashed  wool  for  washed  wool. 

There  is  now  some  encouragement  for  the  farmer  to  take  better  care  of  the 
wool,  but  he  must  in  most  cases  change  his  system  of  marketing  to  obtain  the  full 
benefit  which  might  be  obtained  by  taking  better  care  of  his  product.  There  is  no 
money  in  it  under  the  system  of  marketing  generally  practiced  unless  he  produces 
sufficient  to  attract  a  manufacturer.  There  is  no  business  in  Ontario  where  the  in- 
experienced middleman  is  doing  more  harm  than  in  the  wool  business.  The  farmer.* 
should  deal  directly  with  the  consumer  or  large  wool  merchant.  This  is  being  done 
in  some  districts.  Around  Lindsay,  where  the  producers  have  been  selling  directly 
to  the  manufacturers  according  to  quality,  the  standard  of  wools  has  risen  consider- 
ably.    The  small  dealer.*;  sell  by  bulk  and  no  large  dealer  can  afford  to  gire  them 


16 

the  best  price  because  there  can  be  no  guarantee  given  as  to  the  quality,  cleanli- 
ness, etc.,  of  the  wool.  This  class  of  dealer  should  be  eliminated.  It  is  not  a  busi- 
ness, but  a  sideline  with  most  of  them. 

It  is  estimated  that  there  is  an  average  loss  of  17  per  cent,  in  all  Ontario  wool 
due  to  dirt,  poor  wool,  etc.  Were  it  possible  to  have  every  sheep  owner  visit  some 
mill  and  have  the  various  processes  pointed  out  to  him  and  shown  how,  with  the 
most  up  to  date  processes  and  machinery,  it  is  impossible  to  prevent  some  dirt  occa- 
sionally finding  its  way  into  the  manufactured  article,  he  would  no  doubt  take 
greater  care  to  prevent  dirt  getting  into  the  wool. 

The  farmers  can  individually  do  a  great  deal  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
wool  placed  on  the  market  by  taking  care  to  prevent  dirt  getting  into  the  wool 
while  on  the  sheep  and  by  being  more  careful  at  shearing  time  in  trimming  the 
fleeces.  Instead  of  using  twine  to  tie  them,  a  small  strand  of  wool  from  the  fleece 
itself  should  be  twisted  and  used  for  this  purpose.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  the 
fleeces  tied  up  tightly  so  long  as  they  are  tied  neatly  enough  to  keep  each  fleece  by 
itself,  it  is  all  that  is  required. 

In  marketing,  some  scheme  of  co-operation  as  practised  by  the  fruit  men 
should  greatly  help  to  solve  the  question.  In  Tennessee,  great  benefit  has  been  de- 
rived from  Wool  Clubs.  The  clubs  were  formed  for  the  purpose  of  helping  each 
other  in  the  matter  of  selling  only.  Each  jnember  of  the  club  furnishes  an  estimate 
of  the  amount  of  wool  which  he  will  have  for  sale  to  the  Secretary  of  the  club. 
Arrangements  are  made  to  have  the  wool  delivered  at  a  sorting  shed  and  an  expert 
sorter  secured  for  a  time  to  sort  the  wool.  The  wool  from  each  farmer  is  sorted  and 
he  is  credited  with  so  many  pounds  of  each  grade.  Wlien  the  clip  is  all  in,  the 
club  is  able  to  say  to  buyers  we  have  so  many  pounds  of  wool  of  each  grade,  what 
will  you  pay?  The  manufacturer  or  large  wool  merchant  knows  the  quality  of 
wool,  and,  as  he  is  buying  in  fairly  large  quantities,  he  is  enabled  to  offer  the 
highest  possible  price.  This  scheme  eliminates  the  middleman  and  gives  the  farmer 
all  there  is  in  his  wool.  Then  there  is  encouragement  offered  to  produce  the  best 
grade  of  wool. 

If  clubs  of  this  sort  were  formed  in  districts  throughout  the  Province,  it  would 
help  to  increase  the  profits  from  sheep-raising  and  also  create  more  interest  in  the 
industry.  This  would  be  a  step  towards  establishing  a  market,  each  club  centre 
would  be  a  market  on  a  small  scale,  and  afterward,  if  it  appeared  to  be  advisable, 
co-operation  among  a  number  of  clubs  would  make  larger  markets  and  attract  more 
buyers. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  bt  the  Ontabio  Depabtment  of  Aqbicultuee,  Toeonto. 


Serial 
No,        Date, 

168  Oct,       1908 

169  Feb.      1909 

170  Mar.      1909 

171  April     1909 


172 

May 

1909 

173 

Oct. 

1909 

174 

Dec. 

1909 

175 

Dec, 

1909 

176 

Dec. 

1909 

177 

Dec, 

1909 

178 

Dec. 

1909 

179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov, 

1910 

185 

Nov, 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan, 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan. 

1913 

'.{ 


209  March    1913 

210  March  1913 

211  March  1913 

212  April    1913 

213  April    1913 

214  May      1913 


Title, 

The  Perennial  Sow  Thistle  and  some  other 
Weed  Pests 

Legume  Bacteria:  Further  Studies  of  Nitro- 
gen Accumulation  in  the  Leguminosse 

Mitchell-Walker  Test  Bottle  | 

■  Insects  Affecting  Vegetables  

Fungus  Diseases  Affecting  Vegetables  | 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No,  143  Revised)   ... 

Birds  of  Ontario 

Farm  Underdrainage:  Does  it  Pay? 

Farm  Drainage  Operations   

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 
Trees   

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  \ 

Character   and   Treatment    of    Swamp    or  / 
Muck  Soils    l 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 
(No.  147  revised)    

Flour  and  Breadmaking  | 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making   

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease    

Children:  Care  and  Training  

The  Codling  Moth    

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)    

Farm  Poultry   (151  revised)    

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   

Agricultural  Co-operation  

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls 

Apple  Orcharding 

Insectides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised -^ 

Tomatoes 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario    

Lime-Sulphur  Wash 

Onions  

Fruit  Juices 

Peach   Diseases    

Peach  Growing  in  Ontario   

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower 

Decay  of  the  Teeth  

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)  .. 
Parti.  Cheese-making  and  Butter-making 
Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . . 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm ;^ 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  ( 

in  Ontario   County    \ 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)    

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry. 
Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters... 

(No.  179  revised.) 
Orchard  Surveys  in     Dundas,    Stormont    and 

Glengarry  

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:  Does  it  Pay? 


Author. 

J.  E.  Howitt. 
S.  F,  Edwards. 

B.  Barlow. 

J.  W.  Mitchell. 
W.  O.  Walker. 

C.  J.  S.  Bethune. 
J.  E  Howitt. 

J.  W.  Eastham. 

Dairy  School. 

C.  W.  Nash. 
W.  H.  Day. 
W.  H.  Day. 

D.  H.  Jones. 
H.  L.  Fulmer. 
L.  Caesar. 

W.  P.  Gamble. 
A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruit  Branch 

R.  Harcourt. 

M.  A.  Purdy. 

Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Fruit   Branch. 

Dairy  Branch. 

L.  Caesar. 

J.  J.   Kelso. 

L.  Caesar. 

J.  E.  Howitt. 

W.  R,  Graham. 

Fruit  Branch, 

Fruit   Branch, 

S.   E.  Todd. 

S.  F.  Edwards, 

Fruit  Branch. 

R.   Harcourt. 

H.  L.  Fulmer. 

A.   G.   Turney. 

Morley  Pettit. 

L.  Caesar. 

A.  McMeans. 

L.  Meunier. 

F.  M.  Clement. 

L.  Caesar. 

T,  B.  Revett, 

A.  McMeans, 

Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Staff  of  Dairy  School. 
Dairy  School, 

R.  R.  Graham. 
J.  H.  Hare, 
T.  A.  Benson, 

E.  J.  Zavitz. 

F.  M.  Clement. 
Fruit  Branch 


F.  S.  Reeves. 
Morley  Pettit. 
Live  Stock  Branch. 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


INSTITUTES    BRANCH 


BULLETIN  215 


Demonstration -Lectures  in 

Domestic  Science  (Foods  and  Cooking) 

Sewing  and  Home  Nursing 


TORONTO.   ONTARIO,    AUGUST.    191 J 


BULLETIN  215]  [AUGUST,  1913 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


INSTITUTES  BRANCH 


Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic 

Science,  (Cooking)  Sewing  and 

Home  Nursing 

Courses,  each  consisting  of  ten  Demonstration-Lectures,  will  be  held  as  follows : 
1.  September  29  to  December  6,  1913;  2.  January  5  to  March  1-1;  3.  March  16  to 
May  23,  1914. 

Similar  courses  given  under  the  direction  of  the  Institutes  Branch  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  during  the  winter  of  1912-13  proved  most  successful, 
and  a  liberal  appropriation  from  the  Federal  Grant  has  been  set  apart  for  an 
extension  of  the  work  during  the  season  of  1913-14. 

The  Institutes  desiring  to  take  advantage  of  the  oifer  will  please  fill  out  the 
application  form,  found  in  the  back  of  this  book,  and  forward  the  same  either  to 
the  superintendent,  or  to  the  district  secretary  of  the  riding  in  which  the  branch  is 
located.  The  district  and  branch  officers  will  be  expected  to  confer  in  planning 
for  the  courses  and  if  possible  send  applications  from  groups  of  institutes  con- 
veniently located,  so  that  the  instructor  may  readily  travel  from  place  to  place, 
holding  a  course  at  a  diiferent  point  each  day,  from  Monday  to  Friday  inclusive, 
covering  the  same  route  from  week  to  week.  The  classes,  will,  for  the  most  part,  be 
held  in  the  afternoon,  beginning  at  2  or  2.30  o'clock.  Arrangements  will  be  made 
in  special  cases  for  the  holding  of  classes  in  the  evening,  if  desired.  The  institute 
officers  are  at  liberty  to  form  classes  of  High  School  Girls  for  the  study  of  Domestic 
Science  (cooking)  and  Home  Nursing,  instruction  to  such  classes  being  given  either 
in  the  late  afternoon  or  in  the  evening.  Where  High  School  classes  are  formed, 
the  Institute  and  the  class  concerned  will  be  expected  to  furnish  all  supplies  and 
provide  a  hall  or  a  class  room  free  of  cost  to  the  Department.  A  charge  of  25c. 
for  the  course  will  be  made  for  each  pupil,  ten  cents  to  be  poid  to  the  instructor, 
and  fifteen  cents  to  be  used  to  defray  incidental  expenses. 

There  should  be  no  difficulty  in  securing  suitable  halls  in  which  to  hoUl  classes. 
In  some  cases  public  buildings  are  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Institute,  free  of 
cost,  while  at  other  points,  Sunday  School  rooms,  or  other  rooms  in  connection 
with  churches,  are  available,  and  occasionally  the  school  trustees  place  a  room  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Institute  for  the  regular  class  as  well  as  the  High  School  class. 

The  contract  forms  found  on  the  succeeding  pages  will  indicate  the  nature  of 
the  work  to  be  undertaken.  Following  these  contract  forms,  is  a  brief  report  of 
what  has  already  been  done  in  Demonstration-Ijecture  work,  together  with  state- 
ments from  some  of  the  Instructors  and   those  wlio  have  taken  advantae-e  of  the 


2 

classes.  Blank  application  form  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  the  book,  and  appli- 
cations should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  Department  as  soon  as  possible,  and  not  later 
than  September  15th  for  courses  which  are  to  begin  early  in  October.  Applications 
for  courses  to  be  held  in  January,  February  a.nd  March,  will  be  received  up  to  the 
middle  of  October ;   and  for  March,  April  and  May,  up  to  the  middle  of  January. 

TYPICAL  CONTEACT. 

Between  the  Institutes  Branch  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and 
the Institute 

(Name  of) 

Demonstration-Lecture  Course  in 

FOODS  and  COOKING. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  agrees  to: — 

1.  Provide  all  portable  equipment,  except  the  necessary  tables,  chairs  and  one 

cookstove. 

2.  Provide  a  teacher  who  will: 

(a)  Give  ten  Demonstration-Lectures  in  Domestic  Science  (Foods  and 
Cooking),  one  each  week,  to  each  of  the  places  included  in  the 
itinerary. 

(&)    Furnish  such  person  as  the  Institute  may  appoint  with  written  direc- 
tions for  any  local  marketing  or  special  preparations  at  least  one 
week  before  they  are  needed. 
Each  local  Institute  agrees  to : — 

1.  Advertise  the  course  and  solicit  members  for  the  class  with  a  view  of 

securing  as  large  classes  as  possible. 

2.  Provide  a  room  or  hall  suitable  for  the  lectures  and  demonstrations,  equipped 

with  the  necessary  chairs,  tables,  cookstove,  etc.,  also  to  see  that  the  hall 
is  properly  cleaned,  lighted,  heated  and  ventilated. 

3.  Provide  all  materials  for  demonstration  work, 

4.  Provide  an  assistant  who  will  become  responsible  for  the  opening  of  the 

room,  do  the  necessary  local  marketing,  and  clear  up  and  clean  the  dem- 
onstration tables,  dishes,  etc.  (It  is  usually  possible  to  find  some  girl 
willing  to  pay  for  her  attendance  on  the  course  in  this  way.) 

5.  Guarantee  the  sale  of  tvA-enty-five  (25)  course  tickets  at  $1.25  per  ticket. 

6.  Appoint  some  person  who  will  be  required  to  keep  an  exact  record  of  the 

attendance  of  those  holding  course  tickets  as  well  as  occasional,  at  each 
session  and  report  the  same  to  the  teacher  at  the  close  of  the  course. 

7.  Pay  the  $25.00  charged  for  the  course  within  3  weeks  of  the  commencement 

of  the  course,  and  one-half  of  the  receipts  above  $25.00,  whether  payments 
be  on  account  of  course  tickets  or  single  admissions,  either  during  or  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  course.  Payments  are  to  be  made  to  the  instructor 
and  receipts  secured  at  time  of  payment. 

8.  The  Institute  concerned  is  at  liberty  to  sell  course  tickets  in  addition  to  the 

twenty-five  required  and  also  to  admit  members  to  single  lectures  at  15 
cents  per  lesson. 


Signed  by; 

.representing   the   Department   of   Agriculture. 

, representing Institute. 

,  teacher. 

Dated  at ,  this day  of 1913. 

IJECU  J.ATIOXS  ro\EHIX(i   (  ()Ch'8K  1 X    DOMP:STIC  SCIEXCK   (FO(^nS 

AX  I)  COUKIXG). 

Each  Institute  concerned  may  select  ten  lectures  tVom  the  folhiwino-  list. 

If  any  Institute  wishes  to  enlarge  any  one  subject  into  two  lectures  in  order  to 
cover  the  ground  more  thoroughly,  it  may  be  so  arranged. 

The  sequence  ot  the  lectures  should  be  left  to  the  lecturer  to  arrange.  She 
will,  however,  defer  tu  the  wishes  of  the  Institutes  as  far  as  the  proper  develop- 
ment of  the  whole  series  will  permit. 

The  lecturer  will  place  especial  emphasis  in  all  lectures  upon  the  food  value  of 
the  foodstuffs  used,  and  upon  ihc  comparison  of  money  value  of  the  ilitTerent  food- 
stuffs, as  related  to  food  value. 

liii'.iLi.Ai;   EisT. 


Lcrturc  Xo.     1.   Fruit — Ty[)ital  inclliuds  of  cddkinu':  combiuations;  different  wavs 
of  serving  fresh  fruit. 
3.  Vegetables — Fresh,  starchy  and  dried. 

3.  Milk — Soups,   puddings  and  combinations,   with   especial    relation 

to  infant,  children  and  invalid  diet.     Invalid  cookery. 

4.  Cereals    and    Cheese — Various    methods    of    cooking;    their    high 

food  value  compared  with  other  more  expensive  foods. 

5.  Eggs — Correct    methods     of     cooking;      variations     in     methods; 

storage.     Substitutes  for  meat, 
n.  Tender    ]\leats — I'oastino-    and    broilinii';    the    coi'rect    cuts;    food 

value  compared  with  other  meat  cuts  and  other  foods.     Tough 

^Icat — Braised  dishes,  stews  and  soups. 
T.   Raking-])owder  breads.     Yeast  Piread  and  Fancy  Breads. 
8.   Cake  and  little  cakes, 
n.   Puddings  and  Desserts. 
li\   S-ilads — Preparation  of  the  ingredients,  dressings,  etc. 

Opttoxal  List. 

1.  ]\Iade-over  Dishes. 
'I.  Fireless  Cookery. 

3.  Poultry. 

4.  Breakfast  Dislies. 

5.  Table  Service. 

The  Department  pi-cfcrs  to  liavt'  the  institutes  choose  the  ncnionstration 
lectures  indicated  in  the  "regular  list."  If,  ho\ve\(M-.  there  is  a  stronu-  i^reference 
for  one  or  more  of  the  t()])ics  given  in  the  "o|»lion;d  li<*  '"  in  [dace  of  some  of  Ihc 
''reg^dar"  subjects,  they  may  be  substituted. 


Domestic  Science    (Cooking)    Class — Thamesville  Institute. 

TYPICAL  CONTACT. 

Between   the   Institutes   Branch   of  the   Department  of   Agriculture   and 
the Institute. 

(Name  of) 

Demoxstuation-Lkctuke  Coukse  IX 


SEWING. 

'J'lie  Department  of  Agriculture  agrees  to: 

1.  Furnish  an  instructor  to  give  ten  demonstration  lectures  as  follows: — 

Two  lessons  on  plain  and  fancy  stitches. 
Three  lessons  on  skirt  waists. 
Two  lessons  on  skii'ts. 
Three  lessons  on  one-piece  dresses. 
Each  lesson  to  continue  for  two  hours.      (If  necessary,  the  instructor  will 
devote  considerably  more  time  to  each  lesson.) 

2.  Have  the  instructor  give  the  necessary  directions  to  the  members  of  the 

cla-ss  from  time  to  time  as  to  the  materials  required  and  announcements 
regarding  the  work  to  be  undertaken. 
Each  local  Institute  agrees  to : — 

1.  Eorm  classes  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  for  which  a  charge  of  $-?.00  for  each 

person  will  be  made. 

2.  Provide  a  room  or  liall  properly  cleaned,  lighted,  heated  and  ventilated,  and 

furnished   with  the  necessary  tables  and  chairs.     The   room    to  be   used 
should  contain  400  square  feet  floor  space. 

3.  Provide  at  least  three  sewing  machines   (these  can  bo  soonreil  thmim-h  the 

co-operation  of  the  demonstrator  free  of  cost). 


4.  Each  person   will  be  expected  to  supply  materials  to  make  the  garments 

indicated  in  the  lesson  list. 
Each  person  must  also  provide: 

1  twelve-inch  rule ;  1  spool  of  thread  No.  60 ;  1  spool  of  thread  No. 
40;  Needles  Long  Sharp  No.  7;  Mixed  crewel  1  to  6;  D.  M.  C. 
Cotton  for  fancy  stitches. 

5.  Provide  in  addition  to  the  items  mentioned,  a  roll  of  paper  for  drafting 

patterns,  22  in.  wide,  a  light,  thin  quality  preferred.     Each  person  re""- 
ceives  a  shirt  waist  and  skirt  pattern  cut  to  measure. 

6.  Appoint  some  person  who  will  be  required  to  keep  an  exact  record  of  the 

attendance  and  to  collect  the  fees  from  the  members  of  the  class  as  well  as 
those  who  take  only  occasional  lectures.  Payment  for  the  course 
($40.00)  must  be  made  not  later  than  the  third  week  of  the  course,  and 
one  half  the  receipts  above  $40.00  either  during  or  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  course.  The  charge  for  single  lessons  in  the  Sewing  course  will  be 
twenty-five  cents.  Payments  are  to  be  made  to  the  instructor  by  the  class 
secretary  and  receipts  secured  at  time  of  payment. 
Where  the  Institutes  desire  it,  the  Department  is  willing  that  two  sewing 
classes  be  formed  in  the  one  centre,  or,  if  those  taking  advantage  of  this 
course  prefer  to  cover  the  ground  in  five  weeks,  they  may  arrange  to  have 
two  lessons  on  the  one  day,  i.e.  one  in  the  forenoon  and  one  in  the  after- 
noon. 


Class  in  Sewing— Ancaster  Institute. 


Note. — lu  the  Sewing  clas.<es  conducted  by  Mrs.  N.  H.  Alteiiburg,  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  instruct  to  advantage  more  than  twenty-five.  So  the  Institutes 
are  not  at  liberty  to  allow  occasionals  to  attend,  except  whore  this  can  be 
done  without  making  the  attendance  greater  than  twenty-live. 

Signed  by : 

,  representing  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

,    representing    Institute. 

,  teacher. 

Dated  at    this    day  of    1013. 

TYPICAL  CONTRACT. 

Between   the   Institutes   brancli    of   the   Department   of   Agriculture   and 

the Institute. 

Demonstration  Lecture  Course  in 

HOME  NUESING. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  agrees  to : — 

i.  Provide  the  necessary  equipment  for  general  instruction,  such  as  bandages, 

etc. 
2.  Provide  an  instructor  to  give  ten  demonstration-lectures  in  Home  I^ursing, 

including : — 

1.  Sick  Room — Sanitation,  ventilation,  care,  etc. 

2.  Ped-making  for  various  forms  of  sickness. 

3.  The  Bath. 

4.  Emergencies. 

5.  Hot  and  Cold  Applications. 

6.  Bandaging. 

7.  Disinfectants  and  observations  of  symptoms. 
S.  The  administration  of  Food  and  Medicine. 
9.  Baby  Hygiene. 

10.  Review  and  General  Discussion. 

The  Local  Institute  agrees  to: — 

1.  Secure  as  large  a  class  as  possible  through  advertising  and  soliciting. 

2.  Provide  a  suitable  room  or  hall  for  the  Demonstration-Lectures,  equipped 

with  the  necessary  chairs  and  table,  also  to  see  that  the  hall  is  properly 
clenned,  lighted,  heated  and  ventilated. 

3.  Guarantee  the  sale  of  twenty-five  (25)  course  tickets  at  $1.25  per  ticket. 

4.  Appoint  some  person  who  will  be  required  to  keep  an  exact  record  of  attend- 

ance of  regular  course  students  as  well  as  those  who  take  advantage  of 
occasional  lectures. 

5.  Pay  Ihe  $25.00  charged  for  the  course  within  three  weeks  of  the  commence- 

ment of  the  course,  and  one  half  of  the  receipts  above  $25.00,  whether 
payment  be  made  on  account  of  course  tickets  or  single  admission,  either 
during  or  at  the  conclusion  of  the  course.  Payments  are  to  be  made  to 
the  instructor  and  receipts  secured  at  time  of  payment. 


The  Institute  is  at  liberty  to  sell  tickets  in  addition  to  the  twenty-live  required, 
and  also  to  admit  members  of  the  Institute  to  single  lectures  at  fifteen  cents  per 
lesson. 


Sis:ned  by 


Dated  at   ,  this. 


,,  representing  the  Department  of  Agriculture. 

, ,    representing Institute. 

. ,  teacher. 

dav  of 1913. 


HOME  NURSING. 

The  importance  of  this  work  cannot  be  over  estinuited.  Almost  every  woman 
is  called  upon  at  sometime  during  her  life  to  minister  to  the  sick.  As  there  is  no 
time  after  the  emergency  arises  to  prepare  for  it,  every  woman  should  be  forearmed 
with  some  deiijiile  knowledge  of  how  to  care  for  the  sick.  That  is  briefly  the  object 
of  this  course — to  enable  women  to  easily  obtain  a  knowledge  of  how  to  care  for  the 
sick  in  the  home,  what  to  do  in  an  emergency  and  how  to  .do  it,  how  to  render  at 
ail  times  tlie  best  possible  assistance  to  the  doctor  or  to  the  nurse,  when  her  services 
are  necessary,  although  very  often  that  expense  can  be  saved  because  of  the  ability 
of  the  woman  of  the  home  to  handle  the  situation. 


MISS   D.   1.  HUGHES, 
Demonstration  Lecturer  in  Home  Nursing. 

Throughout  the  course  the  women  are  given  lots  of  experience  in  reading  tlte 
clinical  thermometer,  counting  pulse  and  respirations.  The  keeping  of  a  chart  is 
also  taken  u)) :  Tliis  consists  in  keeping  a  simple  exact  record  of  the  various  things 
mentioned  thereon. 

The  first  lesson  is  a  lecture  on  the  sick  room.  Then  follows  a  demonstration 
on  l)ed-making— tliMl   is  the  making  of  (lie  sick  bcMh  th(>  various  ways  of  making  it 


for  various  kinds  of  cases,  changing  the  bed  with  the  jDatient  in  it,  changing  the 
mattress  with  the  patient  in  bed,  etc. 

The  next  lev'sson  is  on  the  bath  given  in  bed  for  the  comfort  and  cleanliness  of 
the  patient.  During  this  lesson  a  talk  is  given  upon  the  various  other  baths  given  in 
sickness,  how  and  why  they  are  given.  The  foot  bath  given  iu  bed  and  the  hot  pack 
are  also  demonstrated. 

Then  emergency  work  is  faken  up — the  regular  instruction  in  First  Aid.  In, 
this  work  is  included  treatment  of  such  things  as:  Burns  and  scalds,  contusions, 
dislocations,  foreign  bodies  in  the  ears,  eyes,  nose,  trachea;  fractures,  hemorrhage, 
shock,  sprains,  wounds,  how_  to  distinguish  and  treat  the  various  forms  of  uncon- 
sciousness as  apoplexy,  asphyxia,  collapse,  convulsions,  drowning,  epilepsy,  fainting, 
hysteria,  intoxication,  poison,  sunstroke,  etc. 

The  next  lesson  is  devoted  to  external  applications  and  the  following  will  give 
an  idea  of  wdiat  is  treated  under  this  head :  Inflamation,  counter-irritants,  poultices, 
fomentations,  iodine,  liniments,  application  of  cold,  ice  poultices,  ice  caps,  com- 
]iresses,  antiphlogistine,  starch  poultices,  ointments. 

Bandaging  is  also  taken  up.  Under  this  comes:  Use,  nature,  sizes  and  con- 
struction of  bandages;  points  to  remember  in  bandaging,  application  of  circular, 
^ipiral,  spiral  reverse,  recurrent,  and  figure  8  bandages,  bandages  for  head,  eyes, 
jaw,  hand,  arm,  elbow,  knee,  leg,  foot  and  heel.  Tailed  bandages,  binders,  slings 
and  handkerchief  bandages. 

Disinfectants  and  observation  of  symptoms  are  included  in  the  same  lesson — 
the  latter  is  very  important.  Some  of  the  things  dealt  with  are:  Temperature, 
pulse,  respiration,  tongue,  urine,  vomiting,  faeces  and  other  excreta,  color,  pain,  posi- 
tion, restlessness,  etc. 

Then  comes  a  lesson  on  the  administration  of  food  and  medicine. 

This  is  follow^ed  by  a  lesson  on  Baby  Hygiene,  and  the  last  lesson  is  devoted  to 
review  and  general  discussion. 

It  will  be  necessary  for  the  classes  to  provide  bed  and  bedding,  towels,  basin, 
etc.,  for  lessons  2  and  3. 

The  Home  Nursing  classes  can  very  well  be  held  in  the  homes  of  the  members. 

COMME-NTTS   UPON    THE    HOME    N"lTESIN-G    COUESE. 

One  woman  of  70,  in  discussing  the  course  after  the  final  lesson,  said,  '^I  don't 
tliink  I  need  say  what  I  think  about  the  course.  The  fact  that  at  my  age  I  have 
attended,  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  surely  speaks  of  the  value  I  place  on  these  lectures. 
I  have  only  missed  one  and  that  day  I  was  sick  in  bed.  and  to  tell  the  truth  T 
did  not  mind  being  sick  half  as  much  as  I  minded  missing  that  class." 

In  one  class,  three  generations  were  represented — the  daughter,  her  mother, 
and  her  grandmother.  The  grandmother  was  heard  to  say  one  day  before  class: 
•'We  have  all  got  a  lot  of  good  out  of  these  lessons.  I  won't  have  as  long  to  make 
use  of  what  I've  learned  as  my  daughter  and  granddaughter,  but  I'm  sure  they  have 
not  enjoyed  the  course  a  bit  more  than  I  have." 

Demonstration-Lectures  in 

DOMESTIC  SCIENCE  (COOKING),  SEWING  AND  HOME  NURSING. 

While  the  study  of  Domestic  Science  in  its  broadest  sense  and  its  practical 
application  to  the  every-day  activities  of  the  rural  home  has  for  many  years  been  a 


matter  of  interest  and  great  impurlaiice,  its  u&et'uluess  lia.s  been  mteusitied  as  a 
result  of  the  change  in  economic  and  social  conditions  in  the  counti'y  districts. 
AA'ith  the  scarcity  of  labour  and  the  increasing  value  of  the  products  ol  the  farm, 
it  becomes  the  women  of  the  farm,  as  well  as  the  city  residents,  to  study  the  food 
values  and  prices  of  the  various  products  at  their  disposal,  methods  of  cooking, 
labour  saving  devices,  clotliing,  care  of  the  sick,  etc.,  etc. 

Opportunities  for  systematic  instruction  along  Domestic  Science  lines  have 
been  provided  only  in  a  limited  number  of  our  larger  centres  of  population,  with  the 
result  that  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  girls  from  our  rural  districts  have  taken 
advantage  of  the  instruction  offered. 

Directors  of  education  in  our  schools  and  colleges  are  attaching  more  and  more 
importance  to  Domestic  Science.  The  special  efforts  along  this  line,  by  the  Y.W.C.A., 
technical  schools,  hulies"  colleges  and  private  schools,  have,  for  the  most  part, 
benefited  only  our  young  women.  What  about  the  great  band  of  women,  (young, 
middle  aged  and  old)  who  cannot  take  advantage  of  the  above  mentioned  facilities, 
but  who  are  desirous  of  learning  something  of  that  science  which  has  made  such 
great  progress  during  recent  years  and  which  can  be  made  of  great  value  even  to 
women  who  have  had  many  years  of  experience  in  directing  the  activities  of  a 
bousehold  and  in  performing  the  numerous  tasks  associated  with  homemaking. 

The  chief  aim  of  those  who  have  had  to  do  with  the  work  of  the  Women's 
Institutes  in  the  Province  of  Ontario  has  been  to  direct  the  women  of  the  country, 
town  and  village  as  to  how  best  to  utilize  the  forces  at  their  command: — standard 
works,  reports,  bulletins,  and  periodicals ;  practical  experience ;  healthful  sociability, 
etc. — to  the  best  advantage,  and  also  to  instruct  them  t(T  a  limited  extent  in  domestic 
science,  home  nursing,  child  welfare,  etc. 

A  survey  of  the  Institute  work  in  this  Province  will  be  of  interest  at  this  point. 

Some  thirty  years  ago,  systematic  instruction  for  farmers — the  giving  of 
lectures  by  agricultural  scientists  and  practical  farmers  in  the  rural  districts — was 
inaugurated.  From  the  beginning,  the  women  living  on  the  farm  took  more  or 
less  interest  in  these  lectures  and  read  some  of  the  articles  appearing  in  the  Depart- 
mental publications,  especially  those  bearing  upon  dairying,  fruit  growing,  poultry 
raising,  gardening  and  other  activities  in  which  the  w'omen  on  the  farm  were 
specially  interested.  An  evidence  of  their  appreciation  was  shown  in  the  request 
for  a  separate  organization  to  deal  with  only  those  features  of  work  with  which 
women  are  directly  concerned.  As  a  result,  what  is  know  as  the  Women's  Institutes 
of  Ontario  had  their  beginning  some  seventeen  years  ago,  and  in  1900  there  were 
33  institutes  with  a  membership  of  1,600,  while  to-day  we  have  nearly  800  separate 
organizations  with  a  membership  of  over  25,000. 

While  the  activities  from  the  first  embraced  all  that  is  implied  in  the  con- 
stitution,— "  The  objects  of  Women's  Institutes  shall  be  the  dissemination  of  know- 
ledge relating  to  domestic  economy,  including  household  architecture,  with  special 
attention  to  home  sanitation  ;  a  better  understanding  of  the  economic  and  hygienic 
value  of  foods,  clothing  and  fuel,  and  a  more  scientific  care  and  training  of  children 
with  a  view  to  raising  the  general  standard  of  the  health  and  morals  of  our  people — " 
much  has  been  added  thereto  in  recent  years.  Food  values,  cooking,  preserving, 
hygiene,  feeding  of  invalids  and  children,  training  of  chihlren.  literature  in  the 
home,  beautifying  the  home,  etc..  wore  embraced  from  the  first,  but  of  recent  years 
cliild  welfare  in  its  broadest  sense,  social  questions,  civic  improvement,  business 
methods  for  women,  laws  governing  women  and  children,  school  improvement,  rest 
rooms  for  women,  philanthropic  work,  in  fart  all  matters  which  have  for  their  object 


10 

the  betterment  of  lionie  and  (.-uniniunity  runditiuihs  ha\e  been  added  to  the  list  of 
their  good  worlvs. 

Having  laken  up  Domestic  Science  to  a  limited  extent  by  isohxted  lectures, 
occasional  demonstrations,  and  by  unsystematic  study,  tbe  members  became  im- 
pressed witli  its  value  and  asked  that  provision  be  made  for  giving  them  systematic 
instruction  along  these  lines.  Tlie  first  attempt  to  give  groups  of  women  living 
in  tbe  rural  district  such  instruction  was  undertaken  in  the  fall  of  1911  at  the 
following  places  where  classes  of  at  least  twenty-five  were  formed,  and  at  two 
points,  Caledonia  and  Dunnville,  evening  classes  were  held  for  the  benefit  of  the 
High  School  girls : — Cayuga,  Dunnville,  Delhi,  Hagersville,  Caledonia,  Canfield. 
riie  average  attendance  at  the  classes  was  thirty-five,  and  at  one  point  the  attend- 
ance was  over  seventy-five.  The  lecturer.  Mrs.  C.  H.  Burns,  a  graduate  of 
MacDonald  Institute,  Guelph.  spent  one  day  a  week  at  each  point  for  a  period  of 
fifteen  weeks. 

The  success  which  attended  this  first  eft'ort  indicates  the  interest  which  mature 
women  of  responsibility  take  in  efforts  towards  their  instruction  along  Domestic 
Science  lines. 

The  Department  was  encouraged  to  extend  this  new  and  promising  form  of 
instruction  during  the  season  of  1912-13.  The  institutes  accepted  the  announce- 
ment with  great  enthusiasm  and  responded  by  applying  for  instruction  at  more 
points  than  could  be  served. 

The  folb)wiiio:  table  indicates  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  work  done: 


Nature  of  Course 


District 


Foods  and  their  preoaraliuu  , 


Xorthuniberlaud 

iLambton  and  Kent  . . 

Middlesex    and 
Lambton     


Lanarl'C 


Sewing- 


Lincoln,  Wei  land. 
Wentworth,  Brant 
and   Waterloo 


Wentworth 


Combination    courses  in  Sewing, 
Foods  and  Home   Nursing York    . 


No.   of 
places 


13 


No.   of 

lessons  in 

course 


15 
15 

15 
15 

10 
4 

cS  to  12 


No.  of 
persons  who 
took  course 

186 
154 

349 
265 

491 
.31 

241 


1.667 


Besides  those  who  took  the  regular  course  of  lectures  a  number  attended  and 
paid  for  only  occasional  lectures. 

The  ^Vm^K  Appi.'kctatf.d. 


In  order  that  our  readers  may  be  informed  regarding  the  apin-eciaiion  of  tliis 
work  on  the  part  of  those  wlio  took  the  course,  and  the  views  of  ibe  lecturers 
engaged,  we  print  below  extracts  from  communications  received. 


11 


MISS    GERTRUDE    GRAY, 
Demonstrator    in    Cooking. 

COUBSE  IN  FOODS  AXD  COOKING. 

By  GEKTRL^nE  (ii;ay,  Demoxstration'  Lectueer,  Tokonto. 


Olio  tiling  tliat  t]n  W'onieirs  Institutes  stand  tor — i)ar  excellence — 'is  progress, 
progress  in  thought,  in  self-development,  in  efficiency. 

In  the  crusade  which  modem  luisincss  now  wages  for  efficiency  and  conserva- 
tion of  energy  we  ]ia\e  an  example  worthy  of  imitation  in  the  liome. 

The  latest  itse  to  which  the  nioxing  j)icture  nntchine  has  lieen  put  is  in  manu- 
facturing ])lants  where  employers  are  seeking  to  eliminate  useless  and  time  con- 
suming movements  on  the  part  of  their  employees,  for  example:  Motion  pictures, 
carefully  timeil.  weiv  taken  of  a  worker  as  he  did  his  work.  These  films  were  de- 
veloped, thiown  on  a  screen,  and  carefully  studied.  The  result  was  that  super- 
fluous motion  wa-  at  oiiee  deteettil.  eliminated  from  the  screen,  and  the  consequent 
pictures  Used   to  instruct  younger,  unskilleil   wdrkers. 

A  similar  scrutiny  of  household  o])ei'ations  reveals  the  need  I'oi-  gi'(>ater  efficiency 
and  more  time  and  onergv  con>ei'ving  nu'thods  there,  whei'e  skilleil  iahour  is  tlic 
exception  rather  than  the  rule.  As  the  result  of  the  lack  of  technical  education  in 
our  schools,  until  fairly  recent  years,  many  present-day  home-makers  find  (hem- 
selves  M'ithout  the  scientific  knowle;lge  which.  cou])ItMl  wiHi  ]u'actical  experience. 
marks  the  competent  worker. 

Purely  nux-hanienl  alidiiv  will  noi  suffice  io-day,  and  intelligent  understanding 
(il  the  underlyiii'^-  principles  of  one'-  woi'k  is  necessai'y  to  make  of  that  work  the 
crreatest  success. 


12 

A  realization  of  this  fact  has  led  to  a  request  from  women  in  our  institutes 
for  systematic  instruction  in  different  branches  of  home  work.  As  a  result,  there 
are  now  being  given  in  our  Province,  to  different  groups  of  Institutes,  Demonstra- 
tion-Lecture Courses.  These  aim  to  In-ing  to  the  home-makers  and  the  girls  who 
attend,  the  information  of  our  Household  Science  Schools  in  an  abbreviated  form. 
Anything  new  has  to  demonstrate  its  claim  to  recognition  and  support.  Last  year's 
work  has  done  that.  A  number  of  courses  have  already  been  given  and  the  hearty 
support  and  co-operation  of  the  members  of  the  classes  seem  to  justify  a  continu- 
ance of  the  work  on  more  comprehensive  lines. 

lia\ing  had  charge  of  two  courses  in  Food  Preparation,  one  in  Northumberland 
and  one  in  I<ambto]i  and  Kent,  I  can  write  more  definitely  of  them  than  of  the 
others.  Three  weeks  before  the  work  started  I  visited  the  counties,  became  acquainted 
with  the  officers  at  each  i^laee  and  made  arrangements  for  transportation.  The  direc- 
tions sent  out  by  the  Dej^artment  beforehand,  however,  were  so  explicit  that  every- 
thing was  pretty  well  understood  by  the  officers  and  it  was  comparatively  easy  to 
start  the  work.  Arrangements  were  made  for  halls  or  other  suitable  places  to  l)e 
used  throughout  the  course.  In  two  places  kitchens  were  used.  The  advertising 
is  also  done  I)y  the  local  people  and  much  of  the  success  of  the  work,  so  far  as  the 
size  of  the  classes  is  concerned,  depends  on  the  way  it  is  advertised.  It  should  be 
definitely  stated  in  all  press  notices  that  anyone  is  welcome  to  attend  and  a  personal 
invitation  is  most  effective  with  some.  A  secretary  of  one  of  the  branches  told 
many  ladies  of  the  work  by  phone  and  asked  them  to  join,  and  as  a  result  that 
class  is  the  largest  in  the  district. 

In  each  demonstration,  special  emphasis  is  laid  on  the  food  value  of  the  food- 
stuffs used,  their  costs  as  related  to  nutritive  value,  and  a  practical  demonstration 
given  by  preparing  several  dishes.  The  ladies  bring  note-books  and  pencils,  and 
many  of  them  come  early  in  order  to  copy  the  recipes.  Many  of  the  younger  mem- 
bers, in  partiicular,  write  down  facts  given  concerning  the  food  used,  and  each 
member  brings  a  spoon  or  fork  that  she  may  taste  the  food  prepared.  Eating  or 
drinking  always  increases  sociahility,  even  if  the  food  be  but  small  in  amount,  as  it 
invariably  is  when  but  "a  taste''  for  each  person  is  reckoned  on.  However,  it 
seemed  to  produce  the  desired  effect.  It  stimulates  the  timid  to  challenge  the  method 
followed  or  to  ask  for  further  information  on  some  point  and  tempts  all  to  linger 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  afternoon's  work  for  a  visit  with  neighbor  or  friend.  The 
supplies  used  in  the  cooking  demonstrations  are  paid  for  by  the  local  Institute  or 
different  ladies  take  turns  in  supplying  part  of  them  each  day,  thus  materially 
lessening  the  cost  to  the  Institute. 

At  most  of  the  places  assistants  are  provided,  many  of  whom  are  young  girls 
who  are  getting  the  course  free  for  the  help  they  give.  They  assist  with  the  work 
of  preparation  and  washing  up  the  dishes.  At  many  places  classes  are  held  for  the 
school  girls,  but  in  my  district  this  has  not  been  feasible.  The  attendance  at  the 
classes  varies  somewhat,  owing  to  unfavorable  weather  or  unusually  busy  times.  This 
applies  more  to  occasional  than  to  course  members.  In  two  or  three  places  in 
Lam'bton  the  members  have  to  drive  or  walk  long  distances,  yet  the  attendance 
maintains  a  good  average.  The  smallest  class  has  twenty-seven  course  members, 
and  the  largest  class  has  fifty-two. 

It  is  rather  a  remarkable  fact,  yet  true,  nevertheless,  that  those  most  proficient 
in  this  branch  of  home  work  are  the  most  interested  in  the  demonstrations,  perhaps 
because  they  are  finding  out  for  the  first  time  the  reason  "why"  for  a  familiar 
process,  or  perhaps  because  new  hints  or  new  methods  are  an  incentive  to  experi- 
menting at  home. 


The  aim  throughout  is  not  to  teach  fancy  cooking,  but  plain  serviceable  dishes, 
giving  basic  recipes  ^vhich  are  capable  of  variation,  and  to  combine  with  these  such 
facts  as  will  bring  a  realization  of  the  importance  of  the  work  and  its  vast  influence 
on  human  well-being. 

Life  makes  numberless  demands  upon  the  system  which  cooking  can  assist  it 
to  meet.  The  more  civilized  we  become  the  more  unexpected  and  severe  is  the 
wear  and  tear  of  daily  existence.  The  art  of  cooking  lies  in  providing  such  a  food 
supply  that,  while  containing  the  elements  essential  to  good  nutrition  it  shall  be 
suited  to  the  requirements  of  season,  work  and  age,  and  shall  combine  economy 
with  due  variety  of  flavour. 

Cooking  is  a  science  as  well  as  an  art,  because  it  has  laws  of  its  own  which  it 
is  our  duty  to  discover,  to  learn  and  to  apply. 

It  is  also  a  service  often  despised  and  left  in  the  hands  of  the  ignorant  or  the 
careless.  No  other  art  or  science  is  so  little  understood,  so  lig'htly  esteemed  or  so 
casually  performed,  and  there  is  no  service  the  dignity  and  worth  of  which  are  less 
perceived. 

A¥  APPKECTATIO^T  OF  THE  DOMESTIC   SCIENCE   COFRSE:    (FOODS 

AND  COOKING). 

By  Ethel  M.  Chapman,  Demonstration  Lecturer,  Toronto. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  Women's  Institute  work,  the  ]:)rogrammes  consisted 
almost  entirely  of  demonstrations  and  discussions  along  the  lines  of  cookery  and 
housekeeping.  There  was  usually  no  system  in  the  arrangement  of  the  topics 
to  be  taken  up ;  the  programmes  were  necessarily  outlined  under  difficulties 
so  far  as  procuring  just  the  right  person  to  take  up  the  subject  desired  was  con- 
cerned, and  yet,  these,  I  am  sure  were  always  more  or  less  helpful.  Now,  a  few 
organizations  are  going  to  the  other  extreme  and  subjects  pertaining  to  practical 
cooking  and  housekeeping  are  almost  entirely  eliminated,  giving  place  to  problems 
of  education,  social  life,  and  philanthropy  in  general.  This  we  feel  is  a  serious 
mistake.  These  questions  certainly  should  have  their  place,  and  possibly  the  first 
place,  but  the  greater  part  of  every  homemaker's  time  is  spent  in  feeding  her 
family  and  caring  for  her  home.  Few  women  can  escape  it  even  if  they  should 
want  to,  and  we  are  proud  to  know  that  our  Institute  women  realize  that  they 
could  find  no  higher  profession.  Anyway  cooking  has  an  ethical  as  well  as  a 
practical  value,  for  "a,  hungry  man  is  an  angry  man,''  and  the  well-nourished 
individual  is  more  likely  to  be  normal  mentally  and  morally  as  well  as  physically. 
This  is  why  the  Demonstration  Lecture  Courses  have  been  so  popular  with  \he 
progressive  women  of  the  province. 

When  this  course  of  demonstration  lectures  in  domestic  science  was  first  talked 
about,  some  people  seemed  to  get  the  idea  that  a  demonstrator  would  be  sent  out 
to  teach  the  preparation  of  several  fancy  impractical  and  expensive  dishes.  They 
were  even  worried  about  the  cost  of  materials  to  be  supplied  by  the  Institute.  How- 
ever, they  soon  found  that  this  averaged  only  sixty  cents  a  week,  and  that  the 
dishes  prepared,  far  from  being  elaborate,  were  made  to  illustrate  how  to  serve 
the  common  foods  in  the  most  attractive  palatable  and  wholesome  way.  This  neces- 
sarily involves  a  systematic,  scientific  study  of  foods  and  nutrition.  Every  other 
line  of  work  is  conducted  along  scientific  lines  to-day,  and  why  not  housekeeping? 
Even  the  farmer  makes  a  study  of  what  foods  will  make  the  best  balanced  ration 
for  his  stock,  and   what   variety  is  necessary  to  keep  them  in  the  best  possible 


u 

condition,  while  we  wlio  are  feeding  not  merely  animals  Init  human  beini^-s.  often 
give  the  subject  little  consideration.  We  nuiy  feed  the  working  man  and  old 
people  and  children  practically  the  same  diet  Avithout  intelligently  taking  thought 
of  their  respective  needs.  We  may  feed  our  families  whatever  they  like  without 
knowing  whether  it  is  best  for  them,  and  we  may — altlioiigh  these  cases  are  rare — 
serve  what  is  least  trouble  to  ourselves  without  considering  whether  we  are  "■starv- 
ing" them.  Every  intelligent  homemaker,  nowadays  is  more  or  less  interested  in 
food  values,  but  there  is,  I  believe,  no  subject  more  difficult  to  study  alone,  from 
bulletins.  Getting  the  information  from  a  demonstrated  lecture  iiives  it  color  and 
makes  it  stick. 

Es])ecially  are  these  lessons  valuable  and  interesting  to  young  Avomen  and 
girls.  I  lirmly  believe  that  every  girl  should  lune  an  opportunity  to  study  a  certairi 
amount  of  domestic  science,  but  I  know  just  as  well  that  at  present  it  is  impossible 
for  the  great  majority  of  our  girls  to  go  to  college.  But  the  Demonstration  Lecture 
Course  brings  the  college  to  them,  and  they  seldom  fail  to  appreciate  it.  Last 
fall  I  had  several  girls  driving  a  distance  of  from  seven  to  ten  miles  to  attend 
the  classes,  and  they  never  missed  a  meeting  either.  I  had  one  night  class  of 
tliirtv  girls  who  were  l)usy  in  stores  and  othces  during  the  day,  and  their  enthusiasm 
was  a  never  failing  inspiration.  Of  the  High  School  classes  there  were  very  few 
iudced  who  did  not  come  to  me  regularly  to  rcjxirt  their  experiences  in  ''trying 
the  things'"  at  home,  and  their  mothers  unanimously  testified  that  nothing  before 
had  ever  created  in  them  such  an  interest  in  housework.  This  is  where  the  courses 
are  going  to  do  tlieir  l)est  work.  This  is  the  first  step  in  introducing  Domestic 
Science  into  the  High  Schools  of  the  smaller  towns. 

But  the  younger  people  are  not  the  only  members  who  take  the  work  seriously. 
One  Institute  meml)er  finding  her  social  duties  too  pressing  to  attend  tlu'  class  for 
an  afternoon  each  week,  said  to  her  neiglil)or,  'T  really  haven't  time  to  go,  Init 
I'll  get  the  recipes  from  you." 

"The  recipes!"  hei'  friend  replied  indignantly,  '"it  isn't  recipes.  You  can 
get  reci})es  in  your  cook  book'.     It's  how  to  do  things  and   why  you  do  them." 

One  very  bright  little  woman  who  suppoi'tcd  hei'  family  liy  taking  in  washing 
and  catering  for  parties  and  weddings,  said  to  me,  "You  know  |)co|)le  wonder  how 
1  can  afford  to  spend  a  dollar  on  the  lessons,  but  it  has  paid  me  several  times 
over  already,  and  you  learn  so  nianv  little  ways  of  making  things  look  nice  and 
tasty." 

And  what  I  am  surt'  will  appeal  to  many  of  the  wives  in  our  Institute  is  that 
the  men  of  the  households  almost  univei'sally  agree  that  the  "Cooking  Class"  is 
the  best  thing  the  Institute  has  undertaken  yet.  Only  once  did  I  hear  this 
criticism  from  the  head  of  a  house.  "You'll  never  know  what  I've  suffered  since 
you  came  to  town,"  but  he  did  not  look  as  though  he  were  telling  the  truth. 

AN  APPRECIATION  OF  THE  COOKING  COUPSE. 

Probably  I  can  ibest  give  an  appreciation  of  the  Demonstration  Lecture  Course 
by  stating  some  of  the  benefits  that  we  in  Thamesville  are  deriving  from  our 
course. 

Firs! :  it  seems  to  me  that  the  greatest  good  of  the  course  is  the  "creation 
of  a  conscience,"  the  realization  that  comes  to  us  as  we  learn  the  uses  of  different 
foods  in  the  system  and  what  combinations  arc  necessary  that  we  who  cook  ]ia\e 
a  sacred  obligation  pro])erly  to  develop  the  bodies  of  those  whom  \\v  feed. 


15 

Sn-oitd:  We  are  receiving  praftical  assistance  in  our  metl)ods  of  cooking, 
and  are  learning  to  be  economical  not  only  as  to  money,  but  also  as  to  the  nutritive 
value  of  our  foods.  In  addition,  prol)ably  every  one  has  been  sbown  how  to  over- 
come some  of  her  difficulties.  One  member  told  me  that  to  liave  learned  to  prepare 
gelatine  by  softening  the  powder  in  cold  water  before  adding  boiling  water  is 
worth  a  dollar  to  her,  and  several  claim  to  have  got  the  worth  of  their  money  in 
discovering  that  cooking  cabbage  will  make  no  odor  if  it  be  left  uncovered  and 
the  water  be  changed  once  or  twice,  and  these  are  but  two  of  many  useful  hints 
given. 

Third:  Tastefulness  is  a  subject  on  which  our  Demonstrator,  Miss  Gray,  has 
been  silently  eloquent.  Each  day  by  means  of  a  candied  cherry  or  two,  a  little 
jelly,  a  bit  of  parsley  or  something  equally  simple  and  inexpensive  she  makes  her 
dishes  look  most  attractive. 

Fourlh  :  "With  knowledge  comes  interest,"  as  one  of  our  members  remarked 
the  other  day,  "One  of  the  best  things  about  our  classes  is  that  we  get  interested 
in  our  own  work  and  when  we  meet  we  discuss  our  methods  with  one  another." 

Fifih  :  The  Demonstration  Lecture  Course  is  furthering  the  good  work  of 
the  Women's  Institutes  in  breaking  down  sectarian  and  class  prejudices. 

"^'It  is  the  way  to  make  us  better  friends  more  known" 
And  in  our  large  weekly  gatherings  many  who  had  scarcely  met  before  are  becom- 
ing "more  known." 

Thamesville  has  a  membership  of  fifty-two,  and  a  good  attendance  of  occasionals 
as  well.  As  only  half  of  the  course  has  been  given  it  is  impossible  to  speak  fully 
of  its  merits,  but  the  concensus  of  opinion  is  that  the  Demonstration  Lecture 
Course  is  proving  an   unqualified  success. 

AXXA    J.    COUTTS, 

Secretary  of  the  Thamesville  Branch  Women's  Institute. 
April  W,  1913. 

ExTTiACT    Fl^OVl     Ll'/l'TKI!    1?  F.CKIVKI)     I'KO.M     MjSS    XkLI.II-     AlLELY,    DEMONSTRATION 

Lecturer,  Xorland. 

A^et  in  its  infancy  the  Demonstration  Lecture  work  of  the  Women's  Institute 
is  proving  to  be  a  grand  movement  and  one  that  is  bound  to  grow.  In  my  work 
as  a  Demonstrator,  I  found  unusual  interest  displayed.  Xot  only  were  the 
women  anxious  to  acquire  new  ideas  in  cookery — new  recipes,  etc. — but  the  majority 
of  the  listeners  were  thoroughly  interested  in  the  reasons  for  the  various  pro- 
cesses, and  that  is  what  we  want.  I  admit  that  I  was  surprised  at  the  very 
evident  desire  for  knowledge  concerning  the  value,  composition  and  digestibility  of 
our  food-stuffs.  A  sympathy  like  this  brings  out  the  best  in  a  teacher,  and  it 
results  in  an  exchange  of  ideas  which  must  be  a  benefit  to  all,  and  in  the  creation 
of.  an  interest  which  is  bound  to  grow.  Very  little  in  the  great  home  economic 
movement  can  be  accomplished,  seemingly,  in  the  W^w  lectures  and  demonstrations 
given,  yet  it  fulfils  its  aim.  which  is  to  arouse  au  interest,  then  start  the  "seekers^^ 
in  the  right  direction,  rndoubtedly,  many  will  broaden  their  study  until  it 
includes  the  science  of  all  ibe  duties  of  the  honu'. 

Extract  from  Com-mitxica  riox  Uecetved  vmom  ]\riss  A.nxik  MacDoxai,]), 
Demonsti; vnox   Li:(  rri!i;i;.  L\\ai;k. 

Although  the  work  was  new  to  me.  in  a  way.  yet  I  feel  from  the  marks  of 
appreciation  sbown  that  my  work  was  not  in  vain,      i'eoplc,  especially  the  younger 


16 

set,  seemed  to  be  must  interested  in  the  classes,  and,  from  the  splendid  attendance, 
evidently  felt  the  good  of  them. 

As  for  the  theory  part  of  the  lessons,  it  seems  to  be  of  interest  as  well  as 
the  practical.  Another  point  of  very  much  importance  is  simplicity.  Simple 
recipes  with  new  combinations  in  food  stuffs  and  dainty  serving  seem  to  be  much 
appreciated.  In  this  district  only  one  town  had  attendance  from  school  girls. 
When  the  classes  are  being  formed  it  would  be  well  to  try  hard  for  the  school 
class,  because  the  girls  seem  to  like  the  classes.  As  the  course  finished  in  this 
district,  there  were  remarks  of  regret  that  the  classes  were  over,  as  they  afforded 
a  place  of  meeting  and  something  to  do,  apart  from  the  beneficial  side. 

DEMONSTRATION  LECTUEE   COURSE   IN   SEATING. 

By  Miss  E.   D.   Watson,  Aye. 

The  course  was  most  successful.  We  feel  it  one  of  the  most  satisfactory 
things  yet  undertaken  by  the  Institute.  We  ran  three  classes,  two  afternoon  and 
one  evening.  You  will  see  that  the  attendance  for  the  full  course  was  739,  making 
an  average  w^eekly  attendance  of  nearly  73.  This  is,  I  think,  unusually  high, 
considering  the  miserable  roads,  the  heavy  storms  and  the  fact  that  the  great 
majority  of  the  women  were  driving  one,  two  and  some  five  and  six  miles.  They 
were  most  enthusiastic  from  start  to  finish.  Besides  taking  the  evening  class 
myself,  I  saw  all  the  classes  at  work  at  least  part  of  the  lesson,  and  I  feel  that 
too  much  praise  cannot  be  given  Mrs.  Altenburg  for  the  way  she  handled  her 
work;  for  the  individual  attention  each  got,  for  what  she  made  them  do,  and 
for  her  patience.  They  were  difficult  classes,  all  sorts  and  conditions,  all  ages 
from  fourteen  to  fifty,  from  women  who  knew  absolutely  nothing  about  sewing 
to  a  few  who  made  some  of  their  plainer  dresses.  The  great  majority  of  them 
made  a  shirt-waist,  a  skirt  and  a  one-piece  dress,  and  I  am  still  astonished  at 
the  high  average  of  the  work. 

More  ought  to  be  charged  for  the  lessons.  With  a  good  teacher,  they  are 
worth  more.  You  will  be  interested  to  know  that  we  have  had  since  Christmas 
five  University  Extension  lectures  in  connection  with  the  Institute.  Prof.  iTorning, 
on  "England  and  Germany,"  and  the  "Balkan"'  question :  Dr.  Amyot  on  "Natural 
Defences  of  the  Body  against  Infection."  and  Principal  Hutton,  on  "Canada's 
place  ill  the  Empire." 

BENEFITS  DERIVED  FROM   MRS.  ALTENBURG'S   CLASS. 

Miss  Margaret  Kyle,  Aye. 

Early  in  January,  it  was  announced  under  the  auspices  of  the  Women's  Insti- 
tute that  if  a  class  of  twenty-five  could  be  formed  a  Demonstrator  in  sewing  would 
Jbs  -sent  to  Ayr.  There  was  no  difficulty  in  securing  twenty-five,  and  before  the 
Demonstrator,  Mrs.  Altenburg,  came  to  make  final  arrangements  for  the  class  the 
number  had  increased  to  seventy,  making  it  necessary  to  form  three  classes,  one 
to  meet  on  Friday  afternoon,  one  on  Friday  evening  and  a  third  on  Saturday 
afternoon.  There  w^ere  ten  lessons  in  four  divisions :  the  first  two  on  plain  and 
fancy  stitches,  three  on  a  shirt  waist,  two  on  a  skirt  and  the  last  three  on  a  one- 
piece  dress.  The  lessons  were  supposed  to  be  an  hour  and  a  half  in  length,  but 
Mrs.  Altenburg  generously  extended  the  time  to  three  hours. 


We  were  asked  to  bring  to  the  first  lesson  lialf  yard  of  lawn,  two  white  spools, 
a  12  inch  ruler,  a  pair  of  scissors,  and  a  needle  number  7,  long,  sharp;  and  thus 
armed  we  betook  ourselves  to  the  library  hall,  where  under  the  careful  attentions 
of  Mrs.  Altenburg  we  were  instructed  in  the  art  of  plain  stitches,  hemming,  running, 
back  stitching,  overcasting,  rolled  hem,  gathered  ruffle,  button  holes,  decorative 
stitches,  chain  (plain  and  fancy),  braiding,  birdseye,  bias  stitch  (single,  double, 
fancy),  herringbone,  French  knot,  crowtacks.  Quite  a  number  of  these  operations 
were  not  new  to  us,  but  Mrs.  Altenburg  had  new  and  improved  methods  for  many 
of  them,  for  instance,  her  method  of  making  a  button-hole  was  different  from  the 
one  in  general  favor  here.  She  told  us  also  that  in  making  a  button-hole  in 
cloth  of  a  coarse  loose  weave,  to  stitch  with  the  machine  on  each  side  before  cutting 
the  hole.     At  this   first  lesson  she  took  the  measurement  of  each  member  of  tbe 


MRS.  N.  H.  ALTENBURG 
Demonstration  Lecturer  in  Sewing. 


class.  Her  French  knot  was  a  great  improvement  on  the  old  way  of  making  it. 
But  the  real  business  seemed  to  begin  with  the  shirt  waist.  To  know  exactly 
how  to  put  a  plaquet  on  a  shirt  waist  sleeve  is  information  which  no  amateur 
dressmaker  will  despise  and  Mrs.  Altenburg's  method  required  no  pattern,  which 
seemed  a  special  recommendation.  Since  then  we  have  heard  that  a  member  of 
^Irs.  Altenburg's  Burford  Class  has  said  that  she  considers  the  lesson  on  the 
l)laquet  alone  worth  her  fee.  Then  with  our  shirt  waist  fitted  on^  some  one 
pinned  the  shaped  collar  closely  to  its  place  without  putting  her  fingers  inside 
the  neck  band,  and  we  in  turn  performed  this  duty  for  some  one  else.  Besides 
learning  how  to  pin  on  the  collar  we  learned  to  preserve  a  calm  exterior  although 
suffering  considerable  anxiety  as  to  the  ultimate  fate  of  our  neck.  We  also 
learned  where  to  cut  the  armhole  if  it  chanced  to  require  trimming,  where  to 
place  the  seam  of  The  sleeve  in  relation  to  the  sliirt  waist  and  how  to  rcilncc  the 


18 

gathers  in  the  sleeve  to  the  vanishing  point,  a  feat  of  no  mean  order.  Mrs.  A. 
floes  not  approve  of  French  seams  in  shii't  waists  and  she  says  all  seams  to  Iftok 
well  slionld  be  of  a  good  width,  an  inch  or  three-qnartei's  of  an  ineli  at  least. 

When  we  began  the  skirts,  each  one  M'as  given  a  pattern  which  could  l)e 
used  for  a  2,  3,  or  -t  piece  skirt,  and  we  used  this  pattern  witli  a  panel  for  our 
separate  skirts,  and  are  iising  it  again  as  a  3  or  4  piece  skirt  in  the  one-piece 
dress.  "We  were  given  very  clear  directions  for  cutting  tbe  panel  and  had  no 
difficulty  in  doing  it  without  the  pattern.  When  basted  up  the  skirts  fitted  per- 
fectly. We  were  shown  how  to  pin  the  belt  on  and  how  to  get  tbe  length,  each 
member  of  the  class  doing  this  for  some  other  member.  Mrs.  A.  gathers  the 
edge  of  the  hen^,  distributing  the  fulness  so  as  to  do  away  with  all  ])laits. 

The  kimona  waist  seemed  to  be  the  object  of  the  greatest  interest  and  many 
were  the  conversations  on  the  relative  merits  of  a  kimona  and  a  waist  of  the  set-in 
sleeve  variety.  We  were  given  no  pattern  for  the  kimona  waist,  but  Afrs.  A"s. 
instructions,  as  in  the  draughting  of  the  panel,  were  most  explicit  and  under  her 
watchful  eye  there  were  no  mishaps.  The  little  3  inch  s<|uare  wliich  sbc  used  under 
the  arm  was  a  surprise  to  most  of  us,  and  being  placed  so  as  to  draw  on  the  bias 
will  prevent  tearing  which  has  always  been  a  serious  defect  in  the  kimona  waist. 
When  through  we  each  had  a  shirt  waist,  a  skirt,  a  one-piece  dress  and  perfect 
fitting  patterns  for  each  of  these,  which  we  shall  be  able  to  use  for  ourselves  with 
profit  and  pleasure;  for  surely  we  must  be  l)etter  qualified  after  our  course  with 
Mrs.  Altenburg  to  meet  the  difficulties  that  so  often  present  themselves  in  dress- 
making. 

ExTIiACT  FFMM  COMMUXICATIOX  KeCEIVED  FROM  MiSS  FuAXCES  BeVAX,  AxCASTEK. 

Our  Branch  his  just  finished  the  class  in  dressmaking  under  Mrs.  Altenburg, 
and  everyone  is  more  than  pleased  with  it. 

Each  woman  has  such  pretty  new  things  and  so  beautifully  made,  quite 
elaborate  silk  dresses  and  some  muslins,  but  one  and  all  are  satisfied,  with  the  one 
exception ;  one  woman  who  made  a  |)rint  dress  has  been  so  angry  with  herself  for 
not  making  up  better  stuff.  She  was  rather  skeptical  about  the  class  and  thought 
any  old  thing  would  do.  but  when  she  saw  the  lovely  dresses  of  the  others  she  wished 
she  had  something  better. 

The  class  has  done  the  Institute  a  world  of  good.  We  charged  each  non- 
member  25c.  extra,  so  they  should  become  members,  and  already  they  are  showing 
great  interest  in  the  work  of  tbe  \V.  T..  and  attend  the  meetings. 


19 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

WOMEN'S  INSTITUTES 

Application  for  Special  Course  of  Lectures  1913-14 

Name  of  Institute    

Course  chosen  (Cooking,  Home  Nursing,  or  Sewing)    

(make  X  through  the  Course  chosen) 
Number  who  have  definitely  promised  to  take  advantage  of  the  Course,  if  arranged 
for   

Number  of  additional  persons  who  will  probably  take  advantage  of  the  full  Course 


Probable  number  who  will  take  advantage  of  occasional  lectures 
Prospects  for  class  of  school  girls   


Place  where  regular  class  will  be  held  .  .  . 
Place  where  school  girls'  class  will  be  held 
Day  of  week  preferred 


Accommodation  for  board  and  lodging  for  demonstrator 


Time  chosen  for  Course,  October  6th  to  December  13th 

January  5th  to  March  14th   .  . 

March  16th  to  May  23rd 

(make  X  opposite  time  preferred) 
Remarks 


Branch  President   

Branch   Secretary    

Place  

Date 

Note This  form  to  be  filled  in  and  forwarded  to  the  District  Secretary  or  Geo.  A.  Putnam,  Su- 
perintendent of  Institutes,  Parliament  Buildingrs,  Toronto,  Ont.  at  as  early  a  date  as  possible 
If  application  is  sent  direct  to  the  Department,  the   District  Secretary  should  be  notified. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  the  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture,  Toronto. 


Serial 
No.        Date. 

169     Feb.       1909 


170     Mar.      1909 


171     April     1909 


172 

May 

1909 

173 

Oct. 

1909 

174 

Dec. 

1909 

175 

Dec. 

1909 

176 

Dec. 

1909 

177 

Dec. 

1909 

178 

Dec. 

1909 

179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan. 

1913 

209  March  1913 

210  March  1913 

211  March  1913 

212  April  1913 

213  April  1913 

214  May   1913 

215  Aug.   1913 


Title.  Author. 

Legume  Bacteria:  Further  Studies  of  Nitro-  f  S.  F.  Edwards, 

gen  Accumulation  in  the  Leguminosae  . .  \  B.  Barlow. 

Mitchell-Walker  Test  Bottle |  ^^'  ^?iker.' 

(Insects  Affecting  Vegetables  C.  J.  S.  Bethune. 

Fungus  Diseases  Affecting  Vegetables  |  j'  w    Ealtham 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)   ...  Dairy  School. 

Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

Farm  Underdrainage:  Does  It  Pay? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   D,  H.  Jones. 

_,„,.„,,  f  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash |  l.  Caesar. 

Character    and    Treatment    of    Swamp    or   f  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Muck  Soils    I  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch 

Flour  and  Breadmaking  |  ^   A^^'purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care   Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit   Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making  Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey  

Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

Children:   Care  and  Training  J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth   L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised) J.  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry   (151  revised)    W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural  Co-operation  S.  E.  Toad. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch. 

Insectides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised!  5'  1^^''_9°"'"*^- 

*  H.  L.  !<  ulmer. 

Tomatoes   A.   G.   Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

Onions  A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices L.  Meunier. 

Peach   Diseases    F.  M.  Clement. 

Peach  GroA'ing  in  Ontario   L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  A.  McAieans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    ..    C 

Part  I.    Cheese-making  and  Butter-making  J  Staff  of  Dairy  School. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . .  1  Dairy  School. 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm [ 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  f  J.  H.  Hare. 

in   Ontario   County    \  T.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry   (No.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.  F.  M.  Clement. 

Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters...  Fruit  Branch 

(No.  179  revised.) 

Orchard  Surveys  in     Dundas,    Stormont   and 

Glengarry F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:  Does  it  Pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing Institutes  Branch. 


Ontario   Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 


BULLETIN  216 


BOX-PACKING 

OF 

APPLES 

By 
E.   F.  PALMER,  B.S.A. 


TORONTO,    ONTARIO,  OCTOBER,  1913 


BULLETIN  216]  [OCTOBER,  1913 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

FRUIT  BRANCH 

Box-Packing  of  Apples 

E.  F.  PALMER 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  packing  of  apples  in  boxes  is  an  established  custom  in  British  Columbia 
and  the  Pacific  States.  In  Ontario, '  box  packing  is,  as  yet,  comparatively  in  its 
infancy.  With  every  year,  however,  it  is  attaining  to  greater  prominence,  and 
rightly  so,  as  no  matter  how  good  a  product  may  be,  unless  it  is  packed  in  such  a 
way  as  to  reach  the  market  in  good  condition,  and  at  the  same  time  be  attractive, 
it  will  not  bring  the  highest  prices.  But  a  good  product  handled  in  an  attractive 
package  is  sure  to  be  the  first  in  demand  and  to  command  a  good  price,  even  when 
the  market  is  glutted. 

It  is  almost  a  crime  to  handle  some  of  the  choice  fruit  in  the  way  it  is  being 
handled.  Of  course,  a  certain  percentage  of  the  fruit  is  too  small,  too  imperfect 
to  warrant  the  extra  outlay.  Nevertheless,  an  attractive  package  will  often  sell 
fruit  that  is  not  of  the  highest  quality;  that  is,  second-grade  fruit,  if  well  packed, 
will  often  bring  a  profit  where  there  might  otherwise  have  been  a  loss;  but  what 
we  should  strive  to  do  is  to  pack  quality  fruit  in  quality  packages.  In  the  very 
beginning,  it  must  be  clearly  understood  that  to  receive  the  best  returns  we  must 
not  only  understand  the  details  of  packing,  which,  after  all,  are  matters  of  ex- 
perience, but  we  must  be  strictly  honest  and  scrupulously  clean.  These  factors, 
coupled  with  methods  approved  as  correct,  will  bring  success  in  apple  packing. 

Box  packing  is  destined  to  become  a  more  important  factor  each  year.  For, 
though  the  day  of  high  prices  is  probably  gone  forever,  this  fact  in  itself  brings 
the  box-packed  fruit  in  more  direct  competition  with  barrel-packed  fruit.  The 
result  is  that  the  market  for  barreled  fruit  will  become  more  and  more  restricted 
each  year,  and  there  will  be  a  demand  for  larger  and  larger  quantities  of  boxed 
apples. 

The  barrel  undoubtedly  encourages  carelessness  in  grading  for  quality  and  size. 
It  has  been  the  package,  not  so  much  of  inferior  grades  of  apples,  as  un.graded  apples. 
T.et  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  barrel  be  nicely  "faced,"  and  the  space  between  invites 
ungraded  fruit.  The  box,  on  the  contrary,  requires  close  grading  for  size,  as  the 
apples  must  be  uniform  to  pack  properly.  This  close  grading  further  insures  that 
all  defective  fruit  will  be  found  and  culled  out. 


2 

BOX  vs.  BAEREL. 

The  question  of  boxes  versus  barrels  has  been  discussed  in  Eastern  Canada  for 
a  number  of  years.  In  British  Columbia,  no  barrels  are  used  at  the  present  time. 
In  Ontario,  however,  conditions  are  such  that  it  would  seem  neither  package 
possesses  all  the  virtues.  The  package  used  must  be  dependent  largely  on  the  grade 
of  fruit,  the  variety,  and  the  market. 

Regarding  the  small  package,  the  following  points  have  been  pretty  well 
established : — 

1.  All  fancy  high-priced  apples  should  be  shipped  in  boxes. 

2.  Only  the  best  grades  are  preferred. 

3.  The  box  is  the  only  practical  package  in  which  an  apple  can  be  transported 
with  any  reasonable  degree  of  economy,  in  a  fit  condition  for  the  highest  export 
trade. 

As  already  stated,  box  packing  is  still  in  its  infancy  in  Ontario.  For  several 
years  past,  a  few  shippers  have  been  using  the  box  regularly,  while  others  have 
merely  experimented  with  it.  Those  who  use  the  box  regularly,  pack  their  better 
grade  of  fruit  in  it,  and  consider  it  the  better  package,  while  the  experimenters 
have,  in  only  a  few  cases,  pronounced  the  box  a  success.  This  is  doubtless  due  to 
the  fact  that  nearly  all  those  using  the  box  on  trial  did  so  with  unexperienced 
packers.  In  some  cases,  the  boxes  were  packed  like  barrels;  that  is,  the  box  was 
faced  as  in  barrel  packing,  and  the  remainder  of  the  apples  simply  rolled  in  on 
top  of  this.  The  package  was  then  finished  in  every  respect  like  barrel  packing, 
with  no  attempt  at  arranging  the  apples  in  tiers.  Naturally,  the  results  were  not 
in  accord  with  what  these  men  had  doubtless  heard  about  box-packed  fruit,  and 
it  would  obviously  be  unfair  to  draw  conclusions  regarding  box  versus  barrel  from 
such  experiments.  Undoubtedly  both  packages  have  a  place — the  box  for  the  high- 
class  trade  and  the  barrel  for  the  other. 

PACKIN-G. 

The  following  paragraph  taken  from  an  article  by  Eoy  C.  Brock,  in  the  Sep- 
tember issue  of  Better  Fruit  for  1911,  gives  a  comprehensive  idea  of  the  under- 
lying principles  of  box-packing. 

"  Packing  is  the  classification  of  fruit  in  the  proper  sizes  by  placing  fruit  of 
the  same  size  solidly  into  boxes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  uniformity  of  appear- 
ance, neatness,  and  protection  from  bruising.  The  purpose  of  careful  packing  is 
to  make  the  box  of  fruit  as  attractive  as  possible  to  the  purchaser,  and  obtain 
thereby  for  it  the  highest  possible  price." 

Following  out  the  idea  contained  in  these  few  words,  the  essentials  of  a  good 
pack  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows : — 

1.  The  pack  must  be  so  firm  that  there  is  no  chance  for  the  fruit  to  shift  in 
any  way.  To  have  this  possible,  it  is  almost  necessary  that  each  apple  touch  all 
those  surrounding  it  in  the  proper  way. 

2.  Bulge  probably  ranks  next  to  firmness  in  importance.  The  purpose  of  the 
bulge  is  that  as  the  packed  apples  shrink  during  storage,  the  cover  will  contract, 
and  thus  continue  to  hold  the  apples  firm.  While  this  is  the  primary  reason  for  a 
bulge,  it  probably  has  a  beneficial  influence  on  the  purchaser  also. 

"  A  bulge  of  11/4  to  lyo  inches,  counting  both  top  and  bottom  of  the  box,  is 
sufficient.  A  bulge  of  2  inches  or  more  is  unnecessary  and  undesirable,  as  the 
fruit  is  more  liable  to  be  bruised. 

3.  Regularity  of  pack  is  very  important.  On  no  account  should  a  box  be 
started  with  one  size  of  apple  and  finished  with  another,  or  the  style  of  pack 


changed.     Bruising  is  very  liable  to  result  where  such  changes  in  size  of  fruit  or 
style  of  pack  are  made. 

4.  Smoothness  and  finish  to  a  pack  are  very  essential.  Contrary  to  a  pretty 
general  belief  in  some  sections,  the  box  will  not  sell  the  apples.  The  high  prices 
received  for  box  apples  rely  in  a  large  measure  on  the  appearance  of  the  pack.  The 
finished  pack  should  be  regular  in  size  and  perfect  in  alignment,  and,  if  the  fruit 
is  wrapped,  smoothness  of  wrap  is  of  great  importance. 

5.  Grading  of  the  fruit  to  color,  as  well  as  size,  is  essential.  In  other  words, 
uniformity  of  color  is  desirable. 

Packing  Houses. 
A  well-equipped  packing  house  is  essential  to  good  packing.  There  should  be 
an  abundance  of  light,  thorough  ventilation,  just  the  right  amount  of  room,  handy 
arrangement  and  cleanliness.  Plenty  of  ligJit  is  very  important,  as  no  packer, 
however  expert,  can  do  high-grade  work  in  a  poorly  lighted  room.  He  needs  light 
to  aid  in  selecting  fruit  as  to  size  and  freedom  from  blemishes,  as  well  as  in  the 
actual  operation  of  packing. 


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Fig.  1.    Ground  plan  of  a  Packing  House,  32'  x  40'. 


■<i: 


The  packing  house  should  be  large  enough  to  accommodate  the  maximum 
crop,  but  no  larger,  as  it  is  almost  as  inconvenient  to  have  a  house  too  large  as  too 
small.  "A  place  for  everything  and  everything  in  its  place"  will  materially  de- 
crease the  amount  of  floor  space  required.  Have  a  well-lighted  portion  equipped 
with  sufficient  packing  tables;  a  place  for  the  fruit  before  packing;  for  the  packed 
products ;  for  the  culls ;  and  a  good  loft  or  other  room  for  storing  packing  materials. 
Everything  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  fruit  will  be  continually  moving  from 
the  receiving  door  to  the  store-room  for  the  packed  product.  That  is,  the  unpacked 
should  be  stored  at  one  end  of  the  house  as  it  is  received  from  the  orchard.  Next 
should  come  the  grading  tables,  then  the  packing  tables,  the  nailing  press,  and 
finally  the  store-room.  In  other  words,  a  system  should  be  developed  which  will 
do  away  with  all  unnecessary  handling.  The  more  perfect  the  system,  the  less  the 
cost  of  packing. 


Central  Packing  House. 


Where  the  central  packing  house  method  is  employed,  the  packing  is,  on  the 
average,  much  superior  to  other  methods.  When  a  grower  packs  his  own  fruit, 
experience  has  shown  that  he  is  very  liable  to  grade  considerable  quantities  of  ISTo.  2 
fruit  as  No.  1.  The  practice  should  be:  When  in  douht  as  to  ike  grade  of  an  apple_. 
place  it  in  the  grade  below.  With  disinterested  packers,  this  is  possible,  but,  in  the 
other  case,  human  nature  usually  prevails. 


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Fig.  2.    Ground  plan  of  a  Packing  House,  40'  x  60'. 

The  following  extract  from  an  article  by  A.  McN'eill,  Chief  Fruit  Division, 
Ottawa,  published  in  the  September  issue  of  Better  Fruit  for  1910,  will  serve  to 
bear  out  the  above  remarks: — 

"  In  the  enforcement  of  the  Canadian  Fruit  Marks  Act,  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  make  an  average  of  about  fifty  prosecutions  a  year. 

"  There  are  now  between  fifty  and  sixty  co-operative  apple-selling  associations 
in  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  in  no  instance  has  a  co-operative  association  been 
fined.  The  interpretation  of  this  fact  is  that  the  co-operative  system  removes  very 
largely  all  temptation  to  mark  or  pack  fraudulently;  but  perhaps  even  a  more 
potent  influence  is  in  the  closer  supervision  which  can  be  given  to  the  workman 
by  those  in  authority  under  the  co-operative  mode  of  work.  Instead  of  sending 
out  gangs  of  men  into  isolated  orchards,  the  co-operative  associations  are  gathering 
the  fruit  into  packing  houses  and  having  the  work  done  under  the  supervision  of 
competent  and  responsible  men." 


That  the  central  packing  house  method  is  the  best  one  is  thus  readily  seen. 
For,  owing  to  employment  of  experienced  packers,  and  the  close  supervision  of  all 
the  packing  operations,  a  much  better  and  a  more  uniform  pack  is  usually  obtained. 
The  cost,  too,  of  packing  is  considerably  reduced  tlirongh  division  of  labor  and 
handy  equipment. 

Another  point  in  favor  of  the  central  packing  house  is  that  carload  lots  can 
be  made  up  more  easily  and  with  greater  economy,  especially  if  the  packing  house 
is  built  alongside  a  railroad,  as  it  should  be.  Fruit  can  then  be  loaded  directly 
from  the  packing  house  into  cars  at  a  great  saving  in  cost. 


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Fig.  3.    Ground  plan  of  a  Packing  House,  40'  x  60'. 

Lastly,  the  fruit  can  be  kept  under  far  better  conditions  of  storage  until 
shipment  than  are  possible  by  the  grower. 

Against  the  central  packing  house  method,  it  may  be  said  that  ordinarily  the 
fruit  is  subjected  to  more  handling  than  where  it  is  packed  in  the  orchard.  Also 
when  packing  in  the  orchard  the  grower  can  personally  see  that  the  fruit  which 
he  thought  would  pack  largely  No.  1  is  really  nearly  all  No.  2.  Thus  he  is  pre- 
vented from  kicking  and  further  taught  to  grow  a  higher  grade  of  fruit. 

However,  the  many  evident  advantages  serve  to  more  than  coun'terbalance 
these  two  disadvantages.  Also  if  the  fruit  is  handled  carefully  at  all  times,  as  it 
should  be,  there  will  be  little,  if  any,  extra  bruising  of  the  fruit  resulting  from 
the  extra  handling  necessary  in  the  central  packing  house  method.  And  if  the 
growers  are  progressive,  the  second  disadvantage  will  carry  little  weight. 

Grading. 
Without  good,  even  grading,  rapid  box-packing  is  impossible.  To  do  good 
work  and  do  it  rapidly,  the  packer  must  have  before  him  an  even  run  of  apples  in 
point  of  size  and  quality.  In  fact,  packing,  simplified,  is  simply  grading  and 
sizing,  then  placing  the  fruit  in  the  box  so  that  it  fits  systematically  and  snugly. 
Unless  the  fruit  is  sized  properly,  it  cannot  be  made  to  fit  systematically.     It  is 


6 

« 

essential  that  a  man  be  able  to  size  an  apple  properly,  else  he  will  never  make  a 
packer. 

Eegardiug  the  best  time  to  grade,  some  prefer  to  do  part  or  most  of  it  in  the ' 
orchard  as  the  fruit  is  picked,  while  others  prefer  to  do  it  all  in  the  packing  house. 
The  latter  method  is  probably  the  better,  as  it  entails  less  handling  of  the  fruit. 
The  apples  can  be  graded  directly  on  to  the  packing  tables.    For  this  same  reason, 
grading  in  the  packing  house  is  probably  more  economical. 

In  grading,  remove  all  culls,  that  is,  fruit  with  broken  skins,  worm  holes,  and 
other  bad  blemishes,  and  at  the  same  time  grade  to  color. 

As  yet,  it  would  hardly  pay  in  Ontario  to  adopt  the  complicated  system  of 
assorting  to  sizes  used  in  various  sections  of  the  Northwest  States.  Undoubtedly, 
it  would  be  less  difficult  for  packers,  especially  inexperienced  ones,  to  pack  properly 
if  all  the  apples  were  assorted  and  graded  beforehand.  And  it  may  also  be  pre- 
sumed that  a  sorter,  having  only  the  one  thing  to  perform,  might  be  able  to  do  it 
better  and  quicker  than  the  packer,  who  would  have  to  pack  the  apples  at  the  same 
time.    However,  the  sizing  need  not  be  carried  to  extremes. 

If  the  packers  are  required  to  do  the  grading  as  they  pack,  much  better  work 
can  be  done  if  they  have  a  large  amount  of  fruit  to  pick  from.  In  packing,  this 
would  mean  a  modification  of  the  bench  system  or  else  the  adoption  of  tables.  Of 
the  two,  the  bench  method  is  to  be  preferred  here,  as  there  will  be  less  handling 
over  of  the  fruit;  but  the  packers  must  be  expert. 

Grading  Machines. 

The  need  for  mechanical  help  to  get  apples  perfectly  graded  as  to  size  has 
brought  out  many  inventions  which  are  distinct  aids.  The  fruit  is  automatically 
sized  and  delivered  to  the  packing  table.  However,  these  machines  appear  to  have 
one  fault  in  common ;  tender  varieties  of  apples  are  very  often  bruised  to  some 
extent.  Also  the  mechanical  graders  cannot  of  course  be  made  so  as  to  grade  for 
color  and  freedom  from  blemishes.  It  therefore  becomes  necessary  to  grade  the 
fruit  for  these  qualities  before  using  the  machine,  or  else  have  the  packer  do  it. 

Another  objection  to  the  grading  machine  is  that  they  grade  the  fruit  almost 
too  uniformly,  and  the  apples  being  all  of  one  size  the  packer  finds  difficulty  in 
securing  the  proper  bulge.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to  use  two  or  possibly  three 
of  the  grades  as  sized  by  the  machine. 

For  the  small  grower  the  price  of  a  good  machine  is  probably  out  of  reason.  The 
proper  place  for  a  grading  machine  is  in  a  packing  house  where  large  quantities  of 
the  harder  varieties  of  apples  are  being  packed. 

Wiping. 

Regarding  the  wiping  of  apples  there  has  been  more  or  less  discussion.  The 
advent  of  the  codling  moth  has  made  spraying  imperative,  and  it  is  this  spray  that 
is  chiefly  objectionable.  But,  by  many,  the  advisability  of  wiping  has  been  seri- 
ously questioned,  as  the  natural  bloom  on  the  fruit  undoubtedly  aids  in  keeping 
quality.  On  the  other  hand,  packers  of  fancy  fruit  can  show  good  reasons  why  all 
spraying  efi'ects,  etc.,  should  be  removed,  for  it  must  be  admitted  that  an  apple, 
after  being  wiped,  presents  a  better  appearance,  to  the  average  buyer  at  least,  than 
6ne  that  has  not  been  wiped. 

The  expense  is  small  and  the  wiping  is  easily  done  if  the  fruit  is  wiped  imme- 
diately after  being  picked.     Some  varieties  of  apples,  if  allowed  to  stand  for  any 


length  of  time  after  being  picked,  are  very  difficult  to  wipe,  as  a  sweat  or  oil  gathers 
on  the  surface  of  the  fruit. 

In  wiping  an  apple  it  should  not  be  rubbed  hard.  The  object  is  not  to  polish 
the  apple,  but  simply  to  remove  what  dust  there  may  be,  and  more  particularly  the 
dabs  of  spray  which  a  great  many  people  are  afraid  of  on  account  of  their  poisonous 
nature.  However,  an  analysis  of  the  quantity  of  spray  on  an  apple  has  shown  that 
it  would  take  the  spray  from  600  apples  to  make  a  minimum  dose  of  poison  danger- 
ous to  a  human  being. 

A  pair  of  cheap  cotton  gloves  is  much  superior  to  a  rag  for  wiping,  as  the 
operation  is  not  only  more  quickly  performed,  but  the  hands  do  not  become  numb 
from  handling  the  cold  fruit.  "Wiping  and  grading  may  be  conveniently  done  at 
the  same  time. 

Stemming. 

To  prevent  the  stem  of  the  apple  being  bent  over  by  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
box  and  puncturing  the  fruit,  stemming  is  practised. to  some  extent.  Part  of  the 
stem  is  simply  removed  by  small  pincers  especially  made  for  the  purpose.  It  is 
questionable  whether  stemming  is  practical  in  commercial  box-packing.  In 
barrel  packing,  where  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  apples  have  to  be  stemmed, 
namely,  the  face  layer,  it  is  quite  possibly  an  economic  operation.  With  boxes, 
however,  two  layers,  the  top  and  the  bottom,  or  half  the  apples  in  the  box,  are 
stemmed.  For  exhibition  fruit  this  may  be  permissable,  but  there  seems  to  be  a 
fairly  general  impression  in  Ontario  that  all  box-packed  fruit  should  be  stemmed. 
It  would  be  far  more  economical  to  pack  those  varieties  of  apples  that  require 
stemming  calyx-end  up  or  on  their  side,  for  stemming  must  add  considerably  to 
the  cost  of  packing.  A  good  packer  will  pack  half  a  box  in  the  time  required  to 
stem  the  fruit  for  the  top  and  bottom  layers  of  a  box.  Thus  where  he  would  pack 
a  box  and  a  half  when  not  stemming,  he  would  only  pack  a  box  if  he  were  required 
to  stem  the  fruit.  This  means  an  increase  of  practically  one-third  in  the  cost  of 
packing,  which  is  far  too  big  an  expense  to  overlook.  Of  course  if  an  extra  price 
can  be  secured  for  stemmed  fruit,  well  and  good,  but  the  way  markets  are  tending 
now,  the  cost  of  production  has  to  be  decreased  rather  than  increased  in  order  to 
meet  their  demands. 

Wrapped  fruit  needs  no  stemming,  as  the  wrappers  prevent  any 
puncturing  by  the  stems.  The  apples  give  more  when  the  pressure  of  the  lid  is 
brought  to  bear,  tending  to  obviate  any  danger.  Furthermore,  since  the  fruit  is 
wrapped,  it  matters  very  little  whether  the  fruit  is  packed  stem-end  up,  calyx-end 
up,  or  on  its  side.  In  varieties  of  apples,  therefore,  in  which  puncturing  is  to  be 
expected,  the  top  and  bottom  layers  may  be  packed  calyx-end  up  or  on  their  cheeks. 
There  is  no  serioits  objection  to  pacHng  apples  on  their  sides  even  when  univrapped, 
and  there  certainly  is  no  serious  objection  to  packing  tvrapped  fruit  so.  It  is  better 
however,  to  pack  the  apples  on  their  ends  whenever  possible  and  use  the  side  pack 
only  when  necessary. 

Packing  Tables  and  Benches. 

Packing  on  benches  instead  of  tables  is  gaining  in  favor  in  some  districts  of 
the  West.  The  packer  stands  in  front  of  a  sloping  bench  on  which  are  placed  four 
or  five  apple  boxes  on  his  left-hand  side  and  an  orchard  box  of  ungraded  fruit  on 
his  right.  Taking  the  apples  as  they  come  he  packs  them  into  their  proper  box, 
making  four  or  five  sizes.    Over,  or  undersized  fruit  is  put  in  boxes  placed  con veni- 


ently  near.  Culls  are  run  down  to  a  box  on  the  floor.  With  expert  packers  who  can 
size  the  apples  at  a  glance  this  system  is  very  good,  as  the  fruit  receives  a  minimum 
of  handling  and  hence  of  bruising.  However,  for  the  beginner,  and  for  a  poor  run 
of  fruit,  the  table  is  preferable,  as  only  one  size  is  packed  at  a  time  and  there  is  a 
larger  quantity  of  apples  to  select  from. 

To  make  a  convenient  packing  table  four  uprights  of  two-by-four  material 
three  feet  long,  are  taken.  These  four  legs  are  joined  with  one-by-six  lumber, 
making  the  table  about  three  feet  wide  and  four  feet  long.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  haA^e  the  legs  well  braced.  The  top  is  then  covered  with  strong  burlap,  which  is 
allowed  to  hang  rather  loosely.  The  legs  are  bevelled  off  where  they  stick  up 
through  the  burlap  so  as  to  leave  no  sharp  edges  to  bruise  the  fruit.  With  this 
same  idea  in  mind  rubber  hose  is  usually  nailed  around  the  edge  of  the  table. 
Two  of  the  diagonally  opposite  one-by-six  sides  are  allowed  to  project  a  foot  or  so 
beyond  the  edge  of  the  table  so  as  to  serve  as  a  shelf  on  which  to  rest  one  end  of  the 
box  while  it  is  being  packed.  Another  board  is  projected  from  underneath  in  such 
a  way  as  to  serve  as  a  support  for  the  other  end  of  the  box. 


Fig.  4.    Packing  Table. 


The  height  of  the  tables  suggested  above  is  only  relative,  the  point  being  to 
have  the  height  suit  the  packer.  Back  bending  should  be  avoided.  A  height  of 
about  three  feet  is  generally  found  to  be  about  right. 

The  surface  area  of  the  table  should  not,  as  a  rule,  be  greater  than  three  feet 
by  four  feet,  as  anything  larger  will  not  allow  two  packers  to  reach  all  points  of  it 
without  unnecessary  stretching.  Larger  tables  may  be  used  if  there  are  four 
packers  to  a  table,  but  as  a  general  rule  their  use  is  to  be  avoided.  There  is  too 
much  fruit  in  one  pile,  and  furthermore,  two  packers  at  one  table  will  work  to 
better  advantage  than  will  four. 


9 

Materials  foe  Packing. 

Boxes.  The  first  item  in  a  perfect  pack  is  a  clean  box.  Clean  white  material 
should  be  bought  to  start  with,  and  the  boxes  never  used  for  any  other  purpose 
than  packing.  The  best  available  material  for  boxes  is  spruce,  being  whiter  and 
neater  in  appearance  than  fir  and  so  soft  that  it  is  not  easily  split  when  nailed. 

The  proper  thickness  for  box  materials  is  as  follows:  Ends  three-quarters  of 
an  inch,  sides  three-eights,  and  top  and  bottom  one-quarter.  Thinner  ends  are  apt 
to  split,  thinner  sides  to  bulge,  resulting  in  bruising  in  transportation,  and  thicker 
tops  not  to  bulge  enough,  hence  crushing  the  fruit.  For  the  same  reasons  sides 
should  be  of  one  solid  piece  and  tops  of  two  pieces. 

The  use  of  rosin  coated  nails  is  to  be  strongly  advocated,  as  they  hold  far 
better  than  the  ordinary  nail.  Also  being  thinner,  they  are  more  easily  driven 
in,  and  do  not  split  the  box  lumber  as  readily  as  do  other  kinds. 

Size  of  Box.  Two  sizes  of  box,  the  Northwest  Standard,  101/2  by  111;^  by  181/4 
inches,  and  the  Northwest  Special  10  by  11  by  20  inches,  inside  measurements,  have 
been  generally  adopted  throughout  the  western  apple  growing  districts.  The  one  used 
in  Canada,  the  Northwest  Special,  will  pack  practically  all  sizes  and  shapes  of  apples 
likely  to  be  found  in  Ontario.  The  deeper  and  wider  box  might  be  employed,  but  if 
all  the  packing  can  be  done  satisfactorily  in  one  size  of  box  it  is,  of  course,  better  to 
use  the  one  size  altogether.  It  avoids  confusion.  Also,  it  is  as  easy  to  pack  in  the 
one  box  as  in  the  other,  it  being  simply  a  matter  of  which  size  of  box  the  packer  is 
used  to. 

There  are  other  factors  relative  to  the  size  of  box,  however,  which  are  probably 
of  more  importance  than  convenience  in  packing,  Mr.  R.  M.  Winslow,  Provincial 
Horticulturist  for  British  Columbia,  in  an  article  in  the  Canadian  Horticulturist  for 
September,  1913,  writes : 

"The  box  at  present  in  use  has  in  its  favor  law,  custom,  and  the  favor  of  certain 
markets.  The  short  box  is  commended  to  us  by  reason  of  its  uniformity  with  other 
standard  fruit  packages,  with  consequent  convenience  in  manufacturing,  warehous- 
ing, and  in  loading  oars.  It  is  a  more  attractive  package  and  possibly  a  cheaper 
one,  and,  above  all,  it  has  the  favor  of  the  coast  and  prairie  provinces." 

Lining  Paper.  This  serves  to  give  the  package  a  more  finished  appearance 
and  also  to  keep  dirt  and  odors  away  from  the  fruit.  Lining  paper  is  necessary 
only  when  the  fruit  is  not  wrapped,  as  wrapping  more  than  accomplishes  the  same 
object. 

The  size  of  the  paper  is  approximately  twenty  by  twenty-six  inches.  This 
allows  for  generous  overlapping  on  both  top  and  bottom  of  the  box.  In  lining  the 
box  a  sheet  of  paper  is  placed  over  one  side,  letting  one  end  come  a  little  past  the 
centre  of  the  bottom.  Either  hand  is  then  placed  flat  on  the  bottom  of  the  box 
on  top  of  the  sheet  of  paper  and  sufficient  force  applied  to  put  a  bulge  in  the 
bottom.  This  makes  an  opening  or  extended  gap  between  the  side  and  the  bottom 
of  the  box.  The  paper  is  then  pressed  out  with  the  side  of  the  hand  a  little  way 
in  the  opening  so  made.  As  the  hand  is  raised  this  opening  closes  up  and 
catches  a  pleat  or  fold  in  the  lining  paper,  which  is  needed  to  keep  the  bulge  of 
the  packed  and  nailed  box  from  bursting  the  paper.  The  other  side  of  the  box  is 
lined  similarly. 

The  method  of  folding  a  pleat  in  the  lining  paper  before  putting  in  the  box 
is  a  slow  process,  as  it  takes  as  long  to  put  the  lining  in  after  it  is  folded  as  it  does 
to  put  the  paper  in  and  catch  the  fold  as  described  above. 


10 

Lining  the  ends  of  the  boxes,  if  the  lumber  is  dressed,  is  unnecessary,  and 
therefore  a  needless  expense.  For  exhibition  purposes  it  is  perhaps  admissable  to 
use  it;  otherwise  never. 

Larjer  Paper.  This  should  be  used  only  for  exhibition  fruit  and  that  intended 
for  long  distance  shipment,  as  to  Great  Britain.  Its  use  should  be  confined  to 
these  purposes  and  perhaps  also  to  the  highest  dessert  trade. 

Styles  of  Packs. 

The  style  of  packing  has  changed  considerably  in  the  last  few  years.  The  old 
style  straight  four-tier  has  practically  given  way  to  the  diagonal  pack  for  several 
reasons.  With  the  straight  pack  each  apple  rests  directly  on  the  one  below  it  and 
there  is  therefore  great  danger  of  bruising.  With  the  diagonal  pack,  no  one  apple 
rests  directly  on  another,  but  cushions  in  between  the  apples  below,  thus  greatly 
reducing  any  chance  of  bruising.  The  diagonal  pack  lends  itself  to  a  much 
greater  variety  of  sizes  and  shapes  of  apples.  It  is  far  easier  to  make  a  good  com- 
mercial pack  with  the  diagonal  and  more  weight  of  apples  is  secured  to  the  box 
as  the  apples  fit  more  into  the  crevices,  making  less  waste  space. 

The  third  system  of  packing — the  ofiE-set — is  generally  considered  inferior  to 
the  diagonal.  However,  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  use  it  with  inexperienced  and 
unscrupulous  packers,  as  a  single  apple  of  improper  size  will  bring  about  a  condition 
through  the  general  pack  and  on  the  surface  layer  that  cannot  be  covered  up.  Any 
defect  in  the  pack  is  easily  seen.  With  the  diagonal  system  it  is  much  easier  to 
vary  the  size  of  the  fruit  in  the  bottom  and  centre  layers  without  materially  spoil- 
ing the  appearance  on  top.  Only  on  opening  the  box  at  its  final  destination  will 
the  poor  work  be  discovered.  On  the  other  hand,  when  both  systems  are  properly 
used,  the  diagonal  is  more  to  be  desired  for  the  reason  that  fewer  of  the  apples 
come  in  the  straight  pack  sizes.  Again,  in  the  off-set  pack  the  spaces  show  at  the 
sides,  giving  the  box  an  unfilled  appearance,  whereas,  in  the  diagonal,  only  small 
spaces  occur,  and  these  at  the  ends  of  the  box.  Another  point  against  the  off-set  is 
that  it  contains  from  four  to  twelve  apples  less  than  the  diagonal,  making  the  box 
light  in  weight. 

Straight  Pack.  In  this  pack  the  rows  run  straight  across  the  box  and  parallel 
to  the  sides.  It  includes  all  the  three,  four,  and  five  tier  apples.  The  straight 
pack  is  very  neat  in  appearance,  but,  as  stated  before,  it  is  rather  severe  on  the  fruit 
as  each  apple  tends  to  press  directly  against  surrounding  apples  rather  than  into 
the  crevices  or  spaces. 

The  apples  are  placed  in  the  box  in  various  ways,  depending  on  the  shape  and 
variety,  and  whether  the  fruit  is  wrapped  or  not.  Thus  sometimes  they  are  packed 
on  their  sides  and  sometimes  flat.  As  a  general  rule  it  is  better  to  have  the  top 
and  bottom  layers  with  stems  towards  the  outside,  if  possible,  in  unwrapped  fruit. 
In  this  way  the  apples  do  not  tend  to  bruise  so  easily,  as  a  greater  bearing  space  is 
given  for  the  lid.  Even  if  they  do  bruise,  the  apples  are  not  so  badly  disfigured 
for  the  retail  trade  where  they  are  generally  arranged  calyx-end  up. 

The  straight  pack  is  so  simple,  in  theory  at  least,  as  to  require  very  little  ex- 
planation concerning  the  theory  of  packing.  It  is  necessary  to  remember  only  one 
thing;  the  apples  must  fit  snugly  both  across  the  box  and  lengthwise.  In  packing 
some  varieties  on  their  sides  it  will  sometimes  be  found  necessary  to  turn  the  end 
rows  flat  in  order  to  make  the  apples  fit  tight.  When  it  becomes  necessary  to  do 
this,  the  ends  of  two  layers  at  one  end  of  the  box  and  the  ends  of  the  other  two 


11* 

\ 

at  the  other  end  of  the  box  should  be  turned,  otherwise  one  end  will  be  too  high 
and  the  other  too  low. 

Diagonal  Pack.  The  most  important  style  of  pack,  all  things  considered,  is 
the  diagonal,  or  half-tier  pack  as  it  is  sometimes  called.  The  term  diagonal  comes 
from  the  fact  that  the  rows  do  not  run  straight  across  the  box,  but  go  at  an  angle. 
The  diagonal  includes  the  commonly  called  2-1,  2-2  and  3-2  packs. 

In  beginning  the  2-2  pack  an  apple  is  placed  in  the  left-hand  lower  corner  of 
the  box  and  another  midway  between  the  cheek  of  the  first  apple  and  the  right- 
hand  side  of  the  box.  Two  spaces  of  equal  size  will  then  be  left.  Into  these  spaces 
two  apples  are  placed,  it  being  understood,  of  course,  that  the  apples  are  too  large 
to  fit  four  across  the  box.  The  spaces  left  by  the  last  two  apples  placed  are  then 
filled,  and  so  on  until  the  layer  is  completed.  The  second  layer  is  packed  in  the 
same  manner,  except  that  it  is  started  in  the  right-hand  corner  for  the  half-tier 
packs.  This  throws  the  apples  of  the  second  layer  into  the  pockets  formed  by  the 
first  layer.  When  completed,  the  third  layer  will  be  directly  over  the  first 'layer 
and  the  fourth  over  the  second. 


2-2,  6-6    diagonal;  4  layers — 96  apples. 


2-2,  5-6    diagonal;  4  layers — 88  apples. 


The  3-2  pack  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  2-2,  except  that  it  is  started  with 
three  apples — one  in  each  lower  corner  and  the  third  in  the  centre  of  the  space  left. 
This  leaves  two  spaces,  one  on  either  side  of  the  centre  apple,  into  which  two  apples 
are  placed,  and  thus  three  and  two  until  the  layer  is  completed.  The  second  layer 
is  started  with  two  apples  in  the  pockets  formed  by  the  first  layer,  three  in  the 
next  row,  and  thus  two  and  three  throughout.  When  the  box  is  completed  the 
third  and  fifth  layers  will  be  directly  over  the  first,  and  the  fourth  over  the  second. 


'12 


f.*?. 


i  (.  (♦  {'  ^*  k^  \' 


^ 


■-d 


ft 

ft 


02 

O 
>. 

03 


a 

o 


to 
tu 

ft 
ft 

o 
o 


o 


CO 


14 


Offset  Pack.  With  ordinary  sized  apples  the  offset  is  started  by  placing  three 
apples  firmly  together  cheek  to  cheek  in  the  lower  end  with  the  first  of  the  three  in 
this  row  against  the  left-hand  side  of  the  box.  The  space  left  then  is  all  on  one 
side  of  the  box.  In  this  space  the  first  apple  of  the  three  constituting  the  second 
row  is  placed.  When  the  remaining  two  are  in,  the  space  will  be  on  the  left-hand 
side.  The  layer  is  thus  completed,  the  space  alternating  from  side  to  side  of  the 
box.  The  second  layer  is  started  in  the  right-hand  lower  corner  by  throwing  the 
apples  into  the  crevices  formed  by  the  apples  of  the  first  layer.  In  the  completed 
box  the  alternate  layers  will  be  directly  over  one  another. 


For  this  pack,  as  in  the  diagonal  2-2,  it  is  necessary  to  have  apples  too  large 
to  fit  four  across  the  box.  Similarly  the  3-2  diagonal  requires  apples  too  large 
to  go  five  across. 


15 


HoW  TO  3TAV?T  A         h^O  W  To  fiTAf^T  A       Mo  W  TO  PL  AC  B 

0  iagomaL  ^-2  Pack     OagomAL  2-2  Pa:ic   |^"^ano  Z""*  Lave  res 


S  LAYERS 


ISZI  APPLES) 


4  LAYEeS 
'S  &  APPLE5 


16 

But,  whatever  the  style  of  packing  used — whether  it  be  straight,  diagonal,  or 
offset — the  essentials  of  a  good  pack — firmness,  regularity,  correct  bulge,  smooth- 
ness, and  finish,  as  already  discussed — should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  by  the 
packer.  And  the  packer  must  bear  in  mind  that  packing  is  placing  fruit  of  the  same 
size  solidly  into  boxes  in  such  a  manner  as  to  insure  uniformity  of  appearance,  neat- 
ness, and  protection  from  bruising.  The  style  of  pack  is  a  secondary  consideration. 
That  is,  if  a  certain  size  or  shape  of  apple  packs  better  offset  than  diagonal,  then  the 
offeet  is  the  pack  to  use.     This  applies  also  to  the  much  discussed  riff-raff  pack. 

Nailixg  Peesses. 

A  box  after  being  packed  is  taken  to  the  nailing  press.  There  are  several  good 
makes  of  nailing  presses,  but  the  best  ones  are  those  which  press  only  on  the  ends 
of  the  lids,  and  which  hold  cleats  and  tops  firmly  in  place  until  nailed.  After 
being  nailed  up  the  boxes  should  always  be  laid  on  their  side,  as  the  sides,  having 
no  bulge,  do  not  bruise  the  fruit. 


Fig.  5.    A  Goad  Type  of  Box  Press. 


Tables'  of  Packs. 

In  the  following  tables  an  endeavor  has  been  made  to  tabulate  certain  useful 
information  on  the  more  commonly  used  packs.  The  make-up  of  the  various  packs 
is  clearly  indicated. 


17 


TABLE  1.— Straight  Packs. 


No.   Apples 
in  Box. 

Tier  Designa- 
tion. 

Actual 
Tiers 

Position  of 
Apple. 

Apples  in  Top  Tier 

45 

3  tier 

3 

side 

3-5  equals  15 

54 

3  tier 

3 

side 

3-6      ' '       18 

68 

3  tier 

3 

side 

3-7      ' '       21 

96 

4  tier 

4 

side 

4-6      ' '       24 

112 

4  tier 

4 

side 

4-7      ' '       28 

128 

4  tier 

4 

side 

4-8      ' '       32 

144 

4  tier 

4 

side 

4-9      '  •      36 

200 

5  tier 

5 

end 

5-8       ' '       40 

225 

5  tier 

5 

end 

5-9       '  •       45 

TABLE  2.— Offset  Packs. 


No.  of  Apples 
in  Box 

Tier 
Designation 

Actual  Tiers 

Position  of 
Apple 

Apples  in   Top  Tier 

84 

96 

160 

180 

3i  tier 
4       ' ' 

4i     " 
H    " 

4 
4 
5 
5 

side 

(  i 
(  < 
(  ( 

3-3,  4-3  equals  21 
3-3,  4-4       "       24 
4-4,  4-4      "       32 
4-4,  5-4       "       36 

TABLE  3.— Diagonal  Packs. 


No.  of  Apples 
in  Box 

Tier 

Designation 

Actual  Tiers 

Position  of 
Apple 

Apples  in  Top  Tier 

36 

3    tier 

3 

side 

2-1,  4-4  equals  12 

41 

3^  ' 

3 

1  < 

2-1 

5-4       ' 

'      14 

45 

3       ' 

3 

<  ( 

2-1 

5-5       ' 

'       15 

50 

3       ' 

3 

(  c 

2-1 

6-5      ' 

•       17 

48 

3i     ' 

4 

end 

2-2 

3-3      ' 

•      12 

56 

3i     ' 

4 

(  ( 

2-2 

3-4       • 

•      14 

64 

3^     ' 

4 

(  ( 

2-2 

4-4       ' 

•       16 

72 

3i     ' 

4 

(   c 

2-2 

4-5      ' 

'       18 

80 

3i     ' 

4 

.    (  ( 

2-2 

5-5       ' 

'       20 

88 

3J     ' 

4 

<  ( 

2-2 

5-6       ' 

'       22 

96 

4       ' 

4 

side'  usually 

2-2 

6-6      ' 

•       24 

104 

4       ' 

4 

( (      ( ( 

2-2 

6-7       ' 

'       26 

112 

4       ' 

4 

( (      t  ( 

2-2 

7-7       ' 

'       28 

120 

4       ' 

4 

side 

2-2 

7-8       ' 

'       30 

128 

4       ' 

4 

i  I 

2-2 

8-8       * 

'       32 

70 

4       ' 

4 

end 

3-2 

4-3       • 

'       18 

80 

4       ' 

4 

t  ( 

3-2 

4-4       • 

•       20 

113 

4       ' 

5 

i  c 

3-2 

5-4     -' 

'       23 

125 

4       • 

5 

t  < 

3-2 

5-5       ' 

'       25 

138 

4^     ' 

5 

1  ( 

3-2 

6-5       ' 

•       28 

150 

4i     ' 

5 

c  t 

3-2 

,  6-6      • 

'      30 

163 

4i     • 

5 

<  1 

3-2 

7-6       • 

'       33 

175 

4i     ' 

5 

«  ( 

3-2 

7-7      ' 

'       35 

188 

5       • 

5 

<  < 

3-2 

8-7       ' 

•      38 

200 

5       ' 

5 

i  « 

3-2 

8-8       ' 

'      40 

213 

5       • 

5 

t  i 

3-2 

9-8       * 

'       43 

225 

5       • 

5 

«  • 

3-2 

9-9      ' 

•       45 

238 

5       ' 

5 

<  < 

3-2 

10-9      * 

•       48 

250 

5       ' 

5 

t  t 

3-2 

10-10    • 

'       50 

140 

5       ' 

5 

t  t 

4-3 

4-4       ' 

•      28 

18 


Bulge. 

In  the  straight  pack,  before  the  lid  is  nailed  on,  the  apples  at  either  end  of 
the  box  should  come  up  a  little  better  than  flush  with  the  top.  With  the  diagonal 
the  ends  should  be  a  little  higher— about  one-quarter  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch 
in  all.  Then  from  either  end  there  should  be  a  gradual  bulge  amounting  at  the 
middle  of  the  box  to  about  one  and  one-half  inches.  Thus,  when  the  lid  is  nailed  on, 
there  will  be  a  bulge  of  practically  three-fourths  of  an  inch  each  on  top  and  bottom. 
Less  bulge  is  desirable  with  the  straight  packs  on  account  of  their  unyielding 
nature.    There  is  no  settling  of  the  apples  into  the  crevices  as  in  the  diagonal. 

The  proper  bulge  is  obtained,  in  the  straight  pack  especially,  by  selecting 
apples  that  are  a  trifle  smaller  for  the  ends.  With  apples  that  are  being  packed  on 
the  cheek  it  sometimes  becomes  necessary  to  turn  the  end  rows  flat  to  secure  the 


Fig.  6.    Showing  the  proper  bulge  on   hox    nailed    and    ready   for 

shipment. 

desired  bulge,  and,  at  the  same  time,  have  the  ends  low  enough.  This  method  of 
turning  has  been  previously  discussed  under  the  heading  of  "  Straight  Pack,"  so 
needs  no  further  explanation  here. 

In  the  diagonal  pack  the  small  spaces  left  at  the  ends  of  each  layer  aid  materi- 
ally in  securing  the  proper  bulge.  This,  and  pulling  the  apples  tighter  towards  the 
centre  of  each  layer,  is  sufficient  to  give  the  necessary  bulge  in  wrapped  fruit.  By 
packing  closer  in  the  centre  you  close  the  pockets  between  the  apples  more,  and  the 
next  layer  will  not  go  so  deep  down  in,  and  therefore  builds  up  the  centre.  The 
ends  being  left  a  little  looser,  the  pockets  are  opened  a  little  more  and  the  apples 
■drop  in  further  and  therefore  do  not  build  up  so  high.  Practice  alone  will  give  the 
■knowledge  of  just  how  tight  to  pack  the  centre  or  how  loose  to  pack  the  ends. 


19 

When  unwrapped,  of  course  this  difierence  in  firmness  cannot  be  made  and 
the  packer  has  therefore  to  take  advantage  of  the  small  irregularities  and  differ- 
ences in  the  sizes  of  the  apples.  This  diiference  in  size  must  not  be  so  great  as  to 
attract  attention.  It  is  essential  to  begin  the  bulge  with  the  first  layer  of  fruit  and 
to  pack  each  layer  with  the  same  end  in  view. 

In  finding  a  pack  too  flat  it  is  usually  no  use  to  repack  the  top  layer,  as  the 
trouble  probably  extends  right  through  the  box.  The  bulge  should  form  an  un- 
broken arch  when  the  box  is  finished,  so  that  the  pressure  of  the  lid  will  be  equally 
distributed  over  the  fruit.  A  bulge  high  in  the  centre  and  dropping  off  to  the 
sides  will  not  be  held  firmly  in  place  by  the  cover,  causing  the  whole  pack  to 
become  loose. 

Packing  A  pples  Before  and  After  Storing, 

There  are  several  points  in  favor  of  packing  apples  after  storing,  the  principal 
ones  being  as  follows: 

1.  Packers  can  be  given  employment  for  a  longer  period  of  time.  The  fruit 
need  only  be  packed  as  it  is  required  for  the  market. 

2.  Unless  the  fruit  can  be  stored  at  a  sufficiently  low  temperature,  diseases 
which  cannot  be  noticed  at  the  time  of  storing  are  likely  to  develop.  If  the  fruit  is 
packed  before  storing,  it  will  go  on  the  market  in  this  state,  while  if  packed  only 
as  it  is  needed  all  fruit  showing  any  rot  or  scab  can  be  graded  out. 

3.  There  is  a  much  better  circulation  of  air,  as  orchard  boxes  are  especially 
constructed  to  this  end.  Fungous  diseases  will  spread  less  rapidly  in  consequence, 
other  conditions  being  equal. 

In  favor  of  packing  beftre  storing,  it  may  be  said  that  much  less  room  is 
required  to  store  the  fruit.  This  is  an  important  consideration  where  space  is 
limited.  Further,  any  sudden  demand  or  rise  in  prices  can  be  more  promptly 
attended  to. 

If  the  fruit  is  wrapped  there  are  of  course  several  other  advantages  of  packing 
before  storing.  The  spread  of  fungous  diseases  is  prevented ;  the  fruit  keeps  longer ; 
and  it  is  protected  from  changes  in  temperature. 


WRA  PPING. 
Wrapped  vs.  Unwrapped. 

The  question  of  wrapping  fruit  is  attracting  more  and  more  attention  each 
year  from  eastern  growers,  and  rightly  so.  In  the  Western  States  and  British 
Columbia  practically  all  No.  1  stock  is  wrapped.  Conditions,  however,  are  some- 
what different  in  Ontario,  so  that  wrapping  at  present  should  be  governed  by  the 
variety  of  apple  and  the  market.  Western  growers  are  building  up  a  high  class 
market  with  this  class  of  product.  It  is  doubtful  if  it  would  pay  the  ordinary 
grower  who  has  no  special  market  to  wrap  his  fruit  at  present. 

Briefly,  the  advantages  of  wrapping  are  as  follows: 

1.  It  improves  the  keeping  quality  by  preventing  disease  spreading  from  fruit 
to  fruit. 


20 

2.  Apart  from  the  control  of  disease,  it  improves  the  keeping  quality,  in  that 
wrapped  fruit  may  be  firm  and  in  prime  condition  several  weeks  after  unwrapped 
fruit  has  become  mealy  from  over-ripeness.  It  retards  the  ripening  process  by 
retarding  evaporation, 

3.  It  serves  as  a  cushion  to  the  fruit,  especially  valuable  in  the  case  of  easily 
bruised  varieties,  prolonging  its  life  and  good  appearance. 

4.  It  protects  the  fruit  from  sudden  changes  of  temperature  and  absorbs 

surplus  moisture. 

5.  It  makes  an  elastic  but  firm  pack,  much  less  liable  to  shift  than  unwrapped 

fruit. 

6.  It  gives  a  more  finished  appearance  to  the  package.  It  presumes  a  high 
grade  product,  so  finding  a  readier  sale  and  a  higher  price. 

7.  Once  the  knack  of  wrapping  has  been  acquired,  it  is  much  easier  in  almost 
every  way  to  pack  wrapped  fruit.    Any  packer  skilled  in  both  methods  will  testify 

to  this. 

The  main  disadvantage  of  wrapping  is  that,  in  cases  where  the  fruit  is  not 
cooled  at  the  time  of  packing,  the  wrapper  prevents  rapid  cooling.  There  may  be 
a  difference  in  temperature  of  10°  F.  at  the  end  of  one  day  between  a  box  of  un- 
wrapped fruit  and  one  wrapped.  Wrapping,  however,  has  so  many  advantages  that 
this  one  disadvantage  may  be  practically  disregarded.     ^, 

It  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  of  those  unfamiliar  with  wrapping  that  it 
adds  to  the  cost  of  packing.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  cost  of  paper  for  wrapping  is 
almost  saved  by  the  weight  of  fruit  displaced  by  the  paper.  Further,  experienced 
packers  can  do  as  quick  or  even  quicker  work  wrapping  than  without.  Again,  it  is 
easier  to  secure  the  proper  bulge  with  wrapping,  as  the  firmness  of  the  pack  can 
be  varied  considerably  from  the  middle  of  the  box  to  the  ends  without  injuring  the 
pack  in  any  way.  The  principle  of  this  has  already  been  dealt  with  in  "Bulge." 
Again,  as  already  noted,  there  is  more  latitude  in  the  style  of  pack. 

In  wrapped  fruit  the  top  of  the  box  should  be  packed  last,  while  in  unwrapped 
fruit  the  top  is  packed  first.  Packing  the  top  of  wrapped  fruit  first  is  a  poor  method 
and  should  be  discouraged. 

Only  No.  1  fruit  and  possibly  No.  2  of  the  winter  varieties  should  be  wrapped. 
All  fruit  intended  for  distant  markets  as  Great  Britain  should  be  wrapped,  unless 
unwrapped  fruit  is  preferred,  as  the  fruit  carries  much  better.  Wrap,  too,  for  mar- 
kets where  there  is  competition  with  wrapped  fruit  from  other  districts. 


Materials  fok  Wrapping. 

Wrapping  Paper.  The  kind  most  commonly  used  in  the  west  is  called  the 
"Duplex,"  from  the  fact  that  one  side  is  calendered  and  the  other  rough.  This 
latter  side  is  turned  to  the  fruit  as  it  more  readily  absorbs  any  surplus  moisture. 
A  white  color  is  decidedly  preferable.    It  looks  cleaner  and  neater  than  any  other. 

Using  paper  with  the  name  or  trade  mark  of  the  grower  or  association  is  an 
excellent  way  of  advertising.  It  is  not  necessary  to  wrap  all  the  apples  in  such 
paper,  but  if  the  outside  layers  are  done  and  the  trade  mark  is  neat,  it  certainly 
adds  much  to  the  attractiveness  of  the  package. 

The  paper  is  cut  into  several  sizes  to  correspond  with  the  different  sizes  of 
apples.    The  following  figures  give  a  good  idea  of  the  sizes  most  commonly  in  use : 


21 

8  by  8  inches  for  5-tier  and  the  smaller  4i/^-tier  fruit. 
8  by  9  and  8  by  10  inches  for  4i/^-tier. 
10  by  10  inches  for  4-tier  and  the  smaller  S^/^-tier. 
10  by  12  inches  for  very  large  fruit. 

These  sizes  should  be  adhered  to  fairly  closely,  as  fruit  packed  with  too  large  a 
size  of  paper  gives  a  box  light  in  weight,  and  also  gives  the  consumer  the  im- 
pression that  the  price  of  paper  is  too  high.  Using  paper  too  small  is  equally 
objectionable  in  that  a  great  deal  of  the  advantage  of  wrai3ping  is  lost.  It  also 
increases  the  labor  of  wrapping  to  a  considerable  extent. 

Unstencilled  Duplex,  size  10  by  10  inches,  costs  about  12  cents  per  ream  f.o.b. 
shipping  point,  in  quantities  less  than  five  tons.  For  larger'  quantities  the  price 
is  correspondingly  less.  Approximately  a  quarter  of  a  ream  (135  sheets  of  paper) 
is  required  to  pack  a  box.     The  cost  per  box  is  therefore  three  cents. 

Tray  for  Wrapping  Paper.  For  convenience  and  speed  in  wrapping,  a  tray  for 
holding  the  paper  is  very  necessary.  They  are  made  so  that  they  can  be  placed  on 
the  side  of  the  packing  box. 

To  make  one,  an  apple  box  end  is  usually  taken  and  strips  which  project  up 
over  the  edge  about  two  inches  are  nailed  on  three  sides  of  it.  On  the  under 
side  a  three  cornered  block  is  nailed  so  that  one  side  of  it  is  even  with  the  open  side 
of  the  tray.  This  forms  a  bracket  or  brace  for  supporting  the  tray  when  in 
position  on  the  box. 

Two  long  nails  are  then  driven  into  the  open  side  of  the  tray,  leaving 
about  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  their  length  out.  The  heads  are  then  cut  o3 
and  the  nails  bent  down  over  a  piece  of  iron  or  hardwood  a  trifle  thicker  than 
the  side  of  the  box.    This  forms  hooks  for  hanging  the  tray  onto  the  packing  box. 

Fig.  4,  page  8,  shows  a  paper  tray  in  position  on  a  box. 

Method  of  Wrapping. 

Practically  no  time  is  lost  in  the  operation  of  wrapping,  as  a  skilled  packer 
picks  up  the  apples  with  his  right  hand  while  he  reaches  for  the  paper  with  his 
left.  To  aid  in  picking  up  the  paper  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  stole  on  the  thumb  or 
first  finger.  The  apple  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  paper  in  the  left  hand  with 
the  side  or  end  of  the  fruit  down  which  is  to  be  packed  uppermost.  The  wrap  is 
then  made  with  both  hands  by  a  couple  of  quick  half-turns  of  the  wrist,  the  last  of 
which  brings  the  smooth  surface  up  and  the  bunch  of  paper  on  the  bottom.  It  is 
practically  impossible  to  give  in  writing,  instructions  as  to  how  to  wrap  an  apple. 
The  essential  point  is  to  have  a  smooth  w^rap,  made  with  as  few  motions  of  the 
hands  as  possible.  An  expert  packer  should  wrap  and  pack  fifty  to  one  hundred 
boxes  a  day,  depending  upon  the  size  and  grading  of  the  fruit. 


22 


MASKING  OF  PACKAGES. 

MarJcs  Required.  The  Canadian  Fruit  Marks  Act  prescribes  that  all  closed 
packages  must  be  marked,  first,  with  the  name  and  address  of  the  owner  of  the 
fruit  at  the  time  of  packing;  second,  with  the  variety  of  fruit;  and  third,  its 
grade.  One  of  the  four  grade  marks  must  be  used,  namely,  Fancy,  No.  1,  No.  2, 
or  No.  3.  Any  one  of  these  grade  marks  may  be  used  together  with  any  other 
designation  that  is  not  contradictory  to  or  more  prominently  marked  than  the 
prescribed  grade  mark. 

The  Act  also  provides  that  all  packages,  whether  open  or  closed,  must  be  so 
packed  that  the  face  or  shown  surface  fairly  represents  the  grade  of  fruit  all  the 
way  through  the  package. 

Three  grades  are  defined.  The  Fancy  grade  consists  of  fruit  practically  per- 
fect. The  No.' 1  grade  allows  10  per  cent,  of  imperfect  fruit;  90  per  cent,  must 
be  practically  free  from  serious  defects  and  of  good  size  and  color.  No.  2  grade 
consists  of  80  per  cent,  free  from  defects  that  would  cause  material  waste;  and  all 
apples  whether  defective  or  not  must  be  nearly  medium  in  size  for  the  variety. 
No.  3  grade  is  not  defined. 

The  workman  who  packs  and  marks  fruit  contrary  to  the  provisions  of  the 
Act  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  $5  and  not  more  than  $J:0.  Anyone  chang- 
ing the  marks  upon  packages  after  inspection  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than 
$40  nor  more  than  $500. 

At  present  an  agitation  is  being  started  in  Canada  to  adopt  the  same  grade 
marks  as  are  used  by  the  Western  States.  Their  grade  marks  lead  Canadian 
buyers  especially  to  think  that  American  fruit  is  better,  compared  to  Canadian 
fruit,  than  it  really  is.  The  generally  adopted  American  grade  terms  are  Extra 
Fancy,  Fancy,  and  C,  corresponding  with  the  Canadian  Fancy,  No.l,  and  No.  2. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  Extra  Fancy  on  American  boxes  is  the  same  grade  of 
fruit  as  our  Fancy.  Similarly  our  No.  1  grade  corresponds  with  their  Fancy 
grade.  Their  Fancy  grade  then  is  a  grade  lower  than  our  Fancy  marked  fruit. 
The  disadvantage  which  Canadian  growers  have  been  at  in  competitive  markets, 
such  as  the  Canadian  Northwest,  is  therefore  very  evident. 

Tier  vs.  Numbee  of  Apples. 

The  practice  of  stamping  the  exact  number  of  apples  contained  in  the  box 
rather  than  the  tier  is  rapidly  gaining  in  favor  throughout  the  West.  Marking 
the  number  has  several  important  advantages,  the  chief  of  which  are: 

1.  The  adoption  of  the  diagonal  pack  has  made  the  old  description  of  apples 
by  tiers  inaccurate.  For  example,  apples  which  in  a  straight  pack  would  be  4-tier, 
pack  five  actual  tiers  in  the  diagonal.    Yet  they  are  marked  4-tier. 

2.  The  retailer  sells  by  number  and  naturally  prefers  to  buy  in  the  same  way 
as  he  can  tell  at  a  glance  what  price  he  can  profitably  pay  for  a  box.  The  con- 
sumer also  appreciates  the  information  given  by  the  number. 

3.  The  designation  by  tiers  is  as  misleading  to  the  grower  as  to  the  consumer. 
Boxes  are  stamped  more  according  to  the  size  of  the  apple  rather  than  the  actual 
number  of  tiers  contained.  They  are  stamped  4-tier  and  4i/2-tier  when  they  actu- 
ally contain  5-tiers,  and  5-tier  when  they  actually  do  not  have  five  tiers.  Thus 
only  an  expert  is  able  to  distinguish  packs  in  the  terms  of  tiers. 


23 

In  marking  packages  the  Dominion  Government  recommends  the  following 
system : — 


In  the  Okanagan  the  custom  is  to  mark  the  boxes  as  below.  In  this  system  of 
marking  any  complaint  can  be  traced  directly  to  the  packer.  It  is  therefore  to  be 
recommended  strongly. 


Va  ri(  til 


y 


Sr^f/t 


/^r/-  or 


J5>  rd  n  c/ 


Pjt/(rrS    /Vufrr^rr 


Sf^u  <r  4   /i-o. 


Lithographing.  A  neat  attractive  lithograph  placed  on  the  end  of  the  box 
adds  very  much  to  its  appearance,  and  often  aids  materially  in  finding  a  market. 
A  cheap,  gaudy  label  detracts  from,  rather  than  adds,  to  the  appearance. 

A  lithograph  should  contain  the  grower's  or  association's  name,  the  name  of 
the  locality,  and  the  Province.  The  other  end  of  the  box  will  then  have  marked 
on  it  the  variety,  grade,  and  number  of  the  apples,  and  the  packer's  number. 


GENERAL  HINTS  TO  PACKEES.  '     ^ 

1.  Use  only  clean  boxes  neatly  made. 

2.  Use  only  one  size  box — the  20  by  11  by  10. 

3.  The  square  and  offset  packs  are  defective,  and  should  be  avoided  whenever 
possible. 

4.  Keep  the  pack,  if  anything,  above  the  requirements  of  the  "Fruit  Marks 
Act" 


24 

5.  When  wrapping  use  the  proper  sized  paper  for  the  apples. 

6.  Clear  the  packing  table  several  times  during  the  day  so  that  no  fruit  be- 
comes bruised  from  continually  "pawing  over." 

7.  Avoid  turning  the  stem  of  one  apple  to  the  cheek  of  another,  for  the  stem  will 
puncture  the  cheek  and  destroy  the  apple,  especially  for  storage. 

•  8.  The  pack  must  be  firm,  of  proper  bulge,  and  correct  alignment. 

9.  The  pack  must  be  attractive.  The  secret  of  putting  up  an  attractive  pack 
is  to  select  apples  of  practically  the  same  size  for  each  box.  Any  variation  in  size 
to  secure  bulge  with  unwrapped  fruit  must  be  unnoticeable  to  ordinary  inspection. 

10.  Mark  the  number  of  apples  on  the  box,  rather  than  the  tier. 

11.  Consistently  try  to  improve  the  pack. 

13.  Eemember  that  the  style  of  pack  is  not  so  important  as  having  the  fruit 
packed  well.  That  is,  a  uniform,  neat  and  attractive  pack  with  the  least  amount  of 
bruising  possible.  Vary  the  style  of  pack  to  suit  the  shape  and  size  of  apple,  so  that 
the  apple  may  always  be  shown  to  advantage  in  a  good  commercial  pack.  Though 
packs  such  as  the  offset  and  the  riff-raff  are  defective  and  should  be  avoided,  yet  it 
becomes  almost  absolutely  necessary  to  use  them  at  times,  as  certain  sizes  and  shapes 
of  apples  will  not  pack  to  advantage  any  other  way. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 


Published  by  the  Ontabio  Department  of  Aqbicultube,  Tobonto. 


Serial 
No.        Date. 

170  Mar.      1909 

171  April     1909 


172 

May 

1909 

173 

Oct. 

1909 

174 

Dec. 

1909 

175 

Dec. 

1909 

176 

Dec. 

1909 

177 

Dec. 

1909 

178 

Dec. 

1909 

179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan. 

1913 

209  March  1913 

210  March  1913 

211  March  1913 

212  April     1913 

213  April    1913 

214  May      1913 

215  Aug.      1913 


216     Oct. 


1913 


Title.  Author. 

Mitchell-Walker  Test  Bottle  |  "^    q    Walker." 

Insects  Affecting  Vegetables  C.  J.  S.  Bethune. 

f  J    E  Howitt 

Fungus  Diseases  Affecting  Vegetables  ....  i  j*  w.  Eastham. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)   . . .  Dairy  School. 

Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

Farm  Underdrainage:    Does  it  Pay  ? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations  W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   ^-  H.  Jones. 

^ .       r,  /  ^       -rxT    V.  f  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  |  l    Caesar. 

Character   and   Treatment   of    Swamp    or  f  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Muck  Soils   I  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for   Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised) Fruit  Branch 

Flour  and  Breadmaking  {  ^  A^^Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making  Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

Children:   Care  and  Training J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth   L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)  J.  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (151  revised)   W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural  Co-operation    S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch. 

Insecticides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised  {  ^  l.^ Fuhner. 

Tomatoes  -  A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

Onions  A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices   L.  Meunler. 

Peach   Diseases F.  M.  Clement. 

Peach  Growing  in  Ontario L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . .    C 

Part  I.    Cheese-making  and  Butter-making  J  Staff  of  Dairy  School. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . .  1  Dairy  School. 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm [ 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  f  J.  H.  Hare. 

in  Ontario   County    \  T.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)   E.  J.  Zavltz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.  F.  M.  Clement. 

Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters..  Fruit  Branch 

(No.  179  revised.) 
Orchard  Surveys  in  Dundas,  Stormont  and 

Glengarry F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:  Does  it  Pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples   E.  F.  Palmer. 


Ontario  Department   of  Agriculture 


ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


BULLETIN  217 

A  Revised  Edition  of  No.  189 


Farm    Poultry 

With  the  Results  of  Some  Experi- 
ments in  Poultry  Houses  and 
Fattening  Chickens 

By 
W.  R.  GRAHAM,  B.S.A. 

Professor  of  Poultry  Husbandry 
And 

A.  c.  Mcculloch,  b.s.a. 

Demonstrator  in  Poultry  Husbandry 


Printed  by  L.  K.  CAMERON,  Printer  to  the  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty. 
TORONTO,   ONT.,   December,   1913. 


BULLETIN  217 


[DECEMBER,  1913 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

ONTARIO   AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE 


Farm  Poultry  with  the  Results  of  Some 

Experiments  in  Poultry  Houses 

and  Fattening  Chickens. 

By  W.  E.  Graham 'and  A.  C.  McCulloch. 

This  bulletin  is  intended  to  give  information  to  farmers  and  others  on  general 
matters  pertaining  to  the  keeping  of  poultry. 

It  also  contains  the  results  of  a  few  experiments  which  have  been  conducted  at 
this  institution  on  various  matters  pertaining  to  poultry. 


CONSTEUCTIOX  OF  POULTRY  HOUSES. 

We  find  poultry  thriving  and  yielding  good  returns  in  so  many  different  styles 
of  houses,  that  it  is  very  'difficult  to  lay  down  any  hard  and  fast  rules.  The 
tendency  at  the  present  time  is  towards  cheaper  houses,  with  better  ventilation. 
The  hot-house  style  of  housing  poultry  during  the  winter  has  not  been  satisfactory, 
many  houses  being  damp,  and  the  air  in  them  anything  but  agreeable.  Disease  has 
been  quite  common;  and  results  in  many  cases  have  been  disappointing. 


No.  4.  No.  3.  No.  2.  No.  1. 

Fig.  1.    Different  Styles  of  Poultry  Houses  Suitable  for  an  Ordinary  Farm. 


Every  poultry  house  should  be  light;  at  least  one-third  of  the  south  side  should 
be  of  glass,  or  otherwise  opened  to  the  sun.  It  should  face  the  south-east  or  south. 
The  sun's  rays  are  very  beneficial  to  fowls,  especially  during  the  winter  months. 

College  Poultry  Houses. 

For  a  number  of  years  we  have  been  trying  various  styles  of  house.  The  first 
houses  constructed  were  well  built,  tight  and  warm.  They  were  fitted  with  stoves 
or  hot  water  pipes,  so  that  the  fowls  could  be  kept  at  a  comfortable  temperature. 
This  plan  was  not  satisfactory ;  mainly  for  the  reasons  that  it  was  difficult  to  keep 
the  fowls  in  good  health,  and  furthermore  the  eggs  were  low  in  hatching  power. 
The  cost  of  heating  was  also  considerable,  in  fact  the  entire  equipment  was  too 
expensive  to  be  successful  as  a  business. 

It  was  noticed  yearly  that  the  surplus  stock  held  in  the  cheap  houses  was 
much  healthier  than  those  fowls  kept  in  the  warm  houses.  During  the  past  eight 
years  we  have  been  trying  to  evolve  a  house  that  could  be  cheaply  constructed,  that 
would  keep  the  fowls  in  good  health,  and  at  the  same  time  get  a  fair  egg  yield  from 
the  fowls  so  housed. 

Several  years  ago,  four  houses,  representing  different  styles  of  popular  poultry 
houses,  were  constructed.  These  houses  were  stocked  with  birds  representing,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  the  same  strains  of  the  breed.  The  breeds  used  were  White 
Wyandottes  and  Buff  Orpingtons,  the  one  a  rose  combed  breed,  the  other  a  single 
combed  breed. 

The  houses  are  of  equal  size  as  regards  floor  space.  Each  house  is  34  feet  long 
and  12  feet  wide.  The  house  is  divided  by  a  wire  and  board  partition,  making  two 
pens  each  12  feet  square.  The  pens  will  accommodate  from  20  to  25  birds  each, 
or  about  50  to  the  houses.  Fig.  1  shows  fairly  well  the  appearance  as  regards 
windows,  etc.,  of  the  house.  The  roosting  quarters  of  each  house  are  very  similar 
in  construction.  A  dropping-board  is  used  which  is  constructed  of  matched 
dressed  lumber.  The  board  is  placed  at  the  back  of  the  building,  and  is  about  three 
feet  above  the  floor  level.  The  dropping-board  is  three  feet  wide.  The  roosts  are 
made  of  dressed  3x3  scantling,  and  are  placed  six  inches  above  the  dropping- 
board.  A  curtain  is  arranged  to  be  let  down  during  cold  nights,  as  in  No.  1  and 
JSTo.  2  houses.    There  is  no  curtain  used  in  No.  3  or  No.  4  houses. 

House  No.  1  is  made  of  matched  boards  which  are  dressed  on  one  side.  The 
front  and  ends  of  the  house  are  single-ply.  The  back  is  sheeted  on  the  inside, 
building  paper  being  used  under  the  boards  so  as  to  make  the  wall  tight  or  free 
from  draughts.  The  windows  in  this  house  slide  back  and  forth,  so  that  the 
ventilation  can  be  adjusted  to  the  weather  conditions.  The  roo&ting  quarters  in 
this  house  have  curtains  which  can  be  dropped  on  very  cold  nights. 

Trap-nests  are  used  in  all  the  houses,  and  are  on  the  ground  level.  These 
take  up  some  floor  space  that  might  be  used  for  exercising  the  fowls  were  we  using 
other  styles  of  nests. 

The  second  house  is  what  is  known  as  the  "  Maine  State  "  house.  This  house 
is  practically  open  to  the  weather  on  the  front  or  south  side.  There  are  canvas 
curtains  which  can  be  dropped  as  a  protection  against  wind  and  snow  on  stormy 
days.  On  other  days  these  canvas  curtains  are  to  be  rolled  up,  and  the  fowls  allowed 
to  exercise  in  the  fresh  air.    The  ends  of  the  house  are  single-ply  matched  lumber ; 


0> 

a 

ei 
u 


oa 

a> 

GO 

3 
O 

w 

O) 


Ci 

A 


d 

a 

bO 

u 

d 

Xi 


—  l-E^^f 


Fig.  3.    Cross  section  of  House  No.  2,  showing  the  curtains  in  position 

for  the  day,  etc. 


Fig.  4.    Cross  section  of  House  No.  4. 


the  back  wall  of  the  house  is  matched  lumber  lined  with  paper,  and  is  sheeted  again 
on  the  inside.  This  is  done  in  order  to  make  a  warm  roosting  coop,  which  ie  pro- 
tected at  night  in  front  by  canvas  curtains. 

The  third  house  is  the  warmest  house  of  the  four  and  is  built  of  matched 
lumber  and  lined  with  paper.  There  is  a  dead  air  space  between  the  inside  and 
outside  walls.  The  building  is  made  as  tight  as  possible,  the  windows,  doors,  etc., 
all  being  made  to  fit  tightly. 

Many  houses  built  on  this  plan  are  moist  inside.  To  do  away  with  the 
moisture  we  have  a  straw  loft.  The  straw  is  placed  on  boards,  which  are  from  four 
to  six  inches  apart.  These  boards  are  placed  on  a  level  with  the  roof  or  ceiling. 
The  straw  absorbs  the  moisture  and  keeps  the  house  dry. 

The  fourth  house  is  one  of  the  extremely  airy  ones,  being  made  of  boards  that 
are  dressed  on  one  side  and  the  cracks  battened;  about  half  of  the  front  is  open  to 
the  weather,  but  may  be  closed  on  stormy  days  by  large  doors.  There  is  not  any 
special  protection  for  the  roost,  the  chickens  roosting  in  this  house  in  exactly 
the  same  temperature  as  they  worked  in  during  the  day.  This  house,  needless  to 
mention,  is  much  cheaper  than  the  other  styles. 

The  following  record  shows  in  a  concise  form  the  difference  in  the  percentage 
of  egg  production  in  favor  of  the  cold  or  fresh  air  house  during  the  five  years  for 
the  months  of  December,  January,  February  and  March,  the  first  year  beginning 
December,  1904-05,  76  per  cent.;  1906,  8  per  cent.;  1907,  11.8  per  cent.;  1908,  15.6 
per  cent.;  1909,  12.4  per  cent. 


Fig.  5. 


The  house  with  the  cloth  front  and  the  one  with  the  movable  windows  compare 
favorably  with  the  cold  house.  There  is  probably  not  enough  difference  in  the 
actual  egg  production  to  warrant  a  statement  that  either  of  these  houses  is  very 
much  inferior  to  the  cold  house.  They  are  about  three  degrees  warmer  than  the 
coldest  house  and  about  fifteen  degrees  colder  than  the  warm  house. 


CO 
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These  figures  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  that  hens 
will  lay  better  in  a  cold  house  than  in  a  warm  one,  but 
that  fresh  air  is  essential  to  health,  and  health  is  a  factor 
in  egg  production.  When  one  tries  to  retain  the  animal 
heat  of  the  body  to  maintain  the  heat  of  the  house,  one 
necessarily  allows  but  little  air  circulation,  hence  the  air 
becomes  foul  or  stagnant,  which  is  not  healthful. 

The  above  results  indicate  that  the  free  admission  of 
fresh  air  is  a  very  essential  factor  in  house  construction. 
House  No.  3  in  Fig.  1,  which  gave  the  poorest  results 
for  each  of  the  five  consecutive  winters,  was  operated  quite 
successfully  the  sixth  and  seventh  winters  by  introducing 
more  fresh  air;  that  is  to  say,  one-half  of  the  windows 
were  removed  until  about  December  1st,  and  when  these 
were  put  in,  the  openings  (about  one  foot  square),  where 
the  fowls  go  out  into  the  yard  at  the  north  side  were  left 
entirely  open.  These  except  during  mild  days  appear  to 
supply  sufficient  air  to  keep  the  birds  doing  nicely.  This 
statement  is  made  as  a  means  of  helping  any  person  who 
may  have  a  similar  house,  and  who  wishes  to  continue 
using  the  same. 

Our  experience  is  that  all  four  houses,  while  fairly 
satisfactory,  especially  No.  4,  are  not  all  that  may  be 
desired,  for  the  reason  that  they  must  be  adjusted  accord- 
ing to  weather  conditions — that  is  to  say,  on  bright,  sun- 
shiny days,  the  doors,  movable  windows,  or  cloth  screens 
should  be  opened  for  nearly  all  the  day,  or,  again,  for  but 
an  hour,  depending  upon  the  sunshine  and  temperature. 

The  slope  or  shanty  roofs  on  houses  Nos.  1  and  2  have 
not  been  as  satisfactory  as  the  pitched  roofs  on  houses 
Nos.  3  and  4.  The  roofs  on  the  latter  houses  are  more 
durable  and  the  houses  themselves  much  cooler  in  summer, 
and  furthermore,  the  straw  lofts  in  these  houses  are  very 
effectual  in  preventing  dampness  in  the  houses;  no  frost 
collects  upon  the  walls  or  ceilings. 

We  have  tried  several  houses  with  curtain  fronts,  and 
we  are  pleased  to  say  they  work  fairly  well,  when  used  in 
a  house  as  in  Figures  5  and  6,  which  is  practically  the 
same  style  of  house  as  No.  4  in  Figure  1,  but  these  require' 
adjusting  according  to  the  weather,  and  if  they  are  not 
kept  brushed,  the  dust  and  dirt  will  gather  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  prevent  free  ventilation,  so  that  they  will  not 
ventilate  very  well.  Our  experience  has  been  that  such 
cloth  screens  should  be  of  the  cheapest  cotton;  heavy  cotton  or  duck  scarcely 
ventilates  at  all.  There  is  yet  another  objection  to  these  cloth  screens,  in  that 
the  hens,  especially  the  lighter  breeds,  become  notionate  about  trying  to  lay  or 
roost  upon  the  screens. 

To  the  person  who  is  breeding  the  tender  varieties  or  those  with  large  combs, 
some  means  must  be  taken  to  keep  them  fairly  warm  at  night  or  their  combs  will 


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become  badly  frosted.     The  females  of  such  breeds  as  Leghorns  or  Minorcas  will 
stand  a  temperature  considerably  below  zero  without  frosting  their  combs. 

The  question  naturally  arises :  can  a  house  be  constructed  which  is  nearly  self- 
operating,  that  will  keep  the  birds  in  health,  and  at  the  same  time  ensure  a  fair 

egg  yield. 

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Our  experience  has  been  that  the  fowls  thrive  best  in  low-down  houses,  espe- 
cially during  the  winter.    We  have  four  houses  with  the  fronts  entirely  removed, 


8 

except  a  two-foot  wire  netting,  which  keeps  the  fowls  in,  and  the  sparrows,  etc., 
out.  These  houses  for  this  climate  must  be  low  down,  especially  in  front,  to  keep 
out  the  snow  and  a  portion  of  the  wind.  It  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  Fig.  7  will 
meet  the  needs  of  the  average  farmer,  where  he  wishes  to  keep  seventy-five  to  one 
hundred  hens.  The  house  looks  too  cold,  but  the  birds  do  well.  They  possibly 
could  be  made  to  lay  more  eggs  during  the  months  of  J  anuary  and  February  with 
cotton  screens  properly  adjusted  to  meet  the  weather  conditions;  but  few  farmers 
would  be  there  at  the  exact  time  to  do  the  adjusting,  hence  we  use  it  entirely  open. 

The  large  window  in  the  west,  essential  for  light,  should  be  hinged  at  the  top, 
so  that  it  may  be  opened  during  the  summer  months,  otherwise  the  house  will 
become  too  warm  in  summer. 


Fig.  8.     Open  front  poultry  house  in  Fig.  7. 


It  will  be  noticed  that  no  dropping-boards  are  used  in  this  building.  During 
the  winter  the  manure  freezes  almost  as  soon  as  it  is  made,  hence  no  odor  or  bad 
results,  and  if  cleaned,  say,  every  two  months,  it  will  answer  very  M-ell.  We  would 
rather  have  this  condition  than  dropping-boards,  covered  one  foot  deep  with  manure, 
as  we  so  frequently  see  them. 

A  number  of  houses  of  this  style  are  in  operation  in  various  parts  of  the 
Province,  and  they  are  givng  fair  results.  In  some  of  the  colder  sections,  such  as 
in  the  districts  north  o't  Barrie,  the  house  appears  to  be  too  open  for  severe  winter 
weather.  In  such  cases  I  would  suggest  using  movable  cotton  screens  on  two 
se-^tions  of  the  front.  The  illustration  shows  three  sections,  one  of  which  should 
always  be  open.  During  the  winter  months  the  centre  screen  may  be  closed  nearly 
all  the  time  and  the  end  screen  moved  to  either  side,  depending  on  the  direction 
from  which  the  wind  is  blowing.  I  have  seen  similar  houses,  two-thirds  of  the 
front  of  which  were  covered  with  a  cotton  frame  which  could  be  thrown  on  the 
roof  during  bright,  warm  days  and  let  down  over  the  front  during  the  cold  nights 
and  stormy  weather. 


9 

In  a  few  cases,  open  frout  houses  have  been  built  only  twelve  or  fifteen  feet 
deep  and  twenty  or  more  feet  across  the  front.  This  is  not  advisable,  owing  to  the 
fact  that  should  there  be  a  direct  wind  blowing  into  the  house  the  birds  cannot 
get  back  far  enough  to  be  out  of  the  draught.  This  house  is  built  to  accommodate 
not  less  than  one  hundred  birds,  and  will  work  well  with  as  many  as  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  during  winter  weather.  If  a  smaller  house  than  the  twenty  by 
twenty  is  desired  it  should  be  built,  say,  twenty  feet  deep  and  ten  feet  wide  rather 
than  ten  feet  deep  and  twenty  wide.  The  width  across  the  front  should  never 
exceed  the  depth. 

Snow  will  occasionally  blow  into  the  house,  but  we  have  had  very  little  trouble 
in  this  respect.  Having  the  building  deep,  low,  and  narrow  tends  to  prevent  this. 
A  rather  small  opening  in  front  will  npt  allow  the  wind  and  snow  to  blow  far  back 
into  the  house  and  the  depth  allows  the  birds  to  keep  out  of  the  wind.  If  there  is 
continuous  rainy  or  damp  weather  for  several  days  the  litter  will  become  damp  and 
must  be  removed  at  once.  Both  walls  and  floor  must  be  kept  dry  or  the  birds  are 
likely  to  suffer  from  disease  of  some  kind.  There  should  be  no  opening  except  that 
in  the  front,  or  there  is  likely  to  be  a  draft  through  the  house,  and  this  should  be 
avoided. 

The  following  is  tlie  egg  production  for  100  April  hatched  White  Leghorn 
pullets  from  November,  1912,  to  June,  1913  (inclusive).  These  pullets  were 
housed  in  an  open  front  house  (see  Figure  7)  : 

Total    Egg   Production. 

Pullets  laying  in  Xovember,  71     795 

'  December,  68     889 

January,     65     753 

February,    74     554 

March,         92     1,765 

April,  99     2,023 

May,  94     1,863 

June,  91     1,688 


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Note. — The  winter  of  1912-13  will  be  remembered  as  exceptionally  mild.  We 
have  seen  the  temperature  as  low  as  nine  degrees  below  zero  inside  the  house  during 
other  winters.  Some  males  combs  will  freeze  at  such  temperatures,  and,  moreover, 
the  egg  production  is  slightly  affected  for  a  few  days. 

In  conclusion,  we  are  free  to  admit  that  the  open-front  house  apparently  keeps 
the  stock  in  better  health,  brighter  in  plumage,  and  it  requires  less  labor  than 
any  house  we  have  yet  used.  It  is  not  perfect,  and  no  doubt  could  be  improved  upon 
for  special,  painstaking  poultrymen,  but  this  class  is  very  limited,  and  the  house  as 
now  used  comes  most  near  to  meeting  the  average  man's  position. 

Long,  Continuous  House. 

No  doubt  some  readers  will  wish  for  a  plan  of  a  long,  continuous  house,  in 
which  a  large  number  of  fowls  may  be  housed  under  one  roof,  or  where  a  number  of 
different  breeds  can  be  kept  in  the  same  building. 

Fig.  6  gives  the  ground  plan  of  this  building  as  now  used.  The  partitions  are 
temporary,  made  of  cloth  tacked  to  wooden  frames,  and  can  be  moved  or  adjusted  to 
suit  almost  any  sized  flock.  This  house  was  originally  used  for. flocks  of  50,  75  and 
100  laying  hens,  with  the  idea  of  testing  large  and  small  flocks.  The  house  was  used 
in  this  manner  for  three  seasons  with  slishtlv  better  results  from  the  flock  of  50. 


10 

The  plan  as  now  given  accommodates  25  fowls  in  each  flock,  with  the  exception 
of  the  large  pen,  in  which  can  be  kept  75  fowls  of  such  breeds  as  Eocks  or 
Orpingtons,  or  90  of  such  as  Leghorns.  The  large  pen  could,  of  course,  be  divided 
into  the  smaller  pens. 


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For  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  more  extensive  breeding  work  a  long,  con- 
tinuous house  was  built  in  the  fall  of  1912.  This  building  is  208  feet  long,  12  feet 
wide,  8  feet  high  in  front,  and  5  feet  high  at  the  back.  The  house  is  single 
boarded  with  inch  lumber,  the  cracks  battened.  It  rests  on  a  concrete  foundation 
8  inches  wide  at  the  bottom  and  6  inches  at  the  top,  the  floor  also  being  of  concrete 
3  inches  in  thickness.  Below  the  floor  is  at  least  8  inches  of  small  stones,  on  which 
was  placed  enough  gravel  to  allow  the  laying  of  the  floor.  Our  experience  is  that 
it  requires  at  least  8  inches  of  filling  such  as  small  stones,  etc.,  beneath  the  concrete. 
The  studs  are  2  inches  by  4  inches  placed  3  feet  6  inches  apart  and  the  rafters 
2  inches  by  6  inches  each  placed  2  feet  apart. 


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For  breeding  work  it  is  often  advisable  to  mate  small  pens.  This  house  is 
divided  into  thirty-two  pens  each  6  feet  6  inches  wide,  each  pen  accommodating 
about  eight  or  ten  birds.  A  dropping-board  three  feet  from  the  floor  is  used. 
There  are  two  roosts  four  feet  long  to  each  pen. 

A  portion  of  each  partition  is  made  movable  so  that  larger  pens  may  be  had 
should  they  be  required.  Four  and  one-half  feet  from  the  back  they  are  of  matched 
lumber  and  stationary,  the  balance  being  of  two  wooden  frames  covered  with  nine- 


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14 

ounce  duck.  These  may  be  removed  at  any  time  and  a  number  of  pens  allowed  to 
run  together.  If  this  is  done,  the  solid  portion  of  the  partition  at  the  back 
materially  assists  in  checking  drafts,  which  are  common  in  long,  narrow  pens. 

In  the  front  of  each  pen  is  a  door  and  also  a  window  consisting  of  sixteen 
lights  eight  inches  by  ten  inches,  as  shown  in  Fig.  9  A.  The  upper  part  of  the  door 
is  of  wire  netting  covered  with  a  movable  frame  in  extremely  cold  or  stormy  weather. 
This  style  of  house  should  prove  useful  to  poultry  breeders.  During  the  winter 
of  1912-13  the  cotton  frames  were  not  used  the  greater  part  of  the  time  and  we  had 
little  or  no  trouble  with  frozen  combs. 

General  Eules  foe  Building. 

Every  hen  should  be  allowed  at  least  four  to  six  square  feet  of  floor  space. 
Each  bird  of  the  Plymouth  Eock,  Wyandotte,  and  such  breeds,  requires  about  nine 
inches  of  perch  room ;  Leghorns,  etc.,  about  eight  inches ;  and  Brahmas  ten  inches. 


Figs.  12  and  13.    Front  and  Back  Views  of  Nests.     {Poultry  Craft.) 


Eoosts  should  be  made  low,  or  near  the  ground.  There  are  several  reasons  for 
this.  Fowls  of  the  heavier  breed  cannot  fly  high,  and  those  of  the  lighter  breeds 
frequently  injure  the  soles  of  their  feet  in  jumping  from  high  perches. 

When  dropping-boards  are  used,  they  should  be  moderately  low  down,  to  admit 
of  easy  cleaning.  Dropping-boards  should  be  made  of  matched  lumber,  and  should 
be  twenty  inches  wide  for  one  roost,  and  three  feet  for  two  perches,  the  first  being 
placed  eight  to  ten  inches  from  the  wall. 

Most  poultrymen  prefer  roosts  two  inches  by  two  inches,  with  edges  slightly 
rounded. 

Nests. — Many  use  only  old  boxes;  but  such  nests,  if  near  the  ground,  are  apt 
to  induce  egg-eating.     Dark  nests  prevent  this.     (Figs.  12  and  13.) 

Nests  are  usually  made  from  12  to  15  inches  square. 

Cement  floors  are  the  cleanest  and  the  results  are  very  good.  Their  cost  is 
a  serious  objection.  Ground  floors  are  more  in  favor  than  board  floors,  and  cost 
much  less. 

In  my  own  experience,  the  best  results  are  obtained  from  keeping  20  to  25 
birds  in  a  flock.  Some  succeed  with  60  to  75  in  a  flock;  but  these  are  the  minority. 
We  have  received  fair  returns  from  a  flock  of  lOO  hens. 


15 
Colony  Houses. 

Many  people  living  in  towns  and  cities  wish  for  plans  of  houses  suitable  for 
housing  a  dozen  fowls  each.  In  some  instances  they  wish  these  houses  so  con- 
structed that  they  can  be  moved  from  place  to  place. 

There  is  also  a  demand  among  farmers  for  a  small  house  for  rearing  chickens, 
or  for  small  special  breeding  pens.  The  plans  already  given  are  all  adaptable  to 
these  conditions,  and  have  been  used  here  for  the  purposes  mentioned  above.  The 
houses  are  of  sufficient  size  to  accommodate  100  chicks  to  a  two-pound  weight,  or 
fifty  chickens  to  a  four  or  five-pound  weight;  but  for  winter  use  I  would  not  advise 
putting  in  more  than  a  dozen  laying  hens.     See  Figs.  8,  9,  10  and  11. 


EGG  PRODUCTION. 

In  considering  this  subject  there  are  several  factors  worthy  of  notice — the 
housing  and  the  range,  the  breed  and  the  strain,  the  kind  of  feed  and  the  method 
of  feeding,  the  attendant,  the  cleanliness  of  the  buildings,  their  surroundings  and 
the  weather. 

In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  discussed  houses,  and  no  further  mention  is 
needed  here. 

The  question  of  which  is  the  best  breed  is  rather  a  delicate  one,  and,  moreover, 
my  experience  is  that  there  is  as  much  in  strain  as  there  is  in  breed.  However, 
it  can  be  safely  stated  that  the  heavier  breeds  such  as  Plymouth  Eocks,  Wyandottes, 
Rhode  Island  Reds,  Orpingtons,  etc.,  usually  lay  better  during  the  winter — ^if 
hatched  early —  than  do  Leghorns,  Hamburgs,  etc.,  or  the  lighter  breeds.  The 
lighter  or  smaller  breeds,  with  us,  are  more  easily  affected  by  sudden  climatic 
changes  during  the  winter.  Usually  their  egg  production  declines  considerably 
during  a  cold  snap.  Where  one  has  no  particular  desire  to  get  eggs  in  winter  and 
does  not  care  for  roasting  chickens,  they  would  find  the  lighter  breeds  most  pro- 
fitable. Where  one  wants  a  general  purpose  chicken,  that  is  a  fair  layer  during 
both  winter  and  summer,  and  at  the  same  time  a  chicken  that  will  make  a  fair 
broiler  or  roaster,  such  breeds  as  Plymouth  Rocks..  Wyandottes,  etc.,  will  prove 
most  satisfactory.  The  light  breeds  can  not  be  depended  upon  to  hatch  and  rear 
their  own  young,  whereas  the  heavier  breeds  may  be  relied  upon  for  this  purpose. 

We  have  our  best  egg  production  yearly  from  April  and  early  May  hatched 
pullets.  These  will  commence  laying  if  well  reared  between  September  and 
December,  depending  upon  the  strain  or  family  as  to  whether  or  not  they  are  late 
or  early  in  maturing.  March  hatched  pullets  usually  lay  during  August  and  then 
go  into  moult  some  time  in  November.  These,  of  course,  lay  but  little  before 
March  after  moulting.  They  are,  however,  useful  where  one  must  have  a  constant 
supply  of  eggs,  as  the  old  hens  decline  rapidly  during  September  and  October,  and 
the  April  pullets  are  then  just  getting  started. 

We  find  that  Leghorn  pullets  or  pullets  of  similar  breeds  hatched  before  April 
15th  are  apt  to  moult,  so  that  we  usually  try  and  hatch  these  varieties  after  the 
middle  of  April. 

Yearling  hens  lay  fairly  well,  but  older  than  this  they  are  usually  unprofit- 
able, except  as  breeders  when  they  have  shown  exceptional  merit. 


16 
Collective  Results  for  138  Pullets  fbom;  OcTOBEiB  1st,  1909,  to  September  1st,  1910. 


Males.    Females. 


Breed. 


Eggs 
Laid. 


Cost     TfW^    Lbs.  grain!  Lbs.  Milk 
perSd    consumed.!  consumed. 


2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 


12 


23 
23 
23 
23 
23 
23 


138 


R.I.  Reds 

B.  Rocks 

R.I.  Reds 

B.  Rocks. 

B.  Rocks  (weak) 
B.  Rocks  (strong) 


3,318 

$29  06 

144.2 

3,341 

27  90 

145.2 

2,599 

25  81 

113 

3,654 

28  44 

158.8 

2,182 

25  18 

94.8 

2,742 

29  62 

119.2 

17,836 

$166  01 

1,662 
1,585 
1,451 
1,626 
1,374 
1,655 


9,353 


2,070 
2,070 
2,027 
2,027 
2,289 
2,401 


12,884 


Average  cost  per  dozen  eggs  for  eleven  months  11.16c. 

Average  cost  of  feeding  each  bird  per  month  for  eleven  months  10.06c. 

Average  number  of  eggs  per  bird  for  eleven  months  129.3. 

Average  amount  of  food  consumed  per  bird  (males  included)  in  eleven 
months:  Grain,  62.35  lbs.  or  5.66  lbs.  per  month;  milk,  85.89  lbs.  or  7.8  lbs.  per 
month. 


Collective  Results  for  341  Hens  and  Pullets  from  October  1st.  1910,  to  September  1st, 

1911. 


Males. 
1 

Females. 

Breed. 

1 
Fffffc                   ~!  Average 
£5f/         Cost.    1     Eggs 
L^^^-                     per  Bird. 

Lbs.  Grain 
consumed. 

Lbs.  Milk 
consumed. 

2 

55 

92 

60 

111 

23 

B.  Rock  Hens 

5,961 
11,928 

6,401 
13,504 

1,726 

$  74  92 

124  02 

81  26 

118  49 

32  34 

108.3         4.357 

4,787 

4 

B.  Rock  Pullets 

129.6 
106.6 
121.6 

75.0 

7,042 
4,805 
6,739 

1,874 

9,195 

b 

'      6 

2 

B.  Orpington  Pullets  

White  Legliorn  Pullets .... 

Black   Minorca    Hens  and 

Pullets 

4,597 
8,704 

2,118 

19 

341 

39,520 

$431  03 

24,817 

29,401 

Average  cost  per  dozen  eggs  for  eleven  month*  13.08c. 

Average  cost  of  feeding  each  bird  per  month  for  eleven  months  10.88c. 

Average  number  of  eggs  per  bird  for  eleven  months  115.8. 

Average  amount  of  food  consumed  per  bird  (males  included)  in  evelen 
months:  Grain,  68.9  lbs. "  or  6.2  lbs.  per  month;  milk,  81.6  lbs.  or  7.1  lbs.  per 
month. 

Collective  Results  for  266  Pitllets  from  November  1st,  1912,  to  October  1st,  1913. 


Males. 

Females. 

Breed. 

Eggs 
Laid. 

Cost. 

Average 

Eggs 
per  Bird. 

Lbs.  Grain 
consumed. 

Lbs.  Milk 
consumed. 

5 
1 
1 

105 
20 
19 
22 

100 

B.  Rock  Pullets 

W.  Wyandotte  Pullets  .... 
R.I.  Red  Pullets 

13,750 
2,247 
2,352 
2,335 

13,306 

$134  54 

27  99 

27  26 

31  70 

107  01 

130.9 
112.3 
123.7 
106.1 
133.0 

7,860 
1.670 
1,618 
1,819 
6,340 

8,323 
1,472 
1,499 

1 
6 

B.  Orpington  Pullets 

W.  Leghorn  Pullets 

2.214 

5,955 

14 

266 

33,990 

$328  50 

19,307 

19,463 

17 

Average  cost  per  dozen  eggs  for  eleven  months  11.5c. 

Average  cost  of  feeding  each  bird  per  month  for  eleven  months  10.6c. 

Average  number  of  eggs  per  bird  for  eleven  months  127.7, 

Average  amount  of  food  consumed  per  bird  (males  included)  in  eleven 
months:  grain,  68.9  lbs.  or  6.2  lbs.  per  month;  milk,  69.5  lbs.  or  6.3  lbs.  per  month. 

The  following  are  the  averages  for  the  three  years: 

Average  cost  per  dozen  eggs  for  eleven  months  12.1c. 

Average  cost  of  feeding  each  bird  per  month  (males  included)  eleven  months 
10.6c. 

Average  number  of  eggs  per  bird  for  eleven  months  122.6. 

Average  amount  of  food  consumed  per  bird  (males  included)  eleven  months: 
grain.  67.6  lbs.  or  6.1  lbs.  per  month;  milk,  78.1  lbs.  or  7.1  lbs.  per  month. 


FEEDS  AND  FEEDING. 

A  fowl  requires  grain  food,  vegetable  food,  meat  food,  and  grit.  These  foods 
should  be  clean  and  wholesome,  and  furthermore  a  portion  of  them  should  be 
given  in  some  form  so  as  to  induce  the  birds  to  take  exercise,  so  that  the  fowls  will 
be  healthy.  Fowls  should  be  well  supplied  with  water  or  milk  to  drink.  Many 
make  the  serious  mistake  of  not  giving  sufficient  drink  or  not  giving  it  regularly. 
The  supply  should  be  clean  and  constant.  Dirty  water,  dirty  or  slimy  drinking 
dishes,  etc.,  will  do  more  towards  making  a  flock  unhealthy  and  diseased  than  any- 
thing else.  Most  attendants  are  inclined  to  forget  to  clean  the  drinking  vessels, 
and  to  keep  them  well  filled  at  all  times. 

Graixs. 

Wheat  with  the  Ontario  people  is  the  most  popular  feed  and  is  one  of  the  best. 
It  is  relished  by  all  classes  of  poultry.  The  price  of  wheat  as  compared  with  that 
of  other  grains  during  the  past  few  years,  makes  it  necessary  to  mix  other  grains 
with  it.  I  doubt  very  much  if  it  is  advisable  at  any  time  to  feed  only  one  kind 
of  grain  constantly,  as  a  variety  is  better;  some  birds  like  one  grain  while  others 
relish  another. 

Wlieat  bran  is  fed  dry  in  hoppers,  also  in  mashes.  It  has  considerable  feeding 
value.  It  helps  materially  in  adding  bulk  to  the  ration,  and  prevents  impaction 
in  the  stomach.  In  other  words,  it  aids  the  digestive  fluids  in  acting  upon  the 
food. 

Middlings  or  shorts  is  of  value  in  ma.shes,  to  all  classes,  and  'is  one  of  the 
good  foods  to  check  looseness  of  the  bowels,  where  an  excess  of  vegetables  is  given. 

Low-grade  flour  is  often  a  cheap  and  economical  food  in  mashes  for  stock 
birds  or  for  fattening  chickens.  It  also  has  a  tendency  to  check  looseness  of  the 
bowels. 

Corn  is  not  used  so  much  in  Ontario  as  in  the  New  England  States.  There  it 
appears  to  be  used  quite  freely  in  both  summer  and  winter  feeding  of  fowls.  It  is 
used  whole,  ground,  and  cracked,  the  meal  being  used  principally  in  the  mash 
foods.  Cracked  corn  is  used  largely  for  young  chicks,  and  fowls  when  scattered  in 
the  litter.  The  whole  corn  is  rather  large  and  conspicuous;  and  when  in  the 
litter  does  not  usually  give  sufficient  exercise.  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  corn  can 
be  used  in  portions  of  Ontario,  where  it  is  grown  extensively,  much  more  freely 
Bulletin  217. 


18 

than  it  has  heen  heretofore.  Corn  is  a  heating  and  fattening  food,  and  is,  there- 
fore, best  adapted  for  winter  use.  It  is  considered  by  many,  when  fed  m  large 
quantities,  to  make  the  hens  over  fat;  yet  it  is  used  extensively  by  many  progres- 
sive poultrymen  with   little  or  no  evil  effects. 

Oats  should  be  a  iirst-class  poultry  food,  but  owing  to  the  large  percentage 
of  hull,  they  are  not  relished  by  chickens  when  fed  whole,  and  for  this  reason  are 
somewhat  indigestible.  When  rolled,  hull  and  all,  they  are  an  ideal  food  as  a  dry 
mash,  and  are  relished  by  fowls  better  than  any  other  dry  mash  we  have  yet  used. 
Ground  oats  without  the  hull  are  used  extensively  for  fattening  chickens. 

Barley,  either  whole  or  ground,  is  very  good.  It  has  rather  too  much  hull, 
but  otherwise  is  a  satisfactory  food.    It  is  considered  by  many  to  be  next  to  wheat 

in  point  of  value. 

Buckwheat  is  very  popular  as  an  egg  producer  in  districts  where  it  is  exten- 
sively grown.  Some  difficulty  is  at  times  experienced  when  first  feeding  it  to  fowls 
irl  getting  them  to  eat  it.  But  this  is  usually  overcome  in  a  day  or  so,  if  other  feeds 
are  withheld.  Boiling  the  buckwheat  will  sometimes  start  the  birds  to  eat  it.  After 
they  once  get  accustomed  to  its  appearance,  it  is  much  relished  by  them.  Ground 
buckwheat  is  an  excellent  food  to  use  in  a  fattening  ration.  It  is  somewhat  like 
corn  in  its  fattening  properties,  and,  therefore,  it  is  better  for  winter  than  for 
summer  use. 

Method  of  Feeding  the  Winter  Laying  Stock  at  the  O.A.C. 

We  try  to  simplify  our  methods  and  use  only  the  common  foods,  and  at 
the  present  time  are  using  as  whole  grains  wheat,  corn  and  buckwheat.  These 
grains  are  .fed  in  equal  parts  both  morning  and  evening.  The  morning  feed  is 
fed  the  previous  evening  after  the  hens  have  gone  to  roost,  by  sowing  it  on  the 
litter,  and  then  turning  the  litter  over;  the  straw  is  now  on  top  and  the  grain 
below,  and  when  the  hens  get  up  in  the  morning,  they  start  to  dig  out  the  grain, 
and  are  kept  busy  all  forenoon.  At  noon  we- feed  mangels,  cabbage  or  clover 
hay.  The  night  feed  consists  of  the  whole  grain  fed  in  troughs,  and  what  the 
birds  do  not  eat  is  taken  up.  Eolled  oats  are  kept  constantly  before  the  hens  in 
hoppers.   Buttermilk  only  is  given  as  drink. 

Method  of  Feeding  the  Summer  Laying  Stock  at  the  O.A.C. 

At  the  present  time  our  plan  of  feeding  is  to  scatter  whole  grain  in  the  litter 
both  morning  and  evening.  The  grains  used  are  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  occasion- 
ally buckwheat  and  corn.  Green  food  is  supplied  in  the  form  of  grass,  etc.,  in 
the  runs.     Sour  milk  is  given  as  drink. 

Dry  Feeding. 

The  tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to  feed  dry  grain,  and  to  use  no  wet 
mash  foods.  It  has  been  claimed  by  some  writers  that  mash  foods,  while  tending 
to  force  growth,  and  possibly  egg  production,  do  not  tend  to  produce  good  eggs 
for  hatching  purposes ;  that  is  to  say,  the  mash  is  more  or  less  of  a  forcing  food. 
In  the  production  of  eggs,  the  number  produced  is  probably  as  large  if  not  larger 
where  mashes  are  used,  but  the  hatching  power  of  the  eggs  in  some  instances 
is  not  as  high.  During  the  past  two  or  three  years  we  have  not  fed  any  wet 
mashes  to  our  'breeding  birds,  and  have  fed  in  place  some  sprouted  grain,  but 
mostiy  rolled  oats  in  hoppers.     As  far  as  we  can  see  at  the  present  time  the 


19 

sprouting  does  not  improve  tJie  feeding  qualities  of  grain  very  much,  with  the 
one  exception  of  oats.  The  palatability  of  oats  is  increased  considerably.  We 
have  made  ihe  oats  equally  palatable  by  having  them  rolled  or  flattened,  that  is 
the  hull  and  all. 

Feeding  When  Wet  Mashes  are  Used. 

The  general  method  of  feeding  is  to  give  a  mash  of  mixed  ground  grains 
moistened  v^ith  water  or  milk,  in  the'  morning ;  a  little  whole  grain  scattered  in  the 
straw  covering  the  floor,  at  noon;  and  all  the  whole  grain  they  will  eat  at  night. 
This  latter  meal  is  usually  fed  in  the  straw.  Some  poultry  men  adopt  the  plan 
of  not  feeding  the  mash  until  evening,  we  have  been  practising  this  plan  for 
some  time,  and  we  like  it  very  well.  The  objection  to  the  former  plan  is  that 
the  hen  is  likely  to  become  gorged  with  food  early  in  the  morning,  and  thus 
take  to  the  roost  for  the  rest  of  the  day,  which  is  usually  followed  by  hens  becom- 
ing too  fat,  and  the  egg  record  becoming  small;  but,  notwithstanding,  many 
successful  poultrymen  use  this  method  to  advantage.  The  objection  to  feeding 
the  mash  at  night  is  that  it  becomes  quickly  digested,  and  the  bird  has  not 
sufficient  food  to  last  it  during  the  long  winter  night;  but  this  objection  can  be 
overcome  by  giving  a  little  whole  grain  after  the  mash  at  night. 

Some  poultrymen  feed  their  fowls  but  twice  a  day,  morning  and  evening, 
and  get  very  good  results;  but  I  favor  feeding  three  times  a  day.  Our  plan  is 
somewhat  as  follows : — 

Early  in  the  morning  the  fowls  are  given  half  a  handful  each  of  whole 
grain.  This  is  buried  in"  the  litter  on  the  floor.  Thus  the  fowls  get  exercise  (a 
very  necessary  thing)  in  searching  for  it  and  at  the  same  time  keep  themselves 
warm.  At  noon  about  two  handsful  of  grain  are  given  to  a  dozen  hens  in  the 
litter;  they  are  also  given  all  the  roots  they  will  eat,  either  pulped  or  whole,  as 
fowl  relish  mangels,  sugar  beets  and  turnips.  Cabbages  also — a  very  good  green 
food — is  sometimes  given.  About  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  they  are  fed  a 
mash  composed  of  equal  parts  of  bran,  shorts,  oat-chop  and  corn  meal  (during 
cold  weather) ;  and  to  this  is  added  about  10  per  cent,  of  animal  meal,  if  we 
have  not  cut  green  bone  or  cooked  meat.  These  foods  are  thoroughly  mixed 
together  in  the  dry  state,  after  which  is  added  steeped  clover,  which  has  been 
prepared  by  getting  a  bucket  of  clover  leaves,  or  cut  clover  hay,  and  scalding  it 
with  boiling  water.  This  is  done  early  in  the  morning,  and  the  bucket  is  kept 
covered  with  a  thick  sack  throughout  the  day.  This  will  be  quite  warm  at  night, 
if  it  has  been  kept  in  a  warm  place.  There  is  usually  sufficient  liquid  to  moisten 
the  meal  that  has  been  mixed.  Our  aim  is  to  have  about  one-third  of  the  ration, 
in  bulk,  of  clover.  After  the  mash  a  small  amount  of  whole  grain, is  fed  in  the 
straw.  There  is — and  should  be — a  plentiful  supply  of  good  pure  water  within 
easy  r^ach  at  all  times. 

To  those  who  keep  but  a  dozen  or  so  fowls,  or  to  those  who  wish  to  economize 
in  the  feed  bills,  by  using  table  refuse  such  as  bread,  meat,  vegetables,  etc.,  the 
wet  mash  system  is  commendable,  in  that  these  cheap  by-products,  if  clean,  and 
cooked,  make  excellent  mashes,  when  dried  ofi^  with  shorts  and  bran  or  other 
chop.  This  kind  of  mash  usually  gives  excellent  egg  yields,  and  the  labor  entailed 
is  not  a  serious  consideration,  under  the  above  conditions,  but  it  is,  at  times,, 
where  birds  are  kept  in  large  numbers. 


20 
AxiMAL  Foods  for  Fowls. 

The  most  expensive  foods  given  to  fowls  are  the  animal  foods.  These  are 
used  as  a  substitute  for  the  worms  and  insects  that  form  a  portion  of  the  natural 
summer  food  of  fowls  upon  free  range.  Flocks  confined  to  small  runs  require  to 
be  fed  more  or  less  animal  foods  during  the  winter,  and  during  very  long  dry 
spells  in  the  summer;  even  where  the  range  is  unlimited  it  frequently  pays  to  feed 
a  little  animal  food. 

Animal  foods  usually  assist  very  materially  in  the  production  of  eggs  in 
winter.  By  some  people  these  foods  are  considered  as  a  forcing  food,  that  is  to 
say,  they  will  induce  heavy  laying,  which  in  some  instances  may  be  followed  by 
serious  sickness,  or  possibly  the  injury  may  be  only  very  slight;  in  fact  unnotice- 
able,  except  that  the  egg^^  from  birds  so  fed  may  be  of  very  low  hatching  power. 

It  is  generally  believed,  and  I  think  rightly  so,  that  good  egg  yields  cannot 
annually  be  secured  without  the  use  of  such  foods  as  green  cut  bone,  beef  scrap,  or 
cooked  refuse  meat,  etc.  Many  believe  that  the  larger  the  amount  of  these  foods 
fed  the  greater  will  be  ihe  egg  production.  There  is  good  ground  for  doubting 
this  statement,  in  that  these  foods  are  expensive,  and  the  extra  eggs  may  cost  more 
than  they  are  worth.  Moreover,  herein  is  where  serious  injury  may  be  done  to  the 
hen's  digestive  and  reproductive  organs. 

Milk  is  available  on  many  farms,  and  it  is  claimed  that  as  an  egg  producer 
this  food  is  equal  in  value  to  any  of  the  meat  foods.  Our  experience  has  been  that 
sour  milk  for  fowls  has  a  slightly  greater  value  than  sweet  milk,  and  is  certainly 
much  more  easily  obtained. 

Three  years  ago  we  planned  an  experiment  with  the  idea  of  studying  what 
effect  various  animal  foods  would  have  upon  the  egg  production,  and  the  hatching 
power  of  the  eggs. 

Below  is  given  the  results  of  the  first  three  years'  work,  that  of  1909-1910 
being  carried  on  with  Buff  Orpington  pullets,  that  of  1910-1911  with  Ehode  Island 
Eed  hens  and  pullets,  and  1911-1912  with  Leghorn  pullets. 

There  were  twenty-five  females  and  two  males  in  each  pen,  and  all  were  housed 
in  the  same  building.     The  grain  and  green  food  used  were  the  same  in  each  pen. 

The  animal  foods  are  reckoned  at  the  following  prices : 

Buttermilk  20c.  per  100  lbs.  Beef  scrap  $3  per  100  lbs.  Green  cut  bone  $3 
per  100  lbs. 

Experimental  Feeding  wit?i  Buef  Orpingtons. 


The  foUowino-  are  the  results  for  7  months,  from  Oct.  1st,  1909,  to  April  30th, 


1910: 

Pen 

No. 

Animal  Food  used. 

Lbs. 
Whole 
Grain. 

Lbs. 

Dry 

Mash. 

Lbs. 

Animal 

Food. 

Total 
Cost. 

Total 
Eggs 
Laid. 

Cost 
Dozen 
Eggs. 

Percentage 
of  Eggs 
Hatched. 

1 

2 

Riit.fi^rmilk 

720 
840 

233 

337 
216 
224 
196 

1,453 

34 
141 

'"im 

1 

$18  16 

19  85 
22  21 
17  99 
21  37 

2,040 

1,670 
1,664 
1,496 
1,654 

10.68 

14.28 
15.84 
15.48 
15.48 

55.0 

10%    dry    mash    beef 
scrap 

50.5 

3 

4 

5 

Beef  scrap  in  hopper  . 

No  animal  food 

Green  cut  bone 

900 
900 
900 

33.0 
59.5 
40.5 

21 


Experimental  Feeding  with  K.  I.  Reds. 
The  following  are  the  results  of  8  months,  Oct.  1st,  1910,  to  May  31st,  1911 


Pen 

No. 


Animal  Food  used. 


1 Buttermilk 

2 10%    dry    mash    beef 


scrap 

3 Beef  scrap  in  hopper, 

4 No  animal  food , 

5 Green  cut  bone 


Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs.     ' 

Total 
Cost. 

Total 

Cost 

Whole 

Dry 

Animal 

Eggs 

Dozen 

Grain. 

Mash. 

Food. 

T,aid. 

Eggs 

973 

535 

1,760.0 

$25  60 

1,762 

17  43 

1       898 

535 

61.5 

23  06 

1,320 

20.96 

!      907 

510 

106.0 

23  92 

1,625 

17.66 

802 

405 

17  70 

730 

29.09 

784 

i 

411 

182.5 

22  44 

1,359 

19.81 

Percentage' 

of  Eggs 

Hatched. 


57.0 

56.4 
51.66 
66.25 
64.5 


Experimental  Feedixg   avitii  White  Leghorns. 
The  following  are  the  results  for  7  months,  Oct.  1st,  1911,  to  Oct.  30th,  1912 


Pen 

No. 

Animal  Food  used. 

Lbs. 
Whole 
Grain. 

Lbs. 

Dry 

Mash 

Lbs.        T^toi        Total 

Animal      J,^;f    ,    Eggs 

Food.        ^^^^-        Tflid. 

Cost  per 
Dozen 
Eggs. 

Percentages 
of  Eggs    , 
Hatched.  , 

1 

1 

Buttermilk 

785 

319       1  -4.i3       .tlQ  46        1  f,m 

15.5 
17.3 
13.4 
19.4 

68.2 

2 

3 

4 

Beef  scrap  in  hopper . . 

No  animal  food 

Green  cut  bone 

750 
925 
781 

205 
126 

287 

81         16  76       1,158 

15  77           6t2 

98         18  96       1,193 

69.2 
74.2 
68.6 

Comments  o:n  Above  Tables. 

With  all  three  breeds  buttermilk  produced  the  most  and  the  cheapest  eggs. 

Where  beef  scrap  was  fed  in  a  hopper  or  where  the  birds  could  eat  all  they 
desired  the  Leghorns  and  Ehode  Island  Eeds  did  much  better  than  the  Orpingtons. 

No  animal  food  in  all  instances  gave  the  best  eggs  for  hatching  and  the  lowest 
egg  yield. 

From  the  results  so  far  obtained  it  would  appear  to  be  a  disastrous  practice 
to  undertake  feeding  Leghorns  on  no  meat  food  ration,  or  meat  food  in  very  small 
quantities,  for  the  reason  that  they  developed  feather  eating  to  such  an  extent  that 
some  of  the  birds  were  killed  and  the  males  were  a  sorry  sight,  in  fact,  had  to  be 
frequently  removed  from  the  pen.  This  was  true  to  a  limited  extent  with  the 
Ehode  Island  Eeds  but  was  not  so  of  the  Orpingtons. 

Green  Foods. 

When  fowls  have  free  range,  they  eat  a  considerable  amount  of  grass,  or  other 
green  foods.  It  would  appear,  therefore,  to  be  desirable  that  where  birds  are 
confined  either  in  small  runs  during  the  summer,  or  in  houses  when  the  ground 
is  covered  with  snow  in  winter,  some  effort  should  be  made  to  supply  this  food. 

Many  foods  are  available,  such  as  waste  cabbage,  mangels,  turnips,  rape,  clover, 
hay,  or  clover  leaves,  and  green  food  grown  especially  for  the  purpose. 


32 

Early  in  the  fall  we  use  cabbage  or  rape;  or  at  times  where  the  runs  have 
been  sown  to  fall  rye  or  wheat,  the  fowls  are  allowed  to  feed  upon  these.  Where 
rape  is  extensively  fed  it  frequently  will  cause  the  whites  of  the  eggs  to  have  a 
greenish  cast,  which  renders  them  unmarketable.  This  food  is  relished  by  the 
fowls,  but  must  be  fed  carefully.  Cabbage  at  times  will  flavor  the  eggs  slightly, 
and  if  frozen  may  cause  serious  digestive  troubles.  Both  rape  and  cabbage  make 
good  green  foods,  but  good  judgment  must  be  exercised  in  their  use. 

Mangels  are  a  very  succulent  food  and  are  relished  by  the  birds  during  the 
winter.  They  can  be  fed  either  pulped  or  whole.  When  they  are  fed  whole,  we 
usually  stick  them  on  a  projecting  nail,  at  a  convenient  height,  upon  the  wall  of 
the  pen.  When  these  are  fed  freely  they  frequently  scour  the  fowls.  For  this 
reason  during  some  seasons  we  are  obliged  to  feed  them  not  more  than  twice  a 
week. 

Turnips  may  flavor  the  eggs.  They  are  not  as  palatable  as  mangels,  in  fact 
some  birds  will  not  eat  them  at  all,  but  at  the  same  time  they  have  considerable 
food  value. 

Clover  leaves,  either  steamed  or  dry,  are  relished  very  much,  and  upon  the 
whole  are  the  most  reliable  winter  green  food.  One  hundred  hens  will  eat  from 
a  peck  to  a  bushel  of  clover  leaves  daily.  This  food  upon  the  farms  is  cheap  and 
easily  procured,  and  should  be  fed  more  than  it  is. 

The  growing  of  green  food  is  becoming  quite  popular  with  many,  but  we  have 
never  received  sufficient  results  to  warrant  our  growing  it  extensively,  except  for  little 
cliicks. 

The  ordinary  plan  is  to  soak  the  grain — most  people  use  oats — twenty-four 
hours  previous  to  sowing.  The  ordinary  greenhouse  flat  is  useful  for  this  purpose. 
Any  box  from  3  to  4  inches  deep  will  answer.  It  is  necessary  that  the  bottom  of 
the  box  should  have  sufficient  holes  to  give  good  drainage.  Place  a  little  damp 
earth  over  the  bottom  of  the  box,  and  then  put  inabout  i/2-inch  of  soaked  grain, 
and  cover  this  with  about  1  inch  of  sand.  Keep  the  box  in  a  warm  place  and  keep 
the  earth  moist.  In  a  few  days  the  grain  will  begin  to  germinate.  Most  feeders 
allow  the  grain  to  grow  two  or  three  inches  before  feeding. 


INCUBATIOK 


This  is  a  very  interesting  topic.  Here  we  are  dealing  with  the  renewal  of  the 
flock.  This  has  been  to  the  larger  grower  a  difficult  problem,  and  to  most  farmers 
and  small  growers  comparatively  easy.  (It  is  apparently  easy  for  the  farmer  to 
hatch  and  rear  100  or  more  chicks,  and  very  difficult  to  get  hens  to  lay  during  the 
winter.  The  large  grower  can  usually  get  a  fair  production  during  the  winter, 
if  he  can  get  the  chicks  out  and  well  grown.)  There  are  so  many  factors  that 
may  influence  the  hatch  and  the  vitality  of  the  chicks,  that  it  is  at  times  an 
impossibility  to  say  why  one  fails  and  another  succeeds. 

The  first  essential  to  successful  incubation  is  good  hatchable  eggs.  The 
hatching  power  of  eggs  is  apparently  influenced  by  the  parent  stock,  not  only  in 
the  present  generation,  but  possibly  for  generations  back.  Granting  this,  we  must 
then  use  only  the  strongest  and  best  birds  as  breeders,  and  if  a  rigid  culling  is 
followed  annually,  it  is  our  belief  that  gradually,  but  surely,  the  problem  will 
become  less  difficult.  Then,  again,  the  methods  of  housing  and  feeding  are  factors. 
Birds  kept  in  ill-ventilated,  damp  houses,  or  under  any  unsanitary  conditions,  are 


23 

lowered  in  vitality  or  vigor,  which  of  necessity  must  be  more  or  less  imparted  to 
the  germ  of  the  egg.  It  has  been  shown  under  the-  discussion  of  foods  that  the 
hatch  is  influenced  by  the  feeds. 

The  farmer's  flock  is  usually  strong  and  rugged;  it  has  plenty  of  exercise  in 
the  fresh  air,  and,  moreover,  is  seldom  kept  in  such  numbers  that  the  ground 
about  the  buildings  becomes  seriously  contaminated.  There  are,  of  course,  some 
exceptions  to  the  above  statement.  Fowls  upon  the  farm  are  very  seldom  ex- 
excessively  fed  upon  meat,  or  what  may  be  termed  forcing  foods.  Then,  again,  the 
unlimited  range  and  the  great  variety  of  foods  available  make  the  conditions  upon 
the  farm  excellent  for  the  production  of  good  hatchable  eggs.  If  more  attention 
was  paid  to  the  selection  of  the  males,  the  results  would  be  improved.  The  selling 
of  the  largest,  and  earJiest  maturing  males,  and  the  breeding  of  the  late  hatched, 
immature,  ill-nourished  males  is  not  conducive  to  progress,  to  say  the  least. 

The  difficulties  of  the  large  growers  are  mainly  due  to  bad  housing,  yarding, 
and  feeding.  Many  houses  are  poorly  ventilated,  and  the  yards  are  smalL  and  the 
fowls  are  on  them  constantly,  and  are,  therefore,  in  an  unsanitary  condition;  and, 
furthermore,  the  lack  of  a  variety  of  foods  and  exercise,  and  the  use  of  animal  foods, 
are  also  more  or  less  injurious.  All  these  conditions  are  largely  under  our  control, 
and  many  of  the  failures  in  the  past  appear  to  be  directly  due  to  a  too  intensified 
condition.  It  has  been  many  people's  idea  to  see  how  many  hundreds  could  be  kept 
on  the  least  acreage  of  land. 

Natural  and  Artificial  Incubation. 

Whether  it  will  pay  to  buy  the  incubators  and  brooders  depends  largely  on 
one's  circumstances.  Where  chicks  are  wanted  in  considerable  numbers  earlier  than 
April  15th,  an  incubator  becomes  practically  a  necessity,  as  it  is  seldom  that  hens 
become  broody  in  numbers  until  after  the  1st  of  April.  Again,  where  one  wishes 
to  hatch  more  than  150  chicks,  an  incubator  is  in  many  cases  cheaper  and  better 
than  the  natural  methods.  It  is  also  a  necessity  where  one  is  breeding  from  the 
non-setting  varieties. 

There  are  numerous  illustrations  of  chicks  being  raised  in  large  numbers  by  the 
natural  method  in  the  States  of  Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts,  particularly  in 
the  former  State.  Where  this  method  is  followed,  the  chicks  are  hatched  largely 
during  the  months  of  May  and  June:  and  where  from  500  to  1.500  layins:  hens  are 
kept,  there  is  little  difficulty  in  getting  a  sufficient  number  of  broody  hens.  Those 
who  are  keeping  large  numbers  of  hens  appear  to  be  well  satisfied  with  the  natural 
method ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  number  of  incubators  in  use  is  increas- 
ing from  year  to  year. 

The  average  hatch  is  probably  one  chicken  from  every  two  eggs  set.  This,  of 
course,  varies  with  the  difi'erent  seasons,  also  with  the  percentage  of  fertile  eggs,  and 
the  strength  of  the  germ.  We  have  found  during  the  months  of  February  and 
March,  when  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow  and  the  fowls  are  closely  houserl.  that 
the  percentage  of  fertile  eggs  is  small,  and  that  the  germs  are  very  weak.  Tinder 
such  conditions  we  have  very  poor  hatches  and  chicks  thnt  are  very  hard  to  rear. 
Much  better  eggs  are  obtained  in  December  and  early  January,  or  when  the  fowls 
get  out  into  the  fresh  air  and  are  able  to  pick  some  grass.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that, 
as  a  general  rule,  as  the  percentage  of  fertile  eggs  increases,  the  vitality  of  the  germ 
increase^,  the  percentage  hatched  is  larger  and  the  mortality  nmong  the  young 
chicks  smaller.  For  example,  we  would  expect  to  get  a  much  larger  percentage 
hatch  of  the  fertile  eggs  from  eggs  that  were  90  per  cent,  fertile  than  from  those 


24 

that  were  60  per  cent,  fertile;  and,  moreover,  we  would  figure  on  raising  a  much 
larger  percentage  of  chicks  from  the  former  eggs  than  from  the  latter,  owing  to  the 
chicks  being  stronger  and  having  greater  vitality. 

Setting  the  Hen. — It  is  generally  agreed  that,  in  order  to  secure  a  good  hatch, 
the  hen  must  be  placed  where  other  hens  are  not  likely  to  disturb  her;  for,  as  a 
rule,  we  seldom  get  good  hatches  where  other  hens  lay  in  the  nest  with  the  sitter. 
Some  farmers  do  not  set  a  hen  until  one  becomes  broody  on  a  nest  where  no  others 
lay,  which  often  necessitates  late  chicks.  The  difficulty  can  be  overcome  by  making 
a  new  nest  for  the  broody  hen.  Get  a  box  about  twelve  inches  square  and  six  inches 
deep;  put  some  earth,  or  an  overturned  sod  in  the  bottom,  taking  care  to  have  the 
corners  very  full  so  that  no  eggs  can  roll  out  from  the  hen  and  get  chilled;  next 
put  on  about  two  inches  of  straw  or  chaff;  and  then  put  a  few  earthen  eggs  into  the 
nest.  Place  the  nest  in  some  pen  where  nothing  can  disturb  the  hen,  and  put  her 
on  after  dark.  Feed  and  water  must  be  within  easy  reach  and  a  dust  bath  should 
also  be  convenient.  If  the  hen  is  sitting  quiet  the  next  day,  you  will  be  safe  in 
putting  the  eggs  under  her.  In  our  experience  we  get  90  per  cent,  of  the  hens  to 
sit  by  following  this  method. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  hen  will  be  in  better  condition  if  dusted  with 
insect  powder  when  set,  and  also  a  few  days  before  the  hatch  comes  off.  This  will 
usually  keep  the  lice  in  check,  especially  if  some  tansy  or  mint  leaves  are  used  in 
making  the  nest. 

Artificial  Incubation. 

During  recent  years  many  incubator  experiments  have  been  conducted  here  as 
well  as  at  other  colleges,  and  some  progress  has  been  made.  It  is  our  purpose  at  this 
time,  not  so  much  to  go  into  the  details'  of  these,  but  to  give,  if  possible,  the  best 
methods  we  know,  that  can  be  used  by  the  average  person. 

Selecting  an  Incubator. — There  are  many  makes  of  incubators  on  the  market, 
that  do  fairly  good  work ;  they  are  not  perfect,  nor  have  they  the  hatching  power  of 
a  normal  hen,  but  then  they  are  always  ready  to  hatch  eggs  in  any  day  of  the  year, 
and  by  their  use  eggs  can  he  incubated  in  large  numbers.  They  do  not  get  balky, 
and  cease  hatching  as  some  hens  do — that  is,  unless  the  operator  fails  to  do  his  part. 
Commercially  they  are  a  necessity.  To  the  prospective  buyer  I  would  suggest  the 
purchasing  of  a  well  built  machine,  one  that  is  double  cased,  and  that  is  easily 
cleaned,  and  whose  fixtures,  such  as  the  lamps,  etc.,  are  convenient.  I  do  not  know 
which  is  the  best  incubator  made. 

Eecent  scientific  investigations  indicate  that  it  is  probable,  in  some  instances, 
that  disease  organisms,  found  in  dirty  incubators,  cause  serious  harm.  Our  plan- 
no  matter  what  the  type  of  machine — is  to  thoroughly  wash  the  entire  interior  of 
every  machine  before  putting  in  the  eggs  for  hatching.  We  use  a  ten  per  cent, 
solution  of  a  tarry  compound,  such  as  Creoline  or  Zenoleum.  This  helps  to  clean 
the  machine,  and  if  applied  hot,  so  much  the  better.  We  have  obtained  best  results 
by  using  water  or  moisture  during  the  entire  hatch.  I  have  seen  good  hatches  from 
incubators  where  no  moisture  was  used.  ^Ye  use  a  pan  beneath  the  egg-tray,  nearly 
the  full  size  of  the  machine,  and  keep  this  pan  covered  with  water,  or  wet  sand,  not 
more  than  one  inch  in  depth. 

Many  incubator  thermometers  are  not  reliable,  and  it  is,  therefore,  advisable 
each  season  to  have  the  thermometers  tested;  any  druggist  will  have  a  registered 
thermometer,  and  can  do  the  testing  if  the  owner  does  not  wish  to. 

The  hatch  is  made  or  lost  usually  during  the  first  week  of  incubation.  Keep 
the  temperature  well  up  to  103  deg.,  with  the  thermometer  lying  on  the  eggs,  and 
maintain  as  even  a  temperature  as  possible. 


25 

Do  not  set  dirty,  washed,  small  or  extra  large  eggs.  The  shell  is  porous  and 
disease  germs  that  may  be  on  dirty  eggs  might  infect  a  number  of  eggs.  Do  not 
turn  eggs  when  your  hands  are  dirty,  or  immediately  after  handling  lamps  or  kero- 
sene. 

The  room  in  which  the  machine  is  operated  should  be  clean  and  well  ventilated. 
If  possible  select  a  room  that  varies  but  little  in  temperature;  in  such  a  room  it  is 
easier  to  keep  the  hatching  chamber  of  the  machine  at  an  even  temperature.  Where 
there  is  a  strong  odor  of  lamp  fumes,  or  where  there  are  decaying  vegetables,  or 
where  moulds  grow  upon  bits  of  boards  or  upon  the  walls,  an  incubator  will  not 
usually  do  good  work.  The  lamp  burns  brighter,  the  eggs  hatch  better,  and  the 
chicks  have  more  vitality  when  the  air  in  the  incubator  room  is  pure. 

Operating  the  Machine. 

We  have  obtained  the  best  average  hatches  and  the  best  chicks,  other  things 
being  equal,  by  operating  the  machines  at  103  degrees  F.,  with  the  bulb  of  the 
thermometer  resting  on  the  top  of  an  egg,  not  at  the  side  of  the  egg,  nor  at  the 
bottom.  This  heat  is  maintained  throughout  the  hatch.  We  are  particular  to  set 
clean  eggs,  usually  not  over  two  days  old,  which  have  been  held  at  a  temperature 
between  55  and  75  degrees.  The  eggs  are  best  put  in  the  machine  in  the  morning; 
then  the  gradual  heating  of  the  eggs  goes  steadily  on  during  the  day  and  by  night 
we  know  that  the  machine  is  not  too  hot  or  cold.  Moisture  is  used  from  the  start; 
we  are  more  particular  about  moisture  during  the  first  week  of  the  hatch  than  at 
any  other  period.  No  ventilation  is  given  until  after  the  ninth  day  of  incubation. 
Our  best  hatches  in  nearly  all  instances  are  from  machines  operated  at  a  -very  even 
heat,  with  plenty  of  moisture,  and  little  or  no  ventilation  up  to  the  ninth  day. 
After  this  period  the  eggs  need  plenty  of  air  and  the  ventilators  opened  gradually 
until  wide  open  at  hatching  time.  The  hatch  appears  to  be  made  or  lost  during  the 
first  week  of  incubation. 

We  do  not  like  to  let  the  chicks  off  the  trays  or  down  in -the  nursery.  If  they 
pant,  it  is  nearly  always  from  a  lack  of  air ;  in  such  cases  we  open  the  door  slightly 
or  sufficient  to  keep  the  chicks  comfortable. 

■ 

General  Symptoms  of  What  is  Commonly  Called  White  Diarrhoea  in 

■     Young  Chicks. 

When  chicks  are  about  twenty-four  to  ninety-six  hours  old  they  resemble  each 
other  very  much  in  appearance,  with  the  exception  that  we  have  noticed  that  hen- 
hatched  and  chickens  hatched  in  moist  incubators  were  longer  in  the  down,  or 
looked  larger  and  fluffier.  The  trouble  generally  begins  about  the  fifth  ^ay.  Some  of 
the  chicks  will  have  a  thin  white  discharge  from  the  vent,  the  chick  is  not  active,  it 
has  a  sleepy  look ;  also  the  head  appears  to  settle  back  towards  the  body ;  one  thinks 
the  chick  was  cold  or  in  great  pain.  Some  of  the  chicks  get  in  the  warmest  spot 
under  the  hover,  others  have  intense  thirst.  The  white  discharge  from  the  vent  is 
not  always  present.  The  chicks  may  die  in  large  numbers  between  the  fifth  and 
tenth  days,  or  there  may  be  a  gradual  dropping  off  each  day  until  they  are  six 
weeks  of  age.  The  disease  kills  some  quickly,  others  linger  for  a  week  or  more.  A 
few  chicks  appear  to  recover,  but  seldom,  if  ever,  make  good  birds.  They  are  small, 
unthrifty,  and  are  good  subjects  for  roup  or  any  other  epulemic. 

To  "the  ordinary  observer  a  post-mortem  examination  may  reveal  any  or  all  of 
the  following  conditions:   The  lungs  will  usually  show  small  white  spots  in  them. 


26 

These  are  generally  quite  hard  and  cheesy.  These  spots  are  not  always  present,  but 
from  our  examination  I  would  judge  they  are  in  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  cases.  Some 
lungs  have  no  white  spots,  but  are  red,  sometimes  fleshy.  These  in  our  experience 
are  not  very  common  unless  the  chickens  are  chilled.  The  yolk  is  often  hard  and 
cheesy.  It  varies  greatly — some  jolks  are  of  a  gelatinous  nature  or  almost  like  the 
white  of  the  eggs;  others  are  hard  and  cheesy  and  very  yellow  in  color,  sometimes 
these  are  greatly  inflamed;  other  yolks  appear  like  a  custard  that  has  curdled,  and 
they  usually  have  a  very  offensive  odor.  The  ceaca,  or  blind  intestine,  is  frequently 
filled  with  a  cheesy  substance. 

The  white  spots  in  the  chicks'  lungs  are  generally  considered  to  be  due  to  the 
growth  of  a  common  mould.  This  may  be  in  the  eggs,  or  more  frequently  comes 
from  moldy  feed  or  litter.  It  is  much  more  troublesome  in  damp,  dull  weather, 
when  the  chicks  are  most  inclined  to  stay  under  or  near  the  hover. 


BEARING  CHICKENS. 

Experience  and  observation  has  led  me  to  believe  that  chickens,  in  order  to  do 
their  best,  require  to  be  grown  on  fairly  good  land,  probably  a  clay  loam  or  a  sandy 
loam  being  the  best.  I  have  never  been  successful  nor  yet  have  I  seen  good  flocks 
of  chickens  grown  on  very  light  sand.  Chickens  require  dry  ground  at  times,  yet, 
at  the  same  time,  a  rather  moist  location  near  by  renders  a  good  foraging  ground. 

Young  chickens  require  plenty  of  ground  to  range  over;  some  convenient 
shade,  such  as  fruit  trees,  or* growing  corn  or  artichokes;  tender  green  food  and 
insects.  Many  growers  of  large  numbers  of  chickens  on  limited  areas  crowd  the 
birds  far  too  much,  the  result  hemg  a  large  proportion  of  unthrifty  chicks.  These 
last  mentioned  chickens  have  been  very  much  in  evidence  on  nearly  all  the  large, 
intensive  poultry  plants  that  I  have  visited.  The  chicks  frequently  outgrow  these 
conditions  to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  very  difficult  to  pick  out  when  mature, 
but  are  readily  seen  Avhen  about  one-half  grown.  Many  growers  appear  to  believe 
that  as  long  as  a  chicken  is  alive  it  is  a  good  one,  but  this  is  folly.  I  believe  by 
breeding  from  such  stock  the  vitality  will  gradually  decrease  until  we  shall  reach 
a  point  where  eggs  are  practically  unhatchable. 

Chickens  when  taken  from  the  nest  or  incubator  should  be  placed  on  ground 
upon  which  no  other  chickens  have  ranged  that  season.  The  range  or  run  for  a 
chick  during  the  first  four  weeks  of  its  life  need  not  be  large,  but  it  should  be  fresh. 

Many  make  the  mistake  of  putting  late  hatched  chickens  on  old  tough  sod,  the 
green  grass  (if  there  is  any)  being  so  tough  that  the  chicks  cannot  break  it,  and 
often  the  grass  too  thick  to  admit  of  a  chick  catching  an  insect  before  it  is  out  of 
reach.  T  much  prefer  a  cultivated  piece  of  ground.  A  little  tender  lettuce,  or  rape, 
or  even  weeds  for  green  food  are  preferable  to  summer  sod,  or  grass.  But  after  the 
middle  of  May  the  cultivated  land  gives  better  results  than  grass  land. 

A  corn  field  well  cultivated  appears  to  be  nearly  an  ideal  place  for  raising  late 
hatched  chicks. 

Chickens  hatcher!  in  an  incubator  can  be  reared  either  with  hens  or  with  a 
brooder.  Some  people  are  able  to  make  good  hatches  with  their  incubators ;  but 
they  are  unable  to  rear  the  chickens  in  brooders.  In  this  case  I  would  advise  the  use 
of  broody  hens  for  mothers ;  and  the  same  would  apply  to  those  who  have  an 
incubator,  but  do  not  care  to  invest  in  a  brooder. 


27 


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28 

The  best  plan  I  know  of  to  get  the  broody  hens  to  take  the  chicks  is  to  give  the 
hen  two  or  three  eggs  out  of  the  incubator  on  the  18th  or  19th  day  and  allow  her  to 
hatch  them.  When  your  incubator  hatch  is  over  take  a  dozen  or  fifteen  chickens 
and  put  them  under  the  hen  after  dark.  Even  if  they  happen  to  differ  in  color  from 
those  she  has  hatched,  she  vnW  mother  them  all  the  same.  If  you  give  them  to  her 
in  the  day  time  she  may  not  do  so.  Never  neglect  to  give  the  hen  a  thorough  dust- 
ing before  giving  her  any  eggs.  If  there  is  one  thing  more  than  another  that 
requires  careful  attention  in  rearing  young  chickens,  it  is  to  keep  them  free  from 


Fig.  16.     Coop  A.— Each  side  of  roof  24  in.  by  30  in.;  bottom  2  ft.  4  in. 

lice.  If  lice  get  upon  them,  from  the  hen  or  elsewhere,  a  large  proportion  of  them 
will  be  almost  sure  to  die. 

There  are  many  good  brooders  upon  the  market  which  are  well  described  in 
the  manufacturers'  catalogues;  hence  a  description  here  is  unnecessary.  The 
brooder  lamp  should  always  be  arranged  so  as  to  give  little  chance  of  fire. 

If  the  brooder  can  be  placed  in  a  small  portable  house,  it  is  a  good  plan,  as  the 
brooder  is  thus  protected  from  stormy  cold  winds  in  the  early  spring;  also  from  the 
heat  later  on.  The  house  protects  the  chicks  from  rain,  and  serves  as  a  roosting 
coop  after  they  become  too  larafe  to  stay  in  the  brooder. 


^-    -i^.  -i.-,—-;^  :h^-_^«-^:^?<.  fr"    -- 


Fig.  17.     Coop  B.— Length,  6  ft.;   width,  2  ft.  6  in.;   height  in  front, 
2  ft.  4  in.;   height  at  back,  18  in. 

Chicks  should  not  be  fed  until  they  are  at  least  36  hours  old.  It  is  a  serious 
mistake  to  feed  them  earlier.  Too  early  feeding  is  the  cause  of  indigestion  and 
bowel  trouble  in  many  cases.  We  try  to  keep  the  temperature  of  the  brooder  be- 
tween 90  and  95  degrees  (at  the  chick  level)  throughout  the  first  week.  After  the  first 
week  the  temperature  is  gradually  lowered,  generally  speaking,  about  1  degree  a  day. 


22 

When  the  chicks  are  put  in  the  brooder,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  every  15  chicks 
will  raise  the  temperature  of  the  brooder  one  degree.  Be  careful  not  to  gQi  your 
brooder  too  hot,  nor  yet  so  cool  as  to  chill  the  chicks.  This  is  very  important, 
especially  during  the  first  ten  days. 

The  floor  should  be  covered  with  clover  chaff  or  other  clean  litter.  Be  very 
careful  not  to  use  any  musty  or  mouldy  material  as  litter  before  the  chicks  are  put 
into  the  brooder.  Lukewarm  water  should  also  be  put  into  the  brooder  for  drink 
before  the  chickens  are  taken  from  the  machine.  1  have  had  best  success  in  starting 
young  chicks  on  hard-boiled  eggs,  finely  chopped,  shell  included,  and  bread-crumbs 
about  four  parts  by  weight  of  bread  to  one  of  eggs.  This  is  fed  dry.  After  the 
first  two  days  we  begin  to  give  an  occasional  feed  of  seed  chick-food,  which  is  made 
as  follows : — 

Cracked  wheat    35  parts. 

Granulated  oat  meal  30  " 

Small  cracked   corn    30  " 

Grit  (chicken  size)    5  " 

This  can  be  used  for  the  first  feed  and  continued  through  the  first  eight  to  ten 
weeks  with  good  results.  We  aim  to  feed  the  chicks  five  times  a  day.  Generally 
after  the  first  few  days,  there  are  three  feeds  a  day  of  this  chick  food,  one  of  bread 
and  milk  (the  bread  being  squeezed  dry  and  crumbled),  and  one  of  whole  wheat,  or 
a  mash  made  of  equal  parts  of  bran,  shorts  and  corn  meal,  to  which  has  been  added 


Pig.  18.    Growing  Chickens  in  the  Cornfield. 

ten  per  cent,  of  animal  meal  or  blood  meal.  If  we  can  secure  fresh  liver  and  get  it 
boiled,  this  is  generally  given  twice  a  week,  and  the  animal  meal  is  then  omitted 
from  the  mash.    If  the  chicks  cannot  gei  out  to  run  about,  the  seed  chick-food  may 


30 

be  scattered  in  the  chaff,  and  the  little  chicks  will  work  aw^ay  most  of  the  day  for  it. 
TJii^  gives  them  exercise,  which  is  a  necessity  in  rearing  chicks.  If  there  is  no 
green,  food  to  reach,  it  must  he  supplied.  Lettuce  is  excellent.  Sprouted  grains  are 
very  good,  as  is  also  root  sprout,  cabbage,  rape,  etc. 

When  the  chicks  get  to  be  about  eight  weeks  of  age,  we  usually  feed  three 
times  a  day— the  mash  food  in  the  morning  and  whole  wheat  and  cracked  corn  at 
noon  and  night.  If  we  are  anxious  to  force  the  chicks,  we  give  two  feeds  of  mash 
and  increase  the  animal  meal  a  little. 

Chicks  hatched  at  a  season  of  the  year  when  they  can  range  out  of  doors  need 
not  be  fed  as  often  or  as  carefully  as  described  above.  During  the  winter  season 
where  chicks  are  reared  indoors  too  liberal  feeding  often  causes  leg  weakness,  etc. 
In  such  cases,  sweep  away  the  snow  and  do  your  best  to  get  the  chicks  out  on  the 
ground.  Feed  but  very  little  hard  grain  and  use  mostly  wet  mashes.  Use  as  much 
cooked  or  raw  vegetables  as  chicks  will  eat. 

Close  confinement,  poor  ventilation  and  feeding  of  large  quantities  of  hard  or 
dry  chick  foods  to  winter  broods  of  chicks  have  given  us  very  poor  results.  Watch 
the  chicks,  and  when  you  notice  some  of  the  largest  getting  weak  on  their  legs, 
reduce  the  hard  feed  and  get  them  out  of  doors  if  possible. 

We  have  used  for  several  seasons  the  hopper  plan  of  feeding  chicks  during  the 
spring  and  summer  months  with  good  success.  We  have  tried  placing  a  hopper  or 
trough  of  chick  feed,  made  of  g-rains  as  previously  described  (seed  chick-feed),  in 


Fig.  19.     This  cut  shows  the  method  of  Brooding,  etc. 


a  coop  along  with  the  hen  and  chicks,  and  keeping  the  supply  constant  in  or  near 
the  coop,  from  the  day  the  chicks  were  put  out  until  well  grown,  with  most  satis- 
factory results.  Where  chickens  have  a  good  range  about  the  fields  of  the  average 
farm  I  know  of  no  better  plan  of  feeding  chicks.    The  hoppers  may  be  made  of  any 


31 


size  or  shape  so  long  as  the  supply  of  grain  is  constant  and  the  supply  large  enough 
to  last  for  about  one  week.  A  hopper  which  slopes  from  both  sides  will  feed  better 
than  one  with  a  slope  to  but  one  side. 

Where  the  hopper  plan  is  adopted  on  the  farm,  the  labor  problem  is  very  much 
reduced.  This  plan  can  be  carried  out  with  chicks  in  brooders,  but  for  the  first  ten 
days  or  two  weeks  I  prefer  feeding  the  chicks  about  five  times  daily,  after  which 
time  the  hoppers  are  used.  Water  should  be  given  daily  in  a  clean  dish.  We  have 
had  chicks  with  hens  do  extra  well  when  turned  in  a  large  corn  field  with  a  hopper 
of  grain  constantly  near  the  coop,  but  no  water.  These  birds  were  a  long  distance 
from  a  water  supply,  hence  they  were  tried  without  water  with  no  bad  results.  I 
would  prefer  giving  water  if  the  supply  is  clean  and  constant,  or  better  sour  milk. 

Chicks  are  taken  from  the  out-door  brooders  at  from  six  to  eight  weeks  of  age, 
according  to  the  weather.  A  small  coop  (Fig.  16)  is  set  in  front  of  the  brooder,  so 
that  the  chickens  cannot  get  to  the  brooder  entrance,  the  result  being  that  they  get 
into  coop  A.  After  a  day  or  two  take  away  your  brooder,  and  the  coop  can  then  be 
moved  daily  to  fresh  ground.  This  will  keep  the  coop  clean.  When  the  chicks  get 
too  large  for  the  coop  A,  which  will  be  in  about  ten  weeks,  they  are  put  into  coop  B 
(Fig.  17).  The  same  process  is  gone  through  with  coop  B.  It  is  set  in  front  of 
coop  A,  so  as  to  obstruct  the  entrance,  and  the  chicks  then  go  into  the  coop  B,  and 
soon  take  to  the  roost.     Coop  B  will  roost  30' chicks  until  full  grown.     Try  to  keep 

C0V£  ft. 


/7SP      /{oPPtR. 


Si  Oe..   /.  CHQPPE D    FEED. 

Side: .x.^hole:  dizrIn. 


• 

pi 

C 

13 

■- 

e: 

^    1 

1 

■zf- 


Bill  of  Mateblal. 


2endsgx  12"  x  1—8" 

1  bot.tomgxl2"x2'— lOr 

C.  2  sides  g  x  3f "  x  3'— 0" 

D.  2  sides  g  x  2V'  x  3'— 0" 
18  pieces  i  x  1§  x  10" 

Side  1. — Chopped  feed. 


A. 
B. 


E. 


F.  1  division  h  x  16"  x  2—10  [ 

G.  2      "        ix9Kx2'— lOi" 
H.  2  pieces  4  x  l"x  3' — 0" 
/.    2     "      ixl2"x3'-2"->p.., 
./.    2  ends  I  x  6^  x  V'—~,      j  ^"^^ 

Side  2.  —Whole  grain. 


.'er. 


your  chickens  roosting  in  the  open  air  as  long  as  possible.  Never  house  them  in 
close,  stuffy  houses.  If  you  do  they  will  be  siire  to  go  wrong,  become  weak,  and  be 
of  little  or  no  value,  either  as  breeders  or  egg-producers.  When  the  indoor  brooder 
is  used  in  a  colony  house,  the  brooder  is  removed  from  tine,  house  and  the  chickens 
roost  in  colony  house  until  they  are  ready  to  market. 


32 

There  are  many  advantages  in  using  several  small  movable  colony  houses  for 
rearing  chickens. 

(1)  There  is  no  loss  of  time  in  teaching  the  chicks  to  go  from  a  small  coop  to 
a  larger  one.  Movable  brooders  are  used  inside  the  house,  and  when  no  more  heat 
is  required  these  are  taken  out.  About  this  time  low,  flat  perches  are  put  in  the 
house ;  the  chicks  soon  commence  perching,  and  thus  prevent  crowding.  A  hundred 
chicks  can  be  put  in  a  house.  This  house  will  accommodate  fifty  chickens  of  about 
four  or  five  pounds  weight,  or  until  large  enough  to  be  fattened  or  put  into  laying 
quarters.  Usually  some  birds  are  sold  as  broilers,  hence  there  is  not  much  over- 
crowding. 

(2)  The  chickens  can  be  reared  on  a  portion  of  the  farm,  where  a  full  crop  as 
well  as  a  crop  of  chickens  can  be  grown.  This  usually  means  new  land  each  season 
for  the  chickens,  which  in  turn  means  stronger  and  better  birds  reared  with  less 
grain.  It  also  may  mean  the  destruction  of  many  injurious  insects.  We  use  the  corn 
fields,  pasture  fields,  and  orchards,  or  any  similar  condition  under  which  a  crop  of 
chickens  and  an  additional  crop  can  be  obtained  from  the  land  during  the  same 
season.  Chickens  grown  on  the  same  land  year  after  year  do  not  thrive  as  well  as 
those  grown  on  new  ground  each  year. 

(3)  Should  the  chickens  at  any  time  become  destructive  they  can  be  moved. 
We  have  raised  chickens  in  tomato  fields,  and  if  they  develop  the  habit  of  destroying 
ripe  tomatoes,  all  that  is  necessary  to  avoid  further  trouble  is  to  shut  the  chickens 
in  at  night,  and  next  day  draw  the  house  to  a  new  field  and  open  the  door.  The 
chickens  will  come  home  to  the  colony  house  to  roost. 

(4)  Where  there  has  been  considerable  grain  shelled  on  the  field  during 
harvest,  the  chickens  can  be  easily  moved  to  the  field,  and  there  they  will  gather 
the  grain. 

(5)  Any  vermin  that  might  worry  the  chickens  at  night  can  be  easily  kept  out 
by  shutting  the  door. 

(6)  During  rainy  or  bad  weather,  the  chickens  have  a  place  for  shelter.  This 
is  very  important  early  in  the  spring  and  late  in  the  fall. 

Cost  of  Eearing. 

We  were  able,  during  the  season  of  1909,  to  keep  an  exact  record  of  the  birds 
grown  in  the  pasture  field,  and  of  those  grown  in  the  orchard.  The  chickens  in  the 
pasture  field  were  hatched  during  the  first  two  weeks  in  May.  Three  hundred  and 
forty-five  birds  were  grown  to  maturity  or  to  a  size  suitable  for  fattening.  We 
began  to  remove  the  cockerels  from  the  field  to  the  fattening  pens  on  August  the 
25th.  The  pullets  and  cockerels  held  as  breeders  were  all  taken  from  the  field  by 
the  22nd  of  October.  The  breeds  reared  were  Orpingtons,  Wyandottes,  Plymouth 
Rocks,  Leghorns,  etc.  They  consumed  4,304  lbs.  of  grain ;  of  this  about  one-third 
would  be  dry  mash,  nearly  300  lbs.  chick  feed,  and  the  balance  wheat,  corn  and 
hulled  oats  in  the  proportion  of  two  and  a  half,  two  and  one.  There  was  five  per 
cent,  of  beef  scrap  added  to  the  dry  mash.  The  birds  were  weighed  when  taken 
from  the  field,  weighing  3,341  lbs.,  or  one  pound  of  chicken  representing  3.2  lbs.  of 
grain.  Some  of  the  breeding  cockerels  weighed  over  seven  pounds,  and  the  Leghorn 
pullets  did  not  average  three  pounds  in  weight.  We  removed  most  of  the  cockerels 
at  about  a  three  and  one-half  pound  weight,  or  when  they  would  fatten  most 
economically. 

The  chickens  reared  in  the  orchard  varied  more  in  age.  The  first  were  hatched 
on  the  25th  April,  and  the  last  on  July  6th.     Most  of  the  birds  were  hatched  in 


33 

May.  We  sold  218  as  broilers  from  this  lot  during  July.  The  later  cockerels  were 
removed  to  the  fattening  crates  as  was  done  with  those  groAvn  in  the  pasture  field. 
Most  of  the  pullets  were  taken  out  about  the  1st  of  October,  and  by  the  1st  Novem- 
ber practically  all  had  been  removed  with  the  exception  of  about  100;  these  were 
cockerels  held  as  breeders,  and  the  July  chicks. 


The  above  illustr?.tion  shows  how  it  is  possible  to  produce  two  crops  in  one  season, 
viz.:  apples  and  chickens.  This  is  one  of  the  best  places  to  grow  strong,  healthy 
chickens  at  a  very  low  cost. 

We  raised  in  this  field  733  chickens  at  a  cost  of  8,649  lbs.  of  grain.  A  pound 
of  chicken  equalled  3.34  lbs.  of  grain,  or  nearly  the  same  as  the  pasture  field 
chickens. 

The  figures  mean  that  a  farmer  can  in  his  fields  raise  a  four-pound  cockerel  for 
thirteen  or  fourteen  pounds  of  grain.  This  amount  of  grain  at  $30.00  per  ton 
would  be  worth  twenty-one  cents.  The  cockerel  would  sell  in  the  market  for  at 
least  forty  cents,  and  if  fattened,  would  be  worth  sixty  cents.  The  data  we  have  on 
hand  would  indicate  that  it  costs  about  five  to  seven  cents  each  to  hatch  the  above 
birds,  that  is  figuring  eggs,  oil  and  losses.  Several  years  figures  show  that  four 
pounds  of  grain  will  produce  a  pound  of  gain  in  live  weight. 


Breeding  Market  Foavls. 

When  looking  over  dressed  poultry  in  some  of  our  markets,  I  have  often  thought 
how  easy  it  would  be  to  improve  the  appearance  of  much  of  the  ordinary  poultry, 
and  some  of  that  which  is  specially  fattened,  .if  the  birds  are  bred  to  a  proper  type. 
I  have  spent  much  time  in  examining  different  types  of  birds,  alive  and  dressed,  and 
in  observing  the  feeding  capacity  of  certain  types;  but  it  would  take  years  to  arrive 
at  definite  conclusions  on  these  points.  I  am,  however,  of  the  opinion  that  one  of 
the  most  important  things  to  be  sought  after  is  constiiution.     This  may  have  no 


34 

actual  market  value^  but  it  certainly  has  much  to  do  with  the  bird's  ability  to  grow 
and  put  on  flesh.  What  we  want  is  a  good  feeder,  and  an  economical  producer. 
Generally,  a  bird  with  a  short,  stout,  well-curved  beak,  a  broad  head  (not  too  long), 
and  a  bright,  clear  eye,  has  a  good  constitution.  And  I  have  noticed  that  when  a 
bird  has  a  long,  narrow  beak,  a  thin,  long  comb  and  head,  and  an  eye  somewhat 
sunken  in  the  head,  it  is  usually  lacking  in  constitution.     Such  a  bird  is  likely  to 


Fig.  20.     Colony  houses  used  for  rearing  chicks. 

for  the  cliickens. 


Articliokes  growing  as  shade 


have  a  narrow,  long  body  and  long  legs,  upon  which  it  seldom  stands  straight. 
.There  are  some  exceptions  to  this  rule ;  yet,  generally  speaking,  if  a  bird  has  a  good 
head  the  chances  are  favorable  for  a  good  body;  and,  if  it  has  a  poor  head  the 
chances  are  against  it.  I  have  frequently  noticed  in  the  rose-comb  breeds,  such  as 
Wyandottes,  that  a  good-shaped  one  is  seldom  found  with  a  long,  narrow  comb. 

The  neck  should  be  moderately  short  and  stout,  indicating  vigor.  The  breast 
is  the  most  important  point  in  a  market  chicken.  It  should  be  broad,  moderately 
deep ;  and,  if  broad,  it  will  present  a  fine  appearance  and  appear  well-fleshed.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  a  broad,  deep  breast  will  carry  more  meat  than  a  moderately 
deep  breast  of  the  same  width ;  yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  latter  will  present  a 
much  better  appearance,  and  sell  more  quickly,  and  at  a  higher  price  in  the  market. 
The  breast  bone  should  be  well  covered  with  flesh  to  the  very  tip. 

When  considering  the  length  of  breast,  we  must  try  to  have  it  come  both  well 
forward  and  backward  (See  Figs  21  and  22),  and  not  be  cut  off  at  an  angle,  as  in 
Fig  23.  The  body,  in  general,  should  present  the  appearance  of  an  oblong  when 
the  head,  neck  and  tail  are  removed. 

We  frequently  see  birds  that  are  very  flat  in  front,  and  cut  up  behind,  as  in 
Fig.  24.  Chickens  of  this  class  have  a  very  short  hreast ;  and,  if  the  breast  happens 
to  be  deep,  as  it  is  in  this  bird,  the  chicken  will  have  a  very  poor  appearance  when 
dressed,  as  it  will  show  a  marked  lack  of  width  and  length  of  breast,  with  excessive 
depth.  (Notice  that  the  head  is  narrow  and  long,  the  body  is  narrow,  the  eye  is 
bright  but  slightly  sunken,  the  legs  are  long  and  not  straight  under  the  body.) 

In  Fig  23  observe  the  very  flat  breast,  the  length  of  back,  the  long  neck  and 
head,  the  narrow  comb,  the  sunken  eye,  and  the  length  of  legs.  The  breast  comes 
fairly  well  back,  but  not  well  forward. 


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37 

In  Figs  21  and  22,  the  bill  is  short  and  stout,  but  not  so  well  curved  as  it 
should  be.  Note  the  breadth  of  head,  the  prominence  and  brightness  of  the  eye, 
the  short,  stout  neck,  the  great  width  of  the  breast,  the  fullness  caused  by  the  brea.^t 
bone  extending  well  forward,  the  short,  stout  legs  (straight  under  the  body),  and 
the  width  between  the  legs.  There  is  an  expression  about  this  chicken  that  indicates 
health  and  the  essence  of  vigor. 

The  back  should  be  broad,  to  give  lung  and  heart  capacity;  and  the  width 
should  extend  well  back  to  the  tail-head.  We  do  not  want  the  wedge-shaped  back, 
as  seen  in  some  fowls  that  have  great  width  at  the  shoulders  and  taper  rapidly 
toward  the  tail-head. 

It  is  much  easier  to  get  good-shaped  market  pullets  than  good  cockerels.  The 
market  demands  a  five-pound  bird  when  dressed,  and  farmers  have  gone  into  rais- 


Fig.  24. 


ing  big  chickens.  To  that  end  they  are  asking  for  large,  overgrown  cockerels,  of 
excessive  depth,  for  breeders;  and  the  result  is  that  we  get  dressed  chickens  weigh- 
ing four  to  five  pounds  each  that  have  immense,  high  breast-bones  and  very  long 
legs.  These  are  not  attractive  to  the  buyers,  and  they  sell  at  less  per  pound  than 
plumper  birds.  For  example,  if  given  two  birds  of  the  same  width  of  breast,  one 
is  one  and  one-half  inches  deeper  in  the  breast  than  the  other.  The  result  will 
be  that  one  bird  will  look  plump  and  sell  readily,  while  the  other  will  lack  in 
plumpness  and  be  slow  in  selling.  This  lack  of  plumpness  can  be  bred  out  by  using 
such  males  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

We  like  to  have  birds  as  well  built  as  we  can  get  them,  and  Fig  21  is  as  near 
the  ideal  market  chicken  as  we  have  in  fhe  breed  which  he  represents. 


38 


Fig. 


Fig.  26 


Fig.  25. 


Fig.  27. 


39 

The  hen  as  seen  in  Fig.  25  is  of  a  good  market  type.  (Note  the  width  and 
fullness  of  breast.)  As  a  breeder,  she  is  a  little  fine  in  bone,  and  rather  too  small. 
She  has,  however,  that  blocky  appearance  which  is  desirable. 

Fig  26  is  a  photo  of  a  cross-bred  chick  (sire,  Buff  Orpington;  dam,  Houdan). 
Note  the  length  and  fullness  of  the  breast;  also  good  beak  and  eye. 

Fig  27  represents  the  long,  narrow  sort.  (Note  the  long  beak,  the  narrow 
head,  the  sunken  eye,  the  long  neck,  and  long,  crooked  legs.)  When  dressed  his 
appearance  will  not  be  pleasing. 


Fig.  28.     Showing  the  difference  in  amount  of  flesh  covering  the  breast  bone, 

due  to  breeding. 

Breeding  for  Meat  Production 

Fig.  28  is  a  photograph  of  two  fattened  chickens,  and  shows  very  clearly  the 
great  difference  in  the  amount  of  breast  meat  upon  the  two  individuals.  Many 
people  believe  that  flesh  upon  the  breast  is  a  matter  of  feeding  and  not  breeding. 
These  two  chickens  are  equally  fat,  and  both  have  been  equally  well  reared  and 
fattened.  The  difference  in  the  amount  of  breast  meat  is  a  matter  of  breeding 
and  not  so  much  of  feeding. 

Of  course  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that  if  birds  are  improperly  nourished  or  are 
sick  their  breasts  will  become  bare  of  meat,  but  where  judicious  feeding  is  prac- 
tised one  will  find  a  great  difference  in  the  amount  of  flesh  or  meat  upon  the 
breasts  of  various  chickens  due,  of  course,  entirely  to  the  individuality  of  the 
chicken. 

Our  experience  has  been  that  if  we  select  males  with  long  breast  bones,  that 
are  well  covered  with  flesh  or  muscle  to  the  tip  of  the  breast  bone,  we  are  able 
to  produce  chickens  for  market  purposes  that  have,  on  an  average,  well  covered 
breast  bones. 

Breeding  for  Egg  Production. 


Can  the  egf^  yield  be  increaserl  by  broorling  from  the  best  producers,  or  is  one 
just  as  likely  to  get  as  many  eggs  from  any  strain,  family  or  breed,  provided  the 
birds  are  strong  and  vigorous,  and  hatched  at  the  proper  season  of  the  year? 


40 

The  writer's  experience  is  that  there  is  a  difference  between  families  of  the 
same  breed  or  variety  as  far  as  egg  production  is  concerned.  Some  families  appear 
to  lay  much  more  readily  than,  others,  and  a  few  families  that  have  come  under 
my  observation  require  very  careful  attention  and  feeding  in  order  to  get  a  reason- 
able egg  production. 

The  question  naturally  arises  as  to  what  number  of  eggs  should  be  expected 
from  a  hen.  The  average  over  the  Province  is  probably  under  100  eggs  per  hen 
per  year,  and  many  of  the  good  flocks  do  not  average  above  120  eggs  per  hen.  Much, 
of  course,  depends  upon  the  season  of  the  year  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid.  There 
is  an  over  production  of  eggs  during  March,  April  and  May,  and  an  under  produc- 
tion during  October,  November,  December,  January  and  February.  The  writer  be- 
lieves it  is  within  the  possibilities  of  most  farmers  to  produce  from  108  to  120  eggs 
per  year  from  each  hen  kept,  and  it  is  also  his  opinion  that  large  flocks  may  be 
expected  to  yield  150  eggs  per  year  if  well  bred,  and  proper  care  and  attention  be 
given.  Many  small  flocks  will  probably  average  much  higher,  but  not  in  flocks  of 
from  600  to  1,000.  A  dozen  hens  might  be  selected  that  would  lay  from  180  to 
200  eggs  each  for  one  year,  but  with  500  or  600  similar  hens  or  pullets  it  would 
be  a  very  difficult  task. 

Good,  strong,  vigorous  birds  are  essential  for  egg  production.  The  simple 
fact  that  a  hen  has  laid  200  or  more  eggs  in  her  pullet  year  is  not  sufficient  to  war- 
rant her  being  used  as  a  breeder.  The  writer  has  seen  a  number  of  200-egg  hens  with 
long  narrow  heads  and  sunken  eyes,  which  indicate  low  vitality,  and,  moreover, 
has  tested  a  number  of  them  as  breeders,  and  has  yet  to  see  one  that  was  worth 
while  breeding  from,  judging  from  the  performance  and  living  powers  of  her 
offspring. 

The  selection  of  breeding  stock  for  the  production  of  good  laying  pullets,  is 
one  of  the  many  problems  in  poultry  keeping  of  which  we  are  not  absolutely  sure 
of  the  results.  We  have  been  pedigreeing  chicks  from  known  performers  for  a 
number  of  years.  Our  work  has  been  mostly  with  Barred  Plymouth  Eocks,  although 
other  breeds  are  being  used.  The  results  so  far  indicate  much  the  same  as  those 
found  at  Maine  Experiment  Station,  namely,  that  the  sire  has  more  to  do  with 
the  laying  pullet  than  has  the  dam.  We  select  males  of  strong,  vigorous,  appear- 
ance who  grow  quickly  and  whose  mother  was  a  good  layer,  especially  of  winter 
eggs.  The  total  year's  production  is  better  than  180  eggs,  and  in  nearly  all 
instances  over  200  eggs.  Not  only  should  the  individual  be  of  excellent  appearance 
and  pedigree  but  his  brothers  and  sisters  should  all  be  good  birds.  The  females 
mated  with  such  a  male  may  be  hens  or  pullets,  but  all  should  be  good  winter 
layers.  By  this  we  mean,  they  should  produce  three  or  more  dozens  of  eggs  during 
the  period  from  November  first  to  February  twenty-eighth.  It  naturally  follows 
that  long-lived,  known  breeders  of  performers  are  highly  prized. 

The  actual  number  of  eggs  laid  is  but  one  factor  in  breeding.  We  have  plenty 
of  evidence  that  the  hatching  power  and  size  of  the  eggs  is  inherited;  also  that 
slow  and  rapid  feathering  are  inherited  characters.  Some  hens  lay  a  large  number 
of  fertile  eggs  that  hatch  poorly  and  the  chicks  are  weak  and  unthrifty,  such,  of 
course,  are  undesirable  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  offspring  of  certain  males. 
The  breeder's  problem,  besides  securing  females  of  high  egg  production,  is  to 
secure  an  egg  of  two  ounces  weight  or  better  and  of  high  hatching  power.  These 
are  some  of  the  characters  we  are  endeavoring  to  fix  in  the  birds  we  are  breeding. 
It  is  almost  impossible  for  the  farmer  to  keep  as  careful  records  as  we  are  doing, 
but  to  the  breeders  of  exhibition  or  high  class  utility  stock  I  would  recommend 
the  practice  as  one  worth  while. 


41 

AVe  are  aslced  almost  daily  if  as  good  average  results  could  not  be  obtained  by 
close  observation;  or,  in  other  words,  are  there  not  certain  outward  appearances  by 
which  one  could  select  the  males  and  females.  We  cannot  give  a  positive  answer, 
but  the  following  characters  have  so  far  been  present  in  nearly  all  good  producers: 

1.  Strong,  vigorous,  and  early  maturing  birds  of  fair  size,  not  exceptionally 
small  nor  yet  very  large. 

2.  Those  that  are  usually  very  active,  early  off  the  roost,  and  late  to  go  to 
roost. 

3.  Most  of  tlie  males  are  quarrelsome. 

4.  Nearly  all  heavy  laying  hens  are  late  in  moulting. 

The  following  table  gives  a  comparison  of  two  flocks  of  twenty-ithree  Barred 
Rock  pullets,  that  were  in  every  way  treated  alike,  except  as  to  the_  method  of 
breeding.  They  are  the  same  age,  were  hatched  and  reared  by  the  natural  method, 
and  have  always  lived  in  the  same  houses  and  enjoyed  the  same  range. 

The  one  flock,  known  as  the  heavier  layers,  has  been  bred  for  some  years  for 
early  maturity  and  winter  laying. 

The  other  pullets  are  bred  from  birds  that  have  been  bred  mainly  with  the 
idea  of  producing  good  specimens  of  the  breed,  as  to  shape,  color  and  size. 

The  bred-to-lay  pullets  were  larger  by  October  1st,  but  the  others  were  larger 
at  February  1st.  In  other  words,  the  former  matured  earlier.  Their  brother's 
average  weight  at  five  months  of  age  was  nearly  six  and  one  half  pounds. 


Egg  Recobds  of  23  Bred-to-Lay  vs.  23  Exhibitiox  Babbed  Rock  Pullets. 


— 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

April. 

May     June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Total. 

Exhibition 

pullets 

Bred-to-lay 

pullets 

101 

66 
337 

190 
296 

132 
179 

169 
201 

224 

308 

354 
396 

334       274 
449       323 

265 
324 

247 
288 

227 

312 

2.482 
3,514 

101 

403 

486 

311 

370 

532 

750 

783       597 

589 

535 

539 

5,996 

Feed  Consumed  by  23  Bred-to-Lay  and  23  Exhibition  Barred  Rock  Pullets. 


N 

Whole  Grain  . . 

EoUed  Oats . 

Buttermilk. 

Grit. 

Oyster  Shell. 

Exhibition  pullets  . . 
Bred-to-lay  pullets  . 

1,. 324  lbs. 
], 2.38  lbs. 

762  lbs. 
502  lbs. 

2.414  lbs. 

2.415  lbs. 

34A  lbs. 
25    lbs. 

4U  lbs. 
40    lbs. 

« 

2,562  lbs. 

1,264  lbs. 

4,829  lbs. 

m  lbs. 

8U  lbs. 

The  bred-to-lay  pullets  laid  1,032  more  eggs  than  the  exhibition  pullets,  but 
it  will  be  noticed  that  the  exhibition  females  ate  more  feed.  This  is  probably  due 
to  the  fact  that  they  were  larger  birds.  The  bred-to-lay  hens  weigh  from  five  to 
six  pounds  each,  whereas  the  exhibition  hens  weigh  from  six  to  eight  pounds  each. 

The  bred-to-lay  family  mature  earlier  and  the  males  reach  a  six  pound  weight 
in  less  time  than  the  exhibition  line,  but  when  nine  months  old  the  exhibition  males 
each  weigh  about  one  pound  more. 


42 


In  the  bred-to-lay  pen  we  lost  five  females  during  the  year,  one  during  December, 
one  during  April,  two  during  May,  and  one  during  July.  The  first  four  pullets 
all  died  from  having  a  yolk  burst  in  the  bowels,  whether  this  is  an  hereditary 
weakness,  or  due  to  injury  when  being  removed  from  the  trap-nest,  I  am  unable 
Lo  answer.  The  hen  that  died  in  July,  succumbed  to  the  excessive  heat.  All  the 
hens  died  when  they  were  laying  almost  daily. 

In  the  exhibition  pen,  three  females  were  lost,  two  during  April,  and  one 
during  June.     These  birds  also  suffered  from  ovarian  trouble. 

A  "word  in  reference  to  the  individual  records  of  the  hens  who  completed  the 
year,  might  not  be  out  of  place. 

In  the  exhibition  pen  not  one  bird  produced  over  200  eggs  during  the  twelve 
months.     Five  birds  laid  over  150  eggs  each,  and  10  birds  laid  over  100  eggs  each, 
and  under  150,     Five  birds  laid  less  than  100  eggs,  each    laying,  respectively,  95,' 
40,  21,  21,  and  13. 

In  the  bred-to-lay  pen  four  birds  laid  over  200  eggs  each,  eleven  birds  laid 
over  150  eggs  each,  and  under  200,  and  the  remaining  three  birds  laid  respectively 
145,  140,  and  128  eggs. 

Some  people  might  consider  that  these  were  some  bred-to-lay  pullets  that  were 
especially  selected,  but  below  is  given  the  results  of  all  the  bred-to-lay  Barred  Eock 
pullets  that  we  had,  which  completed  a  year's  record. 

Egg  Pboduction  from  53  Barbed  Rock  Pullets,  Beed-to-Lay,  1910-1911. 


House  No. 

No.  of  Birds 

Total  Eggs  T-ald. 

Average  Eggs  per  Hen. 

4.   A 

19 
16 
18 
53 

3,405 
2,633 
3,166 

179.2 

4.   B 

164.5 

5.   A 

175.8 

9,204 

IV 3. 64 

24.5  per  cent,  of  the  pullets  laid  over  200  eggs. 

22.6  "  "  "  180 

20.7  "  "  "  160 

18.8  "  "  "  130 

3.7  "  "  "  120 

1.8  "  "  "  110 
7.8  "  "  under  100 


and    under    200  eggs. 

180  " 

160  " 

130  " 

120  " 


13  of  the  pullets  laid  over  200  eggs. 

12  "  "     180  " 

11  "  "     160  " 

10  "  "     130  " 

2  "  "     120  " 

1  "  "     110  " 

4  "  below  100  " 


— 39,  53,  83  and  93. 


43 


-I        '■■     I  IT 


Fig.  29. 


Fig.  30. 


Fig.  31. 


Figs  29  and  30.  Type  and  color  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rock,  males  and  females, 
which  for  several  generations  have  been  bred  for  heavy  winter  laying  and  early 
maturity. 


44 


'  'I>S 

1^ 

■ 

sBl" 

^^St' 

JHB 

gn 

■^^^^        ^ 

^HBl 

1 

1 

^^■Ssi^^^^SSS^H 

1 

3 

mi 

^«l 

■HPI 

1 

1 

1^ 

/ 

jr  / 

f**"--*  - 

^ 

Fig.  32. 


Fig.  33. 


Fig.  31.  Trap  nests  as  arranged  in  the  pen  and  two  of  the  bred-to-lay  Barred 
Plymouth  Eoek  hens. 

Figs  32  and  33.  Type  and  color  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  which  have  been 
selected  for  generations  for  color  and  type.  Xo  particular  attention  was  paid  to 
egg  production. 

The  writer  believes  that  by  -careful  breeding  for  a  few  years  a  family  can 
be  secured  that  will  mature  early  and  lay  well,  which  will  have  fair  to  good  color 
and  type. 


FATTENING  CHICKENS. 


The  selling  of  lean  chickens  is  wasteful,  to  say  the  least.  Much  more  interest 
is  being  taken  in  this  branch  of  the  industry  year  by  year,  and  in  districts  where 
buyers  discriminate  in  prices  between  the  Avell  finished  and  thin  chickens,  the  pro- 
gress has  been  very  pleasing.  There  are  many  buyers  who  now  pay  a  premium  for 
good  chickens.  The  demand  for  home  consumption  has  increased  to  such  an  extent 
that  the  supply  falls  far  short,  and  more  than  one  wholesale  dealer  in  our  large 
cities  is  fattening  the  thin  chickens  sent  to  market.  Some  of  the  dealers  have 
buildings  which  they  are  using  this  year,  where  they  are  fattening  hundreds  of 
birds  weekly.  They  know  that  the  farmer  or  grower  can  do  this  work  better  and 
more  cheaply,  but  if  he  will  persist  in  sending  lean  chickens  to  market,  and  the 
consuming  public  demand  fat  chickens,  some  one  must  supply  the  demand.  Some 
dealers  have  been  trying  the  proposition  in  what  might  be  termed  a  small  way  during 
the  past  two  or  three  years.  The  business  has,  as  I  understand,  been  profitable, 
even  where  the  milk  was  brought  in  by  express,  and  a  high  rental  paid  for  the 
building  used.  Surely  if  the  dealer  can  buy  all  the  raw  materials  from  the  farmer 
or  grower,  and  make  a  profit,  the  producer  should  do  as  well  or  better. 


45 


There  is  ordinarily  from  three  cents  to  seven  cents  per  pound  difference  in 
the  price  paid  for  well  fleshed  or  fattened  birds,  to  that  paid  for  birds  just  off  the 
range  or  fields.  This  means  a  difference  of  from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  cents  on  a  five- 
pound  chicken,  depending  upon  the  quality.  Not  only  does  the  feeder  make  upon 
the  gain  made  while  the  chicken  is  being  fattened,  but  the  original  weight  is  in- 
creased in  value  by  the  improvement  in  quality.  There  is  always  a  market  for 
goods  of  prime  quality,  ond  the  poor  quality  goes  at  begging  prices  when  the  supply 
is  great. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  produce  good  chickens.  Like  other  lines  of  live  stock,  the 
scrub  sort  are  not  desirable.  Good  thrifty  cockerels,  either  pure-bred,  crosses  or 
grades  of  such  breeds  as  Eocks,  Orpingtons,  Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds,  Game, 
Dorking,  etc.,  make  economical  gains.  It  is  usually  not  very  profitable  to  feed 
Leghorns,  Minorcas,  or  birds  of  similar  character.  These  breeds  make  medium 
broilers,  but  rather  poor  roasters.  The  birds  usually  make  the  greatest  gain  when 
about  three  to  four  months  of  age,  or  at  a  weight  of  three  and  one-half  to  four 
pounds.  Should  the  market  demand  a  chicken  of  more  than  five  and  one-half 
pounds  in  weight,  then  it  will  be  required  to  allow  the  birds  to  range  longer,  and 
the  gain  (in  our  experience)  will  be  hardly  as  profitable,  unless  the  price  paid  is 
higher,  at  least  one  cent  per  pound. 

The  average  birds  make  the  most  economical  gains  during  the  first  two  weeks 
of  feeding.  It  seldom  pays  to  feed  much  longer  than  three  weeks  or  twenty-four 
days,  after  this  period  the  added  gain  is  not  sufficient. 

Chickens  can  be  taught  to  eat  by  lamp-light,  and  where  one's  time  during  day- 
light is  otherwise  occupied,  this  feature  is  very  convenient.  After  November  1st, 
or  even  earlier,  we  feed  but  few  chickens  during  daylight.  They  are  generally  fed 
twice  each  day,  and  not  more  each  time  than  they  will  consume  quickly. 

Construction-  of  Fattening  Crates. 

Fattening  crates  are  usually  made  7  ft.  6  in.  long,  18  to  20  in.  high,  and  18  in. 
wide.     The  crate  is  divided  into  three  compartments,  each  holding  from  four  to 


Fig.  34.     Showing  a  single  crate  or  coop. 


five  birds,  according  to  the  size  of  the  chicken.  The  crate  is  made  of  slats, 
except  the  ends  and  partitions  between  the  compartments,  which  are  solid  wood— 
those  on  the  top,  bottom  and  back  running  lengthwise  of  the  coop,  while  those  on 


46 


the  front  run  up  and  down.  The  slats  are  usually  1^  inches  wide  and  %  incii  thick. 
Those  in  front  are  placed  2  inches  apart  to  allow  the  chickens  to  put  their  heads 
through  for  feeding.  The  slats  on  the  bottom  are  placed  about  %  inch  apart, 
so  as  to  admit  of  the  droppings  passing  through  to  the  ground.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  have  the  first  bottom  slat  at  the  back  fit  too  closely  against  the 
back.  An  opening  between  the  first  slat  and  the  back  prevents  the  droppings 
from  collecting  and  decomposing.     The  slats  on  the  top  and  back  are  usually 

twG  inches  apart. 

There  is  a  small  Y-shaped  trough  arranged  in  front  of  the  coop  for  feeding 
and  watering  the  chickens.  This  trough  is  from  two  to  three  inches  deep  and  is 
generally  made  of  %-inch  lumber. 

Very  fair  coops  may  be  made  from  old  packing  boxes,  by  taking  off  the  front 
and  bottom,  and  substituting  slats  in  their  places  (see  Fig.  34).  During  warm 
weather  these  crates  may  be  placed  out  of  doors.  They  need  to  be  protected  from 
the  rain,  which  is  easily  accomplished  by  placing  a  few  boards  over  them.  In 
cold  weather  the  crates  should  be  placed  in  a  house  or  shed  where  they  are 
protected  from  raw,  cold  winds.  When  fattening  chickens  inside  of  a  building,  it 
is  well  to  darken  the  building  and  keep  the  birds  as  quiet  as  possible. 

After  each  lot  of  birds  is  killed,  we  paint  the  crates  with  some  liquid  lice- 
killer.  Coal-oil  and  carbolic  acid  is  very  good.  Use  one  gallon  of  coal-oil  to 
one  pint  of  crude  acid.  We  have  used  some  of  the  prepared  mixtures  with  good 
results.     If  the  birds    (bought  from  different  parties)    are  very  lousy  when  put 


Pig.  35.     Cramming  machine  for  the  forced  feeding  of  chickens,  turkeys,  etc. 

up,  they  should  be  well  dusted  with  sulphur.  The  birds  should  be  watered  at 
least  twice  every  day  in  warm  weather.  Grit  should  be  given  them  twice  a  week. 
During  the  first  week  feed  lightly — never  quite  all  the  birds  will  eat.  I 
prefer  feeding  three  times  a  day  during  the  first  week,  and  twice  a  day  during 
the  succeeding  weeks.     It  seldom  pays  to  feed  the  birds  longer  than  three,  to  four 


47 

weeks.  Chickens  weighing  from  three  to  three  and  one-half  pounds  each,  that 
are  thrifty  and  of  good  breeding,  appear  to  be  the  most  profitable  for  feeding. 
Large  chickens,  weighing  from  five  to  six  pounds,  gain  less  and  eat  more  than 
the  smaller  ones. 

Should  a  bird  become  sick  while  in  the  crate,  I  find  that  if  it  is  given  a 
teaspoonful  of  salts  and  turned  out  on  a  grass  run  it  will  usually  recover. 

Cramming  Machine. 

The  crammer  consists  of  a  food  reservoir,  to  the  bottom  of  which  is  attached 
a  small  force-pump  moved  by  a  lever  and  treadle  which  is  worked  by  the  foot 
of  the  operator. 

Communicating  with  the  pump  is  a  nozzle,  through  which  the  food  passes 
to  the  bird. 

"A"  is  the  food  reservoir,  "B"  the  pump,  "E"  the  pump  rod,  "0"  the  lever, 
which  on  being  depressed  at  the  lettered  end  causes  the  pump  rod  "E,"  to  which 
it  is  attached,  to  move  downwards,  and  to  eject  the  contents  of  the  pump  "B" 
out  of  nozzle  "K."  On  relieving  the  pressure  at  "0"  the  lever  and  the  parts 
connected  therewith  are  drawn  up  by  the  spring  "C"  until  the  motion  is  arrested 
by  a  stop  "M,"  which  serves  to  determine  the  quantity  of  food  ejected  at  each 
depression  of  the  treadle. 

The  charge  may  also  be  varied  by  arresting  the  pressure  at  any  point  in  the 
downward  thrust  of  the  lever  at  "0." 

The  illustration  (Fig.  3^5)  shows  one  method  of  operation  with  this  crammer, 
and  this  plan  is  now  largely  followed  in  some  parts  of  Sussex,  England. 

Kind  of  Food  Used  in  Cramming  Machine. 

Not  all  kinds  of  foods  can  be  used  in  the  machine.  The  food  must  be  in  a 
semi-liquid  condition  in  order  to  pass  through  the  machine.  This  necessitates  the 
use  of  some  kind  of  grain  that  will  stay  in  suspension  in  the  milk,  beef  broth, 
or  whatever  liquid  is  used  in  mixing  the  grain.  Finely  ground  oats,  with  the 
hulls  removed,  or  shorts,  answer  the  purpose  well.  We  use  almost  entirely  the 
former  food.     Grains,  like  corn-chop  or  barley  meal,  are  not  suitable. 

The  food  is  mixed  to  the  consistency  of  ordinary  gruel,  or  until  it  drips  from 
the  end  of  a  stick. 


Will  it  Pay  to  Buy  a  Cramming  Machine  f 

For  the  ordinary  person,  I  think  not.  First-class  chickens  may  be  had  by 
feeding  in  the  crate  from  the  trough  only;  indeed,  I  have  had  equally  fleshy 
birds  that  have  been  fed  for  four  weeks  from  the  trough  as  where  we  have  fed 
them  two  weeks  from  the  trough  and  one  week  from  the  machine. 

Where  one  has  a  special  trade  for  high-class  poultry,  I  am  of  the  opinion 
that  a  more  uniform  product  can  be  secured  by  using  the  machine.  Machine-fed 
birds  should  realize  at  least  one  cent  more  per  pound  than  trough -fed  birds  in 
order  to  pay  for  the  extra  labor,  etc. 

Birds  that  are  fairly  well  fleshed  when  put  into  the  crate  will  do  better  if 
put  at  once  on  the  machine,  instead  of  being  crate-fed  first. 


48 
Crate  Feeding  vs.  Loose  Pen  Fattening  of  Chickens. 

The  term  "fattening  of  chickens"  has  been  in  use  for  some  time,  but  it  does 
not  exactly  convey  the  meaning  intended  by  the  feeders  of  chickens.  The  object 
is  to  make  the  chickens  more  fleshy,  with  just  sufficient  fat  to  make  the  chicken 
cook  well.  The  chickens  are  not  intended  to  be  abnormally  fat,  yet  at  the  same 
time  they  carry  considerable  fat  well  intermixed  with  lean  meat. 

We  have,  for  a  number  of  years,  conducted  experiments  with  chickens  in 
crates  and  in  loose  pens.  We  have  tried  about  six  different  feeders  and  the 
results  vary.  With  some  feeders  we  had  equally  as  good  results  with  birds  in 
crates  as  with  them  in  loose  pens.  We  have  had  two  feeders  in  particular  who 
could  not  feed  birds  to  advantage  in  loose  pens  as  compared  with  crates.  We 
have  had  one  feeder  who  could  get  slightly  better  returns  in  some  cases,  not  all, 
with  birds  in  pens  as  compared  with  crates. 

In  speaking  to  the  buyers  of  chickens,  the  majority  of  them  seem  to  think 
that  the  crate-fed  birds  are  much  superior  to  those  fed  in  loose  pens.  Personally, 
I  would  prefer  feeding  birds  in  crates,  for  the  reason  that  it  takes  less  room,  and 
I  believe  that  I  can  feed  them  with  less  expenditure  of  labor  and  get  a  more  even 
product.  There  are  now  many  people  who  can  get  good  results  from  feeding 
birds  in  box  stalls,  etc.  No  matter  which  method  is  followed,  cockerels  should 
be  fed  for  two  weeks  or  more  before  they  are  killed  and  sold. 

How  TO  Feed. 

We  receive  a  number  of  inquiries  as  to  how  we  feed  the  birds  that  are  being 
fattened.     Most  inquirers  wish  to  know  the  exact  amounts  fed  each  day. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  we  fed  very  lightly  at  the  beginning— a  very  important 
point — and  that  the  amount  was  gradually  increased  until  such  times  as  the  birds 
refused  to  eat  all  that  was  given  them.  No  feed  was  left  in  front  of  them  longer 
than  ten  minutes  after  it  was  placed  in  the  trough.  Any  food  left  after  such  time 
was  removed. 

Crate  of  12  Birds. 

Eation :— Equal  parts  of  oat  meal,  corn  meal,  and  barley  meal  mixed  with 
sour  milk. 

Lbs.  Ozs. 

Weight  at   commencement    53  4 

Weight  at  first  week 55  0 

Weight  at  second  week 66  4 

Weight  at  third  week    70  2 


49 


Date 

Morning 

Night 

Meal               Milk 

Meal 

Milk 

Oct    17        

lbs.  oz.            lbs.  oz. 

12                1    8 

14                 1     8 

10                 1  12 

12                 2    2 

14                 2    8 

16                 2  12 

14                 1  12 

1  10                 3    0 

2  0                 4     0 
2     5                 4     8 
2    0"            40 
2    8                 4     8 
2     8                 4     8 
14                 2     8 
2     0                 3     8 
2    4                 4     0 
2     0                 3    8 
2     4                 4     0 
1  12                 3     8 
1  12                 3    8 
1  12                 3    8 

lbs.  oz. 
12 
12 
1     0 
1    2 
1     4 
1     6 
1     8 

1  12 

2  0 
2    8 
2    0 
2  12 
2     8 
2  12 
2    0 
2    8 
2    4 
2    4 
1  12 
1  12 

lbs.  oz. 
1  10 

•'     18.             

1     8 

"     1!) 

1  12 

<'     20 

2    4 

^ '     21 

2    8 

■  '     22 

2  12 

• '     23       

3     0 

•     24              

3     4 

•  •     25                                      

4     0 

"     26 

4     8 

"     27 

4     0 

•'     28 

"     29 

5    0 
3     8 

"     30 

5     0 

3     8 

Nov.     1    

4     8 

4     0 

3                      .    .           

4     0 

3     8 

5 

3    8 

Rations  for  Fattening  Chickens. 


It  is  difficult  to  give  a  ration  suitable  for  fattening-  chickens  and  that  meets 
the  requirements  of  every  individual.  Many  of  us  have  to  use  whatever  foods 
are  available,  and  for  that  reason  we  are  giving  several  rations  that  have  worked 
fairly  well  with  us  in  a  general  way.  It  may  be  said  that  the  grains  in  a  ration 
should  be  ground  as  finely  as  possible;  and  further,  some  grit  should  be  fed  to 
the  chickens  at  least  once  a  week,  and  it  is  also  desirable  that  the  food  should  be 
mixed  to  the  consistency  of  a  pancake  batter,  so  it  will  pour,  and,  moreover,  the 
best  results  are  procured  when  the  food  is  mixed  twelve  hours  previous  to  feeding. 

The  best  ration  that  we  have  yet  used  is  one  composed  of  two  parts  of  finely 
ground  oats,  two  parts  of  finely  ground  buckwheat,  and  one  of  finely  ground 
corn;  to  this  is  added  sufficient  sour  milk  to  make  a  batter,  or  ordinarily  about 
two  to  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  milk  to  one  pound  of  grain.  We  have  gotten 
very  good  results  from  a  ration  composed  of  equal  parts  of  corn  meal,  middlings 
and  buckwheat  meal.  Frequently  barley  meal  can  be  substituted  for  the  buck- 
wheat, or  oat  meal  for  the  middlings.  It  is  desirable,  if  possible,  ta  always  use 
milk,  as  much  better  gains  are  made  with  it  than  with  any  other  food.  Where 
milk  is  not  available,  blood  meal,  and  beef  scrap  can  be  substituted,  but  we  would 
not  advise  more  than  15  per  cent,  of  the  gi'ain  ration  to  consist  of  these  foods. 
We  would  advise  soaking  the  blood  meal,  or  beef  scrap,  in  warm  water  for  twelve 
hours  previous  to  being  mixed  with  the  grain.  We  have  gotten  better  results 
in  some  cases  and  equally  as  good  in  all  cases  by  feeding  any  of  the  above  mixtures 
cool  or  cold  rather  than  warm — that  is  to  say,  there  were  no  better  gains  made 
by  keeping  the  food  at  70  or  80  degrees  than  at  30  or  35  degrees. 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  birds  be  kept  with  keen  appetites, 
as  a  little  over-feeding  on  the  commencement  usually  means  indifferent  gains. 
One  should  be  careful  to  have  the  birds  free  from  lice  or  other  insects,  and  as 


50 

far  as  possible  to  keep  them  in  a  cool,  comfortable  place,  rather  secluded,  so  as 
not  to  be  disturbed  by  the  visiting  public  or  other  chickens.  The  birds  should 
be  dusted  with  a  small  amount  of  sulphur  or  other  insect  powder  in  order  to 
keep  the  lice  in  check.  If  the  sulphur  is  used  too  freely  it  produces  a  scaly 
appearance  on  the  birds  when  dressed. 

We  have  each  year  a  surplus  of  cockerels  over  and  above  those  required  for 
breeding  purposes,  and  the  most  of  these  are  fattened  and  killed;  a  few  are  sold 
to  farmers  or  breeders.  We  also  fatten  the  cull  pullets.  In  1908,  from  September 
to  December,  we  put  in  the  fattening  crates  626  birds.  The  loss  by  death  among 
these  was  two  birds.  The  birds  weighed  (when  brought  in  from  the  range,  usually 
with  full  crops)  2,233  pounds.  They  were  fed  from  four  days  to  three  weeks 
before  killing. 

We  hoped  to  have  fed  them  all  three  weeks,  but  at  times  the  demand  for 
dressed  chickens  required  us  to  kill  the  birds  shortly  after  cooping. 

Rations. 

The  main  ration  consisted  of  barley  meal,  low  grade  flour,  middlings  and 
buttermilk.  Some  other  mixed  grains  were  used  and  a  little  shredded  wheat. 
The  626  birds  ate  2,057  lbs.  of  ground  grain  and  4,000  lbs.  of  milk.  _ 

Many  farmers  and  others  market  their  birds  in  a  thin  condition.  We  can, 
for  the  time  it  takes  to  feed,  clean  out  the  pens,  etc.,  make  at  least  50  cents  per 
hour  over  and  above  the  cost  of  feed.  We  usually  feed  these  birds  by  lamp-light 
at  night,  so  that  little  valuable  time  is  lost. 

Financial  Statement  of  Fattening  Chickens. 

626  chickens  weighing  2,233  lbs.  at  8c.  per  pound,  live  weight $178  64 

2,057  lbs.  of  grain  at  $1.50  per  cwt 30  85 

4,000  lbs.  buttermilk  at  10c.  per  cwt ^  "" 

Total    cost    •  •  $213  49 

624  dressed  chickens,  bled  and  plucked,  but  undrawn,  2,358  lbs.  at  12^c.  per  lb.     294  1^ 

Profit   $81  26 

Birds  that  are  starved  ready  to  kill  shrink  12  per  cent,  by  bleeding  and  loss 
of  feathers.  We  have  figured  frequently  that  the  average  profit  per  bird  in  three 
weeks'  feeding  was  about  15  cents  each;  the  above  table  shows  nearly  13  cents. 
The  profit  would  have  been  somewhat  higher  if  all  the  birds  had  been  fed  at  least 
two  weeks. 

Dressing  and  Shipping  Poultry. 

All  fowls  should  be  fasted  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  before  killing. 
Where  this  is  not  done,  the  food  decomposes  in  the  crop  and  intestines,  the  result 
being  that  the  flesh  becomes  tainted  and  does  not  keep  well. 

All  birds  should  be  killed  by  bleeding,  preferably  through  the  mouth.  A 
little  practice  will  ordinarily  make  one  fairly  handy  at  this  work.  For  the  average 
person  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  they  will  do  the  best  work  by  tying  the  bird's 
feet  by  means  of  a  small  rope  or  cord,  at  a  height  about  level  with  the  picker's 
shoulders.  The  rope  or  cord  may  be  fastened  to  a  small  pole  or  rod.  For  bleed- 
ing, any  sharp  knife  with  a  blade  nearly  three  inches  in  length  will  answer.     To 


51 

'bleed,  catch  the  bird's  head  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger  just  at  the  juncture  of 
the  neck  and  head  or  at  the  ear-lobes,  then  with  the  third  finger  open  the 
chicken's  mouth,  next  insert  the  knife  and  put  down  the  throat,  practically  the 
length  of  the  blade,  turn  the  knife  and  cut  rather  lightly.  The  bird  should  bleed 
freely  as  this  should  cut  the  two  large  blood  vessels  just  at  the  end  of  the  neck; 
following  this  the  knife  should  be  drawn  out  and  inserted  in  the  long  opening 
in  the  roof  of  the  bird's  mouth,  and  then  quickly  pushed  backward  so  as  to  pierce 
the  brain.  If  the  back  of  the  knife  is  kept  on  a  line  at  the  edge  of  the  bill,  the 
blade  will  pierce  the  bxain.  One  can  tell  when  this  is  done  as  the  chicken  will 
squak.  If  the  bird  does  not  squak,  the  brain  is  not  pierced,  which  means  tight 
feathers  or  hard  picking. 

The  chicken  should  be  plucked  imm6diately,  first  removing  the  long  wing 
feathers,  and  tail  feathers,  then  each  side  of  the  breast,  then  the  legs,  and  lastly 
the  back.  Do  not  try  to  pull  the  feathers  either  forward  or  backward  but  more 
sideways  or  at  an  angle.  The  rough  or  coarse  feathers  should  be  removed  in 
about  three  minutes  or  less,  do  the  work  quickly  and  the  feathers  come  out  easily, 
if  slowly  done,  the  process  is  long  and  tedious.  For  instance,  remove  all  the 
coarse  wing  feathers  of  each  wing  at  one  handful,  also  all  the  tail  feathers.  To 
remove  pin  feathers  use  a  dull  round  bladed  knife,  similar  to  the  ordinary  paring 
knife.  Be  careful  not  to  rub  or  bark  the  skin.  This  may  be  done  by  rough 
handling,  or  by  placing  the  chicken  in  contact  with  coarse  clothing,  hence  do 
not  put  the  chicken  on  your  lap  to  pluck  it.  If  you  should  unfortunately  tear 
the  skin,  hold  the  skin  at  the  torn  part  tightly  to  the  body  between  your  fingers 
and  then  carefully  remove  the  feathers  near  the  torn  part.  Anyone  with  a  little 
practice  can  remove  the  rough  feathers  in  from  five  to  ten  minutes. 

The  birds  should  be  plucked  clean,  the  mouth  wiped  of  all  blood,  and  the 
dirt  washed  from  the  feet. 

After  the  chicken  has  been  plucked  it  should  be  placed  on  a  shaping  board, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  36.  The  weight  placed  on  the  top  of  the  chicken  is  used  to  give 
it  a  compact  appearance.  This  weight  may  be  of  iron,  as  seen  in  the  cut,  or  a 
brick  may  be  used  in  its  place. 

Many  good  chickens  are  spoiled  by  being  packed  before  they  are  thoroughly 
cooled.  Care  should  be  taken  that  all  the  animal  heat  is  out  of  the  body  before 
the  fowls  are  packed.  We  always  cool  the  birds  at  least  twelve  hours  before 
packing  them. 

The  chickens  are  packed  in  boxes  as  seen  in  Fig.  37.  The  box  is  lined  with 
parchment  paper;  and,  if  the  chickens  are  to  be  shipped  a  long  distance,  each 
bird  is  wrapped  in  paper.  This  prevents  the  chickens  from  bruising  each  other, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  to  a  considerable  extent,  checks  decomposition.  Do  not 
use  ordinary  wrapping  paper,  as  it  draws  dampness,  and  will  cause  the  chickens 
to  become  clammy,  which  makes  them  more  or  less  unsaleable. 


63 


Fig.  36.    Showing  a  number  of  chickens  in  the  shaping  boards. 


._-■=.  ««s?>. 


^Vii- 


Fig.  37.     Showing  the  top  layer  of  chickens  in  a  shipping  case  as  used  for  local 
trade.  This  is  one  system  of  packing   dressed  poultry.     The  boxes  are  usually 
made  3  feet  long,  17  inches  wide  and  7  inches  deep  for  24  chickens  weighing  about 
5  pounds  each. 


There  are  several  kinds  of  boxes  used  for  shipping  poultry.  iSTearly  every 
exporter  has  his  ow^n  shape  of  box,  and  his  own  method  of  packing.  For  shipping 
locally,  we  use  a  box  three  feet  long,  twelve  inches  wide,  and  twelve  inches  deep. 
The  chickens  are  packed  similar  io  those  seen  in  Fig.  37.  The  box  will  hold 
thirty-six  4V2-pound  chickens.  The  boxes  are  made  strong,  so  that  we  can  have 
the  dealer  return  them  to  be  refilled.  Do  not  use  cedar  in  the  construction  of 
the  boxes,  as  in  some  cases  it  taints  the  flesh.     Basswood  or  spruce  answers  well. 


53 

EGGS  FOR  MARKET. 

Yearly  the  egg  consumption  increases  and  our  exports  decrease;  in  fact  we 
have  ceased  to  be  an  exporting  country  in  this  line  of  farm  produce.  During 
the  last  year  in  particular  the  public  have  taken  more  interest  in  the  egg  supply, 
and  in  the  kind  of  eggs  that  are  consumed.  The  value  of  an  egg  as  a  food  is 
gradually  but  surely  being  recognized.  Probably  no  one  food  is  its  equal:  it  is 
relished  by  all,  old  and  young.  Few  people  realize  how  quickly  and  how  easily 
an  egg  deteriorates  in  flavor  or  as  a  food. 

There  appears  to  be  a  general  idea  that  the  shell  of  an  egg  protects  the  contents 
against  all  kinds  of  germs  and  weather ;  that  the  outside  of  the  shell  may  be  filthy, 
but  that  the  interior  is  not  in  the  least  affected  by  the  filth  on  the  outside. 

There  is  nothing  more  disgusting  than  at  the  breakfast  table  to  break  a  bad  egg. 
Iso  more  eggs  are  wanted  for  days,  perhaps  for  weeks,  and  consequently  egg  con- 
sumption decreases;  or  eggs  are  looked  upon  as  a  doubtful  source  of  food.  Many 
bad  eggs  are  due  to  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  producers  and  consumers,  and 
many  dealers  are  as  careless  in  their  methods. 

The  shell  of  an  egg  is  porous,  or  is  full  of  very  small  holes.  The  egg  is  designed 
to  hatch  a  chick.  The  chick  under  favorable  conditions  grows  inside  the  shell 
and  finally  bursts  it  open.  The  holes  in  the  shell  supply  the  chick  with  air  as 
it  grows,  also  allows  the  bad  air  to  escape.  Science  has  proved  this,  but  we  have 
ample  illustration  in  practical  work.  Eggs  that  become  badly  smeared  with  broken 
eggs  in  the  nest  during  incubation  usually  rot,  owing  to^the  breathing  holes  becom- 
ing plugged  or  blocked  by  the  broken  egg  content.  Creased  eggs  will  not  hatch 
for  the  same  reason;  and  we  might  mention  several  other  examples. 

Knowing  that  the  shell  is  porous  we  can  readily  understand  how  minute 
animal  or  plant  life,/  or  germs,  may  enter  the  eggs.  Let  us  take  a  common  case 
of  mouldy  or  musty  eggs.  Frequently  the  paper  fillers  of  egg  boxes  will  become 
damp  due  to  the  boxes  being  left  in  a  shower  of  rain  or  something  of  the  kind. 
The  fillers  are  only  slightly  damp,  and  we  think  they  will  do.  If  no  eggs  are 
put  in  the  boxes,  and  the  boxes  with  fillers  are  set  aside  for,  say.  a  week  or  so, 
when  they  are  opened  they  smell  musty,  and  if  the  fillers  are  examined  we  will 
see  slight  developments  of  moulds  here  and  there.  jSTow  in  cases  where  eggs  are 
put  in  such  fillers  they  soon  become  musty,  and  when  they  are  left  in  for  some 
time  they  become  mouldy,  not  only  on  the  outside  of  the  shell,  but  on  the  inside 
as  well.  The  writer  has  taken  clean  eggs  on  the  day  they  were  laid,  and  put 
them  in  dry  paper  boxes  which  were  slightly  mouldy,  and  set  them  aside  in  a 
dry  cellar  for  a  period  of  a  few  weeks,  and  at  the  end  of  this  time  many  of  the 
eggs  had  well  developed  mould  on  the  inside  of  the  shell. 

Many  eggs  are  spoiled  by  being  partially  incubated.  Most  people  believe  that 
an  egg  must  be  set  under  a  hen,  or  put  in  an  incubator  before  it  will  start  to 
hatch.  Eggs  will  start  to  hatch  at  less  than  90  deg.  of  heat.  Many  eggs  are 
submitted  to  this  or  higher  temperatures  for  several  hours,  if  not  days,  before 
reaching  the  consuming  public.  When  the  germ  inside  the  egg  commences  to 
develop,  the  edible  qualities  of  the  egg  are  lessened,  or  the  egg  goes  off  flavor. 
Eggs  may  'be  kept  at  an  incubating  temperature  for  a  day,  when  the  chicks  will 
start  growing,  next  day  the  temperature  may  be  so  low  that  the  chick  is  killed, 
and  from  that  point  decomposition  begins,  possibly  slowly,  but,  nevertheless,  the 
egg  is  gradually  going  bad. 

There  are  almost  innumerable  ways  in  which  eggs  may  start  hatching  during 
the  summer,  such  as  forgetting  to  gather  the  eggs  daily,  and  leaving  some  under 


54: 

broody  hens  over  night,  leaving  them  exposed  to  the  sun  or  in  warm  rooms,  stores, 
cars,  etc.,  or  even  in  the  kitchen  cupboards. 

No  one  can  guarantee  eggs  to  their  customers  during  warm  weather  unless 
the  males  are  removed  from  the  flock.  Unfertilized  eggs  are  essential.  We  may 
at  home  take  every  precaution,  but  who  knows  where  or  how  the  cook  may  keep 
those  eggs,  even  after  they  have  passed  from  the  dealer's  hands.  The  allowing 
of  males  to  run  with  the  hens  all  summer  costs  the  Ontario  growers  a  large 
sum  of  money.  The  writer  stood  by  candlers  in  a  large  packing  house,  and  saw 
over  twenty  of  the  thirty  dozen  eggs  in  a  case  that  were  more  or  less  incubated, 
most  of  the  eggs  being  about  48  hours  on  in  incubation.  The  dealer  is  thus 
forced  to  make  prices  to  meet  this  shrinkage;  at  times  the  public  may  get  "bargain" 
eggs. 

Filthy  eggs,  or  even  washed,  eggs,  may  be  decomposed  or  rendered  useless 
■  from  the  germs  in  the  filth  on  the  eggs.  Washed  eggs  if  used  immediately  are 
good,  but  they  deteriorate  very  quickly  after  washing. 

Flavor  of  Eggs. 

Many  of  us  forget  that  eggs  will  absorb  odors.  They  will  not  absorb  odors 
as  readily  as  milk,  but,  at  the  same  time,  care  should  be  taken  in  keeping  the 
storage  room  for  eggs  free  of  strong  odors.  For  instance,  to  put  eggs  alongside 
of  onions,  turnips,  or  similar  strong  smelling  foods  would  mean  that  the  eggs 
would  absorb  more  or  less  "of  these  flavors. 

Again,  the  food  that  a  hen  consumes  very  materially  affects  the  flavor  of 
the  eggs.  This  can  be  very  easily  demonstrated  by  feeding  mostly  scorched  grain, 
or  giving  large  quantities  of  pulped  onions  in  a  mash  food.  One  demonstration 
will  convince  anyone  that  eggs  have  been  scorched,  or  taste  of  onions  no  matter 
how  cooked. 

When  hens  get  but  little  grain  food  during  the  summer  and  are  forced  to 
hunt  for  their  living  over  manure  piles,  and  catch  insects,  the  yolk  will  become 
almost  red  in  color.  These  eggs  make  the  consumer  remark  that  winter  eggs 
taste  better  than  summer  eggs.  Frequently  feeding  as  above  produces  a  thin 
watery  white,  and  the  egg  has  not  only  a  bad  flavor,  but  has  poor  keeping  qualities, 
and,  moreover,  is  little  better  if  as  good  as  a  fair  pickled  or  cold  storage  egg. 

Marl'et  Terms  Used.  A  new-laid  egg  means  an  egg  that  is  under  five  days 
of  age.  or  at  least  not  over  one  week  old.  It  should  be  clean,  and  the  boxes 
should  be  clean. 

Fresh  eggs  are  very  hard  to  define.  With  some  they  mean  eggs  from  one 
day  to  three  weeks  or  even  more  of  age,  while  with  others  they  mean  eggs  Just 
out  of  cold  storage. 

There  are  several  other  market  terms,  such  as  pickled,  held,  etc.,  which  are 
used  mostly  by  the  dealers,  and  need  no  explanation  here. 

Wheee  and  How  to  Keep  Eggs. 

The  nests  in  which  the  hens  lay  should  be  clean.  These  usually  need  cleaning 
monthly.     The  best  material  we  have  used  for  nests  is  shavings. 

Eggs  should  be  gathered  twice  each  day,  and  placed  in  clean  basket,  pails,  etc. 

The  room  should  be  cool,  not  higher  than  60  degrees  if  possible,  and  it  should 
be  dry.     A  cool,  dry  cellar  will  answer  nicely. 


55 

The  dirties,  small,  extra  large,  and  found  nests  of  eggs  should  not  be  sold. 
Use  them  at  home.  The  large  ones  hreak  in  shipping  and  the  smalls  and  dirties 
are  not  wanted  on  the  market.     These  sell  the  good  eggs  at  poor  prices. 

Where  one  is  trying  to  supply  private  customers,  or  a  select  wholesale  trade, 
it  is  wise  to  stamp  the  eggs  with  your  own  initials,  or  the  name  of  your  farm. 
This  is  some  guarantee  to  the  buyer, 

Never  Try  to  Deceive  the  Dealer. 

You  may  sell  bad  eggs  to  the  grocers,  but  the  honest  people  in  the  district 
do  not  get  full  value  for  their  good  eggs. 

Some  people  hold  their  September  and  Early  October  eggs,  and  then  ship 
them  later  in  the  year  to  a  dealer  as  fresh  eggs.  They,  of  course,  expect  the 
top  price  for  new  laids.  Please  do  not  believe  you  can  deceive  the  dealer.  By 
candling  the  eggs,  which  he  always  does,  he  can  tell  fairly  close  what  your  eggs 
are  like  as  to  age,  etc. 

Do  not  sell  infertile  eggs  that  are  removed  from  the  incubators  as  being 
good  eggs  or  good  food. 

Do  not  allow  the  male  bird  to  run  with  the  hens  after  June  1st. 

Do  not  keep  the  eggs  in  damp  or  musty  cellars,  boxes,  or  baskets. 

Do  not  leave  the  eggs  sitting  in  the  sun,  and  if  your  grocer  keeps  eggs  in 
his  store  windov^r  in  which  the  sun  shines,  please  ask  him  to  remove  them,  unless 
he  wishes  to  hatch  chickens. 


Fig.  38.     The  egg  tester. 

1.  Egg-testing  box. 

2.  Hole  through  which  light  shines  and  before  which  egg  is  held  to  be  tested. 

3.  Chimney. 

4.  Bottle  of  water  placed  between  light  and  No.  2. 

5.  Reflector  to  be  placed  behind  light. 

An  ordinary  lamp  or  electric  light  is  placed  in  the  box  so  that  the  light  shines 
through  No.  2.  The  bottle  of  water  condenses  the  light,  which  makes  the  testing  of 
eggs  a  comparatively  simple  matter. 


56 

Do  not  sell  eggs  from  found  nests. 

Practically  all  dealers  have  now  agreed  to  pay  for  eggs  according  to  quality. 
If  your  dealer  pays  as  much  for  all  kinds  of  eggs  as  he  does  for  your  good,  clean, 
large  sized,  non-fertile  eggs  we  will  try  to  put  you  in  touch  with  dealers  who 
buy  on  a  quality  basis. 

Kill  the  rooster  after  June  Ist. 

Candling  Eggs. 

Eggs  are  candled  very  easily.  See  Fig.  38.  A  new-laid  egg  when  held 
between  the  eye  and  the  light  has  a  clear  appearance,  the  yolk  is  practically 
invisible,  and  the  air  cell  is  about  the  size  of  a  five-cent  piece. 

Unless  the  eggs  are  put  in  pickle  or  held  in  cold  storage,  the  air  cell  gradually 
increases  in  size,  and  the  yolk  becomes  visible. 

Cold  storage  and  pickled  eggs  may  have  small  air  cells,  but  the  yolks  are 
conspicuous. 

Fig.  39  is  a  photograph  of  a  new-laid  egg.  It  will  be  noticed  that  all  por- 
tions of  the  egg  are  similar  in  appearance.  There  is  a  very  small  air  cell  at  the 
large  end  of  the  egg  which  does  not  show  in  the  photo;  this  air  space  is  not 
larger  than  a  five  cent  piece. 

Fig.  40  is  a  photograph  of  a  held  egg,  or  one  that  is  suitable  for  baking 
purposes,  but  not  for  boiling  or  packing.  Notice  that  the  yolk  is  conspicuous 
and  the  air  space  is  very  large.  Pickled  eggs  usually  show  a  conspicuous  yolk 
but  a  small  air  space.  Eggs  that  are  two  weeks  of  age  usually  show  the  yolk, 
and  have  an  air  space  about  the  size  of  a  twenty-five  cent  piece. 

Figs.  41,  43,  43  and  44  are  photographs  of  what  the  dealers  term  "spots," 
as  they  show  various  growths  of  moulds  in  the  egg.  These  eggs  are  not  rotten, 
but  when  opened  smell  musty.     The  mouldy  portions  are  usually  easily  seen. 

BEEEDS     OF    POULTKY. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  writer  to  discuss  all  breeds  of  poultry  in  this 
bulletin,  but  simply  to  mention  the  general  characteristics  of  some  of  tiie  popular 
ones.  Tlie  present  high  price  of  eggs  and  meat  has  done  much  to  popularize  poultry 
on  the  farm,  ajid  consequently  we  are  frequently  asked  as  to  "^^What  is  the  best 
breed  of  poultry?"  It  is  impossible  for  one  to  answer  this  question  satisfactorily, 
as  some  breeds  are  special  purpose  breeds,  otJiers  general  purpose  breeds;  and, 
moreover,  there  is  probably  more  difference  in  strains  of  the  same  breed  than  there 
is  between  breeds. 

We  shall  endeavor  to  classify  these  breeds,  not  according  to  the  usual  classifi- 
cation as  adopted  in  various  poultry  publications,  but  more  or  less  on  utility  lines. 
It  may  be  taken  as  a  general  rule  that  all  breeds  that  lay  brown  or  tinted  shelled 
eggs  will  set,  hatcli,  and  rear  their  own  young,  and  all  breeds  which  lay  white 
shelled  eggs,  Avith  the  exception  of  Dorkings,  are  non-sitters,  and  the  eggs  from 
these  breeds  have  to  be  hatched  artificially  or  by  hens  of  other  varieties.  It  will, 
Uierefore.  be  seen  that  tlie  general  purpose  breeds  lay  tinted  eggs  and  are  good 
sitters  and  mothers. 

General  Purpose  Breeds. 

Plymouth  Roclcs.  There  are  five  varieties  in  this  breed — three  of  which  are 
common— Barred,  "White,  and  Bufi'.  The  Partridges  and  Columbian  are  not  so 
common.     This  breed  is  undoubtedly  the  most  popular  among  farmers.     The  best 


57 


Fig.  39. 


Fig.  40. 


Fig.  41. 


Fig.  42. 


Fig.   43. 


Fig.  44. 


58 

strains  are  good  winter  layers,  fair  summer  layers,  and  make  first-class  roasters 
and  fair  to  good  broilers.  It  is  one  of  the  hardiest  breeds.  The  standard  weights 
are:  Cock  birds,  9y2  pounds;  cockerels,  8  pounds;  hens,  7I/2  pounds;  and  pullets, 
61/^  pounds. 

Wyandottes.  There  are  several  varieties  in  this  breed,  among  which  might 
be  mentioned  White,  Buff,  Silver  Laced,  Golden  Laced,  Black,  Columbian,  Par- 
tridge, and  Silver  Pencilled.  The  most  popular  variety  from  a  commercial  stand- 
point is  the  White.  This  breed  has  practically  the  same  characteristics  as  the 
Plymouth  Pock,  but  is  more  blocky  in  type  and  usually  longer  in  the  feather. 
They  have  rose  combs,  which  to  some  is  supposed  to  be  an  advantage  in  cold 
climates.  Wyandottes  make  good  broilers  and  roasters.  They  are  also  good  mothers 
and  good  layers.  The  standard  weights  of  these  birds  are  one  pound  less  than  those 
of  the  Plymouth  Eocks. 

Rhode  Island  Reds.  Tliere  are  two  varieties  of  this  breed.  Single  Comb  and 
Rose  Comb.  As  compared  with  the  Plymouth  Eocks  and  Wyandottes  they  are 
longer  in  appearance  and  not  so  massive.  They  were  originated  by  the  farmers  of 
the  State  of  Ehode  Island  and  are  very  popular  in  that  State.  They  have  also  grown 
in  popularity  in  this  country  to  such  an  extent  that  they  now  rival  the  Plymouth 
Eocks  and  the  Wyandottes.  They  are  hardy,  good  winter  layers,  and  fair  summer 
layers.  In  color  they  are  a  rich,  bright  red,  with  black  tails,  and  more  or  less 
black  in  the  wings.  During  warm  weather  our  experience  has  been  that  they  are 
more  given  to  incubating  than  the  two  breeds  mentioned  above.  The  standard 
weights  of  this  breed  are:  Cock  birds,  8i/^  pounds;  cockerels,  71/2  pounds;  hens, 
6y2  pounds,  and  pullets,  5  pounds. 

Orpingtons.  This  general  purpose  breed  differs  from  those  previously  men- 
tioned in  that  they  have  white  legs  and  skin,  the  others  breeds  having  yellow 
legs  and  yellow  skin.  The  common  varieties  of  this  breed  are:  Buff,  White,  Black, 
and  Jubilee.  At  the  present  time  there  are  probably  more  Buff  Orpingtons  bred 
than  any  other  variety,  but  the  White  may  outrival  the  Buff.  The  blacks  are  being 
bred  more  by  the  fanciers  than  by  the  farmers,  for  the  reason  that  their  black 
plumage  and  dark  colored  legs  are  somewhat  against  them  for  market  purposes. 
This  breed  is  among  the  best  winter  layers;  makes  good  roasters  and  broilers,  but 
is  probably  more  given  to  incubating  during  warm  weather  than  either  the  Eocks 
or  the  Wyandottes.  The  standard  weights  are  about  one  pound  per  bird  above 
the  Plymouth  Eocks.  For  general  farm  use  they  might  -be  more  profitably  bred 
with  less  weight,  for  the  reason  that  the  largest  birds  are  usually  somewhat  leggy 
and  rough  in  appearance  when  weighing  4  to  5  pounds.  When  one  wants  very 
large  roasters,  weighing  from  7  to  8  pounds  each  or  better,  the  larger  birds,  of 
course,  would  be  better, 

Dorlings.  This  is  one  of  the  oldest  English  breeds  and  is  popular  in  some 
districts.  They  are  a  large  breed,  long  in  the  body  and  short  in  the  legs.  By  many 
they  are  considered  to  be  weak  in  constitution,  although  our  experience  would  not 
bear  this  out  entirely.  They  lay  large  white  eggs  and  are  good  sitters  and  mothers. 
They  are  white  fleshed  and  white  legged.  Their  peculiarity  is  that  they  have 
five  toes.  This  is,  at  times,  a  disadvantage,  especially  when  the  fowls  have  to 
scratch  in  straw  where  there  is  more  or  less  binder  twine,  which  is  apt  to  get 
around  the  extra  toe,  and  thereby  occasionally  fastening  both  feet  together.     This 


59 


is  not  a  very  serious  objection.  Where  there  is  high,  dry  ground  and  plenty  of 
range  and  a  person  fancies  the  Dorking  color  or  type,  they  are  worthy  of  con- 
sideration. 


Meat  Breeds. 

Brahmas.  The  feathered  legged  breeds  are  not  very  extensively  kept.  The 
most  popular  of  these  is  the  Brahma.  This  breed  is  very  hardy,  and  lays  very  large 
brown  eggs.  They  are  rather  slow  to  mature  and  the  feathers  on  the  legs  are  not 
altogether  desirable  from  a  farmer's  standpoint,  in  that  they  are  apt  to  get  wet 
and  freeze  readily.  Brahmas  make  the  best  roasters,  but  are  somewhat  slow  to 
mature,  and  the  females,  in  our  experience,  have  not  been  very  good  layers,  although 
there  are  some  females  that  do  well.    This  breed  is  yellow  skinned. 

Langshans.  Langshans  are  also  of  the  feathered  leg  breed,  but  have  white 
skin.    They  are  longer  in  tlie  legs  than  the  Brahmas  and  are  not  so  heavy. 

Games.  By  many  the  Game  would  not  be  considered  a  chicken  suitable  to 
farmers.  The  exhibition  Games,  as  they  are  known  in  the  standard,  are  altogether 
too  long  in  the  legs  and  head,  and  too  weak  in  constitution  for  the  ordinary  farmer, 
but  the  Cornish  Games  and  what  is  known  as  the  Old  English  Game  are  worthy  of 
consideration.  The  Cornish  Game  is  a  very  large,  tight-feathered,  full-breasted 
chicken,  and  probably  carries  more  meat  on  its  breast  than  any  other  breed.  The 
objection  to  the  Cornish  Game  is  that  it  is  a  poor  layer.  The  English  Game,  some- 
times termed  "Pit  Game,"  is  a  hardy  bird.  They  are  fair  layers  and  make  fair 
roasters.  The  most  serious  objection  to  this  breed  from  a  farmer's  standpoint  is 
that  there  is  a  great  tendency  among  the  young  cockerels  to  be  very  pugnacious. 
This  is  sometimes  carried  to  such  an  extent  that  they  kill  one  another.  Other  than 
this,  they  make  a  fairly  good  farm  chicken,  especially  where  the  mothers  are 
required  to  protect  their  young. 

Special  Purpose  White  Egg  Breeds. 

The  high  price  of  eggs  during  the  last  few  years  has  increased  the  popularity 
of  this  class  of  chicken  very  much.  Of  all  breeds  in  this  class  the  Leghorns  are 
the  most  popular,  and  of  the  Leghorn  breed  t]ie  White  variety  is  bred  more  exten- 
sively than  any  other.  Leghorns  probr.bly  mature  a  little  earlier,  and  eat  less 
food  than  tlie  heavier  breeds;  they  make  fair  broilers,  but  are  comparatively  use- 
less as  roasters.  They  lay  a  large  number  of  good-sized  eggs  during  the  natural 
laying  period.  As  winter  layers  they  are  fair,  but  in  our  experience  more  susceptible 
to  changes  in  temperature  than  are  the  heavier  breeds.  This  much  must  be  said 
in  their  favor,  than  their  eggs  usually  hatch  better  than  those  of  the  heavier  breeds, 
and  the  chickens  are  very  hardy.  Of  the  other  Leghorn  varieties,  the  most  popular 
ones  are  the  Brown,  Buff,  and  Black,  these  varieties  not  being  so  popular  from  a 
market  poultryman's  standpoint,  owing  to  the  color. 

Minorcas.  There  are  three  varieties  of  Minorcas.  The  Eose  Comb  Black  and 
the  Single  Comb  Black  are  more  commonly  bred  than  is  the  White  Variety.  This 
breed  is  larger  than  the  Leghorn,  and  also  lays  a  larger  Qgg.  They  have  very  large 
combs  and  wattles. 


60 

Anconas.  This  breed  might  be  termed  a  speckled  or  mottled  Leghorn.  They 
have  all  the  characteristics  of  the  Leghorn,  and  are  black  and  white  in  color.  This 
breed  is  gaining  in  popularity  among  the  practical  poultrymen. 

Hainhurgs.  There  are  several  varieties  of  this  breed.  The  black  is  the  most 
popular.  They  are  inclined  to  lay  an  undersized  egg.  We  have  found  the  blacks 
to  be  good  layers,  and  to  lay  a  fair-sized  egg.  They  have  rose  combs  and  are  neat 
and  active  in  appearance. 


SHOUT  XOTf:S  OX  POULTEY  WORK  IN  IRELAND,  SCOTLAND, 

E:^tgLAND,     and     DENMARK. 

During  the  summer  of  1912,  tlie  writer  was  permitted  to  investigate  a  portion 
of  the  poultry  work  in  the  above-mentioned  countries,  with  the  particular  object 
of  learning,  as  far  as  possible,  in  the  limited  time  at  his  disposal,  the  general 
practice  of  co-operative  marketing  of  poultry  products  and  of  giving  instruction 
to  the  producers,  also  as  to  the  methods  of  stock  improvement. 

In  general  terms  the  marketing  of  eggs  by  means  of  egg  circles  or  the  co- 
operative method  is  successful  in  the  outlying  districts,  but  where  it  has  been 
tried  near  large  cities,  so  far  as  the  writer  could  learn,  the  movement  had  not  been 
a  pronounced  success  in  most  instances.  All  members  must  be  loyal  to  the  move- 
ment if  success  is  to  be  permanent.  In  several  instances  the  writer  learned  of 
various  schemes  that  had  been  tried  to  break  up  the  circle,  even  to  paying  far 
more  than  the  eggs  were  worth  and  to  paying  an  extra  price  to  prominent  members. 
Many  of  the  egg  circles  have  passed  through  trying  times,  caused  by  the  lack  of 
information  on  tire  part  of  tlie  producers  and  by  bad  management,  also  inflated 
prices.  The  writer  visited  several  collecting  depots  in  Ireland  which  at  some  time 
had  almost  failed.  In  nearly  all  instances  the  trouble  had  been  removed  when  a 
change  was  made  in  managers.  So  much  depends  on  the  manager,  that  the  success 
or  failure  of  the  proposition  appeared  to  rest  largely  with  him. 

Nearly  all  the  societies  visited  collected  the  eggs  by  means  of  wagons,  which 
travelled  about  the  country,  in  some  instances  the  eggs  were  handled  by  the  co- 
operative creamery.  Most  of  the  co-operative  societies  sell  such  goods  as  are  needed 
by  the  people,  not  only  groceries,  etc.,  but  farm  implements  and  fertilizers.  ^ 

The  markets  demand  not  only  goods  of  high  standard,  but  of  constant  uniform 
quality.  In  a  word,  the  success  of  Denmark  appeared  to  be  that  they  were  putting  on 
the  market  large  quantities  of  a  uniform  product.  Each  pound  of  butter  was  like 
the  previous  one  as  to  flavor,  etc.,  and  the  same  was  true  of  eggs  as  to  size,  fresh- 
ness, etc. 

The  co-operative  marketing  is  beyond  the  experimental  stage  in  all  these 
countries,  and,  naturally,  is  more  successful  in  some  districts  than  others.  The 
writer  recalls  one  instance  in  which  the  producer  would  not  sell  the  eggs  of  the 
farm  through  the  local  co-operative  society  because  the  eggs  were  smaller  than 
the  neighbors,  and  consequently  the  price  received  was  less  per  egg.  Another 
party  could  receive  six  cents  per  120  eggs  more  in  a  town  twelve  miles  distant  than 
the  local  co-operative  paid,  hence  the  eggs  were  driven  to  the  town  and  sold. 

The  size  of  the  eggs  received  much  more  attention  than  here,  also  the  care 
of  the  egg  after  taking  from  the  nest. 


61 

The  educatioual  schemes  and  the  breeding  stations  were  of  particular  interest 
and  worthy  of  serious  consideration.  Where  the  market  demands  a  uniform  pro- 
duct, the  stock  must  be  as  far  as  possible  fairly  uniform  as  to  breeds,  as  also  must 
the  methods  of  feeding,  etc. 

Education  of  Producer.  In  Ireland  there  are  two  main  features  in  the  educa- 
tion of  the  producer.  The  employment  of  one  or  more  qualified  teachers  in  each 
county,  and  the  establishment  of  small  flocks  of  poultry  on  selected  farms  to 
serve  as  object  lessons  and  as  centres  for  the  distribution  of  settings  of  eggs. 
For  the  purposes  of  tJie  scheme  each  county  is  usually  divided  into  circuits,  in 
each  of  which  there  are  five  centres,  where  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to  spend 
some  weeks  giving  lectures  on  poultry  keeping  in  the  evenings,  and  during  the  day 
visiting  farms  near  tlie  centre  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  individuals  in  all  that 
pertains  to  the  management  of  poultry.  Instructors  also  inspect  the  poultry 
stations  under  their  charge  and  assist  the  holders  in  procuring  suitable  changes 
of  birds.  They  see  that  the  stations  are  properly  kept  and  that  tlie  Department's 
rules  and  regulations  are  being  kept.  It  is  required  by  the  Department  that  winter 
lectures  to  adults  must  be  followed — if  not  ultimately  superseded — by  systematic 
tutorial  and  practical  instruction  to  small  classes  of  younger  pupils  who  are  pre- 
pared to  attend  daily  for  a  number  of  weeks  at  local  centres.  Local  classes  are 
usually  held  in  spring  and  summer.  The  instruction  thus  given  includes,  besides 
the  rearing  and  management  of  poultry,  such  subjects  as  fattening,  killing,  and 
trussing,  egg  grading  and  packing,  and  the  keeping  of  accounts  and' egg  records. 

The  second  feature  of  the  scheme  is  the  establishment  of  poultry  farms  or 
stations  at  suitable  centres  in  tiie  county  farms,  the  owners  of  which  undertake 
to  do  away  with  all  the  poultry  on  the  premises,  and,  with  or  without  financial 
assistance  from  the  Department  and  the  County  Committee,  stock  the  farm  anew 
with  pure  bred  selected  birds  of  a  type  suitable  to  the  neighborhood,  and  approved 
of  for  the  purpose  by  the  Department's  Inspectors.  It  is  a  condition  strictly 
enforced  that  no  other  birds,  unless  in  exceptional  cases  where  enclosed  runs  are 
provided,  shall  be  allowed  on  the  farm.  The  owner  undertakes  to  sell  settings 
of  eggs  to  persons  in  the  district  at  a  fixed  charge  per  setting  (usually  about  50 
cents  per  dozen)  and  to  manage  the  poultry  in  accordance  with  the  directions  of 
the  county  instructor.  The  owner  is  usually  supplied  with  a  portable  house,  the 
object  bei]ig  to  disseminate  among  the  people  of  the  district  the  advantages  of  better 
housing  and  of  keeping  the  birds  more  in  the  fields  than  is  generally  the  custom. 
Those  who  comply  with  these  conditions  receive  a  small  premium  at  the  end  of 
each  season. 

It  has  been  found  in  Ireland  that  only  by  a  system  of  itinerant  instruction 
and  by  numerous  practical  demonstrations  could  satisfactory  results  be  accom- 
plished. 

The  other  European  countries  have  not  worked  so  directly  as  has  Ireland  in 
the  education  of  producers,  but  have  depended  more  upon  the  co-operative  require- 
ments to  exert  an  influence  in  tliis  direction. 

In  order  to  further  educate  the  producer  in  Ireland  some  counties  introduced 
"portable  poultry  schools."  These  are  equipped  with  simple  but  adequate  plants 
and  provided  with  stock  and  all  the  necessary  appliances.  Such  a  school  is  located 
at  a  centre  where  a  field  is  obtained  for  the  pens  of  birds,  with  houses  and  runs, 
and  a  room  adjoining  is  utilized  for  working  the  incubators  and  such  appliances 


62 

as  are  used  indoors.  The  school  may  remain  four  weeks  in  a  locality  and  is  then 
moved  to  another  centre.  This  Portable  School  is  cumbersome  to  move,  and  takes 
up  a  great  amount  of  the  time  of  the  instructor. 

The  writer  was  surprised  to  learn  that  there  were  thirty-three  instructors  in 
poultry.  When  one  considers  the  size  of  the  country,  it  is  evident  that  everybody 
sJiould  know  how  to  care  for  poultry. 

Denmark  has  established  in  different  parts  of  the  country  breeding  plants  or 
centres  where  special  attention  is  given  to  the  trap-nesting  of  stock  and  to  the 
selection  and  mating  of  the  breeding  stock  for  egg  production.  From  these  centres 
eggs  for  hatching  and  breeding  stock  are  sold  to  the  surrounding  farmers  at  re- 
duced rates.  In  most  cases  but  a  single  variety  of  fowl  is  maintained  at  one  of 
these  centres,  but  in  some  instances  ducks,  geese,  and  sometimes  turkeys  are  kept 
in  conjunction  with  the  fowl.  In  some  stations  a  system  of  exchange  of  breeding 
stock,  principally  males,  between  the  different  centres  is  followed.  For  this  reason 
there  is  seldom  any  need  for  introducing  blood  from  outside  sources,  the  system 
of  breeding  approaching  nearer  to  line  breeding,  and,  in  many  cases,  in-breeding. 

Denmark  has  a  splendid  system  of  co-operative  marketing  of  eggs.  Here  a 
central  organization  is  supreme,  and  the  sub-societies  located  throughout  the 
country  are  ruled  and  regulated  by  it.  The  regulations  made  by  the  federation 
are  very  stringent,  and  heavy  fines  are  imposed  when  they  are  disregarded  or  broken. 
These  are: 

(1)  That  a  member  must  only  deliver  to  the  local  society  eggs  laid  by  his  own 
hens. 

(2)  He  must  undertake  to  collect  from  the  nests  every  day,  and  in  the  breed- 
ing season  or  when  the  weather  is  hot,  twice  a  day,  and  keep  them  under  suitable 
conditions  so  long  as  they  remain  in  his  possession. 

(3)  'Must  have  clean  nests,  so  that  the  shells  shall  not  be  stained  or  tainted. 

(4)  They  must  be  protected  against  rain,  sunshine,  and  frost. 

(5)  All  eggs  produced  must  be  delivered  to  the  local  society,  except  those 
required  for  hatching  and  household  purposes. 

Upon  the  last  named  point  the  very  greatest  stress  is  laid,  and  any  member 
infringing  that  rule  would  be  fined  for  the  first  offence,  and  be  expelled  from  the 
society  if  the  practice  was  continued. 

In  the  organization  of  co-operative  egg  and  poultry  societies  abroad  the  by- 
laws of  organization  and  for  governing  the  working  of  the  societies  are  very  few 
and  simple. 

In  Ireland  co-operative  work  is  conducted  on  the  conditions  which  prevail 
with  the  National  Poultry  Organization  Society,  which  has  its  headquarters  in 
England.     These  conditions  or  by-laws  state  that: — 

(a)  Eggs  shall  be  received  from  each  member  at  least  three  times  a  week. 

(b)  Eggs  shall  be  tested  for  freshness  and  quality. 

(c)  Only  such  eggs  as  can  be  guaranteed  as  new-laid,  are  branded,  are  clean, 
and  that  weigh  two  ounces  will  be  taken. 

(d)  Eggs  shall  be  forwarded  so  as  to  reach  the  shops  when  not  more  than 
three  days  old. 

Co-operative  work  in  Scotland  and  England  is  conducted  under  much  the 
same  rules  and  regulations  as  those  given  for  Ireland. 


63 

Rules.  In  Ireland,  where  selling  eggs  through  Central  Society,  the  following 
conditions  must  be  observed: 

1.  Societies  shall  carefully  grade,  test,  and  pack,  in  approved  boxes,  so  that 
eggs  can  be  guaranteed  and  sold  under  the  registered  Trade  Mark. 
3.  The  local  society  undertakes : 

(a)  To  grade,  test,  and  pack  as  instructed. 

(b)  To  be  responsible  to  the  I.A.W.S.,  Ltd.,  for  the  quality  of  eggs  offered. 

(c)  To  advise  daily  as  to  stock  on  hands  and  forthcoming. 

(d)  To  see  that  the  packing  slips  are  placed  in  the  approved  position  in  all 
cases  for  export. 

(e)  In  order  to  insure  uniformity  in  style  and  method  of  packing,  the  local 
society  undertakes  to  purchase  boxes  and  packing  material  through  the  Federation, 
unless  it  can  be  shown  that  suitable  material  can  be  procured  at  lower  rates. 

Methods  of  Financing.  The  financing  of  Co-operative  Societies,  while  varying 
slightly  in  different  countries,  is  much  the  same  in  general  principle.  In  all  cases  a 
membership  fee  or  share  is  called  for,  the  amount  depending  upon  the  country 
in  which  the  Society  is-  operating,  and  ranges  from  13'  cents  in  Denmark  to  ap- 
proximately $5  in  Ireland.  With  some  the  payment  of  this  fee  may  be  made  in 
cash  or  with  eggs.  Any  shortage  of  necessary  working  capital  is  obtained  by 
means  of  a  guaranteed  overdraft  from  the  Society's  bankers.  This  accommodation 
is  granted  usually  at  4  per  cent,  on  the  joint  and  several  security  of  a  number 
of  the  members,  who  are  counter-secured  by  "loan  guarantee  shares,"  of  the  same 
value  as  the  original  shares,  only  a  part  of  which  is  paid  up,  unless  the  bank  re- 
quires the  overdraft  to  be  paid  off'  and  the  assets  of  the  Society  are  insufficient  for 
that  purpose. 

In  Ireland  the  capital  is  raised  by  subscribed  shares  usually  of  £1  each.  These 
shares  are  paid  in  the  following  manner: 

On  application  2s.  6d. 

On  commencing  business  2s.  6d.,  and  the  balance  in  such  calls  as  the  com- 
mittee may  find  it  necessary  to  make  from  time  to  time  and  of  which  a  fortnight's 
notice  must  be  given. 

The  liability  of  the  members  is  limited  to  the  amount  of  their  shares. 

If  any  further  capital  is  wanted  it  is  borrowed  from  a  local  bank:  and  some- 
times people  who  are  not  themselves  poultrymen  are  found  quite  willing  to  invest 
money  in  such  undertakings. 

In  addition  to  taking  shares,  members  must  agree  (legally)  to  sell  all  market- 
able eggs  and  poultry  to  the  Society  and  deliver  the  goods  according  to  the  rules 
laid  down  by  the  Committee. 

How  and  When  Producer  is  Paid.  The  method  and  time  of  paying  for  the 
eggs  differs  considerably  in  the  different  countries.  They  are  alike  in  one  respect. 
i.e.,  that  all  eggs  are  bought  by  weight  rather  than  by  count,  as  is  the  case  in 
America. 

The  co-operative  societies  in  Ireland  follow  the  practice  of  paying  for  the 
eggs  as  they  are  delivered  at  the  collecting  or  receiving  depot.  All  dirty  or  stale 
eggs  are  rejected.    English  societies  differ  from  the  above  in  some  respects.    When 


64 

the  eggs  are  received  at  tlie  depot  they  are  counted  into  a  separate  box  and  a 
''back"  note  given  stating  when  received,  the  number  and  price,  and  signed  by  the 
receiver.  The  eggs  then  go  to  the  candler  or  tester,  and  the  member  delivering 
the  egg$  credited  with  the  amounts  in  each  class  which  he  has,  which  is  recorded 
in  the  analysis  book.  The  chief  tester  is  held  responsible  for  this  book,  which 
is  headed  thus: 

i 

Name.  Date  Collected.  Total.  Good.  S'mall.  Coofeers.  Bad.  When  Tested. 
Jno.  Jones   .Tune  1st.  160  150  7  3  —  June  1st. 

Two  cents  are  deducted  for  every  ten  ''^smalls"  or  ''cookers,"  and  the  bad  are 
returned  to  the  producer.  Payment  is  made  monthly  by  cheque,  and  the  cheque 
being  accompanied  by  a  complete  statement  of  the  month's  deliveries  by  the  member 
is  recorded  in  the  analysis  book. 

In  Denmark  the  co-operative  societies  are  conducted  differently  from  those  of 
Ireland  and  England  with  respect  to  making  returns  to  the  producer.  Paid  col- 
lectors gather  the  eggs  from  the  farms  at  regular  intervals.  The  collector  pays  for 
the  eggs  received  at  the  rate  set  by  the  central  federation,  entering  in  the  member's 
book  the  weight  and  amount.  Any  dividends  which  the  central  federation  accumu- 
lates from  selling  at  increased  prices  is  divided  among  the  local  societies  from 
time  to  time  and  is  distributed  from  them  to  the  members  on  a  pro  rata  basis.  In 
this  way,  not  only  do  the  members  receive  the  best  market  prices  for  their  products, 
but  they  also  share  in  any  profits  that  may  come  from  the  business. 

Pay  of  Manager.  In  many  cases  the  manager  is  paid  on  a  percentage  basis 
of  business  done,  which  is  the  most  satisfactory  for  many  reasons.  In  some 
societies  in  Ireland  the  manager  receives  £2  per  week. 

Branding.  In  Ireland  and  Scotland,  branding  eggs  with  date,  etc.,  is  not  so 
commonly  done  as  in  Denmark  and  elsewhere.  Stamped  eggs  are  sometimes 
viewed  as  foreign  eggs  in  Great  Britain. 

Cost  of  Collecting.  This  varies  greatly,  but,  as  near  as  the  writer  could  gather 
from  the  managers  of  the  societies  visited,  it  cost  in  Ireland  about  half  a  cent,  per 
dozen  during  the  summer  months  and  a  cent  and  a  half  per  dozen  during  the 
winter  months.  The  cost  of  packing,  cases,  grading,  etc.,  is  from  a  cent  to  a  cent 
and  a  half  per  dozen  additional  to  the  above. 

Size  of  Flocks.  The  size  of  the  flocks  vary,  but  on  practically  all  the  farms 
visited  the  poultry  could  not  be  considered  as  a  special  business.  The  fowls, 
generally  spealdng,  were  given  fairly  good  care  and  attention.  The  average  size 
of  the  flock  would  not  be  much  more  than  50  or  100  birds,  or  about  1  fowl  per  acre. 

Prices.  Prices  vary  as  here.  The  books  of  the  societies  as  seen  by  tlie  writer 
showed  a  price  in  December  of  practically  50  cents  per  dozen,  which  was  the  highest, 
and  the  lowest  price  was  28  cents  for  May,  the  average  for  the  season  being  about 
29  cents. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

PCBLISHED  BT  THB  OnTABIO  DkPAKTMBNT  Of  AQBICULTUBI,  ToBOWTO. 


feerlal 
No. 


Date. 


171    April     1909 


172  May  1909 

173  Oct  1909 

174  Dec  1909 
176  Dec  1909 
176  Dec  1909 


177 

Dec 

1909 

178 

Dec 

1909 

179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

301 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

206 

Sept. 

1912 

306 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec 

1912 

268 

Jan. 

1913 

209  Marcb  1913 

210  March  1913 

211  March  1913 

212  April  1913 

213  April  1913 

214  May   1913 
216  Aug.   1913 

216  Oct.   1913 

217  Dec   1913 


Title.  Author. 

(Insects  Affecting  Vegetables C.  J.  S.  Bethane. 

Fungus  Diseases  Affecting  Vegetables |  j|  -yp    Eaatham. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)  ...  Dairy  SchooL 

Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

Farm  Underdrainage:    Does  It  Pay? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations  W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   D.  H.  Jones. 

f  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  |  L.Caesar. 

Character   and   Treatment   of   Swamp   or  t  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Muck  Soils    I  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch 

^,  J  T,      J      1 1  I  R-  Harcourt 

Flour  and  Breadmaking  <  j^    ^    Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  In  Ontario  Fruit    Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making  Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach   Disease    L.  Caesar. 

Children:  Care  and  Training J,  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling   Moth    L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised) J.  E.  Howltt. 

Farm  Poultry  (151  revised)   W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  In  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural  Co-operation   S.  B.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S,  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch. 

Insecticides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised  {  g'  L.^^Fulmer. 

Tomatoes  -  A.   G.  Tumey. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

Onions  A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices    L.  Meunier. 

J  Peach   Diseases    F.  M.  Clement 

{  Peach  Growing  In  Ontario L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower A.  McMean& 

Decay  of  the  Teeth Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . .   f 

Part  I.    Cheese-making  and  Butter-making  J  Staff  of  Dairy  SchtoL 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   . .  1  Dairy  SchooL 

Part  II.    Dairying  on  the  Farm [ 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  f  J.  H.  Hare. 

In  Ontario  County   \  T.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)  E.  J.  Zavltz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.  F.  M.  Clement 

Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters.  Fruit  Branch 

(No.  179  revised.) 

Orchard  Surveys  in  Dundas,  Stormont  and 

Glengarry F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  In  Ontario Morley  Pettlt. 

Sheep  Rais'lng  In  Ontario:  Does  It  Pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

Demonstration  Lectures  In  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples  B.  F.  Palmer. 

™         „     ,.       /«.T     ^^n        t    jx  f  W.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  11B9  revised)   -J  ^   p   McGolIoch. 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


NATURE  STUDY  SERIES 


BULLETIN  218 

[A  Revised  Edition  of  No.  173] 


Birds  of  Ontario 


m 


Relation  to  Agriculture 


By 
CHARLES  W.  NASH 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO.  DECEMBER,  1913 


BULLETIN  218]  ^DECEMBER,  1913 

Ontario  Department   of  Agriculture 

Birds  of  Ontario  in  Relation 

to  Agriculture 

By  Charles  W.  Nash 

AVlieii  white  men  first  began  to  settle  this  Province,  it  was  a  vast  forest,  broken 
only  by  its  rivers,  lakes,  and  marshes.  It-  birds  consisted  of  such  species  as  were 
adapted  for  life  among  trees,  or  were  waterfowl.  As  the  country  became  cleared  and 
population  increased,  some  of  the>c  birds  were  dri\en  from  their  ancient  haunts 
;ii);i  are  wow  only  fonnd  in  the  wooded  country  of  the  north,  while  the  Wild  Turkey 
and  Passenger  Pigeon  have  become  extinct. 

The  changes  brought  about  by  settlement  and  cultivation,  however,  have  pro- 
duced conditions  better  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  certain  other  forms  of  bird 
life,  and  so  we  now  find  in  our  orchards,  fields  and  gardens  a  variety  of  feathered 
friends  whose  range  was  luriuerly  restricted  to  natural  meadows  or  thickets  border- 
ing rivers  and  marsh  land.     The  range  of  many  of  these  birds  is  being  extended 
northward  as  cultivation  progresses  in  that  direction,  so  that  it  is  now  a  common 
thing  to  hear  of  the  appearance  of  Meadowlarks,  Orioles,  Bobolinks,  and  Bluebirds 
in  the  new  settlements  of  Xorthern  Ontario  where  they  were  previously  unknown. 
iMany  of  our  birds  lune  also  changed  their  habits  so  as  to  l)etter  adapt  themselves 
to  modern  conditions.   Thus  we  find  that  all  the  Swallows,  except  the  Bank  Swallow, 
have  abandoned  their  former  lu^sting  idaces  in  caves  or  hollowed   trees  niul   now 
occupy  our  buildings.     The  Chimney  Swift  and  Phoebe  do  the  same  thing,  while 
Bluebirds  and  House  Wrens  will  readily  take  possession  of  any  box  placed  for  them 
in  the  garden  or  orchard,  if  out  of  the  reach  of  their  deadly  enemy  the  house  cat. 
Pobins  and  Chipping  Sparrows  apparently  find  the  presence  of  human  beings  bene- 
ficial to  them,  for  they  build  their  nests  with  no  pretence  at  concealment  in  the 
most  frequented  places,  and  the  Flicker  often   finds  a  safe  nesting  ]dace  in  an  old 
tree  trunk   or  even  a  telegraph  pole  in  a  city.    Of  iill  wild  creatures,  birds  will  most 
readily  adapt  themselves  to  conditions  created  by  human  asfency.    Tf  not  persecuted 
they  will  attach  themselves  to  the  farm.  ga''den,  an  1  orchard.  wIum'c  fbeir  services 
are  of  tlio  greatest  value. 

Ill  all  about  thirteen  thousaJid  species  of  birds  arc  known  to  science:  of  this 
number  only  three  hundred  and  twenty-five  have  been  found  in  Ontario.  "Many  of 
these  are  verv  rare  and  nol  likvdv  to  be  noticed  by  ordinary  observers,  others  are 
merely  accidental  visitors  which  niny  never  I)e  seen  again. 

Birds  may  be  studied  from  three  points  of  view:  The  scientific,  the  sentimental, 
and   the   economic.     The   first   includes   their  ori'zin.   development,   structure,   and 


3 

relationship  to  other  forms  of  life,  past  and  present.  As  a  matter  of  sentiment,  all 
lovers  of  nature  are  interested  in  birds,  their  b^'auties  of  form  and  colour,  their 
intelligence,  sociability  and  musical  powers  excite  both  wonder  and  admiration 
in  the  minds  of  all  who  give  them  even  casual  attention.  It  is,  however,  from  the 
economic  standpoint,  chiefly,  that  I  propose  to  deal  with  the  subject  in  this  work, 
and  the  economic  value  of  our  familiar  birds  will,  to  some  extent,  he  pointed  out 
in  the  succeeding  pages. 

The  economic  value  of  birds  to  man  lies  in  the  service  tlie  birds  render  by 
keeping  within  proper  limits  th;?  various  forms  of  insects  which  are  injurious  to 
our  crops  or  animals,  in  preying  upon  rats,  mice,  and  other  destroyers  of  our  grain 
and  fruit  trees,  in  devouring  weed  seeds,  in  acting  as  scavengers,  and  in  the  case 
of  game  birds  and  wildfowl  furnishing  sport  and  food. 

No  reliable  estimate  has  ever  been  made  of  the  annual  loss  to  the  farmers  of 
Ontario  by  the  depredations  of  insects.  In  the  United  States  much  careful  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  subject,  and  in  a  report  of  the  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture at  Washington,  issued  in  1912,  Dr.  Henshaw  estimates  the  loss  to  the  agri- 
cultural interests  of  that  country  at  upwards  of  $700,000,000.  Our  losses  will  cer- 
tainly be  as  large  proportionately.  This  loss  is  caused  chiefly  by  reason  of  an  in- 
sufficiency of  bird  life  on  our  cultivated  lands;  experience  the  world  over  has  shown 
that  as  bird  life  decreases  insects  increase;  also,  that  birds  are  more  efficient  in 
keeping  down  insect  pests  than  are  all  other  agencies,  natural  and  artificial,  com- 
bined. 

Under  ordinary  conditions  the  number  of  birds  required  to  keep  plant-eating 
insects  in  proper  check  need  not  be  extraordinarily  great,  for  in  order  to  main- 
tain their  active  bodies  adult  birds  require  an  enormous  amount  of  food  in  pro- 
portion to  their  size  and  weight,  while  the  quantity  consumed  by  the  young  in 
the  nest  is  far  greater  yet.  In  the  case  of  nestlings  their  food  supply  must  neces- 
sarily be  great,  for  their  growth  is  very  rapid;  birds  like  the  Sparrows.  Warblers, 
Thrushes,  &c.,  attaining  nearly  full-size  and  becoming  sufficiently  well-fledged  to 
leave  the  nest  in  about  eleven  days  from  the  time  they  were  hatched. 

The  powder  of  flight  possessed  by  birds  enables  them  to  act  more  efficiently  as 
a  check  upon  any  abnormal  increase  of  ins  cts.  o-  small  animal*,  t'mn  any  other 
force  in  nature.  Should  an  unusual  abundance  of  any  insect,  or  of  field  mice, 
occur  in  any  locality,  birds  wliich  feed  upon  them  will  soon  be  attracted  to  the  spot, 
and  there  they  will  remain  until  usual  conditions  are  restored  and  the  plague 
abated.  In  other  lands  this  habit  of  the  birds  which  act  as  scavengers  renders  good 
service  in  disposing  of  animal  matter  wdiich  would  otherwise  decompose  and  poison 
both  air  and  water. 

MiGEATION   OF   BlRDS. 

Ever  since  men  first  began  to  make  records  of  natural  phenomena  the  arrival 
and  departure  of  migratory  birds  have  arrested  attention.  The  Greek  and  Roman 
philosophers  remarked  it,  and  the  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  commented 
upon  it.  As  yet,  however,  no  satisfactory  explanation  of  the  origin  of  the  habit  of 
migration  has  been  given.  Some  modern  naturalists  think  that  change  of  climate 
such  as  that  which  took  place  during  the  glacial  period  affords  a  rational  and  cer- 
tain explanation  of  the  phenomenon.  ^\lien  examined  closely,  however,  under  the 
light  of  recent  research  this  theory  is  open  to  many  objections.  At  any  rate,  if  the 
general  habit  of  migration  originated  by  reason  of  the  violent  climatic  changes 
which  occurred  during  the  glacial  period,  it  has  been  and  is  still  being  so  greatly 


inodifiecl  both  in  the  case  of  species  and  of  individuals  as  to  render  it  certain  that 
the  habit  of  making  the  extended  northward  migrations  now  undertaken  by  cer- 
tain of  our  American  birds  has  been  acquired  recently  and  by  degrees.  We  know 
that  until  aboat  thirty  years  ago  such  birds  as  the  Meadowlark,  Bobolink,  Balti- 
more Oriole  and  others  did  not  extend  their  flight  beyond  our  southern  borders, 
because  the  interior  and  northern  part  of  the  province  was  then  heavily  wooded 
and  unsuitable  to  their  requirements,  but  now  these  birds  migrate  in  increasing 
numbers  every  year  as  far  north  as  and  even  beyond  the  Ottawa  Eiver.  They  have 
taken  advantage  of  the  clearing  of  the  forest  and  the  cultivation  of  the  land  to 
disperse  themselves  over  an  area  which  was  previously  not  adapted  to  their  way  of 
living.  In  the  early  eighties  I  noticed  a  similar  movement  in  Manitoba.  As  the 
land  there  was  brought  under  cultivation  and  the  prairies  were  peopled.  Bluebirds, 
Purple  Martins,  Cliff  Swallows,  and  other  birds  which  were  previously  unknown 
came  in  as  migrants  and  established  themselves  as  regular  summer  residents. 
Failure  of  the  food  supply  and  the  severe  cold  of  these  northern  regions  drive  these 
birds  southward  for  the  winter,  where  they  remain  until  returning  spring  gives  the 
impulse  for  their  return  flight  to  the  north. 

If  all  the  individuals  of  the  so-called  migratory  species  were  in  the  habit  of 
entirely  leaving  their  winter  quarters  and  resorting  to  some  northern  region  pecu- 
liarly adapted  to  their  requiremeuts  during  the  breeding  season,  we  might  well 
assume  that  migration  was  an  inherited  instinct  transmitted  from  remote  ancestors 
who  had  acquired  it  by  reason  of  climatic  changes,  which  had  forced  them  at  cer- 
tain seasons  to  leave  what  had  been  originally  their  permanent  habitat.  This  is 
true,  however,  of  only  a  few  American  species,  the  majority  of  which,  in  greater 
or  lesser  numbers,  breed  almost  all  through  their  range. 

It  seems  to  me,  therefore,  that  the  impulse  to  migrate  is  the  result  of  a  natural 
law  which  provides  for  the  dispersal  of  birds  over  the  world  during  the  season 
when  their  services  are  most  required  in  maintaining  the  balance  in  nature,  and 
that  when  the  physical  features  of  a  country  are  changed,  as  ours  have  been,  from 
heavy  forests  to  open  fields,  the  species  of  birds  Which  mi.grate  into  it  will  change 
also,  so  that  the  land  will  be  occupied  by  those  best  specialized  to  perform  the 
functions  required  of  them  in  nature's  economy. 

As  the  study  of  migratory  birds  has  progressed  and  the  peculiarities  of  method 
adopted  by  each  species  have  been  traced  the  difficulty  of  assigning  any  general 
cause  for  the  habit  except  that  already  stated  becomes  greater.  The  movement 
from  the  north  in  the  autumn  presents  many  instances  showing  that  various  species 
act  upon  an  impulse  which  differs  from  that  of  others  closely  allied  to  them.  Genera- 
ally  speaking,  it  is  assumed  that  birds  leave  the  northern  regions,  where  they  have 
nested,  at  the  approach  of  winter;  when  cold  weather  is  imminent  and  their  food 
supply  is  failing.  Many  species  do  linger  in  their  summer  homes,  until  it  would 
seem  as  if  they  required  to  be  driven  out,  but  others  again  leave  while  food  is  most 
abundant  and  the  temperature  at  its  highest.  Among  the  Thrushes  this  difference 
is  very  marked.  Wilson's  Thrush,  the  Hermit  Thrush,  and  the  Olive-backed  Thrush 
resemble  each  other  very  much  in  appearance  and  in  all  their  habits  except  their 
migration.  Wilson's  Thrush  arrives  here  early  in  May  and  breeds  abundantly  from 
our  southern  border  northward.  About  the  middle  of  August  their  return  flight 
begins  and  by  the  twenty-fifth  of  the  month  they  have  all  gone.  The  Hermit 
arrives  early  in  April,  breeds  sparingly  in  Southern  Ontario  and  remains  until 
the  beginning  of  November.  The  food  of  these  two  species  is  exactly  the  same, 
consisting  of  insects  and  such  small  berries  as  are  to  be  found  in  the  woods.  The 
Olive-backed  Thrush  moves  at  the  same  time  as  the  Hermit,  but  goes  further  north 


to  breed.  It  seems  quite  impossible  to  discover  any  reason  for  the  diiTereiice  in 
the  migration  of  these  closely  allied  forms.  Failure  of  food  cannot  be  the  cause 
of  the  early  migration  of  the  Wilson  Thrush,  for  at  no  time  in  the  year  are  in- 
sects and  wild  fruit  more  aibundant  than  in  August  and  September;  nor  can  it 
be  attributed  to  cold,  these  two  months  being  the  warmest  of  the  year.  The  same 
difference  is  found  between  the  Xighthawk  and  the  V\'hip-Poor-Will.  These  birds 
are  much  alike  in  everything  and  would  seem  to  lie  adapted  to  the  same  conditions, 
yet  the  Whip-Poor- Will  remains  here  for  a  month  or  five  weeks  after  the  Night 
Hawk  has  gone,  the  bulk  of  the  Nighthawks  leaving  about  the  end  of  August. 
Among  the  shore  birds  (Plovers  and  Sandpipers)  the  difference  in  the  time  of 
their  departure  is  still  more  noticeable,  many  species  commencing  their  southern 
migration  early  in  July  and  leaving  us  entirely  by  the  beginning  of  September, 
wthile  closely  allied  forms  do  not  appear  here  until  October  and  remain  until  the 
first  hard  frost.  Instances  of  this  difference  l)etween  closely  allied  species  may  be 
found  in  so  many  groups  of  our  birds  as  to  render  it  certain  that  neither  failure 
of  food  supply  nor  unfavourable  climatic  conditions  can  be  accepted  as  the  imme- 
diate influence  which  governs  migration  in  all  species. 

When  the  spring  migration  from  the  south  northward  is  studied  the  differ- 
ence in  method  and  range  between  allied  species  and  of  individuals  composing  the 
species  is  very  great.  Among  the  warblers  are  some  interesting  examples  of  vari- 
ation in  the  extent  of  migration.  The  Yellow  Warbler,  Black-throated  Green 
Warbler,  Black  and  White  Warbler,  and  some  others,  winter  south  of  the  United 
States.  On  their  return  they  do  not  travel  far  before  tliey  l)egin  to  select  summer 
quai'ters  and  they  breed  from  the  southern  states  all  through  their  range  to  ISTorthern 
Ontario.  The  Magnolia,  Myrtle,  Blackburnian,  and  Black-throated  Blue  Warblers 
winter  in  the  same  region  as  the  others,  but  they  pass  over  the  United  States  en- 
tirely and  with  few  individual  exceptions  go  to  the  north  of  this  province  before 
nesting,  while  the  Blackjwll  Warbler  undertakes  a  most  extended  migration,  the 
equator  and  the  Arctic  Ocean  being  the  extreme  points  of  its  journeys.  The  same 
difference  in  extent  of  migration  of  the  species  is  to  be  found  in  almost  every  group 
of  our  land  birds.  Not  only  is  there  a  groai  diifercnce  in  the  extent  of  the  migra- 
tion of  allied  species,  but  in  certain  cases  some  of  the  individuals  ^v^hich  compose 
a  generally  migratory  species  never  migrate  at  all.  The  common  Bluebird  affords 
an  example  of  this  peculiarity.  All  through  the  southern  states  the  Bluebird  is  a 
resident,  its  numbers  in  the  winter  being  increased  'by  migrants  from  the  north. 
At  the  approach  of  spring  they  gradually  s])read  out  from  their  base,  working 
northward  as  the  season  favors  theui  until  they  reach  the  limit  of  their  range; 
which,  by  the  way,  has  been  considerably  extended  as  the  land  has  been  brought 
under  cultivation.  All  over  the  area  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Northern  Ontario 
and  Southern  Manitoba  the  Bluebird  finds  suitable  breeding  conditions  and  so  do 
other  species.  Why  then  do  birds  incur  the  perils  involved  in  migration?  As 
winter  comes  on  in  the  north  we  know  that  they  must  leave  that  region,  or  the 
intense  cold  and  failure  of  food  would  destroy  them,  but  that  does  not  explain 
the  spring  movement  at  all,  for  we  see  that  niauy  indiviiluals  of  migratory  species 
find  the  climate  conditions  and  food  supply  of  the  south  perfectly  suited  to  their 
requiremenfs.  I  can  only  infer  that,  as  T  have  said,  the  impulse,  to  migrate  is  an 
express  provision  for  the  dispersal  of  birds  over  the  eartli  during  the  period  when 
their  services  are  most  required  for  the  maintenance  of  the  balance  of  nature.  This 
impulse  is  undoul)tedly  hereditary  in  regularly  migrant  species,  for  youno-  liirds 
brought  up  from  the  nest  in  captivity  always  become  possessed  of  a  s]nrit  of  rest- 
Icssnesss   during   each    flight   season,    particularlv   at   uij^bt. 


Wliile  it  is  unduubied  that  the  impulse  to  migrate  is  inherited,  many  orni- 
thologists are  of  opinion  that  the  ability  to  do  so  is  not  hereditary,  but  has  to  be 
acquired,  and  is,  in  fact,  the  result  of  the  education  of  the  young  by  old  and  ex- 
perienced birds.  This  theory  might  be  accepted  as  an  explanation  of  the  wonderful 
faculty  which  enables  them  to  find  their  way  over  the  thousands  of  miles  which 
sometimes  intervene  between  their  summer  and  winter  homes  if  all  birds  were 
gregarious  at  the  time  of  migration,  and  if  the  old  and  young  united  and  made  the 
journey  together.  Some  species  do  this,  but  in  other  cases  the  adults  migrate  before 
the  young,  and  there  are  still  other  species  the  individuals  of  which  strike  out 
singly  and  perform  the  whole  journey  alone.  Birds  of  this  latter  class  must  have 
inherited  the  ability  to  migrate  as  well  as  the  impulse. 

A  striking  example  of  individual  migration  is  ail'orded  by  the  IJuby-throated 
Humming  Bird.  These  little  creatures  migrate  by  day,  so  their  movements  can 
be  observed.  In  the  spring  they  reach  Southern  Ontario  early  in  May,  the  males 
preceding  the  females  by  a  week  or  more.  Through  June  they  are  occupied  in 
nesting,  and  early  in  July  the  adult  males  abandon  their  mates  and  young  and 
go  south.  In  September  the  females  and  young  gradually  take  their  departvire. 
Just  at  this  season  dozens  of  them  in  a  day  may  be  seen  flying  swiftly  from  east 
to  west  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  following  the  route  taken  by  all  our 
migrants  here,  though  this  course  is  not  so  invariably  followed  by  them  as  by  all 
other  day-flying  species,  for  I  have,  on  several  occasions,  seen  a  little  Huuiming 
Bird  strike  out  over  the  lake  flying  directly  from  north  to  south,  the  distance  here 
fi-om  shore  to  shore  being  about  thirty-five  miles.  Humming  Birds  when  migrat- 
ing always  fly  low,  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  them  to  gain  any  knowledge  of  their 
course  by  the  exercise  of  their  vision.  It  seems  evident,  then,  that  as  they  have  no 
opportunity  to  be  educated  as  to  the  route  they  should  follow,  and  that  even  their 
acute  sight  cannot  be  of  very  great  service  in  guid'ug  them  over  a  course  which 
may  in  some  individuals  extend  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Brazil,  they  must  be 
possessed  of  a  peculiar  faculty  which  enables  them  to  act  upon  their  inherited 
impulse  to  migrate  when  the  season  for  flight  arrives. 

Of  this  wonderful  instinct  which  plays  so  important  a  part  in  migration  there 
is,  I  think,  but  one  explanation  to  be  given,  viz. :  That,  as  nature  provided  the 
periodical  migrations  of  certain  forms  of  life  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  an 
equable  distribution  of  those  forms  o\er  all  parts  of  the  earth  during  the  seasons 
best  fitted  for  iheir  maintenance,  the  necessary  +'aculties  to  enable  them  to  carry  out 
this  provision  were  developed  with  the  impulse  which  induces  the  movement  of 
dispersal. 

HAWKS  AND  OWLS. 

Among  the  most  injurious  pests  of  the  farmer  and  fruit  grower  are  the  small 
animals  commonly  known  as  rats  and  mice;  individually  they  are  insignificant; 
but  where  permitted  to  increase,  their  productiveness  soon  renders  them  formidable. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  make  anything  like  a  correct  estimate  of  the  average 
damage  inflicted  upon  the  country  liy  these  creatures,  but  every  farmer  knows  by 
sad  experience  that  he  continually  suffers  from  their  work. 

The  enormous  amount  of  grain  thev  destroy  and  the  young  trees  girdled  and 
killed  by  them  are  visible  to  e\ery  one,  but  the  perpetrators  of  the  mischief,  owing 
to  their  nocturnal  habits  and  secretive  lives,  are  comparatively  seldom  seen.  Their 
enormous  increase  of  late  years,  and  consequent  capacity  for  serious  mischief,  is,  of 
course,  owing  to  the  fact    tlial   man   has  seriously  interfered  with  the  balance  of 


nature  and  has  thoughtlessly,  perhaps,  destroyed  the  principal  natural  enemies  of 
these  creatures. 

Man  himself  is  almost  powerless  to  stop  their  ravages  to  any  great  extent. 
The  constant  exercise  of  his  ingenuity  in  trapping  and  so  forth  results  in  very  little 
and  occupies  his  time  to  no  purpose.  The  natural  enemies  of  these  animals  are 
gifted  with  special  faculties  for  their  destruction  and  so  are  able  to  cope  with  them. 
Chief  among  the  enemies  of  this  class  of  farm  pests  are  the  Hawks,  Owls,  Shrikes 
and  Crows.  These  birds  are  wonderfully  provided  by  nature  with  the  means  to 
fulfill  their  part  in  maintaining  the  correct  balance  between  the  small  rodents  and 
plant  life,  and  if  not  destroyed  by  man  would  so  keep  down  the  numbers  of  these 
four-footed  thieves  that  their  plundering  would  be  scarcely  noticeable. 

Unfortunately  all  the  birds  of  prey  are  considered  by  uninformed  people  to  be 
chiefly  poultry  killers  and  therefore  enemies,  while  the  truth  is  that,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  as  is  shown  further  on,  our  common  species  are  beneficial;  and  should 
be  protected. 

The  incessant  destruction  of  these  birds  if  permitted  to  continue  will  sooner 
or  later  result  in  such  an  increase  of  mice  that  they  will  become  a  devastating 
plague,  as  they  have  several  times  in  Great  Britain  and  notably  in  Scotland  in  the 
years  1888  to  1892,  when  parts  of  Roxburghshire,  Selkirk,  Peebles,  Lanark  and 
Dumfries  were  over-run  by  field  mice  and  every  growing  thing  practically  destroyed. 
In  order  to  ascertain  the  cause  of  this  outbreak,  and  if  possible  find  a  remedy,  a 
committee  was  appointed  by  the  British  Board  of  Agriculture  of  which  the  Earl 
of  Minto,  our  late  Governor-iGeneral.  was,  I  think,  chairman. 

Evidence  was  given  before  this  Committee  by  about  eighty  farmers  and 
shepherds  and  'by  several  gamekeepers;  their  testimony  proving  conclusively  (1) 
That  the  effect  of  the  outbreak  was  to  practically  destroy  all  crops.  (2)  That  the 
cause  of  the  increase  in  number  of  the  mice  was  the  destruction  of  hawks,  owls, 
weasels,  and  other  natural  enemies  of  the  mice.  (3)  That  remedies  are  expensive 
and  difficult  of  application.  Poison  on  small  enclosed  areas  was  efficacious,  but  its 
application  over  farms,  even  if  practicable,  would  be  attended  with  much  risk  to 
other  forms  of  life.  Traps,  while  successful  in  destroying  many,  are  troublesome  to 
make  and  expensive. 

Cats,  though  tried  on  a  large  scale,  were  of  no  service  whatever.  Large 
numbers  of  mice  v;ere  killed  by  men  and  terrier  dogs ;  systematic  work  by  man  and 
several  dogs  giving  better  results  than  any  other  method  employed,  one  man  witli 
his  dogs  having  destroyed  fifteen  thousand  in  a  month. 

The  result  of  this  investigation  was  that  the  persecution  of  Hawks  and  Owls 
ceased  and  these  birds  soon  gathered  in  the  district  aPPected  in  sufficient  numbers 
to  clear  off  the  mice. 

N'o  phenomenon  in  connection  with  the  plague  of  field  mice  in  Scotland  was 
more  marked  than  the  arrival  and  continued  residence  in  the  affected  districts  of 
large  numbers  of  the  Short-eared  Owl.  This  bird,  which  is  distributed  over  every 
part  of  the  world  and  used  to  be  quite  abundant  in  Canada,  is  a  regular  winter 
migrant  to  the  British  Islands,  arriving  there  in  autumn  and  departing  in  the 
^^pring.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  it  very  rarely  nested  in  Great  Britain,  but 
in  consequence  of  the  vast  multiplication  of  their  chief  food,  the  meadow  mice,  these 
Owls  not  onlv  flocked  to  the  spot  in  great  numbers,  but  as  they  were  undisturbed, 
nnd  in  fact  protected,  they  remained  and  bred  freely  in  the  infested  district,  laying 
'  too  a  larger  number  of  eggs  for  each  brood  than  is  usual  with  them  and  they  also 
raised  more  than  one  brood  in  the  season.  The  Owls  destroyed  so  manv  of  the 
mice  in  feeding:  their  voung.  that  on  some  of  the  farms  the  shepherds  stated  that  the 


ground  was  covered  with  the  "'  castings  "  of  the  Owls,  composed  entirely  of  the  fur 
and  bones  of  the  mice. 

The  committee  linally  reported :  "  It  would  be  dilticult  to  condemn  too  severely 
the  foolish  action  of  those  who  allow  or  encourage  the  destruction  of  Hawks  and 
Owls.  It  is  with  much  satisfaction  that  your  committee  record  that  many  farmers 
and  land  owners  seem  to  have  become  convinced  in  late  years  that  Hawks  and  Owls 
are  not  only  harmless  but  most  beneficial  to  agriculturists  and  have  issued  orders 
['or  the  preservation  of  these  birds." 

Our  position  in  Ontario  may  at  any  time,  if  we  are  not  careful,  resemble  that  of 
the  Scotch  farmers  in  1893.  It  would  be  well  therefore  for  our  people  to  exert 
their  best  influence  for  the  protection  of  our  beneficial  Hawks  and  Owls  at  once, 
in  order  to  avert  what  may  develop  into  a  serious  calamity. 

The  birds  of  prey  may  be  rouglily  divided  into  two  classes — the  Hawks  and 
the  Owls.  Of  the  Eagles  little  need  be  said;  they  are  now  so  rarely  found  in  the 
cultivated  districts  that  their  influence  for  good  or  ill  is  practically  nothing. 

HAWKS. 

Of  the  hawks  there  are  eleven  species,  occurring  regularly  in  this  Province  in 
greater  or  less  abundance  every  season.  These  are  the  Marsh  Hawk,  Sharp-shinned 
Hawk,  Cooper's  Hawk,  Goshawk,  Eed-tailed  Hawk,  Eed-shouldered  Hawk,  Broad- 
winged  Hawk,  Eough-legged  Hawk,  Duck  Hawk,  Pigeon  Hawk  and  Sparrow 
Hawk;  there  are  two  or  three  others,  but  they  are  only  occasional  visitors.  Of 
these  eleven,  the  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  Cooper's  Hawk,  Goshawk,  Duck  Hawk  and 
Pigeon  Hawk  are  the  species  which  occasionally  make  raids  upon  the  poultry  yards, 
and  which  at  all  times  seem  to  prefer  feathered  game  to  either  fur  or  insects ;  they 
should,  therefore,  be  shot  whenever  the  opportunity  is  given.  The  Sharp-shinned 
Hawk  and  Cooper's  Hawk  are  the  two  species  which  most  frequently  attack  poultry. 
They  are  both  small  hawks,  but  make  up  for  their  lack  of  siy.e  by  boldness  and 
dexterity.  It  is  but  seldom  they  attack  a  full-grown  fowl,  but  if  they  once  find  an 
accessible  lot  of  chickens  they  will  continue  to  visit  the  flock  until  they  have  taken 
them  all,  or  are  killed  in  the  attempt  to  do  so.  The  mischief  done  by  these  two 
species  has  been  the  principal  cause  of  the  prejudice  existing  among  farmers 
against  all  the  hawk  tribe,  and  is  usually  given  as  an  excuse  for  the  slaughter  of 
tlie  valuable  species  whose  constant  work  inures  to  man's  benefit.  The  food  of  the 
Duck  Hawk  and  Pigeon  Hawk  consists  chiefly  of  wild  birds.  They  rarely  visit  the 
farms,  their  usual  resort  being  the  marshes  and  shores  of  lakes  frequented  by  water 
fowl.  The  Pigeon  Hawk  is  not  so  named  because  it  has  any  preference  for  pigeons, 
either  wild  or  domestic,  but  because  it  slightly  resembles  a  pigeon  in  shape  both 
when  on  the  wing  and  when  at  rest. 

The  Goshawk  fortunately  does  not  visit  the  cultivated  portion  of  Ontario  in 
any  ]iumbers  regularly;  it  is  a  winter  visitor  usually;  and  rather  an  expensive  one 
to  entertain  when  it  does  come.  Tlio  winter  of  1896-7  wa*  one  of  tlio  seasons  in 
which  it  was  particularly  abundant  throu2:h  southern  Ontario,  and  poultry  owners 
suffered  greatly  from  its  destructive  powers  in  conse(]uence.  This  Hawk  is  a  large 
powerful  bird,  quite  capable  of  killing  and  carry  ofT  a  full  ijrown  hen.  Owing  to 
its  boldness  and  strens'th  it  is  capable  of  doing  a  great  deal  of  damage,  and  sliould 
consequently  be  killed  whenever  seen.  As  previously  stated,  this  liawk  generally 
occurs  in  winter,  and  therefore  it  is  not  likely  to  be  mistaken  for  any  of  the  hawks 
whose  food  habits  are  beneficial.  As  a  general  rule,  if  a  hawk  is  soon  about  the 
farm-vard   during  the  winter  it  is   safe  to   assume   that   it   i*   \horo   for   no   good 


8 


■'/I:- 


•f. 


e^. 


rU  ^- 


Goshawk, 


Rough-legged  Hawk. 


10 

purpose,  and  the  gun  should  be  brought  into  requisition  at  once,  as  all  our  beneficial 
hawks  migrate  southward  when  cold  weather  sets  in. 

From  the  above  species,  all  of  which  are  undoubtedly  injurious  to  the  interests 
of  the  agriculturist  by  reason  of  the  destruction  they  work  in  the  poultry  yard,  and 
amongst  our  insectivorous  wild  birds,  we  turn  to  the  remaining  six  species  of 
hawks  frequenting  this  Province,  every  one  of  which  spends  the  greater  part  of 
its  time  and  devotes  its  energies  to  the  destruction  of  animals  and  insects  which 
are  known  to  be  amongst  the  greatest  pests  the  farmer  has  to  contend  with;  these 
are  the  Marsh  Hawk,  Eed-tailed  Hawk,  Bed-shouldered  Hawk,  Broad-winged 
Hawk,  Eough-legged  Hawk  and  Sparrow  Hawk. 

Nearly  every  one  knows  the  Marsh  Hawk  and  has  seen  it  gracefully  skimming 
over  the  low  meadows,  occasionally  hanging  poised  over  one  spot  for  a  second  or 
two,  and  then  dropping  down  into  the  long  grass;  this  drop  generally  means  the 
death  of  a  meadow  mouse;  sometimes,  but  more  rarely,  a  frog;  of  these  two 
creatures  its  food  principally  consists,  and  the  number  of  meadow  mice  destroyed 
by  each  of  these  birds  in  a  season  must  be  something  enormous.  As  many  as  eight 
have  been  found  in  the  stomach  of  one  of  these  hawks,  and  four  or  five  quite 
frequently.  The  hawk's  digestion  is  very  rapid  and  their  hunting  and  feeding  is 
continued  with  but  few  intermissions  from  daylight  until  dark. 

How  many  mice  each  bird  would  take  on  the  average  each  day  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  state  exactly,  but  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  at  least  six  would  be  required. 
Now  multiply  that  by  the  vast  army  of  hawks  that  resort  to  this  Province  and  the 
total  number  of  mice  destroyed  would  be  amazing;  and  then  against  this  good 
work  constantly  going  on  there  is  no  damage  to  be  set  off.  Not  one  instance,  in 
forty  years  observation  of  this  bird's  habits,  has  ever  come  to  the  writer's  know- 
ledge of  their  having  attacked  a  single  domestic  fowl.  It  does  sometimes,  make  a 
meal  off  a  dead  duck  or  other  bird  it  may  find  in  the  marshes,  but  it  is  doubtful  if 
it  ever  kills  for  itself  a  bird  of  any  kind,  at  any  rate  in  this  Province.  Every 
farmer  and  every  sportsman  in  the  land  should  do  his  utmost  for  the  protection  of 
this  hawk.  Unfortunately  they  are  constantly  destroyed  by  persons  who  are 
ignorant  of  the  good  they  do.  and  thousands  are  killed  every  autumn  by  mis- 
chievous people  who  must  shoot  at  everything  they  see  that  has  life  in  it.  If 
people  who  wantonly  shoot  hawks  would  sometimes  look  at  the  stomach  contents 
of  the  birds  they  kill  they  would  soon  be  convinced  of  the  wrong  they  were  doing 
and  would  perhaps  exercise  sufficient  commonsense  to  refrain  from  continuing  the 
evil  practice. 

For  the  sake  of  brevity  the  Eed-tailed  Hawk.  Eed-shouldered  Hawk,  and 
Broad-winged  Hawk  may  be  considered  together.  These  three  common  species 
are  usually  known  as  "Hen  Hawks."  Why,  however,  it  would  be  difficult  to  sav. 
They  are  all  fairly  large,  slow,  heavy  flying  birds,  whose  food  consists  principally 
of  mice,  squirrels,  toads,  frogs  and  snakes :  very  rarelv  do  they  ever  take  a  bird  of 
any  kind.  In  fact  it  would  be  extremely  difficult  for  them  to  do  so,  unless  the  bird 
was  very  young,  or  injured  seriously.  They  will,  when  pressed  by  hunger,  feed  on 
carrion,  but  the  staple  article  of  diet  with  them  is  meadow  mice  and  squirrels, 
varied,  as  before  stated,  by  toads,  frogs  and  snakes,  besides  grasshoppers  and  other 
insects. 

I  have  especially  omitted  from  this  group,  to  which  it  really  belongs,  the 
Eough-legged  Hawk.  This  is  done  purposely,  because  the  great  value  of  the 
species  to  the  farmer  should  be  particularly  pointed  out,  the  bird  having  been  most 
unjustly  persecuted.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  Canadian  hawks,  and  one  that 
deserves   the   greatest   consideration    and    protoction    from    every   man   having   an 


11 

interest  iu  agriculture.  It  can  be  safely  said  that  this  so-called  "  Hen-Hawk  "  has 
never  killed  a  head  of  poultry  at  any  time,  nor  do  they  ever  kill  birds  of  any  sort. 
During  the  fall  of  18!J5  these  hawlvs  were  very  abundant  in  southern  Ontario  and 
large  numbers  were  killed.  I  obtained  all  the  bodies  I  could  for  the  purpose  of 
investigating  the  contents  of  their  stomachs,  and  I  spent  much  time  in  watching 
their  habits  whilst  feeding.  All  day  long,  every  day  from  the  first  of  October  of 
that  year  to  ^N'ovember  28th,  the  birds  were  constantly  passing  slowly  through 
southern  Ontario,  feeding  as  they  went,  and  not  one  fowl  was  taken  or  attacked  by 
them  anywhere,  so  far  as  I  could  learn,  and  I  made  enquiries  from  poultry  keepers 
wherever  I  could.  In  all,  32  specimens  were  examined  by  me,  and  the  result 
corroborated  my  previous  experience.  In  one  stomach  I  found  a  frog,  in  another 
the  flesh  of  a  muskrat — taken  from  a  pile  of  bodies  of  these  creatures  which  had 
been  thrown  together  in  Ashbridge's  Marsh.  Another  stomach  was  filled  with 
large  grass-hoppers,  and  the  rest  contained  mice,  and  nothing  but  mice,  or  traces 
of  them,  ranging  in  quantity  from  a  little  fur  and  a  few  bones  to  seven  whole  ones. 
From  this  it  cau  be  judged  whether  or  not  the  Rough-legged  Hawk  is  the  friend  of 
the  farmer. 

The  attention  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  was  some  time 
ago  called  to  the  fact  that  mice  and  other  destructive  rodents  were  largely  increasing 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  it  was  suggested  that  the  constant  destruction 
of  the  hawks  and  owls  was  the  reason  for  it.  In  consequence  of  this  the  Depart- 
ment placed  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Merriam  and  Dr.  Fisher,  two  of  the 
leading  ornithologists  of  America,  with  instructions  to  prepare  a  report  on  the 
subject.  This  they  have  done,  and  the  result  of  their  investigations,  which  I  shall 
give  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  shows  conclusively  that  all  the  hawks  which  I  have 
referred  to  as  being  beneficial  to  agriculture  are  of  the  greatest  possible  val'ue  in 
ridding  us  of  enormous  numbers  of  destructive  animals,  and  they  are  practically 
innocent  of  the  commonly  urged  charge  against  them  of  poultry-killing. 

Tliere  is  only  one  more  species  of  hawk  to  be  considered,  and  that  is  the 
beautiful  little  Sparrow  Hawk,  probably  the  commonest  of  all  our  hawks,  and  which 
may  be  distinguished  from  any  of  the  others  by  its  smaller  size  and  red  back.  It 
may  be  constantly  seen  hovering  over  fields  in  Ontario,  all  through  the  summer, 
for  it  breeds  with  us,  raising  its  young  in  a  convenient  hole  in  a  tree,  frequently 
choosing  one  that  has  been  deserted  by  one  of  the  large  woodpeckers.  The  very 
small  size  of  this  bird  precludes  the  idea  that  it  can  take  a  full  grown  fowl,  or  even 
a  pigeon,  and  I  have  never  known  in  my  own  experience  that  it  has  even  taken  a 
young  chicken.  Its  principal  food  consists  of  mice  and  grasshoppers,  of  both  of 
which  it  consumes  immense  quantities,  but  it  does  occasionally  take  wild  birds, 
more  particularly  those  which  frequent  the  open  fields  and  skulk  in  the  grass  er 
run  about  the  stubble.  The  birds  taken  hv  this  species  are,  however,  so  few  com- 
pared to  the  number  of  mice  which  it  destroys,  and  so  much  good  is  done  in 
reducing  the  swarms  of  grasshoppers  which  infest  our  fields,  that  we  may  well  for- 
give its  slight  trespasses,  the  balance  of  good  over  evil  being  so  great  that  this  bird 
deserves  our  protection.  The  following  shows  the  result  of  the  investigation  made 
bv  Dr.  Fisher  at  the  request  of  the  Department  of  A<rriculture  of  the  United 
States : 

Red-tailed  Haivl-.  562  stomachs  examined:  5+  contained  poultrv  or  game 
birds:  51.  other  birds;  409,  mice  and  other  animals:  37,  reptiles,  etc.:  IT.  insects; 
9,  crawfish,  etc. ;  13,  ofFal ;  and  89  were  empty. 


13 


i 


^       %■■ 


k 


'LT**f* 


Sparrow   Hawk. 


13 

Ued-shouldered  Hawk-.  220  stomachs  were  examined:  3  contained  poultry; 
1-^,  otlier  birds;  142,  mice  and  other  mammals;  59,  reptiles,  etc.;  109,  insects;  7, 
crawfish;  2,  otial;  3,  lisli;  and  14  were  empty. 

Broad-winged  Hawl\  65  stomachs  were  examined:  2  contained  small  birds; 
28,  mice  and  other  mammals;  21,  reptiles,  etc.;  32,  insects,  etc.;  4,  crawfish;  and 
7  were  empty. 

Rough-legged  J  la  irk.  49  stomachs  examined:  45  contained  mice  and  other 
mammals;  1,  lizards;  1,  insects;  and  4  were  empty. 

Sparrow  HawJi.  320  stomachs  examined:  1  contained  a  quail;  53,  other  birds; 
101,  mice  and  other  mammals;  11,  reptiles,  etc.;  244,  insects,  etc.;  and  two  were 
empty. 

Marsh  IlawJc.  124  stomachs  were  examined :  7  contained  poultry  or  game 
birds;  34,  other  birds;  79,  mice  and  other  mammals;  9,  reptiles,  etc.;  14,  insects; 
and  8  were  empty. 

Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  of  the  49  stomachs  of  the  Kough-legged  Hawk  exam- 
ined by  Dr.  Fisher,  and  the  32  examined  by  me,  in  1895,  not  one  contained  a  trace 
of  any  domestic  fowl  and  nearly  every  one  contained  mice.  Yet  many  people 
persist  in  calling  this  bird  the  "  Big  Hen  Hawk  "  and  in  treating  it  as  an  enemy, 
when  both  by  law  and  public  opinion  it  should  be  protected  by  every  possible  means. 
The  statement  as  to  all  the  other  species  that  I  have  referred  to  as  beneficial  is 
equally  corroborated  by  my  own  experience,  and  shows  how  well  entitled  these  birds 
are  lo  consideration  at  our  hands  instead  of  the  persecution  they  usually  meet. 


INJUEIOUS  HAWKS. 

Description. 

DUCK  HAWK. 

Adult.  Upper  parts  dark  bluish  slate  color;  primaries  barred  with  ochraceous; 
tail  and  upper  coverts  barred  with  blackish  and  ashy  grey  and  tipped  with  white; 
under  parts  creamy  'buff  barred  and  spotted  with  black  except  on  throat  and  breast. 
A  black  patch  on  each  cheek,  wings  stiff,  long,  thin  and  pointed.  .  Bill  bluish, 
notched ;  the  cere  yellow.     Talons  long  and  black. 

Immature.  Upper  parts  fuscous,  more  or  less  margined  with  pale  rufous; 
region  below  the  eye  black;  ear  coverts  huffy;  under  parts  cream-buff  streaked  and 
spotted  with  black.  Male  L  IG.OO  ;  W^  12/35  ;  T  0.50  Female  L  19.00  W  14.00 
T  7.50. 

Nest,  on  rocky  cliffs.  Eggs,  three  or  four  varying  from  crcamv  while  bcavily 
marked  with  cinnamon  brown  lo  pale  reddish  brown  more  or  les<  marked  with 
sbndi's  of  same  color. 


14 

PIGEON  HAWK. 

Adult.  Ljjper  parts  slaty  blue,  a  broken  rusty  or  i/jl!"  collar  on  the  neck, 
primaries  barred  with  white;  under  parts  buffy  or  almost  fawn  with  long  blackish 
maiks  except  on  the  throat,  which  is  almost  white.  Tail  with  three  or  four  greyish 
white  bars  and  white  tip. 

fmniaiure.  Upper  parts  brownish  fuscous,  a  broken  buffy  collar  on  nape, 
inimaries  barred  with  ochraceous;  tail  with  three  or  four  incomplete  buffy  bars 
aiid  a  whitish  tip.     Under  parts  similar  to  adult. 

L  10.00— i;j. 00;  W.,  8.00;  T.,  5.50. 

Hirds  in  adult  plumage  are  rarely  seen  in  Ontario. 

Nest,  in  trees  or  on  cliffs.  Egg^,  four  or  five  varying  from  creamy  white  more 
or  less  heavily  marked  with  reddish  brown  or  chocolate. 

GOSHAWK. 

Adult.  Upper  parts  bluish  slate  color:  head  almost  black,  a  white  line  over 
and  behind  the  eye.  'fail  like  back  and  slightly  marked  with  blackish;  tip  whitish: 
entire  under  parts  evenly  marked  with  irregular  wavy  bar-  of  grey  and  white, 
the  feathers  of  the  throat  and  breast  with  dark  shafts. 

Immature.  Upper  parts  dark  brownish,  margined  with  rufon*,  primaries 
barred  with  bhick ;  under  parts  white  or  creamy  streaked  with  black. 

Male  L.,  22.00:  W.,  13.00:  T.,  10.00.     Female  L.,  24.00:  W..  13.40..  T..  11. ."iO. 
Nest,  in  trees.     Eggs,  three  to  five,  pale  bluish  white. 

SHARP-SHINNED  TTAWK. 

Feet  extremely  slender:  bare  portion  of  tarsus  longer  than  middle  toe;  scutell* 
frequently  fused  :  tail  square.  Above  dark  brown  (deepest  on  the  head,  the  occipital 
feathers  showing  white  when  disturbed)  with  an  ashy  or  plumbeous  shade,  which 
increases  with  age  until  the  general  color  is  quite  bluish  ash:  below,  white  \ariousIy 
streaked  with  dark  brown  aiul  rusty,  finally  changing  to  brownish  red,  with  the 
\\\\\io,  then  onlv  showing  in  narrow  cross-I)ars.  chin,  throat  and  crissum  mostly 
white  with  blackish  penciling:  wings  and  tail  barred  with  ashy  and  blackish: 
quills  white,  barred  basally.  Tail  whitish  tipped:  hill  dark;  claws  black;  cere  and 
feet,  yellow. 

Male  li.,  10.12:  W.,  6.7;  T.,  5.6.     Female  L.,  12.14;  W.,  7.8:  T.,  7. 

Xos-t.  in  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five  varying  from  bluish  white  to  |>;ile  cream 
huir.  (lislinctlv  sjiotled.  blotcbed  or  even  waslied  with  reddish  brown  or  chocolate. 

COOPER'S  HAWK. 

Feet  moderatelv  stout,  bare  portion  of  tarsus  shorter  than  middle  toe:  scutella? 
distinct,  colors  and  their  changes  as  in  the  Sharp-shinned  Hawk,  but  the  bird  is 
larger  and  tail  rounded. 

Male  L..  16.18:  W.,  9.10;  T.,  7.8.     Female  L.,  18.20;  W.,  lo.ll  :  T.,  8.9. 
Nest,  generally  in  an  evergreen  tree.    The  abamloned  nest  of  some  other  large 
bird  is  often  used.     Eggs  four  or  five,  greenish  white,  sometime'*  faintly  spotted 
with  brown. 


15 


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16 

BENEFICIAL  HAWKS. 
MAESH  HAWK. 

Adult  Male.  Upper  parts  grey  or  ashy.  Upper  tail  coverts  white;  tail 
irregularly  marked  or  barred  with  blackish;  upper  breast  pearl-gray;  lower  breast 
and  belly  white  spotted  and  barred  with  rufous. 

Adult  Female.  Upper  parts  dark  brownish,  head  and  neck  streaked  and  the 
wing  coverts  spotted  or  margined  with  rufous;  upper  tail  coverts  white;  middle 
tail  feathers  barred  with  ashy  and  black,  others  barred  with  buff  and  black ;  under 
parts  reddish  buff  streaked  with  dark  brown. 

Immature.     Similar  to  the  female,  but  somewhat  darker  all  over. 

Male  L.,  19.00;  W.,  13.75;  T.,  9.00.     Female  L.,  23.00;  W.,  15;  T.,  10.00. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  in  marshes.     Eggs,  four  to  six  pale  bluish  wliite. 

EED-TAILED  HAWK. 

Adult.  Dark  brown  above,  many  feathers  edged  with  tawny;  four  outer 
primaries  emarginate.  Wing  coverts  not  edged  with  rufous;  below  creamy  white 
streaked  with  various  shades  of  brown,  generally  forming  a  broken  band  across 
the  abdomen.  Tail,  rich  chestnut-red  with  black  band  near  the  end  and  a  narrow 
white  tip. 

Immature.     Similar,  but  tail  of  same  color  as  the  back  with  distinct  blackish 

l>ars. 

Male  L.,  20.00;  W.,  15.50:  T.,  9.25.     Fenmle  L.,  23.00;  W.,  16.50:  T.,  9.75. 

Nest  in  high  trees.  Eggs,  two  to  four  dull  white,  generally  scantily  marked 
with   rich   bi'own  of  various  shades. 

EED-SHOULDEEED  HAWK. 

Adult.  Upper  parts  dark  greyish  brown,  the  feathers  more  or  less  edged  with 
rufous.  Bend  of  the  wing,  orange  brown,  forming  a  conspicuous  "shoulder  patch" ; 
four  outer  primaries  emarginate:  tail  blackish  with  four  or  five  white  cross-bars 
and  white  tip,  throat  streaked  with  blackish,  rest  of  the  under  parts  rufous,  every- 
where barred  with  whitish. 

Immature.  Upper  parts  similar  to  adult;  lesser  wing-coverts  margined  with 
rufous,  basal  part  of  primaries  mostly  ochraceous  buff,  fading  to  whitish  on  the 
inner  web  with  broken  bars  of  dusky  brown ;  tail  greyish  brown  indistinctly  barred, 
the  inner  webs  of  the  feathers  with  white  bars ;  under  parts  white  with  dark  streaks. 

Miale,  L.,  18.30:  W.,  12.50;  T.,  8.00.     Female,  L.,  20.35;  W.,  13.50;  T.,  9.00. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five:  dull  white,  generally  blotched  with  reddish 
brov:n. 

BEOAU-WINGED  HAWK. 

Adult.  Upper  parts  dark  greyish  brown  the  feathers  more  or  less  margined 
with  bu%,  those  of  the  hind  head  and  nape  white  at  base:  three  outer  primaries 
emarginate:  tail  ^vith  two  or  three  dark  bands  alternating  with  narrow  white  ones. 
Below  white  variously  streaked  and  spotted  with  rusty,  the  latter  color  predominat- 
ing in  some  specimens. 


17 

Immature.  Upper  parts  much  as  in  adult;  tail  greyish  brown,  crossed  with 
bands  of  dusky.  Below  dull  white  with  longitudinal  brown  or  dusky  streaks  on 
breast  and   sides. 

Male,  L.,  15.89;  W.,  10.68;  T.,  6.75.     Female,  L.,  16.76;  W.,  11.41;  T.,  7.09. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  three  or  four,  dull  white  blotched  or  washed  with  various 
shades  of  brown. 

AMERICAN  EOUGH-LEGGED  HAWK. 

Adult.  Head  and  neck  whitish  streaked  with  dusky,  upjier  parts  brown, 
irregularly  varied  with  white,  grayish  dusky  or  rufous;  base  of  tail  and  upper 
tail  coverts,  white;  rest  of  tail  lighter  brown,  barred  near  the  end  with  blackish. 
Under  parts  varying  from  white  to  buify  streaked  and  spotted  with  black',  these 
marks  uniting  to  form  a  black  abdominal  zone.  Legs  densely  feathered  in  front 
and  on  sides  down  to  base  of  toes. 

Immature.  Similar  to  adult,  but  tail  without  bars  except  for  the  white  tip. 
Under  parts  more  heavily  marked  with  black. 

Blaclc  phase.  Plumage  more  or  less  entirely  black;  primaries  and  tail  barred 
with  whitish  and  grayish. 

L.,  23.00;  W.,  16.00;  T.,  9.50. 

The  plumage  of  this  species  is  very  variable  but  it  may  always  be  distinguished 
by  its  large  size  and  feathered  legs. 

Nest,  on  large  trees  or  shelves  of  rocks.  Eggs,  two  or  three  dirty  white, 
blotched  with  reddish  brown. 


AMERICAN  SPARROW  HAWK. 

Adult  Male.  Head  slaty  blue  with  generally  a  rufous  spot  on  crown;  a  black 
mark  before  and  behind  the  white  ear  coverts ;  back,  chestnut  red,  witli  or  without 
black  spots  or  bars;  tail  chestnut  red,  a  black  band  near  its  end;  tin,  white. 
Under  parts  creamy  white  to  buff,  with  a  few  black  spots  or  none. 

Admit  Female.  Back,  tail  and  wing  coverts  chestnut  red  barred  with  bhick; 
head  as  in  the  male ;  under  parts  more  or  less  streaked  with  lirown. 

Immature.     Resembles  the  adult. 

L.,   10.00;   W.,   7.30;  T.,  4.80. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  very  variable,  usually  pale  reddish 
buff,  marked  all  over  with  reddish  brown, 

OWLS. 

Eoi  some  reason  owls  have  always  lict'ii  ticatcd  with  a  cert^ain  amount  of 
ridicule  and  contempt.  In  the  minds  of  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  they  were 
associated  with  eats  and  witches,  and  wore  supposed  to  possess  a  certain  amount 
of  influence  with  the  latter,  whose  orgies  they  entered  into  with  a  great  deal  of 
spirit.  In  mythology,  however,  this  bird  was  treated  respectfully.  ^Tinerva,  the 
goddess  of  wisdom,  selected  it  as  her  attendant,  and  "as  wise  as  an  owl"  has 
passed  into  a  proverb  by  reason  thereof. 

Most  of  the  owls  seen  in  the  day-tinic  seem  to  be  stupid,  chimsv  and  inert 
creatures,  as  they  sit  winking  and  blinking  in  the  unaccustomed  light,  striving  as 

2-218 


18 

much  as  possible  to  shade  their  wonderful  eyes  from  the  too-powerful  rays;  but 
see  these  birds  at  dusk  and  after— what  a  transformation  takes  place !  They  are 
then  as  alert  as  any  hawk;  their  soft  plumage  enables  them  to  skim  noiselessly 
around  our  farin  buildings  and  over  the  fields  in  search  of  food.  Unlucky  then  b. 
the  mouse  or  rat  that  ventures  to  show  itself,  or  even  utter  a  squeak  from  its  hiding 
place  in  the  grass,  (for  owl's  ears  are  as  wonderfully  constructed  as  their  eyes,  and 
their  hearing  is  as  acute  as  their  sight).  The  fate  of  that  mouse  will  be  sealed, 
and  it  will  vex  the  farmer  no  more. 

Some  of  the  owls  however  are  day  feeders — the  Snowy  Owl  and  the  Hawk  Owl 
I  think  entirely  so — while  the  Great  Horned  Owl  seems  to  be  almost  as  active  on 
dull  days  as  at  night;  and  whether  the  day  be  bright  or  dull  these  birds  can  always 
see  well  enough  to  take  care  of  themselves  and  keep  out  of  the  range  of  a  gun.  In 
the  cultivated  portions  of  the  Province  of  Ontario  we  have  five  species  of  owls  that 
may  be  treated  here  as  residents.  They  are  not  strictly  so,  as  there  is  a  certain 
migratory  movement  amongst  them,  caused  probably  hy  the  failure  or  abundance 
of  their  food  supply,  which  may  cause  them  to  either  leave  certain  districts  for  a 
time  or  gather  there  in  larger  numbers  than  usual.  Many  instances  are  on  record 
of  plagues  of  mice  having  been  stayed  and  the  trouble  removed  by  the  arrival  on 
the  infested  spot  of  large  numbers  of  owls ;  these  birds  rapidly  killed  off  the  mice 
and  then  scattered  again.  Our  resident  species  are  the  Great-Horned  Owl,  Long- 
eared  Owl,  Short-eared  Owl,  Barred  Owl  and  Screech  Owl. 

The  Great  Homed  Owl,  or  "  Cat  Owl,"  as  it  is  often  called,  is  the  only  one  I 
have  ever  known  to  attack  poultry,  and  it  can  work  havoc  amongst  them  if  they  are 
left  out  to  roost  in  unprotected  places.  The  destruction  of  this  owl  is  certainly 
justifiable  and  necessary  where  it  has  taken  up  its  quarters  in  a  locality  in  which 
poultry  is  kept.  It  also  captures  great  quantities  of  our  favorite  game  birds,  more 
particularly  Ruffed  Grouse,  many  a  brood  of  which  goes  to  satisfy  the  hunger  of 
the  Horned  Owl's  family,  and  are  so  lost  to  the  sportsman.  But  as  against  the 
charge  of  poultry  and  game  killing  which  has  been  proven  against  it,  this  owl  has 
some  redeeming  qualities.  It  kills  great  numbers  of  rats,  mice,  squirrels  and  other 
rodents  that  are  injurious  to  farmers,  and  strange  to  say  it  seems  to  be  a  determined 
enemy  to  the  slaink.  Numbers  of  cases  have  been  cited  in  which  the  flesh  and  hair 
of  this  animal  have  been  found  in  the  stomachs  of  these  owls,  more  particularly 
in  the  spring,  and  I  know  that  fully  one-half  of  the  bodies  of  these  birds  that  I 
liave  handled  Avere  well  perfumou  with  the  odor  of  skunk — in  many  cases  so  much 
so,  that  I  have  had  to  throw  away  fine  specimens,  the  smell  being  quite  unbearable. 
Possibly  these  birds  are  four!  of  strong  o'lor,  for  those  whose  feathers  are  not 
scented  with  skunk  perfumery  have  generally  a  strong  odor  of  muskrat,  the  flesh 
of  which  they  also  appreciate.  T  have  frtquently  known  them  to  hunt  and  kill 
these  rats  in  the  spring,  during  the  day  time  when  they  were  about  the  banks  of 
the  creeks,  driven  there  by  the  high  water  of  our  usual  sprino-  fres'iet.  These  owls 
are  very  powerful  birds,  usually  killing  for  themselves  all  the  food  they  eat,  and 
only  resorting  to  carrion  in  the  direst  extremity  of  hunger.  Turkeys  and  Guinea 
fowls,  from  their  habit  of  roosting  in  trees,  frequently  fall  victims  to  the  strength 
and  rapacity  of  these  creatures.  In  such  cases  only  the  head  and  neck  of  fhe  slain 
Avill  be  eaten,  the  bodies  being  left  for  animals  of  less  power  or  meaner  ambition  to 
finish. 

The  Long-eared  Oivl  is  a  much  smaller  bird  than  the  last  (being  about  fifteen 
inches  in  length),  and  contents  itself  with  much  humbler  fare  than  its  big  cousin. 
It  is  fairly  common  through  the  cultivated  districts,  particularly  in  the  autumn. 


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when  it  imi}'  ui'LcJi  be  I'uuiid  in  e'luin})s  of  willows  and  alders  that  have  been  left  iu 
low  places  about  the  fields  and  pastures.  Quite  frequently  a  pair  will  be  found 
together.  These  are  not,  however,  always  male  and  female.  1  have  never  seen 
any  evidence  to  show  that  this  owl  attacks  poultry,  and  I  do  not  believe  that  ic 
could  kill  any  domestic  fowl  larger  or  stronger  than  a  pigeon.  Its  chief  food  con- 
sists of  mice,  varied  occasioiially  by  small  birds  and  insects,  more  particularly  the 
wood-boring  beetles;  of  these  one  or  more  will  generally  be  found  in  the  stomach  of 
every  specimen  examined.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits,  rarely  moving  about 
during  the  day  unless  disturbed,  and  even  then  it  seems  loath  to  move.  'Only  once 
have  I  seen  it  attempting  to  hunt  in  daylight,  and  that  occurred  in  western 
Ontario  on  a  very  dull,  still  day  in  November,  when  about  four  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon I  saw^  a  pair  of  them  hovering  over  a  field  of  long  grass  into  which  we  had 
driven  a  bevy  of  quail.  I  suspected  the  owls  of  quail-hunting  on  their  own 
account  so  followed  them  and  shot  both,  'but  their  stomachs  contained  no  trace  of 
feathers — nothing  but  mice.  The  only  harm  these  owls  can  ever  justly  be  accused 
of  doing  is  the  occasional  killing  of  a  small  bird,  and  that  is  so  far  overbalanced 
by  the  great  amount  of  good  they  do,  that  they  are  entitled  to  all  the  protection 
possible. 

The  8hort-eared  Owl  is  about  the  same  size  as  the  last  named  species,  but  may 
be  distinguished  from  it  by  the  absence  of  the  long  ear-tufts,  which  are  a  con- 
spicious  feature  of  the  latter.  This  is  probably  the  most  abundant  of  all  our  owls, 
but  it  seldom  frequents  cultivated  land,  usually  resorting  to  low-lying  meadows 
and  marsh  hay  lands.  It  is  most  commonly  seen  in  the  autumn,  and  appears  to  be 
somewhat  gregarious,  large  numbers  sometimes  arriving  at  one  of  their  feeding 
grounds  together,  and  remaining  there  for  a  few  days,  then  all  move  off  again  as- 
they  came,  to  be  replaced  after  a  short  interval  by  another  lot.  The  great  bulk  of 
them  leave  this  Province  by  midwinter,  or  before  if  the  snow  should  become  deep, 
their  movement  towards  the  south  being  regulated  entirely  by  the  depth  of  snow- 
fall. Whilst  the  ground  is  uncovered  they  are  able  to  obtain  a  full  supply  of  mice, 
which  form  the  staple  article  of  their  diet;  when  the  snow  is  deep  the  mice  work 
underneath  it.  The  supply  being  cut  off,  they  are  driven  southward,  whither  tlio 
small  birds  have  already  gone,  so  they  cannot  fall  back  upon  them.  Unfortunately 
this  is  a  bad  failing  with  the  Short-eared  Owl — in  fact  my  experience  shows  that  it 
feeds  upon  mice  and  small  birds  indiscriminately,  and  what  is  worse  I  am  satisfied 
that  it  kills  far  more  birds  than  it  can  eat.  Near  my  home  there  is  a  large  marsh 
partially  surrounded  by  low  meadows,  which  support  a  rank  growth  of  grass,  rushes 
and  weeds  of  various  kinds.  This  place  is  much  frequented  in  the  autumn  by 
sparrows  and  warblers,  migrating  southward;  in  fact  at  times  the  place  fairly 
swarms  with  them.  Suddenly  a  number  of  Short-eared  Owls  will  appear  on  the 
scene,  and  then  numbers  of  small  birds  will  be  foujul  lying  about  dead,  some  partly 
eaten  and  others  with  only  the  skull  crushed  and  a  few  feathers  plucked  off.  At 
these  times  I  have  shot  many  of  the  owls,  and  found  the  crops  and  stomachs  to 
contain  mice  and  small  birds  mixed.  Tins  will  go  on  for  a  few  days,  or  imtil  the 
owls  leave,  and  each  morning  the  number  of  dead  birds  lying  about  will  have 
increased.  After  the  owls  have  gone  the  destruction  ceases,  only  to  begin  again 
when  the  next  lot  of  owls  arrive.  The  r^mall  birds  thus  destroyed  are  of  the 
greatest  value  to  an  agricultural  community,  and  their  loss  is  much  to  be  deplored: 
but  on  the  other  hand  the  owls  destroy  an  immense  number  of  mice,  so  that  the 
good  they  do  probably  balances  the  evil,  and  in  such  a  case  the  best  wav  is  to  let 
nature  take  its  course  without  our  intervention. 


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The  Barred  Owl  is  so  rare  with  us  that  its  influence  on  agriculture,  for  either 
good  or  ill,  is  practically  nothing.  The  few  I  have  found  in  this  Province  have 
always  contained  mice,  but  tu  the  south  of  us,  where  the  poultry  are  allowed  to 
roost  in  trees,  it  is  charged  witli  occasionally  killing  half-grown  chickens. 

The  noisy  little  Screech  Owl,  which  may  in  some  winters  be  found  in  half  the 
barns  in  the  country,  is  well  known  to  every  one,  and  should  be  protected  by  every 
farmer.-  It  watches  tlie  granary,  the  barnyard  and  the  garden,  and  is  the  most 
indefatigable  mouser  we  have.  It  seems  not  only  to  kill  mice  for  its  immediate 
wants,  but  also  for  the  pleasure  of  hunting  them.  If  the  roosting  place  of  one  of 
these  birds  is  examined  after  the  bird  has  used  it  for  a  short  time,  numbers  of  dend 
mice  will  be  found,  most  of  them  untouched  after  being  killed  and  deposited  there ; 
probably  they  lay  up  this  store  in  order  to  provide  against  nights  of  scarcity,  but 
ill  nearly  all  cases  it  will  be  found  that  they  are  well  ahead  of  any  danger  of 
famine.  Not  only  does  this  little  owl  rid  the  country  of  numberless  mice,  but  in 
towns  and  cities  it  does  useful  work  in  keeping  the  common  House  Sparrow  within 
proper  limits.  During  tlie  winter  particularly,  it  may  often  be  seen  hunting  about 
verandahs,  under  eaves,  and  among  the  Virginia  creeper  growing  around  dwelling 
houses,  for  the  sparrows  that  roost  there,  and  it  will  go  regularly  over  the  same  beat 
night  after  night,  until  the  accessible  sparrows  are  thinned  down,  so  that  it  finds 
it  more  profitable  to  change  its  hunting  ground.  Besides  its  great  value  as  a 
destroyer  of  mice  and  House  Sparrows,  the  Screech  Owl  eats  a  great  many  large 
beetles,  particularly  tlie  wood-borers  and  May  beetles,  both  of  which  classes  of 
insects  are  capable  of  doing  much  injury  if  suffered  to  become  too  numerous. 
Grasshoppers  also  form  a  considerable  article  of  this  bird's  diet.  The  good 
qualities  of  this  little  owl  cannoi  be  over-estimated.  Its  food  consists  entirely  of 
such  creatures  as  are  most  injurious  to  the  crops,  and  it  has  not  a  single  evil  habit. 
It  should,  therefore,  be  carefully  protected,  and  encouraged  to  take  up  its  abode  in 
and  about  the  farm  buildings.  This  I  believe  it  would  readily  do  if  it  was  left 
unmolested.  All  it  asks  in  return  for  its  valuable  services  is  peace  and  quiet,  and 
a  dark  corner  to  roost  in  during  the  day. 

The  Great  Gray  Owl,  the  Snowy  Ov/1,  the  Hawk  Owl,  Eichardson's  Owl  and 
the  Saw-whet  Owl  are  only  irregular  visitors,  usunlly  occuring  in  the  winter.  The 
two  first  named  are  large  birds  whose  food  consists  chiefly  of  game  birds  when  in 
fheir  northern  home ;  here  they  feed  upon  the  small  rodents. 

The  island  and  sandbar  to  the  south  of  Toronto  is  usually  visited  by  a  few 
Snowy  Owls  every  winter.  Here  the  birds  feed  upon  the  common  house  rats,  Avhich 
are  altogether  too  abundant  at  this  spot.  As  every  owl  of  any  kind  that  visits  the 
place  is  at  once  shot,  the  rats,  having  it  all  their  own  way,  are  increasing  rapidly. 

The  Hawk  Owl  hunts  by  day,  on  the  prairies  of  the  jSTorth-West,  and  where  it 
occurs  in  sufficient  numbers  it  must  do  much  good  by  the  destruction  of  meadow 
mice.     Its  visits  to  us  are  so  rare,  however,  that  it  need  not  be  considered  here. 

Eichardson's  Owl  and  the  Saw-whet  Owl  are  two  little  Owls  that  destroy  many 
mice  and  noxious  insects,  but  are  too  rare  to  need  further  mention. 

Of  the  ten  species  of  owls  before  mentioned,  nine  of  them  are  among  the  best 
of  the  farmer's  friends,  watching  and  working  when  he  is  sleeping.  In  following 
out  the  natural  law  which  govern,-;  their  lives  they  greatly  help  to  keep  in  check  that 
vast  army  of  little  animals  which,  if  allowed  to  increase  unrestrained  hy  their 
natural  enemies,  would  in  a  few  seasons  destroy  all  vegetation  on  the  face  of  the 
earth.  The  chief  and  most  effective  check  upon  the  undue  increase  of  this  army 
of  rats,  mice,  etc.,  are  the  birds  of  prey.  These  birds  are  endowed  with  natural 
faculties  specially  adapted  for  the  work  they  do.  and   they  do  it  well ;  the  only 


23 

trouble  is  that  we  have  too  few  of  them.  If,  however,  public  opinion  can  be 
brought  to  bear  on  this  important  matter  before  it  is  too  late,  and  the 
wanton  and  useless  destruction  of  our  beneficial  hawks  and  owls  be  stopped  at  once, 
the  balance  of  nature  may  be  restored,  to  the  great  advantage  of  mankind. 

The  following  shows  the  result  of  Dr.  Fisher's  investigation  of  the  food 
habits  of  the  owls  as  reported  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington. 

Great  Horned  Owl.  127  stomachs  examined;  31  contained  poultry  or  game 
birds;  8,  other  birds;  13,  mice;  65,  other  mammals;  1,  insects,  etc.;  1,  fish,  and  17 
were  empty. 

This  shows  that,  although  the  bird  does  some  injury  by  its  raids  upon  game  and 
poultry,  yet  its  evil  propensities  are  somewhat  counterbalanced  by  its  destruction  of 
mice,  rats,  rabbits  and  other  small  mammals.  It  is  the  only  one  of  the  owls  about 
whose  record  for  good  there  can  be  any  doubt.  All  the  others  should  be  protected, 
while  this  one  should  certainly  be  killed  oft'  if  it  begins  visiting  the  barnyard. 

Long-eared  Oivl.  107  stomachs  examined;  1  contained  a  game  bird;  15,  other 
birds;  81,  contained  mice;  5  other  mammals;  1,  insects,  and  15  were  empty. 

Short-eared  Oivl.  101  stomachs  examined:  11  contained  small  birds;  77  con- 
tained mice ;  7,  other  mammals ;  7,  insects,  and  14  were  empty.  My  own  experience 
shows  a  larger  proportion  of  small  birds  than  the  above. 

Barred  Oivl.  109  stomachs  examined:  5  contained  poultry  or  game  birds;  13 
other  birds;  46,  mice;  18,  other  mammals;  16,  frogs,  lizards,  etc.;  16,  insects,  etc., 
and  20  were  empty. 

Screech  Owl.  254  stomachs  examined:  1  contained  the  remains  of  a  pigeon ;  38, 
other  ibirds;  91,  mice;  11,  other  small  mammals;  25,  frogs,  lizards,  etc.;  107,  insects, 
etc.,  and  43  were  empty. 

The  above  examinations  of  the  stomachs  of  our  resident  species  show  most 
positively  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Great  Horned  Owl,  the  whole  family  are 
of  the  greatest  value  to  the  farmer.  My  own  experience,  both  in  Manitoba  and 
Ontario,  corroborates  this,  and  is  perhaps  a  little  more  favorable  to  the  owls,  for 
( always  excepting  the  Great  Horned  Owl )  I  have  never  found  a  trace  of  a  game  bird 
or  domestic  fowl  in  any  of  them. 


GEEAT  HOENED     OWL. 

Description. 

Ear-Tufts  conspicuous,  nearly  two  inches  in  length.  Plumage  varies  greatly : 
in  general  the  upper  parts  are  mottled  with  varying  shades  of  buff  and  brown ;  facial 
disc  buff;  a  white  collar  on  the  throat,  rest  of  the  under  parts  greyish  v/hite  or  buff; 
barred  with  black.    Legs  and  feet  feathered.    Eyes  yellow. 

L.,  22.00:  W.,  15.00;  T.,  8.50. 

Nest,  sometimes  in  a  hollow  tree,  a  cleft  in  rocks  or  among  the  branches  of  a 
high  tree,  very  often  an  old  hawk's,  or  crow's,  nest  is  occupied.  Eggs,  three  or  four, 
round,  white. 


24 

SCllEEOH    OWL. 

Adult.  Bufous  phase — Ear-tufts  conspicuous;  about  an  inch  in  length;  upper 
parts  bright  rufous  sharply  streaked  with  black;  under  parts  white,  the  feathers 
centrally  streaked  with  black  and  irregularly  barred  with  rufous. 

Gray  phase — Upper  parts  generally  brownish  gray,  streaked  with  black  and 
finely  mottled  with  buff;  under  parts  white,  finely  streaked  and  more  finely  and 
irregularly  barred  with  black. 

Immature.    Entire  plumage  regularly  barred  with  grayish  or  rufous  and  white. 

This  owl  may  always  be  identified  by  its  small  size  and  ear-tufts.  Its  color 
phases  are  not  dependent  upon  age,  sex  or  season  and  both  phases  are  sometimes 
represented  in  the  same  brood.  Between  the  two  there  is  a  complete  intergradation. 
In  any  phase  there  is  a  more  or  less  conspicious  light  stripe  along  each  side  of  the 
back  and  a  black  line  down  the  shafts  of  the  feathers,  sometimes  throwing  out  short 
transverse  bars. 

L.,  9.50;  W.,  6.50;  T.,  3.09. 

.Nest,  generally  in  a  hollow  tree.     Eggs,  four  to  six  white,  nearly  round. 

HAWK  OWL. 

Xo  ear  tufts;  upper  parts  dark  greyish  brown  more  or  less  spotted  with  white, 
tai]  (long  and  rounded)  barred  with  whitish;  a  patch  of  uniform  black  or  dark 
brown  on  each  side  of  hind  neck.    Under  parts  barred  black  and  white. 

L.,  16;  W.,  9;  T.,  7. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  five  or  six:  white,  rounded,  oval. 

BICHABDSOX'S  OWL. 

Adult.  ISTo  ear-tufts,  upper  parts  grayish  brown,  the  head  and  back  spotted 
with  white;  tail  with  four  or  five  imperfect  white  bars;  under  parts  white,  heavily 
streaked  with  grayish  brown ;  legs  and  feet  heavily  feathered,  whitish,  barred  with 
grayish  brown;  eyes  yellow. 

Immature.  Upper  parts  dark  cinnamon  brown  with  a  few  more  or  less  con- 
cealed white  spots ;  tail  as  in  the  adult;  breast  like  back;  belly,  buffy. 

L.,  10:  W.,  6.75:  T.,  4.40. 

Nest,  in  trees.    Eggs  two  to  four,  white,  nearly  round. 

SAW- WHET  OWL. 

Adult.  No  ear-tufts,  upper,  parts  dark  cinnamon  brown,  the  head  finely 
streaked,  and  back  spotted  with  white;  tail  Avith  three  or  four  imj^erfect  white  bars: 
under  parts  white,  heavily  streaked  with  cinnamon  brown:  legs  and  feet  heavily 
feathered,  buffy  white,  unbarred;  e3'es  yellow. 

Immature.  Upper  parts  as  in  the  adult,  but  head  and  back  with  little  or  no 
white. 

Nest,  in  hollow  trees  or  old  crow's  nests  usually,  but  sometimes  among  ihe 
branches  of  large  trees.     Eggs,  two  to  four,  nearly  round,  white. 

CtBEAt  gbay  owl. 

The  largest  Owl  of  this  country.  No  ear-tufts ;  upper  parts  ashy  brown,  every- 
where mottled  with  white;  facial  disc  gray  marked  with  dark  concentric  rings;  under 


25 

parts  white,  the  breast  barred  and  the  belly  broadlly  streaked  with  greyish  brown ; 
legs  and  feet  heavily  feathered;  bill  and  eyes,  yellow. 

L.,  25.  to  30;  W.,  17.50;  T.,  12.50. 

Nest,  in  evergreen  trees.     Eggs,  two  to  four,  white,  nearly  round. 

SNOWY  OWL. 

jSTo  ear-tufts.     White,  more  or  less  barred,  with  blackish  markings.     In  some 
few  males  the  dark  marks  are  absent. 
L.,  25.00;  W.,  17.00;  T.,  9.50. 
Nest,  on  the  ground  in  Arctic  regions.    Eggs,  four  to  seven,  white,  oblong  oval. 

LONG-EAEED  OWL. 

Ear-tufts  conspicuous,  an  inch  or  more  in  length,  black  bunlcred  by  wliite  and 
bufEy;  upper  parts  brown  mottled  with  white  in  small  pattern,  the  bases  of  the 
feathers  buff;  tail  mottled  and  barred  with  dark  brown;  facial  disc  buf!  bordered  by 
black.  Under  parts  whitish  and  buff,  the  breast  streaked  with  brown;  sides  a.id 
b<^lly  irregularly  barred  with  blackish ;  eyes,  yellow. 
"'l.,  14.50  ;"w.,  11.90;  T.,  6.00. 

Nest,  sometimes  in  a  thick  evergreen,  more  frequently  an  old  crow's  or  hawk's 
nest  is  occupied.    Eggs,  four  to  six,  oval,  white. 

SHORT-EAEED  OWL. 

Ear-tufts  short,  inconspicuous ;  upper  parts  buft'y,  broadly  streaked  with  dark 
brown;  tail  and  quills,  buff'  with  dark  bars:  under  parts  buffy,  the  breast  broadly 
streaked  with  brown,  belly  more  finely  streaked,  but  not  barred;  facial  disc  pale  buff, 
eye  patch,  blackish. 

L.,  15.50:  W.,  12.75;  T.,  6.05. 

Nest  on  the  ground  in  marshy  meadows.  Eggs,  four  to  seven,  white,  nearly 
round. 

BAK1M-;.J^  OWL. 

No  ear-tufts:  upper  parts  grayish  brown,  barred  with  whit^:  tail  ai.d  quill 
feathers  barred  ashy  brown  and  white;  facial  disc  gray,  finely  mottled;  under  parts 
white,  somewhat  tinged  with  buffy,  the  breast  barred  and  the  sides  and  belly  streaked 
with  brown.    Bill  yellow;  eyes,  brownish  black. 

L.,  20.00;  W.".  13.50;  T.,  9.50. 

INSECT  DESTROYERS. 

During  the  last  twenty  years  the  decrease  in  the  number  of  small  birds  about  our 
farms  and  gardens  and  the  consequent  increase  of  insect  pests  has  become  a  cause 
of  serious  complaint. 

Insects  now  affect  every  form  of  vegetable  life.  Borers  work  their  way  beneath 
the  bark  of  the  trees  and  cut  long  tunnels  through  the  wood.  Leaf  eaters,  by  indivi- 
dual or  combined  attacks,  often  completely  defoliate  the  trees.  Curculios  and  grubs 
of  various  sorts  enter  the  fruit,  disfiguring  it  and  rendering  it  useless,  and  weevils, 
with  many  other  insects,  attack  our  grain  croi)s  an<l  di^spoil  the  farmer  of  the  reward 
of  his  skill  and  labor. 


26 

While  these  species  are  at  work  upon  the  exposed  portions  of  our  plants,  others, 
dud  by  far  the  most  injurious  kinds,  are  beneath  the  soil  boring  into  their  roots,  or 
eating  away  the  fibres  which  provide  them  with  nourishment,  whilst  the  cut-worms, 
by  severing  the  stalk  at  the  surface  of  the  ground,  entirely  destroy  every  plant  they 
attack. 

How  to  keep  in  check  these  insect  pests  is  a  question  of  the  greatest  possible 
importance  to  the  whole  community.  It  can  be  partly  done,  but  at  considerable 
expense,  by  our  own  labor,  or  it  can  be  done  at  little  or  no  cost,  by  intelligently 
encouraging  and  protecting  our  birds  until  they  have  increased  sufficiently  to  restore 
the  Imlance  of  nature. 

Every  class  of  our  birds  has  its  particular  work  to  do,  and  the  destruction  or 
serious  reduction  in  the  number  of  individuals  comprised  in  any  class  means  a 
corresponding  increase  in  the  number  of  insects  which  it  is  the  special  mission  of 
the  birds  to  keep  in  check. 

The  Woodpeckers  are  wonderfully  specialized  to  enable  them  to  feed  upon  the 
borers  that  live  in  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  Thrushes,  Meadow  Larks  and  Black- 
birds feed  principally  upon  such  insects  as  hide  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  Warblers,  Orioles,  Cuckoos,  and  many  others,  gather  their  food  from  among 
the  branches,  their  prey  consisting  chiefly  of  leaf -eating  caterpillars  and  beetles.  The 
Flycatchers,  from  some  post  of  observation,  dart  out  and  capture  every  winged  insect 
that  passes  within  their  range ;  whilst  the  Swallows  and  Night  Hawks  are  constantly 
engaged  in  clearing  the  air  of  the  myriads  of  flies  and  midges  which  if  not  kept  in 
check  would  render  life  almost  unendurable. 

SHRIKES. 

Of  this  family  we  have  two  representatives  in  Ontario,  the  Northern  Shrike 
which  is  a  winter  visitor,  arriving  in  October  and  remaining  here  until  the  early  part 
of  April,  and  the  Loggerhead  Shrike,  a  summer  resident,  arriving  in  the  early  part  of 
April,  breeding  here,  and  departing  about  the  end  of  August.  Both  these  birds, 
and,  in  fact,  the  whole  family  of  them,  are  generally  known  as  "Butcher  Birds," 
all  the  species  having  the  same  peculiar  habit  of  killing  more  victims  than  they 
actually  require  for  their  daily  food,  and  spitting  them  on  a  thorn  or  twig  near  their 
resort.  In  their  other  habits  these  shrikes  are  much  the  same.  Wlien  seeking  food 
they  generally  perch  on  the  top  of  some  small  tree,  or  a  fence  post,  from  which  they 
can  get  a  clear  view  all  around  them.  Here  they  Avill  sit  in  an  erect,  hawk-like  atti- 
tude, silent  and  watchful  until  some  large  insect,  a  mouse  or  small  bird  comes  within 
the  range  of  their  vision,  when  it  is  at  once  pounced  upon  and  killed.  If  the  shrike 
is  hungry  at  the  time,  its  prey  is  devoured  at  once,  but  if  not  the  victim  will  be  im- 
paled upon  some  thorn,  twig,  or  splinter  in  the  vicinity.  I  have  seen  the  barbs  of  a 
wire  fence  used  for  this  purpose  on  the  prairie,  and  in  places  where  bushes  were 
scarce,  ^^^lether  the  shrikes  ever  eat  these  bodies  or  not  I  do  not  know.  Probably 
they  would  do  so  in  times  of  scarcity,  but  at  any  rate  if  a  shrike's  haunt  is  examined 
■  a  good  many  specimens  of  its  butchering  will  be  seen  perfectly  dried  up  and  past  the 
stage  when  they  were  likely  to  afford  any  kind  of  nourishment.  The  shrikes  are 
very  handsome,  bold  birds,  very  fair  singers  and  mimics.  I  have  often  heard  the 
Northern  Shrike  imitate  the  screams  of  a  small  lurd  in  distress,  apparently  for  the 
purpose  of  attracting  others  to  the  spot  to  see  what  the  row  was  about,  and  no  doubt 
the  ruse  would  be  successful,  for  it  is  the  habit  of  all  the  smaller  birds  to  flock  to 
the  place  from  which  such  cries  proceed. 


27 

As  the  JSTorthern  Shrike  is  with  us  only  in  the  winter  it  cannot  be  expected  to 
feed  largely  upon  insects,  yet  I  have  rarely  examined  the  stomach  contents  of  one 
of  these  birds,  without  finding  at  least  the  remains  of  a  few  beetles.  When  they 
first  arrive  in  the  autumn,  however,  their  principal  food  consists  of  moths,  grass- 
hoppers, and  such  other  insects  as  retain  their  vitality  until  frost  comes.  After  that 
they  feed  upon  mice  and  such  small  birds  as  remain  here  in  winter;  the  House 
Sparrow  forming  a  considerable  portion  of  their  fare. 

T  have  never  seen  the  Loggerhead  Shrike  kill  a  bird,  nor  have  I  ever  noticed  one 
hung  up  in  its  shambles,  but  it  does  destroy  a  great  immber  of  the  larger  insects 
and  a  good  many  mice.  This  is  one  of  the  very  few  birds  that  will  eat  the  hairy 
caterpillars,  commonly  known  as  "woolly  bears";  of  these  the  Loggerhead  seems  to 
be  rather  fond.  I  have  often  found  them  among  its  stomach  contents,  and  on  the 
12th  of  April,  1899,  I  took  a  specimen,  the  stomach  of  which  was  perfectly  filled 
with  them. 

SHRIKES. 
DescripUon. 
NOETHEEN  SHEIKE. 

Adult.  Upper  parts  clear  bluish  ash,  becoming  white  on  upper  tail  coverts  and 
scapulars.  A  black  bar  alongside  of  the  head  not  meeting  on  forehead ;  fore- 
head whitish.  Wings  and  tail  black ;  primaries  white  at  the  base,  secondaries  tipped 
with  white;  tail  feathers  tipped  with  white,  the  outer  feathers  mostly  white: 
under  parts  white,  barred  with  fine  waw  blackish  lines:  bill  hooked  and  hawk- 
like. 

Immature.  Similar,  but  entire  plumage  more  or  less  heavily  suffused  with 
grayish  brown. 

'  L.,  10.32;  W.,  4.50;  T.,  4.00. 
Nest,  in  low  trees  or  bushes.    Eggs,  four  to  six  dull  greenish  gray,  marked  and 
spotted  with  obscure  purple,  light  brown,  or  olive. 

LOGGEEHEAD  SHEIKE. 

Upper  parts  slaty  gray,  whitish  on  scapulars  and  upper  tail  coverts;  wings  and 
tail  black,  primaries  white  at  base,  secondaries  tipped  with  white ;  tail  feathers  tip- 
ped with  white,  the  outer  one  mostly  white;  a  black  bar  on  each  side  of  the  head, 
connected  by  a  narrow  black  line  across  the  forehead  at  base  of  the  bill.  Under  parts 
always  white. 

L.,  8.50;  W.,  3.80;  T.,  3.85. 

Nest,  in  low  trees  or  thorny  bushes.  Eggs,  five  or  six,  similar  to  those  of  last 
species,  but  smaller. 

SANDPIPEES  AXD  PLOVEE. 

These  two  groups  contain  a  large  number  of  spet-ies,  most  of  which  are  of 
interest  to  sportsmen  ;  but  only  four  of  them,  two  Saiid]npers  and  two  Plover,  resort 
to  the  cultivated  fields  of  Ontario.  The  otbers  arc  cliictly  birds  of  Ibe  snndy  ])('aches 
and  muddy  margins  of  the  marshes,  on  which  during  the  migrations  they  used  to 
gather  in  vast  flocks.  Constant  persecution  has  now  so  reduced  their  numbers,  that 
the  larg'er  and  more  desirable  varieties  have  become  vorv  scarce. 


28 

Bartramian  Sandpiper.  Though  this  bird  is  a  true  Sandpiper  it  seldom  or  never 
visits  either  the  marsh  or  the  beach.  Its  usual  haunts  are  high  dry  grassy  meadows 
aud  old  pastures;  or  in  the  West  the  open  prairie. 

In  Ontario  it  only  occurs  in  a  few  localities  and  in  small  numbers.  I  have 
found  it  breeding  in  the  Counties  of  Brant  and  Norfolk  and  on  Amherst  Island,  and 
Dr.  Clark  reports  it  as  breeding  regularly  near  Kingston.  In  Manitoba,  where  it  is 
generally  known  as  the  Upland  Plover,  it  is  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  of  interest 
to  sportsmen. 

About  the  middle  of  May  these  birds  return  to  their  hrecdiug  grounds  from  the 
south,  and  then  may  'be  heard  the  remarkable  note  of  the  male,  which  differs  so 
widely  from  any  other  sound  in  nature  that  even  the  most  unobservant  is  attracted 
by  it. 

Early  in  August  the  Upland  Plovers  leave  us,  drifting  away  towards  their 
winter  quarters  in  South  America  just  when  the  insect<  which  form  their  food 
are  in  the  greatest  abundance.  Why  they  should  do  this  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of 
migration  yet  unsolved. 

Spotted,  Sandpiper — Teeter.  These  birds  arrive  here  about  the  beginning  of 
Mav  and  at  first  confine  themselves  to  the  shores  of  our  lakes  and  rivers  where 
their  graceful  movements  may  easily  be  watched  as  they  run  rapidly  along  at 
the  edge  of  the  water,  stopping  abruptly  now  and  then  to  pick  up  an  insect  or  go 
through  the  tail-wagging  performance;  after  a  week  or  so  of  this  method  of  life, 
during  which  they  no  doubt  arrange  their  courtship  and  matrimonial  affairs,  they 
spread  out  over  the  country  for  the  purpose  of  nesting;  some  few  however  remain 
in  their  lake  or  riverside  haunts  through  the  season. 

I  have  fouiul  their  nests  in  pasture  fields,  on  summer  fallows,  in  grassy 
orchards,  fields  ol  standing  grain  and  on  sandy  beaches.  One  day  as  I  was  crossing 
a  field  of  mangels  I  came  upon  a  pair  of  Spotted  Sandpipers^  with  their  brood  of 
four  chicks.  Quicker  than  the  eye  could  follow  the  little  ones  squatted  down  on 
the  ground  and  were  lost  to  sight,  while  the  mother  bird  feig:ned  lameness  and  all 
sorts  of  injuries,  fluttering  along  just  in  front  of  me  in  order  to  decoy  me  from 
the  vicinity  of  her  downy  treasures,  taking  care,  however,  to  keep  just  far  enough 
away  to  be  safe.  It  is  a  strange  instinct  whicli  impels  certain  birds  to  resort  to  this 
device  in  order  to  induce  their  enemies  to  follow  them  and  abandon  the  search  for 
their  helpless  young. 

I  do  not  suppose  any  person  is  ever  deceived  by  the  trick,  but  four-footed 
animals  invariably  are,  even  the  wisest  sporting  dogs  never  seem  to  learn  by  ex- 
perience, but  will  dash  headlong  in  hot  pursuit  after  t1\e  apparently  disabled  old 
bird,  which  flutters  enticingly  before  them,  but  always  out  of  danger,  until  tired 
and  panting  the  dog  gives  up  the  chase  in  disgust. 

When  on  the  ground  this  Sandpiper  is  as  graceful  and  active  as  any  of  its 
tribe,  but  when  on  the  wing  its  flight  seems  somewhat  stiff  and  constrained,  its 
wings  do  not  seem  to  move  with  the  same  freedom  exhibited  by  the  other  shore 
birds,  but  for  all  that  it  is  a  remarkably  swift  and  strong  flier. 

Its  note  (by  which  ]t  may  always  be  recognized)  is  a  loud  "tweet  tweet,''  not 
very  musical  perhaps,  but  on  the  shore  it  seems  to  harmonize  with  its  surroundings. 

From  an  economic  point  of  view  these  birds  are  decidedly  valuable;  they  feed 
upon  nothing  but  insects,  amongst  which  small  beetles  furnish  the  greater  part. 
T  once  s1u)t  one  in  a  pea  field  th(^  stomach  of  wliicli  was  filled  with  pea  weevils. 


29 


Lo.s'gerhead   Slirike. 


k'- 


-"«??=^ 


h 


f^-*-" 


cur'^^ 


(Xh^A. 


Killdecr. 


30 

SANDPIPERS. 

Des Clip  Hon. 

BARTEAMIAX   SANDPIPER. 

Head  and  neck  streaked  with  black  and  tawny;  back  and  wing  coverts,  buff, 
barred  witli  black,  primaries  dark  grayisli  brown,  the  outer  one  barred  with  white; 
throat,  breast  and  sides  pale  bulfy,  the  throat  streaked,  breast  and  sides  with  dark 
arrowhead  markings  and  bars;  axillars  and  lining  of  wings  white,  barred  with 
blackish;  under  tail  feathers  brownish  gray,  outer  ones  varying  from  buff  to  white, 
all  more  or  less  barred  with  black. 

L.,  11.50;  W.,  6.50;  T.,  1.90. 

Nest,  on  tJie  ground,  often  in  a  pasture  field.  Eggs  four,  pale  clay  color,  spotted 
with  reddish  brown  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

SPOTTED  SANDPIPER. 

Adult.  Upper  parts  of  grayish  olive  with  a  greenish  lustre,  finely  barred  with 
black;  white  line  over  the  eye;  inner  tail  feathers  like  back,  outer  ones  with  blackish 
bars.  Under  parts  white,  everywhere  spotted  with  black. 

Immature.  Upper  parts  much  as  in  adult  but  colors  and  marks  less  distinct. 
Under  parts  pure  white  unspotted. 

L.,  7.50;' W.,  4.20;  T.,  2. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  four,  clay  color,  blackish  with  brownish-black 
niarkings. 

PLOVER. 

Golden  Plover.  Formerly  vast  flocks  of  this  Plover  visited  Ontario  every 
autumn,  resorting  to  ploughed  lands,  pasture  fields  and  sandy  beaches  for  food. 
As  they  are,  while  here,  purely  insectivorous  they  form  an  important  factor  in  the 
reduction  of  ground  insects  which  abound  in  such  places. 

Unfortunately  the  birds  are  in  great  demand  for  the  table  and  have  been 
so  relentlessly  pursued  bj^  gunners  that  their  numbers  are  seriously  reduced. 

In  the  spring  Golden  Plover  pass  Northward  by  way  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
to  their  breeding  grounds  on  the  "barrens"  of  the  Arctic  Circle  and  so  we  do  not 
see  them,  but  during  the  fall  flight  they  still  appear  on  the  farms,  in  some  locali- 
ties, in  sufficient  numbers  to  be  of  material  service  in  ridding  the  fields  of  wire- 
worms,  cutworms  and  other  insects  exposed  by  the  plough. 

On  the  prairies  of  Manitoba  they  are  abundant  and  are  particularly  partial 
ro  the  burnt  over  lands.  I  have  seen  them  in  flocks  of  thousands  following  tlie 
fires;  they  will  alight  on  the  ground  a  few  hours  after  the  fire  has  passed  and  no 
doubt  fare  sumptuously  upon  the  scorched  and  disabled  insects  they  find  among 
the  charred  srass  roots. 


n 


Killdeer  Plover.  As  soon  as  the  ice  is  out  the  killdeer  announces  its  return 
from  the  South  by  vociferously  calling  its  own  name  as  it  circles  about  the  water 
soaked  fields,  which  are  its  favorite  haunts  from  April  to  August. 

It  is  an  exceedingly  active  and  graceful  species,  more  apt  to  run  than  to  fly, 
if  not  too  closely  approached ;  but  if  followed,  it  rises  up  and  dashes  off  rapidly 
on  its  powerful  v/ings,  uttering  at  the  same  time  an  alarm  call  which  puts  e\ery 
wild  thina:  in  the  neiahbourhood  on  its  guard. 


31 

The  food  of  the  kilideer  consists  of  earthworms  and  insects  of  which  small 
beetles  form  the  greater  part.  A  brood  of  these  birds  containing  four  young  and 
the  two  parents  will  relieve  a  farm  of  an  enormous  number  of  insect  pests  every 
day.  I  have  frequently  found  the  stomachs  of  these  birds  to  be  completely  filled 
with  weevils  Avhieh  the}-  had  obtained  from  orchards  where  clean  cultivation  had 
been  practised.  Towards  autumn  the  broods  leave  the  high,  dry  fields  and  gather 
into  small  scattered  parties  on  river-side  meadows  and  sandy  shores,  v.here  they 
remain  until  the  first  frost. 

PLOVEE. 

Description. 

GOLDEX  PLOVER. 

Adult  in  summer.  Upper  parts  mottled  black,  greenish,  golden  yellow  and  a 
little  white,  the  yellow  in  excess;  tail  brownish  gray  indistinctly  barred  with 
whitish;  sides  of  breast  white;  sides  of  head  and  under  parts  black:  under  wing- 
coverts  ashy  gray.     Bill  and  feet  black.     Toes  three. 

Adult  in  winter  and  immature.  Upper  parts  and  i.ail  dusky,  sMotted  and 
barred  with  yellow  or  whitish,  the  colours  duller  than  in  summer;  under  parts 
grayish  white,  throat  and  sides  of  head  streaked,  breast  and  sides  of  body  mottled 
with  dusky  grayish  brown ;  legs  dusky. 

L.,  10.50;   W.,  .7.00:   T.,  2.75. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  in  Arctic  regions.  Eggs,  four  buffy  drab  spotted  and 
splashed  with  very  dark  brown,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

KILLDEEE. 

Above  grayish  brown,  with  a  greenisli  tinge,  most  of  the  feathers  tipped  with 
tawny;  upper  tail  coverts  bright  Tufous;  inner  tail  feathers  grayish  brovrn,  outer 
ones  rufous  and  white,  all  tipped  with  black  and  white;  secondaries  mostly  white; 
primaries  with  a  white  space;  a  black  bar  across  the  crown;  forehead  white:  two 
black  bands  on  neck  and  breast,  otherwise  entire  under  parts  white.  Tail  rounded 
at  end;  eyelids  scarlet. 

L.,  10;   W.,  6.50;   T.,  3.50. 

Nest  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  four,  clay  colour,  heavily  marked  with  b!acki>h 
brown. 

CEOWS,  BLACKBIEDS,  OEIOLES,  ETC. 

Some  of  the  species  comprised  in  these  two  families  of  birds  are  chai\ged  with 
being  amongst  the  worst  of  the  feathered  enemies  of  the  farmer.  The  niischief 
they  do  is  plainly  visible ;  the  good  not  always  seen.  When  the  Crow  visits  the 
corn  field  in  the  spring,  and  is  seen  digging  into  the  hills,  abstracting  the  lialC 
sprouted  grain,  and  when  the  Blackbirds  in  clouds  alight  on  the  ripe  wlieat  and 
oats,  eating  much  and  threshing  out  more,  so  that  it  is  lost  to  its  lawful  owner, 
it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  farmer  loses  his  tem]>er  and  says  in  his  Avratli 
that  all  birds  are  a  nuisance;  but  these  birds  also  do  some  good,  though,  as  they 
have  not  acquired  the  knack  of  advertising  it,  their  benefits  are  quite  overlooked. 
If  their  case  is  tried  impartially  it  may  'be  found  that  even  the  Crow,  like  another 
celebrated  personage,  is  not  quite  "so  black  as  he  is  painted."  I  do  not  think  the 
merits  of  the  Crows,  or  any  of  the  so-called  blackbird  family,  will  he  found  suffi- 
ciently great  to  entitle  them  to  protection,  hut  their  faults  scarcely  warrant  their 
extermination,  except  in  the  ease  of  the  cow-bird,  to  be  spoken  of  hereafter. 


32 

Baven.  This  species  occurs  only  in  the  more  northerly  portions  of  the  Province, 
having-  retired  before  the  encroachments  of  civilization.  To  the  pioneer  it  is  some- 
times  a  nuisance,  poultry  and  young  lambs  falling  easy  victims  to  this  bird  s 
strength  and  rapacity.  They  also  destroy  a  large  quantity  of  game,  but  fortun- 
ately their  numl^er  is  so  small,  and  the  birds  themselves  so  conspicuous,  that  it 
is  not  difficult  to  get  rid  of  them. 

Crow.  Twenty-five  years  ago  tlie  Crovs  of  tlio  Province  of  Ontario  were  as 
regularly  migratory  as  the  Eobins.  A  few  occasionally  stayed  through  the  Avinter 
with  us,  and  their  doing  so  was  considered  a  sign  that  we  would  have  a  mild  season. 
As  the  land  has  been  brought  under  cultivation,  and  more  particularly  in  neigh- 
borhoods where  market  gardening  is  carried  on  extensively,  the  number  remaining 
through  the  winter  has  steadily  increased,  so  that  the  species  may  now  be  con- 
sidered a  resident  one.  In  the  vicinity  of  Toronto  vast  flocks  gather  at  the  closf 
of  the  autumn,  feeding  on  the  refuse  vegetables  left  in  the  market  gardens  out- 
side the  city,  and  resorting  at  night  to  some  of  the  pine  woods  still  left  standing. 
In  these  they  roost  all  through  the  winter.  They  may  sometimes  be  pinched  \)\ 
hunger,  but,  unless  the  snow  becomes  too  deep,  they  can  generally  get  at  the  piles 
of  manure  drawn  out  on  the  market  gardens,  and  other  refuse  left  about  the  land. 
At  this  time  they  do  no  harm,  and  probably  a  little  good,  as  they  pick  up  many 
mice  and  insects  in  their  foraging,  but  when  spring  opens  they  again  scatter  over 
the  country  and  seek  their  nesting  jdaces.  Seeding  operations  are  now  going  on, 
and  the  first  of  the  Crow's  mischievous  propensities  asserts  itself.  i\.s  soon  as  the 
grain  has  absorbed  sufficient  moisture  from  the  ground  to  hecome  soft  and  has 
slightly  sprouted,  then  it  becomes  a  favorite  morsel  for  the  Crows.  Corn  is  pre- 
ferred to  any  other  grain.  I  ha\c  i-arely  found  any  ([uantity  of  any  other  grain 
in  the  stomach  of  a  Crow,  but  even  when  the  birds  have  been  seen  feeding  among 
the  hills  of  sprouting  corn,  and  have  been  shot  right  on  the  spot,  I  have  always 
found  the  stomach  contained  quite  as  large  an  amount  of  insect  remains  as  of 
corn,  the  cut-worm  forming  one  of  the  Crow's  choicest  articles  of  diet,  and  the 
question  arises  as  to  whether  it  is  not  better  to  let  the  Crow  have  a  little  corn  and 
get  rid  of  the  cut-worm,  than  to  let  the  cut-worm  take  off  a  lot  of  corn  if  we  get 
rid  of  the  Crow.  Later  on  I  will  say  something  about  the  history  of  this  same 
cut- worm.  It  is  always  wisest  "  of  two  evils  to  choose  the  least,"  and  it  must  be 
conceded  that  the  corn-eating  propensity  of  the  Crow  is  an  evil ;  but  it  is  certainly 
less  than  the  evil  done  by  the  cut-vrorm.  So  perhaps,  so  far  as  the  Crow's  case 
goes  here,  it  would  be  as  well  to  call  the  balance  even  and  give  the  Crow  the  benefit 
of  it. 

The  next  scene  in  the  Crow's  loroceedings  shows  him  with  a  lively  and  de- 
cidedly hungry  family  of  four  or  five  little  ones,  whose  cravings  demand  constant 
attention  from  their  parents.  The  variety  of  food  supplied  to  these  insatiable 
youngsters  will  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  locality  in  which  they  are  placed. 
In  any  case,  no  more  grain  will  be  taken  by  the  parent  birds;  their  food  will  now 
consist  entirely  of  insects,  mice  and  the  young  of  other  birds.  Nor  will  they  stop 
at  the  young  if  they  can  catch  an  adult  small  bird.  Sometimes  they  Avill  try  to 
elude  the  vigilance  of  an  old  hen,  and  will  snatch  up  her  chickens  more  adroitly 
than  any  hawk;  ducklings  fall  easy  victims  to  their  cunning.  It  is  at  this  season 
they  do  the  greatest  amount  of  mischief,  l)y  destroying  the  nests  and  young  of 
more  valuable  birds,  particularly  of  such  as  nest  upon  the  ground.  For  this  reason 
chiefly  Crows  should  be  kept  within  proper  limits  as  to  numbers.  Of  late  years 
they  have  increased  altogether  too  fast,  and  our  small  birds  have  suffered  in  con- 
sequence. 


33 

After  the  young  birds  leave  the  nest  they  move  about  with  their  parents  and 
feed  on  the  most  varied  diet.  They  will  make  a  raid  on  the  fruit  grower,  and 
demolish  his  cherries  or  raspberries  if  the  idea  strikes  them,  or  they  will  prowl 
along  the  lake  shore  and  enjoy  themselves  for  a  few  days  on  fish  fare,  after  which 
they  will  visit  a  pasture  field  and  clear  out  all  the  wire  worms,  grubs  and  mice 
they  may  find  there:  in  fact,  very  few  things  come  amiss  to  them,  as  they  roam 
about  the  country,  until  the  cold  nights  warn  them  to  get  together  in  some  place 
where  they  can  get  at  least  a  bare  suibsistence  to  carry  them  over  the  winter. 

As  I  have  said  before,  Crows  have  increased  too  fast  of  late  years,  and  we 
have  now  too  many  of  them  in  the  country;  their  numbers  can  easily  be  reduced 
if  a  little  attention  he  paid  to  the  matter  in  the  spring.  Just  at  nesting  time  they 
are  less  shy  and  wary  than  at  any  other  season,  and  can  be  approached  in  the  trees 
within  shooting  distance.  If  one  of  each  pair  were  shot  off  their  numbers  would 
soon  be  reduced  to  such  an  extent  that  the  damage  they  could  do  would  not  be 
noticeable.  These  birds  are  so  well  able  to  take  care  of  themselves  that  even  more 
stringent  measures  might  be  adopted  against  them  without  any  danger  of  exter- 
mination, their  natural  enemies  being  very  few,  and  those  of  that  class  against 
which  man  has  carried  on  a  most  successful  war.  Of  these  the  Great  Horned  Owl 
was  t|ie  most  noteworthy,  but  the  Great  Horned  Owl  will  kill  the  poultry  of  a 
farmer  who  allows  his  fowls  to  roost  out  on  winter  nights,  and  so  the  Owl  must 
go  and  the  Crow  has  one  enemy  the  less. 

CROWS. 
Description. 
EAVEN. 

Entire  plumage  black,  with  glossy  steel  hlue  reflections;  feathers  on  the 
throat  narrow,  long  and  pointed. 

L.,  22.00;   W.,  17.00;   T.,  10. 

]Srest,  on  high  trees  or  cliffs.  Eggs,  four  to  six,  pale  bluish  or  olive  green, 
Slotted,  blotched,  or  washed  with  purple  or  gi'eenish  brown ;  very  variable. 

AMERICAN  CROW. 

Entire  plumage  black,  with  blue,  green  and  purplish  reflections;  the  under 
parts  duller;  feathers  on  the  neck  s-hort  and  rounded.  ISTasal  bristles  about  half 
as  long  as  bill. 

L.,  19.30;   W.,  12.20;   T.,  7.70. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  generally  bluish  green  thickly  marked  witli 
shades  of  brown,  but  very  variable. 

BLUE  JAY. 

Blue  Jay.  It  is  a  pity  that  so  beautiful  and  interesting  a  bird  as  this  should 
be  possessed  of  such  mischievous  propensities  as  it  has,  but  I  am  afraid  that  neither 
its  good  looks  nor  its  good  acts  can  be  said  to  balance  its  evil  deeds.  This  bird, 
like  the  common  Crow,  seems  to  forget  its  usual  shyness  when  spring  arrives,  and 
will  leave  its  wooded  haunts  and  build  its  nest  in  gardens,  orchards  and  shrubberies, 
close  to  houses,  and  quite  within  reach  of  every  person  passing,  nor  does  it  affect 
any  sort  of  concealment  as  a  rule.  T  have  seen  many  nests  so  placed  that  they 
were  visible  from  pul)lic  roads  where  people  and  vehicles  Avere  continually  passing. 

3-218 


34 

The  female  could  quite  readily  be  seen  sitting,  yet  the  birds  carried  on  their 
duties  regardless  of  prying  eyes.  It  seems  a  pity  that  their  confidence  should  be 
abused,  but  I  am  compelled  to  say  that  in  all  cases  that  came  under  my  observa- 
tion the  Blue  Jays  badly  repaid  the  persons  in  whose  gardens  they  were  protected 
and  allowed  to  raise  their  young.  In  the  first  place,  they  steal  a  large  amount  of 
small  fruit,  and  further,  they  rob  and  destroy  the  nests  and  young  of  other  birds 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  are  positively  injurious  to  agriculture,  the  birds  they 
destroy  being  all  of  that  class  whose  food  consists  principally  of  insects,  and 
without  whose  assistance  I  doubt  if  we  could  succeed  in  raising  any  crop  to 
maturity. 

The  Blue  Jays  themselves,  however,  destroy  no  inconsiderable  number  of 
insects,  and  they  do  no  damage  to  grain;  they  may  occasionally  pick  off  a  little 
corn  from  the  cob,  but  that  is  about  the  extent  of  the  injury  they  do  in  that 
direction.  Their  unfortunate  fondness  for  the  young  of  other  birds  more  valu- 
able than  themselves  makes  it  necessary  that  they  should  be  destroyed  when  they 
take  up  their  residence  about  our  gardens,  for  it  is  there,  and  in  our  cultivated 
fields,  that  our  insectivorous  birds  do  the  most  good;  and  to  get  them  there  we 
must  give  them  as  much  protection  as  possible  from  their  natural  enemies,  and 
teach  them  that  they  are  in  greater  safety  near  our  dwellings  than  they  w^oijld  be 
in  the  woods.  Birds  of  all  kinds  soon  lose  their  fear  of  man  if  unmolested  by 
him,  and  particularly  if  they  find  that  in  his  immediate  neighborhood  they  can 
raise  their  young  safely.  I  know  of  several  farms  and  large  gardens  where  the 
birds  have  been  encouraged  and  protected  from  their  enemies;  to  these  places  they 
return  in  increased  numbers  year  after  year,  until  nearly  all  available  breeding 
places  are  taken  up.  On  these  premises  the  owners  rarely  suffer  from  the  depreda- 
tions of  cut-worms  or  other  insects,  and  so  find  themselves  well  repaid  for  the  little 
care  they  require  to  exercise  on  behalf  of  their  feathered  friends. 

Canada  Jay,  WJiishy  Jack.  In  Northern  Ontario,  one  of  the  commonest  and 
certainly  the  most  familiar  bird  of  the  region  is  the  Whisky  Jack.  This  fluffy, 
loose  feathered  creature — except  at  nesting  time — ^seems  to  have  no  fear  of  human- 
kind whatever;  in  fact,  seeks  and  enjoys  their  society.  As  soon  as  the  settler  puts 
up  his  shack  and  starts  to  cut  a  hole  in  the  forest,  the  birds  will  be  his  constant 
visitors;  everything  he  does  has  an  interest  for  them,  from  the  felling  of  a  tree, 
which  will  expose  some  borers,  to  the  cooking  of  a  dinner;  everything  brings  grist 
to  the  Whisky  Jack's  mill  and  nothing  comes  amiss. 

Like  the  Blue  Jay,  this  species  is  practically  omniverous,  and  in  its  native 
haunts  is  serviceable  as  a  destroyer  of  insects  and  mice. 

JAYS. 

Description. 

BLUE   JAY. 

Upper  parts  purplish  blue;  below  pale  gray:  white  on  throat,  belly  and  cris- 
sum;  forehead,  a  band  passing  across  the  back  of  the  head  down  the  sides  of  the 
neck  and  across  the  breast  black;  head  crested.  Exposed  part  of  wings  and  tail 
rich  blue,  with  black  bars,  the  greater  coverts,  secondaries  and  tail  feathers,  ex- 
cept the  central  broadly  tipped  with  pure  white. 

L.,  11.50;  W.,  5.15;   T.,  5.50. 

Nest,  in  small  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  four  or  five  pale,  greenish  olive  or 
sometimes  clay  colored,  thickly  spotted  with  olive  brown.     Very  variable. 


35 


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CANADA  JAY— WHISKY  JACK. 

Back  wings  and  tail  dull  leaden  gray,  most  of  the  feathers  of  wings  and  tail 
narrowly  tipped  with  white;  fore  part  of  head  white,  hack  of  head  and  nape  sooty 
black;  throat  and  sides  of  the  neck  white,  rest  of  the  under  parts  ashy  gray. 

L.,  12.00;   W.,  5.80;   T.,  5.80. 

Nest  in  coniferous  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  light  gray,  finely  marked  at  the 
larger  end  with  dots  and  blotches  of  slate  color  and  brown,  very  variable. 

BLACKBIRDS,  ETC. 

Bronze  Grachle,  better  known  throughout  the  country  as  the  "  Crow  Black- 
bird," is,  when  in  full  plumage,  a  very  handsome  bird,  and  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  other  so-called  iblackbirds  by  its  large  size  and  the  brilliant  metallic  lustre 
of  its  feathers.  Like  the  Rook  of  Europe,  it  breeds  in  colonies,  and  is  gregarious 
at  all  times  of  the  year.  To  the  farmer,  the  fruit  grower,  and  the  lover  of  birds 
generally,  this  bird  is  a  nuisance.  All  that  can  be  said  in  its  favor  is  that  it  is 
very  beautiful,  and  that  it  does,  at  times,  eat  a  large  number  of  cut-worms,  for 
which  it  may  often  be  seen  v^orking  industriously  on  the  lawns  and  grass  fields 
near  its  nesting  place;  but,  as  against  that,  it  has  a  heavy  record  of  crimes  to 
answer  for.  They  are  early  migrants,  arriving  here  about  the  end  of  March,  and 
resorting  at  once  to  their  nesting  places.  From  this  time  until  the  oats  are  sown, 
they  probably  feed  entirely  on  insects,  but  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  in  the  ground, 
they  visit  the  newly  sown  fields  and  help  themselves  liberally,  varying  their  diet 
by  taking  as  many  small  bird's  eggs  and  young  as  they  can  conveniently  get  at. 
I  have  on  several  occasions  seen  them  attack  and  carry  off  young  robins,  in  spite 
of  the  vigorous  defence  set  up  by  the  victim's  parents  and  all  the  friends  they 
could  summon  to  their  assistance.  The  row  made  by  the  despoiled  nest  owners 
on  these  occasions,  together  with  the  frantic  dashes  they  made  at  the  robber,  would 
be  sufficient  to  shake  the  nerves  of  one  of  the  hawk  family,  but  the  Crow  Black- 
bird disregards  it  all  and  goes  off  with  its  prey. 

As  soon  as  the  strawberries,  cherries,  etc.,  are  ripe,  these  birds  display  a  fond- 
ness for  fruit  and  a  persistency  in  gratifying  it  that  is  maddening  to  the  fruit 
grower,  whose  profits  dwindle  day  by  day  by  reason  of  the  visits  of  these  thieves, 
who  will  continue  to  carry  it  off  until  the  young  leave  the  nest.  When  the  young 
Grackles  can  fly,  they  gather  in  large  flocks  and  roam  about  the  country  all  day; 
roosting  together  in  vast  numbers  in  some  marsh  every  night.  The  Dundas  marsh, 
near  Hamilton,  used  to  be  much  favored  by  them  for  this  purpose;  it  is  at  this 
season  they  do  the  worst  of  their  mischief  to  the  fields  of  wheat  and  oats.  Not 
only  do  they  eat  an  immense  quantity,  but  as  they  flutter  and  struggle  in  their 
efforts  to  balance  themselves  upon  the  straw  of  the  standing  grain,  the}'-  thresh 
out  and  cause  the  loss  of  much  more.  Nor  does  the  cutting  and  shocking  stop 
their  ravages;  they  still  continue  to  feed  upon  it  until  the  last  sheaf  is  in  the 
barn.  In  the  Province  of  Manitoba,  where  these  birds  are  abundant,  I  have  seen 
all  the  grain  threshed  out  from  the  ears  for  a  space  of  ten  yards  in  width  around 
fields  which  have  been  selected  by  them  for  their  feeding  ground.  In  this  Pro- 
vince, they  are  rarely  to  be  found  in  sufficient  numbers  to  do  as  mnch  damage  as 
that,  nor  are  they  likely  to  become  so,  for,  although  their  chief  natural  enemies, 
the  hawks  and  owls,  have  been  too  much  reduced  to  be  able  to  keep  them  entirely 
in  check,  yet  their  number  is  still  manageable,  and  may  be  kept  so  by  the  judicious 
use  of  the  gun.  I  advise  any  one  who  shoots  them,  particularly  in  the  early  autumn, 
to  try  blackbird  pie.  Whoever  does  so  will,  I  think,  want  to  repeat  the  experi- 
ment. 


37 


o 


CD 

ISO 


38 

Rusty  Grackle.  This  is  a  much  smaller  species  than  the  last,  and  is  not  of  any 
importance  to  us  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  I  merely  mentiou  it  as  it  occurs 
here  in  considerable  numbers  for  a  short  time  in  the  autumn,  but  as  it  does  not 
arrive  until  the  early  part  of  September,  the  crops  are  safe  from  its  ravages.  In 
Manitoba,  where  it  is  very  abundant,  it  unites  with  the  other  blackbirds  and  destroys 
a  large  amount  of  grain.  A  few  pass  through  this  Province  in  the  spring  on  their 
way  to  the  north  to  breed,  but  they  make  no  delay  and  are  not  noticeable. 

Red-winged  Blacktird.  From  an  agricultural  standpoint  this  bird  has  little  to 
recommend  it,  but  to  the  lover  of  nature  its  beautiful  coloring  and  cheery  note  in 
early  spring  render  it  an  object  of  interest.  They  are  among  our  earliest  migrants, 
arriving  about  the  middle  of  March,  and  resorting  at  once  to  the  marshes,  in  which 
they  remain  until  the  young  are  able  to  fly.  While  in  the  swamps  their  food  con- 
sists almost  entirely  of  aquatic  insects,  of  which  the  larv^  of  the  dragon  flies  form 
the  principal  part.  As  these  larva  form  an  important  item  in  the  food  of  some  of 
OUT  most  valuable  fish,  and  the  mature  dragon  flies  feed  largely  on  mosquitos  and 
other  small  winged  insects,  the  blackbirds  are  not  doing  mankind  a  particularly 
friendly  service  by  destroying  them.  This  would  perhaps  not  be  worth  sufficient 
consideration  to  warrant  our  interference  with  the  birds  were  it  not  for  their  other 
and  more  serious  failing.  As  soon  as  the  young  are  able  to  fly  strongly,  which  is 
about  the  middle  of  July,  they  leave  the  marshes  in  which  they  were  bred,  and  in 
great  flocks  resort  to  the  grain  fields,  where,  like  the  Grackle,  with  which  they  fre- 
quently associate,  they  do  much  damage,  particularly  to  oats,  which  they  seem  to 
prefer  to  any  other  grain.  As  these  birds  are  very  abundant,  the  loss  caused  by 
their  plundering,  must  be  very  great,  but  they  can  fortunately  easily  be  managed 
if  a  little  attention  is  paid  to  them  in  the  spring,  when  they  may  be  shot  off  on  their 
breeding  grounds. 

After  the  grain  is  carried,  they  again  return  to  the  marshes,  and  gorge  them- 
selves on  the  wild  rice,  until  not  a  grain  of  it  is  left,  thereby  depriving  the  wild  ducks, 
etc.,  of  a  most  attractive  food  As  soon  as  the  first  frost  comes  they  retire  to  the 
south,  where  they  cause  much  worry  to  the  rice-grower.  Little  can  be  said  in 
extenuation  of  these  serious  faults.  They  never  interfere  with  other  birds  or  their 
nests,  and  they  probably  destroy  some  noxious  insects,  such  as  cut  worms,  etc.,  in 
meadows,  lying  near  the  swamps  they  frequent  in  the  early  part  of  the  season,  but 
this  is  all  that  can  be  urged  in  their  favor. 

Coivhird.  This  bird  should  be  known  to  every  one,  and  should  be  destroyed 
whenever  the  opportunity  occurs.  It  is  the  only  feathered  creature  against  which 
I  would  advocate  a  war  of  extermination,  and  this  I  do,  because  it  is  not  only  of  no 
value  in  itself,  but  the  rearing  of  each  one  of  its  young  means  a  loss  to  the  country 
of  an  entire  brood  of  one  of  our  valuable  insectivorous  birds.  It  is  true  that  during 
the  early  part  of  the  season  it  frequents  the  pasture  fields  where  cattle  are  grazing, 
and  feeds  principally  on  the  insects  affecting  such  places,  but  this  is  easily  counter- 
balanced by  the  grain  it  destroys  later  on.  These  birds  do  not  mate,  nor  do  they  build 
a  nest  for  themselves,  but  the  female  deposits  each  of  her  eggs  in  the  nest  of  some 
other  small  bird.  The  egg  is  whitish,  thickly  covered  with  greyish  brown  dots.  I 
have  found  the  eggs  of  this  bird  in  the  nests  of  nearly  all  the  sparrows,  fincbes  and 
warblers  that  breed  in  the  Province.  After  the  egg  of  the  Cowbird  is  deposited, 
the  female  takes  no  further  interest  in  the  matter,  but  leaves  it  to  be  hatched  by  the 
real  owner  of  the  nest  in  which  it  has  been  placed ;  in  due  time  the  young  will  appear 
and  then  the  trouble  arises.    In  a  few  days  the  young  Cowbird  has  far  outgrown  its 


39 


Cowbird. 


40 

fellow  nestlings,  in  size,  strength  and  voracity,  so  that  it  requires  and  manages  to 
get  all  the  food  the  parent  birds  bring  to  the  nest,  the  result  being  that  the  proper 
occupants  of  the  nest  are  either  starved  to  death  or  crowded  out  by  the  interloper, 
which  from  that  time  until  it  is  full  grown  taxes  to  the  utmost  all  the  energies  of  its 
foster  parents  to  supply  its  voracious  appetite.  Xothing  can  be  more  pitiable  than 
the  plight  of  a  pair  of  small  birds  upon  whom  one  of  these  parasites  has  been  foisted. 
They  are  forced  to  raise  an  ugly  foundling  instead  of  their  own  young,  and  then  by 
reason  of  the  long  continued  helplessness  of  their  foster  child  they  are  prevented 
from  raising  a  second  brood ;  for  although  it  quickly  grows  large  and  strong  enough 
to  crowd  out  its  fellow  nestlings  and  its  body  develops  rapidly,  so  that  it  can  leave  the 
nest  and  follow  its  foster  parents  through  the  trees,  yet  its  energy  does  not  develop 
proportionately  with  its  body,  and  it  requires  to  be  fed  for  a  longer  period  than  the 
young  of  any  other  small  bird.  The  destruction  of  the  natural  enemies  of  this  bird, 
and  the  constantly  enlarging  area  of  cultivated  land,  both  operate  favorably  for  the 
increase  of  this  pest,  so  that  it  has  become  altogether  too  abundant.  Of  late  years  in 
the  southern  part  of  Ontario  it  has  swarmed  everywhere,  and  I  notice  an  egg  of  this 
bird's  in  quite  half  the  nests  of  other  small  species  that  I  chance  to  find;  of  course 
in  every  case  I  take  it  out  and  promptly  smash  it,  thereby  saving  the  proper  brood. 
It  is  to  the  increase  of  these  creatures  that  I  attribute  almost  wholly  the  decrease 
which  has  become  so  noticeable  in  our  more  useful  species.  Some  idea  may  be 
obtained  of  the  terrible  destruction  worked  among  the  valuable  species  by  Cowbirds, 
by  just  noticing  the  immense  flocks  of  them  that  occur  here  in  the  autumn,  and  re- 
membering that  for  every  one  of  those  Cowbirds,  a  brood  of  some  other  species  has 
perished.  Most  of  our  insectivorous  birds  produce  an  average  of  about  four  young 
to  the  brood,  and  some  of  them  would  raise  two  broods  in  a  season ;  the  deposit  of  an 
egg  by  the  Cowbird  in  a  nest  prevents  the  raising  of  any  young  at  all  of  iis  own  by  the 
bird  victimized.  Just  how  many  eggs  each  Cowbird  lays  each  season  is  rather  uncer- 
tain ;  in  all  probability  four  or  five  are  deposited.  If  that  is  so,  every  female  Cowbird 
that  arrives  here  in  the  spring,  and  is  allowed  to  follow  her  own  method  of  repro- 
duction, causes  the  loss  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  of  the  young  of  our  most  valu- 
able birds.  In  view  of  the  great  increase  that  has  taken  place  in  the  numbers  of  this 
bird  of  late  years,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  our  other  native  species  are 
decreasing,  and  we  should  take  steps  at  once  to  regulate  matters.  Every  person  on 
finding  a  nest  of  any  of  our  small  birds  should  look  over  the  eggs  contained  in  it,  and 
if  one  is  found  therein  different  from  the  others  and  corresponding  to  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  egg  of  the  Cowbird,  which  I  have  already  given,  that  egg  should  be  taken 
out  and  destroyed.  School  teachers  throughout  the  country  would  do  well  to  impress 
this  ixpon  their  pupils. 

Shooting  the  females  in  early  spring  is  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  way  of 
keeping  down  the  number  of  this  most  undesirable  bird,  and  I  strongly  urge  every 
one  who  has  access  to  a  gun  to  use  it  for  this  purpose,  about  his  own  premises :  for, 
as  T  have  already  pointed  out,  every  Cowbird  killed  at  this  season  means  the  salva- 
tion of  much  valuable  bird  life  and  a  corresponding  lessening  of  our  insect  pests. 

BoholinJc.  One  of  the  most  familiar  sounds  of  summer  in  the  country  is  the 
merry  rollicking  song  of  the  Bobolink,  to  be  heard  at  all  times  in  the  fields  of  scent- 
laden  clover ;  its  bubbling  notes,  poured  out  in  the  exuberance  of  its  spirits,  seem  to 
express  the  feeling  of  joy  that  pervades  all  nature  in  June.  The  birds  arrive  here 
about  the  middle  of  May,  the  males  coming  a  few  days  before  the  females.  They 
resort  at  once  to  the  hay  meadows,  and  remain  there  through  the  nesting  season, 
which  is  concluded  by  the  time  the  hay  is  ready  to  cut.     Whilst  on  the  farms  their 


41 


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42 

food  consists  entirely  of  insects,  of  which  the  caterpillars  that  feed  on  clover  form  the 
greater  part.  These  caterpillars  are  very  abundant,  and,  where  they  are  not  kept  in 
check  by  the  birds,  sometimes  do  serious  injury,  so  that  apart  from  its  appearance, 
and  its  good  qualities  as  a  musician,  the  Bobolink  has  a  claim  upon  us  which  entitles 
it  to  our  best  care  and  protection.  After  the  hay  is  cut  the  males  lose  their  black 
and  white  plumage,  and  become  like  the  females  and  young  in  appearance,  of  a 
yellowish  brown  color.  They  then  associate  in  small  flocks  and  frequent  the  marshes, 
feeding  on  wild  rice  and  the  seeds  of  some  rush-like  plants,  until  the  first  frosijs 
come,  when  they  retire  to  the  south  for  the  winter. 

In  the  rice  growing  States  these  birds  are  sometimes  accused  of  doing  con- 
siderable mischief  to  the  planters'  crops,  but  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  various 
species  of  blackbirds  which  also  resort  to  these  States  are  the  principal  depredators, 
and  by  reason  of  their  greater  abundance  do  the  most  of  the  damage. 

Meadowlark.  The  Meadowlark  is  a  common  though,  unfortunately,  not  now  an 
abundant  bird  on  the  farm.  Some  years  ago  it  could  be  found  wherever  the  land 
was  cultivated,  all  through  the  Province,  but  owing  to  its  size  and  slow  straight 
flight,  which  makes  it  an  easy  mark  for  the  gunner,  its  numbers  are  decreasing  very 
fast.  This  is  a  great  pity,  for  it  is  an  exceedingly  valuable  bird  to  the  farmer.  From 
the  time  of  its  arrival  here  in  March  until  its  departure  in  November  it  resorts  to 
the  cultivated  land  and  grass  meadows,  feeding  entirely  on  insects,  and  never  indulg- 
ing in  grain  or  fruit  of  any  kind.  All  its  work  being  done  amongst  the  crops  upon 
which  man  expends  his  labor,  and  to  which  he  is  compelled  to  look  for  his  sub- 
sistence, the  benefit  conferred  is  direct,  and  should  be  appreciated.  We  cannot  make 
any  return  for  the  good  it  does,  but  we  can  at  least  refrain  from  destroying  its  life, 
and  exert  ourselves  a  little  to  prevent  others  from  doing  so.  The  class  of  insects  upon 
which  this  bird  feeds  during  the  early  part  of  the  season  is  perhaps  the  most  injuri- 
ous to  vegetable  life  of  all  our  insect  enemies.  Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  those  known 
as  cut  worms,  wire  worms,  etc.,  all  of  which  work  underground  for  the  most  part 
during  the  day,  and  emerge  from  their  hiding  places  at  night  only.  By  some  highly 
developed  faculty  the  Meadowlark  is  enabled  to  locate  these  creatures  in  their  hiding 
places,  and  being  provided  with  a  sharp  beak  of  sufficient  length  for  the  purpose,  is 
able  to  drag  them  out  and  devour  them.  Of  all  the  stomachs  I  have  examined  prior 
to  Jaly,  the  principal  contents  were  wire  worms,  cut  worms,  and  some  few  other 
caterpillars  and  beetles;  later  in  the  season  the  food  consisted  principally  of  grass- 
hoppers. On  two  or  three  occasions  I  have  found  a  few  of  these  birds  wintering 
with  us,  in  the  vicinity  of  market  gardens,  and  being  curious  to  know  if  at  that 
season  they  had  been  compelled  to  fall  back  on  a  seed  or  vegetable  diet,  I  shot  one  out 
of  each  lot,  and  I  found  the  birds  were  in  remarkably  good  condition.  Their  stomach 
contained,  however,  nothing  but  insects,  chiefly  bugs  and  beetles,  which  they  had 
probably  obtained  from  manure  heaps  and  the  refuse  cabbages  left  in  the  gardens. 
These  birds  build  a  domed  nest  on  the  ground,  in  grass  flelds;  their  eggs  and  young 
are  therefore  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  Crows,  skunks  and  other  vermin,  and  those 
that  escape  their  natural  enemies  are  subject  to  such  continued  persecution  from 
gunners  who  ought  to  know  better,  that  our  beautiful  Meadowlark  is  in  danger  of 
extermination,  unless  some  effort  is  made  for  its  protection. 

OEIOLES. 

Baltimore  Oriole.  The  Golden  Eobin,  Fire  Bird,  or  Hangnest,  as  the  bird  is 
sometimes  called,  is  of  more  importance  to  the  fruit  grower  than  the  grain  farmer, 
as  it  gleans  its  food  entirely  among  the  branches,  only  visiting  the  ground  for 


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44 

material  with  which  to  construct  its  purse-like  nest.  Its  food  consists  largely  of  leaf- 
eating  caterpillars  and  beetles.  It  is  also  particularly  fond  of  the  moths  which  fre- 
quent the  trees  for  the  purpose  of  laying  their  eggs ;  of  these  moths  it  devours  large 
numbers,  and  in  this  way  materially  assists  in  keeping  down  the  army  of  leaf  eaters 
which  so  frequently  strip  our  trees  of  their  foliage.  Very  few  of  our  birds  will  eat  a 
hairy  caterpillar,  but  when  they  eat  a  female  moth  before  she  has  laid  her  eggs  they 
destroy  at  one  stroke  a  whole  brood  of  these  pernicious  creatures,  and  to  this  work 
the  Oriole  devotes  itself  with  great  industry.  I  have  on  several  occasions  obtained  a 
brood  of  young  Orioles  and  hung  them  out  in  a  cage  near  my  house  for  the  purpose 
of  discovering  the  nature  of  the  food  brought  to  them,  and  found  that  fully  one-half 
consisted  of  moths;  unfortunately  I  did  not  keep  a  record  of  the  number  of  these 
brought  in  any  one  day,  but  it  was  very  large,  and  the  usefulness  of  this  bird  in  keep- 
ing down  the  swarms  of  destructive  caterpillars,  by  cutting  off  the  source  of  supply, 
was  clearly  exemplified. 

During  the  summer  of  1900  I  received  a  number  of  reports  as  to  the  valuable 
work  done  hj  Orioles  in  clearing  off  Tent  caterpillars.  In  several  cases  my  informants 
stated  that  they  watched  the  birds  at  work  in  their  orchards  day  after  day  destroying 
these  pests  and  that  in  the  end  they  completely  cleared  the  trees  of  them. 

A  most  interesting  account  of  the  operations  of  a  pair  of  these  birds  was  sent 
me  by  Mr.  Yarwood,  of  Picton.  He  says:  "A  pair  of  Baltimore  Orioles  delighted  me 
this  summer  by  building  in  a  silver  maple  in  our  door  yard.  As  I  was  going  in  to 
breakfast  one  morning,  when  the  caterpillars  were  but  lately  hatched  and  had  small 
nests,  I  saw  an  Oriole  cleaning  one  of  the  little  nests  out.  When  T  came  out  after 
breakfast  he  had  finished  that  nest  and  was  engaged  on  another.  His  appetite  seemed 
to  be  immense.  They  must  have  eaten  an  enormous  number  of  insects,  for  they  raised 
four  or  five  of  a  brood.  *  *  *  *  j  ^[^  j^q^  Icisive  to  spray  any  gooseberries  aud 
currant  bushes  this  year.  I  would  notice  branches  that  worms  had  started  on,  but 
some  enemy  had  devoured  them." 

When  the  cherries  ripen  the  Oriole  displays  a  certain  partialiiv  for  fruit,  but 
the  small  quantity  they  take  may  well  be  spared  them,  more  particularly  as  il  is  only 
in  this  direction  that  they  levy  any  toll  for  their  services.  The  brilliant  coloring  of 
the  male,  his  flute-like  note,  and  the  ingenuity  displayed  in  the  construction  of  the 
nest,  all  commend  these  birds  to  the  lover  of  nature,  and  we  could  well  spare  a  few 
cherries  for  the  sake  of  having  them  about  our  gardens,  even  if  their  usefulness  was 
less  pronounced  than  it  is.  In  the  southwestern  portions  of  our  Province  the 
Orchard  Oriole  occurs.  It  differs  from  the  Baltimore  in  being  smaller,  and  in  color 
being  chestnut  and  black,  instead  of  the  orange  and  black  which  marks  the  present 
species.  Its  habits  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  familiar  Baltimore,  but  it  is 
too  rare  to  have  any  economic  value. 

BLACKBIRDS,  ORIOLES,  ETC. 
Description. 
BROJ^ZE  GRACKLE— CROW^  BLACKBIRD. 

Adult  male.  Head,  neck,  throat  and  upper  part  of  breast,  varying  from  brilliant 
metallic  purple  to  bluish  green  or  steel  blue;  back  metallic  bronze;  wings  and  tail 
metallic  purplish  or  bluish  black,  lower  breast  and  bsUy  siuiilar  to  the  back  but 
duller. 

Adult  female.  Much  duller,  the  back  and  belly  brownish,  sometimes  without 
metallic  reflections. 


45 

L.,  13.00;  W.,  6.00;  T.,  6.09. 

Nest,  generally  in  trees.  The  birds  often  nesting  in  colonies.  Eggs  four  or  five, 
lightish  green  or  smoky  blue,  with  irregular  lines,  clots,  blotches  and  scrawls  of 
purplish  brown  all  over  the  surface;  very  variable. 

EUSTY   GEACKLE. 

Adult  male  in  summer.  Entire  plumage  uniform  glossy  bluish  black,  tail 
feathers  of  nearly  equal  length. 

Adult  male  in  winter.  Similar,  but  the  feathers  of  the  upper  parts  widely  tip- 
ped with  rufous,  the  under  parts  similarly  tipped  with  cream-bufCy ;  a  buffy  line  over 
eye. 

Adult  female  in  summer.  Dark  slate  colour,  glossy  above,  duller  below;  wings 
and  tail  darker  and  more  glossy. 

Adult  female  in  winter.  Similar  but  somewhat  lighter,  the  upper  parts  tipped 
with  rusty  and  under  parts  tipped  with  cream  buffy. 

L.,  9.50;  W.,  4.60;  T.,  3.50. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  or  in  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  four  grayish  or  light  green, 
very  thickly  covered  with  blotches  and  dots  of  purplish  and  reddish  brown,  very 
variable. 


EED-WINGED  BLACKKBIED. 

Adult  male.  Uniform  black;  lesser  wing  coverts  bright  scarlet;  middle  wing 
coverts  varying  from  buff  to  huffy  white.  In  fall  specimens  the  black  is  more  or  less 
tipped  with  rusty. 

Female.  Smaller  under  8.00.  Above  blackish  brown  with  pale  streaks  inclining 
on  the  head  to  form  median  and  superciliary  stripes;  below,  whitish  with  many 
sharp  dusky  streaks;  sides  of  the  head,  throat  and  bend  of  wing  tinged  with 
yellowish  red. 

Male.  L.,  9.50;  W.,  4.70;  T.,  3.75. 

Nest,  usually  fastened  to  the  rushes  in  a  marsh.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  blue, 
curiously  marked  and  scrawled  with  dark  purplish  brown. 

COWBIED. 

Adult  male.  Head  and  neck,  dark  chestnut  brown,  the  rest  of  the  plumage 
glossy  black  with  metallic  reflections. 

Adult  female.    Dull  brownish  gray,  rather  paler  below,  especially  on  the  throat. 

Immature  in  first  plumage.  Similar  to  the  female,  but  whiter  below,  all  the 
features  edged  with  buffy. 

Male.    L.,  7.90 ;  W.,  4.25  ;  T.,  3.05. 

Nest,  none.  The  eggs,  which  are  deposited  in  the  nests  of  other  birds,  are  dull 
white,  thickly  dotted  or  sometimes  blotched  with  brown. 


46 

BOBOLINK. 

Adult  male  in  summer.  Top,  sides  of  head  and  under  parts  black,  the  feathers 
more  or  less  tipped  with  a  narrow  whitish  or  cream  buff  fringe  which  wears  off  as  the 
season  advances;  back  of  the  neck  with  a  large  creamy  buff  patch;  middle  of  back 
generally  streaked  with  creamy;  scapulars,  lower  back,  and  upper  tail  coverts,  soiled 
grayish  white ;  wings  and  tail  black ;  tail  feathers  with  pointed  tips ;  bill  blue  black. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  yellowish  brown  streaked  with  black;  crown 
blackish,  with  a  central  stripe  of  buff;  wings  and  tail  blackish,  pale  edged;  under 
parts  yellowish. 

Male  in  the  autumn.   Similar  to  female. 

MEADOWLAEK. 

Each  feather  of  the  back  blackish  margined  with  brownish  yellow,  neck  the 
same  but  pattern  smaller,  crown  streaked  with  black  and  brown,  a  buffy  line  through 
the  centre  and  over  eye,  a  yellow  spot  over  eye  and  a  blackish  line  behind  it ;  outer 
tail  feathers  mostly  white,  middle  ones  with  imperfect  bars  or  scallops  of  black  brown 
and  gray,  sides  of  throat  and  ear  coverts  whitish;  edge  of  wing  and  under  parts  gen- 
erally bright  yellow;  a  black  crescent  on  the  breast;  sides  and  crissum  pale  brownish, 
.streaked  with  black. 

Female.     Similar  smaller  L.,  about  9.50. 

Male.     L.,  10.75;  W.,  4.75;  T.,  3.75. 

Xest,  on  the  ground,  generally  arched  over.  Eggs,  four  to  six,  white,  spotted 
with  reddish  brown. 

BALTIMORE  ORIOLE. 

Adult  male.  Head,  neck,  throat  and  back  black;  breast,  belly,  lower  back  and 
lesser  wing  coverts,  rich  reddish  orange;  wings  black,  the  outer  margin  of  the 
greater  coverts  and  quills  edged  with  white;  end  half  of  middle  tail  feathers  black, 
base  orange ;  all  the  others  orange,  crossed  by  a  black  band  in  the  middle. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  grayish  orange,  brighter  on  the  rump;  head  and 
back  mottled  with  black,  wings  grayish  brown;  greater  and  middle  coverts  tipped 
with  white,  tail  like  the  rump,  the  middle  feathers  stained  with  black,  under  parts 
dull  orange. 

L.,  7.50;  A¥.,  3.50;  T.,  2.85. 

Nest,  pensile,  on  trees.  Eggs,  four  to  six,  white  scrawled  and  dotted  with  fine 
black  or  reddish  brown  markings,  chiefly  toward  the  larger  end. 

ORCHARD  ORIOLE. 

Adult  male.  Head,  neck,  throat,  upper  back  black;  breast,  belly,  lower  back 
and  lesser  wing  coverts  chestnut;  wings  and  tail  dark  grayish  brown  more  or  less 
edged  or  tipped  with  whitish. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  grayish  olive  green,  brighter  on  the  head  and 
rump;  wings  dark  grayish  brown,  middle  and  greater  coverts  tipped  with  whitish, 
tail  olive  green ;  under  parts  dull  yellow. 


47 


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48 

Immature  male  in  first  year.    Similar  to  the  female,  but  back  browner. 

Immature  male  in  second  year.  Similar  to  the  female,  but  with  the  throat 
black  and  occasionally  patches  of  chestnut  on  the  under  parts. 

L.,  7.35;  W.,  3.20;  T.,  2.95. 

Nest,  pensile,  on  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  bluish  white  spotted  and  scrawled 
with  purplish  brown  and  black. 

WOODPECKERS,     NUTHATCHES,     TITMICE,     ETC. 

The  various  species  which  constitute  these  families  have  been  grouped  together, 
because  of  certain  similarities  in  their  habits,  although  structurally  they  differ 
widely.  They  are  all  tree  climbers,  and  obtain  the  greatest  part  of  their  food  from 
the  trunks  of  trees,  some  of  them  by  laboriously  digging  out  the  grubs  which  bore 
into  the  solid  wood,  others  by  prying  into  every  crack  and  crevice  of  the  bark,  where 
they  find  insects  in  various  stages  of  development. 

Of  the  Woodpeckers  we  have  in  Ontario  nine  species,  namely,  the  Pileated 
Woodpecker  (better  known  as  the  "Cock  of  the  Woods"),  the  Arctic  Three-toed 
Woodpecker,  the  American  Three-toed  Woodpecker,  Hairy  Woodpecker,  Dovmy 
Woodpecker,  Yellow-bellied  Woodpecker,  Golden-winged  Woodpecker,  Red-headed 
Woodpecker  and  Red-bellied  Woodpecker.  The  first  three  are  true  birds  of  the  forest, 
very  seldom  showing  themselves  in  the  neighborhood  of  cultivation,  so  that,  although 
their  services  are  of  great  value  to  the  country,  by  reason  of  the  constant  war  they 
carry  on  against  the  borers,  which  are  so  injurious  to  our  timber,  we  need  not  con- 
sider them  in  this  paper.  The  Hairy  Woodpecker  and  the  Downy  Woodpecker  are 
two  species  that  almost  exactly  resemble  each  other,  both  in  habits  and  appearance, 
the  only  material  difference  being  in  their  size,  the  Hairy  Woodpecker  measuring 
about  nine  inches  in  length,  the  Downy  about  six  inches.  Their  food,  which  consists 
almost  entirely  of  insects,  is  obtained  either  by  digging  the  grubs  out  of  the  wood, 
or  picking  them  out  of  the  crevices  of  the  bark  in  which  they  hide  during  the  day. 
Sometimes  during  the  winter  I  have  found  the  stomachs  of  these  birds  filled  with 
the  seeds  of  the  hemlock.  These  seeds  seem  to  form  a  favorite  food  with  many  of 
our  birds  at  this  season ;  the  berries  of  the  sumach  are  also  occasionally  eaten  by  the 
little  Downy,  perhaps  for  the  sake  of  the  small  beetles  that  are  always  to  be  found 
amongst  them.  These  are  the  only  two  vegetable  substances  that  I  have  ever  known 
either  of  these  species  to  feed  upon. 

Both  these  Woodpeckers  are  accused  of  injuring  trees  by  boring  holes  in  them  to 
obtain  a  flow  of  sap,  which  they  are  said  to  drink.  This  is  a  mistake.  The  bird 
having  the  sap-sucking  habit  is  the  Yellow-bellied  Woodpecker,  an  entirely  different 
species,  of  which  I  shall  speak  presently.  Nature  has  most  perfectly  fitted  these 
birds  for  their  task  of  ridding  the  trees  of  the  grubs  which  bore  into  them.  Their 
beaks  are  hard,  sharp  and  chisel-like,  so  that  they  are  enabled  to  enlarge  the  holes 
inhabited  by  these  insects  sufficiently  to  enable  them  'to  insert  their  long,  barbed 
toiigue.  with  which  they  extract  the  larvae  from  their  hiding  places.  In  the  winter 
these  birds  frequently  visit  the  orchard,  garden  and  shrubbery,  and  there  they  do 
most  valuable  work,  by  destroying  the  chrysalids  of  the  moths  that  produce  the 
leaf-eating  caterpillars.  The  toughest  cocoon  ever  spun  by  caterpillar  is  no  protection 
against  the  sharp  beaks  of  these  birds,  even  the  strong  case  which  encloses  the  chry- 
salis of  the  large  Cecropia  moth  is  soon  torn  open  when  found  by  a  Downy  Wood- 
pecker, and  the  contents  devoured.  Ants  and  borers  in  the  trees  are  also  greedily 
eaten  by  both  species ;  in  fact,  nothing  in  the  shape  of  insect  life  comes  amiss  to 
them,  that  can  be  found  within  their  reach.    The  valuable  work  done  by  these  birds 


49 


Downy  Woodpecker. 


4-218 


50 


/   '        '    «^  -' 


-r 


Eed-headed  Woodpecker. 


51 

for  the  protection  of  our  trees  should  commend  them  to  every  lumberman,  fruit 
grower  and  nurseryman,  and  though  we  cannot  do  very  much  to  protect  them  from 
their  natural  enemies,  we  can  cease  destroying  them  ourselves  and  discountenance  it 

in  others. 

The  Downy  Woodpecker  may  be  readily  attracted  to  an  orchard  in  the  Avinter 
season  by  baiting  the  trees  with  pieces  of  fat,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  recom- 
mended for  Nuthatches  and  Chickadees  further  on.  The  work  done  by  this  bird 
in  extracting  borers  from  the  trees,  and  destroying  the  larvse  of  the  Codling  moth, 
will  amply  repay  a  fruit  grower  for  the  small  amount  of  attention  necessary. 

Red-headed  Woodpecker.  This  is  the  most  beautiful  bird  of  the  whole  Wood- 
pecker family,  the  strong  contrast  of  the  glossy  black  and  the  white  of  its  body, 
and  the  brilliant  crimson  of  the  head  of  the  adult  birds,  render  them  very  con- 
spicuous objects  of  the  country;  their  value  from  an  economic  point  of  view,  how- 
ever, is  debatable.  From  the  time  of  their  arrival  here  in  May  until  the  first 
strawberry  ripens,  these  birds  feed  on  insects  entirely,  and  in  pursuit  of  their 
food  they  often  adopt  the  tactics  of  the  fly-catchers,  by  mounting  to  the  top  of  a 
telegraph  pole  or  bare  limb  of  a  tree,  thence  darting  out  at  any  passing 
insect  large  enough  to  attract  their  attention.  If  the  location  selected  is  a  favor- 
able one  and  food  abundant,  they  will  remain  at  the  same  spot  for  some  time; 
but  after  the  small  fruits  ripen  their  tastes  change,  and  they  then  visit  the  straw- 
berry patches,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  and  cherries  and  raspberries  are  also  eaten 
by  them  and  carried  to  their  young,  ^^en  the  season  for  small  fruit  is  over, 
they  again  resort  to  their  insect  eating  habit,  and,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to 
observe,  are  not  in  this  Province  ever  addicted  to  pilfering  grain.  I  have  occasion- 
ally seen  an  odd  one  make  a  raid  on  a  vineyard  and  take  a  few  grapes,  and  once 
or  twice  have  seen  them  pick  holes  in  apples,  but  the  habit  does  not  seem  general. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  in  the  spring  they  do  much  good  by  destroying  numbers 
of  mature  insects,  which,  if  allowed,  would  deposit  eggs  to  produce  vast  numbers 
of  injurious  caterpillars.  It  is  true  also  that  in  districts  where  small  fruit  is 
cultivated  for  profit  they  do  much  harm,  if  they  become  sufficiently  numerous. 
As  the  case  now  stands,  they  are  too  scarce  to  do  much  injury,  and,  except  when 
they  are  too  persistent  in  their  visits  to  a  garden  or  orchard,  they  may  well  be 
left  alone.  Although  these  birds  are  regular  migrants,  arriving  here  about  the 
middle  of  May  and  leaving  in  September,  I  have  once  or  twice  met  with  them  in 
sheltered  woods  in  south-western  Ontario  in  the  winter,  where  their  bright  plum- 
age showed  to  great  advantage  against  the  evergreens. 

The  habits  of  the  Eed-bellied  Woodpecker  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
above  species,  and  its  economic  value  about  the  same,  but  as  it  only  occurs  in  the 
south-western  counties  of  the  Province,  and  then  in  very  small  ^numbers,  it  need 
not  be  further  considered. 

Golden-winged  Woodpecker.  Flicker,  High  Holder,  Yellow  Hammer,  Pigeon 
Woodpecker,  and  half  a  dozen  other  aliases,  testify  that  this  is  a  well-known,  if 
not  always  a  popular,  character.  Like  the  last  species,  the  value  of  this  bird  from 
the  fruit-growers'  standpoint  is  debatable,  but  it  is  not  quite  so  much  given  to 
fruit  eating  as  the  Eedhead,  though,  when  it  has  seven  or  eight  hungry  young 
ones  to  feed,  and  it  finds  a  cherry  orchard  handy,  it  will  help  itself  to  a  good  many 
cherries,  for  which  it  has  a  decided  predilection.  Apart  from  this  unlucky  habit, 
the  bird  has  many  good  qualities.  In  some  of  its  ways,  it  much  resembles  the 
Meadowlarks;  like  them,  it  may  often  be  seen  on  the  ground  searching  for  ants, 
of  which  it  destroys  vast  quantities.    I  have  often  found  their  stomachs  filled  with 


52 

them,  and  have  rarely  examined  one  without  finding  it  contained  some  of  these 
insects;  it  also  devours  great  numbers  of  grasshoppers,  beetles,  moths,  and  other 
ground  insects.  This  bird  is  really  a  ground  feeder,  for,  though  classed  among 
the  Woodpeckers  by  reason  of  certain  similarities  of  structure,  it  does  less  wood- 
pecking  than  any  other  of  its  class,  the  beak  not  being  as  well  fitted  for  that  opera- 
tion as  the  beaks  of  the  others.  It  has  also  the  peculiarity  of  being  able  to  perch 
crosswise  on  a  branch,  a  method  rarely  adopted  >by  its  relations.  There  is  one 
other  evil  trait  that  I  have  seen  this  bird  exhibit,  on  two  occasions  only,  that  is 
the  destruction  by  it  of  nests  of  the  Bluebird ;  both  the  nests  destroyed  were  built 
by  the  Bluebirds  in  holes  in  trees  much  higher  than  usual,  probably  from  forty 
to  fifty  feet  from  the  ground.  I  am  not  certain  what  the  nests  contained  at  the 
time,  but  I  saw  the  Woodpeckers  pull  out  the  nests  and  throw  them  piecemeal  to 
the  ground,  in  spite  of  the  resistance  of  the  Bluebirds,  but  I  found  no  trace  of 
eggs  or  young;  If  there  were  any,  they  must  have  been  eaten.  It  is  probable 
that  the  Woodpeckers  wanted  the  nesting  site  for  themselves,  and  so  dispossessed 
the  owners.  If  so,  they  were  disappointed,  for  I  settled  the  question  by  killing 
them,  but  I  am  sorry  to  say  I  omitted  to  examine  the  stomachs  to  see  whether  or 
not  they  had  devoured  the  young  Bluebirds,  if  there  were  any.  I  am  inclined  to 
think  these  were  exceptional  cases;  they  occurred  over  thirty  years  ago,  and  I 
have  never  seen  a  repetition  of  the  trick.  If  these  birds  become  a  nuisance  in  a 
garden  or  orchard,  they  can  easily  be  killed  off  while  they  are  committing  their 
offence;  but  I  think  that  through  the  country  generally  the  good  they  do  far 
overbalances  the  little  damage  they  may  do  locally. 

Yellow-bellied  Woodpecker  or  SapsucJcer.  Adult  male,  crown  and  chin 
crimson,  back  and  wing  coverts  black  and  white,  wings  black  with  large  white  bar, 
tail  black,  inner  web  of  the  two  central  feathers  white  with  black  spots,  breast 
black  edged  with  yellowish,  the  rest  of  the  under  parts  dull  yellowish,  the  sides 
white  with  black  streaks.  In  the  female  the  crimson  of  the  crown  and  chin  is 
wanting,  the  crown  is  black,  with  sometimes  a  few  traces  of  crimson  on  the  fore- 
head, the  chin  is  white.  I  give  a  description  of  this  species  in  order  that  it  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  other  small  Woodpeckers,  because  it  is  principally  owing  to 
the  propensity  for  drinking  sap,  which  the  bird  has,  that  a  certain  prejudice  exists 
in  some  localities  against  all  the  Woodpeckers,  or  Sapsuckers  as  they  are  called. 
It  is  quite  true  that  this  Woodpecker  does  in  the  spring,  when  the  sap  is  rising, 
bore  small  holes  in  the  bark  of  various  trees  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  sap  as 
it  flows  from  them,  and  perhaps  to  attract  the  insects  upon  which  they  feed  to  the 
same  spot,  so  that  they  can  satisfy  their  hunger  and  thirst  without  having  to  over- 
exert themselves  in  so  doing.  If  life  was  not  so  short,  I  might  be  tempted  here 
to  go  into  the  question  as  to  whether  this  bird  had  to  acquire  this  habit,  because 
its  tongue  was  peculiarly  fitted  for  it,  or  whether  the  tongue  became  modified  so  as 
to  just  suit  the  habit  after  the  bird  had  acquired  it;  for  the  bird's  tongue  certainly 
differs  from  that  of  other  Canadian  Woodpeckers  and  is  admirably  fitted  for  the 
use  to  which  it  is  put.  A  discussion  of  the  question  would  exceed  the  scope  of 
this  article,  and  probably  not  lead  to  anything  after  all.  We  know  the  bird  has 
this  habit,  and  the  question  is,  what  is  the  effect  of  it  upon  the  trees  which  are 
bored?  I  have  made  what  observations  1  could,  and  as  many  enquiries  from  others 
as  possible,  and  I  have  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the  only  real  damage  done  is 
that  a  young  tree  may  be  rendered  unsightly  for  a  time,  or  it  may  even  be  perm- 
anently disfi.gured  by  some  peculiarity  m  the  healing  of  the  bark,  but  usually  no 
harm  ensues.     That  a  tree  ever  was,  or  could  be,  killed  by  it  I  do  not  believe,  for 


53 


feifc!^-^'.  'V'^-*"^';. 


54 


<■ '  ;  f'  ■        /  X 


( 


Yellow-bellied  Woodpecker — Sapsucker. 


65 

I  have  never  yet  seen  or  heard  any  evidence  in  proof  of  it.  Further  we  know  that 
Maple  and  Birch  trees  are  tapped  year  after  year  for  commercial  purposes  but  the 
genera!  health  of  the  tree  seems  never  to  be  adversely  affected  by  doing  so. 

With  regard  to  this  habit  of  the  Sapsucker,  Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  says  that  in 
thirty  years  experience  in  Massachusetts  no  instance  has  come  to  his  knowledge 
of  its  doing  any  appreciable  harm  there. 

Apart  from  its  sap  drinking  proclivity  the  bird's  record  is  excellent;  it  is  not 
a  fruit  or  grain  eater,  though  in  the  autumn  it  will  feed  on  mountain  ash  and  a  few 
other  wild  berries.  In  general  it  devotes  itself  to  the  destruction  of  insects  that  live 
on  the  trees  or  hide  in  the  loose  bark.  Ants  form  a  large  proportion  of  its  food. 
These  it  obtains  from  the  rotten  wood  in  which  they  burrow,  as  it  does  not  descend 
to  the  gi-ound  in  search  of  them.  Beetles  and  moths  are  also  sought  out  and 
devoured,  but  as  this  bird's  tongue  is  not  as  well  barbed  as  that  of  some  of  the 
other  Woodpeckers,  fewer  grubs  of  the  wood-boring  class  are  eaten  by  it.  I 
suppose  if  any  man  believes  that  these  birds  are  doing  an  injury  to  his  trees  he 
should  be  allowed  to  protect  himself  in  the  only  way  possible,  viz.,  by  getting  rid  of 
the  birds  on  his  own  premises ;  but  for  his  own  sake  he  should  be  sure  he  gets  rid 
of  the  right  one,  and  that  neither  the  Downy  nor  the  Hairy  is  destroyed  by  mistake. 
Both  the  Downy  and  the  Hairy  Woodpecker  remain  with  us  all  through  the  year, 
whilst  the  Sapsucker  is  a  summer  resident  only;  so  that  whenever  a  Woodpecker  is 
seen  in  the  winter  it  should  be  spared,  for  it  is  most  certainly  a  beneficial  one. 

WOODPECKEES. 

Description. 

PILEATED  WOODPECKER— COCK  OF  THE  WOODS. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  dull  black;  top  of  the  head  brilliant  scarlet,  the 
feathers  lengthened  to  form  a  crest,  a  white  stripe  borders  this  crest  and  separates 
it  from  the  dusky  ear  coverts;  a  stripe  beginning  at  the  nostril  and  passing  down 
the  sides  of  the  neck  to  the  shoulders  is  tinged  with  yellow  before  the  eye  and  is 
white  behind  the  eye;  a  scarlet  stripe  at  base  of  the  lower  mandible,  basal  half  of 
the  wing  feathers  white;  under  parts  dusky  black,  the  feathers  sometimes  slightly 
margined  with  white. 

Adult  female.  Similar  but  with  less  scarlet  on  crown  and  none  at  base  of 
lower  mandible. 

L.,  17.00;  W.,  8.90;  T.,  6.25. 

Nest,  a  hole  in  the  trunk  of  a  tall  tree.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  oval. 

AECTIC  THREE-TOED  WOODPECKER. 

Adult  Male.  Toes  three,  two  in  front.  Middle  of  crown  with  a  bright  yellow 
patch;  rest  of  upper  parts  shining  blue  black;  wing  feathers  spotted  with  white; 
middle  tail  feathers  black,  outer  ones  white,  except  at  the  base;  a  white  line  from 
the  nostrils  passes  below  the  eye;  sides  barred  with  black  and  white:  rest  of  the 
under  parts  white. 

Adult  female.     Similar,  but  without  yellow  patch  on  crown. 

L.,  9.50;  W.,  5.10;  T.,  3.40. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  stub  or  tree.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  white. 


56 

AMERICAN"  THREE-TOED  WOODPECKER. 

Adult  male.  Three  toes,  two  in  front;  head  spotted  with  wliite  and  a  yellow 
patch  on  crown;  back  barred  with  black  and  white;  wing  feathers  spotted  with 
black  and  white;  middle  tail  feathers  black,  outer  ones  black  and  white,  region 
below  the  eye  mixed  black  and  white,  sides  more  or  less  barred  with  black  and 
white;  rest  of  the  under  parts  white. 

Adult  Female.  Similar,  but  crown  spotted  with  black  and  white  and  without 
yellow  patch. 

L.,  8.75;  W.,  4.55;  T.,  3.10. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  stub  or  tree.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  white. 

I 

HAIRY  WOODPECKER. 

Adult  male.  Black  with  a  long  white  stripe;  wing  feathers  and  coverts  spotted 
with  white;  four  middle  tail  feathers  black,  next  pair  black  and  white,  outer 
feathers  white.  A  scarlet  band  on  nape;  crown  and  sides  of  head  black  with  a 
white  stripe  over  and  another  below  the  eye;  under  parts  white. 

Adult  female.     Similar  but  without  scarlet  on  back  of  the  neck. 

L.,  9.50;  W.,  4.80;  T.,  3.50. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  white. 

DOWNY  WOODPECKER. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  black,  a  long  white  stripe  on  back;  wing  feathers 
and  their  coverts  spotted  with  white;  middle  tail  feathers  black,  outer  ones  white, 
barred  with  black;  a  scarlet  band  on  back  of  neck:  wing  feathers  and  their  coverts 
spotted  with  white ;  a  white  stripe  above  and  another  below  eye ;  under  parts  white. 

Adult  female.     Similar  but  without  scarlet  band  on  nape. 

L.,  6.75;  W.,  3.70;  T.,  2.50. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  stul)  or  tree.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  white. 

YELLOW-BELLIED  WOODPECKER— SAPSUCKER. 

Adult  male.  Crown  scarlet;  back  irregularly  barred  with  black  and  yellowish 
white;  wing  feathers  spotted  with  white,  their  coverts  mostly  white;  tail  black,  the 
middle  feathers  with  broken  black  bars,  the  outer  ones  with  white  margins;  a  white 
line  from  the  bill  passes  below  the  eye;  throat  scarlet;  breast  black;  sides  streaked 
with  black;  belly  pale  yellow. 

AduU  female.  Similar  but  throat  white:  crown  sometimes  black;  outer  tail 
feathers  with  broken  white  bars. 

Immature.     Similar  to  adults,  but  with  the  crown  dull  blackish,  and  breast 
brownish  gray,  barred  with  black,  the  throat  whitish. 
L.,  8.50  iw.,  4.80;  T.,  3.15. 
Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  white. 


57 


YY[,cu> 


W- 


J 


Pileated  Woodpecker. 


58 

GOLDEN-WINGED   WOODPECKER— FLICKER   HIGH-HOLEE. 

Adult  male.  Top  of  head  asliy  gray,  a  bright  scarlet  band  across  back  of  the 
neck;  back,  wing  coverts  and  innermost  quills  brownish  gray,  thickly  barred  with 
black;  tail  coverts  white,  barred  with  black;  primaries  black  externally,  inner  sur- 
face of  wing  and  shafts  of  the  feathers  bright  yellow;  tail  black  above,  below 
yellow,  tipped  with  black;  sides,  of  the  head  throat  and  upper  breast  vinaceous;  a 
broad  black  stripe  on  either  side  of  the  throat  from  the  base  of  the  bill  and  a  broad 
black  crescent  across  the  breast;  rest  of  the  under  parts  white,  more  or  less  tinged 
with  vinaceous  and  thickly  spotted  with  black. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  without  the  black  streaks  on  the  side  of  the 
throat. 

L.,  11.00;  W.,  6.00;  T.,  4.00. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  stub  or  tree.     Eggs,  five  to  nine  white. 

EED-HEADED  WOODPECKER. 

Adult  male  and  female.  Head,  neck  and  upper  breast  deep  crimson;  back, 
primaries,  bases  of  the  secondaries  and  wing  coverts  glossy  blue  black;  end  of 
secondaries,  rump  and  upper  tail  coverts  white ;  tail  black,  the  feathers  more  or  less 
margined  with  white;  lower  breast  and  belly  white,  generally  tinged  with  reddish. 

Immature.  Head,  neck  and  upper  breast  grayish  brown;  upper  back  bluish 
black  barred  with  ashy;  primaries  and  wing  coverts  black;  end  half  of  secondaries 
irregularly  'barred  with  black;  tail  black  generally  tipped  with  white;  lower  breast 
and  belly  white,  more  or  less  streaked  or  spotted  with  gray. 

L.,  9.25;  W.,  5.50;  T.,  3.25. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree.     Eggs,  four  to  six,  white. 

RED-BELLIED  WOODPECKER. 

Adult  male.  Whole  top  of  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck  bright  scarlet;  back 
regularly  barred  with  black  and  white ;  primaries  black  at  the  end,  white  irregularly 
barred  with  black  at  the  base;  secondaries  black,  regularly  spotted  and  barred  with 
white;  upper  tail  coverts  white,  with  streaks  or  arrowheads  of  black;  outer  tail 
feathers  and  inner  vanes  of  the  middle  ones  irregularly  marked  with  broken  black 
and  white  bars;  cheeks  and  under  parts  dull  ashy  white,  the  region  about  the  base 
of  the  bill,  the  middle  of  the  belly  and  sometimes  the  breast  more  or  less  tinged 
with  red. 

Adult  female.  Similar  but  with  the  crown  grayish  ashy,  the  scarlet  confined 
to  the  nape  and  nostrils. 

ImmMure.  Similar,  but  with  the  belly  sometimes  tinged  with  buify  instead 
of  red. 

L.,  9.50;  W.,  5.00;  T.,  3.50. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree.     Eggs,  four  to  six,  white 

NUTHATCHES,  CHICKADEES,  AND  TREE     CREEPER. 

Of  these  we  have  two  species  of  Nuthatches — the  White-breasted  and 
Red-breasted, — two  Chickadees  and  one  Creeper.  They  are  all  resident 
species,    though    more    frequently    seen    around    cultivated    lands    in    the    winter 


59 


Ns' 


:i 


White-breasted  Nuthatch. 


60 

than  in  any  other  season.  They  are  among  the  most  active  insect  des- 
troyers we  have,  gleaning  their  food  from  the  bark,  branches  and  leaves 
of  trees,  and  seldom  descending  to  the  ground,  though  when  wood-chopping  is 
going  on  in  the  bush  the  logs,  sticks,  and  chips  will  all  be  carefully  searched  for 
grubs  which  have  been  exposed  by  the  axe.  The  familiarity  displayed  by  these 
little  creatures  at  this  time  is  very  pleasing.  As  soon  as  work  begins,  and  the  first 
few  strokes  of  the  axe  sound  through  the  bush,  they  gather  round  and  investigate 
every  piece  of  bark  and  decayed  wood  thrown  open,  and  from  each  one  gather  som.e 
prizes.  It  is  very  amusing  to  watch  the  little  Chickadee  when  he  finds  a  large  grub 
of  one  of  the  borers  partly  exposed.  He  pulls  and  tugs  at  it  until  it  comes  out, 
and  then  securely  holding  it  down  with  his  feet  he  tears  it  in  pieces  and  devours  it. 
Without  the  assistance  of  the  chopper  it  is  but  seldom  that  they  can  get  at  the 
larger  grubs  that  bore  deeply  into  the  solid  wood,  as  they  have  neither  tLe  strength 
nor  proper  tools  for  digging  them  out;  but  they  have  found  that  when  the  farmer 
cuts  his  cordwood  their  opportunity  for  a  feast  arrives,  and  so  they  take  advantage 
of  it.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  they  scour  the  bush,  orchard,  and  shrubbery  in 
merry  little  parties  searching  for  food,  from  time  to  time  uttering  their  musical 
notes,  which  always  have  a  peculiar  ''  woodsy  "  quality  about  them.  Tb.e  seeds  of 
the  hemlock  are  occasionally  eaten  by  ihe  Chickadee  and  the  Eed-breasted 
Nuthatch,  and  the  "V\niite-breasted  Nuthatch  is  said  to  sometimes  eat  beechnuts  and 
acorns,  but  I  have  never  found  any  trace  of  them.  The  Tree  Creeper  eats  no 
vegetable  substance  whatever. 

This  little  group  of  birds  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  fruit-growers,  as  they 
feed  principally  on  the  minute  insects  and  their  eggs,  which  are  individually  so 
small  that  they  escape  our  observation  until,  having  seen  the  damage  done  by  them, 
our  attention  is  called  to  their  existence,  and  then  it  is  too  late  to  enable  us  to 
remedy  the  matter  for  the  season. 

In  the  winter  fruit-growers  should  endeavour  to  encourage  birds  of  this 
class  to  resort  to  their  orchards,  lor  they  are  among  the  most  effective  checks  upon 
injurious  insects  that  we  have. 

They  destroy  immense  quantities  of  eggs  from  which  the  tent  caterpillar,  the 
canker-worm  and  aphides  are  produced.  The  larva  and  pup^e  of  the  codling  moth 
are  also  eagerly  sought  for  and  devoured. 

When  you  see  these  little  birds  scrambling:  about  the  trunks  and  branches  of 
your  trees,  peering  sliarply  into  every  crevice  of  the  bark,  it  is  these  insects  they  are 
looking  for,  insects  and  their  eggs  that  at  this  season  are  generally  so  well  hidden 
that  only  the  birds'  sharp  eyes  can  detect  them.  They  do,  however,  find  enough 
of  them  to  supply  their  wants,  and  thereby  save  the  trees  from  much  damage  the 
following  season. 

The  best  way  to  induce  the  birds  to  remain  in  and  about  an  orchard  is  to 
hang  up  among  the  trees  a  few  bones  with  some  fat  on  them,  or  a  few  lumps  of  fat 
tied  to  the  branches  here  and  there  will  have  the  desired  effect.  The  birds  \vi11 
soon  find  them  out,  and  if  the  supply  is  kept  up  will  remain  in  the  neighborhood  all 
the  season.  Feeding  on  this  will  not  prevent  their  insect  hunting,  but  will  obviate 
the  necessity  for  their  wandering  over  too  much  ground,  and  thev  will  concentrate 
all  their  efforts  upon  the  trees  where  they  are  sure  of  finding  food. 

A  remarkable  example  of  the  benefit  that  may  bo  derived  from  the  presence 
of  a  flock  of  Chickadees  has  been  recorded  by  Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  in  a  bulletin  of 
the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Agriculture. 

In  a  certain  orchard  in  Massachusetts  the  canker-worm  moth  had  deposited 
great  numbers  of  eggs  upon  the  trees.     Pieces  of  hone  and  fat  were  fastened  to  the 


61 

trees  early  in  winter  to  attract  tlie  Cliickadees.  The  birds  came  and  remained 
about  the  orchard  nearly  all  the  winter.  They  were  careiully  watched  and  it  was 
found  that  they  were  feeding  on  the  eggs  of  the  canker-worm  moths.  A  few  birds 
were  killed  to  determine  the  number  of  eggs  eaten.  Between  two  and  three 
hundred  canker-worm  eggs  were  found  in  the  stomach  of  each  of  these  birds.  In 
the  spring  the  female  moths  of  the  spring  canker-worm  were  also  devoured.  The 
result  was  that  the  Chickadees,  assisted  in  spring  and  early  summer  by  some  other 
birds,  saved  the  orchard  from  any  serious  injury  by  the  canker-worm. 

NUTHATCHES— TITS— TREE  CREEPEK. 

Description. 

WHITE-BBEASTED  NUTHATCH. 

Adult  male.  Crown  and  nape  glossy  black;  'back  rump  and  middle  tail 
feathers  ashy  blue ;  outer  tail  feathers  black,  with  white  patches  near  the  tips,  inner 
secondaries  bluish  gray,  marked  with  black:  wing  coverts  and  quills  tipped  with 
whitish;  sides  of  head  and  under  parts  white,  lower  belly  and  under  tail  coverts 
mixed  with  rufous. 

Adult  female.     Similar,  but  the  black  of  head  and  neck  duller. 

L.,  6.00;  W.,  2.70;  T.,  1.95. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  stub.     Eggs,  five  or  six,  white,  streaked  with  reddish  brown. 

RED-BREASTED  NUTHATCH. 

Adult  male.  Crown  shining  'black,  bordered  by  a  white  line  over  the  eye,  a 
black  line  from  the  bill  through  the  eye  to  nape,  widening  behind  the  eye;  upper 
parts  bluish  gray;  outer  tail  feathers  black,  with  white  patches  near  their  tips, 
middle  ones  bluish  gray;  throat  white,  rest  of  the  under  parts  rusty  red,  some- 
times reddish  buff. 

Adult  female.     Similar  but  top  of  head  and  line  through  eye,  dark  bluish  gray. 
L.,  4.65;  W.,  2.65;  T.,  1.65. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree  or  stump.  Eggs,  five  or  six,  white,  speckled  with 
reddish  brown. 

CHICKADEE. 

Crown,  nape  and  throat,  black;  sides  of  head  and  neck,  white;  back  ashy  gray, 
wing  and  tail  feathers  margined  with  whitish;  breast  white;  belly  and  sides  washed 
with  pale  buff. 

L.,  5.25;  W.,  2.50;  T.,  2.50. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  stump  or  tree.  Eggs,  six  to  eight;  white,  spotted  and 
speckled,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end,  with  reddish  brown. 

TREE  CREEPER— BROWN  CREEPER. 

Upper  parts  curiously  marked  with  brown,  buff  and  wliite;  rump  pnlo  chestnut: 
wings  dusky,  marked  with  tawny  and  white  and  with  a  band  of  creamy  buff:  tail 
dnsky.  the  feathers  sharply  pointed:  under  parts  white:  bill  slightly  curved. 

L..   5.50 ;  W.,   2.60 :   T..   2.65. 


G2 

Nest,  generally  in  a  crevice  behind  the  loose  bark  of  a  tree.  Eggs,  five  to 
eight,  white,  speckled  and  spotted  with  reddish  brown,  chiefly  in  a  wreath  at  the 
larger  end. 

THEUSHES. 

We  have  in  Ontario  seven  species  belonging  to  this  family,  all  of  them  migra- 
tory, arriving  here  from  the  south  in  early  spring  and  leaving  us  in  the  autumn. 
as  cold  weather  sets  in.  They  are  the  Wood  Thrush,  Wilson's  Thrush,  Grey-cheeked 
Thrush,  Olive-backed  Thrush,  Hermit  Thrush,  Robin  and  Bluebird.  The  Olive- 
backed  Thrush,  Grey-cheeked  Thrush,  and  most  of  the  Hermit  Thrushes  pass  on  and 
raise  their  young  to  the  north  of  us ;  the  others  remain  throughout  the  summer  and 
breed  here. 

The  Wood  Thrush  and  Wilson's  Thrush,  or  Veery,  as  it  is  sometimes  called, 
are  strictly  birds  of  the  woodlands,  and  seldom  venture  far  from  the  edge  of  the 
bush,  though  both  species  will  at  times  select  a  garden  where  there  are  shrubs  for 
their  summer  residence,  if  they  find  themselves  unmolested,  particularly  if  there 
are  no  domestic  cats  about  the  premises.  The  cats  at  all  times  prefer  young  birds 
to  mice  or  rats,  and  are  as  much  to  blame  for  the  decrease  of  our  native  birds  as 
bird-nesting  boys  or  anything  else,  perhaps,  except  the  Cowbird,  Wilson's  Thrush 
is  one  of  our  most  abundant  species,  but  it  has  the  faculty  of  concealing  itself  to 
such  perfection  that  it  is  often  overlooked,  though  there  may  be  many  within  a 
few  yards  of  where  a  person  is  standing.  The  Wood  Thrush  is  very  rare  with  us, 
which  is  to  be  regretted,  as  it  is  a  beautiful  songster. 

All  these  thrushes  are  very  valuable  birds  to  the  agriculturist,  their  food  con- 
sisting for  the  most  part  of  grubs  that  live  under  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
caterpillars.  In  the  autumn  they  eat  many  wild  berries,  those  of  the  Elder  and 
Viburnum  being  especial  favorites,  but  (except  the  Eobin)  they  never  help  themselves 
to  the  produce  of  the  farm  or  garden.  The  best  known  and  most  familiar  of  the  thrush 
family  is  the  Eobin,  and  opinion  is  very  strongly  divided  as  to  its  utility.  Many  fruit- 
growers condemn  this  bird  with  great  emphasis,  stating  that  it  is  the  worst  enemy 
they  have;  others  weigh  its  merits  and  demerits  more  carefully,  and  are  inclined 
to  think  that  it  at  least  pays  for  the  fruit  it  eats  by  the  destruction  of  insects.  No 
doubt  it  does  take  a  large  number  of  cherries,  strawberries  and  raspberries,  and 
some  grapes,  but  it  is  open  to  question  if  it  were  not  for  the  birds  whether  there 
would  be  any  cherries,  strawberries,  grapes,  or,  indeed,  whether  any  crop  could  be 
brought  to  maturity.  The  great  merit  of  the  Eobin  is,  that  in  the  early  part  of 
the  season  it  feeds  itself  and  its  young  almost  entirely  on  cut  worms,  and  on  the 
large  white  grub,  the  larvae  of  the  May  beetle.  Of  all  our  insect  enemies  the  under- 
ground cutworm  is  about  the  most  destructive,  for  in  feeding  it  just  comes  above 
the  surface  and  cuts  ofl:  the  entire  plant;  or  if  the  plants  are  very  young  and 
the  stems  small,  it  cuts  off  half  a  dozen  or  more  at  one  time,  only  eating  a  small 
section  out  of  t)he  stem  of  each,  and  leaving  the  plants  dead  on  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Whole  rov/s  of  peas,  corn,  beets,  cabbage,  and  cauliflower  are  often 
so  treated;  tomatoes,  too,  fare  badly  with  them.  In  1908  one  farmer  near  Jordan 
lost  over  six  thousand  tomato  plants  by  the  ravages  of  the  cut  worm,  and  many 
others  in  the  fruit-growing  districts  suffered  almost  as  severely.  The  only  remedy 
that  seems  effectual  against  their  attacks  is  to  wrap  paper  around  the  stems  of  the 
plants  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  the  height  of  about  three  inches  above  it. 
This  is  obviously  impossible  in  the  case  of  field  crops,  and  it  is  equally  impossible 
to  go  over  the  fields  and  take  the  worms  out  by  hand,  so  that  we  must  rely,  for 


63 


CI 

•r- < 

O 


64 

the  most  part,   upon   the   ground   feeders   among   the   birds;   these   are   fitted   by 
nature  for  digging  out  the  insects  and  devouring  them. 

Robin.  Among  tlie  most  conspicuous  of  these  birds  is  tlie  Bobin,  and  one 
need  only  watch  one  of  them  at  work  in  the  garden,  from  April  to  about  the 
middle  of  June  (which  is  the  season  of  the  cut  worm's  activity)  to  be  satisfied  as 
to  the  Eobin's  good  work.  I  will  give  the  result  of  an  experiment  carried  on  by 
myself  which  shows  the  number  of  these  insects  a  pair  of  Eobins  will  destroy  when 
they  are  feeding  a  brood  of  young.  In  May,  1889,  I  noticed  a  pair  of  robins  digging 
out  cutworms  in  my  garden,  which  was  infested  with  them,  and  saw  they  were 
carrying  them  to  their  nest  in  a  tree  close  by.  On  the  21st  of  that  month  I  found 
one  of  the  young  on  the  ground,  it  having  fallen  out  of  the  nest,  and  in  order  to 
see  how  much  insect  food  it  required  daily  1  took  it  to  my  house  and  raised  it  by 
hand.  Up  to  the  6th  of  June  it  had  eaten  from  fifty  to  seventy  cut  worms  and 
earth  worms  every  day.  On  the  9th  of  June  I  weighed  the  bird;  its  weight  was 
exactly  three  ounces,  and  then  1  tried  how  much  it  would  eat,  it  being  now  quite 
able  to  feed  itself.  With  the  assistance  of  my  children  I  gathered  a  large  number 
of  cut  worms  and  gave  them  to  the  Robin  after  weighing  them.  In  the  course  of 
that  day  it  ate  just  five  and  one-half  ounces  of  cut  worms.  These  grubs  averaged 
thirty  to  tlie  ounce,  so  the  young  Eobin  ate  one  hundred  and  sixty-five  cut  worms 
in  one  day.  Had  it  been  at  liberty  it  would  probably  have  eaten  some  insects  of 
other  species  and  fewer  cut  worms,  but  this  shows  near  about  what  each  young 
Robin  requires  for  its  maintenance  when  growing;  the  adult  birds  require  much 
less,  of  course.  The  average  number  of  young  raised  by  a  Robin  is  four,  and  there 
are  usually  two  broods  in  the  season.  A  very  simple  calculation  will  give  a  good 
idea  of  the  immber  of  insects  destroyed  when  the  young  are  in  the  nest.  After 
the  young  have  flown  they  are  apt  to  visit  the  small  fruit  and  it  is  no  doubt  very 
provoking  to  find  a  flock  of  them  helping  themselves  to  strawberries,  etc.  If  possible, 
they  should  be  kept  off'  without  destroying  them,  a  resort  to  the  gun  being  avoided 
as  long  as  possible. 

Bluebird.  Twenty  years  ago  the  Bluebird  was  one  of  the  most  abundant  of 
the  summer  residents  in  the  cultivated  districts  of  the  Province ;  there  was  scarcely 
a  farm  throughout  southern  Ontario  upon  which  two  or  more  pairs  of  these  birds 
did  not  breed.  The  same  birds  seemed  to  return  regularly  to  occupy  their  holes 
in  the  old  apple  trees  and  fence  posts,  year  after  year,  and  so  familiar  were  they 
that  they  actually  seemed  to  know  the  members  of  the  family  whose  premises  they 
occupied.  In  one  case,  near  Niagara,  a  pair  of  Bluebirds,  for  several  years  in 
succession,  built  their  nest  in  a  letter  box  which  was  placed  at  the  gate  of  the  farm, 
opening  on  the  main  road.  The  mail  carrier  deposited  letters  and  newspapers  in 
the  box  every  day,  which  were  duly  taken  out  by  the  members  of  the  family.  To 
al]  this  the  birds  paid  no  attention  whatever,  but  would  confidently  sit  upon  their 
eggs  or  visit  their  young  while  the  box  was  opened  and  the  people  stood  close  to 
them;  and  I  have  seen  many  similar  instances  of  confidence  on  the  part  of  these 
birds. 

Of  late  years  the  Bluebirds  have  not  remained  with  us,  and  they  have  been 
much  missed.  Enquiries  are  constantly  being  made  as  to  where  the  Bluebirds  have 
gone.  That  is  not  easy  tc  answer,  but  that  they  still  exist  in  undiminished  numbers 
i  am  able  to  state  positively,  for  so  late  as  last  March  I  saw  many  thousands  passing 
over  Toronto  from  west  to  east.  The  flight  lasted  from  daylight  to  nine  or  ten 
o'clock  every  fine  morning  for  about  a  week.  I  have  seen  this  same  movement 
every  spring  for  years.  My  opinion  is  that  the  birds  have  gone  back  to  the  new 
settlements,   where  thev   can    still    find    snake   fences,   and    pastures   in   which   the 


65 

old  stumps  are  standing — our  modern  wire  fencing  which  has  taken  the  place  of 
the  old  stake  and  rider  fence  having  deprived  them  of  a  favorite  nesting-place. 
The  up-to-date  fruit  grower,  too,  no  longer  allows  his  apple  trees  to  go  untrimmed 
and  full  of  holes,  but  cuts  out  the  old  trees  and  replaces  them  with  young  ones. 
This  has  removed  many  of  the  old  nesting  sites,  and  the  birds  have  spread  over  the 
large  area  of  new  country  now  being  brought  under  cultivation.  They  introduced 
LJiemselves  to  the  Province  of  Manitoba  about  1884,  and  have  since  become  quite 
common  there,  having  evidently  followed  the  settlers,  as  they  were  quite  unknown 
in  that  country  before  it  was  brought  under  general  cultivation.  The  utility  of  this 
bird  as  an  insect  destroyer  is  beyond  question.  It  eats  neither  grain  nor  fruit; 
occasionally  in  stormy  weather,  in  early  spring,  when  insect  food  is  hard  to  obtain, 
it  will  eat  the  berries  of  the  sumach,  but  that  is  the  only  vegetable  substance  I  have 
ever  known  it  to  take.  The  beauty  of  its  plumage,  its  sprightly  spring  song,  and 
even  the  rather  melancholy  farewell  notes  in  which  it  bade  us  good-bye,  as  it  drifted 
southward  in  the  last  days  of  October,  made  it  a  great  favorite  everywhere,  and 
every  lover  of  nature  would  be  glad  to  see  it  return  and  take  its  old  place  about 
the  farm  once  more. 

Nest  boxes  placed  in  the  orchards  too  low  down  to  tempt  the  House  Sparrows 
to  occupy  them,  would  probably  induce  the  Bluebirds  to  remain  with  us. 

THEUSHES. 

Description. 

WOOD  THEUSH. 

Upper  parts  bright  rufous  brown,  brightest  on  the  head,  and  changing  gradually 
to  pale  olive  brown  on  the  upper  tail  coverts  and  tail;  under  parts  white,  thickly 
marked  with  large  round  black  spots  except  on  the  throat  and  middle  of  the  belly. 

L.,  8.25;  W.,  4.40;  T.,  3.00. 

N"est,  generally  in  low  tree  or  sapling.    Eggs,  four  or  five,  greenish  blue. 

WILSON'S    THEUSH— VEEEY. 

Upper  parts,  wing  and  tail  nearly  uniform  tawny,  not  so  bright  as  in  the  Wood, 
Thrush;  centre  of  the  throat  white,  sides  of  the  throat  and  breast  with  a  tinge 
of  buff,  spotted  with  small  wedge  shaped  dusky  spots,  the  breast  with  half  round 
marks  of  the  same  colour. 

L.,  7.55;  W.,  4.06;  T.,  3.00. 

Nest,  generally  in  low  bushes.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  greenish  blue. 

CtEAY-CHEEKED  THEUSH. 

Upper  parts  uniform  olive  (no  huffy  tint  about  the  head)  eye-ring  whitisli, 
lores  grayish;  middle  of  the  throat  and  middle  of  belly  white;  sides  of  the  throat 
and  breast,  with  a  very  faint  tinge  of  cream  buff;  sides  of  the  throat  spotted  with 
wedged  shaped  marks,  the  breast  with  half  round  black  marks. 

L.,  7.58;  W.,  4.09;  T.,  3.00. 

Nest,  in  low  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  greenish  blue  spotted  with 
rusty  brown. 

5-218 


66 
OLIVE-BACKED  THRUSH. 

Upper  parts  uniform  olive,  sides  of  liead.  throat,  neck  and  breast  strongly 
tinged  with  bufE;  eye-ring  deep  buff;  sides  of  throat  marked  with  wedge  shaped 
spots,  the  breast  with  rounded  black  spots. 

L.,  7.20;  W.,  3.95;  T.,  3.00. 

Nest,  in  bushes  or  small  trees.  Eggs,  three  or  four,  greenish  blue,  speckled 
with  reddish  brown. 

HERMIT   THRUSH. 

Upper  parts,  cinnamon  brown,  tail  rufous  of  a  decidedly  different  colour 
from  the  back;  throat  and  breast  with  a  slight  buffy  tinge;  feathers  of  the  sides 
of  the  throat  and  breast  with  wedge  shaped  black  spots,  those  of  the  breast  with 
large  rounded  spots;  middle  of  belly  whitish. 

L.,  7.25;  W.,  3.25;  T.,  S'.OO 

Nest,  on  or  near  the  ground.     Eggs,  greenish  blue. 

AMERICAN"  ROBIN. 

Adult  male.  Top  and  sides  of  head  black;  a  white  spot  above  the  eye,  rest  of 
upper  parts  slaty  gray;  tail  black,  the  outer  pair  of  feathers,  white  tipped;  throat 
white,  with  black  spots;  breast  and  sides  rufous,  the  feathers  sometimes  slightly 
margined  with  white;  middle  of  belly  white. 

Adult  female.    Similar  but  much  duller  and  paler. 

Immature.    Darker  brown  and  spotted  above  and  below. 
L.,  9.75;  W.,  5.00;  T.,  4.00. 

Nest,  in  any  convenient  place,  most  frequently  in  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five, 
greenish  blue. 

BLUEBIRD. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  uniform  bright  blue,  the  feathers  sometimes  irregu- 
larly margined  with  rusty;  throat  breast  and  sides  dull  rufous;  belly  white. 

Adult  female.    Similar  but  much  duller. 

Immature.  Back  spotted  with  whitish;  the  feathers  of  the  breast  margined 
with  grayish  brown. 

THRASHERS  AND  MOCKERS. 

Catbird.  Neither  this  nor  the  succeeding  species  belong  to  the  Thrush  family, 
but  there  is  a  sufficient  similarity  in  their  food  habits  to  warrant  our  considering 
them  here.  They  are  closely  allied  to  the  famous  Mocking  Bird  of  the  south,  and 
their  musical  powers  are  not  very  much  inferior  to  that  splendid  songster.  They 
do  not,  however,  so  frequently  exercise  their  power  of  mimicry.  The  peculiar 
mewing  note  uttered  by  the  Catbird  has  caused  a  certain  amount  of  prejudice  to 
exist  against  it,  and  has  made  it  subject  to  persecution  at  the  hands  of  most  boys ; 
but  apart  from  the  unpleasant  note  the  Catbird  is  one  of  the  most  accomplished 
musicians  we  have,  and  it  is  more  to  be  admired  because  it  does  not  retire  into  soli- 


67 


68 

tude  to  pour  out  its  joyous  song,  but  rather  seeks  the  society  of  mankind,  and  in 
the  morning  and  evening  will  sing  its  clear  notes  from  the  top  of  some  tree  in 
close  proximity  to  the  dwelling  house.  Its  food  in  the  early  part  of  the  season 
consists  almost  entirely  of  caterpillars  and  beetles,  which  it  obtains  generally  from 
the  branches  and  leaves  of  trees,  though  sometimes  after  rain  it  seeks  for  cut  worms 
and  other  grubs  from  the  ground.  Later  in  the  year  it  feeds  largely  upon  elderberries 
and  other  small  wild  fruits,  and  does  occasionally  levy  some  slight  toll  from  the 
garden;  but  for  all  the  cultivated  fruit  it  takes  it  has  amply  repaid  the  gardener 
by  its  efforts  in  the  destruction  of  the  insect  tribe. 

Brown  Thrush  or  Thrasher.  All  that  I  have  said  of  the  Catbird  applies  to 
this  species,  but  it  is  not  quite  so  familiar  and  confiding  in  its  habits.  It  displays 
a  decided  preference  for  thick  shrubbery  at  some  little  distance  from  the  house. 
Here  it  remains  in  seclusion  for  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  but  in  the  early  morn- 
ing and  evening  the  male  bird  mounts  to  the  top  of  some  tall  tree  near  its  haunt, 
and  for  an  hour  or  so  will  sing  his  beautiful  song,  which  is  much  louder,  though  less 
varied,  than  that  of  tlie  Catbird. 

/^:the.ashees  and  mockers. 

Description. 
CATBIED. 

Crown  and  tail  black;  rest  of  the  plumage  dark  slaty  gray;  under  tail  coverts 
rich  chestnut. 

L.,  8.95;  W.,  3.75;  T.,  4.00. 

Nest,  in  thick  bushes;  sometimes  in  a  brush  pile.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  dark 
greenish  blue. 

BROWN  THRUSH— THRASHER. 

Upper  parts  rich  rufous  brown ;  wing  coverts  tipped  with  whitish ;  under  parts 
white,  heavily  streaked  with  black  except  on  throat  and  belly. 

L.,  11.25;  W.,  4.00;  T.,  5.25. 

Nest,  usually  on  or  near  the  ground  in  a  low  bush.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  greenish 
white,  thickly  speckled  with  minute  dots  of  reddish  brown. 

WRENS. 

This  is  a  most  interesting  and  useful  family  of  very  small  birds.  Four  species 
of  them  are  found  in  this  Province  in  the  summer.  Two  of  them,  the  Long-billed 
Marsh  Wren,  and  the  Short-billed  Marsh  Wren,  as  their  name  implies,  frequent 
our  marshes  and  low  swampy  meadows,  where  they  assist  in  keeping  down  hordes 
of  mosquitos  that  are  bred  in  such  places.  The  Winter  Wren  is  a  more  transitory 
visitor,  the  great  bulk  of  them  only  passing  through  here  in  the  spring  and  fall 
migrations.  A  few,  however,  remain  through  the  summer,  and  nest  in  some  secluded 
ravine  in  the  woods. 

The  pert  little  House  Wren  takes  up  its  abode  right  in  and  around  the  farm 
buildings,  and  even  in  our  cities  it  will  find  a  resting  ])lace,  if  it  can  get  access 
to  sufficient  garden  room  to  give  it  a  hunting  ground,  and  as  it  is  quite  satisfied  to 
place  its  nest  in  a  crevice  or  hole  at  no  great  height  from  the  ground,  it  is  not  so 
likely  to  be  dispossessed  of  its  home  by  the  House  Sparrow  as  are  birds  that  prefer 


69 


House  Wren, 


Cedar  Waxwing, 


70 

a  higher  location.  They  are  most  indefatigable  insect  hunters,  and  should  be 
encouraged  to  build  in  every  garden.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  furnish  them 
with  a  small  box  having  a  hole  about  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.  Nail 
this  up  to  a  fence,  about  eight  or  ten  feet  from  the  ground,  so  that  eats  cannot 
get  at  it;  and  if  any  Wrens  come  that  way  in  the  spring  they  are  almost  sure  to 
take  possession  of  it,  and  having  once  occupied  it,  they  will  in  all  probability  return 
every  year.  The  domestic  cat  is  their  worst  enemy,  and  they  seem  to  know  it,  for 
as  soon  as  they  catch  a  sight  of  one  of  these  detested  creatures  they  start  such  a 
scolding  that  they  arouse  the  whole  feathered  tribe  in  their  neighbourhood.  In 
the  autumn  they  eat  a  few  elderberries,  but  this  is  the  only  vegetable  food  I  have 
known  them  to  take. 

The  number  of  times  House  Wrens  feed  their  young  in  the  course  of  a  day 
has  several  times  been  carefully  noted.  In  one  case  it  was  found  that  the  young 
were  fed  from  thirty  to  forty  times  every  hour,  and  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  old  birds  usually  carry  to  their  young  on  each  visit  not  one  insect  only,  but  a 
beak  full. 

WREN'S. 

Description. 

LONG-BILLED   MARSH  WREN. 

Crown,  brown;  a  white  line  over  eye;  back  black,  streaked  with  white;  rump 
cinnamon  brown;  wings  and  tail  barred  with  blackish;  under  parts  white. 

L.,  4.75;  W.,  1.85;  T.,  1.75. 

Nest,  globular,  attached  to  flags  or  rushes  in  a  marsh.  Eggs,  five  or  six,  pale 
brownish  grey,  so  thickly  speckled  with  minute  chocolate  dots  as  to  appear  almost 
entirely  of  that  colour.  .    - 

SHORT-BILLED  MARSH  WREN. 

Dark  brown  above,  everywhere  streaked  with  black,  white,  and  huffy;  wings 
and  tail  barred;  under  parts  white,  washed  on  the  breast,  sides  and  under  tail 
coverts  with  buffy. 

L,  4.25;  W.,  1.75;  T.,  1.50. 

Nest,  globular,  in  tall  grass  in  low  meadows.    Eggs,  five  or  six,  white. 

WINTER  WREN. 

Above  dark  brown ;  wings  and  tail  barred ;  a  whitish  superciliary  line ;  under 
parts  pale  brown,  the  lower  breast,  sides  and  belly,  more  or  less  heavily  barred 
with  blackish. 

L,  4.00;  W.,  2.00.;  T.,  1.25. 

Nest,  usually  globular,  among  the  roots  of  a  fallen  tree,  or  in  a  brush  heap. 
Eggs,  five  or  six,  creamy  white,  spotted  with  reddish  brown. 

HOUSE  WREN. 

Upper  parts  brown,  brighter  on  rump  and  tail;  back  with  fine  indistinct  bars: 
wings  and  tail  finely  barred :  sides  and  flanks  with  many  dark  bars,  other  under 
parts  whitish. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  or  crevice,  commonly  in  a  bird  box.  Eggs,  six  to  eight,  white, 
thickly  speckled  with  reddish  brown. 


71 
CUCKOOS. 

Cuckoos.  These  birds  do  not  seem  to  be  very  -well  known  in  onr  Province, 
though  we  have  two  species,  one  of  which  is  not  common.  They  are  known  as 
the  Black-billed  Cuckoo  and  the  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo.  Both  of  them  are  slim 
birds,  about  twelve  inches  in  length,  of  an  olive-brown  color  above,  and  white 
beneath.  The  Yellow-billed  may  be  distinguished  from  its  relative  by  the  light 
chestnut  color  of  the  inner  webs  or  part  of  the  wing  feathers.  This  is  quite  notice- 
able when  the  bird  is  flying.  It  also  has  the  under  mandible  of  the  beak  clear  yellow. 
In  the  Black-billed  species,  the  beak  is  all  black,  sometimes  showing  slight  dull 
yellow  marks  below.  Although  the  birds  themselves  are  not  known,  most  residents 
of  the  country  must  have  noticed  the  loud  harsh  notes  of  "T^ow,  kow^'  uttered  by 
them,  most  frequently  heard  before  and  during  rain,  by  reason  of  which  the  birds 
are  in  some  localities  called  "rain  crows." 

The  well-known  Cuckoo  of  Europe  has  the  bad  habit  of  laying  its  eggs  in 
the  nests  of  other  birds,  but  although  1  have  heard  our  birds  charged  with  the 
same  thing,  I  have  never  yet  com.e  across  an  instance  of  it,  but  have  always  found 
their  nesting  habits  to  be  quite  orthodox,  though  the  nest  they  build  can  hardly  be 
considered  a  model  of  bird  architecture. 

These  two  species  of  birds  are  the  only  ones  that  to  my  knowledge  habitually 
eat  hairy  caterpillars,  and  of  these  noxious  insects  they  must  destroy  a  large  quan- 
tity, an  examination  of  their  stomachs  generally  showing  a  considerable  number 
of  them.  On  one  occasion  I  found  the  stomach  of  a  Black-billed  Cuckoo  packed 
with  the  spiny  caterpillar  of  Vanessa  antiopa,  an  insect  that  feeds  in  colonies  and 
does  much  damage  to  the  elm  and  willow  trees.  And  as  many  as  two  hundred  and 
fifty  tent  caterpillars  have  been  found  in  the  stomach  of  a  Cuckoo. 

The  habits  of  the  two  Cuckoos  are  much  alike;  the  only  difference  I  have 
noticed  is  that  the  Yellow-billed  species  seems  to  prefer  the  upper  branches  of  tall 
trees  in  which  to  obtain  its  food,  while  the  Black-billed  resorts  more  to  the  orchard 
trees  and  shrubbery.  I  have  not  found  any  evidence  of  habitual  fruit- eating  against 
either  of  them,  so  that  from  an  economic  standpoint  they  must  be  considered  as 
purely  beneficial,  even  if  they  do  occasionally  deposit  an  es^g:  in  the  nest  of  another 
bird. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  number  of  caterpillars  devoured  hy  these  Cuckoos, 
Chapman  says  that  a  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  shot  by  him  at  six  o'clock  one  morn- 
ing had  the  partially  digested  remains  of  forty-three  tent  caterpillars  in  its 
stomach. 

An  examination  of  the  stomachs  of  sixteen  Black-billed  Cuckoos  by  the  Bio- 
logical survey  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington  showed  the  remains 
of  three  hundred  and  twenty-eight  caterpillars,  eleven  beetles,  fifteen  grasshoppers, 
sixty-three  saw-flies,  three  stink  bugs,  and  four  spiders.  In  all  probability  more 
individuals  than  these  were  represented,  but  their  remains  were  too  badly  broken 
for  recognition.  Most  of  the  caterpillars  were  hairy  and  many  of  them  belonged 
to  a  genus  that  lives  in  colonies  and  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  including  the 
apple.  One  stomach  was  filled  with  larvae  of  a  caterpillar  belonging  to  the  same 
genus  as  the  tent  caterpillar  and  possibly  to  that  species.  Other  larvfe  were  those 
of  large  moths  for  which  this  bird  seems  to  have  a  special  fondness.  The  beetles 
were  for  the  most  part  Click  beetles  (the  larva?,  of  which  are  wireworms)  and  weevils 
with  a  few  June  beetles  and  some  others. 

Of  the  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  twenty-one  stomachs  were  examined.  The  con- 
tents consisted  of  three  hundred  and  fifty-five  caterpillars,  eighteen  beetles,  twenty- 


72 

three  grasshoppers,  thirty  one  saw-flies,  fourteen  bugs,  six  flies,  and  twelve  spiders. 
As  in  the  case  of  the  Black-billed  Cuckoo  most  of  the  caterpillars  belonged  to  hairy 
species  and  many  of  them  were  of  large  size.  One  stomach  contained  twelve  Ameri- 
can tent  caterpillars;  another,  two  hundred  and  seventeen  fall  web-worms.  The 
beetles  were  distributed  among  several  families,  but  all  more  or  less  harmful  to 
agriculture.  In  the  same  stomach  which  contained  the  tent  caterpillars  were  two 
Colorado  potato  beetles.  The  saw-flies  were  in  the  larval  stage  in  which  they  re- 
semble caterpillars  very  closely.  ]\Iany  species  of  saw-fly  larvse  are  exceedingly 
injurious,  among  them  being  the  well-known  currant  worm. 

At  Midsummer  the  Yellow-billed  Cuckoo  seems  to  be  much  more  active  at 
night  than  during  the  day.  In  the  trees  around  my  house  I  commonly  hear  them 
as  they  forage  for  food  at  all  hours  from  sunset  to  dawn. 

CUCKOOS. 

Description. 

BLACK-BILLED  CUCKOO. 

Upper  parts  clear  olive  brown,  with  a  greenish  gloss,  wings  and  tail  the  same, 
the  latter  tipped  with  white.  Under  parts  dull  white;  in  the  adult  the  eyelids 
scarlet;  yellow  in  birds  of  the  first  season;  no  rufous  on  the  wings;  bill  blackish 
except  an  occasional  trace  of  yellow  on  lower  mandible. 

L.,  1L75;  W.,  5.50;  T.,  6.50. 

Nest,  in  bushes  or  low  trees.     Eggs,  two  to  five,  pale  greenish  blue. 

YELLOW-BILLED  CUCKOO. 

Upper  parts  clear  olive  brown,  with  a  greenish  gloss;  wings  mostly  reddish 
chestnut  on  inner  webs  of  the  quills;  central  tail  feathers  like  the  back,  the  rest 
black  with  large  white  blotches  at  tips,  the  outer  feathers  margined  with  white; 
lower  mandible  chiefly  yellow. 

L.,  12.00;  W.,  5.50;  T.,  6.50. 

Nest,  in  bushes  or  low  trees.    Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  greenish  blue, 

VIEEOS. 

Vireos.  Among  the  most  voracious,  and  therefore  the  most  useful,  of  our  in- 
sect-eating birds  are  the  Vireos,  or  Green  lets,  as  they  are  sometimes  called.  The 
famJly  contains  six  species,  of  which  the  Eed-eyed  Vireo,  Philadelphia  Vireo,  and 
Warbling  Vireo  are  fairly  common  summer  residents,  breeding  in  our  orchards 
and  shubberies  throughout  their  range  in  the  Province.  The  Yellow-throated  Vireo 
is  uncommon,  but  probably  breeds  where  it  occurs.  The  White-eyed  Vireo  is  a 
southern  form  which  has  been  recorded  only  once  in  Ontario,  and  the  Blue-headed 
Vireo  is  a  regular  and  not  uncommon  migrant  in  spring  and  autumn,  probably 
breeding  in  the  interior.  All  these  Vireos  glean  their  insect  food  from  the  trees 
and  shrubs,  never  descending  to  the  ground  in  search  of  it,  and  their  appetite 
seems  to  be  insatiable;  even  in  the  hottest  weather,  when  most  birds  retire  to  the 
shade  and  rest  for  a  time  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  these  birds  are  active  and 
constantly  feeding. 

All  insect-eating  birds  require  about  their  own  weight  of  insect  food  every 
day,  but  if  I  may  judge  from  my  experience  in  trying  to  feed  some  of  them  in 


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74 

captivity,  the  Vireos  require  much  more  than  that.  Probably  the  wear  and  tear 
caused  by  their  constant  activity  compels  them  to  consume  more  than  most  other 
birds  of  their  size.  These  birds  and  the  Flycatchers,  like  the  Hawks  and  Owls,  and 
some  others,  have  the  habit  of  disgorging  pellets  composed  of  the  indigestible  por- 
tions of  their  food. 

VIEEOS. 

Description, 

EED-EYED   VIREO. 

Crown  slaty  gray,  edged  with  blackish  line,  a  conspicuous  white  line  over  eye; 
below  this  a  dusky  stripe  through  eye;  rest  of  the  upper  parts  light  olive  green; 
no  wing  bars.  Under  parts  white,  faintly  shaded  along  sides  and  on  lower  tail 
coverts  with  olive;  eyes  red.     No  spurious  quill. 

L.,  6.20;  W.,  3.20;  T.,  2.20. 

Nest,  pensile,  suspended  from  a  forked  branch  of  a  tree  or  bush.  Eggs,  four, 
or  five,  white,  with  a  few  brown  or  blackish  spots  about  the  larger  end. 

PHILADELPHIA  VIEEO. 

Upper  parts  olive  green,  brightest  behind;  crown  sometimes  grayish;  a  dull 
white  line  over  the  eye :  wings  and  tail  edged  with  olive  green ;  under  parts  pale 
yellowish;  nearly  white  on  throat  and  belly.  No  obvious  wing  bars;  no  spurious 
quill. 

L.,  4.75;  W.,  2.60;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  pensile,  suspended  from  a  forked  branch  of  a  tree  or  bush.  Eggs,  four, 
similar  to  those  of  the  Eed-eyed  Vireos. 

WAEBLING  VIEEO. 

Upper  parts,  ashy  olive  green,  wings  and  tail  brownish  edged  with  olive  green ; 
first  primary  very  short,  not  more  than  1.00 ;  under  parts  white,  more  or  less  washed 
with  yellowish.    No  wing  bars. 

L.,  5.75;  W.  2.85;  T.,  2.20. 

Nest,  pensile,  suspended  from  the  forked  branch  of  a  tree.  Eggs,  three  or  four, 
white,  with  a  few  spots  of  brown  or  blackish  at  the  larger  end, 

YELLOW-THEOATED  VIEEO. 

Upper  parts  bright  olive  green,  changing  to  gray  on  the  rump  and  upper  tail 
coverts;  greater  and  middle  wing  coverts  tipped  with  white,  forming  two  distinct 
wing  bars ;  outer  web  of  inner  secondaries  white ;  below  bright  yellow ;  belly  and 
under  tail  coverts  white;  superciliary  line  and  ring  round  eye  yellow;  tail  dusky, 
nearly  all  the  feathers  with  white  edging;  no  spurious  quills. 

L.,  6.00;  W.,  3.00;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  pensile,  suspended  from  a  fork  in  a  bush  or  low  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five, 
white,  with  a  few  spots  of  dark  brown  or  blackish  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

WHITE-EYED  VIEEO. 

Upper  parts  bright  olive  green,  more  or  less  washed  with  grayish;  greater  and 
middle  wing  coverts  tipped  with  yellowish  white,  forming  two  distinct  wing  bars; 
outer  web  of  inner  secondaries  whitish ;  lores  and  eye  ring  yellow ;  throat  white  or 


75 

whitish;  belly  white;  breast  and  sides  washed  with  greenish  yellow;  iris  white  in 
adult;  hazel  in  the  young. 

L.,  5.27;  W.,  2.37;  T.,  2.00. 

Kest,  pensile,  suspended  from  a  forked  branch  in  a  bush  or  low  tree.  Egg& 
three  or  four,  white,  with  a  few  specks  of  black  or  dark  brown  at  the  larger  end. 

BLUE-HEADED  VIEEO. 

Crown  and  sides  of  head,  bluish  gray ;  back  olive  green ;  wings  and  tail  dusky, 
most  of  the  feathers  edged  with  whitish;  greater  and  middle  wing  coverts  tipped 
with  white,  forming  two  distinct  wing  bars ;  a  broad  white  line  from  nostrils  around 
the  eye  and  a  dusky  loral  line.    Below,  white,  sides  washed  with  greenish  yellow. 

L.,  5.50;  W.,  2.75;  T.,  2.25. 

ISTest,  pensile,  suspended  from  a  fork  of  a  bush  or  low  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five, 
white,  with  a  few  spots  of  blackish  or  dark  brown  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

WAXWINGS. 

We  have  two  species  of  this  family  in  Canada.  The  Bohemian  Waxwing  is  a 
winter  visitor  only,  and  a  somewhat  rare  one.  As  it  is  of  no  economic  importance 
whatever  it  need  not  be  considered. 

The  Cedar  Waxwing  or  cherry  bird  is  very  common  and,  though  very  beautiful 
and  an  insect  destroyer  to  a  certain  extent,  its  value  to  the  fruit-grower  is  somewhat 
questionable.  It  undoubtedly  consumes  a  large  number  of  cherries  and  currants, 
and  some  few  raspberries,  but  so  far  as  I  have  observed  the  mischief  it  does  is 
confined  to  these  varieties  of  fruit  alone. 

The  quantity  of  fruit  consumed  by  each  individual  Waxwing  does  not  amount 
to  much,  but  the  trouble  is  that  these  birds  are  gregarious  at  all  times,  and  visit  the 
cherry  orchards  in  such  large  flocks,  and  remain  where  they  find  food  to  their  liking 
so  long,  that  they  really  do  seriously  reduce  the  value  of  a  crop.  Where  a  man 
makes  a  specialty  of  growing  these  small  fruits  and  finds  himself  visited  by  an 
excessive  number  of  Cherry  birdt=  he  is  undoubtedly  justified  in  protecting  his  pro- 
perty from  destruction,  which  does  not  necessarily  mean  killing  the  birds.  As 
against  this  cherry-eating  habit  of  the  AVaxwing,  it  may  be  urged  that  the  birds 
destroy  a  large  number  of  injurious  insects,  leaf-eating  beetles  especially  forming 
a  large  proportion  of  their  food.  They  are  also  very  expert  fly-catchers,  often  hawk- 
ing about  after  winged  insects  in  the  manner  of  the  Swallows,  though  their  flight 
is  never  long  sustained.  At  other  times  they  dart  out  after  passing  jnsects  in  the 
manner  of  the  flycatchers,  and  so  on  the  whole  may  be  said  to  do  more  good  than 
harm,  for  it  is  only  when  too  many  have  gathered  together  in  some  particular 
cherry  orchard  that  the  damage  they  do  is  noticeable  at  all. 

The  Cedar  Waxwing  is  rather  erratic  in  its  movements,  generally  being  with 
us  a  summer  resident  only,  but  I  have  occasionally  seen  large  numbers  here  in  the 
winter.  They  then  feed  on  the  berries  of  the  Mountain  Ash.  haws  and  such  other 
wild  fruits  as  remain  hanging  on  the  bushes  during  the  cold  season. 


76 
WAXWINGS. 

Descriptio7i. 

BOHEMIAN  WAXWING. 

Forehead,  chin  and  line  throug-h  eye  velvety  black;  a  conspicuous  crest;  front 
of  crown  chestnut  brown ;  upper  parts  rich  grayish  brown ;  upper  tail  coverts,  wings 
and  tail  grayish ;  primary  coverts  and  secondaries  tipped  with  white,  the  latter  with 
narrow  red,  sealing-wax  like  tips  (sometimes  wanting)  ;  all  but  the  outer  primaries 
tipped  with  yellow  or  white  on  the  outer  web;  tail  broadly  tipped  with  yellow; 
breast  grayish  brown;  under  tail  coverts,  rich  chestnut. 

L.,  8.00;  W.,  4.60;  T.,  2.60. 

Nest,  in  trees.  Eggs,  pale  blue,  spotted  and  marked  with  purplish  brown  or 
black. 

CEDAE  WAXWING. 

Forehead,  chin  and  line  through  the  eye  velvety  black,  bordered  on  the  fore- 
head with  white ;  a  conspicuous  crest ;  upper  parts  rich  grayish  brown ;  upper  tail 
coverts,  wings  and  tail  gray;  secondaries  and  sometimes  tail  with  small  narrow, 
red  sealing  wax  like,  tips  (these  may  be  entirely  absent)  ;  tail  tipped  with  yellow; 
breast  grayish  brown,  yellowish  below :  under  tail  coverts  white. 

L.,  7.25;  W.,  2.50;  T.,  2.40. 

Nest,  in  a  low  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  blue,  spotted  and  marked  with 
purplish  brown  or  black. 

FLYCATCHERS. 

These  birds,  as  their  name  implies,  subsist  largely  upon  winged  insects,  which 
they  capture  by  darting  upon  them  from  some  elevated  post  overlooking  an  open 
space  frequented  by  their  prey.  We  have  eight  species,  of  which  the  Crested  Fly- 
catcher, the  Kingbird,  the  Phoebe  bird,  the  Wood  Peewee,  and  the  Least  Flycatcher 
are  summer  residents,  and  the  Olive-sided,  Yellow-bellied,  and  Traill's  Flycatcher 
are  transient  visitors,  passing  through  southern  Ontario  in  their  spring  and  fall 
migrations,  and  breeding  in  the  interior. 

The  Kingbird  is  probably  the  most  obtrusive  creature  of  the  whole  feathered 
tribe  in  Canada.  As  soon  as  a  pair  take  possession  of  a  tree  in  an  orchard  they 
immediately  proclaim  the  fact  to  the  neighborhood,  and  then  trouble  befalls  every- 
thing wearing  feathers  that  ventures  to  trespass  on  what  they  are  pleased  to  con- 
sider their  domain.  Crows,  Hawks,  Jays,  and  Blackbirds  are  their  especial  detesta- 
tion, and  should  one  of  these  birds  appear  near  their  tree,  an  attack  by  the  King- 
birds immediately  follows,  the  assault  being  kept  up  until  the  intruder  is  igno- 
miniously  driven  off,  having  lost  a  few  feathers  in  the  encounter,  the  loss  serving 
to  remind  him  that  others  have  rights  which  he  is  bound  to  respect.  The  Kingbird 
captures  a  vast  number  of  mature  insects,  both  in  the  air  and  on  the  ground,  and 
as  at  least  half  these  insects  would  produce  eggs  to  become  caterpillars  the  service 
rendered  is  very  great.  In  the  early  spring,  when  driven  by  hunger,  the  Kingbird 
will  eat  the  berries  of  the  sumach,  but  as  the  clusters  of  these  berries  form  a  favorite 
hibernating  place  for  many  beetles,  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  insects  form  the 
attraction  and  not  the  fruit.  They  will  also  take  a  few  June  berries  when  ripe,  but 
so  far  I  have  never  known  them  to  touch  cultivated  fruit  of  any  kind. 


77 


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to 

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78 

I  have  heard  complaints  from  bee-keepers  that  these  birds  will  destroy  bees. 
It  is  just  possible  that  they  will  occasionally  take  them,  but  I  have  seen  no  evidence 
that  they  have  acquired  the  habit.  In  case  the  Kingbirds  should  be  seen  fre- 
quenting the  vicinity  of  hives  it  would  be  well  to  watch  closely  before  shooting, the 
birds,  as  they  are  too  valuable  to  be  wantonly  destroyed,  and  in  all  cases  an  exam- 
ination of  the  stomach  contents  should  be  made,  and  the  information  gained  should 
be  reported. 

Since  writing  the  above  I  have  received  a  number  of  reports  from  gentlemen 
in  various  parts  of  the  Province,  who  are  engaged  in  bee-keeping,  and  who  have 
therefore  had  occasion  to  observe  somewhat  closely  the  habits  of  such  birds  as  might 
be  suspected  of  injuring  their  bees.  In  no  case  has  the  Kingbird  been  found  to  be 
injurious  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  hives,  and  in  all  cases  the  writers  speak  highly 
of  the  services  rendered  by  the  Kingbirds  in  destroying  injurious  insects  and 
in  driving  away  Crows  and  Hawks. 

Mr.  Thaddeus  Smith,  of  Pelee  Island,  says,  "  I  am  a  cultivator  of  the  grape 
and  other  fruits  and  also  a  bee-keeper.  ...  I  was  raised  in  one  of  the 
Southern  States,  and  never  knew  the  Kingbird  there  by  any  other  name  than 
'  Bee  Martin,'  and  of  course  it  was  considered  a  great  enemy  of  the  bees.  I  have 
been  here  over  thirty  years,  and  at  one  time  made  the  science  of  apiculture  a  special 
study,  raising  choice  Italian  queens,  etc.  Kingbirds  are  here  every  season,  and, 
are  to  be  seen  around  my  bee  hives.  Years  ago  I  killed  some  and  examined  their, 
stomachs,  and  found  them  full  of  bees,  but  nearly  every  bee  in  them  was  a  drone;  I 
found  only  one  worker  hee.  You  know  the  drones  have  no  sting  and  as  their  name 
implies  they  are  of  no  use  in  the  hive.  They  are  the  male  bee,  and  their  only  use 
is  to  fertilize  the  queen  bee.  The  only  damage  the  Kingbird  can  do  is  that  they 
might  sometimes  catch  the  young  queen  while  on  her  wedding  flight  as  her  size 
and  slow  flight  make  her  quite  conspicuous.  But  the  possibility  of  this  happening 
is  so  slight  that  I  never  now  shoot  the  Kingbirds." 

The  United  States  Biological  Survey  has  made  an  examination  of  281 
stomachs  of  King  birds  collected  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  b:":^  found  only 
fourteen  containing  remains  of  honey  bees.  In  these  fourteen  stomach?  there  were 
in  all  fifty  honey  bees,  of  which  forty  were  drones.  Four  were  certainly  workers 
and  the  remaining  six  were  too  badly  broken  to  be  identified  as  to  sex. 

One  bee  raiser  in  Iowa,  suspecting  the  Kingbirds  of  feeding  upon  his  bees,  shot 
a  number  near  his  hives,  but  when  the  birds'  stomachs  were  examined  by  an  expert 
entomologist  not  a  trace  of  honey  bees  could  be  found.     (F.E.L.,  Beal  B.S.) 

This  coincides  with  my  own  experience  during  the  last  thirty  years,  during 
which  time  I  have  examined  a  great  many  Kingbirds,  but  have  never  yet  found 
honey  bees  among  the  insects  eaten  by  them. 

Phoebe.  There  is  scarcely  a  farm  in  the  country  that  has  not  one  or  morei 
pairs  of  Phoebe  birds  nesting  in  or  about  the  buildings,  and  I  fancy  there  are  not. 
many  bridges  of  any  size  under  which  a  nest  may  not  be  found;  and  so  I  hope  it 
may  continue,  for  the  Phoebe  is  a  most  useful  and  friendly  little  bird.  It  has  all 
the  good  traits  of  the  family  without  being  too  aggressive,  and  no  suspicion  of 
any  act  which  is  in  the  least  injurious  attaches  to  it.  If  the  birds  and  their  nests 
are  left  unmolested,  they  will  return  year  after  year  to  their  old  home,  and  as  none 
of  our  feathered  friends  are  more  valuable  than  they,  we  should  give  them  every 
encouragement  to  do  so. 

I  have  particularly  mentioned  the  Kingbird  and  the  Phoebe  because  they  may 
be    regarded    as    typical  of    the  whole  family  to  which  they  belong,  and  being 


79 

familiar  in  their  habits,  they  are  likely  to  be  well  known  to  every  one.  All  the  other 
species  are  more  or  less  birds  of  the  woods  and  orchards,  but  each  one  of  them  in 
its  own  chosen  locality  is  rendering  us  good  service  the  wdiole  summer  through. 

FLYCATHEES. 

Description. 

KINGBIKD. 

Upper  parts  grayish  slate  colour  darker  on  the  head  and  upper  tail  coverts; 
crown  with  a  concealed  orange  patch;  tail  black  tipped  with  white;  under  parts 
white,  washed  with  grayish  on  the  breast;  wings  dusky,  with  much  whitish  edging, 

L.,  8.50;  W.,  4.60;  T.,  3.50. 

Nest,  usually  on  the  horizontal  branch  of  a  low  tree  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white, 
spotted  with  reddish  brown  and  lilac. 

CEESTED  FLYCATCHEE. 

Upper  parts  grayish  brown,  tinged  with  olive;  outer  vane  of  primaries 
margined  with  pale  chestnut;  inner  vane  of  all  but  the  middle  tail  feathers  pale 
chestnut;  throat  and  'breast  pearly  gray;  belly  sulphur  yellow. 

L.,  9.00;  W.,  4.15;  T.,  3.75. 

Xest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  streaked  lengthwise  with 
purplish  brown  and  chocolate. 

PHCEBE. 

Upper  parts  dark  grayish  brown;  crown  much  darker;  wings  and  tail  dusky, 
outer  tail  feathers,  inner  secondaries  and  usually  the  wing  coverts,  edged  with 
whitish;  under  parts  white  tinged  with  brownish  gray  across  the  breast  and  else- 
where, washed  with  yellowish.  In  the  autumn  the  lower  parts  are  often  decidedly 
yellow. 

L.,  7.00;  W.,  3.33;  T.,  3.25. 

Nest,  on  a  beam  or  rafter  of  a  building.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  usually  pure  white. 

OLIVE-SIDED  FLYCATCHEE. 

Upper  parts  dusky  brown,  with  an  olive  tinge;  darker  on  the  crown;  wings 
and  tail  dusky ;  chin,  throat,  under  tail  coverts  and  centre  line  of  the  breast,  white, 
slightly  tinged  with  yellowish ;  rest  of  under  parts  grayish  brown.  A  tuft  of  fluffy 
yellowish  white  feathers  on  either  flank. 

L.,  7.40;  W.,  4.05;  T.,  2.70. 

Nest,  on  a  horizontal  branch  of  a  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  creamy  white, 
spotted  with  reddish  hrown. 

WOOD  PEWEE. 

Upper  parts  olivaceous  brown,  rather  darker  on  the  head,  wings  and  tail 
dusky;  wing  coverts  tipped  with  whitish,  forming  two,  more  or  less,  distinct  wing 
bars;  under  parts  white,  washed  with  olive  gray  on  sides  of  throat  and  breast. 

L.,  6.50;  W.,  3.33;  T.,  2.60. 

Nest,  on  a  low  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  dotted  and  marked  at  larger 
end  with  various  shades  of  brown. 


80 

YELLOW-BELLIED  FLYCATCHEE. 

Upper  parts  olive  green;  wings  and  tail  dusky;  greater  and  lesser  wing 
coverts  tipped  with  white;  under  parts  sulphur  yellow,  the  throat,  breast  and  sides 
more  or  less  washed  with  olive  green. 

L.,  5.65;  W.,  3.65;  T.,  .2.16. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  creamy  white,  spotted  and  blotched 
with  brown  or  various  shades. 

TEAILL'S  FLYCATCHEE. 

Upper  parts  olive  green,  with  a  brownish  tinge;  wings  and  tail  dusky;  greater 
and  lesser  wing  coverts  tipped  with  tawny  white ;  under  parts  whitish,  washed  with 
dusky  gray  on  the  breast  and  sides;  a  slight  tinge  of  yellowish  below. 

L.,  6.09;  W.,  2.87;  T.,  2.33. 

Nest,  low  down  in  a  hush.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  creamy  white,  with  reddish 
brown  markings  chiefly  towards  the  larger  end. 

LEAST  FLYCATCHEE. 

Upper  parts  grayish  olive ;  wings  and  tail  dusky ;  greater  and  lesser  wing 
coverts  tipped  with  ashy  brown;  under  parts  whitish,  washed  with  dusky  grayish 
on  the  breast  and  sides;  pale  yellowish  below. 

L.,  5.40;  W.,  2.50;  T.,  2.20. 

Nest,  in  a  crotch  of  a  tree.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  usually  pure  white. 

SWALLOWS. 

Of  this  family  we  have  five  species,  viz. :  the  Purple  Martin,  the  Barn  Swallow. 
Cliff  Swallow,  White-breasted  Swallow,  and  Sand  Martin,  all  regular  summer 
residents.  Another  one,  the  Eough-winged  Swallow,  occasionally  occurs  here,  but 
as  it  closely  resembles  the  Sand  Martin  its  appearance  is  not  readily  noticed. 

The  economic  importance  of  these  birds  is  very  great;  without  them  the 
smaller  winged  insects  would  multiply  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become  an  un- 
bearable nuisance  to  men  and  animals ;  for  it  is,  I  believe,  to  these  birds  chiefly 
that  we  are  indebted  for  our  freedom  in  the  cleared  and  cultivated  parts  of  the 
country  from  the  swarms  of  midges,  black  flies,  and  gnats  of  various  kinds  that  so 
abound  in  the  woods. 

These  birds  seem  to  have  a  great  predilection  for  the  society  of  men,  partly 
because  the  clearing  he  makes  in  a  forest  country  opens  up  to  them  the  necessary 
space  for  feeding  grounds,  and  partly  because  the  buildings  he  erects  afford  them 
convenient  nesting  places,  of  which  the  House  Sparrow,  unfortunately,  is  dis- 
possessing them. 

Except  in  very  stormy  weather  Swallows  usually  capture  their  food  whilst 
they  are  on  the  wing,  but  in  the  cold  windy  days  that  frequently  occur  in  early 
spring  the  insects  on  which  they  depend  are  too  chilled  to  fly,  and  then  the 
Swallows  seek  them  in  open  places  on  the  ground.  The  sandy  shores  of  our  lakes 
are  particularly  resorted  to  at  such  times. 

In  the  latter  part  of  July  and  the  heginning  of  August  the  large  female  ants 
swarm  from  their  nests,  each  one  prepared  to  found  a  colony  for  herself  were  she 
permitted :  the  Swallows,  fortunately  for  us.  however,  interfere  and  gorge  them- 
selves upon  these  creatures,  the  Purple  Martins  particularly  destroying  vast 
numbers  of  them,  even  after  the  ants  have  divested  themselves  of  their  wings :  when 


81 


Phoebe. 


Barn  Swallow 


6—218 


82 

this  has  taken  place  the  Martins  alight  on  the  ground,  pursuing  them  there  with 
the  greatest  activity. 

None  of  the  Swallows,  Swifts,  or  Night  Hawks  ever  under  any  circumstances 
take  any  vegetable  food  while  in  this  Province,  nor  have  they  any  habits  that  are 
open  to  objection  of  any  kind,  so  that  our  utmost  efforts  should  be  put  forth  to 
preserve  them  and  encourage  them  to  build  about  our  premises. 

I  have  heard  one  or  two  people  state  that  they  did  not  like  Swallows  about 
their  houses  because  they  brought  bed  bugs ;  how  such  an  idea  got  into  any  person's 
head  is  difficult  to  understand,  and  let  me  say  most  emphatically  that  there  is  no 
foundation  for  the  belief  whatever.  Swallows,  like  all  other  living  creatures,  have 
their  insect  parasites,  but  no  parasite  affecting  the  Swallows  will  ever  trouble 
human  beings. 

SWALLOWS. 

Description. 

PUEPLE  MARTIN. 

Adult  male.     Glossy  blue  black;  wings  and  tail  duller. 

Adult  female  and  immature.  Upper  parts  glossy  bluish  black,  duller  than  in 
the  male;  wings  and  tail  dusky  black;  throat,  breast  and  sides  brownish  gray,  more 
or  less  tipped  with  white ;  belly  white. 

L.,  8.00;  W.,  5.80;  T.,  3.00. 

Nest,  in  holes  in  buildings  or  in  bird  houses.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  white. 

CLIFF  SWALLOW. 

Forehead  creamy  white,  crown  steel  blue;  throat  and  sides  of  the  head 
chestnut;  a  brownish  gray  ring  round  the  neck;  breast  brownish  gray,  tinged  with 
rufous  and  with  a  steel  blue  patch  in  its  centre ;  belly  white ;  back  steel  blue ;  upper 
tail  coverts,  pale  rufous;  tail  dusky. 

L.,  6.00;  W.,  4.35;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  of  mud  generally  flask  shaped,  beneath  the  eaves  of  buildings,  or  under 
cliffs.     Eggs,  four  or  five  white,  spotted  with  reddish  brown. 

BARN  SWALLOW. 

Upper  parts,  glossy  steel  blue;  tail  deeply  forked,  all  but  the  middle  feathers 
with  white  spots  on  their  inner  webs.  Forehead  throat  and  upper  breast  rich 
chestnut ;  lower  parts  same  colour  but  paler. 

L.,  7.00;  W.,  4.70;  T.,  3.30. 

Nest,  generally  on  or  against  a  rafter  in  a  building.  Eggs,  four  or  five, 
white,  spotted  with  reddish  brown. 

WHITE-BREASTED  SWALLOW. 

Upper  parts  glossy  greenish  blue ;  under  parts  pure  white. 

Immature.     Upper  parts  brownish  gray;  below  white. 

L.,  6.00;  W.,  4.75;  T.,  2.50. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  tree  or  building.     Eggs,  five  or  six,  white. 


83 
SAND  MAKTIX— BANK  SWALLOW. 

Upper  parts  brownish  gray;  throat  white;  a  brownish  gray  band  on  the 
breast.     A  small  tuft  of  feathers  above  hmd  toe. 

L.,  5.20;  W.,  4.00;  T.,  2.00 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  sand  bank;  these  birds  usually  nest  in  colonies.  Eggs, 
four  to  six,  white. 

EOUGH-WINGED  SWALLOW. 

Upper  parts  brownish  gray;  throat  and  breast  pale  brownish  gray;  belly  white; 
outer  web  of  first  primary  with  a  series  of  recurved  booklets;  no  tuft  of  feathers 
above  the  hind  toe. 

L.,  5.75;  W.,  4.35;  T.,  2.10. 

Nest,  usually  in  holes  under  bridges,  or  in  sand  banks.     Eggs,  four  to  six, 

white. 

NIGHTHAWKS. 

All  the  Swallow  tribe  gather  their  food  during  the  day,  and  the  hotter  and* 
•brighter  it  is  the  more  active  they  seem  to  be;  the  Chimney  Swift's  period  of 
greatest  activity  is  the  early  morning  and  late  evening.  The  Nighthawk  and 
Whip-poor-will  commence  their  work  at  dusk  and  keep  it  up  till  sunrise.  Their 
food  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  large  night-flying  moths  and  beetles.  On 
one  occasion,  however,  I  found  the  stomach  of  a  Whip-poor-will  filled  with  the 
large  female  wingless  ants,  which  could  only  have  been  obtained  from  the  ground, 
and  in  all  probability  in  the  day  time.  The  common  June  bug  is  a  favorite  article 
of  food  with  both  these  birds,  and  as  this  is  a  very  destructive  insect,  both  in  its 
larval  and  mature  stages,  the  birds  are  entitled  to  our  best  consideration  for  the 
good  work  they  do  in  lessening  its  numbers. 

Since  writing  the  above  I  have  found  that  the  large  black  ant  referred  to,  is 
active  at  night  as  well  as  through  the  day  and  therefore  the  Whip-poor-will  probably 
captured  them  during  its  ordinary  feeding  time.  Where  these  insects  occur 
abundantly  they  become  an  intolerable  nuisance,  working  their  way  into  houses, 
they  swarm  over  provisions  of  all  kinds  and  render  them  distasteful.  They  also 
have  a  habit  of  forming  their  nests  under  the  shingles  of  a  roof,  and  when  they  do 
so,  leakages  quickly  follow  and  repairs  are  constantly  required.  When  established 
in  a  roof  it  is  almost  impossible  to  dislodge  them  without  tearing  out  the  whole 
fabric.  Any  bird  that  assists  in  keeping  these  ants  in  check  will  always  be  con- 
sidered a  benefactor  by  those  who  have  suffered  from  their  ravages. 

NIGHTHAWKS. 

Description. 

WHIP-POOR-WILL 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  dark  brownish  gray,  streaked  and  mottled  with 
brownish-black  and  buffy;  primaries  dusky  black,  with  broken  rufous  bars: 
four  middle  tail  feathers,  like  those  of  the  back,  the  three  lateral  ones  white  iii 
their  terminal  half;  throat  and  breast,  similar  to  the  back,  with  a  transverse  ban.l 
of  white  on  the  foreneck :  rest  of  the  lower  parts  paler  than  above  and  mottled,  or 
barred  with  blackish. 


84 


O 
O 

P- 


85 


J4 

•r-t 


86 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  tliree  outer  feathers  narrowly  tipped  with  pale 
buff  and  band  on  the  throat  creamy  buff,  instead  of  white. 

L.,  9.75;  W.,  6.08;  T.,  4.65. 

Nest,  none.  Eggs,  two,  creamy  white,  much  blotched  and  marbled  witli 
various  shades  of  brown  and  lilac.  The  eggs  are  deposited  on  the  ground,  among 
ferns  and  dead  leaves,  in  woods  or  thickets. 

NIGHTHAWK. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  mottled  with  black,  brown  gray  and  tawny;  below 
from  the  ibreast  barred  with  dusky  black  and  white;  throat  with  a  broad  white 
band;  primaries  dusky,  crossed  in  the  middle  by  a  conspicuous  white  bar;  tail  dusky 
black,  with  broken  bars  of  buff  and  a  large  white  spot  on  all  the  feathers  near  the 
end,  except  the  middle  ones. 

Female.  Similar,  but  no  white  band  on  tail,  and  throat  patch  buff  instead  of 
white. 

L.,  10.00;  W.,  7.85;  T.,  4.60. 

Eggs,  two,  deposited  on  the  bare  ground,  in  open  fields  or  pastures,  some- 
times in  cities  on  a  flat  gravelled  roof,  grayish  white  marbled  and  speckled  with 
various  shades  of  gray  and  brown. 

SWIFTS  AND  HUMMING-BIEDS. 
Chimney  Sv^ift. 

In  its  manner  of  feeding  the  Chimney  Swift  somewhat  resembles  the  Swallows, 
for  which  reason  it  is  commonly  called  the  Chimney  Swallow,  though  it  belongs 
to  an  entirely  different  family  and  is  nearly  related  to  the  Nighthawks. 

These  Swifts  never  alight  upon  the  ground  nor  upon  any  horizontal  surface. 
"When  disposed  to  rest  they  do  so  upon  their  nest  or  else  cling  to  the  perpendicular 
side  of  some  hollow  tree  or  building.  The  materials  for  the  nest  are  merely  dead 
twigs  which  are  broken  off  trees  as  the  birds  fly. 

In  cool  weather  these  birds  Imnt  for  insects  during  the  day,  flying  until  late 
in  the  evening,  but  when  the  bright  hot  days  of  midsummer  come  they  work 
chiefly  at  night,  filling  up  their  capacious  mouths  with  great  numbers  of  insects 
with  which  to  feed  their  ever  hungry  young. 

Descripl'io7i. 

Entire  plumage  dusky  black ;  grayish  on  the  throat ;  a  sooty  black  spot  before 
the  eye;  shafts  of  the  tail  feathers,  extending  beyond  the  vanes. 

L.,  5.40;  W.,  5.00;  T.,  1.90. 

Nest,  a  basket  of  twigs,  glued  to  the  inside  of  a  chimney  or  wall  of  a  building 
with  saliva  of  the  bird.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  pure  white. 

HUMMING-BIED. 

As  this  gay  little  creature  flits  from  plant  to  plant  or  hovers  before  the  flowers, 
thrusting  its  long  beak  deep  into  the  corolla,  the  idea  that  it  is  rendering  any 
particular  service  does  not  often  occur  to  the  casual  observer ;  yet  the  bird  has  its 
own  part  to  play  in  the  economy  of  nature,  and  no  bird  is  more  highly  specialized 
for  the  functions  it  is  required  to  perform  than  this. 


87 


Om't(^^ 


Euby-throated  Humming-bird. 


88 

An  an  agent  in  the  fertilization  of  many  deep  tubular  flowers  its  services  are 
very  valuable.  When  the  Hummers  are  working  among  plants  bearing  blossoms  of 
this  kind  their  foreheads  frequently  become  so  covered  with  white  or  yellow  pollen, 
as  the  case  may  be,  that  the  real  colour  of  the  crown  feathers  is  lost.  The  pollen 
so  gathered  is  carried  from  flower  to  flower  and  thus  fertilization  is  effected. 

The  commonly  accepted  idea  that  these  birds  feed  only  on  the  nectar  of 
flowers  is  erroneous;  that  they  sip  some  from  the  blossoms  they  visit  is  probably 
true,  for  in  captivity  they  are  fond  of  sweetened  liquids,  but  that  insects  constitute 
their  real  food,  is  proven  by  examination  of  the  contents  of  many  stomachs.  The 
insects  taken  are  of  course  very  minute,  but  perhaps  none  the  less  harm,  ful  on  that 
account. 

Humming-'birds  appear  to  be  partial  to  small  spiders.  Of  these  I  have  always 
found  a  good  many  among  the  stomach  contents.  In  taking  these  spiders  from 
the  base  of  tubular  flowers  the  Hummers  were  doing  good  service  to  the  plants, 
for  should  the  fertilizing  organs  in  the  blossom  be  covered  with  spiders  web,  no 
pollen  could  be  carried  in  or  out,  and  so  fertilization  would  be  impossible. 

Description. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  brilliant  glossy  green ;  wings  and  tail  dusky  with 
purplish  reflections;  throat  beauliful  metallic  ruby  red  bordered  on  the  breast  by 
whitish;  rest  of  the  under  parts  dusky. 

Adult  female.     Similar  but  duller  and  no  red  upon  the  throat. 

L.,.  3.75;  W.,  1.55;  T.,  115. 

Nest,  on  the  horizontal  branch  of  a  tree.     Eggs,  two,  pure  white. 

WARBLERS. 

Warhlers.  This  family  contains  a  large  number  of  species,  among  them 
being  some  of  our  brightest  colored  and  most  interesting  birds,  though  none  of 
them  are  remarkable  as  songsters.  They  are  all  entirely  insectivorous,  and  con- 
sequently of  great  value  from  an  economic  point  of  view.  Thirty-three  species  are 
known  to  occur  in  this  Province;  of  these  se\'en  are  so  rare  as  to  be  considered 
accidental  visitors.  They  are  the  Prothonotary,  the  Golden-winged  and  Hooded 
Warblers,  the  Louisiana  Water  Thrush,  the  Prairie  Warbler,  Kirtland's  Warbler, 
and  the  Yellow-breasted  Chat.  Probably  when  they  do  occur,  they  remain  and 
breed  here.  The  Cape  May,  Orange-Crowned,  Tennessee,  Cerulean,  and  Con- 
necticut are  regular  but  uncommon  visitors.  Of  these  the  Cerulean  is  known  to 
breed  in  some  localities  in  southern  Ontario,  but  it  is  not  generally  distributed. 

The  Parula,  Black-throated  blue,  Myrtle,  Magnolia,  Blackburnian,  Bay- 
breasted,  Black  poll.  Palm  and  Wilson's  Warblers  all  pass  on  to  the  north  before 
nesting.  Just  how  far  they  go  is  difficult  to  say,  but  in  all  probability  the 
majority  of  them  at  any  rate  will  be  found  breedinc^  in  the  unsettled  districts  of 
Muskoka,  Algoma,  etc.,  and  some  even  south  of  that. 

The  Black  and  Avhite,  Nashville,  Yellow.  Chestnut-sided.  Pine,  Redstart, 
Black-throated  green,  Oven  bird.  Water  Thrush,  Mourning,  Maryland  and 
Canadian  Warblers  are  generally  distributed  and  breed  with  us  in  suitable  localities 
and  in  varying  numbers  each  season,  the  most  familiar  of  them  all  being  the 
Yellow  Warbler,  which  habitually  raises  its  young  in  and  about  our  orchards  and 
shrubberies.     All  through  the  summer  they  are  actively  engaged  in  exterminating 


89 

the  hosts  of  our  smaller  insect  enemies,  and  many  thousands  of  broods  of  cater- 
pillars are  destroyed  by  them  before  they  have  become  large  enough  to  do  mischief. 

Although  but  few  species  of  this  group  spend  the  summer  with  us,  the  service 
rendered  by  the  Warblers  in  the  aggregate  is  beyond  compute.  In  the  spring  vast 
waves  of  them  sweep  across  the  Province  from  south  to  north  feeding  as  they  go 
upon  small  insects  and  newly  hatched  caterpillars,  destroying  countless  thousands 
of  them  before  they  have  time  to  do  mischief  and  thus  no  doubt  preventing  many 
an  outbreak  which  would  be  disastrous  in  its  results.  Again  on  their  return  in 
the  autumn,  their  numbers  increased  by  their  young,  they  drift  slowly  southward 
feeding  incessantly,  and  working  so  thoroughly  over  every  bush  and  tree  that  it 
would  seem  impossible  for  an  insect  to  escape. 

Mr.  E.  H.  Forbush  says,  "  In  this  family  we  find  birds  that  assume  the  care 
of  the  trees  from  the  ground  to  the  topmost  twig.  Some  walk  daintily  over  the 
earth  searching  among  the  shrubbery  and  fallen  leaves;  others  cling  close  to  the 
bark,  and  search  into  every  crevice  for  those  insignificant  insects  which  collectively 
form  the  greatest  pests  of  forest  and  orchard;  others  mount  into  the  tree,  skip 
from  branch  to  branch  and  peer  about  among  the  leaves  or  search  the  opening  buds; 
others  habitually  ascend  to  the  tree  tops;  while  still  others  are  in  almost  constant 
pursuit  of  the  winged  insects  that  dart  about  among  the  branches. 


WARBLERS. 

Description. 

BLACK  AND  WHITE  WARBLER. 

Adult  male.  No  yellow  anywhere;  upper  parts  streaked  with  black  and  white; 
ear  coverts  black ;  inner  webs  of  outer  tail  feathers  with  white  patches ;  wing  coverts 
black  tipped  with  white:  throat  and  upper  breast  black;  sides  streaked  with  black 
and  white ;  middle  of  belly  white. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  with  fewer  black  streaks;  sides  washed  with 
brownish. 

Immature.     Similar  to  female  but  more  streaked  below. 
L.,  5.30;  W.,  2.75;  T.,  3.00. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  at  'base  of  a  stump.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  spotted 
with  reddish  or  dark  brown,  chiefly  in  a  wreath  at  larger  end. 

PROTHONOTARY  WARBLER. 

Adult  male.  Whole  head,  neck  and  under  parts  rich  orange,  lighter  on  the 
belly;  back  greenish  yellow,  changing  to  bluish  gray  on  the  rump;  wings  and  tail 
ashy;  inner  webs  of  all  but  the  middle  feathers  white,  except  at  the  tip.  No  wing 
bars. 

Adult  female.     Similar,  but  the  yellow  is  paler,  the  belly  with  more  white. 
L.,  5.50;  W.,  2.90;  T.,  1.85. 

Nest,  in  a  hole  in  a  stump.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  thickly  and  rather 
heavilv  marked  and  washed  with  various  shades  of  brown. 


90 


GOLDEN- WINGED  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Crown  'bright  yellow;  rest  ol:  the  upper  parts  bluish  gray,  some- 
times washed  with  greenish;  a  large  black  patch  about  the  eye;  separated  from 
another  on  the  throat  by  a  white  stripe;  a  white  line  over  the  eye,  wings  and  tail 
bluish  gray;  tips  of  middle  wing  coverts  and  outer  webs  of  greater  ones,  bright 
yellow,  forming  a  large  yellow  patch  on  the  wing;  outer  three  tail  feathers  with 
large  white  patches  on  their  inner  webs  at  the  tip;  fourth  feather  with  a  smaller 
patch ;  lower  breast  and  belly  white ;  sides  grayish. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  the  crown  duller,  the  patch  on  the  sides  of  the 
head  and  throat  grayish  instead  of  black. 

L.,  5.10;  W.,  2.45;  T.,  1.95. 

N"est,  on  or  near  the  ground,  generally  in  bushy  fields.  Eggs,  four  or  five, 
white,  speckled  and  spotted  with  various  shades  of  brown,  chiefly  about  the  larger 
end. 

NASHVILLE  WAEBLEE. 

Adult.  Top  and  sides  of  the  head  bluish  gray,  a  partially  concealed  chestnut 
patch  in  the  centre  of  the  crown ;  back  and  rump  bright  olive  green,  wings  and  tail 
edged  with  the  same;  under  parts  bright  yellow,  whiter  on  the  belly. 

L.,  4.75;  W.,  2.30;  T.,  1.80. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  among  bushes.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  thickly  speckled 
with  reddish  brown,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

OEANGE-CEOWNED  WAEBLEE. 

Adult.  Upper  parts  ashy  olive  green;  feathers  of  the  crown  orange  at  the 
base;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  olive  green;  eye  ring  yellow;  under  parts  greenish 
yellow,  obscurely  streaked  with  dusky  on  the  breast. 

Immature.     Similar,  but  duller  and  without  orange  on  the  crown. 
L.,  5.00;  W.,  2.50;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  speckled  with  various 
shades  of  brown,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

TENNESSEE  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Top  and  sides  of  the  head  bluish  gray,  in  strong  contrast  with 
the  bright  olive  green  back  and  rump :  wings  and  tail  edged  with  olive  green ;  inner 
margin  of  inner  vane  of  outer  tail  feathers  generally  white  at  tip ;  under  parts 
white. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  crown  tinged  with  greenish  and  under  parts 
washed  with  yellowish. 

Immature.  Upper  parts  uniform  olive  green,  under  parts  washed  with 
yellowish;  under  tail  coverts  white. 

L.,  5.00;  W.,  2.65;  T.,  1.70. 

Nest,  in  a  low  bush  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  pearly  white,  with  a  wreath  of 
brown  and  purplish  spots  around  the  larger  end. 


91 


Myrtle  Warbler. 


American  Redstart. 


92 

PARULA  WAPtBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  blue;  a  brownish  yellow  patch  in  the  middle  of  the 
back;  greater  and  lesser  wing  coverts  tipped  with  white;  outer  tail  feathers  with 
a  white  patch  near  the  end;  throat  and  breast  yellow,  more  or  less  marked  with 
rufous,  a  rich  brown  or  blackish  band  across  the  breast;  belly  white. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  duller,  and  the  throat  and  back  patches  indistinct 
or  wanting. 

L.,  4.75;  W.,  2.40;  T.,  1.75. 

Nest,  generally  among  hanging  mosses.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  with  reddish 
brown  spots,  chiefly  around  the  larger  end. 

CAPE  MAY  WARBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Crown  black,  slightly  tipped  with  greenish;  ear  coverts  chestnut, 
bounded  behind  by  a  large  yellow  patch  on  the  side  of  the  neck;  back  olive  green, 
broadly  streaked  with  black ;  rump  yellow ;  a  large  white  patch  on  the  wing  coverts ; 
outer  tail  feathers  with  a  large  white  patch  on  their  inner  webs,  near  the  tip; 
under  parts  yellow,  heavily  streaked  with  black,  lower  belly  and  under  tail  coverts 
whitish. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  grayish  olive  green;  rump  yellowish;  a  yellow 
line  over  the  eye;  middle  wing  coverts  with  narrow  white  tips;  outer  tail  feathers 
with  a  white  patch  on  their  inner  webs  near  the  tip;  under  parts  yellow,  streaked 
with  black. 

L.,  5.00;  W.,  2.60;  T.,  1.85. 

Nest,  partially  pensile,  on  a  branch  of  a  small  tree  in  open  woodland.  Eggs, 
three  or  four,  dull  white,  slightly  speckled  and  wreathed  round  the  larger  end 
with  spots  of  brown  and  lilac. 

YELLOW  WAEBLER. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  greenish  yellow;  bright  yellow  on  crown;  wings 
edged  with  yellow;  tail  dusky,  the  inner  vanes  of  the  feathers  yellow;  under  parts 
bright  yellow  streaked  with  reddish. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  uniform  yellowish  olive  green,  tail  and  wings  as 
in  the  male,  under  parts  yellow,  but  slightly  streaked. 

L.,  5.25;  W.,  2.50;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  in  shrubs  or  low  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  bluish  white,  spotted  and 
blotched  with  reddish  brown. 

BLACK-THROATED  BLUE  WARBLER. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  slaty  blue;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  blue;  base  of 
the  primaries  white,  forming  a  white  spot  on  the  wing  at  the  end  of  the  primary 
coverts;  inner  vanes  of  outer  tail  feathers  with  a  white  patch  near  their  tips;  sides 
of  the  head  and  throat  black;  breast  and  belly  white. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  dull  olive  greenish,  sometimes  with  faint  bluish 
shade,  the  white  patch  on  outer  feathers  of  tail  sometimes  scarcely  distinguishable: 
white  at  base  of  the  primaries  very  much  reduced;  ear  coverts  dusky  gray;  under 
parts  soiled  yellowish. 

L.,  5.25;  W..  2.50;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  in  a  bush  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  dotted  with 
various  shades  of  brown,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 


93 


MYETLE  WARBLEE. 

Adult  male.  A  yellow  patch  on  the  crown,  rump,  and  either  side  of  the 
breast;  upper  parts  'bluish  gray,  streaked  with  black;  two  white  wing  bars;  outer 
tail  feathers  with  white  spots  on  their  inner  vanes  near  the  tip;  throat  white; 
breast  heavily  marked  with  black;  belly  white. 

Adult  female.  Similar  but  duller,  the  blue  with  a  brownish  tinge  and  less 
black  below. 

L.,  5.65;  W.,  2.85;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  in  low  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  grayish  white,  spotted  and  speckled 
with  various  shades  of  brown 

MAGNOLIA  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Crown  bluish  gray;  cheeks  and  forehead  black,  a  white  line 
behind  the  eye;  back  black,  bordered  with  olive  green;  a  large  white  patch  on  the 
wing  coverts;  rump  yellow,  tail  black,  inner  vanes  of  all  but  the  central  feathers 
with  white  patches  on  their  middle,  the  end  third  of  the  feather  being  entirely 
black;  throat  yellow,  breast  and  sides  heavily  streaked  with  black. 

Adult  female.     Similar  but  with  the  back  greener  and  the  colours  duller. 
L.,  5.12;  W.,  2.30;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  in  low  trees.  Eggs,  white,  marked  with  dots  of  varying  shades  of  brown, 
chiefly  wreathed  at  larger  end. 

CEEULEAN  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  bright  blue;  sides  of  head  and  back  streaked  with 
black ;  wings  and  tail  edged  with  blue ;  two  white  wing  bars ;  inner  vanes  of  all  but 
the  central  tail  feathers  with  white  patches  at  their  tips;  under  parts  white,  sides 
and  breast  streaked  with  bluish  black. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  bluish  olive  green,  wings  and  tail  as  in  the  male; 
under  parts  white,  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellowish. 

L.,  4.50;  W.,  2.G5. 

Nest,  in  a  tree.  Eggs,  four,  creamy  white,  thickly  blotched  with  reddish 
brown. 

CHESTNUT-SIDED  WARBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Crown  bright  yellow;  a  black  line  behind  the  eye;  front  part 
of  the  cheeks  black;  ear  coverts  white;  back  streaked  with  black  and  maro-ined 
with  olive  green;  wing  bars  yellowish  white;  tail  black,  the  outer  feathers  with 
white  patches  on  their  inner  vanes  at  the  tip ;  under  parts  white,  the  sides  chestnut. 

Adult  female.     Similai'  but  duller  in  colour. 

Immature.  Upper  parts,  bright  yellowish  olive  green,  back  sometimes 
streaked  with  black;  wing  bars  yellowish  white;  under  parts  pure  white,  the  side* 
sometimes  watfi  spots  of  chestnut. 

L.,  5.14;  W.,  2.45;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  generally  low  down  in  a  bush.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  wreathed  at 
the  larger  end  with  various  shades  of  brown. 


94 


BAY-BEE  AST  ED  WAKBLEK. 

Adult  male.  Forehead  and  cheeks  black;  a  creamy  buff  patch  on  the  sides  of 
the  neck;  crown  chestnut;  throat,  upper  breast  and  sides  reddish  chestnut;  back 
brownish  ashy,  streaked  with  black ;  two  white  wing  <bars ;  inner  vanes  of  outer  tail 
feathers  with  white  patches  at  their  tips,  lower  breast  and  belly  buffy  white. 

Adult  female.  More  olivaceous  than  male  and  colours  duller,  but  always 
more  or  less  chestnut. 

Immature.  Upper  parts  bright  olive  green,  indistinctly  streaked  with  black; 
wings  and  tail  much  as  in  the  adults;  under  parts  white,  tinged  with  buff  on  sides 
and  flanks. 

L.,  5.63;  W.,  2.95;  T.,  2.12. 

Nest,  in  low  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  finely  dotted,  chiefly  at  the 
larger  end,  with  various  shades  of  brown. 

BLACK-POLL  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Crown  hlack;  ear  coverts  white,  nape  streaked,  black  and  white; 
back  and  rump  ashy,  streaked  with  black;  two  white  wing  bars;  inner  vanes  of 
outer  tail  feathers  with  white  patches  at  their  tips;  under  parts  white,  streaked 
with  black,  the  streaks  most  numerous  on  the  sides  and  wanting  on  the  middle  of 
the  breast  and  belly. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  olive  green,  distinctly  streaked  with  black;  wings 
and  tail  as  in  the  male;  under  parts  wliite  tinged  with  yellow;  the  breast  and  sides 
streaked  with  black. 

Immature.  Similar  to  female,  but  the  upper  parts  brighter  and  not  distinctly 
streaked;  under  parts  yellower  and  not  distinctly  streaked. 

L.,  5.75;  W.,  3.00;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  generally  in  spruce  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  more  or  less  speckled 
and  blotched  at  the  larger  end  with  various  shades  of  brown. 

BLACKBUENIAN  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Back,  black  more  or  less  interrupted  with  yellowish;  crown, 
with  a  central  orange  spot;  a  broad  black  stripe  through  the  eye  enclosing  the 
orange  under  eye  lid;  rest  of  head  with  whole  throat,  most  brilliant  orange;  other 
under  parts,  whitish,  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellow;  sides  streaked  with  black; 
wing  bars  fused  into  a  large  white  patch ;  tail  blotches,  white,  occupying  nearly  all 
tho  outer  feathers. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts,  olive  and  black  streaked;  superciliary  line  and 
throat  clear  yellow,  fading  insensibly  on  the  breast;  lower  eyelid  yellow;  wing 
patch,  resolved  into  two  bars ;  tail  blotches  nearly  as  extensive  as  in  the  male. 

L.,  5.25 ;  W.,  2.75 ;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  usually  in  coniferous  trees.  Eggs,  four  greenisli  white,  speckled  toward 
the  larger  end  with  various  shades  of  brown  and  lilac. 


95 


BLACK-THEOATED  GI^EEN"  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  bright  olive  green,  back  sometimes  spotted  with 
black;  line  over  the  eye  and  cheeks  bright  yellow,  ear  coverts  dusky;  two  white 
wing  bars;  inner  vanes  of  outer  tail  feathers  entirely  white,  outer  web  white  at  the 
base;  throat  and  breast  black;  belly  white,  sometimes  tinged  with  yellow;  sides 
streaked  with  black. 

L.,  5.10;  W.,  2.45;  T.,  2.00. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  the  black  of  throat  and  breast  more  or  less  mixed 
with  yellowish. 

Nest,  generally  in  coniferous  trees.  Eggs,  four,  white,  spotted  with  various 
shades  of  brown  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

KIETLAND'S  WAEBLEE. 

Head  bluish  gray,  sometimes  spotted  with  black;  lores  and  sides  of  the 
throat  black;  back  brownish  ashy,  spotted  with  black;  no  white  wing  bars;  outer 
tail  feathers  with  white  patches  on  their  inner  webs  at  the  tips;  under  parts  pale 
yellow;  sides  streaked  and  spotted  with  black. 

L..  5.75;  W.,  2.75;  T.,  2.25. 

PINE  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  bright  olive  green  sometimes  washed  with  ashy; 
two  whitish  wing  bars;  outer  tail  feathers  with  white  patches  on  their  inner  vanes 
near  the  tip;  under  parts  bright  yellow,  more  or  less  washed  with  ashy,  turning  to 
white  below,  sides  sometimes  with  a  few  black  streaks. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  much  duller;  under  parts  mostly  whitish  tinged 
with  yellow. 

L.,  5.50;  W.,  2.75;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  usually  in  a  pine  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  grayish  white,  much  speckled 
with  various  shades  of  brown,  chiefly  at  the  larger  end. 

PALM  WAEBLEE. 

Crown  chestnut;  back  brownish  olive;  rump  olive  green;  no  white  wing  bars; 
secondaries  sometimes  tinged  with  chestnut;  tail  edged  with  olive  green,  the  outer 
feathers,  with  white  spots  on  their  inner  vanes  near  the  tips;  line  over  the  eye  and 
eye  ring  yellow;  under  parts  entirely  bright  yellow;  sides  of  the  throat,  breast  and 
sides,  streaked  with  chestnut. 

L.,  5.45;  W.,  2.60;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  spotted  with  various 
shades  of  brown  chiefly  near  the  larger  end. 

PEAIEIE  WAEBLEE. 

Adult  male.  Upper  part-s  bright  olive  green;  back  spotted  with  chestnut: 
wing  bars  yellowish ;  outer  tail  feathers  with  large  white  patches  at  their  tips,  the 
outer  vane  of  the  outer  feather  white  at  the  base:  a  yellow  line  over  the  eye:  loros 
and  a  crescent  below  the  eye  black;  under  parts  briglit  yellow:  sides  heavily  streaked 
with  black. 


96 

Adult  female.     Similar,  duller,  and  sometimes  with  no  chestnut  on  back. 
Nest,  in  briary  bushes.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  spotted  with  various  shades 
of  brown,  chiefly  in  a  wreath  at  the  iargfv  end. 

GOLDEN-CROWNED  THRUSH— OVEN-BIRD. 

Centre  of  crown,  orange  brown,  bordered  with  two  black  stripes;  rest  of  the 
upper  parts,  wings  and  tail  olive  green;  no  wing  bars  or  tail  patches;  under  parts 
white,  thickly  spotted  with  dusky  on  breast  and  sides;  a  narrow  blackish  maxillary 
line;  eye  ring  white. 

L.,  6.15;  W.,  3.00;  T.,  3.25. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  covered  in,  the  entrance  at  one  side.  Eggs,  four  or  five, 
white,  speckled  finely  with  reddish  brown  and  lilac. 

WATER  THRUSH. 

Upper  parts  and  tail  deep  olivaceous  brown;  no  wing  bars  or  tail  patches;  a 
buffy  line  over  the  eye,  under  parts  white  tinged  with  pale  sulphur  yellow  and  thickly 
streaked  with  blackish. 

L.,  6.00;  W.,  2.35;  T.,  2.15. 

Nest,  on  a  bank  or  among  the  roots  of  a  fallen  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white, 
marked  with  reddish  brown  and  lilac. 

LOUISIANA   WATER   THRUSH. 

A  conspicuous  white  line  over  the  eye ;  upper  parts  wings  and  tail  deep  olivaceous 
brown;  no  wing  bars  or  tail  patches;  under  parts  white  tinged  with  creamy  and 
streaked  with  black  except  on  the  throat  and  middle  of  belly. 

L.,  6.28;  W.,  3.35;  T.,  2.15. 

Nest,  on  a  bank  or  among  the  roots  of  a  fallen  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white, 
spotted  with  various  shades  of  brown  and  lilac. 

CONNECTICUT  WARBLER. 

Adult  male.  Head,  neck  and  breast  ashy  gray,  lighter  on  the  throat;  eye  ring 
white ;  rest  of  upper  parts,  wings  and  tail  olive  green ;  no  wing  bars  or  tail  patches ; 
below  from  the  breast  yellow ;  sides  tinged  with  olive  green. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  uniform  olive  green;  throat  and  breast  grayish 
brown ;  below  pale  yellow. 

L.,  5.50;  W.,  3.75;  T.,  3.00. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  four,  creamy  white,  a  few  spots  of  purplish  brown 
and  black  about  the  larger  end. 

MOURNING  WARBLER. 

Adult  male.  Head  and  neck  bluish  ash,  the  feathers  of  the  throat  and  breast 
black  margined  with  ash;  no  white  eye  ring;  rest  of  upper  parts,  wings  and  tail  olive 
green ;  no  wing  bars  or  tail  patches ;  below  yellow. 

L.,  5.50;  W.,  3.35  ;T.,  3.35. 

Adult  female.  Similar  but  duller,  olive  green  above  slightly  grayer  on  head ; 
breast  grayish ;  throat  whiter. 

Nest,  on  or  near  the  ground.     Eggs,  four,  white,  speckled  with  reddish  brown. 


97 


OS 


98 

MARYLAND  WAEBLER. 

Adult  male.  A  broad  band  across  the  forehead,  on  the  cheeks  and  ear  coverts, 
black,  bordered  behind  by  grayish ;  rest  of  the  upper  parts,  wings  and  tail  olive  green ; 
no  wing  bars  or  tail  patches,  throat  and  breast  bright  yellow,  whitish  below;  under 
tail  coverts  yellow. 

Adult  female.  No  black  mask;  upper  parts,  wings  and  tail  olive  green;  throat 
and  breast  yellowish. 

L.,  5.33;  W.,  2.30;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  rather  thinly  speckled 
with  reddish  brown,  chiefly  near  the  larger  end. 

YELLOW-BREASTED   CHAT. 

Upper  parts,  wings  and  tail  olive  green ;  line  from  the  eye  to  the  bill,  one  on  the 
side  of  the  throat  and  eye  ring  white ;  throat  and  breast  bright  yellow ;  below  white ; 
sides  grayish. 

L.,  7.45;  W.,  3.00;  T.,  3.05. 

Nest,  in  a  bush  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  evenly  speckled  with 
reddish  brown. 

HOODED  WARBLER. 

Adult  male.  Forehead  and  cheeks  bright  yellow ;  crown  black,  connected  behind 
with  the  black  throat ;  upper  parts,  wings  and  tail  olive  green ;  outer  tail  feathers, 
with  inner  vane  mostly  white ;  below  yellow. 

Adult  female.  Similar  but  with  the  black  on  head  and  breast  somewhat 
restricted  and  less  clearly  defined. 

L.,  5.50;  W.,  2.50;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  in  bush  or  low  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  rather  thinly  speckled  with 
reddish  brown  chiefly  aibout  the  larger  end. 

WILSON'S  WARBLER. 

Adult  male.  Forehead  yellow,  crown  black;  rest  of  the  upper  parts,  wings  and 
tail  bright  olive  green ;  no  wing  bars  or  tail  patches ;  under  parts  bright  yellow. 

« 

Adult  female.    Similar  but  black  cap  small  or  wanting. 

Immature.     Like  female. 
L.,  5.00;  W.,  2.30;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  speckled  with  reddish  brown  and 
pale  lilac. 

CANADIAN  WARBLER. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts,  wings  and  tail  gray,  no  wing  bars  or  tail  patches; 
crown  spotted  with  black ;  line  from  the  bill  to  the  eye  and  under  parts  yellow ;  sides 
of  the  neck  iblack;  a  necklace  of  black  spots  across  the  breast;  under  tail  coverts 
white. 

L.,  5.60;  W.,  2.50;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  in  a  bank  or  among  roots.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  speckled  chiefly  at 
the  larger  end  with  reddish  brown. 


99 


EEDSTAET. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts,  throat  and  breast  shining  black,  basal  half  of  the 
wing  feathers  orange,  end  half  and  wing  coverts  black;  basal  two-thirds  of  all  but 
the  middle  tail  feathers  orange,  end  third  and  middle  feathers  black;  sides  of  the 
breast  and  flanks  deep  orange;  belly  white. 

Adult  female  and  Immature.  Orange  of  the  male  replaced  by  dull  yellow;  head 
grayish;  back  ashy  brown. 

L.,  5.40;  W.,  2.55;  T.,  2.25. 

Nest,  in  the  crotch  of  a  small  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  grayish  white,  spotted  and 
blotched  chiefly  at  the  larger  end  with  various  shades  of  brown. 

KINGLETS   AND   GNATCATCHERS. 

Kinglets.  These  are,  next  to  the  Humming  bird,  the  smallest  birds  we  have,  their 
want  of  size,  however,  being  amply  compensated  for  by  their  constant  activity  in  pur- 
suit of  their  insect  food,  and  the  number  of  them  that  pass  through  the  Province  dur- 
ing their  migrations.  There  are  two  species  of  them,  the  Euby  Crowned  Kinglet  and 
the  Golden  'Crowned  Kinglet,  the  latter  being  much  more  abundant.  The  names  given 
them  are  sufficiently  descriptive  of  the  color  of  their  crests  to  enable  them  to  be 
easily  identified  when  examined ;  in  other  respects  they  are  almost  indistinguishable. 
The  Euby  Crown  has  a  wonderfully  loud  voice  for  such  a  minute  creature,  and  is  a 
good  singer.  The  Golden  Crown  has  no  song  at  all.  Early  in  April  myriads  of 
these  little  birds  pass  over  the  country  working  their  way  northward,  and  may  be 
seen  in  our  orchards  and  shrubberies  carefully  searching  every  part  of  the  trees  and 
bushes  for  the  insects  and  their  eggs  that  are  hidden  from  all  eyes  less  keen  than 
theirs,  and  cutting  short  the  career  of  a  vast  number  of  insects  before  they  have 
developed  sufficiently  to  do  mischief.  Neither  of  them  has  as  yet  been  positively 
ascertained  to  breed  in  the  southern  part  of  Ontario,  but  no  doubt  they  do  so  in  the 
evergreen  woods  to  the  north  of  us.  About  the  end  of  September  they  return,  their 
numbers  increased  by  the  broods  of  the  year ;  they  are  not  now  in  any  hurry,  but  just 
loiter  along  toward  the  south,  until  the  middle  of  November,  when  the  last  of  the 
migrating  host  disappears.  All  the  Euby  Crowns  leave  us,  but  there  are  always  a 
goodly  number  of  Golden  Crowns  which  remain  in  our  sheltered  evergreen  woods 
all  through  the  winter.  How  such  tiny  creatures  can  resist  the  extreme  cold  of  that 
season  is  a  mystery;  but  they  do  it,  and  can  even  then  find  enough  insects  and  their 
eggs  (for  they  eat  nothing  else)  to  keep  them  in  good  condition. 

They  are  expert  in  capturing  small  moths  on  the  wing  and  no  doubt  destroy  a 
great  many  of  them,  but  the  greatest  service  they  render  us  is  in  destroying  the  eggs 
of  the  aphides,  scale  insects  and  other  insects  which  are  too  small  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  larger  birds. 

Blue-gray  Gnatcatcher.  In  Southwestern  Ontario  this  little  bird  is  a  regular 
though  never  a  common  summer  resident.  While  it  does  not  occur  in  sufficient  num- 
bers to  be  an  important  economic  factor,  yet  it  assists  the  warblers  in  keeping  in 
check  the  foliage  devouring  insects  whicli  swarm  the  trees  in  summer. 


100 

KINGLETS  AND  GNATCATCHERS. 
Description. 

EUBY-CROWNED  KINGLET. 

Adult.  Crown  with  a  partly  concealed  crest  of  rich  scarlet;  upper  parts, 
greenish  olive;  helow  whitish;  wings  and  tail  dusky,  edged  with  yellowish;  wing 
coverts  whitish  tipped. 

Immature.     Similar,  but  crown  patch  wanting  during  first  year. 
L.,  4.50;  W.,  2.25;  T.,  1.70. 

Nest,  usually  in  a  coniferous  tree.  Eggs,  five  to  nine,  whitish,  faintly  speckled 
with  reddish  brown  at  the  larger  end. 

GOLDEN-CROWNED    KINGLET. 

Adult  male.  Centre  of  crown  bright  reddish  orange,  bordered  by  yellow  and 
black;  a  whitish  line  over  the  eye;  rest  of  upper  parts  olive  green;  wings  and  tail 
dusky,  margined  with  greenish  yellow ;  under  parts  soiled  whitish. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  crown  without  orange,  its  centre  yellow  and  bor- 
dered by  black. 

L.,  4.50;  W.,  2.25;  T.,  1.70. 

Nest,  in  coniferous  trees.  Eggs  five  to  nine,  creamy  white,  spotted  with  brown 
and  lilac. 

BLUE-GRAY   GNATCATCHER. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  bluish  gray;  forehead  narrowly  bordered  by  black; 
wings  edged  by  grayish,  the  secondaries  bordered  with  whitish;  outer  tail  feathers 
white;  changing  gradually  until  the  middle  ones  are  black;  under  parts  dull  grayish 
white. 

L.,  4.50;  W.,  2.05;  T.,  2.00. 

Nest,  in  a  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  bluish  white,  thickly  speckled  with  varying 
shades  of  brown. 

WEED    DESTROYERS. 

It  used  to  be  the  custom  to  divide  birds  into  three  classes  with  reference  to  the 
food  they  are  supposed  to  eat,  viz.,  birds  of  prey,  insect  eaters,  and  seed  eaters.  No 
such  distinction  can  properly  be  made;  all  birds,  even  the  Hawks  and  Owls,  feed 
more  or  less  upon  insects,  and  nearly  all  the  so-called  seed-eating  birds  raise  their 
young  entirely  upon  insects.  After  the  young  reach  maturity  and  the  approach  of 
cold  weather  reduces  the  insect  supply,  birds  of  this  class  display  their  usefulness  by 
helping  to  clear  the  fields  of  the  seeds  of  weeds  as  they  ripen,  and  all  througlx  the 
winter  they  continue  the  work  of  harvesting  this  most  objectionable  crop. 

Year  after  year  farmers  and  gardeners  expend  large  sums  for  labor  applied  for 
the  destruction  of  noxious  weeds,  and  would  no  doubt  be  willing  to  pay  much  more 
to  fully  protect  their  crops  from  injury  by  these  pests  if  it  could  be  done.  Perfect 
immunity  from  insects  and  weeds  can  never  be  expected.  We  may,  however,  reduce 
the  loss  caused  by  them  much  below  what  it  is  at  present  without  the  expenditure 
of  any  great  amount  of  time  or  money  by  availing  ourselves  of  the  assistance  of  the 
natural  enemies  of  both  of  them. 


101 


Golden-crowned  Kinglet. 


^^VHVC^'' 


Eose-breasted  Grosbeak. 


103 

In  1881  Mr.  F.  E.  L.  Beal  made  an  estimate  of  the  amount  of  weed  seed  eaten 
by  the  common  Tree  Sparrow  during  the  winter  months  in  the  State  of  Iowa.  As 
the  conditions  in  that  state  so  far  as  the  Tree  Sparrow  is  concerned  are  similar  to  our 
own,  I  give  the  estimate  to  show  the  value  of  birds  of  this  class  as  weed  destro3'ers 
Mr.  Beal  says :  "Upon  the  basis  of  one-fourth  of  an  ounce  of  seed  eaten  daily  by  each 
bird  and  supposing  that  the  birds  averaged  ten  to  each  square  mile  and  that  they 
remain  in  their  winter  range  two  hundred  days,  we  shall  have  a  total  of  1,750,000 
pounds  or  875  tons  of  weed  seed  consumed  by  this  one  species  in  a  single  season." 

Personal  experience  has  shown  me  that  Mr.  Beat's  estimate  of  the  amount  of 
weed  seed  eaten  each  day  by  birds  such  as  the  Tree  Sparrow,  Song  Sparrow  and  Snow 
Bird  is  correct;  for  I  have  had  many  of  our  finches  and  sparrows  in  captivity  for  long 
periods  and  have  carefully  measured  the  quantity  of  seed  they  consumed,  in  all  cases 
it  was  about  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  daily,  and  I  feel  assured  that  birds  at  liberty  in 
cold  weather  would  certainly  require  more  than  that.  Most  farmers  can  make  a 
guess  at  the  number  of  the  seeds  of  the  common  weeds  that  would  be  required  to 
weigh  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  and  that  will  give  an  idea  of  the  good  service  a  flock  of 
gray  birds  or  snow  birds  are  rendering  him  while  they  are  frequenting  his  fields. 

SPARROWS,    FINCHES,    ETC. 

This  is  a  very  large  family,  represented  in  Ontario  by  thirty-four  species.  Want 
of  space  prohibits  my  calling  attention  to  the  food  habits  of  each  of  these  in  detail. 
It  will,  however,  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  refer  particularly  to 
those  only  which  in  some  manner  are  specially  beneficial  or  injurious  to  the  crops 
usually  cultivated  for  profit.  All  these  birds  are  insect  eaters  in  the  summer  months, 
and  their  young  while  in  the  nest  are  fed  entirely  on  insects ;  but  in  the  autumn, 
winter  and  early  spring  the  mature  birds  subsist  principally  on  the  seeds  of  wild 
plants  and  forest  trees. 

Native  Sparrows.  Among  the  most  familiar  birds  that  spend  the  summer  on 
and  a;bout  the  farm  are  the  native  Sparrows,  commonly  known  as  Grey  Birds.  The 
most  abundant  of  these  are  the  Chipping  Sparrow,  Song  Sparrow,  Vesper  Sparrow, 
and  Field  Sparrow.  The  first  three  are  to  be  found  everywhere;  the  Field  Sparrow 
is  more  locally  distributed,  but  is  sufficiently  abundant  to  be  of  economic  value 
where  it  occurs.  These  are  all  of  the  so-called  seed  eating  class,  but  the  seeds  eaten 
by  them  are  the  seeds  of  plants  that  can  well  be  dispensed  with.  I  have  but  rarely 
found  any  cultivated  grains  among  their  stomach  contents,  the  only  ones  being  a 
few  oats  in  the  fall.  All  through  the  summer  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the  adults 
consists  of  insects,  and  the  young  are  fed  entirely  upon  them  until  they  leave  the 
nest.  As  these  birds  raise  two  and  sometimes  three  broods  each  season  this  means  a 
vast  number  of  insects  taken  from  the  crops.  Small  insects  of  all  kinds  are  eaten, 
but  the  birds  seem  to  show  a  preference  for  beetles,  and  a  great  partiality  for  the  pea 
weevil  or  peabug.  These  appear  about  the  peas  when  they  are  in  blossom,  and  I  have 
often  watched  the  Chipping  Sparrow,  Vesper  Sparrow  and  Song  Sparrow,  together 
with  the  much  abused  House  Sparrow,  busily  engaged  in  capturing  these  beetles 
about  the  pea  vines,  and  specimens  taken  by  me  at  this  time  had  their  crops  and 
stomachs  filled  with  them. 

When  the  breeding  season  is  over  these  Sparrows  gather  into  flocks  and  may 
be  found  in  large  numbers  in  the  weed  patches  too  often  left  about  the  farm.  Here 
they  are  doing  service  not  less  valuable  than  that  rendered  by  their  destruction  of 
insect  pests  in  the  summer,  and  which  has  only  to  be  observed  to  be  appreciated. 


103 

In  the  spring  we  are  visited  by  an  innumerable  army  of  Sparrows  larger  than 
those  I  have  mentioned.  These  are  the  White-Throated  Sparrow,  White-Crowned 
Sparrow,  and  Fox  Sparrow.  They  are  on  their  way  to  their  breeding  grounds  to 
the  north  of  us.  The  Fox  Sparrows  pass  through  early  in  April,  and  rarely  stay  nnre 
than  three  or  four  days.  The  other  two  come  later,  and  remain  much  longer,  their 
migration  lasting  about  three  weeks.  During  all  this  time  they  frequent  weedy 
places,  where  they  may  be  observed  industriously  foraging  for  the  seed  of  injurious 
plants  About  the  middle  of  September  they  return,  having  their  number  largely 
increased  by  the  young  raised  during  the  summer,  and  they  remain  for  about  a 
month.  During  that  time  they  visit  nearly  evary  weed  patch  and  bri)s}i  heap  in  the 
Province  and  feed  luxuriously,  not  only  on  the  seeds  of  the  weeds  we  are  most  anxious 
to  get  rid  of,  but  they  also  find  in  such  places  large  numbers  of  mature  insects  which 
would  lie  there  dormant  durhig  tlie  wmter  ready  to  emerge  in  the  spring  to  work 
miscl;ief  in  the  crops.  Each  female  insect  killed  at  this  time  mean.s  cutting  otf  the 
source  of  supply  of  several  hundreds  of  larvae  for  the  next  year.  In  this  way  the 
birds  are  doing  most  excellent  work  for  the  farmer,  the  value  of  which  can  hardly 
be  calculated  in  dollars  and  cents,  and  it  is  work  that,  with  all  our  industry  and 
ingenuity,  we  are  not  yet  able  to  do  for  ourselves. 

As  winter  comes  on  and  our  summer  residents  and  spring  and  autumn  visitors 
leave  for  the  south,  vast  flocks  of  weed  gleaners  come  from  the  north  to  take  their 
place.  The  best  known  of  these  are  the  Snow  Bird,  Tree  Sparrow  and  Slate- Colored 
Junco.  Large  numbers  of  these  birds  remain  with  us  all  through  the  cold  season, 
frequenting  patches  of  weeds  that  carry  their  seed  above  the  snow,  and  by  their  work 
materially  lessening  the  number  to  spread  over  the  country  and  germinate  in  the 
spring. 

SPARED  WS.  I 

Description. 
CHIPPING     SPAREOW. 

Adult.  Forehead  black,  a  short  grayish  line  in  its  middle;  top  of  the  head 
chestnut;  a  grayish  line  over  eye  and  a  black  line  behind  it;  back  of  neck  grayish ; 
back  streaked  with  black,  chestnut,  and  buflfy,  rump  slaty  gray;  wing  bars  not  con- 
spicuous ;  under  parts  grayish  white,  whiter  on  throat ;  bill  entirely  black. 

Immature.    Breast  streaked,  no  chestnut  on  crown;  bill  brownish. 
L.,  5.37;  W.,  2.75;  T.,  2.30. 

Xest,  in  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  blue,  with  brown  or  blackish 
marking  at  larger  end. 

SONG    SPAEEOW. 

Crown  reddish  brown,  with  a  grayish  medium  line;  a  grayish  line  over  eye;  a 
reddish  brown  line  from  behind  eye  to  the  nape ;  feathers  of  the  back  streaked  with 
black  and  margined  with  brown  and  gray;  greater  wing  coverts  with  black  spot  at 
their  tips;  tail  reddish  brown,  the  middle  feathers  darker  along  their  shafts;  sides  of 
the  throat  with  blackish  streaks ;  breast  with  wedge  shaped  streaks  of  black  and  dark 
brown  which  tend  to  form  a  large  blotcli  on  tlie  centre;  sides  washed  with  brownish 
and  streaked  with  dark  brown. 

L.,  6.30;  W.,  2.50;  T,  2.60. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  or  low  down  in  bushes  or  brush  heaps.  Eggs,  four  or  five, 
grayish  or  bluish  white,  speckled  with  brown  of  various  shades;  very  variable. 


104 

VESPEE  SPAREOW. 

Upper  parts  brownish  gray  streaked  with  black  and  a  little  buff ;  wings  dusky, 
greater  and  middle  coverts  tipped  with  white;  lesser  coverts  bright  chestnut;  tail 
dusky,  the  outer  feathers  mostly  white,  the  next  one  with  less;  under  parts  white; 
the  breast  and  sides  streaked  with  black  and  buff. 

L.,  6.15;  W.,  3.00;  T.,  2.30. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.     Eggs,  four  or  five,  pinkish  white,  spotted  with  reddish 

brown. 

FIELD    SPAEEOW. 

Top  of  head  dull  chestnut;  a  gray  line  over  eye;  back  finely  streaked  with  black, 
the  feathers  margined  narrowly  with  ashy  brown ;  middle  and  greater  wing  coverts 
tipped  with  white ;  under  parts  white  tinged  with  buff  on  breast  and  sides. 

Immature.    Breast  streaked  with  blackish. 

L.,  5.65;  W.,  2.50;  T.,  2.55. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  or  low  down  in  a  bush.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  bluish  white, 
variously  marked  with  reddish  brown. 

WHITE-THEOATED     SPAEEOW. 

Adult  male.  Centre  of  crown  with  a  clear  wliite  stripe,  bounded  on  either  side 
by  wider  black  stripes ;  a  white  stripe  from  the  eye  passes  backward  along  the  side  of 
head,  in  front  of  which  is  a  short  yellow  stripe ;  back  chestnut  brown  streaked  with 
black,  the  feathers  in  part  margined  with  grayish ;  rump  grayish  brown ;  bend  of 
wing  yellow ;  greater  and  median  wing  coverts  tipped  with  white,  forming  wing  bars ; 
tail  grayish  brown;  under  parts  grayish  and  darker  on  the  breast;  throat  with  a 
clear  white  patch. 

Female  and  immature.    The  clear  white  of  crown  and  throat  replaced  by  buff. 
L.,  6.75;  W.,  2.90;  T.,  2.85. 

Nest,  in  bushes.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  bluish  white,  clouded  and  blotched  rather 
heavily  with  reddish  brown. 

WHITE-CEOWNED    SPAEEOW. 

Adult.  Centre  of  crown  with  a  clear  white  stripe  bordered  on  either  side  by  black 
stripes  all  of  about  equal  width,  a  clear  white  line  over  the  eye  passes  back  along  the 
side  of  the  head;  nape  gray;  general  color  above  ashy  gray,  the  middle  of  the  back 
streaked  with  brown  and  whitish,  greater  and  middle  coverts  tipped  with  white ;  tail 
dusky ;  under  parts  grayish  white. 

Immature.  Similar,  but  sides  of  the  crown  rufous  brown  and  centre  of  crown 
pale  grayish  brown. 

L.,  6.85;  W.,  3.00;  T.,  2.85. 

Nest,  on  or  near  the  ground  in  bushes.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  greenish  blue, 
speckled  at  the  larger  end  with  reddish  brown. 

FOX    SPAEEOW. 

Upper  parts  rusty  red;  upper  tail  coverts  and  tail  bright  rufous;  wings  mar- 
gined vsdth  rufous ;  below  white,  heavily  streaked  with  rusty  brown  and  blackish ;  tips 
of  middle  and  greater  coverts  forming  two  whitish  wing  bars. 

L.,  7.25;  W.,  3.35;  T.,  2.85. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  or  in  low  trees  or  bushes.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  bluish, 
heavily  spotted  with  rusty  brown. 


105 


o 

f-1 
a 
a, 

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o 


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C/2 

to 


a. 

•  i—i 

o 


106 


SNOWFLAKE— SNOW  BUNTING-. 

Adult  in  winter.  Upper  parts  rusty  brown,  darker  on  the  centre  of  the  crown; 
back  showing  irregular  streaks  of  Ijlack  caused  by  the  black  bases  of  the  feathers 
showing  through  their  rusty  tips;  wings  white,  the  end  half  of  the  primaries  and 
inner  secondaries  black ;  outer  tail  feathers  white,  inner  ones  black,  all  these  more  or 
less  edged  with  rusty ;  under  parts  white,  the  breast  and  sides  washed  with  rusty. 

Adult  in  summer.  Whole  head,  neck,  upper  tail  coverts  and  under  parts  white; 
back,  black;  outer  tail  feathers  white,  inner  ones  black. 

L.,  7.00;  W.,  4.00;  T.,  2.75. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  in  arctic  regions.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  white,  scrawled  and 
dotted  with  brown  and  lilac. 

TEEE     SPAEEOW. 

Top  of  head  chestnut  brown,  in  winter  edged  with  ashy,  a  grayish  line  over  eye 
and  a  chestnut  brown  line  behind  it,  back  streaked  with  chestnut  brown,  black  and 
buff ;  upper  tail  coverts  pale  grayish  brown ;  greater  and  middle  wing  coverts  tipped 
with  white,  forming  whitish  wing  bars ;  primaries  and  tail  feathers  dusky  with  pale 
edges;  below  whitish  tinged  with  ashy,  an  obscure  dusky  blotch  on  the  middle  of  the 
breast. 

L.,  6.36;  W.,  3.00;  T.,  2.85. 

Nest,  on  or  near  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale,  greenish  blue,  speckled 
with  reddish  brown. 

JUNCO. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  dark  grayish  slate  color;  below  abruptly  pure  white 
from  the  breast;  two  outer  feathers  of  the  tail  and  part  of  third  white;  bill,  flesh 
color. 

Adult  female.    Similar,  but  duller;  upper  parts  browner. 
L.,  6.25;  W.,  3.00;  T.,  2.75. 

Nest,  on  the  ground.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  bluish  white,  speckled  and  blotched 
with  reddish  brown. 

HOUSE  SPAEEOW. 

A  member  of  this  family  about  which  there  has  been  much  controversy  is  the 
imported  European  House  Sparrow.  This  bird  was  introduced  into  Ontario  about 
the  year  1873  by  some  gentlemen  who  no  doubt  were  under  the  impression  that  the 
sparrows  would  devote  themselves  exclusively  to  killing  and  eating  the  caterpillars 
that  infest  the  shade  trees  in  our  towns.  They  either  forgot  or  did  not  know  that 
the  Sparrow  belongs  to  a  class  of  birds  whose  diet  consists  of  vegetable  su))stance 
and  insects  in  about  equal  proportion,  and  that  the  Sparrow  having  attached  itself 
to  the  haunts  of  man  usually  obtains  its  vegetable  food  from  the  plants  and  seeds 
cultivated  by  men  for  their  own  use.  I  have  read  many  reports  of  so-called  observers, 
who  have  stated  that  the  House  Sparrow  never  eats  insects  of  any  kind,  that  it  drives 
away  our  native  birds,  and  that  it  is  altogether  an  unmitigated  nuisance.  Sweeping 
assertions  of  this  kind  are  only  conclusive  evidence  that  the  so-called  observer  cannot 
observe.  No  one  with  ordinary  perceptive  faculties  can  walk  through  our  public 
parks,  or  along  one  of  our  streets  where  there  are  trees  and  grass  in  the  summer  time. 


107 


White-throated  Sparrow. 


108 


o 

f-l 

o 


109 

without  seeing  some  Sparrows  industriously  hunting  for  insects  with  which  to  feed 
their  young,  and  should  anyone  have  a  Sparrow's  nest  under  his  verandah  or  about 
his  house  in  such  a  position  that  some  of  the  food  brought  by  the  parent  birds  to 
their  young  will  fall  where  it  can  be  seen,  the  proof  that  they  do  eat  insects,  and  in 
large  quantities  too,  will  be  very  clear.  The  old  birds  also  eat  insects  at  this  season, 
varying  their  diet  with  such  undigested  grain  as  they  may  find  in  horse  droppings, 
and  with  bread  crumbs  and  such  like  refuse  from  houses. 

Sparrows,  like  the  majority  of  birds,  will  not  often  eat  hairy  caterpillars,  but 
I  have  seen  them  eat  the  spiny  larvae  of  Vanessa  antiopa,  which  is  one  of  our  shade 
tree  pests  that  few  birds  will  touch.  Besides  this  I  have  seen  them  take  moths  of 
almost  any  kind,  including  the  large  Cecropia  and  Luna  moths  and  the  Tussock  moth 
(both  the  winged  male  and  the  wingless  female),  beetles  of  many  kinds,  even  such 
large  species  as  the  aquatic  Dytiscus,  which  they  find  on  the  sidewalks  beneath  the 
electric  lights  to  which  the  beetles  are  attracted  at  night,  the  green  cabbage  worm 
(the  larvjB  of  the  cabbage  butterfiy)— of  these  they  eat  great  numbers.  They  also 
hunt  about  fences,  and  take  the  pupae  of  this  same  butterfly.  Currant  worms  and  the 
mature  insects  are  also  taken  in  large  numbers,  as  are  also  grasshoppers,  and  both 
the  black  and  green  aphides  that  occur  on  apple  trees,  and  rose  bushes,  are  eaten 
greedily.  On  one  occasion  a  flock  of  Sparrows  completely  cleaned  off  the  green 
aphis  from  some  rose  bushes  near  my  windows.  It  took  them  several  days  to  finish 
their  work,  but  they  did  it  effectually  in  the  end. 

About  harvest  time  the  Sparrows  show  their  grain-eating  proclivities.  They 
then  gather  into  large  flocks,  and,  leaving  the  town  where  they  were  bred,  visit  the 
surrounding  country  and  make  serious  raids  upon  the  wheat  and  oats,  and  do  more 
damage  while  the  grain  is  standing  by  beating  it  out  than  eating  it.  It  is  in  early 
spring,  however,  that  the  worst  trait  in  the  sparrow's  character  becomes  apparent. 
Vegetation  awakens  after  the  long  winter's  sleep ;  the  trees  put  forth  their  buds,  and 
seedlings  break  through  the  soil.  The  Sparrow,  probably  needing  an  alterative  after 
the  hard  fare  of  the  winter,  attacks  all  these ;  nothing  green  comes  amiss  to  him,  and 
then  the  gardener,  wrathful  at  the  loss  of  prospective  fruit,  vegetables  and  flowers, 
forgets  the  good  qualities  the  bird  has,  and  would  have  the  whole  tribe  exterminated. 
Whether  or  not  he  would  be  the  gainer  by  this  is  somewhat  difficult  to  decide.  My 
own  opinion  at  present  is,  that  the  number  we  now  have  do  as  much  good  as  they 
do  harm,  but  that  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  increase  to  any  great  extent. 

The  Sparrow  is  also  charged  with  driving  away  our  native  birds.  The  charge  is 
well  founded,  only  in  the  case  of  such  birds  as  were  formerly  in  the  habit  of  building 
in  holes  and  crevices  about  our  houses,  such  as  the  Swallows  and  the  Wrens.  In  the 
case  of  the  Wrens  the  difficulty  can  easily  be  got  over  by  placing  their  nest  boxes 
low  down,  say  about  eight  feet  from  the  ground ;  the  Sparrows  will  not  then  occupy 
them.  But  the  Swallow  problem  is  not  so  easy  to  solve.  The  trouble  arises  from  the 
fact  that  the  Sparrows  remain  here  all  through  the  winter  and  use  the  Swallows' 
nests  in  that  season  as  roosting  places.  As  spring  comes  they  build  in  them,  and  so 
have  possession  when  the  Swallows  return  from  the  south.  As  they  then,  naturally 
enough,  decline  to  turn  out,  the  Swallows  have  to  seek  elsewhere  for  a  home;  the 
result  being  that  we  lose  a  valuable,  purely  insectivorous  bird  and  get  in  the  place  of 
it  one  whose  value  is  questionable.  Continually  shooting  off  the  Sparrows  as  they 
appear  seems  to  be  the  only  remedy,  and  T  think  eternal  vigilance  would  be  required 
to  make  it  successful  in  any  place  where  the  Sparrows  are  well  established. 

That  Sparrows  are  rather  quarrelsome  amongst  themselves  in  the  season  of  love- 
making  is  evident  to  everyone,  but  so  far  I  have  not  seen  them  interfere  with  any 
other  species  whose   nesting  interests   do   not   conflict  with   theirs.      In   my  own 


110 

neighborhood,  House  Wrens,  Orioles,  Vireos,  Catbirds,  Wilson's  Thrushes,  Eobins, 
Chipping  Sparrows,  Song  Sparrows,  the  American  Goldfinch  and  the  Yellow  Warb- 
lers have  all  bred  in  close  proximity  to  many  pairs  of  Sparrows,  and  have  not  been 
interfered  with  by  them;  but  if  I  had  not  kept  a  pretty  close  watch  over  the  nests, 
and  taken  out  the  eggs  of  the  Cowbirds  which  were  deposited  therein,  but  few  broods 
would  have  been  successfully  raised. 

The  House  Sparrow  has  one  particularly  good  trait  which  should  not  be  over- 
looked, and  that  is  its  fondness  for  the  seeds  of  the  Knot  grass  or  Knot  weed  and  of 
the  Dandelion.  These  pernicious  plants  frequently  appear  on  our  boulevards  and 
lawns  and  sometimes  destroy  the  grass  completely.  As  soon  as  the  seeds  of  these 
weeds  form  the  Sparrows  find  it  out,  constantly  visit  them  and  greedily  devour  the 
seed,  so  that  they  are  kept  down  to  a  very  great  extent  and  in  some  cases  quite 
cleared  out. 

HOUSE  SPAEROW. 

Description. 

Adult  male.  Crown  gray,  bordered  from  the  eye  backward  and  on  the  nape  by 
chestnut;  lesser  wing  coverts  chestnut,  middle  coverts  tipped  with  white;  back 
streaked  with  black  and  chestnut ;  upper  tail  coverts  ashy ;  middle  of  the  throat  and 
breast  black ;  sides  of  the  throat  white ;  belly  whitish. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  grayish  brown,  the  back  streaked  with  black  and 
dull  buffy,  under  parts  grayish  white. 

L.,  6.33 ;  W.,  3.00 ;  T.,"  2.30. 

Nest,  about  buildings  or  in  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  very  variable,  ground  color, 
generally  grayish  or  greenish  white,  speckled  and  blotched  with  varying  shades  of 
brown. 

FINCHES  AND  TANAGERS. 

PURPLE  FINCH. 

The  Purple  Finch  (the  adult  male  of  this  species  is  crimson,  not  purple)  in 
the  spring  is  sometimes  injurious  in  orchards  and  gardens,  where  it  destroys  the  buds 
of  fruit  trees.  They  will  also  devour  great  quantities  of  sunflower  and  other  seeds. 
They  are  not,  however,  sufficiently  numerous  to  cause  much  loss. 

WILD  CANARY. 

Certainly  a  very  useful  weed  destroyer  is  the  American  Goldfinch  or  Wild 
Canary  as  it  is  commonly  called ;  the  majority  of  these  little  birds  remain  with  us 
in  Southern  Ontario  all  through  the  year.  In  winter  they  gather  into  flocks  and 
resort  to  the  evergreen  woods,  where,  in  their  dull  brownish  yellow  plumage  of  that 
seacon  they  are  not  often  recognized.  At  this  time  their  food  consists  of  the  seeds 
of  the  hemlock  and  birch,  aud  of  such  plants  as  stick  up  through  the  snow.  On 
mild  days  flocks  of  them  may  sometimes  be  seen  visiting  the  weed  patches  about  the 
clearings.  In  the  summer  they  scatter  all  over  the  country,  frequently  nesting  in 
the  small  trees  about  the  farms  and  orchards.  They  are  not  insect  destroyers  to  any 
appreciable  extent,  their  favorite  food  being  the  seeds  of  some  of  our  most  noxious 
plant  enemies,  such  as  the  Dandelion,  Canada  Thistle,  and  others  bearing  plumed 
seed.  The  first  appearance  of  these  birds  in  the  cultivated  parts  of  the  country  is 
generally  co-incident  with  the  seeding  of  the  Dandelion.     As  soon  as  the  seed  is 


Ill 

formed  numbers  of  these  birds,  assisted  by  some  of  the  sparrows  I  have  mentioned, 
the  Purple  Finch  and  Indigo  Finches,  may  be  seen  flitting  from  head  to  head  eagerly 
feeding  upon  it,  and  so  preventing  a  greater  spread  than  we  have  of  this  troublesome 
plant.  By  the  end  of  July  and  on  through  August  the  Canada  and  other  thistles 
are  forming  and  ripening  their  seeds.  The  little  Goldfinches  fairly  revel  in  these. 
Their  sharp  beaks  are  adapted  for  probing  the  involucre  of  the  plants  and  extracting 
the  seed,  from  which  they  first  cut  off  the  plume,  and  then  devour  the  seed. 

This  class  of  weeds  is  one  of  the  worst  pests  we  have  to  contend  with,  and  is 
very  difficult  to  get  out  of  the  land  where  it  has  established  itself.  As  it  is  we  are 
overourdened  with  it,  and  without  its  natural  enemies  to  assist  us  in  keeping  it  down 
we  should  find  the  contest  much  more  difficult  to  carry  on. 

FINCHES. 

Description. 

PUEPLE  FINCH. 

Adult  male.  Entire  body  crimson,  brightest  on  the  head,  upper  tail  coverts  and 
breast;  streaked  and  washed  with  brown  on  the  back;  white  on  the  belly;  wings  and 
tail  dusky;  the  outer  webs  of  the  feathers  finely  edged  with  red. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  grayish  brown,  finely  streaked  with  black;  wings 
and  tail  dark  grayish  brown;  under  parts  white  heavily  streaked  with  brown;  a 
whitish  line  over  the  eye. 

L.,  6.00;  W.,  3.25*;  T.,  2.30. 

Nest,  in  low  coniferous  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  blue,  spotted  and  scrawled 
at  the  larger  end  with  purplish  brown. 

INDIGO   FINCH. 

Adult  male.  Rich  blue,  darkest  on  the  head  and  throat;  lores,  blackish;  wings 
and  tail  black,  the  quills  margined  with  blue. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  uniform  cinnamon  brown  without  streaks,  wings 
and  tail  dusky,  the  quills  usually  slightly  margined  with  blue;  under  parts  whitish 
brown,  indistinctly  streaked,  belly  whiter. 

L.,  5.50;  W.,  2.55;  T.,  2.10. 

Nest,  in  a  low  bush.    Eggs,  three  or  four,  pale  bluish  white. 

SCAELET  TANAGEE. 

Adult  male.    Bright  scarlet,  wings  and  tail  black. 

Adult  female.    Upper  parts  clear  olive  green;  below  clear  greenish  yellow. 
L.,  7.25;  W.,  3.75;  T.,  2.10. 

Nest,  on  the  horizontal  limb  of  a  tree.  Eggs,  three  or  four,  pale  bluish  white, 
speckled  with  reddish  brown  and  lilac. 


113 


EEDPOLL. 

Adutl  male.  Crown  very  deep  crimson;  back  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  it\ar- 
gined  with  buff;  upper  tail  coverts  white  or  rose  pink;  wings  and  tail  dusky,  the 
feathers  more  or  less  edged  with  whitish ;  middle  of  the  throat  black ;  breast  in  birds 
of  high  plumage  suffused  with  rose  pink;  sides  streaked  with  blackish. 

Adult  female.  Similar,  but  without  pink  on  breast  or  tail;  coverts  and  sides 
more  heavily  streaked. 

L.,  5.50;  W.,  2.75;  T.,  2.33. 

Nest,  in  a  low  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  bluish,  spotted  with  reddish  brown. 

PINE  FINCH— SISKIN. 

Above,  dull  olivacious  streaked  with  dusky  and  brown,  the  feathers  margined 
with  pale  grayish;  wings  dusky,  most  of  the  feathers  margined  with  yellow  and 
yellow  at  the  base ;  tail  dusky  all  but  the  middle  feathers,  yellow  at  the  base ;  under 
parts  whitish  and  heavily  streaked  with  dusky. 

L.,  5.00;  W.,  2.75;  T.,  1.85. 

Nest,  in  coniferous  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  bluish  white,  thinly  spotted 
with  reddish  brown. 

GROSBEAKS. 

The  Rose-hreasted  Grosbeak  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  beautiful  of  the 
family,  and  is  of  more  than  usual  interest  because  it  is  one  of  the  very  few 
birds  that  will  eat  the  Colorado  potato  beetle  and  its  larvs,  and  also  the  larv»  of 
the  Tussock  moth,  this  last  being  a  hairy  caterpillar  very  destructive  to  almost  all 
shade  and  orchard  trees. 

I  have  had  two  of  these  birds  in  my  possession  for  a  long  time,  one  of  them 
for  sixteen  years.  They  are  both  extremely  fond  of  potato  beetles  and  will  at  any 
time  readily  eat  from  ten  to  a  dozen  of  them  from  my  fingers  and  then,  like  Oliver 
Twist,  ask  for  more. 

Unfortunately  these  Grosbeaks  are  of  a  retiring  disposition  and  usually  resort 
to  the  seclusion  of  the  woods,  probably  because,  owing  to  its  bright  plumage,  it  has 
been  persecuted.  Of  late,  however,  it  seems  to  be  increasing  in  Ontario,  and  if 
unmolested  it  may  possibly  become  more  familiar  in  its  habits.  If  so  its  services 
in  lessening  the  number  of  Tussock  Moths  and  potato  beetles  would  be  of  great 
value. 

None  of  the  members  of  this  family  are  addicted  to  eating  the  ordinary  grain  or 
fruit  crops. 

GROSBEAKS. 

Description. 

ROSE-BREASTED  GROSBEAK. 

Adult  male.  Head,  throat  and  back  black;  upper  tail  coverts  white  barred  with 
black ;  wings  black ;  primaries,  white  at  the  base  and  wing  coverts  tipped  with  white ; 
tail  black,  the  outer  feathers  tipped  with  white  on  the  inner  web ;  breast  bright  car- 
mine ;  under  wing  coverts  rose  red ;  rest  of  under  parts  white. 

Adult  female.  Upper  parts  grayish  brown,  the  feathers  margined  with  buffy 
gray ;  a  buff  line  down  the  centre  of  the  crown  and  a  white  line  over  the  eye ;  wings 
and  tail  dusky  brown,  wing  coverts  tipped  with  white;  under  wings,  coverts  yellow; 
the  rest  of  the  under  parts  creamy,  streaked  with  brown. 


113 


i 


j 

/ 

^. 

a 

*-'y 

<D 

s        / 

.± — / 

!=J 
P4 

•-a 
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8-218 


114 

L.,  8.12;  W.,  4.00;  T.,  3.00. 

Nest,  in  a  low  tree.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  blue,  much  spotted  with  reddish 
brown. 

PINE   GROSBEAK. 

Adult  male.  Chiefly  carmine,  darkest  and  streaked  with  dusky  on  the  back, 
fading  to  rose  red  on  the  upper  tail  coverts  and  breast;  wings  dusky  with  two  white 
bars;  tail  dusky. 

Fem.ale.  Ashy  gray;  crown,  upper  tail  coverts  and  breast  more  or  less  olive 
yellow. 

L.,  9.00;  W.,  4.35;  T.,  3.65. 

Nest,  in  the  far  north,  on  low  coniferous  trees.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  pale  greenish 
blue,  spotted  and  blotched  with  brown  and  lilac. 

EVENING  GROSBEAK. 

Adult  male.  Forehead  and  line  over  the  eye  yellow,  crown  black,  sides  of  head 
olive ;  upper  tail  coverts  yellow ;  tail,  black ;  wings,  black,  end  half  of  the  secondaries 
and  their  coverts,  white ;  scapulars  and  belly,  yellow ;  bill,  greenish  yellow. 

Adult  female.  Brownish  gray ;  lighter  and  more  or  less  tinged  with  yellow  on 
the  under  parts. 

L.,  8.00;  W.,  4.50;  T.,  3.50. 

Nest,  in  North-West,  on  a  low  tree.  Eggs,  three  or  four,  greenish,  spotted  with 
brown. 

LARKS. 

PRAIRIE  HORNED  LARK. 

Prairie  Horned  Lark.  These  birds  have  become  summer  residents  with  us  only 
within  the  last  forty  years,  prior  to  that  a  Horned  Lark  rather  larger  and  darker 
than  the  one  we  nowr  have  used  to  visit  us  in  small  numbers  with  the  snow  birds  in 
winter;  of  late  this  winter  form  has  rarely  been  seen.  The  Prairie  Horned  Lark  is 
the  first  of  our  migrants  to  distribute  itself  through  the  country,  usually  becoming 
abundant  in  the  southern  frontier  counties  early  in  February,  when  those  that  have 
remained  in  this  part  of  the  country  are  joined  by  those  that  have  spent  the  winter 
further  south,  and  they  spread  all  over  the  cultivated  parts  of  the  Province  before 
the  snow  disappears.  It  is  the  first  of  our  small  birds  to  breed.  I  have  several  times 
found  their  nests  containing  eggs  in  the  first  week  in  April,  and  have  seen  young 
able  to  fly  a  little  as  early  as  the  15th  of  that  month.  Two  or  sometimes  three 
broods  are  raised  in  the  season. 

These  birds  frequent  open  fields  and  tracts  of  fallow  or  sandy  land,  and  feed 
on  the  insects  they  find  in  such  places,  and  on  the  seeds  of  many  of  our  most  trouble- 
some weeds.  Sometimes  in  the  autumn  I  have  noticed  a  few  grains  of  oats  among 
their  stomach  contents,  but  never  at  any  other  season.  As  these  larks,  during  their 
stay  with  us,  obtain  nearly  all  their  food  from  the  cultivated  lands,  and  that  food 
consists  of  just  the  things  we  are  most  anxious  to  keep  in  check,  the  services  they 
render  are  very  valuable. 

In  November  the  bulk  of  the  Horned  Larks  leave  us  and  go  south.  A  good 
many,  however,  remain  in  Southern  Ontario,  if  the  winter  is  not  too  severe,  and 


115 

now  that  the  custom  of  hauling  out  manure  onto  the  fields  through  the  winter  is 
becoming  general  the  number  of  birds  that  stay  seems  to  be  increasing. 

PEAIRIE  HORNED  LARK. 

Description. 

Adult  male.  Forehead  line  over  the  eye,  ear  region  and  throat  white,  more  or 
less  tinged  with  yellow ;  fore  part  of  the  crown,  a  tuft  of  elongated  feathers  on  either 
side  of  the  head,  a  mark  from  the  bill  below  the  eye  and  then  downward  to  the  side 
of  the  throat,  and  a  patch  on  the  breast  black ;  back  of  the  head  and  neck  and  upper 
tail  coverts  vinaceous,  more  or  less  washed  with  grayish  brown ;  back  grayish  brown, 
edged  with  brownish  ash  and  tinged  with  vinaceous;  wing  coverts  deep  vinaceous; 
tail  black,  the  outer  vanes  of  the  outer  feathers  margined  with  white,  the  middle 
feathers  broadly  margined  with  brownish  and  vinaceous;  below  white. 

Adult  female.     Similar,  but  duller  and  the  black  much  less  sharply  defined. 

L.,  7.75;  W.,  4.25;  T.,  2.84. 

JSTest,  on  the  ground  in  open  fields.  Eggs,  four  or  five,  grayish  white,  speckled 
with  dusky  and  brown. 

DOVES— MOURNING  DOVE. 

Besides  the  species  I  have  referred  to  there  are  many  others  assisting  us  as  weed 
destroyers,  amongst  them  the  Mourning  Dove.  This  is  the  only  bird  I  know  that 
feeds  exclusively  on  seeds,  and  while  it  may  possibly  at  times  consume  a  little  grain, 
yet  its  services  in  keeping  down  some  of  our  most  noxious  weeds  will  amply  pay  for 
what  it  takes,  unless  perhaps  it  should  become  too  abundant  in  the  country,  a  condi- 
tion not  likely  to  happen  in  these  days  of  breech-loaders,  etc.  I  have  on  several 
occasions  shot  these  doves  in  the  autumn,  and  on  picking  them  up  found  their  crops 
so  full  of  weed  seeds  that  they  burst  on  striking  the  ground.  In  several  cases  I 
noticed  that  the  bulk  of  the  food  contained  in  the  crop  consisted  of  seeds  of  the  bind- 
weed, a  plant  that  becomes  very  injurious  when  established  on  cultivated  land. 

Description. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  grayish  olive;  forehead  vinaceous;  crown  bluish  slate 
color ;  sides  of  the  neck  with  brilliant  metallic  reflections  of  purple,  green  and  bluish ; 
a  small  black  mark  below  the  ear  and  several  others  on  the  wing  coverts  and  scapu- 
lars; middle  tail  feathers  like  back;  the  others  slaty  blue  for  the  basal  half,  then 
crossed  with  a  black  bar,  then  white ;  breast  vinaceous ;  below  creamy  buff. 

Adult  female.  Similar  but  duller,  less  iridescence;  breast  and  forehead  grayish 
brown. 

L.,  11.80;  W.,  5.75;  T.,  5.50. 

Nest,  on  a  low  tree,  or  overgrown  fence.    Eggs,  two,  pure  white. 

GAME  BIRDS. 

Of  our  game  birds  the  only  tv/o  that  are  of  economic  importance  as  insect  or  weed 
destroyers  are  the  Ruffed  Grouse,  commonly  called  "  Partridge,"  and  the  Quail  or 
"Bob  White." 

The  Ruffed  Grouse  sometimes  visits  the  edges  of  cultivated  fields  lying  next  to 
woodlands,  and  there  feeds  upon  weed  seeds  to  a  limited  extent,  but  as  a  grasshopper 
destroyer  this  bird  is  of  considerable  value. 


116 

In  the  latter  part  of  August  and  through  September  "  Partridges"  are  fond  of 
getting  out  on  grassy  places  at  the  edge  of  bush  pastures  where  they  gorge  themselves 
upon  these  insects.  If  examined  at  this  season  their  crops  will  often  be  found  to  be 
packed  full  of  them. 

In  the  cool  mornings  and  evenings  of  September  grasshoppers  are  lethargic  and 
may  be  found  on  the  weed  stems  in  great  numbers.  At  such  times  the  "  Partridges" 
can  get  them  easily  without  exposing  themselves  too  far  from  cover,  and  they  gen- 
erally avail  themselves  of  their  opportunity,  thereby  doing  themselves  and  the  farm- 
ers much  good. 

THE  QUAIL. 

This  beautiful  game  bird,  besides  furnishing  considerable  sport  and  delicious 
food,  is  an  insect  eater  and  a  notable  weed  destroyer,  and  therefore  of  the  greatest 
possible  economic  importance  to  the  farmer  and  fruit  grower.  Unfortunately  for 
the  rest  of  the  Province  this  bird  is  confined  to  our  southern  and  southwestern  coun- 
ties, and  even  there  it  is  not  now  nearly  as  abundant  as  it  used  to  be,  or  as  it  should 
be. 

The  Quail  is  one  of  the  birds  that  is  directly  beneficial  to  the  agriculturist;  all 
its  life  is  spent  among  the  crops  upon  which  he  expends  his  labor  and  from  which 
he  derives  his  profit,  and  it  is  constantly  engaged  in  destroying  the  insects  that  are 
most  destructive  to  the  plants  raised  by  his  care  under  cultivation. 

For  the  first  two  or  three  months  of  their  lives  young  quail  feed  almost  entirely 
on  insects,  and  each  one  will,  while  it  is  growing,  consume  nearly  its  own  weight  of 
them  every  day.  To  obtain  this  quantity  the  number  eaten  must  be  very  large.  As 
the  birds  approach  maturity  they  vary  their  diet  by  adding  the  seeds  of  various 
weeds,  grasses,  etc.,  to  their  fare,  but  still  take  large  numbers  of  insects  so  long  as 
they  are  obtainable,  grasshoppers  in  the  autumn  forming  one  of  the  principal  articles 
of  their  food.  After  these  fail  they  are  compelled  to  find  their  sustenance  in  the 
stubble  fields  and  weed  patches,  where  they  glean  sufficient  food  to  keep  themselves 
in  good  condition  until  the  supply  is  cut  off  by  deep  snow ;  then  it  is  that  our  quail 
suffer  from  lack  of  food  and  die  in  large  numbers  from  starvation  and  cold. 

If  well  fed,  quail  can  withstand  the  severity  of  our  winters  quite  readily,  but  if 
starved  they,  like  all  animals,  gradually  succumb  to  cold,  and  it  is  by  reason  of  their 
inability  to  obtain  food  when  deep  snow  covers  the  ground  that  so  many  are  lost 
every  winter.  This  could  be  prevented  if  the  farmers  and  fruit  growers  in  the  quail 
counties  would  afford  the  birds  a  little  food  and  protection  to  carry  them  over 
the  latter  part  of  the  winter  season  in  which  the  greatest  mortality  occurs. 

A  simple  method  of  affording  the  requisite  protection  and  food  is  to  arrange 
three  or  four  forked  poles  so  that  they  support  each  other  in  tent  form,  and  throw 
over  them  a  little  pea  straw,  buckwheat  stalks,  or  any  such  waste  stuff,  so  as  to  have 
a  hollow  underneath,  into  which  the  birds  can  go  and  be  safe  from  storms.  Into  these 
places  throw  a  few  measures  of  tailings  or  waste  grain  occasionally,  and  the  quail 
will  be  able  to  maintain  themselves  in  safety. 

For  the  slight  trouble  necessary  to  provide  a  few  of  these  shelters  around  a  farm 
and  orchard  the  farmer  and  fruit  grower  will  be  amply  repaid  the  following  season 
by  a  good  stock  of  quail  to  keep  down  the  insects  and  weeds  that  destroy  his  crops 
during  the  summer,  and  to  provide  sport  for  himself  and  his  friends  in  the  autumn. 


117 


■•s.-_. 


O) 


O 


as 


118 

QUAIL— BOB  WHITE. 

Description. 

Adult  male.  Upper  parts  variegated  with  chestnut,  black,  gray  and  tawny; 
interscapulars  with  broken  black  bars ;  inner  vane  of  tertials  widely  margined  with 
creamy  buff;  tail  ashy  gray,  the  inner  feathers  finely  mottled  with  buffy;  front  of  the 
crown,  a  band  from  the  bill  to  beneath  the  eye  and  a  band  on  the  upper  breast  black ; 
throat  and  a  broad  line  from  the  bill  over  the  eye  white;  sides  chestnut,  margined 
with  black  and  white;  lower  breast  and  below  white  barred  with  black. 

Adult  female.  Similar  but  duller  and  the  throat,  line  over  the  eye,  forehead  and 
lores  buff;  little  or  no  black  on  the  upper  breast. 

Nest,  on  the  ground,  arched  over  by  grass  or  weeds.  Eggs,  ten  to  fifteen,  pure 
white. 

EUFFED  GEOUSE— PAETEIDGE. 

A  very  variable  species;  general  color  of  the  upper  parts  much  variegated  with 
black,  chestnut  buffy  and  gray,  sometimes  chestnut  and  sometimes  gray  prevailing; 
sides  of  the  neck  with  large  tufts  of  broad  glossy  black  or  coppery  colored  feathers ; 
tail  varying  from  pearly  gray  to  rich  chestnut,  irregularly  barred  and  mottled  with 
black;  a  broad  black  or  coppery  band  near  the  end;  tip  gray;  throat  and  breast 
creamy,  barred  with  blackish  or  brown. 

Nest,  on  the  ground  in  woods.  Eggs,  eight  or  ten,  buff,  sometimes  faintly 
speckled  with  brown, 

CONCLUSION. 

There  are  other  families  of  birds  more  or  less  directly  beneficial  or  injurious 
to  our  interests,  but  space  will  not  permit  an  extended  notice  of  each.  Even  the 
little  Humming-bird,  which  is  generally  supposed  to  feed  only  on  the  nectar  of 
flowers,  is  a  destroyer  of  insects,  and  also  helps  to  pollenize  many  blossoms.  Enough, 
I  trust,  has  been  said  to  impress  upon  my  readers  the  great  value  of  the  majority 
of  our  birds  to  the  agriculturist. 

I  have  seen  estimates  of  the  amount  of  damage  done  to  the  crops  by  insects  in 
various  countries,  including  our  own  Province,  and  although  they  usually  stand  at 
some  millions  of  dollars  annually,  I  believe  they  are  much  below  the  mark.  It  is 
difficult  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  yearly  loss  from  this  cause  to  ordinary  field  crops, 
because  the  plants  are  crowded  so  thickly  together  that  a  large  proportion  may  be 
destroyed  in  the  earlier  growing  stages  without  being  noticed,  and  it  is  only  when 
the  matured  crop  fails  to  reach  the  expected  quantity  that  we  realize  the  fact  that 
something  has  gone  wrong,  but  unfortunately  it  is  then  too  late  to  remedy  the  matter. 
In  our  gardens  we  can  more  readily  see  the  amount  of  injury  done  by  insects,  and 
can  take  measures  to  reduce  it;  but  in  spite  of  our  efforts  the  loss  is  still  enormous. 
What  would  it  be  if  we  had  not  the  birds  to  assist  in  keeping  down  the  swarm  of 
insect  life?  The  great  trouble  now  is  that  we  have  not  sufficient  number  of  birds 
to  keep  the  balance  between  vegetable  and  insect  life  in  our  favour. 

We  know  that  the  common  cut-worm  causes  much  loss  every  year  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  almost  all  our  ground-feeding  birds  eat  great  numbers  of  them,  and 
that  the  birds  that  feed  among  the  trees  and  on  the  wing  destroy  very  many  of  the 


119 

moths  which  produce  them,  so  we  can  easily  imagine  what  the  result  would  be  to 
the  crops  if  these  creatures  were  allowed  to  increase  unmolested  by  their  natural 
enemies;  so  prolific  are  they,  that  I  believe  the  increase  of  one  season  would  pro- 
vide a  sufficient  number  to  clear  off  all  the  crops  we  cultivate. 

A  constant  war  is  being  carried  on  between  the  insect  world  and  the  vegetable 
kingdom.  The  laws  of  nature  would  keep  the  balance  about  evenly  adjusted.  But 
man  requires  that  it  should  be  inclined  in  favour  of  the  plants  he  cultivates  for  his 
own  use.  To  obtain  this  end  it  is  necessary  that  we  should  carefully  protect  and 
encourage  all  the  forces  that  will  work  on  our  side  against  our  insect  enemies,  and 
while  they  are  not  the  only  ones,  yet  the  birds  are  the  most  important  allies  we  can 
have  in  the  struggle.  We  cannot  very  well  increase  their  number  or  efficiency  by 
any  artificial  means,  but  we  can  protect  them  from  such  of  their  natural  enemies 
as  occur  in  our  own  neighborhood,  and  v^e  can  encourage  them  to  remain  and  breed 
about  our  farms  and  gardens.  If  this  was  done  over  the  country  generally  we  should 
find  ourselves  amply  repaid  for  the  small  amount  of  trouble  expended,  by  the  pro- 
tection they  would  give  our  plant  life  against  its  destructive  enemies. 

Experience  has  shown  that  laws  are  of  but  little  use  in  accomplishing  reforms, 
unless  sustained  by  an  intelligent,  sympathetic  public  opinion,  and  this  is  what  we 
require  to  cultivate  on  behalf  of  our  birds.  We  have  a  protective  law,  wl.!ch  is 
amply  sufficient  if  it  was  only  properly  enforced.  Every  person  can  protect  the 
birds  upon  his  own  lands,  and  if  he  would  only  do  so,  the  benefits  to  be  derived 
from  his  efforts  would  soon  be  apparent. 

Not  only  should  we  defend  and  encourage  our  birds  for  the  good  they  do  in 
protecting  our  crops,  but  also  from  higher  motives.  There  is  nothing  in  nature 
more  beautiful  than  the  living  bird — nothing  that  shows  more  clearly  the  wonder- 
ful adaptation  of  the  created  thing  to  the  purpose  it  is  intended  to  serve,  and  no 
form  of  life  that  can  better  gratify  the  more  refined  senses  of  mankind  than  our 
feathered  friends;  their  graceful  forms  and  beautiful  colouring  excel  the  flowers, 
while  they  alone  are  gifted  with  the  power  of  producing  that  exquisite  music  which 
above  all  things  charms  the  lover  of  nature. 


H 


120 

ACT   FOR    THE    PROTECTION    OF    INSECTIVOROUS    AND    OTHER    BIRDS. 

Chapter  289,  R.S.O.  1897. 

ER  MAJESTY,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Legislative  Assembly 
of  the  Province  of  Ontario,  enacts  as  follows: 

1.  Nothing  in  this  Act  contained  shall  be  held  to  affect  The  Ontario  Game  Protection 
Act,  or  to  apply  to  any  imported  cage  birds  or  other  domesticated  bird  or  birds  generally 
known  as  cage  birds,  or  to  any  bird  or  birds  generally  known  as  poultry. 

2._(i)  Except  as  in  section  6  of  this  Act  provided,  it  shall  not  be  lawful  to  shoot, 
destroy,  wound,  catch,  net,  snare,  poison,  drug  or  otherwise  kill  or  injure,  or  to  attempt 
to'^shoot,  destroy,  wound,  catch,  net,  snare,  poison,  drug  or  otherwise  kill  or  injure,  any 
wild  native  birds  other  than  hawks,  crows,  blackbirds  and  English  sparrows,  and  the 
birds  especially  mentioned  in  The  Ontario  Game  Protection  Act. 

(2)  Any  person  may,  during  the  fruit  season,  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  his  fruit 
from  the  attacks  of  such  birds,  shoot  or  destroy,  on  his  own  premises,  the  bird  known 
as  the  robin  without  being  liable  to  any  penalty  under  this  Act. 

3.  Except  as  in  section  6  of  this  Act  provided,  it  shall  not  be  lawful  to  take,  capture, 
expose  for  sale  or  have  in  possession  any  bird  whatsoever,  save  the  kinds  hereinbefore 
or  hereinafter  excepted,  or  to  set  wholly  or  in  part  any  net,  trap,  springe,  snare,  cage  or 
other  machine  or  engine,  by  which  any  bird  whatsoever,  save  and  except  hawks,  crows, 
blackbirds  and  English  sparrows,  might  be  killed  and  captured;  and  any  net,  trap, 
springe,  snare,  cage  or  other  machine  or  engine,  set  either  wholly  or  in  part  for  the 
purpose  of  either  capturing  or  killing  any  bird  or  birds  save  and  except  hawks,  crows, 
blackbirds  and  English  sparrows,  may  be  destroyed  by  any  person  without  such  person 
incurring  any  liability  therefor.  _    , 

4.  Save  as  in  section  6  of  this  Act  provided,  it  shall  not  be  lawful  to  take,  injure, 
destroy  or  have  in  possession  any  nest,  young  or  egg  of  any  kind  whatsoever,  except  of 
hawks,  crows,  blackbirds  and  English  sparrows. 

5.  Any  person  may  seize,  on  view,  any  bird  unlawfully  possessed,  and  carry  the 
same  before  any  justice  of  the  peace,  to  be  by  him  confiscated,  and  if  alive  to  be 
liberated;  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  all  market  clerks  and  policemen  or  constables  on 
the  sipot  to  seize  and  confiscate,  and  if  alive  to  liberate,  such  birds. 

6.  The  chief  game  warden  for  the  time  being,  under  The  Ontario  Game  Protection 
Act,  may  on  receiving  from  any  ornithologist  or  student  of  ornithology,  or  biologist, 
or  student  of  biology,  an  application  and  recommendation  according  to  the  forms  A 
and  B  in  the  schedule  hereto,  grant  to  such  an  applicant  a  permit  in  the  form  C  in  said 
schedule,  empowering  the  holder  to  collect,  and  to  purchase  or  exchange  all  birds  or 
eggs  otherwise  protected  by  this  Act,  at  any  time  or  season  he  may  require  the  same 
for  the  purposes  of  study,  without  the  liability  to  penalties  imposed  by  this  Act. 

7.  The  permits  granted  under  the  last  preceding  section  shall  continue  in  force 
until  the  end  of  the  calendar  year  in  which  they  are  issued,  and  may  be  renewed  at 
the   option   of  the   chief  game   warden   for   the   time   being   under   The   Ontario   Game 

P7*Ot€Ct'i07%   Act 

g (1)   The  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  Act  shall  subject  the  offender  to  the 

payment  of  not  less  than  one  dollar  and  not  more  than  twenty  dollars,  with  costs,  on 
summary  conviction,  on  information  or  complaint  before  one  or  more  justices  of  the 

peace.  ,         i,  •  i.- 

(2)  The  whole  of  the  fine  shall  be  paid  to  the  prosecutor  unless  the  convicting 
justice  has  reason  to  believe  that  the  prosecution  is  in  collusion  with  and  for  the 
purpose  of  benefiting  the  accused,  in  which  case  the  said  justice  may  order  the  disposal 
of  the  fine  as  in  ordinary  cases.  .        . 

(3)  In  default  of  payment  of  the  fine  and  costs,  the  offender  shall  be  imprisoned 
in  the  nearest  common  gaol  for  a  period  of  not  less  than  two  and  not  more  than  twenty 
days,  at  the  discretion  of  the  justice. 

9.  No  conviction  under  this  Act  shall  be  quashed  for  any  defect  in  the  form  thereof, 
or  for  any  omission  or  informality  in  any  summons  or  other  proceedings  under  this  Act 
so  long  as  no  substantial  injustice  results  therefrom. 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

American    Goldfinch    97 

American   Redstart    91 

Baltimore   Oriole    47 

Barn    Swallow     81 

Black-billed  Cuckoo   73 

Blue    Jay    35 

Bobolink    41 

Bronze  Grackle   37 

Catbird     67 

Cedar  Waxwing    69 

Chipping  Sparrow    105 

Cowbird   39 

Downy  Woodpecker  49 

Flicker  53 

Fox  Sparrow    108 

Golden-crowned  Kinglet  101      j 

Goshawk    8      1 

Great  Horned  Owl   19 

Horned  Lark   113 

House   Wren    69 

Killdeer   29 

Kingbird    77 

Loggerhead  Shrike  29 

Long-eared  Owl  21 


PAGE 

Marsh  Hawk    15 

Meadowlark    43 

Myrtle  Warbler  91 

Nighthawk    85 

Phoebe     81 

Pileated  Woodpecker  57 

Purple  Finch    113 

Quail     117 

Red-headed  Woodpecker  50 

Robin    63 

Rose-breasted  Grosbeak    101 

Rough-legged   Hawk    9 

Ruby-throated  Humming-bird  87 

Sapsucker    54 

Screech  Owl   19 

Sharp-shinned  Hawk  15 

Short-eared  Owl    21 

Song  Sparrow    105 

Sparrow  Hawk    12 

Whip-poor-will   84 

White-breasted  Nuthatch   59 

White-throated    Sparrow    107 

Wood  Thrush  59 

Yellow  Warbler  . 97 


INDEX 


A.  PAGE 

Act  for  the  Protection  of  Birds   120 

American    Goldfinch    110 

"  Three-toed  Woodpecker  48,     56 

Aphides     60,  109 

Arctic  Three-toed  Woodpecker   ...48,     55 

B. 

Baltimore  Oriole   3,  42,  44,  46 

Bank  Swallow   1,  80,  83 

Barn  Swallow  80,  82 

Barred  Owl 18,22,23,  25 

Bartramian  Sandpiper  28,  30 

Bay-breasted  Warbler 88,  94 

Beal,  F.  E.  L 78,  102 

Bee  Martin   78 

Beneficial  Hawks   16 

Birds,  Economic  Value  of   2 

'       in  the  Orchard    60 

"      Known  to  Science   1 

"       Migration  of 2 

of  Ontario  1 

"       Study  of   1 

"       Work   of    26 

Black-and-white  Warbler   4,  88,  89 

Blackbirds   26,  31,  36,  44 

Black-billed  Cuckoo 71,  72 

Blackbird  Crow   36,  44 

Blackburnian  Warbler    4,  88,  94 

Blackpoll  Warbler   4,  88,  94 

Blackbird,  Red-winged 38,  45 

Black-throated  Blue  Warbler... 4,  88,  92 

Green  Warbler.. 4,  88,  95 


PAGE 

Bluebird  1,  3,  4,  62,  64,  66 

Blue-gray  Gnatcatcher   99,  100 

Blue-headed  Vireo  72,  75 

Blue  Jay 33,  34 

Bobolink  1,  3,  40,  46 

Bob-White    115,  118 

Bohemian  Waxwing   75,  76 

Broad-winged   Hawk    7,   10,   13,  16 

Bronze  Grackle    36,  44 

Brown  Creeper 58,  60,  61 

Thrush    68 

Bunting,   Snow    106 

Butcher-birds    26 

0. 

Canada  Jay  34,  36 

Thistle    110 

Canadian   Warbler    88,  98 

Canary,  Wild   HO 

Canker-worm    '• 60 

Cape  May  Warbler    88,  92 

Catbird    66.  68 

Cat-Owl    18 

Cats    6,  62 

Cecropia  Moth   48 

Cedar  Waxwing  75,  76 

Cerulean  Warbler    88,  93 

Chat,  Yellow-breasted  88.  89 

Cherrybird   75,  76 

Chestnut-sided    Warbler    88,  93 

Chickadee  51,  58,  60,  61 

Chimney  Swift    L  82,  83 

Chipping  Sparrow 1.  102,  103 


121 


123 


PAGE 

Click  Beetles   42 

Cliff  Swallow  3,80,  82 

Cock  of  the  Woods  48,  55 

Codling  Moth    51,  60 

Connecticut  Warbler    88,  96 

Cooper's  Hawk  7,  14 

Cowbird    38,  45 

Creeper,  Brown  58,60,  61 

Tree  58,  60,  61 

Crested  Flycatcher    76,  79 

Crow  31,  32,  33 

Crow,  Blackbird  36,  44 

Cuckoos   26,  71,  72 

Cuckoo,  Black-billed   71,  72 

Yellow-billed    71,  72 

Cutworm   32,  62,  64 

D. 

Dandelion    110 

Doves    115 

Dove,  Mourning    115      i 

Duck  Hawk  7,  13      j 

Downy  Woodpecker    48,  56      i 

E.  ! 

Eagles    7 

Economic  Value  of  Birds 2 

Evening  Grosbeak    114 

F. 

Field   Sparrow    102,  104      ' 

Finches    110 

Finch,  Indigo  Ill 

Pine    112 

Purple   110,  111 

Fisher,  Dr 11      : 

Flicker  1,  51,  58 

Flycatchers    26,  76 

Flycatcher,    Crested    76,  79 

Least    76,  80 

Olive-sided     76,  79 

Traill's  76,  80 

Yellow-bellied   76,  80 

Forbush,  E.  H 55,  60,  89 

Fox   Sparrow    103,  104 

G. 

Game  Birds    115 

Gnatcatcher,  Blue-gray    99,  100 

Golden-crowned  Thrush    96 

Kinglet    99,  100 

Plover    30,     31 

-winged  Warbler    88,     89 

Woodpecker  ..  .48,  51,     58 

Goldfinch,    American      110 

Goshawk     7,     14 

Grackle,  Bronze   28,     32 

Rusty    29,     33 

Graybirds    102 

Gray-cheeked  Thrush   62,     65 

Great  Gray  Owl   22,     24 

"       Horned  Owl   18,23,     33 

Greenlets  72 

Grosbeaks    112 

Grosbeak,    Evening    79 

Pine   79 

"  Rose-breasted    78 

Grouse,  Ruffed   115,  118 


H.  PAGE 

Hairy  Woodpecker    48,  56 

Hawks,  Beneficial  16 

"        Injurious    13 

Hen  10,  11 

Hawks  and  Owls    5 

Hawk,  Broad-winged 7,  10,  13  16 

"        Cooper's    7,  14 

Duck    7,  13 

Gos     7,  14 

Marsh 7,  10,  13,  16 

Owl   18,  22,  24 

Pigeon  7,  14 

Red-tailed  7,  10,  11,  16 

Red-shouldered   7,10,13,  16 

Rough-legged 7,  10,  11,  13,  17 

Sharp-shinned  7,  14 

Sparrow   7,10,11,13,  17 

Hermit  Thrush   3,  62,  66 

High-holder    51,  58 

Hooded  Warbler 88,  98 

Horned  Lark   114 

"       Prairie    114,  115 

House  Sparrow   102,  106,  110 

Wren 1,  68,  70 

Humming-bird,  Ruby-throated  .  .5,  86,  88 

I. 

Indigo  Finch    Ill 

Injurious  Hawks   7,     13 

Insect  Destroyers   25 

Insects,  Loss  caused  by   2 

J. 

Jay,  Blue   33,     34 

"      Canada    34,     36 

Junco     103,  106 

June-bug     62,     83 

K. 

Killdeer    30,     31 

Kingbird     76,     79 

Kinglets    99,  100 

Kinglet,  Golden-crowned   99,  100 

Ruby-crowned    99,  100 

Kirtland's  Warbler   88,     95 

Knotweed    110 

L. 

Larks    114 

Lark,  Horned  114 

Prairie  Horned 114,  115 

Least  Flycatcher   76,  80 

Loggerhead  Shrike   26,  27 

Long-billed  Marsh  Wren   68,  70 

Long-eared  Owl   18,  23,  25 

Louisiana  Water  Thrush    88,  95 

M. 

Magnolia  Warbler 4,  88,  93 

Marsh  Hawk  7,  10,  13,  16 

Maryland   Warbler    88,  98 

Meadowlark  1,  26,  42,  46 

Migration  of  Birds  2 

Mockers   66 

Mourning  Dove  115 

Warbler    88,  96 

Mouse  Plague  in  Scotland 6 

Myrtle  Warbler  4,  88,  93 


123 


N.  PAGE 

Nashville  Warbler 88,  89 

Nighthawk 4,  26,  82,  83,  86 

Northern  Shrike    26,  27 

Nuthatch,  White-breasted 58,  60,  61 

Red-breasted 58,60,  61 

Nuthatches    48,   51,  58,  61 

0. 

Olive-backed  Thrush   3,  62,  66 

"      sided  Flycatcher     76,79 

Orange-crowned  Warbler 88,  89 

Orchard,  Birds  in  the  60 

Orioles   1,  26,  31,  42,  44 

Oriole,  Baltimore   3,  42,  44,  46 

Orchard    44,  46 

Ovenbird    88,  96 

Owls    17 

Owls   and    Hawks    5 

Owl,  Barred 18,  22,  23,  25 

"     Cat    18 

"     Great  Gray 22,  24 

"     Horned  18,  23,  33 

"     Hawk    18,  22,  24 

"     Long-eared    18,23,  25 

"     Richardson's    22,  24 

"     Saw  Whet    22,  24 

"     Screech    18,    22,    23,  24 

"     Short-eared   6,18,20,23,  25 

"     Snowy 18,  22,  25 

P. 

Palm   Warbler    88,     95 

Partridge    115,  118 

Parula  Warbler    88,     92 

Passenger  Pigeon  1 

Peewee,  Wood  76,     79 

Phoebe   1,  76,  78,     79 

Philadelphia  Vireo    72,     74 

Pigeon  Hawk 7,     14 

Wild    1 

"         Woodpecker  51 

Pileated  Woodpecker    48,     55 

Pine  Finch    112 

"      Grosbeak   114 

"      Warbler     88,     95 

Plover 4,  27,  30,     31 

"       Golden    30,     31 

"     Killdeer    30,     31 

"     Upland    28,     30 

Potato  Beetle   112 

Prairie  Horned  Lark   114,  115 

Warbler    88,     95 

Protection  of  Birds  Act 120 

Prothonotary  Warbler   88,     89 

Purple  Finch    110,  111 

"       Martin    3,  80,     82 

Q. 

Quail  115,  116.  118 

R. 

Raven    32.     33 

Red-bellied  Woodpecker   48,  51,     58 

Red-breasted  Nuthatch    58,  60,     61 

Red-eyed  Viroo  72,     74 

Red-headed  Woodpecker 48,  51,     58 

Redpoll    112 


PAGE 

Red-shouldered  Hawk 7,  10,  13,     16 

Redstart    88,     99 

Red-tailed  Hawk   7,  10,  11,     16 

Red-winged  Blackbird    38,     45 

Richardson's  Owl 22,     24 

Robin  1,  62,  64,     66 

Rose-breasted  Grosbeak    112 

Rough-legged  Hawk 7,  10,  11,  13,     17 

Rough-winged  Swallow   80,     83 

Ruby-crowned  Kinglet   99,  100 

Ruby-throated  Hummingbird.  .  .5,  86,     88 

Ruffed  Grouse   115  118 

Rusty  Grackle 38,     45 

S. 

Sand  Martin  1,80,     83 

Sandpipers    4,  27,     30 

Sandpiper  Bartramian   28,     30 

Spotted     28,     30 

Sapsucker    52,     56 

Saw  Whet  Owl  22,     24 

Scarlet  Tanager Ill 

Screech  Owl    18,  22,  23,     24 

Sharp-shinned  Hawk   7,        14 

Shore  Birds    4 

Short-billed  Marsh  Wren 68,     70 

Short-eared  Owl   6,  18,  20,  23     25 

Shrikes    26 

Shrike,  Northern  26,     27 

Loggerhead   26,     27 

Siskin    112 

Snowbird    102,  103 

Snow  Bunting   106 

Snowflake    106 

Snowy  Owl   18,22,     25 

Sparrows    2,  103 

Sparrow.  Chipping 1,  102,  103 

Field   102,  104 

Fox     103,  104 

Hawk 7,  10,  11,  13,     17 

House    102,   106,  110 

Song    102,  103 

Tree   102,  103,  106 

Vesper    102,  104 

White  Crowned   103,  104 

"       Throated    103,  104 

Spotted    Sandpiper    28,     30 

Swallows  1,  26,  80.     82 

Swallow,  Bank  1,80,     83 

Barn     80,     82 

Cliff 3,  80,     82 

"  Rough-winged    80,     83 

White-breasted    80.     82 

Swift.  Chimney    1,  82,  83,     86 

T. 

Tanager,  Scarlet  HI 

Teeter     28 

Tennessee  Warbler   88,  89 

Tent  Caterpillars    60 

Thrasher     66,  68 

Thrushes    2,  3.  26,  62 

Thrush,  Brown    68 

"         Golden  Crowned    96 

Gray-cheeked   62.  65 

Hermit    3,    62.  66 

Louisiana  Water    88.  95 

Olive-backed   3.  62,  66 


124 


PAGK 

Thrush    Water    88,  95 

Wilson's    3,  4,  62,  65 

Wood   62,  65 

Titmice   48,  61 

Traill's  Flycatcher    76,  80 

Tree  Creeper   58,  60,  61 

Tree  Sparrow    102,   103,  106 

Turkey,   Wild    1 

Tussock  Moth  109,  112 


U. 


Upland  Plover 


28 


V. 


W. 

Warblers    2,  26,  88 

Warbler,  Bay-breasted     88 

Black  and  White 4,  88 

Blackburnian    4,  88 

Blackpoll  4,  88 

Black-throated  Blue   ..4,  88 
Green. 4,   88 

"  Canadian    88 

"  Cape  May  88 

Cerulean   88 

Chestnut-sided    88 

"  Connecticut    88 

"  Golden-winged     88 

Hooded    88 

Kirtlands   88 

Magnolia   4,  88 

"  Maryland    88 

"  Mourning   88 

Myrtle 4,  88 

Nashville    88 

"  Orange  Crowned    88 

Palm    88 

Parula  88 

Pine   88 

Prairie    88 


Vanessa   antiopa    71,  109 

Veery    62 

Vesper  Sparrow   102,  104 

Vireos     72 

Vireo,  Blue-headed    72,  75 

Philadelphia  72,  74 

Red-eyed    72,  74 

Warbling    72,  74 

White-eyed    72,  74 

Yellow-throated   72,  74 


89 
94 
89 
94 
94 
92 
95 
98 
92 
93 
93 
96 
89 
98 
95 
93 
98 
96 
93 
89 
89 
95 
92 
95 
95 


PAGE 

Warbler,   Prothonotary    88,  89 

Tennessee    88,  89 

Wilson's    88,  98 

Yellow    4,  88,  92 

Warbling  Vireo    72,  74 

Water  Thrush 88,  95 

Louisiana   88,  95 

Waxwings    75,  76 

Waxwing,  Bohemian     75,  76 

Cedar    75,  76 

Weed  destroyers   100 

White  Breasted  Nuthatch 58,  60,  61 

Crowned  Sparrow    103,  104 

Breasted  Swallow    80,  82 

Grub   62 

Throated  Sparrow  103,  104 

Eyed  Vireo 72,  74 

Whip-poor  Will    4,  83 

Whiskey   Jack    34,  36 

Wild  Canary    110 

"      Turkey    1 

Wilson's  Thrush 3,  4,  62,  65 

Warbler   88,  98 

Wireworms   42 

Woodpeckers   26,  48 

Woodpecker,  American  three  toed. 48,  56 

Arctic    48,  55 

Downy    48,  56 

Golden-winged   ..48,51,  58 

Hairy     48,  56 

"               Pigeon    51 

Pileated     48,  55 

Red-bellied    48,  51,  58 

Red-headed     48,    51,  58 

Yellow-bellied.... 48,   52,  56 

Wood  Peewee    76,  79 

Thrush    62,  65 

Work  of  Birds  26 

Wrens    68,  70 

Wren  House  1,68,  70 

Long-billed  Marsh   68,  70 

Short-billed  Marsh 68,  70 

Winter    68,  70 

Y. 

Yellow-bellied  Flycatcher   76,  80 

Woodpecker 48,52,  56 

Yellow-billed   Cuckoo    71,  72 

Yellow-breasted  Chat   88,  98 

Yellowhammer     51 

Yellow-throated  Vireo    72,  74 

Yellow  Warbler  4,  88,  92 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 


Serial 
No.    Date. 

171 

April  1909 

172 
173 

174 
175 
176 

May   1909 
Oct.   1909 
Dec.   1909 
Dec.   1909 
Dec   1909 

177  Dec       1909 

178  Dec      1909 


179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec 

1912 

208 

Jan. 

1913 

209 

March 

.  1913 

210 

March 

1913 

211 

March  1913 

212  April  1913 

213  April  1913 

214  May  1913 

215  Aug.  1913 

216  Oct.  1913 

217  Dec  1913 

218  Dec  1913 


Published  bt  the  Ontabio  Depabtmbkt  or  Aobicxtltitbe,  Toboitto. 


Title.  ',  Author, 

{Insects  Affecting  Vegetables  C.  J.  S.  Bethune. 
Fungus  Diseases  Affecting  Vegetables  ....  i   j'  ^'  Easthain. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)   ...  Dairy  School. 

Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

Farm  Underdrainage :    Does  it  Pay? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   D.  H.  Jones. 

,  ._    o  1  u       -rxr    V  f   H.  L.  FulmeT. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  |  l.  Csesar. 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  Muck|  W.  P.  Qamble. 

Soils    \  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch. 

Flour  and  Breadmaking {  ^;  £^pu^([y; 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making Dairy  Branch 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey , , ,. 

Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

Children :   Care  and  Training  J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth   L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)   J-  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (151  revised)    W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch 

Agricultural  Co-operation  S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch 

Insecticides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised)/  ^  J^^ulmer 

Tomatoes   A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettlt. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

Onions  A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices L.  Meunier. 

f  Peach  Diseases  F.  M.  ClemenL 

\  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   ( 

Part  II.    Dairying  on  the  Farm \  Staff  of  Dairy  School. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   j  Dairy  School. 

II.  Dairying  on  the  Farm  ( 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions/  J.  H.  Hare. 

in  Ontario  County \  T.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)   E.  J.  Zavitz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.     F.  M.  Clpment 
Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters.     Fruit  Branch. 

(No.  179  revised.) 
Orchard    Surveys   in   Dundas,   Stormont  and 

Glengarry F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Morley  Pettlt.       : 

Shepp  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  it  pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples  E.  F.  Palmer. 

.     ,,  f  W.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  189  revised)   |  ^   q   McCnlloch. 

Birds  of  Ontario  (No.  173  revised)    C.  W.  Nash. 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


BULLETIN  219 


The  San  Jose 

AND 

Oyster-Shell  Scales 

By 

L.  CAESAR,  B.A.,  B.S.A. 

Provincial  Entomologist  and  Lecturer  on 
Economic  Entomology,  O.A.C. 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  JANUARY,  1914 


BULLETIN  219J    ,  [JANUARY,  191 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

ONTARIO   AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE 

San  Jose  Scale 

By  L.  Caesar. 

SUMMARY  OF  CONTENTS 

The  original  home  of  the  San  Jose  Scale  is  China.  It  was  unwittingly  intro- 
duced into  San  Jose,  California,  about  1870.  By  1893  or  1894  it  had  spread  all 
over  most  of  the  United  States  and  had  even  been  brought  into  Ontario.  Ship- 
ments of  infested  nursery  stock  were  the  chief  means  of  its  distribution.  In  Ontario 
there  is  believed  to  be  no  scale  at  present  north  of  a  line  drawn  from  about  Sarnia 
to  Toronto,  and  more  than  half  of  the  territory  south  of  this  is  still  free.  The 
scale  will  probably  live  and  thrive  wherever  peaches  will  live  and  bear  some  fruit, 
even  though  not  in  a  commercial  way.  It  is  likely  to  spread  into  all  such  districts, 
and  possibly  farther. 

All  orchard  trees,  except  sour  cherries  and  usually  Kieffer  pears,  are  attacked. 
Currants  and  rose  bushes,  mountain  ash  and  hawthorn,  and  a  few  other  trees  and 
shrubs  are  also  severely  affected. 

The  easiest  way  to  identify  the  scale  is  to  become  familiar  with  the  adult  female 
and  the  immature  black  stage,  and  to  know  that  the  insect  usually  causes  small, 
circular,  reddish  spots  on  the  fruit  and  a  purplish  discoloration  of  the  tissues 
beneath  the  bark  where  it  feeds.  The  adult  female  is  almost  circular,  nearly  flat, 
about  1-16  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  grayish  to  ashy  brown  in  color,  with  usually  a 
small  yellowish  central  area.  The  immature  black  stage  is  found  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year  and  is  very  small,  a  mere  dot,  black,  circular,  with  a  nipple  in  the 
centre,  around  which  is  a  depressed  ring  or  groove. 

The  first  brood  of  young  scales  begins  to  appear  about  June  20th.  There  are 
probably  three,  or  nearly  three,  full  broods  a  year  in  Ontario,  and  young  active 
larvae  may  be  seen  up  to  the  severe  frosts  about  the  end  of  October.  So  prolific  is 
the  insect  that  we  may  have  at  least  1,000,000  offspring  from  a  single  over-winter- 
ing female.  It  is  this  enormous  power  of  reproduction  that  causes  San  Jose  scale 
to  be  so  destructive. 

All  parts  of  a  tree  above  ground  are  subject  to  attack.  Young  trees  may  be 
killed  in  two  years,  older  trees  take  longer.  Orchards  not  sprayed  will,  if  infested, 
be  destroyed  by  the  insect. 

There  are  a  number  of  native  foes  that  attack  it,  but  up  to  the  present  they 
are  of  little  importance  in  Ontario. 

The  insect  can  be  readily  controlled  by  a  single  thorough  spraying  once  a  year 
before  tihe  buds  have  burst  in  spring.  Badly  infested  trees  should  aIw&js  be^sprayed 
twice  the  first  year.  Old  apple  trees  must  be  well  pruned  and  the  rough  bark  re- 
moved to  secure  satisfactory  res\ilts. 


2 

The  spraying  must  'be  very  thoroughly  done,  so  that  every  part  of  the  tree  from 
the  ground  up  is  covered.  It  should  not  be  done  when  the  bark  is  wet  or  the  tem- 
perature is  below  freezing  point. 

This  spraying  would  pay  even  if  thefe  were  no  scale,  and  our  best  apple  growers 
regularly  apply  it  along  with  two  or  more  later  applications  to  keep  their  orchards 
healthy  and  the  fruit  clean. 

Lime-sulphur  is  the  best  and  cheape&t  well-tested  remedy. 

It  is  usually  possible  to  control  the  scale  in  one's  own  orchard  independently 
of  neighbors. 

All  nurseries  to-day  are  inspected,  and  infested  trees  broken  down  and  burned. 
No  nurseryman  is  permitted  to  sell  nursery  stock  without  its  being  first  fumigated 
with  hydrocyanic  acid  gas. 


Fig.  1.     An  old  neglected  apple  orchard  nearly  killed  by  San  Jose  Scale.    Observe 
tbe  numerous  leafless  dead  branches.     (Original.) 


SAN  JOS£   SCALE. 


(Aspidiotus  perniciosus,  Comstock.) 


Introductoky. — With  the  renewed  interest  of  the  last  few  years  in  fruit  grow- 
ing, and  especially  in  apple  growing  and  in  the  renovation  of  old  apple  orchards, 
has  eome  a  new  interest  in  the  different  insect  pests  and  diseases  of  the  orchard. 
Of  these  foes  the  most  destructive,  wherever  it  occurs  and  is  able  to  thrive,  is  the 
San  Jose  (pronounced  San  Ho  zay,  or  San  H5  say)  Scale.  This  insect  infests  only 
a  small  part  of  the  Province,  but  a  part  that  is  admirably  adapted  for  fruit  grow- ' 
ing,  hence  the  importance  to  the  orchardists  in  these  districts  of  being  well  in- 
formed on  the  means  of  jdentification,  habits  and  best  methods  of  controlling  this 
pest.  Interest,  however,  in  the  San  Jose  Scale  is  by  no  means  limited  to  the  in- 
fested areas,  because  progressive  fruit  growers  in  other  parts  of  the  Province,  hav- 
ing heard  or  read  reports  of  its  destructiveness  elsewhere,  are  anxious  lest  it  get 


established  in  their  locality.  Consequently  the  demand  for  inforniatiou  is  already 
large  and  increasing.  To  satisfy  this  demand  so  far  as  possible  is  the  purpose  of 
this  bulletin.  In  preparing  it  the  writer  has  not  depended  solely  on  his  own  in- 
vestigations and  the  experience  and  observations  of  others  in  this  Province,  <  but 
has  freely  consulted  the  publications  of  various  investigators  elsewhere,  who  have 
made  a  careful  study  of  the  life  history  and  control  of  the  insect.  The  chief  works 
thus  consulted  are  the  various  publications  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology  at  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  and  of  the  Experimental  Stations  of  Kew  York,  Illinois,  Ohio,  N"ew 
Jersey,  Georgia  and  Tennessee. 

Beief  Histoky. — The  native  home  of  the  scale  has  been  discovered  by  Dr. 
Marlatt  to  be  in  China.     In  1873  it  was  first  discovered  in  North  America  at  San 
-Jose  in  California.     From  here  it  was  unwittingly  shipped  on  nursery  stock  to 
nurseries  in  the  Eastern  States,  and  infested  shipments  from  these  in  turn  spread 
it  widely.     By  1894  it  had  become  established  in  most  of  the  Eastern  States  andi 
in  many  of  the  Middle  and  Pacific  ones  as  well.     In  1897  it  was  found  in  Ontario, 
in  Kent  and  Essex  Counties,  and  also  near  St.  Catharines  and  Niagara-on-the-Lake, 
but  the  large  number  of  infested  trees  showed  that  it  must  have  been  introduced 
about  1893  or  1894,  and  so  has  been  approximately  twenty  years  in  this  Province. 
It  was  doubtless  brought  in  on  nursery  stock.     So  far  as  I  can  discover,  Ontario 
is  the  only  Province  in  Canada  where  it  has  become  established.    It  has  twice  been 
found  in  moderate  numbers  in  British  Columbia,  but  I  am  told  by  the  Provincial 
Horticulturist  and  one  of  his  assistants,  and  also  by  Mr.  Treherne,  the  local  Dominion 
Entomologist,  that  it  has  been  exterminated,  or  at  any  rate  has  not  been  seen  for 
several  years.     It  has  also  been  introduced  into  Nova  Scotia,  but  infested  trees 
have  been  destroyed,  and  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  it  has  not  obtained 
a  foothold. 

PRESENT    DISTRIBUTION    IN    ONTARIO. 

The  map  gives  a  fairly  accurate  outline  of  the  districts  where  the  scale  is  found. 
A  good  deal  of  time  has  been  devoted  to  getting  the  data  on  which  the  map  is 
based.  Not  only  were  all  records  of  places  from  which  the  scale  was  sent  in  in  the 
past  considered,  but  the  co-operation  of  the  district  representative  in  each  county 
was  gained".  As  these  men  know  their  respective  counties  well,  and  are  greatly 
interested  in  all  that  in  any  way  affects  the  farmers,  their  assistance  was  invalu- 
able. In  addition  to  this  Mr.  Jas.  Neilson,  a  student  of  the  Agricultural  College. 
Guelph,  devoted  five  months  this  summer  under  my  direction  to  the  sole  task  of 
determining  the  northern  limits  to  which  the  scale  had  spread. 

It  will  be  seen  that  a  line  drawn  from  about  Sarnia  to  Toronto  marks  the 
present  northernmost  limit  of  the  scale.  A  study  of  the  counties  south  of  this  line 
shows  that  Kent,  Essex,  Elgin,  Welland  and  Lincoln  are  the  worst  infested  counties. 
In  Lambton  the  lower  third  has  considerable  scale,  and  there  are  a  few  isolated 
places  farther  north,  as  high  or  a  little  higher  than  Sarnia,  where  it  is  found.  The 
southwest  corner  of  Middlesex  contains  badly  infested  orchards,  and  there  are  also 
^two  or  three  affected  orchards  about  five  miles  from  London.  In  Oxford  there  was 
one  badly  infested  orchard  about  four  miles  north-west  of  Woodstock.  (The  orchard 
has  been  sprayed  this  year  and  nearly  all  the  scalo  destroyed).  This  seems  to 
ihave  been  the  only  infested  locality  in  this  countv.  In  Norfolk  there  are  five 
[localities  where  the  scale  has  been  fouud.  In  Brant  there  is  an  outbreak  near  St. 
iGeors-e,  but  apparently  onlv  a  very  limited  area  is  affected.  In  Haldimand  there  is 
[considerable  scale  in  the  disitriet  along  the  lake,  and  though  we  have  no  reports  of 


Map  showing  the  present  distribution  of  San  Jos6  Scale  in  Ontario.  Areas  darkened 
by  close  oblique  lines  are  worst  infested;  those  with  lines  farther  apart  are  lightly 
affected,  not  every  orchard  being  attacked.  The  small  dark  squares  or  rectangles 
indicate  isolated  infested  localities  in  otherwise  scale-free  counties. 


its  being  found  elsewhere  in  the  county  it  is  probable  that  more  careful  search 
would  reveal  its  presence  to  a  slight  extent  in  several  other  localities.  In  Wentworth 
all  the  section  between  the  so-called  "Mountain"  and  the  lake  is  more  or  less 
infested,  but  we  have  no  proof  that  it  has  yet  spread  beyond  this  district  up  into 
the  higher  land.  In  Halton  there  is  a  small  area  of  about  two  miles  square  close 
to  Burlington  lightly  infested.  In  Peel  a  few  trees  in  one  orchard  at  Dixie  are 
somewhat  badly  attacked. 

In  the  great  fruit  districts  north  of  Lake  Ontario  and  around  Georgian  Bay  no 
trace  of  living  scale  could  be  found.  It  can  easily  be  seen  therefore  that  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  Province  is  affected  at  present. 


Headers  of  course  should  not  make  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  every  orchard 
in  the  darkened  area  is  badly  infested.  The  fact  is  that  this  area  includes  nearly 
all  of  the  tender  fruit  belt,  and  it  is  only  in  the  neglected  or  semi-cared  for  orchards 
that  the  scale  is  found  doing  any  injury.  The  well-cared  for  orchards  are  clean, 
and  it  is  with  difficulty  that  any  scale  can  be  found  in  them.  In  Kent  and  Essex, 
however,  and  in  parts  of  Elgin,  Welland  and  Lincoln  there  are  hundreds  of  apple 
orchards  that  have  been  killed  by  it  and  hundreds  more  that  will  soon  be  killed. 
The  owners  of  these  orchards  are  not  trying  to  save  them,  largely  because  they 
have  not  yet  learned  how  valuable  an  asset  an  old  apple  orchard  may  be  made. 

The  Effect  of  Climate  in  Limiting  Spread. — Since  the  San  Jose  scale  is 
to-day,  as  shown  in  the  map,  confined  to  the  south-western  part  of  the  Province, 
which  is  also  the  warmest  part,  it  is  very  natural  that  the  question  should  arise  whe- 
ther it  can  thrive  in  the  other  parts  or  is  ever  likely  to  do  much  damage  to  the  fruit 
industry  there.  There  is  not  sufficient  data  to  give  a  definite  answer  to  this  ques- 
tion, but  in  my  opinion  there  is  very  little  doubt  that  the  insect  can  live  and  thrive 
at  least  wherever  peach  trees  can  be  grown.  We  may  therefore  expect  that  it  will 
gradually  spread  through  all  the  peach  districts,  including  the  district  around 
Forest  and  the  southern  part  of  Lake  Huron.  At  Collingwood  at  the  base  of  the 
mountain,  a  well  sheltered  locality,  I  have  seen  peach  trees  that  were  about  twenty 
years  of  age.  I  feel  satisfied  that  if  the  scale  got  established  there  it  would  be 
able  to  do  considerable  damage.  Furthermore  in  many  parts  of  the  Province  Ave 
find  here  and  there  in  back  yards  in  towns  a  peach  tree  flourishing  and  bearing 
fruit.  In  such  sheltered  places  I  should  expect  the  scale  could  become  destructive. 
But  apart  from  these  cases  in  the  great  fruit  districts  where  peaches  cannot  grow 
in  the  open  we  have  considerable  reason  to  hope  that  time  will  prove  that  the  scale 
will  not  flourish  or  do  much  harm,  though  once  introduced  it  may  be  able  to  main- 
tain a  struggling  existence  for  years.  While  such  is  my  hope,  my  advice  to  every- 
body is:  Take  no  chances,  and  on  the  least  suspicion  of  its  presence  do  your  best  to 
eradicate  it. 

A  brief  review  of  the  reasons  for  hoping  that  this  pest  may  not  be  able  to 
flourish  much  farther  north  than  its  present  limits  will  be  of  interest: — 

( 1 )  The  insect  has  now  been  in  Ontario  for  about  twenty  years.  In  the  course 
of  this  time  it  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  live  scale  has  many  times  been  shipped 
on  nursery  stock  into  such  districts  as  the  flourishing  commercial  apple-growing 
counties  north  of  Lake  Ontario ;  in  fact  I  myself  know  of  three  cases  where  it  has 
been  found  during  the  last  five  years  on  young  trees  in  these  districts,  and  yet  has 
never  got  established.  I  am  not  sure  whether  the  owners  destroyed  all  these  trees, 
but  in  any  case  there  must  have  been  similar  occurrences  where  the  trees  were  not 
destroyed. 

(2)  From  correspondence  with  entomologists  in  the  northern  parts  of  the 
United  States,  where  climatic  conditions  may  be  found  approximating  to  those  of 
our  own  uninfested  fruit  districts,  I  have  received  the  following  information : — 

In  New  Hampshire  the  insect's  present  northern  limits  are  Wolfeboro'  and 
Plymouth,  latitude  about  43°  40'.  In  this  State  Prof.  O'Kane  says :  "In  general, 
in  New  Hampshire  it  is  so  far  troublesome  largely  in  the  neighborhood  of  cities, 
although  we  are  getting  occasional  reports  of  it  from  orchards,  and  in  some  cases 
severe  damage  is  recorded."  It  seems  evident  from  this  statem.ent  that  it  is  not 
regarded  as  doing  a  great  deal  of  damage  in  New  Hampshire,  and  does  not  occur 
at  all  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state. 


In  Vermont,  Mr.  Harold  L.  Bailey,  Assistant  Entomologist  in  charge  of  insect 
suppression,  states  that  the  northernmost  infestation  consists  of  two  orchards  in 
the  Champlain  Valley  which  supposedly  became  infested  from  nursery  stock  in 
1901.  These  orchards  have  not  been  sprayed  except  spasmodically  until  this  year. 
Mr.  Bailey  says :  "  The  fact  that  the  insect  has  not  apparently  spread  to  any  tress 
outside  the  orchards  into  which  it  was  originally  brought  seems  to  show  that  no 
rapid  spread  is  to  be  looked  for  in  this  district."  He  states  that  in  the  lower  and 
thus  warmer  part  of  the  state  it  is  spreading  much  more  rapidly. 

In  New  York  some  of  the  fruit-growing  districts  are  badly  infested  with  scale, 
but  Dr.  Felt,  the  state  entomologist,  says  that  in  some  of  the  colder  parts  the  scale 
seems  unable  to  make  any  headway.  One  colony  at  Lebanon  Springs  that  was 
apparently  thriving  ten  years  ago  has  practically  disappeared  to-day. 

In  Minnesota,  Prof.  Washburn  states :  "  It  evidently  cannot  survive  our  severe 
winters."    He  has  tried  rearing  it  out  of  doors,  but  after  a  few  years  it  perished. 

In  Michigan,  Prof.  Pettit  tells  me  that  conditions  are  approximately  the  same 
as  in  Ontario.  The  scale  is  abundant  in  the  warmer  districts  corresponding  to  our 
badly  infested  counties,  but  outside  of  these  is  rarely  found.  He  says :  "  My  belief 
is  that  the  scale  will  grow  almost  anywhere,  where  peaches  will  fruit,  but  that  it 
will  not  stand  a  colder  climate  than  that  required  for  peaches.  This  does  not  mean 
that  peaches  will  grow  successfully  in  a  commercial  way,  but  where  they  will  grow 
some  kind  of  fruit  that  can  be  called  a  peach." 

In  Idaho,  Prof.  Aldrich  has  given  a  good  deal  of  attention  to  the  effect  of 
climate  upon  the  scale,  and  has  described  to  me  a  very  interesting  case.  He  says 
there  is  a  valley  'situated  about  700  feet  above  sea  level.  The  land  to  the  north 
of  this  rises  up  rapidly,  and  at  a  distance  of  three  miles  the  average  elevation  of 
the  country  is  about  2,600  feet.  This  height  is  maintained  for  at  least  30  miles 
back.  In  the  valley  tender  fruits  flourish;  on  the  heights  the  hardier  fruits.  In 
the  valley  the  San  Jose  scale  has  thriven  for  25  years;  on  the  high  land  it  has  never 
been  able  in  all  that  time  to  become  established. 

Dr.  Aldrich  is  inclined  to  think  that  it  is  not  the  occasional  dropping  of  the 
thermometer  in  winter  to  a  very  low  point  that  is  the  important  factor  in  determin- 
ing the  natural  control  of  the  scale  in  a  locality,  but  rather  the  total  number  of 
hours  during  the  summer  when  the  temperature  is  above  80°  or  perhaps  even 
90°F.  In  the  valley  referred  to,  in  which  the  town  of  Lewiston  is  situated,  he  says 
he  feels  sure  that  there  are  five  times  as  many  hours  of  optimum  temperature  from 
80°  to  DCF  or  upwards,  as  at  Moscow  on  the  higher  land  thirty  miles  away.  By 
"  optimum  "  temperature  is  meant  the  temperature  at  which  the  scale  thrives  best 
and  reproduces  most  rapidly. 

(3)  By  reading  Dr.  Marlatt's  account  of  the  distribution  of  the  scale  in  1906 
as  given  in  bulletin  62  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Washington,  D.C.,  and  com- 
paring this  with  the  present  distribution  in  the  northern  states  and  Ontario,  one 
gees  that  since  that  date  the  pest  has  spread  northwards  only  to  a  very  limited 
extent. 

(4)  In  the  northern  districts  there  is  a  gradual  lengthening  of  the  winter,  and 
also  a  longer  period  of  humid,  wet,  alternately  freezing  and  thawing  weather  in 
spring  and  fall,  both  of  which  have  an  unfavorable  effect  upon  the  scale.  Now  we 
know  that  ordinarily  less  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  scales  come  through  the  winter 
alive  even  in  the  Niagara  district;  we  should  look  therefore  for  a  much  smaller 
percentage  in  a  climate  like  Guelph,  and  a  still  smaller  in  colder  and  more  moist 


J 


climates.  Again  between  Guelph  and  the  Niagara  district  the  difference' in  climate 
is  sufficient  to  lessen  the  length  of  the  breeding  season  by  about  a  month,  so  that 
this  factor  along  with  the  greatly  lessened  number  of  days  of  optimum  temperature 
and  the  other  facts  mentioned  above  all  lead  to  the  hope  that  most  of  the  parts  not 
infested  to-day  in  Ontario  will  remain  free.  Time  alone,  however,  will  tell  whether 
this  hope  will  be  verified,  and  until  we  are  certain  the  best  course  is  as  I  have  said 
above,  to  "  Take  no  chances." 

PLANTS  ATTACKED  BY  SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 

We  have  found  the  scale  attacking  the  following  orchartl  trees  and  shrubs 
severely:  Apple,  crab,  pear,  plum  {both  European  and  Japanese),  peacli,  sweet 
cherry,  red  currant  and  black  currant.  It  very  seldom  attacks  sour  cherry;  in  fact 
we  have  never  found  it  on  any  of  the  sour  cherry  varieties.  Kieffer  pears,  though 
occasionally  attacked,  are  seldom  much  infested  even  when  near  other  trees  badly 
attacked.  Quince,  apricot  and  gooseberry  in  our  experience  are  not  commonly  or 
severely  attacked,  though  it  is  very  probable  that  we  may  find  exceptions  in  the 
future,  as  some  writers  include  these  among  the  severely  or  commonly  infested 
plants.  Of  apple  trees,  the  Spy,  though  by  no  means  immune,  seems  usually  to  be 
less  severely  attacked  than  most  other  varieties. 

In  addition  to  the  above  plants  Ave  have  found  the  scale  on  the  following  orna- 
mentals or  forest  trees  and  shrubs:  Mountain  ash,  haivthorn,  Japanese  quince, 
Japanese  flowering  crab,  rose,  wild  red  cherry  or  pin  cherry,  American  elm, 
European  elm,  dogwood  (Cornus  alternifolia  and  C.  siberica),  willow  {Salix  vitel- 
lina),  poplar  {species  not  certain,  but  probably  Carolina  poplar  {Populus  deltoides), 
juneberry,  lilac,  sumach  (Rhus  typhina),  Japanese  ivalnut  and  honey  locust 
(Gleditsia  triacanthos) .  The  first  four  of  these  plants  are  often  very  severely 
attacked,  and  sometimes  killed.  The  elms,  when  small,  may  be  destroyed ;  but  once 
they  have  become  fifteen  feet  or  more  in  height  the  scale  does  not  seem  to  be  able 
to  kill  them,  though  it  may  cause  some  of  the  smaller  branches  to  die. 

Dr.  W.  E.  Britton*  in  his  carefully  compiled  list  of  plants  commonly  attacked 
by  the  scale  includes  the  following  additional  Ontario  trees  and  shrubs :  Chokecherry, 
Lombardy  poplar,  flowering  currant  (Ribes  aureum),  osage  orange  and  several 
species  of  willow. 

San  Jose  Scale  may  also  be  found  in  very  limited  numbers  on  almost  any  tree 
that  is  close  beside  or  beneath  badly  infested  trees;  for  instance  I  have  found  it  on 
the  following  young  trees :  maples  of  several  kinds,  catalpa,  birch,  oak,  tulip,  bass- 
wood  and  horse  chestnut,  situated  alongside  very  badly  infested  pears  and  plums, 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  winters  on  such  trees. 

The  above  lists  of  ornamental  and  forest  trees  and  shrubs  might  give  the  impres- 
sion that  our  forests  are  likely  to  harbor  the  scale  in  great  numbers  and  so  become 
a  dangerous  source  of  infestation,  but  this  does  not  seem  to  be  the  case.  We  find 
that  scale-infested  trees  are  usually  situated  in  the  orchard  or  else  along  the  road- 
side, in  fence  corners  or  on  lawns,  and,  while  susceptible  species  of  the  outer  trees 
of  a  forest  bordering  on  an  infested  orchard  may  be  attacked,  there  is  usually  little 
danger  from  the  forest  trees  as  a  whole. 

-^ ■ — . . ■  » 

♦Report  of  the  Connecticut  Agricultural  Experimental  Station,  1903,  Part  II.,  second 
report  of  the  Entomologist,  pp.  132-138. 


8 


HOW  TO  IDENTIFY  THE  SAN  JOSE  SCALE. 


Appearance  of  the  San  Jose  Scale. — If  we  take  a  San  Jose  Scale  infested 
piece  of  bark  or  an  infested  apple  or  pear  in  the  summer  or  early  autumn  and  exam- 
ine it  carefully  we  shall  find  the  surface  studded  with  small  dot-like  bodies.  If  we 
crush  these,  juice  or  fat  will  run  out  from  beneath,  and  if  we  use  a  pin  or  a  knife  we 
can  easily  remove  them  from  the  bark  or  the  skin  of  the  fruit.  These  little  dot-like 
bodies  or  specks  are  scales.  Now  if  we  examine  them  more  closely  with  a  hand  lens 
we  shall  see  that  there  are  a  few  circular  scales  several  times  larger  than  any  of  the 
others.  These  are  the  adult  female  scales,  and  they  are  usually  grayish  or  grayish- 
brown  in  color.  Further  study  will  reveal  a  good  many  elongate  or  oblong  scales 
about  twice  as  long  as  broad,  and  usually  grayish  or  blackish  in  color.  These  are 
the  adult  males.  Examining  those  that  are  left  we  shall  find  large  numbers  of  little 
black  scales  about  half  the  size  of  the  males  but  quite  circular.  These  are  a  very 
important  stage  of  the  immature  females  and  males,  because  it  is  in  this  stage  that 
all,  or  practically  all,  the  San  Jose  scale  winters,  and  by  them  we  usually  identify 
the  insect.  In  addition  to  these  three  forms  we  shall  find,  especially  on  warm  days, 
numerous  little  orange  yellow  scales  running  about.     These  are  the  larvae,  both 


a.  ^ 


Fig.  2.   (a)  A  healthy  piece  of  apple  bark  showing  the  natural  smooth  surface. 

(6)  A  badly  infested  piece  with  the  bark  completely  covered  by  the  scale.    This  piece 

has  an  ashy  appearance. 
(c)  A  similar  piece  of  bark  to  b,  but  showing  the  small  circular  areas  from  which  dead 
adult  female  scales  have  dropped  off.    Natural  size.     (Original.) 


males  and  females.  It  is  onlv  while  in  this  stage  that  females  can  move  about. 
Intermediate  between  these  active  little  yellow  larvae  and  the  small  black  circular 
stage  will  be  seen  little  white  dots,  which  are  the  young  larvae  that  have  just  settled 
down  and  covered  themselves  over  with  their  first  waxy  coat.  As  this  covering 
thickens  and  hardens  it  gradually  becomes  darker,  until  the  black  stage  mentioned 
above  is  produced,  so  that  we  shall  find  many  very  small  scales  varying  in  color 
between  white  and  black.  Of  course,  what  we  see  with  the  naked  eye,  with  the 
exception  of  the  little  active  yellow  larvae,  is  not  the  insects  themselves,  but  merely 


the  covering  or  scale  that  protects  them.  To  see  the  insect  itself,  take  a  pin  or  the 
point  of  a  knife  and  gently  lift  the  scale,  and  underneath  will  be  found  a  pear- 
shaped,  fat,  yellow,  helpless  body,  the  real  insect,  with  no  legs  or  eyes  in  the  case 
of  the  females,  but  only  a  long  sucking  tube  beneath  its  body  projecting  into  the 
bark  or  tissues  of  the  fruit  beneath.     (See  Fig.  4.) 

Description  of  the  Scale  in  More  Detail. — Now  that  we  have  given  a 
general  description  of  the  various  stages  of  the  scale  found  in  summer,  let  us  con- 
sider more  carefully  the  three  most  important  stages  for  identification,  namely,  the 
adult  female,  adult  male  and  the  black  or  winter  stage. 

(a)  Adult  female  Scale.  (See  Fig.  3 A)  : — Shape  circular  or  almost  circular, 
nearly  fiat,  being  slightly  raised  towards  the  centre ;  size  1.2  to  2.0  mm.  in  diameter, 
average  about  1.5  mm.  (about  1-16  of  an  inch)  ;  general  color  grayish  or  ashy 
brown,  with  a  lighter  colored  central  area  from  1-4  to  1-5  of  the  total  diameter  in 


Fig.  3.  Various  stages  of  San  Jose  Scale,  all  enlarged  about  fifteen  times:  A.  Adult 
female  scale  with  immature  young  of  various  stages  settled  down  around  or  upon  it; 
a,  an  adult  male  scale;  &,  6,  b,  three  small  black  scales,  winter  stage.  B.  An  adult 
female  scale  turned  over,  revealing  the  insect  herself  beneath  with  bristle-like  mouth 
parts  exposed.  C.  a,  an  adult  male  scale;  b,  b,  two  immature  black  winter  stage 
scales.  D.  Young  active  larvae  soon  after  birth.  Note  the  nipples  and  little  grooves 
around  them  in  A  b,  b,  b,  and  in  C  &,  b.  (B  redrawn  from  Alwood,  the  remainder 
original  drawings  by  Miss  A.  Hearle.) 


width.  This  lighter  area  varies  in  color  from  a  dirty  white  to  yellowish-brown  or 
yellow,  and  if  very  carefully  examined  with  a  good  hand  lens  will  usually  be  seen  to 
consist  of  two  portions  :  First  an  outer  belt  occupying  a  little  more  than  half  the  space 
and  an  inner  area  usually  a  little  more  elevated  than  the  outer,  and  with  a  tiny  knob 
or  nipple  in  the  centre.  Sometimes,  but  by  no  means  always,  a  little  depressed  ring 
or  groove  can  be  seen  around  this  nipple.  Occasionally  a  black  fungus  growth  con- 
ceals this  central  area,  or  a  thin  waxy  film  may  entirely  or  partly  cover  it,  but  if 
these  are  gently  rubbed  off  the  normal  color  will  be  found  beneath. 

(6)  Adult  male.  (See  Fig.  30  a)  : — Shape  irregularly  oval  or  elliptical,  about 
twice  as  long  as  broad ;  length,  about  half  the  total  diameter  of  the  adult  female ; 
width,  as  implied,  about  half  the  length.  Adult  male  scales  are  therefore  very 
much  smaller  than  the  adult  females,  not  being  more  than  1-5  the  size.  The  general 
color  varies  from  a  light  gray  or  grayish-brown  to  black.  N'ear  one  end  is  a  circular 
area,  in  the  centre  of  which  is  to  be  seen  a  little  knob  or  nipple  which  often,  but  not 


10 

always,  has  a  tiny  depressed  ring  or  groove  around  it.  This  circular  area  is  easily 
seen  with  a  hand  lens,  and  is  commonly  yellowish  in  color,  though  sometimes  black, 
(c)  The  Black  or  Winter  iStaye.  (bee  i^'ig.  3 A  bb)  : — At  tiliis  stage  the  scale 
is  very  small,  looking  to  the  naked  eye  like  a  tiny  black  speck,  A  hand  lens  is 
absolutely  necessary  to  make  out  any  of  the  details.  An  examination  of  fig.  3A  b 
shows  that  it  is  circular,  flattened,  not  more  than  1-10  the  size  of  an  adult  female, 
and  about  half  the  size  of  the  male.  It  has  a  little  nipple  in  the  centre  surrounded 
by  a  depressed  ring  or  groove.  The  nipple  and  depressed  ring  around  it,  along 
with  the  black  color,  are  the  most  important  characteristics  to  remember.  Some- 
times the  color  varies  a  little  and  the  nipple  may  be  whitish,  frequently  the  outer 
margin  of  the  ring  is  whitish,  but  usually  in  Ontario  every  part  of  this  stage  is 
black.  As  said  above,  this  is  practically  the  only  stage  in  which  the  insects  pass 
the  winter.  Of  course  adult  females  and  very  young  scales  are  to  be  found  in  early 
winter,  but  they  apparently  all  die. 

Other  Scale  Insects  Allied  to  and  so -Closely  Resembling  San  Jose 
THAT  THEY  ARE  Often  MISTAKEN  FOR  IT. — Such  scalcs  as  the  Oyster  Shell,  Scurfy 
and  European  Fruit  Lecanium,  or,  as  it  used  to  be  called.  New  York  Plum  Scale, 
are  so  much  larger,  especially  the  last  named,  and  so  different  in  shape  that  no  one 
who  has  read  the  above  account  and  examined  the  figures  could  for  a  moment  mis- 
take any  of  them  for  San  Jose.  There  are,  however,  in  Ontario  probably  a  dozen 
scales  belonging  to  the  same  genus  (Aspidiotus)  as  the  San  Jose,  but  only  four  of 
these  are  at  all  commonly  found.  These  are:  1st,  the  European  Fruit  Scale,  or,  as 
many  of  us  are  accustomed  to  call  it,  the  Curtis  Scale  {Aspidiotus  osireaeformis) ; 
2nd,  the  English  "Walnut  Scale  (Aspidiotus  juglans-regiae)  ;  3rd,  the  Putnam  Scale 
(Aspidiotus  ancylus) ,  emd  4:ih,  the  CheTTj  Scale  (Aspidiotus  forhesi) .  None  of  these 
scales  are  very  destructive  in  Ontario  orchards.  The  first  of  these,  the  European 
Fruit  Scale  or  Curtis  Scale,  is  common  on  apple  trees,  especially  on  the  very 
large  branches  where  it  may  often  be  found  under  the  loose  bark,  though  it  by  no 
means  always  feeds  under  shelter.  It  is  the  only  one  of  these  four  that  I  know  of 
that  is  ever  found  on  the  fruit.  During  the  last  two  years  I  have  seen  several 
apples  with  these  scales  on  them,  and  resembling  so  closely  the  San  Jose  scale  that 
they  would  usually  be  mistaken  for  it.  The  resemblance  is  increased  by  this  scale 
having  the  same  power  as  the  San  Jose  to  cause  a  reddish  discoloration  of  the  fruit. 
The  English  Walnut  Scale  has  not,  I  think,  been  found  on  fruit  trees  in  Ontario, 
though  in  other  places  it  does  attack  them.  In  St.  Catharines  it  is  very  abundant 
on  soft  or  white  maple  (Acer  saccliarinum) .  I  have  also  had  it  sent  in  on  poplar, 
and  Prof.  Jarvis  has  found  it  on  willow.  I  find  both  it  and  the  previous  scale 
heavily  parasitized.  The  Putnam  and  Cherry  Scales  are  not  very  common,  though 
they  are  occasionally  sent  in.  They  attack  the  bark  of  orchard  trees  and  of  a  few 
other  trees.    I  have  never  seen  one  on  the  fruit  itself. 

I  had  planned  to  add  a  key  for  the  identification  of  these  four  species,  but  they 
vary  so  much  with  the  different  kinds  of  bark  on  which  they  are  found,  and  at 
different  times  in  the  season,  that  no  matter  how  carefully  and  accurately  the  key 
might  be  made  there  would  always  be  the  danger  of  mistakes ;  hence  when  in  doubt 
the  best  way  will  be  to  send  specimens  for  identification  to  the  Department  of 
Entomology,  O.A.C.,  Guelph,  or  to  the  Dominion  Entomologist,  Central  Experi- 
mental Farm,  Ottawa.  Many  of  the  best  students  of  scales  find  it  necessary  at 
times  to  clear  the  insect  itself  beneath  the  scale  in  certain  solutions  and  then 
examine  what  is  known  as  its  anal  plate  under  a  compound  microscope.  A  study 
of  this  part  is  the  final  test  of  its  identity. 


HOW  SAN  JOSE  MAY  BE  DISTINGUISHED  FROM   THE  ABOVE   SCALES. 

If  it  is  not  advisable  to  try  to  show  how  the  above  four  scales  may  be  distin- 
guished from  one  another,  it  is  very  important  to  give  simple  methods  by  which  any 
person  can  tell  if  he  finds  one  of  these  whether  it  is  the  San  Jose  Scale  or  not.  The 
following  points  will  enable  him  to  do  so: 

(1)  All  five  scales,  if  the  surface  is  rubbed,  will  show  a  small  nearly  circular 
area  quite  different  in  color  from  the  rest  of  the  scale.  This  area  we  shall  call  the 
exuviae,  because  it  is  due  to  the  moulted  skins  (exuviae)  of  the  insect  having 
become 'worked  into  the  covering  scale  and  showing  through  it.  In  the  San  Jose 
scale  the  exuviae  is  situated  in,  or  almost  in,  the  centre  of  the  scale,  and  is  yellowish. 
In  most  of  the  other  four  scales  it  is  situated  a  little  to  one  side  of  the  centre,  and 
is  either  some  shade  of  red  or  orange,  being  very  rarely  yellowish.  Frequently  it 
is  covered  over  by  a  film  which  conceals  it  unless  first  rubbed  gently.  The  color  and 
position  of  the  exuviae  are  therefore  very  helpful  distinguishing  characteristics. 

(2)  Among  the  adult  males  and  females  of  the  San  Jose  Scale  are  always  to  be 
found  a  very  large  percentage  of  small  black  scales,  each  with  a  little  nipple  in  the 
centre  and  groove  around  it.  This  has  been  already  described,  and  mentioned  as 
being  also  the  wintering  stage  of  this  scale.  If  none  of  these  small  black  scales  are 
to  be' found  the  insects  are  not  San  Jose,  or  if  some  are  present  that,  roughly  speak- 
ing, answer  to  this  description  but  are  not  black  they  are  not  San  Jose. 

(3>  Look  for  the  adult  female  scales,  and  if  these  though  circular  are  more 
than  2  mm.  about  1-12  of  an  inch)  in  diameter  the  scale  is  not  San  Jose,  because 
the  adult  female  of  this  is  never  more  than  2  mm.,  and  is  usually  about  1.5  mm. 
or  1-16  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  whereas  the  adult  female  of  the  English  Walnut 
Scale  {Aspidiotus  juglans-regiae)  is  3  mm.,  or  nearly  ji  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
The  other  three  species  are  smaller  than  it,  and  nearer  the  size  of  San  Jose. 

(4)  If  the  scale  occurs  in  abundance  on  the  fruit  and  causes  red  spots  on  it,  or 
if  it  often  produces  a  reddish  discoloration  on  young  shoots,  or  if,  when  the  bark  of 
a  badly  infested  branch  is  cut  through  obliquely,  the  tissues  beneath  are  seen  to  be 
stained  purple  or  reddish,  the  insect  is  almost  certain  to  be  San  Jose  Scale.  It  is 
true  that  the  Curtis  Scale  and  also  the  Scurfy  Scale  will  produce  red  spots  on  the 
fruit,  but  they  are  very  seldom  found  on  it.  Moreover  the  Scurfy  Scale  is  not 
circular  and  does  not  resemble  the  San  Jose  closely. 

These  points,  along  with  a  careful  study  of  the  description  given  above  and  of 
the  accompanying  illustrations,  should  make  the  identification  of  San  Jose  Scale 
comparatively  easy. 

A  Eed  Spotting  of  Fruit  not  Caused  by  San  Jose  Scale. — Frequently  one 
sees  various  kinds  of  apples  in  autumn  with  tiny  red  spots  on  the  sujface.  Bell- 
flowers  are  very  subject  to  this.  At  first  glance  these  spots  are  very  suggestive  of 
San  Jose  Scale,  but  on  a  close  examination  with  a  magnifying  glass  it  is  easy  to 
discover  that  they  are  due  to  some  other  cause,  probably  some  species  of  fungus. 
If  they  had  been  caused  by  any  scale  insect  either  this  would  be  present  and  could 
be  lifted  up  with  the  point  of  a  knife  blade  or  with  a  pin  or  it  would  leave  a  light- 
colored  central  area  showing  that  it  had  been  removed  by  something.  The  spots 
referred  to  above,  however,  are  darkest  in  the  centre,  and  in  this  darkest  part  the 
epidermis  is  usually  ruptured  as  if  by  a  fungus  growth. 


LIFE     HISTORY. 

The  insects,  as  already  mentioned  above,  pass  the  winter  in  the  small 
black  circular  immature  stage.  In  this  stage  hoth  males  and'  females  are  alike. 
After  the  warm  weather  comes  in  the  spring  the  male  scales  begin  to  elongate  until 
they  become  oblong,  and  as  described  on  page  9.  (See  Fig.  3Ca.)  Towards  the 
latter  part  of  May  (this  year  May  20th  or  21st),  the  living  insects  beneath  the  scale 
covers  have  become  winged,  and  back  out  from  beneath  the  cover.  Fig.  5  shows 
the  appearance  of  one  of  these  male  adults,  but  is  of  course  much  enlarged,  since 
the  insect  itself  is  so  small  that  it  can  only  with  difficulty  be  seen  without  the  aid  of 
a  hand  lens.  The  general  color  of  the  body  is  orange.  There  are  only  two  wings 
each  with  two  veins  in  it.  The  antennae  are  long  and  conspicuous,  and,  projecting 
from  the  end  of  the  body,  is  a  long  style,  which  makes  it  very  easy  to  distinguish 
the  male  from  tiny  parasites  or  other  small  insects.  (Any  winged  parasites  that 
might  be  found  would   have    four    wings  instead    of   two.)      Soon    after   emerg- 


Fig.   4.    Full-grown  female  from   beneath   scale,   showing   the  very   long   sucking  tube, 
composed  of  several  tiny  bristles;  greatly  enlarged.     (After  Howard  and  Marlatt.) 


ence  the  males  move  around  in  search  of  the  females.  The  latter  then  begin  to 
increase  in  size,  and  towards  the  middle  of  June  have  reached  the  size  and  appear- 
ance described  on  page  9.  (See  also  fig.  3A.)  They  now  begin  to  give  birth  to 
living  young,  no  eggs  being  laid  hy  this  species,  contrary  to  what  we  find  in  the 
case  of  most  other  scales,  even  very  closely  allied  species.  Each  female  produces 
several  young  a  day,  and  may  continue  to  do  this  for  40  or  50  days,  so  that  the 
total  number  of  young  from  each  may  be  over  400.  (At  St.  Catharines  young 
larvae  began  to  appear  this  year  on  June  25th,  and  last  year,  1912,  on  July  1st. 
June  20th  is  probably  about  the  average  date).  For  a  few  hours  after  birth  the 
young  larvae  remain  by  the  mother  insect  under  the  protection  of  her  covering 
scale,  and  can  easily  be  seen  by  lifting  this  up.  They  then  come  out  and  run  around 
actively  for  an  average  of  about  24  hours.  During  this  time  they  may  have 
travelled  several  feet  from  the  mother  insect,  but  more  frequently  the  distance  is 
only  a  few  inches,  and  not  uncommonly  if  they  have  moved  away  at  all  they  return 
to  her  again.  At  the  end  of  about  twenty-four  hours  they  insert  their  little  sucking 
beaks  through  the  bark  or  the  surface  of  the  leaf  or  fruit  on  which  they  may  happen 


13 

to  be.  Very  often  they  settle  oii  the  margin  of  the  mother  scale  and  force  their 
beaks  right  through  her  waxy  covering.     (See  fig.  3A.) 

The  young  larvae  are  very  small,  mere  dots,  of  an  orange-yellow  color,  oval  in 
shape,  with  six  legs,  one  pair  of  antennae,  and  two  eyes.  The  most  striking  thing 
about  them  is  the  character  and  position  of  the  mouth  parts.  These  consist  of  a  long 
thread  or  bristle-like  sucking  apparatus  really  composed  of  four  very  fine  sharp 
little  bristles  fitting  closely  together,  and  arising  from  underneath  the  body.  They  can 
be  seen  in  Fig.  6  as  a  little  coiled  thread.  This  beak  is  about  three  times  as  long 
as  the  body,  and  in  the  case  of  the  full-grown  scale  reaches  deep  into  the  bark.  It 
seems  wonderful  that  such  a  delicate  little  structure  can  be  forced  through  the 
hard  bark  of  an  apple  or  plum  tree. 

After  settling  down  and  inserting  its  sucking  tube,  the  little  insect  begins  to 
assume  a  circular  form,  and  at  the  end  of  about  a  day  becomes  covered  all  over 
with  delicate  white  wax,  which  is  secreted  through  pores  on  its  own  hody.  Soon 
this  becomes  thicker,  more  compact  and  larger  as  the  insect  grows,  and  gradually 


Fig.  5.  Winged  male,  much  enlarged. 
(Redrawn  from  Alwood.) 


Fig.  6.  Young  active  larva,  ventral  view, 
much  enlarged;  natural  size  is  a  mere 
speck.     Redrawn  from  Alwood.) 


the  color  changes  until  the  black  winter  stage  described  on  page  9   (see  also  Fig. 
3Cbb)  is  reached. 

Up  to  this  time  the  external  appearance  of  both  males  and  females  has  been 
the  same,  but  now  they  begin  to  differentiate,  and  in  about  two  weeks  more  another 
brood  of  adult  winged  males  appear  which  fertilize  any  females  that  are  sexually 
mature.  All  the  males  do  not  of  course  emerge  at  the  same  time,  nor  are  all  the 
females  sexually  mature  at  once,  because,  as  said  above,  a  single  adult  female  con- 
tinues ordinarily  to  give  birth  to  living  young  for  forty  days  or  longer;  hence 
there  will  he  a  great  overlapping  and  confusing  of  broods.  From  the  time  of  birth 
to  its  emergence  as  a  winged  adult  the  male,  according  to  Marlatt,*  requires  from 
24  to  26  days.  Our  observations  would  lead  us  to  believe  that  this  year  in  Ontario 
30  days  would  be  nearer  the  time.  The  hotter  the  climate  the  shorter  the  time 
would  naturally  be,  and  Marlatt's  figures  are  for  Washington,  D.C.  He  also  states 
that  from  the  time  of  birth  to  the  production  of  young  by  the  female  requires  in 

♦See  Bulletin  62,  page  47,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology. 


14 

summer  from  33  to  40  days.     Here  again  with  us  the  period  seemed  to  be  about 
ten  days  or  more  longer. 

At  Washington  it  was  found  that  there  were  four  full  broods  and  a  possible 
partial  fifth,  but  as  the  males  emerged  early  in  April,  and  in  Ontario  not  until  about 
May  20th,  a  month  or  more  later,  we  should  not  expect  so  many  broods.  It  w^as 
not  part  of  my  original  plan  to  attempt  to  work  out  the  life  history  or  number  of 
broods.  However,  my  assistant,  Mr.  G,  J.  Spencer,  and  I  by  placing  a  definite 
number  of  the  earliest  larvae  on  each  of  several  uninfested  nursery  trees  secured 
for  the  purpose  were  able  to  make  some  valuable  observations.  As  a  result  of  these 
I  am  of  the  opinion  that  we  have  not  more  than  three  broods,  and  probably  the  third 
is  not  quite  a  full  one.  To  be  absolutely  certain  on  this  point  would  require  a  good 
deal  more  work  with  great  care  to  see  that  natural  outside  conditions  were  observed. 
Our  rearing  was  done  outside,  but  under  cheesecloth,  and  in  the  city  of  St. 
Catharines. 

Whatever  the  number  of  broods,  running  larvae  may  be  seen  in  warm  days  as  late 
as  November.    I  found  a  few  this  year  on  November  4th  in  the  Niagara  district. 

Estimate  of  the  Numbek  of  Offspring  in  a  Year  from  a  Single  Over- 
wintering Female, — It  is  estimated  that  each  female  may  on  an  average  produce 
400  or  more  offspring;  approximately  half  of  these  may  be  males.  Now  if  we 
suppose,  as  I  think  is  correct,  that  we  have  not  more  than  three  generations,  the 
total  number  of  offspring  at  this  rate  from  a  single  adult,  if  all  lived,  would  be 
16,000,000,  and  if  we  estimate  the  number  of  generations  at  two  and  one-half  it 
would  be  8,000,000,  If  we  allow  for  a  total  mortality  of  50  per  cent,  in  each 
generation  we  shall  still  have  at  least  2,000,000  if  there  are  three  full  broods,  and 
1,000,000  if  there  are  only  two  and  a  half.  It  is  because  of  this  marvellous  power 
of  reproduction  that  the  San  Jose  Scale,  though  such  a  tiny  creature,  is  so 
destructive.  None  of  our  other  species  of  native  scales  can  increase  at  anything  like 
this  rate,  the  highest  probably  being  not  faster  than  an  average  of  1,000  from  a 
single  female  in  a  season. 

MEANS  of  distribution. 

By  far  the  most  important  of  all  the  various  means  of  distribution  of  the 
San  Jose  Scale  from  one  district  to  another    has    been    infested    nursery  stock. 
In  this  way  it  has  been  carried  from  California  to  the  Eastern  States,  Canada,  and 
to  several  other  portions  of  the  world.     Once  in  a  locality,  it  spreads  from  tree  to 
tree  and  orchard  to  orchard  by  the  little  active  larvae  crawling  upon  various  kinds 
of  insects  or  birds  that  alight  upon  or  frequent  infested  trees  and  then  go  to  some 
other  tree  either  near  by  or  at  considerable  distance.     As  active  larvae  abound  on 
infested  trees  from  the  end  of  June  to  the  severe  frosts,  it  is  quite  evident  that  they 
are  also  carried  on  the  hands,  clothes,  baskets  or  ladders  of  the  pickers,  or  even  on 
the  horses  or  vehicles  used  in  the  orchard  gathering  the  fruit  or  for  any  other  pur- 
pose.    Where  trees  are  close  together  the  larvae  travel  from  branch  to  branch,  or 
may  be  carried  by  the  wind  a  short  distance  from  a  higher  branch  of  one  tree  to  a 
lower  one  of  the  neighboring  tree.    Many  of  the  inspectors  of  nursery  stock  believe 
that  the  wind  plays  an  important  part  in  infesting  stock  situated  near  large,  badly 
attacked  trees.     Just  how  far  the  scale  may  be  carried  in  this  way  I  cannot  say 
definitely.     In  a  moderate  breeze  I  have  caught  them  on  tanglefoot  placed  near 
the  ground  six  feet  away  from  a  branch  about  15  feet  high.     I  should  not  be  at 
all  astonished  if  strong  gales  would  carry  them  occasionally  as  far  as  30  or  40 


15 

feet  from  the  top  of  tall  trees.  They  do  not  cling  very  tenaciously  to  the  part  they 
are  on,  and  many  drop  off.  Eaius  doubtless  wash  them  from  higher  to  lower 
branches.  To  spread  through  an  orchard  of,  say,  ten  acres  until  every  tree  is  clearly 
infested  will  sometimes  require  two  or  three  years,  and  apparently  depends  largely 
upon  what  part  of  the  orchard  became  first  infested  and  how  well  the  scale  thrives 
in  the  district. 

Many  fears  have  been  expressed  that  the  scale  will  get  established  in  new 
centres  through  marketing  infested  apples,  which  may  be  shipped  to  various  parts 
of  the  Province.  There  is  apparently  very  little  danger  from  this  in  the  case  of 
winter  fruit,  which  is  packed  late,  and  from  which  active  young  getting  on  trees 
would  scarcely  have  time  to  become  sufficiently  advanced  to  stand  the  winter.  In 
the  case,  however,  of  fruit  marketed  earlier  in  the  season,  it  is  more  reasonable  to 
fear  that  the  insects  might  get  a  foothold.  Ever  since  the  San  Jose  Scale  was 
discovered  to  be  a  very  serious  pest  entomologists  have  thought  of  this  possibility, 
but  it  is  very  encouraging  to  learn  that  in  no  case  up  to  the  present  is  there  any 


Fig.  7.     San  Jose  Scale  on  apple,  showing  both  the 

scales   themselves   and   discoloration   caused 

by  them,   natural   size.     (Original.) 


known  recorded  proof  that  the  marketing  of  infested  fruit  has  resulted  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  new  colonies.  Nevertheless,  as  a  wise  precaution,  the  sale  of  such  fruit 
is  forbidden  by  law,  and  any  person  found  selling  or  offering  it  for  sale  is  liable  to 
a  penalty  of  not  less  than  $10  nor  more  than  $100. 


INJURY     TO     PLANT     LIFE. 

Parts  of  the  Plants  Attacked  and  Nature  of  the  Injury. — The  scale 
will  attack  any  part  of  the  tree  or  plant  above  ground — trunk,  branches,  twigs, 
leaves,  leaf-stems,  fruit  and  fruit-stems.  Small  trees  are  usually  attacked  nearly 
uniformily  all  over,  except  that  the  leaves  are  not  so  badly  infested.  I^arge  apple 
trees  are  worst  attacked  on  the  outer  branches  and  twigs,  the  coarse,  thick  bark 
of  the  trunk  and  large  branches  having  fewer  scales  on  it  probably  because  more 


16 

difficult  to  pierce  with  their  delicate  little  beaks.  A  badly  infested  tree  or  branch 
will  become  so  thickly  encrusted  with  the  insects  that  the  bark  is  completely  con- 
cealed. (See  Fig.  2.)  Such  branches  look  as  if  they  were  covered  with  ashes.  If 
we  cut  through  the  bark  obliquely  we  shall  see  that  the  tissue  beneath  even  as  far 
as  the  outer  sapwood  is  conspicuously  colored  purple.  On  young  branches  and 
nursery  stock  there  is  frequently,  but  not  always,  a  reddish  area  around  where  the 
scale  feeds.  This  helps  the  inspector  to  find  the  insect  more  easily.  The  skin  of 
the  fruit,  especially  of  apples  and  pears,  is  also  conspicuously  marked  with  these 
red  discolorations,  which  often  make  it  easy  to  detect  the  presence  of  the  scale 
even  without  looking  at  the  bark.  On  apples  the  insects  are  regularly  most  numerous 
in  the  calyx  and  stem  ends,  probahly  because  these  are  more  sheltered  parts.  Leaves, 
though    not   so  commonly  attacked  as  fruit  and  bark,  are    often    badly  infested. 


^   «.f  ^/^ 


Fig.  8.     San  Jose  Scale  on  pear  leaves  and  discolorations  caused  thereby, 
natural  size  (after  Lowe  and  Parrot). 

especially  on  the  upper  surface.    The  insect  causes  these  also  to  become  discolored. 

(See  Fig.  8.) 

The  injury  done  by  San  Jose  Scale  is  caused  by  the  millions,  or  more  correctly 
billions,  of  the  little  creatures  sucking  the  juice  out  of  the  plant  through  their  long, 
delicate  beaks,  and  thus  starving  the  tree  by  depriving  it  of  its  food.  It  is  claimed 
that  they  also  secrete  a  poison  which  increases  the  injury.  Small  trees  may  be 
killed  in  a  couple  of  years;  larger  trees  usually  take  longer,  and  an  old  apple  tree 
may  survive  for  six  years  or  more,  but  ultimately  will  perish  if  not  treated.  The 
same  fate  will  befall  any  orchard  once  attacked  and  left  unsprayed.  In  old  trees 
it  is  the  outer  branches  that  die  first,  and  in  putting  a  tree  into  shape  to  spray  one 
often  finds  it  necessary  to  cut  such  branches  back  six  feet  or  more  to  reach  the 
living  parts.  Infested  fruit  is  usually  dwarfed,  and  frequently  there  are  small 
depressions  where  the  scale  feeds,  especially  in  the  case  of  pears.  Such  fruit  is 
often  almost  worthless  except  to  feed  to  stock,  as  it  is  illegal  to  sell  it. 


17 

It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  if  not  kept  under  control  there  is  no  more  destructive 
enemy  to  fruit  trees  than  the  San  Jose  Scale. 

Natural  Enemies. — Many  of  our  scale  insects  are  to  a  very  considerable  extent 
kept  in  check  by  predaceous  enemies  and  parasites,  but  this  is  not  true  of  the  San 
Jose  Scale.  Its  chief  enemies  are  as  follows: — (1)  A  very  tiny,  glossy-black  lady- 
bird beetle,  Microweisea  (Pentilia),  misella  and  its  brown  larvae.  (See  Fig.  9.) 
A  considerable  number  of  these  were  found  on  most  of  the  trees  examined,  but 
they  were  never  numerous  enough  anywhere  to  control  the  scale  even  on  a  single 
branch.  (2)  A  much  larger  black  ladybird  beetle  with  two  red  spots  on  its  back, 
Chiloconis  hivulnerus.  This  is  a  common  insect  in  Ontario,  but  was  very  rarely 
found  feeding  on  San  Jose  Scale.  (3)  Four- winged  hymenopterous  parasites  (see 
Fig.  10.)  Two  species  of  these  Aphelinus  mytilaspidis  and  Aphelinus  fiLScipennis 
were  reared  a  few  years  ago  by  Mr.  Alfred  Eastham,  a  graduate  of  the  Agricultural 
College,  but  a  careful  examination  of  several  orchards  showed  very  few  scales  with 
little  circular  holes  in  them  indicating  that  a  parasite  of  this  nature  had  emerged. 
(4)   A  large  red  mite  that  I  have  not  yet  had  a  chance  to  get  identified.     (5)     A 


Fig.  9.  The  Pitiful  Ladybird  Beetle  and  its  larva 
(Microioeisea  misella),  both  much  enlarged. 
The  small  lines  show  the  natural  size  (redrawn 
from  Marlatt). 

fungus  disease.    This  seems  to  be  very  rare.    I  have  not  myself  seen  it,  but  the  late 
Dr.  Fletcher  reported  it  from  the  Niagara  district. 

From  my  own  observations  I  think  that  all  these  enemies  combined  do  not  kill 
more  than  one  scale  out  of  one  thousand.  This,  however,  is  not  true  of  all  parts 
of  North  America,  for  in  some  places  disease  or  parasites  or  both  are  very  helpful. 
In  October  Prof.  Surface,  of  Pennsylvania,  replying  to  a  letter  of  mine  said  that 
the  four-winged  parasites  there  were  becoming  very  abundant  and  doing  a  great 
deal  to  control  the  scale.  He  reported  that  there  were  many  different  species  at 
work.  It  is  my  intention  next  year  to  bring  in  a  good  supply  of  parasitized  material 
from  Pennsylvania  and  try  to  establish  these  friends  in  our  worst  infested  dis- 
tricts. Whether  they  will  increase  rapidly  in  our  climate  and  become  of  mucli 
assistance  is  impossible  to  tell. 

MEANS    OF    CONTROL, 

In  controlling  San  Jose  Scale  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  depend  upon  thor- 
ough spraying  of  infested  orchards,  but  spraying  is  simplified  and  made  less  costly 
by  certain  preliminary  steps.     It  should  be  borne  in  mind  in  treating  neglected 


18 

orchards  that  the  first  year's  work  is  far  more  difficult  than  that  of  any  succeeding 
year.  Once  the  scale  is  brought  under  control  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  keep  it 
there;  in  fact  I  consider  it  easier  to  combat  successfully  than  the  Codling  Moth  in 
the  warmer  parts  of  the  Province. 

Teeatment  of  Oechaeds,  Especially  of  Old,  Neglected  Apple  Oechaeds, 
Befoee  Speaying. — Every  orchard  before  it  is  sprayed  should  be  carefully  pruned 
to  thin  out  any  unnecessary  branches  and  to  remove  dead  or  dying  ones.  This  lets 
in  the  sunlight,  allows  the  spray  to  reach  every  part  more  easily,  and  causes  less 
waste.    The  trees  are  also  healthier  and  bear  better  fruit. 

Old,  neglected  apple  orchards,  however,  require  much  more  work  to  put  them 
into  shape  for  satisfactory  spraying.  They  are  often  so  tall  and  thick  with  branches 
that  it  is  impossible  to  spray  them  thoroughly  just  as  they  are.  Moreover  the 
trunk  and  larger  branches  are  covered  with  loose  bark,  under  _which  the  scale  may 
be  concealed  and  be  untouched  by  the  spray.  Such  trees  should  always  have  the 
branches  well  thinned  out,  and  if  tall,  headed  back  to  a  reasonable  height  for  con- 
venient spraying    It  is  usually  desirable  to  lower  the  tops  considerably,  sometimes 


^f^^^ 


Fig.  10.  Prospalta  aurantii,  a  common  parasite  of  the  scale  in  some 
parts  of  North  America,  greatly  enlarged  (after  Howard). 


as  much  as  eight  feet  or  more.  In  doing  this  one  should  use  judgment,  and  should 
try  to  make  a  well-balanced  head.  It  is  especially  important  in  cutting  back  the 
upright  branches  to  cut  close  to  a  cross  branch,  especially  to  one  running  in  such  a 
direction  as  to  keep  the  centre  of  the  tree  from  being  too  open.  Open  centres  tend 
to  favor  sunscald  on  large  branches  and  are  also  undesirable,  because  this  part 
should,  like  the  rest  of  the  head,  be  bearing  fruit ;  in  fact  it  is  the  part  best  adapted, 
because  receiving  most  sunlight,  to  bear  the  choicest  fruit.  Catting  close  to  cross 
branches  is  necessary,  because  if  this  is  not  done  the  stubs  that  are  left  will  rot  and 
cause  the  tree  to  become  hollow  and  thus  weakened.  Large  cuts  should  be  painted 
with  white-lead  or  coal  tar. 

Where  the  orchard  is  large  and  help  scarce  the  pruning  may  be  done  in  scale 
infested  districts  at  any  time  after  the  leaves  are  off,  and  the  work  in  this  way  be 
distributed  over  several  months.  I  find  long-handled  pruners,  about  eight  or  ten 
feet  long,  very  helpful  in  thinnings  out  branches  one  inch  or  under  in  diameter. 
They  cost  from  80  cents  to  $1.  Good  ladders  also  soon  pay  for  themselves.  All 
prunings  should  be  burned  before  the  end  of  May. 


19 


After  the  trees  are  pruned  the  rough  bark  should  be  scraped  off  the  larger 
branches  and  trunk  with  a  hoe.  This  will  expose  all  the  scale  to  the  spray.  It 
may  be  done  at  any  time  of  the  year  before  spraying,  and  does  not  need  to  be  done 
again  for  several  years. 


SPRAYING. 


When  and  How  Often  to  Spray. — Unless    a    tree    is  badly    infested,  one 
thorough  annual  application  of  the  right  mixture  at  the  proper  strength  applied 


Fig.  11.    An  old  neglected  apple  tree.    Heavy  pruning,  lowering  the  top 

and  scraping  off  the  bark  Is  necessary  before  this  tree  can  be 

thoroughly  and  economically  sprayed  (original). 


in  spring  just  before  the  buds  burst  will  satisfactorily  control  the  scale,  but  badly 
infested  trees  should  receive  two  applications  the  first  year  to  make  a  thorough 
job.  Even  on  these  it  is  quite  possible,  especially  if  the  weather  is  dry  at  the  time 
of  spraying  and  for  a  few  days  later,  to  control  the  scale  completely  with  a  single 
application;  but  only  the  most  thorough  sprayers  succeed  in  doing  so,  especially 
in  old  apple  orchards.  One  of  these  two  applications  may  be  given  in  autumn  soon 
after  the  leaves  have  nearly  all  fallen  or  at  any  time  in  the  spring  when  the  weather 
permits;  the  other  should  be  done  preferably  just  before  or  as  the  buds  are  burst- 
ing, because  the  mixture  will  thereby  remain  on  much  longer  into  the  summer  and 
have  more  value  in  destroying  any  young  scale  there  may  be ;  for  these  seem  unable 
to  settle  down  and  thrive  on  bark  coated  with  lime-sulphur. 


20 

Peach  trees  are  an  exception  to  this  late  spraying,  because  we  want  the  one 
application  to  control  the  San  Jose  Scale  and  the  Peach  Leaf-curl  at  the  same  time, 
and  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  spray  before  the  buds  have  begun  to  swell.  If  the 
spraying  is  delayed  until  these  are  ready  to  burst,  and  if  the  weather  has  been  wet 
and  cold,  the  Leaf-curl  will  not  have  been  controlled. 

Fall  spraying  instead  of  spring  where  only  one  application  is  to  be  given  is 
advocated  by  some.    Good  results  are  usually  obtained,  but  on  the  whole  it  is  found 


^0^u^4 


Fig.  12. 


How  an  old  orchard  very  badly  attacked  by  San  Jose  Scale  bad  to  be 
pruned  to  get  rid  of  dead  branches  and  put  it  into  shape 
to  save  it  (original). 


better  to  spray  in  spring.  Some  writers  have  been  advocating  summer  applications^ 
about  July  1st  or  a  little  later  for  the  scale.  In  my  opinion,  based  on  some  tests 
made,  the  results  do  not  justify  the  trouble  and  expense. 

The  Best  Mixture  to  Use. — The  lime-sulphur  wash  is  to-day  recognized  all 
over  North  America  as  much  the  safest,  best  and  cheapest  spray  mixture  to  use 
against  San  Jose  Scale.  Oil  washes  of  various  kinds  have  often  given  good  results, 
but  they  have  also  under  certain  weather  conditions,  which  may  occur  any  season, 
caused  much  injury  to  the  trees.  They  are  much  dearer  than  the  lime-sulphur, 
usually  costing  more  than  double  as  much.  Moreover  they  have  but  little  fungicidal 
value,  whereas  lime-sulphur  is  well  known  to  be  a  very  valuable  fungicide.  In  badly 
infested  old  apple  orchards  the  use  of  an  oil  wash,  such  as  Scalecide  or  Target  Brand 
or  even  Kerosene  Emulsion  containing  about  25  per  cent,  kerosene,  to  supplement 
lime-sulphur  for  scale  on  the  outer  branches  and  twigs  would  be  quite  valuable, 
because  the  oily  nature  of  these  sprays  enables  them  to  spread  better  over  the  bark 
and  get  more  easily  into  contact  with  any  scales  situated  among  .the  pubescence  on 
the  smaller  branches  where  they  are  hard  to  reach  with  lime-sulphur.  However,, 
if  orchardists  remember  the  need  of  spraying  these  outer  twigs  very  carefully  on 
account  of  the  pubescence  they  can  get  quite  satisfactory  results  with  the  lime- 
sulphur  alone. 


A  new  spray  mixture  manufactured  by  the  Niagara  Brand  Spray  Company,  and 
known  as  Soluble  Sulphur,  promises  to  be  a  valuable  wash  for  the  scale.  I  used 
it  this  year,  at  the  strength  recommended  on  the  containers,  on  nine  large  very 
badly  infested  old  apple  trees  and  one  pear  tree,  and  got  good  results  from  the  one 
application — just  as  good  as  from  the  regular  lime-sulphur.  Soluble  Sulphur  is 
a  yellowish-green  powder,  and  is  made  by  combining  sulphur  and  certain  compounds 
of  soda  at  a  very  high  temperature  and  then  apparently  grinding  the  dry  com- 
pound into  a  powder  after  it  is  cold.  It  dissolves  readily  in  water,  and  is  therefore 
very  convenient  to  ship,  store  and  use.  Its  price  at  present  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  commercial  lime-sulphur.  It  may  be  that  if  a  rain  followed  soon  after 
spraying  it  would  not  give  so  good  results  as  lime-sulphur.  This  remains  to  be 
tested.  The  directions  for  use  are  given  on  the  cans.  The  manufacturers  claim 
that  their  mixture  can  he  safelv  used  as  a  subsitute  for  lime-sulphur  in  all  the 


Fig.  13.     The  same  trees  photographed  from  a  little  farther  to  the  right  two 
months  later,  about  July  20th   (original). 


regular  orchard  applications.     Without  further  tests  under  different  weather  con- 
ditions I  am  not  prepared  to  recommend  it  for  summer  use. 

THiE  Proper  Strength  of  Lime-sulphur  to  Use. — As  it  is  very  important 
to  use  sufficiently  strong  mixtures,  and  as  the  most  common  forms  of  lime-sulphur 
are  the  commercial  and  the  home-made  concentrated,  and  as  the  different  barrels 
of  these  vary  in  strength,  it  is  very  important  to  test  them  with  an  hydrometer 
before  using,  and  then  reason  out  by  rule  how  much  to  dilute  each  gallon  to  get 
the  proper  strength.  Specific  gravity  hydrometers  are  the  most  convenient,  and  cost 
about  80  cents.  From  my  own  experience  and  that  of  others  I  think  the  most 
desirable  strength  is  about  1.035  specific  gravity.  A  full  account  of  how  to  use 
the  hydrometer  is  given  in  the  Lime-Sulphur  Bulletin,  No.  198,  pages  10  to  13, 
and  also  a  less  full  one  in  the  Spray  Calendar.  Briefly  stated,  the  rule  is: — Gently 
drop  the  hydrometer  into  the  clear  concentrated  liquid  of  the  barrel  after  all  sedi- 
ment has  settled  and  the  temperature  is  that  of  the  surrounding  air.  Note  the 
figure   to    which    it   sinks.     Suppose  this  is    1.300    in  one    barrel    and    1.280    in 


22 

another.  Then  to  determine  how  much  to  dilute  each  of  these  to  get  a  strength  of 
1.035  divide  the  last  three  figures  of  the  1.300  and  1.380,  respectively,  by  35,  and 
this  will  give  the  total  number  of  gallons  which  each  gallon,  respectively,  will  make. 
Thus  300-^35=:8  20-35,  or  approximately  8%,  and  280^35=8.  This  means  that 
each  gallon  of  the  strength  of  1.300  must  be  diluted  with  water  to  8%  gals,  to  make 
a  strength  of  1.035,  and  each  gal.  of  the  strength  of  1.280  to  8  gals,  to  give  the 
same  strength. 

Those  who  wish  to  use  the  old  home-boiled  lime-sulphur,  an  excellent  but 
troublesome  spray  to  make  and  apply,  should  consult  Bulletin  198,  page  14. 

Formula  for  Kerosene  Emulsion  for  Use  on  Scale. — A  number  of  fruit- 
growers in  the  districts  where  there  are  oil  wells  have  asked  for  a  formula  by  which 
they  could  make  use  of  crude  petroleum  against  San  Jose  Scale.  The  following 
formula  is  taken  from  Circular  No.  124,  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Washington,  D.C. : 

"Kerosene  Emulsion  {stock  solution  66  per  cent.  oil).  Kerosene  emulsion  is 
made  after  the  following  formula : — 

Kerosene   (coal  oil,  lamp  oil) gallons  2 

Whale-oil  soap  or  laundry  soap  (or  1  quart  of  soft  soap) .  .  .  .pound     >4 
Water gallon  1 

Dissolve  the  soap  in  boiling  water,  then  remove  vessel  from  the  fire.  Immed- 
iately add  the  kerosene,  and  thoroughly  agitate  the  mixture  until  a  creamy  solution 
results.  The  stock  emulsion  may  be  more  conveniently  made  by  pouring  the  mix- 
ture into  the  tank  of  a  spray  pump  and  pumping  the  liquid  through  the  nozzle 
back  into  the  tank  for  some  minutes.  The  stock  solution,  if  well  made,  will  keep 
for  some  months,  and  is  to  be  diluted  before  using.  In  order  to  make  a  10  per  cent, 
spray  (the  strength  for  trees  in  foliage),  add"  to  each  one  gallon  of  the  stock  solu- 
tion about  5%  gals,  of  water.  For  20  and  25  per  cent,  emulsions  (for  use  on  dormant 
trees  and  plants),  use,  respectively,  about  2>^  gallons  and  1%  gallons  of  water  for 
each  one  gallon  of  stock  emulsion.  Agitate  the  mixture  in  all  cases  after  adding 
the  water.  The  preparation  of  the  emulsion  will  be  simplified  by  the  use  of 
naptha  soap.  No  heat  will  be  required,  as  the  kerosene  will  combine  readily  with 
the  soap  in  water  when  thoroughly  agitated.  Of  naphtha  soap,  however,  double  the 
quantity  given  in  the  above  formula  will  be  required,  and  soft  or  rain  water  should 
be  used  in  making  the  emulsion.  In  regions  where  the  water  is  "  hard  "  this  should 
first  be  broken  with  a  little  caustic  potash  or  soda,  such  as  common  lye,  before  use  for 
dilution,  to  prevent  the  soap  from  combining  with  the  lime  or  magnesia  present,  thus 
liberating  some  of  the  kerosene ;  or  rain  water  may  be  employed. 

Crude  Petroleum  Emulsion.  Crude  petroleum  emulsion  may  be  prepared  in 
identically  the  same  way  as  described  for  kerosene  emulsion,  substituting  crude 
petroleum  for  kerosene.  The  same  dilutions  for  winter  and  summer  spraying  should 
be  made  as  prescribed  for  kerosene  emulsion,  but  it  should  be  noted  that  for  summer 
treatments  of  trees  in  foliage  the  kerosene  emulsion  is  preferable,  as  it  is  less  likely 
to  cause  injury. 

I  have  not  myself  tested  these  emulsions,  but  would  advise  that  they  should  be 
used  only  to  supplement  lime-sulphur  in  spring,  especially  on  the  outer  branches 
and  twigs  of  large  apple  trees.  It  is  not  safe  to  drench  trees  with  any  oil  wash, 
particularly  the  trunks  and  large  branches.  Spraying  should  be  stopped  as  soon 
as  it  is  seen  that  the  part  is  well  covered,  and  before  it  legins  to  run.  It  is  also 
safer  to  spray  on  a  bright  or  windy  day  than  in  dark  gloomy  weather,  because  the 


23 

former  permits  the  oils  to  evaporate  more  quickly.  Crude  petroleum  alone  is  seldom 
safe  to  use.    Many  trees  have  been  killed  by  it. 

Some  Points  to  Remember  About  Spraying  for  San  Jose  Scale. — (1)  Do 
not  spray  when  the  trees  are  wet;  this  weakens  the  wash. 

(2)   Do  not  spray  just  before  a  rain,  because  the  rain  will  rapidly  wash  the 
mixture  oE  unless  it  has  first  become  thoroughly  dry. 

(3)  Do  not  spray  when  the  thermometer  is  at  or  below  freezing  point.  The 
mixture  does  not  seem  to  get  into  contact  with  the  insects  so  well  as  in  warm 
weather. 

(4)  If  possible  start  soon  enough  to  finish  by  the  time  the  buds  are  bursting. 
If  not  through  then  and  the  scale  is  abundant  spray  ahead  at  the  regular  strength 
until  all  the  trees  are  done.  Often  no  damage  to  leaves  will  follow,  in  any  case  the 
spray  will  do  less  injury  than  the  scale. 

(5)  Test  the  strength  of  the  lime-sulphur  with  a  hydrometer;  it  is  the  only 
business-like  way  where  concentrated  lime-sulphur  is  used. 

(6)  Take  advantage  of  the  wind.  A  strong  wind  is  often  helpful,  especially 
for  large  trees. 

(7)  Do  not  be  stingy  with  the  material.  Cover  every  inch  from  the  base  of 
the  trunk  to  the  topmost  twig.  Eemember  a  single  female  missed  may  mean 
1,000,000  by  the  end  of  the  season.  It  may  take  eight  gallons  or  more  for  a  large 
tree,  but  only  thoroughness  will  pay. 

(8)  A  good  gasoline  outfit  is  very  much  quicker  and  more  satisfactory  than  a 
hand  pump  for  large,  old  orchards,  but  good  work  can  be  done  with  a  hand  pump, 
too. 

(9)  Keep  the  spray  machine  in  good  repair,  pump  clean  water  through  it  every 
night  and  take  off  the  nozzles  to  prevent  their  getting  set.  It  will  save  much  loss 
of  time.  A  circular  piece  of  leather  three  inches  in  diameter  placed  at  the  base  of 
the  nozzles  will  largely  prevent  the  mixture  running  down  the  rod  and  wetting  the 
hands. 

(10)  Use  gloves  to  save  the  hands. 

(11)  Try  to  supervise  all  the  sprajdng  yourself,  or  put  it  in  charge  of  your  best 
man. 

Is  IT  Possible  for  a  Man  to  Control  the  Scale  in  His  Own  Orchard 
Independently  op  His  Neighbors? — Wherever  an  orchard  is  some  distance,  say 
ten  rods  or  more  away  from  an  infested  orchard,  it  can  be  kept  almost  free  from 
scale  whether  the  infested  orchard  remains  neglected  or  not.  In  the  Niagara  dis- 
trict most  good  growers  would  not  care  much  whether  their  neighbor  sprayed  or 
not.  They  are  aware,  too,  that  if  he  does  not  spray  the  scale  will  soon  kill  his  trees 
and  so  remove  the  menace.  However,  there  are  often  cases  where  orchards  are 
almost  touching,  and  if  the  one  on  the  west,  the  side  of  the  prevailing  wind  (from 
other  directions  the  danger  is  usually  not  quite  so  great)  is  composed  of  tall  trees 
badly  infested  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  nearest  row  or  two  of  the  neighboring 
orchard,  however  well  sprayed  and  cared  for,  will  be  more  or  less  affected  by  this. 
Under  these  circumstances  if  a  man  cannot  persuade  his  neighbor  to  control  the 
scale  he  should  appeal  to  the  scale  inspector,  if  there  is  one,  or  else  ask  permission 
to  treat  his  neighbor's  outer  row  at  his  own  expense,  if  he  thinks  it  worth  while 
to  do  so. 


24 


INSPECTION. 


Scale  Inspectors. — During  the  past  season  there  have  been  several  inquiries 
as  to  the  appointment  of  inspectors,  especially  in  townships  where  our  survey  of 
the  orchards  showed  there  was  scale,  though  the  owners  of  the  orchards  either  did 
not  previously  know  of  it  or  were  not  aware  that  it  was  so  serious  a  pest.  Sec.  7, 
Clause  1,  of  The  Fruit  Pest  Act  reads:  "The  Council  of  any  local  municipality 
may,  and  upon  the  petition  of  twenty-five  or  more  fruit-growers  who  are  ratepayers 
shall,  by  by-law,  appoint  at  least  one  inspector  to  enforce  the  provisions  of  this 
Act  in  the  municipality,  and  fix  the  amount  of  remuneration,  fees  or  charges  he 
shall  receive  for  the  performance  of  his  duties."  The  Department  of  Agriculture 
pays  half  the  salary  of  these  men  and  the  municipality  the  other  half.  For  further 
particulars  write  to  the  Department  for  a  copy  of  the  Act.  It  is  clear  therefore 
under  what  circumstances  an  inspector  may  be  appointed.  In  many  districts 
inspectors  are  very  desirable  and  helpful,  but  not  in  all.  To  be  a  success  the 
inspector  must  have  public  opinion  behind  him,  and  must  be  looked  upon  not  as 
an  intruder,  but  as  a  friend  who  is  trying  to  improve  the  fruit  industry.  Men  who 
will  only  spray  because  they  are  compelled  will  seldom  have  any  success  against 
the  scale,  because  they  will  not  spray  thoroughly,  and  poor  spraying  is  very  little 
better  than  none.  These  men,  as  a  rule,  try  to  work  up  opposition  to  the  inspector, 
and  often  succeed  so  well  that  next  year  the  Council  thinks  it  expedient  to  get  a 
new  man.  Now  a  competent  new  man  with  plenty  of  backbone  will  not  be  easily 
secured,  because  he  can  readily  see  that  if  he  tries  to  do  his  duty  he,  too,  need  not 
expect  to  be  re-engaged  the  following  year.  It  is  difficult  in  the  face  of  strong 
opposition  for  a  local  man  to  do  his  duty  as  inspector  and  enforce  the  law 
impartially.  When  he  sees  the  task  ahead  of  him  he  will  usually  resign.  Under 
circumstances  like  these  I  should  urge  the  men  who  are  anxious  to  have  the  scale 
controlled  in  their  district  to  try  to  show  their  neighbors  by  their  own  thorough 
and  successful  work  not  only  that  the  scale  can  be  controlled,  but  also  that  it  will 
pay  well  to  look  after  their  orchards.  To  convince  a  man  that  a  thing  pays  is  the 
surest  way  to  get  him  to  do  that  thing  and  to  do  it  well.  In  most  counties  there 
are  district  representatives,  and  these  men,  if  their  attention  is  called  to  it,  are 
always  willing  and  able  to  help  in  arousing  an  interest  in  any  great  question,  such 
as  the  control  of  the  San  Jose  Scale.  They  are  sometimes  able  to  take  charge  of 
an  orchard  in  an  infested  district  and  show  by  actual  demonstration  how  to  bring 
it  back  to  health  and  the  bearing  of  large  crops  of  good  clean  fruit. 

Inspection  of  Nueseries  and  Fumigation  of  Nursery  Stock.— Since  the 
chief  means  of  spreading  San  Jose  Scale  has  been  on  nursery  stock,  and  since  there 
is  always  a  possibility  of  some  of  the  stock  escaping  fumigation  where  the  nursery- 
man is  careless  and  the  inspector  unable  to  guard  against  it,  it  has  been  found 
advisable  to  supplement  the  fumigation  by  a  careful  inspection  of  the  growing 
stock  itself  in  the  nursery  grounds.  This  year  all  saleable  stock,  over  4,000,000 
trees,  was  examined  tree  by  tree.  Wherever  possible,  badly  infested  areas  were 
examined  twice,  and  sometimes  three  times.  Every  tree  on  which  even  a  single 
scale,  whether  dead  or  alive,  was  found  was  broken  down  and  the  nurseryman 
required  to  dig  it  out  the  same  day  and  burn  it.  In  order  to  insure  better  results 
all  trees  and  shrubs  in  fence  corners,  roadsides,  and  orchards  in  and  for  half  a  mile 
at  least  on  every  side  of  the  nurseries  were  examined  early  in  the  spring,  and  if 
infested  either  required  to  be  destroyed  or  well  sprayed.  The  nurserymen  have 
heartily  co-operated  in  this  work.     Inspection,  however,  though  of  great  value,  is 


25 

not  meant  to  take  the  place  of,  but  to  supplement,  fumigation  with  hydrocyanic 
acid  gas.  Each  fumigation  house  is  carefully  inspected  and  tested  by  the  Pro- 
vincial inspector  and  the  local  inspector  before  the  fumigation  begins,  and  in  order 
to  be  sure  that  the  chemicals  used  are  not  adulterated,  nurserymen  are  required  to 
purchase  them  only  from  certain  reliable  firms  who  guarantee  the  purity  and 
strength. 

Conclusion. 

We  have  seen  that  the  San  Jos^  Scale  is  a  very  destructive  insect.  The  method 
of  combating  it  successfully  has  also  been  described.  Some  may  thmk  that  the 
amount  of  labor  involved  is  great.  It  sometimes  is,  especially  in  neglected  old 
orchards  the  first  year,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  an  old  orchard  may  often 
be  made  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  whole  farm.  Many  of  the  best  paying 
orchards  of  to-day  were  neglected  until  a  few  years  ago.  The  steps  outlined  for 
putting  them  into  shape  for  spraifng  for  San  Jose  Scale  are  those  that  luould  have 
to  he  followed  in  renovating  the  orchard  even  ivere  there  no  scale.  Of  course  these 
have  to  be  supplemented  by  two  later  sprayings  to  control  the  various  insect  pests 
and  keep  off  disease  so  that  the  fruit  may  be  clean  and  the  foliage  healthy.  The 
orchards  also  require  either  to  be  cultivated  or  fertilized,  or  often  both,  to  supply 
plenty  of  food  for  growth.  Any  man  who  will  take  the  trouble  to  combat  the  scale 
in  earnest  will  naturally  go  farther  and  do  the  extra  spraying  and  fertilizing  to 
insure  a  good  return  for  his  labor.  Often  the  first  year  his  crop  will  be  poor,  because 
the  trees  if  badly  infested  have  been  too  starved  and  weak  to  produce  fruit  buds, 
but  the  second  year  he  may  ordinarily  expect  a  crop.  San  Jose  scale  is  being  satis- 
factorily controlled  all  over  North  America  to-day,  and  no  man  really  interested  is 
losing  any  trees  by  it.  Many  growers  claims  that  the  insect  in  their  particular  dis- 
trict has  been  more  of  a  l)lessing  than  a  curse  to  them,  because  it  has  shown  them 
the  value  of  spraying  and  of  thoroughness. 


26 


The  Oyster-Shell  Scale 

(Lepidosaphes  ulmi,  L.) 

Intkoduction. — The  Oyster-shell  Scale  is  well  known  to  nearly  all  the  fruit- 
growers of  Ontario,  as  it  occurs  not  only  in  every  fruit  district  but  also  in  most 
orchards  in  these.  Like  the  San  Jose  Scale,  it  is  believed  to  be  an  imported  insect. 
When  it  was  introduced  is  unknown.  It  has,  however,  been  in  North  America  for 
more  than  120  years.  It  is  so  widely  distributed  over  the  world  to-day  that  the 
original  home  is  uncertain.  A  few  years  ago  this  insect  was  much  feared  by  fruit- 
growers, who  believed  it  was  increasing  and  likely  to  seriously  injure  their  orchards. 
The  methods  of  control  then  advocated  were  thought  to  be  unsatisfactory,  and  the 
need  of  a  simpler  effective  remedy  was  keenly  felt.  Fortunately  this  has  been 
found,  and  has  gained  the  confidence  of  the  growers. 

Plants  Attacked. — Apples,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  currants  and  gooseberries 
are  attacked,  but  of  these  apples  are  much  worse  infested  than  the  others.  Prof. 
Jarvis  and  I  have  found  it  also  on  rose  bushes,  spireas,  lilacs,  hawthorn,  mountain 
ash,  red-osier  dogwood,  black  ash,  white  ash,  prickly  ask,  poplar  (Populus  tre- 
muloides),  basswood,  horse  chestnut  and  mulberry.  Of  these,  hawthorns  and  red- 
osier  dogwood  were  the  favorites,  and  were  sometimes  badly  infested.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  further  search  would  show  that  the  insect  feeds  also  on  many  other  plants 
in  this  Province.  Prof.  Quaintance,  of  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Washington, 
D.C.,  in  Circular  121,  gives  a  long  list  of  plants  on  which  the  scale  has  been  found 
in  North  America. 

Nature  and  Extent  of  the  Injury. — Unlike  the  San  Jose  Scale,  the  Oyster- 
shell  does  not  attack  every  part  of  the  tree,  but  confines  itself  almost  entirely  to  the 
trunk  and  branches,  though  occasionally  it  is  found  on  the  fruit  of  apple  trees. 
Probably  the  reason  this  is  not  worse  attacked  is  that  nearly  all  the  young  active 
larvae  have  settled  down  and  inserted  their  sucking  beaks  into  the  bark  before  the 
fruit  has  begun  to  form.  The  new  growth  on  the  branches,  except  towards  its 
base,  is  also  exempt  for  the  same  reason.  The  injury,  as  in  the  case  of  the  San  Jos6 
Scale,  is  caused  by  the  numerous  insects  with  their  long,  hair-like  beaks  sucking 
the  food  out  of  the  tender  tissues  beneath  the  bark  and  slowly  starving  the  trees. 
An  oblique  cut  beneath  the  affected  bark  shows  little  brown  areas  where  the  scales 
have  fed.  In  my  experience  the  insect  exhibits  a  decided  preference  for  neglected 
and  weakened  trees,  such  as  those  we  see  along  the  roadside  or  in  fence  comers 
here  and  there  over  the  farm,  or  in  orchards  that  have  been  starved  or  weakened  by 
winter  injury.  It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  find  the  above  classes  of  trees  so  badly 
attacked  that  the  bark  is  almost  concealed  by  the  scales.  Young  trees  as  a  rule 
seem  to  be  worst  infested.  Occasionally  a  tree  badly  attacked  dies,  but  usually 
they  continue  to  live  for  many  years  in  a  weakened  condition.  The  bark  on  these 
trees  becomes  after  a  few  years  very  rough  and  scurvy,  and  even  if  the  scale  is 
killed  does  not  recover  its  smoothness  for  several  years.  In  thrifty  orchards  the 
insect  is  seldom  very  abundant,  though  it  is  usually  present  in  moderate  numbers 
in  most  of  the -trees  unless  they  have  been  treated  to  destroy  it.  Occasional 
branches  in  these  orchards  may  be  so  badly  attacked  as  to  die,  but  this  is  not  very 
common. 


27 

I  have  on  several  occasions  seen  trees  that  were  once  badly  infested  throw  olf 
the  scale  in  some  inexplicable  manner  and  take,  as  it  were,  a  new  lease  of  life.  This, 
however,  does  not  seem  to  happen  very  frequently. 


Fig.  14.  Various  stages  of  the  Oyster-shell  Scale:  4.  The  scale  slightly  enlarged 
on  a  twig.  The  little  holes  in  the  scales  indicate  where  parasites  emerged. 
1.  The  female  scale  very  much  enlarged,  showing  general  shape.  5.  A 
similar  scale  turned  over  to  show  the  eggs  beneath.  The  shrivelled  body 
of  the  female  herself  is  beyond  the  eggs  at  the  small  end.  2.  A  female 
removed  from  beneath  the  scale  before  she  has  laid  her  eggs.  Note  the 
bristle-like  moulh  parts  similar  to  those  of  San  Jos6  Scale  in  fig.  4.  3.  A 
male  scale.  6.  Young  larva,  dorsal  view.  7.  Winged  male.  All  except 
No.  4  much  enlarged  (after  Sherman  and  Metcalfe). 


HOW    TO    IDENTIFY    THE    OYSTER-SHELL    SCALE. 

Appearance.— Fig.  14  with  the  description  beneath  it  makes  the  appearance 
of  the  adult  female  scale  (the  only  stage  of  the  insect  noticed  by  fruit-growers)  so 
clear  that  very  little  further  description  is  necessary.  The  insect  is  about  %  of  an 
mch  long  and  scarcely  1-3  of  this  in  width,  is  frequently  curved  more  than  shown 


38 

in  the  figure,  especially  when  they  are  crowded  together;  tapers  towards  one  end, 
and  is  brownish  in  color,  though  it  usually  resembles  very  closely  the  color  of  the 
bark  on  which  it  is  found,  so  that  on  light-colored  bark  like  hawthorn  it  is  decidedly 
lighter  in  color  than  on  the  reddish-brown  bark  of  an  apple  tree. 

The  male  scales  (see  No.  3,  Fig.  14)  as  shown  here,  and  as  found  in  nature,  are 
like  diminutive  females.  They  are  colored  much  the  same,  but  are  very  much 
smaller.  Usually  when  the  bark  is  examined  they  escape  notice  among  the  other 
scales.    They  seem  to  be  rare. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  Figs.  3  and  14  and  see  how  very  different  in  form 
the  San  Jose  and  Oyster-shell  scales  are.  Clearly  no  one  need  ever  mistake  one  for 
the  other. 

Life  History. — The  Oyster-shell  Scale,  unlike  the  San  Jose,  passes  the  winter 
in  the  egg  stage  beneath  the  scale  covering.  (See  No.  5,  Fig.  14.)  The  eggs  are 
glossy  white,  and  may  easily  be  seen  if  fresh-looking  scales  on  a  piece  of  bark  are 


Fig.  15.    The  little  white  dots  are  the  young  white  or 
cream-colored  larvae  of  the  Oyster-shell  scale 
just  after  settling  down  on  the  bark. 


removed  with  a  pin  or  knife  over  any  black  surface,  ou  whuh  they  will  show  up 
clearly,  as  some  will  usually  fall  out  during  the  operation.  With  the  aid  of  a  hand 
lens  those  left  inside  the  scale  can  also  be  seen.  There  are  from  about  20  to  100 
eggs  in  each  scale,  and  about  an  average  of  40  or  50.  In  Ontario  the  eggs  hatch 
usually  around  the  first  of  June  or  about  the  time  the  blossoms  have  fallen ;  some- 
times it  is  a  few  days  later  before  they  are  all  hatched,  as  this  continues  for  five 
days  or  more,  depending  apparently  on  the  amount  of  heat;  in  hot  weather 
they  hatch  more  quickly.  The  little  larvae  that  hatch  from  the  egg&  are  white  or 
cream-colored  (see  Fig.  15),  and  for  a  few  hours  after  emerging  they  run  around 
on  the  bark  and  then  settle  down  and  insert  their  long,  hair-like  sucking  tube, 
which  is  just  like  that  of  the  San  Jose  Scale  (see  Fig.  6),  through  the  bark.  Soon 
they  cover  themselves  over  with  a  pale,  brownish,  waxy  covering,  and  later,  as  they 
continue  to  grow,  the  large,  familiar  brown  scale  is  gradually  formed.  The  female 
insects  never  move  afier  they  have  once  settled  down,  but  remain  under  the  brown 
covering.  The  males,  on  the  contrary,  when  full  grown,  back  out  from  under  their 
covering  as  tiny  two-winged  little  creatures  (see  No.  7,  Fig.  14),  and  fertilize  the 


29 


females  before  these  are  full  size.  This  probably  takes  place  early  in  July,  the 
exact  date  unfortunately  was  not  determined.  In  August  the  female  has  reached 
its  full  development,  and  its  body  is  so  distended  with  eggs  that  it  occupies  the 
whole  of  the  cavity  beneath  the  covering.  It  then  begins  to  lay  its  eggs,  and  as  it 
does  so  its  body  gradually  gets  smaller  and  smaller,  until  by  the  time  they  are  all 
laid  it  is  so  small  that  it  can  only  with  difficulty  be  seen  beneath  the  small  end  of 
the  scale  close  to  the  eggs.  The  female  dies  very  soon  after  laying  all  her  eggs. 
There  is  only  one  brood  a  year  in  Ontario,  though  in  counties  farther  south  there 
fire  two  broods. 


Fig.  16.  1.  Adult  parasite  {Aphelinus  mytilas- 
pidis)  of  Oyster-shell  Scale.  2.  Larva  of  para- 
site in  scale  with  scale  insect  on  one  side  and 
eggs  on  the  other.  3.  Pupa  of  parasite.  All 
much  enlarged,  (after  Sherman  and  Metcalfe). 


Rate  of  Annual  Increase. — Jis  stated  above,  the  average  number  of  eggs  per 
female  is  between  40  and  50.  If,  as  in  the  case  of  the  San  Jose  Scale,  we  allow 
for  a  mortality  of  about  50  per  cent. — which  I  think  is  not  too  high  for  the  Oyster- 
shell  Scale,  though  probably  much  too  high  for  the  San  Jose — there  will  not  be 
more  than  25  offspring  from  a  single  female  in  a  year.  The  rate  of  increase  there- 
fore is  small.  Comparing  this  increase  of  25  from  one  with  1,000,000  from  one 
on  the  part  of  the  San  Jose  Scale,  we  can  easily  see  why  the  latter  scale  is  so  much 
more  destructive  and  to  be  feared. 

Means  of  Distribution, 

The  chief  means  of  distribution  for  the  Oyster-shell  Scale,  just  as  for 
the  San  Jose,  is  the  shipment  of  infested  nursery  stock.  It  is  also  spread 
by  the  little  cream-colored  larvae  crawling  on  'birds,  insects  of  various  kinds,  or 
almost  any  kind  of  moving  thing  that  comes  in  contact  with  them,  and  being  carried 
by  these  to  other  trees.  As  the  time  when  larvae  are  active  is  only  a  few  days 
around  the  first  of  June,  compared  with  a  long  period  of  over  three  months  for 
the  San  Jose  Scale,  it  is  clear  that  this  latter  method  of  distribution  would  not  be 
so  rapid  in  the  case  of  the  Oyster-shell. 

Natural  Enemies. — The  natural  enemies  of  the  scale  in  Ontario  are  more 
important  than  those  of  the  San  Jose  Scale.  Certain  Ladybird  beetle  adults  and 
larvae  feed  to  a  small  extent  upon  them,  as  do  also  a  few  mites;  a  reddish  fungus 
disease  also  occasionally  does  some  good,  but  the  only  foes  of  real  importance  are 


30 

the  till}-  iour-whiged  parasites  like  the  uiie  shown  in  hgure  IG.  These  little 
creatures  in  their  larval  stages  feed  both  upon  the  insect  itself  under  the  scale  and 
upon  the  eggs,  and  when  full  grown  come  out  from  tiny  round  holes  which  they 
make  near  the  centre  of  the  scale,  and  which  can  easily  be  seen  with  a  hand  lens. 
There  are  several  species  of  these  parasites,  but  the  only  one  T  know  of  at  present 
in  Ontario  is  shown  in  figure  16.  In  some  localities  as  high  as  50  per  cent,  or 
more  of  the  scales  have  these  small  holes,  and  though  they  do  not  destroy  all  the 
eggs  beneath  a  scale  they  must  be  of  considerable  aid  in  keeping  down  the  rate  of, 
increase. 

MEANS    or     CONTROL. 

The    lime-sulphur    wash,    properly    applied,    will    readily    control    this    scale. 
Two  sprayings  should  be  given  for  the  best  results,  the  first  at  the  strength  of  1.030 
specific  gravity  hydrometer  reading,  or  about  one  gallon  of  the  commercial  lime- 
sulphur  diluted  to  ten  gallons  with  water  and  applied  shortly  before  or  as  the  buds 
are  bursting;  the  second  at  the  strength  1.009  specific  gravity,  or  the  commercial 
diluted  one  gallon  to  thirty  or  thirty-five  with  water  and  applied  just  after  the 
blossoms  have  fallen.     Two  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  should  be  added  to  every 
forty  gallons  of  the  mixture  for  this  application,  as  this  is  the  proper  time  to  spray 
for  the  Codling  Moth,  Plum  Curculio  and  Lesser  Apple-worm.    Of  these  two  appli- 
cations the  first  is  far  the  more  important,  but  does  not  always  give  uniformly  good 
results.    Sometimes  it  will  destroy  almost  all  the  eggs  or  prevent  the  larvae  if  they 
hatch  from  escaping  from  the  covering  scale,  at  other  times  a  large  number  hatch, 
though  most  of  these  soon  die,  killed  apparently  by  the  spray  mixture  that  remained 
on  the  tree.     There  is  no  doubt  that  this  one  application  repeated  each  year  will 
itself  soon  free  the  trees  from  the  pest,  but  the  results  are  accomplished  more 
quickly  by  the  aid  of  the  second  application  at  the  time  stated  above.     This  will 
kill  most  of  the  larvae  that  are  already  hatched,  and  will  leave  the  bark  covered 
and  so  repulsive  to  any  that  may  hatch  a  few  days  later.    The  great  point,  how- 
ever, in  favor  of  using  lime-sulphur  in  preference  to  any  other  known  remedy  is 
that  this  wash  not  only  destroys  the  Oyster-shell  Scale,  but  many  other  things  as 
well ;  for  instance,  the  first  application  before  or  as  the  buds  are  bursting  will  also 
control  San  Jose  Scale,  Blister  Mite,  Tent  Caterpillars— these  must  be  hit  soon 
after  hatching — but  also  helps  to  ward  off  such  diseases  as  Scab  and  Black  Eot 
Canker.     The  second  application,  combined  with  the  arsenate  of  lead,  is  always 
required  to  control  Codling  Moth,  Plum  Curculio,  Lesser  Apple  Worm,  Scab  and 
Leaf  Spot.     For  this  spray  lime-sulphur  has  proven  itself  even  more  satisfactory 
than  Bordeaux  mixture  as  a  fungicide,  because  it  keeps  off  the  Scab  on  the  fruit 
without  causing  the  serious  russeting  and  even  cracking  of  apples  commonly  result- 
ing from  Bordeaux  mixture.    It  is  clear,  therefore,  that  these  two  applications  with 
these  mixtures  should  be  given  even  if  there  were  no  Oyster-shell  or  San  Jos6  Scale 
to  combat.    In  addition  to  these,  our  best  growers  give  an  intermediate  application 
just  before  the  blossoms  burst,  and  most  of  them  use  the  weak  lime-sulphur  Iiere, 
too,  along  with  two  or  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead.     Bordeaux,  however,  may 
be  used  in  place  of  the  lime-sulphur,  and  is  possibly  even  more  effective  at  this 
stage  as  a  fungicide.     This  application  is  important  for  the  destruction  of  early- 
feeding  caterpillars  and  for  the  control  of  scab. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  San  Jose  Scale,  old  trees  should  be  pruned  before  spraying 
and  the  rough  bark  scraped  off.  If  the  trees  are  not  vigorous,  a  liberal  dressing  of 
barnyard  manure  or  cultivation  in  May  and  early  June  will  help  them  to  recover 
more  quickly  from  the  effects  of  the  scale. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 


Serial 

No. 

Date. 

172 

May 

1909 

173 

Oct. 

1909 

174 

Dec. 

1909 

175 

Dec. 

1909 

176 

Dec. 

1909 

177  Dec      1909 

178  Dec.      1909 


179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan. 

1913 

209 

March 

I  1913 

210 

March 

I  1913 

211 

March 

I  1913 

212 

April 

1913 

ai3 

April 

1913 

214 

May 

1913 

215 

Aug. 

1913 

216 

Oct. 

1913 

217 

Dec. 

1913 

218 

Dec. 

1913 

219 

Jan. 

1914 

PUBLISHBID  BY  THE  OnTABIO  DkPABTMENT  OF  AQBICULTUBIC,  ToBOWTO. 


Title.  Author. 

Dairy  Scbool  Bulletin  (No.  143  Revised)   . . .     Dairy  School. 

Birds  of  Ontario C.  W.  Nash. 

Farm  Underdrainage:    Does  it  Pay  ? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations  W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   ^-  H.  Jones. 

^ .       ^  ,  \       -^  ^  f  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  ■[  ^  Caesar. 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  Muck  r  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Soils    \  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch. 

^,             ^  ^       ^      ,  J  r  R-   Harcourt. 

Flour  and  Breadmaking -!   jj   ^   Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making Dairy  Branch 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Csesar. 

Children:   Care  and  Training   J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth   L.  Csesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)    J-  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry   (151  revised)    W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch 

Agricultural  Co-operation  S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  P.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch 

Insecticides  and  Fungicides.  (No.  154  revised)/  g-  f  p^i^e*;. 

Tomatoes   A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash  L.  Csesar. 

Onions  A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices L.  Meunier. 

f  Peach  Diseases F.  M.  Clement. 

\  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario L.  Csesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   ....  ( 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm )  Staff  of  Dairy  School. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   1  Dairy  School. 

II.  Dairying  on  the  Farm  ( 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions/  J.  H.  Hare. 

in  Ontario  County \  T.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)   E.  J.  Zavitz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.     F.  M.  Clement. 
Fruits  Recommended  for  Ontario  Planters.     Fruit  Branch. 

(No.  179  revised.) 
Orchard  Surveys   in  Dundas,   Stormont  and 

Glengarry F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Morley  Pettit 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  it  pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples  E.  F.  Palmer. 

,     ,,  (  W.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  189  revised)   w    q  McCuIloch. 

Birds  of  Ontario   (No.  173  revised)    C.  W.  Nash. 

The  San  Jos6  and  Oyster-Shell  Scales L.  Caesar. 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


BULLETIN  220 


Lightning  Rods 

Their  Efficiency,  Principles  and  Installation 
on  Farm  Buildings. 


By 
W.  H.  DAY,  B.A.,  Professor  of  Physics. 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  MARCH,  1914 


"  Immediately  you  say,  '  I  never  saw  the  flash  spread  out  like  that,  either  on  the 
■earth  or  in  the  cloud.'  "—Page  23. 


BULLETIN   220]  [MARCH,  1914. 

Ontario    Department    of    Agriculture 

ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE 


Lightning  Rods 

W.  H.  Day 

"Lightning  Eods  !    Are  They  ant  Good  f 

Hundreds  of  times  during  the  past  tliirteen  years  this  question  has  been  put 
to  the  instructors  of  the  Department  of  Physics.  Hundreds  of  times  we  have 
answered  ''  Certainly,"  only  to  be  immediately  confronted  with  the  logical  sequent 
"  How  do  you  know  ?"  Until  a  year  ago  our  chief  reason  was  "  Because  science  says 
so/'  but  to  the  farmer  that  reason  has  seldom  carried  conviction,  not  because  he 
doubted  our  word  particularly,  but  because  he  is  accustomed  to  dealing  with  indi- 
vidual concrete  examples,  and  he  has  sometime  or  other  known  or  heard  of  a 
"  rodded  "  building  having  been  burned,  and  with  him  this  one  example  carried 
more  weight  than  the  teachings  of  science,  no  matter  how  imperfectly  the  rodding 
may  have  been  done. 

To-dav.  however,  we  are  no  longer  denendent  upon  science  alone  for  our  an- 
swer, to-day  we  know  from  experience  that  lightning  rods,  properly  installed, 
are  almost  absolute  protection.  Out  of  every  thousand  dollars  worth  of  damage 
done  to  unrodded  buildings  by  lightning  nine  hundred  and  ninety-nine  dollars 
worth  would  be  saved  if  those  buildings  were  properly  rodded !  A  pretty  strong 
statement,  you  say.  We  realize  that  it  is  strong.  It  has  taken  thirteen  years  of 
investigation  to  compile  the  data  upon  which  that  statement  is  founded. 

Away  back  in  1901,  when  Prof.  J.  B.  Eeynolds  was  head  of  the  Department  of 
English  and  Physics,  he  began  to  investigate  the  efficiency  of  lightning  rods.  Five 
years  later,  when  two  departments  were  formed  of  one  and  he  chose  the  Depart- 
ment of  English,  leaving  the  writer  tlie  Department  of  Physics,  the  writer  thought 
he  could  not  do  better  than  continne  the  work  so  ably  begun.  To-day  after  eight 
years'  further  study  added  to  the  five  we  have  the  problem  solved. 

Lightning  Rods  Save  Bcjildings  if  Steuck. 

The  first  question  we  asked  ourselves  was  this:  "If  a  rodded  building  is  struck, 
is  it  as  likely  to  be  burned  as  an  unrodded  one  which  is  struck?"  Reports  were 
received  from  a  number  of  selected  observers  in  the  various  counties,  also  from 
Insurance  companies,  but  a  still  greater  number  were  clipped  from  the  daily  and 
weekly  papers,  and  in  all  cases  where  the  owner's  address  was  learned  he  was 
written  to  for  a  personal  report.  In  the  ten  years  from  1901  to  1910  reports 
were  received  covering  599  buildings  that  were  struck  by  lightning.     Of  these 

3 


317  were  burned,  or  53.6  per  cent.  This  percentage  is  higher  than  obtains  gener- 
ally, because  most  of  our  reports  originated  in  the  newspapers,  and  naturally  it 
is  chiefly  the  severe  strokes  that  are  thus  reported.  Amongst  that  599  there 
were  only  18  rodded  buildings,  and  of  these  only  three  were  burned,  which  is 
one  in  six  or  16.6  per  cent,  as  against  53.6.  Hence  we  concluded  that  an  un- 
rodded  building  if  struck  is  more  than  three  times  as  likely  to  be  burned  as  a 
rodded  one.  This  is  the  sum  total  of  the  results  of  our  first  ten  years'  study 
of  this  subject.  As  there  seemed  to  be  no  object  in  pursuing  this  phase  further, 
the  original  line  of  investigation  was  discontinued. 

On  the  three  rodded  buildings  that  were  burned  the  rods  were  reported  in 
good  repair,  but  whether  the  rodding  was  correctly  done  we  had  no  means  of 
determining. 

Do  Lightning  Eods  Prevent  Strokes f 

But  as  early  as  1906  we  had  begun  to  enquire  whether  lightning  rods  hadn't 
a  greater  function  to  perform  than  save  buildings  that  are  struck.  We  had  begun 
to  ask  ourselves  whether  lightning  rods  do  not  actually  prevent  many  buildings 
from  being  struck!  At  first  thought  this  looks  preposterous,  but  seemingly  pre- 
posterous things  sometimes  turn  out  real  and  contain  great  truths. 

But  how  could  we  determine  whether  rods  prevent  buildings  from  being 
struck?  If  1,000  rodded  buildings  escaped  damage  during  a  storm,  how  could 
we  ascertain  whether  some  of  them  would  have  been  damaged  if  not  rodded? 
We  knew  that  amongst  599  buildings  that  were  struck  there  were  only  18  rodded 
ones,  which  is  just  3  per  cent.  If  we  knew  what  percentage  of  farm  buildings 
in  Ontario  were  rodded  that  w^ould  settle  the  question.  If  rods  neither  prevent 
nor  induce  strokes  then  the  percentage  of  rodded  buildings  amongst  those  struck 
should  be  just  the  same  as  the  percentage  of  rodded  buildings  in  Ontario.  If  the 
rods  cause  strokes  then  proportionally  more  rodded  ones  would  be  struck  than 
unrodded,  but  if  they  prevent  strokes,  then  proportionally  less. 

Clues  That  Failed. 

To  determine  what  percentage  of  Ontario  buildings  are  rodded  we  first  en- 
deavored to  have  the  township  assessors  make  a  record  regarding  the  buildings 
on  each  farm  and  to  have  them  give  a  return  showing  the  result.  In  this  we 
failed.  We  approached  the  inspector  of  insurance  with  a  view  to  having  him 
make  a  regulation  requiring  fire  insurance  companies  to  report  in  every  applica- 
tion whether  the  buildings  insured  were  rodded  or  not.  Again  we  were  disap- 
pointed. We  thought  of  endeavouring  to  have  the  census  enumerators  ascertain 
the  number  of  rodded  and  unrodded  buildings,  but  this  seemed  impracticable.  We 
wrote  every  insurance  company  doing  business  in  Ontario,  about  one  hundred 
and  forty  in  all,  but  they  were  unable  to  tell  us  whether  the  buildings  in  their 
risks  were  rodded  or  not. 

However,  writing  the  insurance  companies  was  the  beginning  of  the  solution. 
It  drew  their  attention  to  our  work.  Early  in  1912  the  writer  accepted  an  invitation 
to  address  the  Mutual  Fire  Underwriters'  Association  on  the  subject  of  Lightning 
Eods.  After  dealing  with  the  subject  from  a  scientific  standpoint  and  giving  the 
result  already  noted  of  our  ten  years'  investigations  along  the  practical  side,  the 
writer  laid  before  the  members  of  the  Association  the  important  question  as  to 
whether  rods  actually  prevent  strokes  from  occurring,  and  asked  their  co-operation 
in  answering  it. 


A  few  weeks  later  we  wrote  to  all  the  Mutual  Companies  doing  business  in 
Ontario,  enclosing  a  card  for  reply  asking  whether  they  would  co-operate  with 
us,  and  suggesting  that  if  they  were  prepared  to  do  so  they  should  put  a  question 
on  their  application  form  asking  whether  the  buildings  were  rodded.  We  received 
favorable  replies  from  thirty-eight  companies.  In  the  beginning  of  December  we 
sent  out  report  forms  to  be  iilled  by  them.  Eighteen  of  them  kept  a  special  record 
of  all  business  from  July  1st,  1912,  and  reported  results  to  us. 

In  Ontario  Efficiency  of  Eods  in  1912  Was  94>^  Per  Cent. 

From  the  reports  of  these  eighteen  companies,  covering  more  than  one-quarter 
of  the  Province,  it  was  found  that  in  every  200  farm  buildings  insured,  42  were 
rodded.  which  is  21  per  cent.,  but  out  of  every  200  farm  buildings  struck  by 
lightning  only  3  were  rodded — we  should  have  expected  42  if  the  rods  were  no 
good.* 

Or  stating  it  in  another  way,  in  every  7,000  unrodded  farm  buildings  insured 
by  these  companies,  37  were  struck  by  lightning,  of  which  several  were  burned; 
but  out  of  every  7,000  rodded  ones  insured,  only  2  were  struck  (and  damaged 
only)-— we  should  have  expected  37  if  the  rods  were  no  good,  hence,  in  Ontario 
as  rods  are  installed,  an  unrodded  building  is  18^  times  as  likely  to  be  struck 
as  a  rodded  one  is.  These  results  cover  all  kinds  of  rods  used  in  Ontario  and 
doubtless  include  some  improper  rodding.  To  prevent  damage  in  35  cases  out 
of  an  expectancy  of  37  means  an  efficiency  of  941/^  per  cent. 

This  result  was  almost  astounding.  From  scientific  considerations  we  were 
led  to  believe  that  rods  must  prevent  strokes,  but  we  were  not  prepared  for  such 
a  sweeping  result  as  this.  But  you  say,  "This  is  only  one  year's  reports,  and  an- 
other year  might  gi\e  the  very  opposite  result." 

Efficiency  of  Bods  in  Ontario  in  1913  was  92  per  cent. 

During  1913  the  insurance  companies  continued  their  most  valuable  co-opera- 
tion. Forty  of  them  kept  special  records  for  us,  sixteen  being  able  to  give  us 
reports  complete  in  every  particular.  They  represented  twelve  different  counties, 
and.  of  the  buildings  insured  by  them  26.2  per  cent,  were  reported  as  rodded,  show- 
ing an  increase  since  last  year  of  5.2  per  cent.  The  total  number  of  claims  paid 
for  lightning  damage  to  buildings  was  193,  of  which  36  were  burned,  amounting  in 
all  to  $40,904.53.  If  the  rods  had  no  effect — good  or  bad — we  would  have  expected 
26.2  per  cent,  of  the  strokes  and  damage  would  have  been  on  rodded  buildings, 
which  would  mean  50  strokes  and  $10,715.98,  while  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  number 
of  strokes  to  rodded  buildings  was  only  8,  and  the  damage  only  $57.64,  a  saving  of 
$10,658.34.  To  save  this  amount  out  of  an  expectancy  of  $10,715.98  shows  an 
efficiency  of  99.5  per  cent. 

Of  the  other  twenty-four  companies,  fifteen  were  located  in  the  counties  above 
referred  to  and  nine  in  other  counties,  in  some  of  which  the  percentage  of  rodded 
buildings  is  exceptionally  high,  a  fact  which  we  know  by  personal  inspection,  so 
we  may  safely  say  that  in  the  whole  forty  companies  the  rodded  buildings  total 
26.2  per  cent,  or  more. 


*  Note:  If  the  efRcieiicy  be  calculated  from  these  figures  it  will  not  agree  exactly 
with  that  in  the  succeeding  paragraph.  This  is  because  the  actual  percentage  was  not 
exactly  21,  but  that  was  the  nearest  whole  number — we  could  not  have  a  fraction  of  a 
building   struck. 


6 

In  the  reports  of  the  twenty-four  companies  we  find  records  of  two  rodded 
buildings  which  were  burned,  one  owned  by  Mr.  Harold  Currie,  of  Strathroy,  the 
other  by  Mr.  Murdoch  Kerr,  Embro.  Neither  of  these  buildings  was  rodded 
according  to  standard  specifications,  the  former  being  particularly  defective.  It  is 
dealt  with  in  detail  on  page  31.  This  building  would  undoubtedly  have  been 
saved  if  properly  rodded.  Mr.  Kerr's  rodding  was  defective  in  two  regards:  first, 
the  systems  on  the  main  barn  and  straw  barn  were  not  connected,  and,  secondly,  the 
ground-rods  were  down  only  about  31/^  to  4  feet,  but  they  were  moist  when  pulled 
out  for  examination.  Whether  the  defects  were  responsible  for  the  fire  we  have 
not  been  able  to  determine.  The  bolt  was  of  the  ball  type,  a  ball  of  fire  about  as 
large  as  a  man's  head  coming  straight  down  and  hitting  the  straw  barn. 

Taking  the  whole  forty  companies  together,  there  were  631  lightning  damages 
totalling  $113,459.89.  110  of  these  buildings  were  burned.  We  should  have 
expected  26.2  per  cent,  of  the  strokes  and  damage  to  be  on  rodded  buildings.  This 
would  have  given  163  strokes  and  a  loss  of  $29,726.49.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  only 
16  rodded  buildings  were  struck  and  the  loss  was  $3,917.09,  so  the  rods  saved 
$25,809.40,  out  of  an  expected  loss  of  $29,726.49,  showing  an  efiiciency  of  86.8  per 
cent.  Since  Mr.  Currie's  fire  was  directly  due  to  the  absence  of  ground-rods  at  a 
vital  point,  it  seems  only  fair  to  consider  this  barn  as  not  rodded.  If  this  is  done 
the  efficiency  of  the  rods  in  1913  would  be  92.0  per  cent. 

Perhaps  some  may  reply :  "  But  maybe  those  rodded  buildings  expected  to  be 
struck  were  actually  struck,  and  the  rods  carried  off  the  strokes  harmlessly  and 
so  the  insurance  companies,  having  no  claim  to  pay,  have  no  record  of  those  strokes." 
If  any  take  this  ground,  well  and  good,  because  it  is  an  admission  that  the  rods 
in  one  way  or  another  brought  about  the  desired  result,  viz.,  to  save  the  buildings 
from  damage  by  lightning. 

It  may  be  well,  however,  to  remark  that  in  all  probability  there  is  some 
ground  for  the  objection.  Probably  more  than  two  of  the  37  rodded  buildings 
expected  to  be  struck  in  1912  were  actually  struck,  and  of  those  expected  to 
be  struck  in  1913,  probably  more  than  16  were  actually  struck,  and  the  rods 
carried  off  the.  current  without  damage,  indeed  without  any  trace  of  the  strokes  re- 
maining to  show  that  they  ever  occurred.  The  exact  comparative  value  of  the 
saving  and  preventive  functions  of  rods  we  are  not  able  to  determine,  but  scientific 
considerations  now  lead  us  to  conclude  that  the  preventive  function  is  by  far  the 
more  important.  As  the  teachings  of  science  regarding  the  general  value  of  rods 
have  been  so  strongly  confirmed  by  practical  experience,  we  may  with  confidence 
accept  the  dictum  of  science  when  it  says  that  the  chief  function  of  rods  is  to  prevent 
strokes  from  occurring. 

For  those  who  want  reports  over  a  longer  period  of  years  we  have  them. 
During  these  Ontario  investigations  our.  attention  had  been  drawn  to  Iowa  and 
Michigan,  where  it  was  reported  some  advanced  work  in  rodding  had  been  done. 
Consequently  in  September,  1913,  by  the  kindness  of  the  Hon.  Mr.  Duff,  the  writer 
was  enabled  to  visit  these  States  and  examine  conditions  at  first  hand. 

In  Iowa  Lightning  Eods  Show  an  Efficiency  of  98.7  Per  Cent. 

In  Iowa  some  valuable  data  were  available.  For  the  eight  years  1905-1912 
inclusive,  a  large  number  of  insurance  companies  doing  farm  business  only  have 
reported  the  percenta.sre  of  rodded  buildings  covered  by  their  risks,  and  also  the 
claims  paid  on  rodded  and  unrodded  buildings.       The  highest  number  of  rem- 


panies  reporting  in  any  one  year  was  68  and  the  lowest  46,  the  average  being 
55.  These  companies  report  that  about  50  per  cent,  of  all  their  risks  are  rodded. 
From  the  reports  the  following  facts  are  gleaned : 

The  total  lightning  claims  paid  by  all  these  companies  for  the  whole  eight 
years  on  rodded  buildings  was  only  $4,464.30,  which  is  an  average  of  $10.15  per 
company  per  year.  On  unrodded  buildings,  however,  they  paid  lightning  claims 
amounting  to  the  large  sum  of  $341,065.32,  which  is  an  average  of  $775.15  per 
company  per  year — and  the  number  of  unrodded  buildings  insured  was  the  same  as 
the  number  of  rodded  ones.  Comparing  $775.15  with  $10.15  we  see  that  for  every 
$1  paid  on  rodded  buildings  $76  was  paid  on  unrodded  ones,  or  the  rods  save  $75 
out  of  an  expected  loss  of  $76,  if  the  buildings  had  not  been  rodded.  This  shows 
an  efficiency  of  98.7  per  cent.  It  is  probable  that  some  improper  rodding  is 
included,  as  the  rods  were  not  subject  to  inspection. 

The  case  is  not  yet  complete,  however — in  both  Ontario  and  Iowa  the  reports 
cover  some  defective  rodding.  The  true  efficiency  of  lightning  rods  can  only  be 
determined  when  we  consider  a  large  number  of  properly  rodded  buildings. 

Inspected  Eods  in  Michigan  Shov^  an  Efficiency  of  99.9  Per  Cent. 

In  Michigan  the  writer  was  fortunate  enough  to  procure  s-uch  a  report.  The 
Farmers'  Mutual  Lightning  Protected  Insurance  Company  of  Michigan,  as  its  name 
implies,  insures  only  rodded  buildings,  and  that  only  after  the  Company^s  in- 
spectors have  carefully  examined  the  rodding  and  approved  of  it.  During  1909- 
1912,  inclusive,  in  a  business  which  for  the  four  years  totalled  $55,172,075  risk,  this 
company  paid  only  $32  for  damage  to  buildings  by  lightning,  in  three  small 
claims  all  traceable  to  defects  in  rodding  which  were  overlooked  by  the  Company's 
inspector. 

The  Patrons'  Mutual  Fire  Insurance  Co.  which  also  does  business  all  over  the 
State  of  Michigan  insures  both  rodded  and  unrodded  buildings.  In  the  same  four 
years,  on  a  total  risk  of  $59,567,272  this  company  paid  lightning  damage  on 
buildings  to  the  extent  of  $32,268.78,  which  is  1,008  times  as  much  as  the  pro- 
tected company  paid.  In  conversation  the  Secretary  of  the  Patrons'  Company 
said  that  in  eleven  years  they  had  only  had  three  small  claims  for  lightning 
damage  on  rodded  buildings,  all  the  rest  of  their  lightning  damage  being  on 
unrodded  ones.  They  report  20  per  cent,  of  their  risks  rodded.  Deducting  these 
rodded  risks  we  see  that  the  $32,269  damage  occurred  on  unrodded  risks  amounting 
to  $47,753,818.  At  this  rate  the  loss  on  $55,172,075  of  unrodded  risks,  the  same 
risk  as  the  Protected  Company  had,  would  be  $37,282,  which  is  1,168  times  as  great 
as  the  loss  on  the  same  amount  of  properly  rodded  risks.  Thus  we  see  that  when 
the  damage  to  properly  rodded  buildings  amounts  to  $1,  the  damage  to  un- 
rodded ones  amounts  to  $1,168,  or  in  other  words,  rods  save  $1,167  out  of  an  ex- 
pected loss  of  $1,168,  indicating  an  efficiency  of  99.91  per  cent.,  or  a  saving  of 
$999.10  out  of  an  expected  loss  of  $1,000,  thus  substantiating  the  claim  made  on 
page  1. 

Insurance  Assessments  Favor  Podded  Buildings. 

The  Protected  Mtitual  began  business  in  October,  1908.  Its  risks  now  total 
$35,000,000,  while  the  Patrons'  Mutual  in  the  same  time  has  only  increased  from 
$12,000,000  to  $19,000,000.  So  phenomenal  has  been  the  success  of  the  Protected 
Company  that  it  began  to  draw  members. rapidly  from  the  other  companies.     To 


them  this  meant  ultimate  death,  so  some  of  them  began  to  carry  their  rodded  and 
unrodded  buildings  in  separate  classes,  each  class  being  assessed  for  its  own  losses, 
and  now  nearly  every  mutual  insurance  company  in  the  State  of  Michigan  is 
carrying  rodded  and  unrodded  classes,  or  preparing  to  do  so.  The  Patrons'  Mutual 
referred  to  above  has  been  doing  so  for  five  years,  and  its  assessments  per  $1,000  of 
risk  have  been  as  follows : 


Year 

Assessment  per  $1,000  of  Risk 

Unrodded                          Rodded 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

$2  50 
3  33 

2  50 

3  33 
3  33 

$1  50 
2  50 

1  m 

2  00 
2  00 

During  the  same  five  years  the  assessments  of  the  Protected  Company  have 


been: 


Year 


Assessment  per  $1,000  of  Risk 


1910  }    Together. 

1911 

1912 

1913 


$2  00 

1  30 

1  20 

2  00 


low^A  Protected  Mutual. 

In  Iowa  there  is  also  a  Protected  Company,  insuring  only  rodded  buildings. 
The  president,  Mr.  C.  N.  Doane,  Newton,  Iowa,  is  also  president  of  the  Mutual 
Fire  and  Tornado  Association,  insuring  in  the  same  vicinity  as  the  Protected  Com- 
pany, and  taking  both  rodded  and  unrodded  risks.  In  six  years  this  Iowa  Protected 
Mutual  has  not  had  a  claim  due  to  lightning  damage  to  a  rodded  building  or  stock 
in  building.  Its  total  assessment  per  $1,000  for  the  last  five  years  has  been  $8.00, 
while  in  the  Fire  and  Tornado  the  total  assessment  for  the  same  period  has  been 
$14.50,  a  difference  of  44.8  per  cent,  in  favour  of  the  Protected  Company. 


Michigan  Insurance  Rates  Average  361/^  Per  Cent.  Cheaper  on  Rodded 

Buildings. 

While  in  Michigan  the  writer  spent  two  days  at  Lansing  in  tne  Department 
of  Insurance  examining  the  original  reports  of  ten  different  companies  including 
the  two  above  mentioned  and  compiling  data  therefrom.  Previous  to  1913  five  of 
them  were  carrying  both  rodded  and  unrodded  classes.  I  find  the  average  assess- 
ment by  these  five  companies  on  unrodded  buildings  is  $2.96  per  $1,000  of  risk. 
while  the  average  on  their  rodded  buildings  is  $1.89,  showing  a  difference  of 
$1.07  per  $1,000  in  favour  of  the  rodded  buildings.  If  we  calculate  that  difference 
in  percentage  we  find  that  the  assessment  on  rodded  buildings  is  36}^  per  cent, 
less  than  on  unrodded  ones.  Or  taking  the  rodded  assessment  as  the  standard, 
r^en  the  assessment  on  the  unrodded  ones  is  56.6  per  cent,  greater  than  on  the 
rodded  ones.     Now  this  is  not  theory  or  science — it  is  the  practical  experience  ol: 


9 

cool-headed  insurance  men  and  cautious  farmers  in  mutual  insurance  companies, 
where  the  assessment  is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  losses  incurred.  This  is  the 
protective  value  of  lightning  rods  reduced  to  dollars  and  cents  in  insurance  rates. 
Insurance  men  the  world  over  cannot  ignore  the  experience  of  the  Michigan 
Companies.  Farmers  the  world  over  should  profit  from  the  lessons  taught  by  the 
Michigan  farmers. 

Being  now  assured  that  lightning  rods  are  of  high  protective  value,  our  next 
logical  enquiry  would  be:  "When  is  a  building  properly  rodded?"  Before  one 
can  appreciate  some  of  the  directions  to  be  given  for  rodding  a  building  he  must 
have  at  least  a  limited  knowledge  of  electricity  and  its  laws,  and  this  we  shall 
now  proceed  to  acquire,  leaving  directions  for  rodding  to  come  later  on  page  24. 

Discovert  op  Electricity, 

If  a  small  piece  of  cheap  scribbling  paper,  after  being  warmed  to  dry  it,  be 
rubbed  briskly  upon  the  coat  sleeve  for  a  few  moments  and  then  placed  against 


Fig.  1. — Paper  rubbed  briskly  on 
coat  sleeve  adheres  to  hand.  Paper 
is  electrified  by  friction. 


Fig.  2. — Pith      balls     suspended     by 
thread  to  be  used  in  experiments. 


silk 


the  window  pane,  it  adheres  to  the  glass,  or  it  will  adhere  to  the  hand.  (Fig.  1.) 
Another  piece  not  rubbed,  does  not  adhere  to  glass  or  hand.  Hence  tjie  rubbing  has 
produced  some  new  property  in  the  paper.  The  first  experiment  of  this  kind  was 
performed  by  Thales,  an  ancient  Greek,  in  the  year  640  B.C.  While  walking  along 
the  seashore  he  picked  up  a  piece  of  amber.  In  order  to  burnish  it  he  rubbed  it 
briskly  upon  his  garments,  and  in  some  way  or  other  discovered  that  after  the  rub- 
bing the  amber  had  the  property  of  attracting  light  substances,  such  as  dry  leaves, 
twigs  and  chaff  to  itself.  The  Greek  word  for  amber  is  dectron,  and  hence 
this  new  property  first  discovered  in  the  amber  has  come  to  be  known  as  elec- 
tricity. The  paper  in  being  rubbed  upon  the  coat  sleeve  is  said  to  have  become 
electrified.  In  the  year  70  A.D.  electricity  is  again  mentioned  in  history,  but  no 
real  progress  was  made  until  the  year  1600  A.D.  Then  Dr.  Gilbert,  a  famous  Eng- 
lish scientist,  discovered  that  all  substances  when  properly  manipulated  could  be 
electrified  by  friction  just  as  the  amber  waa. 


10 

Here  is  another  experiment.  Several  light  pith  balls,  cut  from  the  pith  of  an 
elder  bush,  are  suspended  from  a  little  beam  by  silk  threads.  (Fig.  2.)  They  are 
free  to  swing  about  like  the  pendulum  of  a  clock.  Here  also  is  a  piece  of  caf  s  fur, 
while  in  this  clamp  is  an  ebonite  or  hard  rubber  rod.  (Mg.  3.)  A  hard  rubber  comb 
would  do  just  as  well  as  the  rod.  To  begin  with,  each  one  of  these  pith  balls  must  be 
touched  with  the  hand.  The  rod  also  must  be  touched  from  end  to  end  with  the 
hand.     (Fig.  4.)     If  the  rod  be  now  placed  near  the  pith  balls  we  see  that  it  neither 


Pig.  3. — Cat's  fur   (in  hand)   and  ebonite 
rod  (in  clamp),  to  be  used  in  experiments. 


Fig.  4. — Before  the  experiments  are  begun 
the  pith-balls  and  ebonite  rod  are  both 
touched  by  the  hand  to  make  them  "  neu- 
tral." 


■      /  .        i                       i           : 

/    !  •    ^  • 
1 

1    i  "r^^ 

-  -'■■  ■ -. . asm 

Fig.  5. — Pith-balls  and  ebonite  neutral,  no 
attraction  between  them. 


Fig.  6. — Ebonite  rubbed  with  cat's  fur  at- 
tracts pith-balls.  Ebonite  said  to  be  electri- 
fied. 


attracts  nor  repels  them.  Both  may  be  said  to  be  ''neutral."  (Fig.  5.)  But  on 
rubbing  the  ebonite  with  the  cat's  fur  and  then  holding  it  near  a  pith  ball  we  see 
it  is  violently  attracted  to  the  rod.  (Fig.  6.)  It  has  been  electrified  by  friction 
against  the  cat's  fur. 

Placing  the  rod  close  enough  that  one  of  the  pith  balls  can  touch  it,  we  see  that 
immediately  after  contact,  the  ball,  instead  of  being  attracted,  is  strongly  repelled. 
The  ball  has  been  electrified  with  part  of  the  charge  that  was  on  the  ebonite.  Thus 
"like  charges  repel."     (Fig.  7.) 


11 

other  substances  will  produce  electricity.  For  instance,  a  silk  cloth  and  a 
glass  rod.  If  the  glass  be  rubbed  briskly  with  the  silk  and  then  placed  near  one 
of  the  neutral  pith  balls  the  ball  is  attracted.  The  glass  rod  has  also  been  electrified 
by  friction.  If  the  glass  is  placed  close  enough  that  the  pith  ball  touches  it, 
then  it  immediately  repels  the  ball.  The  ball  on  touching  the  glass  becomes  elec- 
trified by  contact  with  part  of  the  charge  that  is  on  the  glass.  Thus  again,  "  like 
charges  repel." 

Two  Kinds  of  Electricity — Like  Charges  Eepel;  Unlike  Charges  Attract. 

But  if  the  electrified  glass  be  applied  to  the  pith  ball  that  was  charged  from 
the  ebonite,  the  ball  is  attracted !  Also  charging  the  ebonite  from  the  catskin,  as 
before,  and  applying  it  to  the  ball  charged  from  the  glass  this  ball  is  likewise 
attracted.  Thus,  we  see  that  the  charge  on  the  glass  and  ebonite  are  different.  The 
glass  will  repel  a  ball  charged  from  itself,  but  attract  one  charged  from  the  ebonite ; 
the  ebonite,  likewise,  repels  the  ball  charged  from  itself  and  attracts  the  one  charged 
from  the  glass.     (Fig.  8.) 

Consequently,  we  see  that  there  are  two  kinds  of  electricity,  one  of  which  is 
produced  on  ebonite  by  rubbing  it  with  cat's  fur  and  the  other  on  glass  by  rubbing 
it  with  silk ;  and,  furthermore,  we  are  able  to  say  that  "like  charges  repel  and  unlike 
charges  attract."  This  is  a  fundamental  law  in  electricity.  The  charge  found  on 
the  glass  is  called  positive  and  that  on  the  ebonite  negative.  It  can  also  be  shown 
that  whenever  a  positive  charge  is  generated  in  one  body  by  friction  an  equal 
negative  is  generated  in  the  other  body  which  produced  the  friction..  Scientifically 
there  is  no  inherent  reason  why  these  terms  should  not  have  been  reversed  when 
the  distinction  was  first  made. 

Conductors  and  ISTon-conductors. 

One  of  these  pith  balls  is  suspended  by  a  cotton  thread.  If  the  electrified 
ebonite  or  the  electrified  glass  be  applied  to  this  ball  we  see  that  it  is  very  strongly 
attracted,  and,  further,  that  when  it  is  allowed  to  touch  the  rod  it  clings  instead  of 
being  repelled  as  were  the  others  after  contact.  (Fig.  9.)  In  this  position  it 
remains  until  by  and  by  it  lets  go  and  hangs  straight  down.  (See  figure  5.)  Testing 
this  ball  now  we  see  that  it  is  not  charged  as  the  ones  suspended  by  the 
silk  threads  were  after  contact  and  no  charge  is  left  on  the  ebonite !  Both  ball  and 
ebonite  are  neutral !  Consequently,  we  conclude  that  cotton  and  silk  behave  dif- 
ferently with  regard  to  electricity.  The  cotton  thread  has  allowed  the  charge  to 
flow  along  it  to  the  beam  and  away  to  the  floor  and  thence  to  the  earth.  The  cotton 
is  called  a  "  conductor,"  while  the  silk  is  called  a  "  non-conductor."  Copper,  or 
indeed  any  metal,  would  conduct  a  charge  away  much  faster  than  even  the  cotton. 
The  words  "  conductor  "  and  "non-conductor  "  are  not  absolute,  but  rather  relative. 
There  is  probably  no  substance  which  is  an  absolute  non-conductor  of  electricity. 
The  term  simply  means  that  the  substance  referred  to  is  a  poor  conductor. 

Three  Ways  to  Charge  a  Body,  viz..  Friction,  Contact,  Induction. 

We  have  seen  two  ways  of  charging  a  body  with  electricity.  One  is  by  "  fric- 
tion "  and  the  other  by  "  contact "  with  a  charged  body.  There  is  a  third,  namely, 
by  "  induction."  A  brass  body  is  supported  on  a  glass  base.  Glass  is  a  non-conduc- 
tor, or  insulator.  The  brass  body  is  touched  by  the  hand  to  make  it  neutral.  If 
applied  to  a  neutral  pith  ball  there  is  no  attraction.     If  neutral  ebonite  be  placed 


^ 

1  v 

1                I 

! 

4 

• 

i 

Fig.  7 — A  pith-ball  suspended  by  silk,  after 
touching  the  electrified  ebonite  is  repelled. 
Part  of  the  electric  charge  on  the  rod  has 
passed  to  the  ball,  hence  "  like  charges  re- 
pel." 


Fig.  8. — Negative  ebonite  rod  between 
two  balls,  left  charged  negatively  from 
ebonite  rubbed  with  cat's  fur,  the  other 
charged  positively  from  glass  rubbed  with 
silk.  Like  charges  repel,  unlike  charges 
attract. 


Fig.  9. — A  pith-ball  suspended  by  cotton 
thread  clings  to  the  charged  ebonite  for  a 
time.  When  the  pith-ball  lets  go  both  are 
neutral,  as  in  figure  5. 


Fig.  10. — Brass  conductor  on  glass 
stand,  also  pitb-balls.  Both  neutral.  No 
attraction. 


Fig.  11. — Charged  ebonite  rod  held  near 
end  of  brass  conductor.  Pith-ball  is  at- 
tracted, hence  conductor  has  been  charged 
by  the  influence  of  a  charge  at  a  distance. 


Fig.  12. — Two  brass  plates  on  glass 
stands.  Plates  separated.  One  plate 
charged,  as  shown  by  the  repulsion  of  the 
pith-ball. 


i.e.,  by  "  induction. 


13 


13 

near  the  brass  there  is  likewise  no  attraction  (Fig.  10),  but  when  the  ebonite  rod 
is  charged  and  held  near,  but  not  touching  the  brass  body,  we  find  that  the  pith 
ball  is  attracted!     (Fig.  11.) 

Thus  we  see  the  brass  body  has  been  charged  not  by  either  friction  or  contact, 
but  by  the  influence  of  the  charge  on  the  efbonite  rod  a  little  distance  away.  The 
brass  is  said  to  have  been  charged  by  "induction." 


A  Condenser  Increases  the  Charge. 

Two  brass  plates  on  glass  stands'  are  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  placed  face 
to  face.  Each  plate  has  a  small  pith  ball  attached  by  a  cotton  thread,  which  will 
show  when  the  plate  is  charged.  From  the  ebonite  one  of  these  plates  is  now 
charged  by  touching  it  a  number  of  times  with  the  rod  which  is  each  time  rubbed 
with  the  catskin.  The  pith  ball  is  strongly  repelled,  and  stands  out  from  the  plate 
almost  in  a  horizontal  position.      (Fig.  12.) 


Fig.  13. — The  same  plate  as  in  figure  12 
(with  the  same  charge)  after  plates  were 
placed  close  together,  but  not  touching. 
Note  that  the  pith-ball  has  dropped  show- 
ing less  repulsion.  More  electricity  can 
now  be  given  to  the  charged  plate.  That 
is  why  the  plates  when  close  together 
are  called  a  "  condenser." 


Fig.  14. — The  same  condenser  as  in 
Figure  13.  Note  pith^ball  horizontal 
again  as  in  Figure  12.  As  much  ex- 
tra charge  was  added  to  the  left-hand 
plate  as  the  plate  originally  held.  The 
right  hand  plate  has  become  charged 
by  "  induction,"  as  shown  by  repulsion 
of  pitb-ball. 


Now  when  the  other  plate  is  brought  close  to  the  charged  one  we  note  that  the 
pith  ball  drops  considerably  (Fig.  13),  and  more  electricity  can,  be  put  on  the 
charged  plate,  in  the  same  manner  as  before,  until  the  ball  again  stands  in  a 
horizontal  position.     (Fig.  14.) 

Two  insulated  plates,  side  by  side,  are,  consequently,  called  a  "condenser."  A 
condenser  enables  us  to  store  up  a  much  larger  charge  of  electricity  than  either 
plate  alone  will  hold. 


Charges  Reside  on  the  Surface. 


One  other  law  should  be  mentioned,  viz. :  When  a  conductor  is  electrified  the 
charge  resides  entirely  on  the  surface.  This  can  be  readily  proven,  but  the  experi- 
ment does  not  lend  itself  to  illustration  by  photograph. 


14 


Electrical  Machine  Produces  Heavy  Charges. 

Thus  far  we  have  produced  only  very  small  charges,  and  at  the  expenditure 
of  considerable  labour  in  producing  the  friction.  However,  forty  years  after 
Dr.  Gilbert's  discovery,  an  electrical  machine  was  invented  by  which  large  charges 
could  be  generated.  At  first  condensers  were  not  used  on  the  electrical  machines, 
nut  shortly  afterwards  they  were  applied  in  the  form  of  Leyden  jars.  A  Leyden 
jar  is  an  ordinary  glass  vessel  like  a  fruit  jar,  covered  with  tinfoil  on  the  outside, 
about  half  way  up,  and  on  the  inside  about  half  way  up.  These  two  tin  foils  form 
the  two  plates  of  the  condenser,  and  by  means  of  Leyden  jars  very  strong  charges 
can  be  stored  up. 

Figure  15  shows  an  electrical  machine  consisting  of  two  glass  plates,  one  of 
which  il  rotating  and  the  other  stationary.  Without  the  Leyden  jars  it  produces  a 
very  fine  spark  which  will  jump  about  two  inches  of  space.     When  the  two  Leyden 


Fig.  15. — An  electrical  machine.  It  is 
being  turned  by  crank  in  rear.  Note 
spark  between  knobs. 


Fig.  16. — Electrical  machine  with  points 
attached  to  positive  and  negative  poles.  No 
flash  can  be  produced. 


jars  are  connected  up  the  spark  is  very  much  stronger,  and  sufficient  to  give  one  a 
severe  shock.  It  will  jump  five  or  six  inches  of  space,  and  the  spark  looks  exactly 
like  a  flash  of  lightning. 


Electricity  Leaks  Off  Points. 


With  this  machine  one  can  demonstrate  another  fundamental  principle.  If 
two  sharp  wires  are  attached,  one  to  the  positive  side  of  the  machine  and  the  other 
to  the  negative,  and  the  points  turned  towards  each  other  we  find  that  the  machine 
does  not  produce  a  spark  and  cannot  be  made  to  produce  one,  if  the  electrification 
takes  place  gradually.  (Fig.  16.)  If  a  lighted  candle  is  held  to  one  of  the  points 
it  is  extinguished  when  the  machine  is  turned.  There  is  sufficient  wind  at  this 
point  to  blow  out  the  candle.      (Figs.  17  and  18.) 

There  is  only  one  conclusion  possible,  viz.,  that  the  electricity  formed  by  the 
machine  leaks  off  these  sharp  points,  preventing  sparks  from  occurring. 


15 

Franklik  Proves  That  Lightning  is  Electricity. 

The  electrical  machine  was  discovered  in  16-iO,  but  it  took  one  hundred  years 
to  perfect  it  and  produce  the  large  sparks,  and  to  learn  the  fundamental  principles 
of  electricity.  In  1751  Benjamin  Franklin,  observing  the  similarity  between  the 
lightning  flash  and  the  sparks  that  could  be  produced  by  an  electrical  machine,  came 
to  the  conclusion  that  lightning  was  nothing  else  than  a  discharge  of  electricity,  or 
rather  the  light  produced  by  such  discharge.  To  prove  this,  he  sent  a  kite  up  into 
the  clouds  as  a  thunderstorm  was  approaching.  The  string  which  held  the  kite 
was  connected  with  an  electric  key  in  the  laboratory.  As  soon  as  the  string  became 
wet  electric  sparks  occurred  at  the  key,  which  were  in  every  respect  like  those  pro- 
duced with  the  electrical  machine.  Franklin's  reasoning  then  ran  something  as 
follows :  If  lightning  is  produced  by  a  discharge  of  electricity,  then  it  must  obey 
the  laws  of  electricity.  Hence,  it  should  be  possible  to  prevent  lightning  in  many 
cases,  just  as  an  electric  spark  can  be  prevented  in  this  machine  by  having  a  pointed 


Fig.  17. — Candle-flame  held  between  points 
of  electrical  machine.  When  the  machine 
is  not  turned,  i.e.,  when  there  is  no  charge, 
the  flame  burns  straight  up  and  sharp  in 
outline. 


Fig.  18. — But  when  the  machine  is 
turned  the  candle-flame  is  blown  side- 
wise.  If  the  candle  is  held  up  level  with 
the  point  the  flame  is  hlown  out.  The 
wind  shows  that  electricity  is  leaking  off 
the  point. 


wire  attached  to  each  side,  or  if  a  flash  does  occur,  it  should  be  possible  to  conduct 
the  current  to  the  earth  by  wire  without  injury  to  the  building  bearing  the  wire. 
In  other  words :  If  lightning  is  produced  by  a  discharge  of  electricity,  lightning 
rods  must  be  a  practical  possibility. 

After  Franklin's  results  were  published  lightning  rods  began  to  be  installed 
on  farm  buildings  through  the  United  States,  and  later  in  Canada,  but  in  the  early 
stages  lightning  rod  companies  knew  very  little  of  the  laws  of  electricity,  conse- 
quently were  unable  to  instruct  their  men  as  to  how  buildings  should  be  rodded,  and, 
hence,  in  some  cases',  the  rods  did  not  produce  the  protection  they  were  expected 
to.  Besides,  numerous  swindles  in  connection  with  lightning  rods  were  worked 
off  on  the  farmers,  so  that  in  time  lightning  rods  came  into  great  disrepute.  How- 
ever, Sir  Wm.  Snow  Harris,  in  England,  devised  a  system  of  lightning  protectors 
for  ships,  which  completely  did  awav  with  the  one-time  tremendous  loss  caused  by 
lightning  to  the  ships  of  the  British  Navy.  So  effective  was  his  system  that  the 
late  Queen  A^ictoria  bestowed  a  kni^dithood  nnd  an  annuity  upon  him  in  recognition 


16 


of  his  great  service  to  the  navy,  and  thereby  to  the  British  Empire.  Throughout 
England,  Germany  and  France  lightning  rods  became  the  subject  of  study,  and 
many  buildings,  especially  costly  ones  like  the  great  churches  and  cathedrals,  were 
protected  by  lightning  rods,  so  that  the  loss  to  buildings  of  this  kind  by  lightning 
was  almost  completely  overcome.  This  extensive  use  of  the  lightning  rod  in  Europe, 
together  with  continued  study  in  America,  has  had  the  effect  here  of  drawing  atten- 
tion again  to  the  subject. 

In  America  the  one  man  who  has  done  more  than  perhaps  any  other  to  bring 
lightning  rods  again  into  favour  is  Mr.  West  Dodd,  of  Des  Moines,  Iowa.  A  man 
of  great  energy  and  scientific  insight,  he  took  up  the  lightning  rod  question  twenty- 
five  years  or  more  ago,  when  rods  were  in  disrepute,  and  pursued  it  with  such 
tenacity  and  skill  that  he  has  overcome  a  hostile  public  sentiment  and  convinced 
the  people  of  the  Middle  Western  States  that  lightning  rods  are  an  unqualified 
success.     His  own  State  of  loAva  reports  50  per  cent,  of  its  farm  buildings  rodded. 


Fig.    19. — The    electrical    machine     as  Fig.  20. — A  toy  house  with  metal  chim- 

modified  by  Mr.  West  Dodd  for  demon-  ney,  screen  door,  eave-trough  and  bal- 
strating  the  thunderstorm.  Note  earth  cony  is  set  on  earth  plate  and  machine 
plate  E.  and  cloud  plate  C.  turned.       Note     flash     to     chimney     and 

sparks  down  screen  door — ^the  door  is  con- 
structed with  air-gaps,  in  jumping  which 
the  current  causes  sparks.  Dangerous  to 
stand  by  screen  door  during  thunder- 
storm. 

perhaps  the  highest  percentage  of  any  similar  area  in  the  world.  Motoring  through 
that  state  for  a  distance  of  fifty  or  sixty  miles,  the  writer  verified  this  percentage 
by  actual  count.  In  his  work  Mr.  Dodd  adapted  the  electrical  machine  to  demon- 
strate the  thunderstorm  and  the  lightning  stroke,  and  then  used  toy  barns,  houses, 
animals  and  rods  to  demonstrate  the  phenomena  of  lightning  and  the  efficacy  of 
lightning  rods.  With  this  equipment  he  appeared  before  the  insurance  companies 
of  Iowa  and  other  states  from  time  to  time,  and  demonstrated  scientifically  that 
rods  must  be  effective.  His  teaching  bore  fruit  in  numerous  companies  granting 
reduced  rates  on  properly  rodded  buildings. 

The  Electrical  Machine  Modified  to  Eepresent  a  Thunderstorm, 

^  Mr.  Dodd  attached  a  metallic  plate  to  the  negative  side  of  the  machine:  to  the 
positive  side  another  plate  which  hangs  a  few  inches  above  the  first  one.  The  lower 
plate  represents  the  earth,  and   the  upper  one  the  cloud.      (Fig.   19.) 


17 

When  the  machine  is  turned  the  "cloud"  gradually  becomes  Charged  with  posi- 
tive and  tJie  ''earth''  with  negative  electricity,  and  by  bringing  the  cloud  and  earth 
close  enough  together  sparks,  or  flashes,  occur  which  look  exactly  like  the  flashes 
of  lightning  seen  during  thunderstorms.  After  each  flash  the  plates  again  become 
charged  gradually. 

Rods  on  Toy  Buildings  Pkevent  Flashes. 

Here  is  a  T-shaped  house  with  metal  gutter  to  the  eave-trough,  whence  two 
conductor-pipes  run  down  nearly  to  the  ground.  One  conductor-pipe  is  connected 
with  the  metal  floor  of  the  balcony.  The  house,  which  has  a  screen  door,  is  placed 
on  the  earth  plate.  (Fig.  20.)  As  the  machine  is  turned  a  flash  occurs  to  the 
chimney,  and  thence  the  current  follows  the  gutter  and  eave-trough,  then  flashes  to 
the  screen  door,  which  is  so  constructed  that  the  current  has  air-gaps  to  jump. 


Fig.  21. — A  woman  stands  under  the 
balcony  and  is  struck.  Note  short  flash 
from  balcony  to  woman's  head.  The  gut- 
ter, conductor-pipe,  metal  floor  of  balcony 
and  the  woman  form  an  easier  path  than 
that  by  the  screen  door. 


Fig.  22. — The  woman  goes  to  the  rain 
barrel  for  a  pail  of  "  soft  water  "  and  is 

struck.     This  path  is  now  the  easiest  for 
the  flash. 


making  tiny  sparks  as  it  does  so.     From  the  door  it  flashes  to  the  ground  plate. 
Note  that  flashes  or  sparks  occur  only  where  the  current  jumps  air-gaps. 

A  little  metallic  figure,  representing  a  woman,  is  placed  in  front  of  the  screen 
door,  and  the  flash  strikes  the  woman  instead  of  jumping  the  air-gap  at  the  floor. 
If  the  woman  stands  under  the  balcony  the  lightning  takes  a  new  path.  (Fig.  21.) 
Instead  of  going  by  the  screen  door  it  follows  the  eave-trough  to  the  balcony  floor, 
thence  strikes  the  woman  and  passes  to  the  earth.  Tlie  new  path  offers  lesa 
resistance  than  the  old. 

If  the  woman  goes  to  the  rain  barrel  for  a  pail  of  "soft  water"  the  lightning- 
takes  another  path  still,  following  down  the  gutter,  eave-trough,  and  conductor- 
pipe,  and  thence  striking  the  woman.      (Fig.  22.) 

A  copper  wire  without  points  is  now  put  on  the  building,  so  it  is  in  contact  with 
the  chimney  and  leads  down  to  the  earth  plate  at  each  end.  The  flash  now  follows 
the  wire,  and  the  woman  is  perfectly  safe,  standing  at  the  eave-trough,  under  the 
balcony,  or  at  the  scrcon  floor.     (Figs  23 A  and  23E.)     The  copper  wire  ofl'ers  les? 


18 

refeistance  than  any  of  the  other  paths,  and  naturally  the  flash  follows  the  path  of 
least  resistance. 

But  if  this  wire  is  removed  and  another  put  on  with  two  sharp  points  stick- 
ing upward  towards  the  cloud,  the  flash  is  entirely  prevented.      (Fig.  24.) 

If  the  lighted  candle  be  applied  to  these  points  it  is  blown  out  as  before,  conse- 
quently, the  electricity  generated  by  the  machine  is  leaking  off  these  points  and 


Fig.  23. — A  wire  Is  put  along  the  ridge, touching  the  chimney  and  going  down 
to  the  ground  plate  at  each  end  of  the  house.  The  flash  now  goes  down  this 
wire,  and  the  woman  is  safe  at  rain  barrel,  under  balcony  or  at  screen  door. 


Fig.  24. — If,  however,  wire  has  uprights 
and  points  no  flash  can  be  produced, 
which  is  better  still. 


Fig.  25. — Barn  with  hayfork  track, 
fired  by  flash.  If  track  had  been  grounded 
current  would  have  followed  ground 
wire,  and  no  flre  would  have  occurred.  If 
points  had  been  used  flash  would  have 
been  prevented. 


gradually  neutralizing  the  opposite  charge  in  the  space  between  the  cloud  and  the 

Here  is  a  barn  with  cupola  and  hay-fork  track.     The  flash  enters  the  cupola, 

jumps  to  the  track,  and  thence  down  at  one  end  of  the  barn.     If  a  little  gasoline  is 

put  in  the  door  at  the  end  ©f  the  barn  it  is  at  once  fired,  just  as  hay  would  be. 

(Fig.  25.)     As  in  previous  cases,  the  wire  without  points  will  carry  the  stroke  off 


19 

without  settiu^ii"  (Ire  //  coiinecicd  irilh  haij-forh  trade,  wlu'le  the  one  with  points  will 
prevent  the  flash  entirely. 


Metallic  Roofs. 

It  is  sometimes  said  that  a  niefallic  roof  is  perfect  protection  from  lightning. 
If  such  a  roof  is  put  on  one  of  these  huildings,  it  is  struck  just  the  same  as  if 
it  were  an  ordinary  roof.  (Fig.  26.)  Note  flash  at  stove  (which  is  constructed  with 
air-gaps  to  cause  sparks).  It  is  dangerous jfet)  stand  by  the  stove  during  a  thunder- 
storm. 

If,  however,  a  corner  of  this  roof  is  connected  to  the  ground  by  a  wire,  the 
current  follows  the  wire.      (Fig.  27.)      No  sparks  at  the  stove  now. 

But  a  flash  can  be  prevented  from  striking  that  metallic  roof,  as  in  the  other 
cases,  in  two  ways :  First,  by  using  lightning  rod  points ;  secondly  by  putting  a  sharp 
edged  or  notched  ridge-board  on  the  top.     (Fig.  28.)     We  might  here  refer  to  the 


Fig.    26. — Metallic    roof    struck    by    ligut-  Pie.    27.— Metallic    roof    with    one    corner 

ning.     Note  flash  down  front  of  stove.     The  grounded.    Plash  still  occurs,  but  goes  down 

stove  is  constructed  with  air-gaps  in  jump-  ground  wire — no  sparks  at  stove  now. 
ing    which    current    makes    sparks.        Dan- 
gerous  to   stand   by   stove   during   thunaer- 
storm,  if  house  is  not  rodded. 

practice  of  using  a  round  metal  form  on  the  ridge  of  a  metal  roof.  Nothing  could  be 
more  dangerous  than  this  so  far  as  lightning  is'  concerned  unless  points  of  some  kind 
are  provided.  The  round  form  prevents  the  electricity  from  leaking  off,  and  conse- 
quently tends  to  store  up  a  charge  and  cause  a  stroke.  If  instead  of  the  round  a 
sharp-edged  form  or  one  with  teeth  were  used,  it  would  be  almost  impossible  for 
a  metallic-roofed  building  to  be  struck  by  lightning,  if  two,  or  better,  four,  corners 
were  coimected  with  the  earth  by  ground  wires. 


Wire  Fences. 

Here  is  a  wire  fence,  which  is  attached  to  the  earth-plate.  As  the  machine  is 
turned  a  flash  of  lightning  jumps  from  the  cloud  to  the  wire  and  from  the  wire  to 
the  earth.     (Fig.  29.) 


xJO 


If  a  (horse  is  stood  beside  the  fence,  instead  of  the  lightning  jumping  the  air-gap 
from  the  wire  to  the  ground  it  strikes  the  horse.     (Fig.  30.) 

If,  however,  the  fence-wire  is  connected  with  the  ground  by  means  of  a  ground- 
wire  the  horse  is  perfectly  safe.     (Fig.  31.) 

Moreover,  if  the  ground-wire  be  let  project  above  the  fence,  ending  in  a  sharp 
point,  no  flash  will  occur.  (Fig.  32.)  The  charge  is  neutralized  by  leaking  ofF 
the  point. 


Fig.  28. — Metallic  roof  grounded,  and  with 
notched  metallic  ridge.  No  stroke  can  be 
produced.  Ordinary  lightning  rod  points 
would  be  as  effective,  and  probably  more  dur- 
able. 


Fig.    29. — Lightning    strikes    a    fence 
jumps  air-gap  to  earth. 


and 


Fig.  30. — A  horse  standing  by  the  fence, 
however,  forms  an  easier  path,  and  the 
horse  is  struck.  Note  flash  from  fence  to 
horse's  nose. 


Fig.  31. — If,  however,  the  fence  wires  are 
grounded,  the  flash  follows  the  ground  wire 
and  the  horse  is  safe. 


Consequently,  wire  fences  should  be  grounded,  and  the  ground-wire  projected 
above  the  fence  if  the  stock  is  to  be  protected  in  the  best  possible  way. 

It  is  hard  to  conceive  how  any  person  could  follow  these  experiments  and 
phenomena  and  doubt  the  value  of  lightning  rods.  We  have  seen  that  by  means 
of  rods  on  these  little  toys  we  can  either  carry  ofT  a  stroke  without  damage  or  we 
can  prevent  a  stroke  nltcrotbor.     TTonfo.  if  in  ro'ldin'i  onr  l)uililino-s  we  observe  the 


same  laws  as  have  been  observed  in  these  experiments  the  buildings  must  be  largely 
protected. 

But,  you  say,  in  a  real  thunderstunn  the  clouds  and  earth  are  much  larger, 
compared  with  the  real  buildings,  than  the  cloud  and  earth  in  this  experiment,  and 
the  electric  charge  is  infinitely  greater  than  that  produced  by  this  small  machine. 
Quite  so,  but  the  real  cloud  and  earth  are  20,000  times  as  far  apart  as  the  cloud 
and  earth  of  this  machine,  and  this  great  distance  requires  the  entire  lightning 
charge  to  break  through  the  atmosphere.  Hence,  anything  that  would  relieve  the 
electric  pressure  just  a  little  bit  would  prevent  a  flash.  Lightning  rods  must  relieve 
the  pressure  if  lightning  is  produced  by  electricity.  Consequently,  we  expect  that 
real  lightning  rods  in  a  real  storm  would  protect  the  buildings  just  as  well  as  these 
little  ones  do  in  these  experiments. 

Why  Stkokes  Sometimes  Occur  in  Spite  of  Rods. 

But,  one  is  disposed  to  ask,  if  rods  in  many  cases  prevent  strokes,  why  not  in 
all  ?     In   the  foregoing  experiment?  the  cloud   and   earth  have   in   all   cases  been 


Fig.    32. — But    if    the    upper    end    of    the  ground  wire  projects  above  the  fence   in   a 
point,  no  flash  occurs,  which  is  even  better. 


charged  gradually,  and  when  so  charged  flashes  between  them  can  be  prevented. 
However,  the  machine  can  be  modified  to  unload  its  entire  positive  and  negative 
charges  to  the  cloud-  and  earth-plates  in  possibly  one-thousandth  or  one-millionth 
part  of  a  second.  When  this  occurs  the  points  cannot  let  the  charge  leak  off  fast 
enough  and  consequently  a  flash  follows.  This  shows  that  it  is  possible  for  a  rodded 
building  in  a  real  thunderstorm  to  be  struck.  Generally,  real  thunderclouds  become 
r-harged  gradually  and  lightning  strokes  can  be  prevented,  but  in  rare  cases  a  cloud 
receives  an  immense  cliarge  in  a  very  small  fraction  of  a  second.  This  is  some- 
times broiight  al)out  in  tlio  following  wav :  Two  clouds  lie  near  each  other.  The 
buildings  under  the  first  are  rodded.  but  not  under  the  second.  A  flash  occurs 
between  the  second  and  the  ground,  followed  by  a  flash  between  the  first  cloud  and 
the  second.  This  impulsive  rush  changes  the  pressure  in  the  first  cloud  so  suddenly 
that  the  leakage  does  not  neutralize  the  charge  as  fast  as  the  difference  in  pressure 
increases,  hence  a  flash  occurs.  But  that  flash  is  probably  much  weaker  than  if  the 
rods  had  not  been  there,  and  in  most  cases  of  this  kind  tlie  rods  will  conduct  the 
current  to  the  ground  without  damage. 


22 


The  Cause  of  Thuot)ee storms. 


Atmospheric  electricity  has  been  the  subject  of  considerable  study.  In  earlier 
days  friction  of  the  air  against  the  earth  and  objects  on  it,  and  also  evaporation, 
have  been  mentioned  as  possible  causes  of  atmospheric  electrification,  but  during 
the  last  few  years  another  explanation  has  been  advanced.  It  has  been  proven  that 
the  earth  is  always  negatively  charged,  and  that  the  air  is  a  conductor,  although  a 
poor  one,  to  be  sure.  Since  a  charge  cannot  reside  within  a  conductor  it  follows 
that  the  charge  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  must  be  transferred  more  or  less  quickly 
to  the  outside  of  the  conducting  atmosphere.  Within  the  last  four  or  five  years 
the  rate  at  which  the  earth  loses  its  charge  to  the  air  has  been  measured  by  Dr.  G-  C. 
Simpson,  of  Simla,  India,  and  although  the  rate  of  loss  is  small  per  square  foot 
or  per  square  yard,  yet  when  the  entire  surface  of  the  globe  is  considered  it  amounts 
to  a  constant  current  of  more  than  1,000  amperes!  Despite  this  continual  loss, 
the  earth's  charge  is  maintained  at  a  uniform  potential,  consequently  it  follows 
that  the  earth  must  be  receiving  an  amount  of  negative  electricity  equal  to  that 
lost.  The  idea  at  once  occurs  that  the  rain  brings  back  the  required  negative  charge. 
However,  careful  measurements,  at  half-a-dozen  different  places  distributed  over 
three  continents,  show  that  in  all  kinds  of  rain  more  positive  than  negative  elec- 
tricity is  brought  to  the  earth!  This  leaves  the  source  of  renewal  of  the  earth's 
charge  still  unknown,  and,  moreover,  offers  no  explanation  of  the  existence  of 
positive  charges  in  the  air,  so  that  the  difficulty  surrounding  the  problem  of  atmo- 
spheric electricity  has  been  increased  rather  than  diminished. 

We  do  know,  however,  that  under  certain  conditions,  when  water  vapour  high 
up  in  the  atmosphere  condenses  into  minute  drops  these  become  charged  with  elec- 
tricity. ^Tien  one  of  these  drops  is  formed  from  several  smaller  ones  there  is 
less  surface  for  the  electricity  to  be  spread  over,  and  consequently  it  becomes  more 
dense.  Thus  it  happens,  that  in  the  cloud  there  are  drops  of  various  sizes,  some 
of  which  are  more  strongly  charged  than  others.  The  weak  charges  appear  nega- 
tive to  the  stronger,  and  consequently  the  electricity  has  the  effect  of  attracting 
the  drops  together  more  rapidly  than  they  otherwise  would  unite.  This  accounts 
for  the  ver^^  sudden  development  of  thunderstorms.  When  the  condensation  has 
gone  on  sufficiently  the  cloud  becomes  one  great  conductor,  and  the  electricity  leaves 
the  surface  of  the  drops  and  collects  on  the  outside  of  the  cloud.  This  produces 
another  increase  in  intensity  of  the  charge.  Then,  again,  the  cloud  acts  as  one 
plate  of  a  condenser,  the  earth  as  the  other,  and  with  the  air  between  they  actually 
form  a  great  condenser  similar  in  principle  to  the  little  plate  condenser  shown  in 
Figure  13.  Thus  it  is  that  such  immense  charges  of  electricity  are  produced  in  the 
cloud.  As  the  positive  gathers  together  in  the  cloud,  the  negative  in  the  earth 
collects  directly  beneath,  and  the  attraction  of  these  unlike  charges  draws  the  cloud 
downward,  so  that  all  things  are  favourable  to  a  violent  flash  once  the  electric 
pressure  or  attraction  between  the  cloud  and  earth  is  sufficiently  high  to  make  the 
electricity  jump  the  decreasing  space  between  them. 

Nature  of  Lightning  Discharge. 

But  the  lightning  discharge  is  not  a  single  rush  in  one  direction.  A  steel 
spring  or  a  violin  string  drawn  aside  and  let  go  will  fly  away  past  the  centre,  then 
back,  and  continue  to  oscillate  a  large  number  of  times,  the  oscillations  gradually 
dying  out  as  the  energy  is  dissipated.  That  is  Just  what  happens  in  the  lightning 
stroke.     When  the  current  breaks  through,  the  discharging  process  goes  too  far, 


23 

"the  charges  on  the  cloud  and  earth  becoming  reversed,  and  these  in  turn  discharge, 
^nd  the  reversing  and  redischarging  is  repeated  over  and  over  again,  probably  a 
million  times  a  second,  until  the  energy  of  the  stroke  is  exhausted.  The  stupendous 
frequency  of  the  oscillations  makes  the  current  travel  almost  entirely  in  the  surface 
layers  of  any  conductor  it  may  follow. 

Let  us  now  study  the  conditions  on  the  earth  during  a  flash.  Look  at  the 
frontispiece,  page  2.  Immediately  you  say,  "  I  never  saw  the  flash  spread  out 
like  that  either  on  the  earth  or  in  the  cloud."  Quite  so.  But  if  we  return  to  our 
■electrical  machine,  and  on  the  earth  plate  set  a  flat  tin  dish  containing  moist  earth, 
then  wet  one  of  our  toy  barns,  set  it  on  the  earth  in  the  tray  and  turn  the  machine, 
we  see  at  every  spark  innumerable  ramifications  of  the  flash  spreading  out  over  the 
earth !  When  the  pressure  breaks  through  between  the  cloud,  and  wet  barn,  the 
charge  from  all  parts  of  the  earth-plate  is  in  suoh  a  hurry  to  make  its  way  up  to 
meet  that  from  the  cloud  that  it  doesn't  take  time  to  follow  all  the  irregularities 
of  the  earth's  surface,  but  jumps  through  the  air  from  point  to  point,  causing 
sparks  everywhere  it  does  so,  and  the  current  reverses  a  few  Imndred  thousand 
times  during  one  flash. 

Thus  we  get  the  idea  that  when  a  stroke  occurs  the  earth  for  hundreds  of  feet 
around  the  object  struck  is  in  a  highly  electrified  state  and  the  electrification 
changes  from  positive  to  negative  many  times  during  the  flash.  Hence  there  is 
an  alternating  current  to  and  from  the  object  struck.  This  takes  the  path  of  least 
obstruction,  following  conductors  with  least  resistance  and  self-induction,  and 
often  flashing  or  sparking  from  one  to  others  near  at  hand.  That's  probably  what 
killed  the  cattle — the  current  jumped  the  space  between  them  and  the  fence,  and 
the  shock  killed  them.  The  death  of  the  pigs  is  not  so  easily  explained,  as  apparently 
they  were  not  close  to  any  other  conductor — and  this  is  not  an  imaginary  case.  The 
cut  is  from  a  drawing  of  Mr.  West  Dodd's,  based  on  an  instance  that  came  under 
his  notice,  where  pigs  were  killed  in  an  ojioii  yard,  although  the  stroke  occured  to 
the  barn  some  distance  away. 

In  an  actual  flash  of  lightning  we  do  not  see  its  ramifications  on  the  earth 
and  cloud,  but  from  our  experiment  with  the  toy  barn  and  tray  of  earth  we  know 
beyond  peradventuro  of  a  doubt  that  during  the  flash  there  are  currents  from  all 
directions  to  the  earth  focus,  and  by  analogy  we  know  the  same  must  be  true 
in  the  cloud.  Did  not  the  flash  so  blind  its  observer  for  the  instant,  sparks  between 
conductors  on  the  earth  should  readily  be  detected.  So  the  earth-  and  cloud-rami- 
fications in  the  frontispiece  represent  not  streaks  of  liglit  but  alternating  currents 
of  electricity  and  the  lines  of  force  which  produce  those  currents. 

Why  Newly  Filled  Baens  Seem  More  Likely  to  be  Struck. 

In  this  connection  we  should  like  to  deal  with  a  phase  of  the  subject  about 
which  there  seems  to  be  more  or  less  misconception,  viz.,  the  claim  that  barns 
newly  filled  with  hay  or  grain  are  more  frequently  struck  and  burned  than  any 
other  class  or  condition  of  building.  Whether  such  barns  are  more  often  struck 
remains  to  be  proven,  but  there  is  perhaps  little  donbt  that  if  struck  they  are  more 
frequently  burned  than  if  empty.  Most  of  us  have  no  doubt  honrd  the  old  explana- 
tion which  runs  something  as  follows:  After  the  grain  is  stored  in  the  barn  it 
'^ sweats"  and  gives  off  vapour  to  the  air,  and  this  nioistui-c  ascending  in  a  column 
above  the  barn  forms  the  easiest  path  for  the  lightning  flash,  for  moist  air  is  a 
better  condurtor  of  electricity  than  dry  air.     Some  vary  it  by  saying  "gases"  are 


24 

given  off,  which  being  interpreted  must  mean  either  vapour  or  carbon  dioxide,  for 
chemists  state  that  there  is  no  chemical  action  and  chemically  no  gases  are  given 
off;  while  bacteriologists  say  that  some  carbon  dioxide  may  be  given  off  in  case 
the  hay  or  grain  heat  somewhat,  which  they  do  unless  comparatively  dry,  but  no 
other  gas  could  be.  Now  carbon  dioxide  being  heavier  than  air  at  the  same 
temperature  could  not  rise  more  than  a  few  inches  above  the  mow — Just 
enough  to  allow  it  to  become  cool.  Hence  the  explanation  depends  upon  the  water 
vapour.  What  has  always  puzzled  us  is  to  know  how  the  vapour  could  escape  from 
the  barn  fast  enough  to  form  a  column,  even  in  calm  weather,  much  less  if  some 
wind  is  blowing.  Besides,  when  a  thunderstorm  is  approaching  the  atmosphere- 
is  usually  so  humid  as  to  be  oppressive,  and  air  escaping  from  the  barn  would 
probably  be  drier  than  that  outside.  This  would  be  particularly  true  when  the- 
rain  begins  to  fall,  for  then  the  outside  air  is  saturated,  and  hence  any  that 
might  escape  from  the  barn  would  tend  to  make  that  above  drier  than  else- 
where. In  view  of  these  considerations  we  cannot  see  any  possibility  of  the  vapour 
in  the  barn  or  from  the  barn  having  any  effect  whatever  in  causing  lightning- 
strokes.  But  we  have  always  hesitated  to  attack  the  theory  because  we  had  noth- 
ing to  offer  in  its  stead,  except  that  hay  and  grain  with  their  light  leaves  and  chaff 
are  easily  ignited,  and  as  they  touch  the  barn  in  thousands  of  places,  even  a  small 
s])ark  anywhere  in  the  building  is  almost  sure  to  fire  it.  This,  however,  would 
not  account  for  strokes  on  these  barns  being  more  frequent  than  on  empty  ones,  if 
such  be  the  case. 

Perhaps  the  greater  inflammability  due  to  the  presence  of  the  hay  and  grain 
is  sufficient  explanation.  We  have  seen  on  page  23,  that  when  a  lightning  dis- 
charge occurs  there  are  surgings  of  electricity  on  the  conductors  in  that  vicinity, 
which  doubtless  produce  many  tiny  sparks,  any  of  which  occurring  in  the  barn 
would  ignite  the  dry  leaves  of  the  plants.  Sometimes  in  cases  of  this  kind  it  is 
said  "  the  barn  just  seemed  to  take  fire  all  over  " — doubtless  a  case  of  many  sparks 
each  setting  its  own  little  fire.  There  may  sometimes  be  another  cause  aggravating 
the  danger,  viz.,  that  owing  to  the  heating  process  in  the  mow  the  grain  may  be 
nearly  hot  enough  to  take  fire  itself,  in  which  condition  it  is  more  easily  ignited 
by  a  spark. 

How  TO  EoD  A  Building. 

Let  us  now  enquire :  "  AVhen  is  a  building  properly  rodded  ?"  The  first  prob- 
lem is,  what  kind  of  rod  shall  we  use? 

1.  Kind  of  Rod. — Until  recently  iron  and  copper  were  the  only  two  metals 
thought  of  in  connection  with  lightning  rods.  Now  aluminum  also  becomes  a  com- 
petitor, as  there  are  rods  of  this  material  on  the  market.  For  a  long  time  copper  was 
considered  the  only  metal  for  this  purpose,  the  reason  being  that  it  conducts  a 
steady  current  of  electricity  more  than  six  times  as  well  as  iron,  the  size  of  wire 
being  the  same  in  both  cases.  But  this  difference  may  be  overcome  by  using  iron 
wire  six  times  as  large  in  cross-section  as  the  copper.  This,  however,  makes  too 
heavy  a  cable.  But  the  conductivity  of  steel  is  only  about  seventy  per  cent  as  great 
as  that  of  iron,  so  that  steel  rods  would  have  to  be  considerably  heavier  than  iron 
to  have  the  same  conducting  value.  As  standard  copper  rods  weigh  at  least  three 
ounces  to  the  foot,  the  iron  cable  would  have  to  weigh  more  than  one  pound  and 
steel  rods  almost  a  pound  and  three-quarters  to  the  foot  to  be  as  good  conductors  of 
steady  current  as  the  copper  rods  in  general  use.  Hence  it  is  not  practicable  to 
make  iron  or  steel  rods  that  will  be  as  good  conductors  of  steady  current  as  the- 
copper  rods. 


(  25 

Self-Induction. 

There  is  another  phase  of  this  problem,  however.  Between  the  years  1888  am;] 
1892  Sir  Oliver  Lodge  carried  on  an  investigation  of  the  phenomena  of  lightning, 
by  means  of  laboratory  experiments,  and  to  his  surprise,  as  well  as  that  of  many 
scientists  and  of  the  whole  lightning  rod  fraternity,  he  found  that  an  iron  wire  will 
<3arry  off  a  sudden  rush  of  electricity  better  than  a  copper  wire  of  the  same  size ! 
Every  sudden  discharge  or  current  of  electricity  induces  an  opposite  current  along 
the  same  path.  This  is  known  as  "self-induction."  When  the  current  ceases, 
self-induction  again  takes  place,  this  time  opposing  the  drop  in  current  just  as  it 
formerly  opposed  the  rise.  Thus  with  an  alternating  circuit  the  self-induction 
is  high,  and  increases  with  the  frequency,  becoming  enormous  in  the  lightning 
discharge,  which  oscillates  about  a  million  times  per  second.  When  a  flash  occurs 
the  resistance  of  the  rod  may  frequently  be  insignificant  compared  with  that  offered 
by  self-induction.  A  steady  current  has  no  self-induction.  While  iron  has  greater 
resistance  to  the  steady  current  than  copper,  yet  the  self-induction  of  the  iron  is 
less  than  that  of  copper  in  case  of  an  electric  spark  or  a  flash  of  lightning.  Basing 
his  judgment  on  this  and  related  facts,  Lodge  stated  that,  in  his  opinion,  the  day 
of  copper  lightning  rods  w^as  done,  although  he  added  as  a  rider  that  in  cities 
and  towns  where  coal  is  burned  he  thought  the  iron  rods  would  not  prove  durable, 
owing  to  the  action  of  the  fumes  upon  the  zinc  coating  of  the  galvanized  wire.  We 
are  inclined  to  think  that  even  in  the  country  the  question  of  durability  is  an 
important  one.  Galvanizing  is  sometimes  poorly  done,  and  even  if  well  done 
corrosion  takes  place  wherever  the  rods  are  cut  or  scratched.  The  same  does  not 
apply  to  a  copper  wire. 

But  it  seems  to  us  that  in  this  judgment  Lodge  paid  attention  almost  entirely 
to  one  duty  of  the  lightning  rod,  namely,  to  carry  off  the  flash  in  case  the  building 
is  struck,  for  in  one  place  he  says :  "  I  have  at  present  no  great  faith  in  the  effective 
discharging  power  of  a  few  points."  By  the  data  given  at  the  commencement  of 
this  bulletin  we  have  seen  that  lightning  rods  have  another  and  a  greater  duty  to 
perform,  namely,  the  preventing  of  strokes  from  occurring.  To  prevent  a  stroke 
there  must  be  a  gradual  flow  of  electricity  along  the  rod  to  the  point  and  into  the 
air,  or  vice  versa.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  easy  to  demonstrate  that  there  is  a  steady 
flow  along  the  wire  when  the  points  on  the  toy  buildings  prevent  sparks.  The  same 
must  be  true  in  the  real  thunderstorm.  Now,  for  steady  current,  copper  rods  have 
a  higher  conducting  power  than  iron  ones,  hence,  for  preventing  strokes  copper 
rods  are  the  better,  while  for  carrying  off  strokes  iron  ones  are  the  better.  But 
copper  rods  are  made  heavy  enough  to  carry  the  "  impulsive  rush  "  and  iron  ones  con- 
ductive enough  to  carry  the  steady  current,  hence,  durability  is-  the  criterion,  and 
in  this  copper  is  indisputably  superior  to  iron. 

In  Michigan  the  Protected  Mutual  will  not  accept  a  risk  on  a  building  equipped 
with  iron  rods,  and  the  weight  of  copper  rod  on  all  of  their  buildings  is  at  least 
21/2  ounces  per  foot.  The  efficiency  of  their  rods,  as  already  mentioned,  is  90.9  per 
cent.  The  Patrons'  Mutual,  however,  insures  in  its  rodded  class,  whether  the  rods 
are  of  iron  or  copper — and  many  of  their  buildings  are  rodded  with  iron,  and  yet  in 
eleven  vears  they  have  had  to  pay  only  three  lightning  claims  on  rodded  buildings, 
indicating  about  the  same  efficiency  as  with  the  Protected  Company.  So  experience 
would  seom  to  support  what  has  already  been  said,  viz.,  that  rods  of  any  metal  will 
give  good  protection  as  long  as  they  are  in  good  repair  and  properly  installed.  So 
that  the  relative  value  of  the  rods  depends  upon  their  respective  durability. 


26 

Combination  Eods. 

There  are  rods  on  the  market  made  of  a  sheath  of  copper  surrounding  iron  or 
steel  centre.  All  these  are  even  less  durable  than  if  made  of  iron  alone,  because- 
of  electrolytic  action  between  the  two  metals  and  rapid  rusting  either  with  or  with- 
out this  action.  Different  farmers  who  have  had  rods  of  this  style  on  their  buildings 
and  have  examined  the  groundings  from  time  to  time  have  told  us  that  in  their 
experience  with  rods  having  copper  sheath  and  strip  of  iron  or  steel  in  the  centre, 
sometimes  with  two  steel  wires  added  for  strength,  the  life  of  the  iron  has  proved 
to  be  from  ten  to  twelve  years.  On  the  3rd  of  February,  1914,  the  writer  person- 
ally inspected  one  of  these  rods  that  had  been  on  a  building  eight  years  and  found 
that  in  the  portion  of  the  cable  running  along  the  ridge  of  the  barn  the  iron  strip 
and  the  steel  wires  were  almost  completely  destroyed  by  rust,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  both  strip  and  wires  had  once  been  galvanized!  Fig.  34  shows  the  result 
better  than  words. 


a  b  c  d 

Figure  34. — The  story  of  a  copper-covered  rod. 

a.  The  new  rod  complete. 

b.  The  new  rod  torn  to  pieces.   Note  the  copper  sheath,  two  No.  10  galvanized 

steel   (iron)   wires,  and  %-inch  strip  of  No.  20  galvanized  iron.  * 

c.  All  that  was  left  of  a  rod  that  had  been  in  use  eight  years.    The  sheath  in 

good  condition,  but  the  steel  wires  and  strip  nearly  all  rusted  away. 

d.  The  rust  taken  from  the  sample  one  foot  long  shown  in  c. 

The  portions  of  the  rods  running  up  the  gable  ends  were  in  fair  state  of 
preservation.  The  ground-rods  were  frozen  in  so  that  their  condition  could  not  be 
determined.  One  could  hardly  have  anticipated  such  destruction  up  on  the  ridge 
of  the  barn,  but  the  explanation  is  easy.  During  rains  the  water  entered  the 
sheath,  wetting  the  iron,  and  after  the  storms  the  rods  became  heated,  and  mois- 
ture and  warmth  combined  produce  most  rapid  rusting,  a  phenomenon  with  which 
all  are  familiar.  In  much  less  than  eight  years  the  iron  in  those  rods  ceased  to 
have  any  value,  so  far  as  that  portion  along  the  ridge  was  concerned.  And  it  would 
seem  impossible  that  the  iron  in  the  ground-connections,  subject  to  perpetual  mois- 
ture, could  have  escaped  the  effects  of  rust. 

In  the  country  great  quantities  of  this  type  of  rod  have  been  used.  What 
percentage  of  it  has  become  defective  we  have  no  means  of  knowing.  Of  course, 
so  long  as  the  copper  sheath  remains  intact  there  is  protection,  because  the  chief 


27 

function  of  the  iron  is  to  add  strength  to  the  rod,  its  conducting  power  being  but 
small  as  compared  with  that  of  the  sheath. 

Aluminum. 

Aluminum  is  about  half  as  good  a  conductor  as  copper,  the  size  of  wire  being 
the  same  in  the  two  cases.  But  if  aluminum  wire  is  twice  as  large  in  cross-section 
as  the  copper,  then  their  conducting  power  is  equal.  Aluminum,  so  far  as  we  can 
see,  should  prove  just  as  durable  as  copper,  although  we  must  remember  that  it  is 
a  peculiar  metal,  and  experience  may  bring  out  some  practical  weaknesses  that  as 
yet  may  not  have  developed. 

So  many  questions  are  asked  regardiiiu'  the  resistance  of  iron,  copper  and 
aluminum  that  it  is  thought  wise  to  give  a  few  comparisons.  Figure  35  shows 
samples  of  six  copper  rods  on  the  market  in  Ontario.  In  Figure  36  the  two  lono- 
samples,  Nos.  7  and  8,  are  of  iron,  and  the  short  ones,  Nos.  9  and  10,  of  aluminum. 
These  ten  rods  are  compared  in  table  below: 

CoMPAEisox  OF  Some  Cables. 


Rod  No. 

Construction. 

Weight 
per  Foot 

Ounces 

Diameter 
of  cable. 

Inches. 

Actual 
area  of 
cross- 
section  of 
metal. 
Sq.  Tnch. 

Resis- 
tance per 
1000  feet. 

Ohms. 

Heat  that  one  foot 
of  the   rod   will 
stand    before 
melting. 

Calories. 

Melting 
Point. 

Copper 
1 

Sheath  of  No.  30  copper, 
214"     wide,     wrapped 
and  twisted  and  lock- 
ed    around     strip     of 
No.     21     copper,     .45" 
wide,  and  two  No.  10 
copper  wires  

3.263 

.55 

.0566 

.1348 

9397 

2012F 

2 

28  No.  17  copper  wires 
and  a  strip  of  No.  20 
copper,  Ys"  wide 

3.250 

3 

29  No.  17  copper  wires. 

2.65" 

.40 

.0460 

.1659 

7631 

4 

Same     as     No.     1,     but 
sheath     not      locked, 
strip     being     No.     22 
and  .50"  wide 

3.28" 

5 

31  No.  17  copper  wires, 
woven  in  a  flat  ribbon 

3.065 

.0491 

.1552 

8152 

6 

7  No.  9  copper  wires  . . 

1  No.  2  copper  wire  . . . 

%"  copper  tube,  No.  22 
gauge,    used    as     up- 
rights     

4.637 
2.869 

2.500 

5.800 

.35 
.258 

.625 

.45 

.0714 

.0471 
.1225 

.1071  ' 

.1620 
.4954 

12,880 

7199 
24,389 

Iron 

7 

12    No.     9    steel     wires 
(home-made)    

2840"  F 

8 

5  No.  7  pnd  1  No,  9  steel 
wires  

4.620 
4.504 

.35 

,65 

.0916 
.2445 

.6624 
.0542 

18,985 
16,818 

Alumin'm 
9 

19  No.  8  aluminum  wires 

1157"  F 

10 

7  No.  6  aluminum  wires. 

2.037 

.50 

.1443 

.0952 

7606 

28 

Eod  No.  5,  the  woven  ribbon,  is  just  on  the  3-ounce  limit  for  copper,  and  we 
may  take  its  resistance  and  heat  capacity  as  the  standard  requirements  in  these 
two  respects.  iSTo.  3  is  too  light.  Nos.  2  and  -1  are  almost  identical  with  No.  1 
in  resistance  and  heat  capacity  because  almost  identical  in  weight.  No.  6  has 
about  11/2  times  the  standard  amount  of  copper  and  is  unquestionably  the  best  of  the 
six  copper  rods.  Its  resistance  is  lowest,  meaning  it  is  the  best  conductor.  Its 
heat  capacity  is  highest,  its  durability  greatest.  However,  judging  by  data  at 
hand  it  is  probably  a  needless  expense  to  use  such  a  heavy  cable. 

The  two  steel  (iron)  rods  are  both  much  heavier  than  the  standard  copper, 
but  their  resistances  are  3  1-3  and  4  1-3  times  as  great,  showing  that  they  are 
only  about  1-3  and  1-4  as  good  conductors  respectively  of  steady  current  as  the 
standard.     In  heat  capacity  they,  of  course,  head  the  list. 

The  aluminum  rods  have  the  lowest  resistance,  that  is,  they  are  the  best  con- 
ductors of  steady  current.  The  large  aluminum  has  about  twice  the  heat  capacity 
of  the  standard  copper,  so  that  this  cable,  like  No.  6,  seems  needlessly  large.  No. 
10,  however,  is  just  a  shade  small,  being  rather  low  in  heat  capacity.     So  far  as  we 


12  3  4  5  6 

Fig.  35. — ^Six  different  makes  of  copper  rod.     For  properties  see  Table 


are  aware,  no  specifications  have  heretofore  been  laid  down  as  to  the  minimum 
weight  for  aluminum  rods.  To  have  the  same  heat  capacity  as  the  standard  copper 
would  require  2  1-7  ounces  per  foot,  but  in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  meltiag  point 
of  aluminum  is  only  1,157  degrees  F.,  while  that  of  copper  is  2,012  degrees  F.,  it 
would  seem  prudent  to  require  a  little  greater  heat  capacity  than  in  the  copper. 
Consequently  I  should  be  inclined  to  specify  at  least  2  1-4  ounces  per  foot  for 
aluminum  rods.  Extensive  use  will  be  necessary  to  determine  practically  whether 
this  will  be  ample,  though  so  far  as  we  can  see  it  should  be. 

Iron  has  a  melting-point  of  2840*'F,  the  highest  of  the  three.  That's  one  reason 
why  the  iron  has  such  high  heat  capacity.  The  other  reason  is  the  weight  of  the 
rod.  The  aluminum  has  the  lowest  melting  point  of  all.  Whether  this  will  be 
any  practical  detriment  to  rods  of  this  metal  also  remains  to  be  established  by 
extended  use. 


39 

In  this  comparison  no  attention  has  been  paid  to  "surface,"  although  much 
stress  has  from  time  to  time  been  laid  upon  this  by  makers  of  various  types  of  rods. 
Sir  Oliver  Lodge's  experiments,  which  show  that  a  thin  broad  strip  has  less  self- 
induction  than  a  wire  of  the  same  material  and  weight  have  been  taken  as  an  indica- 
tion that  we  should  have  great  surface  of  conductor,  and  durability  and  con- 
venience of  installation  have  sometimes  been  sacrificed  to  surface.  We  should  not 
forget  that  when  it  came  to  the  practical  side  of  the  question  Lodge  recommended 
the  more  rugged  types  of  conductor,  such  as  solid  rod  or  strong  cable,  in  explanation 
whereof  he  said :  "  It  is  because  I  doubt  whether  decently  substantial  conductors 
are  in  any  real  danger  from  heat  that  I  have  asserted  the  advantage  of  greater  sur- 
face to  be  but  small."  Consequently  shape  of  rod  is  immaterial,  so  far  as  efficiency 
is  concerned,  and  a  tape  or  other  form  designed  for  great  surface  has  by  reason 
thereof  no  practical  pre-eminence  over  other  shapes'  of  rod. 

Side  Flashes. 

Sometimes  part  of  a  lightning-charge  will  side-flash  from  the  rod,  jumping 
several  feet  of  air  gap  in  doing  so.     Why?     The  total  obstruction  to  the  current 


7  8  9  10 

Fig.  36. — Two  iron  rods    (long)    and   two  aluminum  rods    (short). 

is  made  up  of  two  parts,  the  resistance  of  the  wire,  and  the  self-induction.  The 
more  suddenly  the  current  comes  on  and  the  higher  the  frequency  of  alternation 
the  greater  the  self-induction,  and  this  is  the  larger  factor  when  a  stroke  occurs. 
The  self-induction  of  a  short  air  circuit  is  sometimes  less  than  that  of  a  long 
metallic  circuit,  hence  the  side-flash  in  such  cases. 


Groundings. 

2.  Ground  Connections. — For  an  ordinary  building,  not  an  L  or  T,  at  least  two 
groundings  should  be  made,  preferably  at  corners  diagonally  opposite,  though  tlii- 
may  be  modified  to  meet  conditions,  e.g.,  to  run  near  conductor  pipe  from  eave- 


30 

trough  and  which  should  be  connected  to  the  cable  as  indicated  later.  Another 
factor  that  may  sometimes  influence  the  selection  of  the  ground-rod  locations  is 
the  presence  of  manure  and  the  liquid  from  it.  The  ammonia  in  the  manure  will 
attack  the  copper  rods,  and  in  a  few  years  eat  them  off.  The  heat  of  the  decaying 
manure  will  hasten  rusting  of  the  iron  rods.  Consequently  ground-rods  should 
be  located  where  there  is  no  manure. 

Some  rodding  companies  in  Michigan  use  a  length  of  half-inch  gas  piping  to 
protect  their  ground-rods'.  This  pipe  is  first  closed  at  one  end  by  welding  and  then 
sharpened,  after  which  it  is  driven  in  the  earth  point  downward  until  the  top  is 


Fig.  37.— The  drill   (in  left  hand)   used  in 
making   groundings. 


within  a  foot  or  so  of  the  earth's  surface.  The  cable  is  then  shoved  down  inside 
the  gas  pipe  till  it  reaches  the  bottom,  and  the  pipe  then  flattened  at  the  top  till 
it  presses  firmly  on  the  cable.  The  Patrons'  Mutual  of  that  State  prefers  that  the 
groundings  be  thus  protected  before  they  accept  the  risk  in  their  rodded  class,  and 
as  already  stated  they  have  paid  in  eleven  years  only  three  lightning  claims  on 
rodded  buildings.  The  Protected  Mutual,  on  the  other  hand,  will  not  accept  a 
risk  at  all  if  they  discover  that  the  gas-pipe  protection  is  used.  They  make  two 
objections  against  it,  one  that  the  pipe  acts  somewhat  as  a  choke-coil,  the  other 


31 

that  the  cable  is  frequently  eaten  off  at  the  top  of  the  pipe  by  the  electric  current 
passing  from  the  cable  to  the  pipe,  thereby  putting  the  system  out  of  order.  Occa- 
sionally, however,  their  inspector  overlooks  a  gas-pipe  grounding  and  accepts  a 
risk  on  a  building  so  rodded.  Since  the  1912  report  of  the  Protected  Mutual  they 
iave  lost  their  first  rodded  building  by  lightning,  and  curiously  enough  it  was  one 
with  the  gas-pipe  groundings.  On  examination  it  was  found  that  the  cable  was 
nearly  disconnected,  only  two  or  three  of  the  fine  copper  wires  remaining  intact. 
Whether  the  injury  was  done  in  closing  the  gas-pipe  too  tightly  on  the  cable  or 
by  the  current  eating  the  wires  off  was  not  determined.  It  would  seem  that  as 
yet  this  method  of  making  groundings  is  open  to  some  question  and  it  would 
appear  wiser  to  locate  the  ground-rods  where  there  is  no  manure,  then  there  is  no 
need  for  the  gas-pipe. 

A  simple  way  to  make  a  ground-connection  is  illustrated  in  figures  37,  38  and 
39.  In  figure  37  note  the  drill  10  feet  long.  It  is  a  piece  of  half-inch  iron  rod, 
with  point  swedged  to  make  it  about  five-eights    or    three-quarters    of    an    inch 


Fig.  38.— Drill  down  10  feet. 


Fig.  39. — ^Ground  rod  down  10  feet. 


in  diameter.  An  eye  for  a  hand-hold  is  formed  on  the  upper  end  of  drill.  A  hole 
large  enough  for  a  pail  of  water  is  dug  in  the  ground.  The  hole  is  filled  with 
water,  and  the  drill  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  hole  and  gradually  worked  down- 
ward. More  water  may  be  poured  in  if  required.  When  the  drill  is  down  full 
depth  (see  Figure  38)  it  is  withdrawn  and  the  cable  carefully  slipped  down  into, 
the  hole  (see  Figure  39).  The  grounding  shown  in  these  figures  was  made  while 
rodding  a  silo,  and  took  probably  twenty  minutes  after  the  hole  was  dug. 

It  is  sometimes  advised  to  dig  a  large,  deep  hole  and  bury  a  ground-plate  to 
which  the  ground-rods  are  attached.  This  does  not  appear  to  be  necessary  in 
general  farm  conditions.  In  Michigan  where  the  efficiency  is  09.9  per  cent,  the 
ground-connections  are  made  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  Just  described  and  shown 
in  the  photographs.  If  efficiency  without  ground-plates  is  99.9  per  cent,  there  seems 
to  be  no  urgent  need  for  them.  Where  the  rock  is  near  the  surface  and  the  soil 
becomes  dry  to  the  bottom  during  the  summer  a  ground-plate  would  be  of  some 
value,  especially  if  imbedded  in  coke,  for  coke,  besides  being  a  conductor,  holds 
moisture  well,  but  better  results  would  probably  be  secured  by  sinking  the  ground- 
rod  into  a  well  or  a  good  crevice  in  the  rock,  or  a  stream  of  water  if  one  should  be 
near.     Sometimes  in  shallow  soil  a  large  flat  stone  is  laid  over  the  ground-rod  "  to 


32 

hold  the  moisture."  There  is  doubtless  some  virtue  in  this,  though  the  ground-plate 
and  other  methods  are  better. 

On  an  L-  or  T-shaped  building  there  should  be  at  least  three  groundings.  Two 
of  the  damages  suffered  by  the  Protected  Mutual  happened  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  Both  buildings  were  T-shaped.  There  was  a  ground-rod  at  each  end  of 
the  main  part,  and  from  the  main  system  a  cable  ran  along  the  ridge  of  the  other 
wing  and  a  point  was  placed  about  five  feet  from  the  end,  but  the  cable  was  not 
continued  further,  there  was  no  ground-rod  for  this  part  of  the  system.  Later  a 
telephone  line  was  run  into  the  house,  entering  near  this  stub  end.  The  lightning 
flash  struck  the  point  on  this  wing,  and  divided,  part  following  the  cable  and 
part  jumping  to  the  telephone  line.  If  there  had  been  another  ground-connection 
for  this  portion  of  the  system  probably  no  damage  would  have  occurred. 

All  ground-rods  should  go  deep  enough  to  be  in  perpetual  moisture.  In  Michi- 
gan where  rods  are  subject  to  insurance  inspection  it  is  insisted  that  ground-rods 
must  go  at  least  eight  feet  in  the  earth,  and  many  are  sunk  ten  feet. 

Impoetance  of  Proper  Grounding, 

Here  let  a  note  of  warning  be  sounded  to  everyone  who  is  having  his  buildings 
rodded :  Be  present  and  see  the  ground-rods  put  down.  Know  for  yourself  that 
the  rods  are  actually  down  eight  feet  or  more.  Do  not  take  anybody's  say-so  on 
this  point.  Lightning-rod  men,  as  a  class,  are  as  honest  as'  any  other  class  of  the 
community,  but  an  odd  one  is  unscrupulous  and  will  "  scamp  "  the  job  if  possible. 
We  have  a  record  of  a  case  where  the  rodding  agent  instead  of  putting  the  cable 
eight  feet  straight  down  in  the  earth  coiled  it  up  and  buried  it  in  a  small  hole  in 
dry  earth,  and  the  barn  was  burned  by  lightning  the  very  day  it  was  rodded.  Noth- 
ing could  be  more  dangerous.  When  electric  power  companies  want  to  prevent  the 
lightning  charge  from  coming  in  on  the  line  wires  and  damaging  their  machinery 
they  make  a  "  choke  "-coil  of  several  turns  of  the  wire  just  inside  the  station  and 
beside  the  line  put  a  ground-wire  separated  from  the  line  by  a  short  air-gap.  When 
the  lightning  charge  follows  the  line  to  the  station  the  "  choke  "-coil  makes  it  so 
difficult  for  the  sudden  current  to  pass  that  it  jumps  the  air-gap  to  the  ground-wire 
in  preference  and  thus  escapes  to  the  earth.  Now  the  coil  at  the  foot  of  the  light- 
ning rod  acts  just  in  the  same  way.  It  chokes  the  current  back  and  makes  it  take 
some  other  path,  down  through  the  building,  probably  firing  the  building  on  the  way. 
In  a  coil  self-induction  is  very  high,  hence  the  choking  effect. 

Consequently,  let  us  say  again,  look  well  to  the  groundings.  They  are  prob- 
ably the  most  vital  part  of  the  system.     See  the  ground-rods  put  in. 

3.  Systems. — The  cable  beginning  at  one  ground-rod  should  extend  up  the 
corner,  make  a  gradual  turn  at  the  eaves,  go  up  the  edge  of  the  roof  to  the  peak, 
along  the  peak  to  the  other  end,  down  the  edge  of  the  roof  to  the  eave,  and  down 
the  corner  to  the  other  ground.    All  turns  should  be  rounded  rather  than  angular. 

All  the  cables  on  a  building  should  be  connected  in  one  system.  Sometimes  it 
is  found  that  on  an  L-,  T-  or  U-shapcd  building,  for  instance,  the  rods  on  the 
one  part  are  not  connected  with  those  on  the  other.  Numerous  instances  are 
reported  where  damage  has  occurred  between  these  two  systems,  the  lightning 
striking  the  one  system  and  part  of  the  current  jumping  across  to  the  other.  Con- 
sequently, divided  systems  should  be  scrupulously  avoided.  When  a  cupola  is 
encountered  the  cable  should  go  around  rather  than  over  it,  the  point  on  the  cupola 
being  connected  to  the  cable  below.  ^     [ 


33 

As  the  cables  near  the  ground  are  often  subject  to  injury  by  stock,  implements, 
etc.,  they  should  be  protected  by  wooden  strips  fastened  together  in  suitable  form 
and  nailed  over  the  cable  from  the  ground  up  to  a  height  of  six  or  eight  feet. 

No  Insulators  to  Be  Used. 

4.  Attachment. — Insulators  should  not  he  used.  The  rods  should  be  in  metal- 
lie  connection  with  the  building.  This  method  of  attachment  is  in  direct  oppo- 
sition to  that  practised  when  lightning  rods  were  first  used.  It  was  then  considered 
desirable  to  insulate  the  rods'  from  the  huilding  by  glass  or  earthenware  insulators. 
As  a  thunderstorm  approaches  the  entire  outer  surface  of  the  building  is  charged 
with  electricity,  and  by  having  the  rods  in  metallic  connection  with  the  building 
the  charge  is  conducted  to  the  rods  and  thence  to  the  points  where  it  leaks  off  and 
neutralizes  the  opposite  charge  existing  in  the  cloud. 

Several  methods  are  used  for  fastening  the  cable  to  the  building.  Some  com- 
panies use  copper  nails,  which  are  driven  right  through  the  cable.  Others  use 
staples,  others  clips  which  hold  the  cable  tight  to  the  building,  and  some  use  a 
clip  which  holds  the  cable  out  about  an  inch  from  the  building,  the  claim  for  the 
last  method  being  that  with  the  rod  standing  out  chaff,  straw,  and  the  like  would 
not  so  readily  collect  between  the  rod  and  building,  and  thus  a  danger  of  fire  is 
avoided  in  case  strokes  occur.  At  first  the  writer  rather  thought  this  point  well 
taken,  but  after  finding  an  efficiency  of  999  cases  out  of  1,000  in  Michigan  where 
the  rods  were  practically  all  fastened  close  to  the  building,  and  the  three  small 
damages  that  did  occur  all  being  due  to  other  causes,  we  concluded  that  it  would  be 
rather  difficult  to  secure  any  higher  efficiency.  While  we  say  this,  we  see  no  par- 
ticular objection  to  having  the  rods  stand  out  from  the  building,  unless  it  might  be 
that  the  rod  is  more  exposed  and  thus  more  subject  to  injury. 

Points  Twenty  to  Thirty  Feet  Apart. 

5.  Points. — At  intervals  along  the  cable  on  the  ridge  there  should  be  placed 
uprights  with  points  that  will  not  corrode.  These  uprights  should  be  firmly  fas- 
tened to  the  cable.  There  is  no  absolute  law  as  to  the  distance  apart  at  wliich  these 
points  should  be  placed,  l)ut  a  rule  frequently  used  as  an  approximate  guide  is  that 
the  distance  between  them  shall  not  be  greater  than  twice  the  combined  height  of 
the  two  uprights.  By  this  rule  if  the  points  were  five  feet  in  height  they  would  be 
placed  about  twenty  feet  apart.  There  is,  however,  a  tendency  among  practical 
lightning-rod  men  to  use  shorter  and  shorter  uprights,  some  as  short  as  26  inches, 
but  with  these  short  uprights  the  points  are  still  placed  twenty  to  thirty  feet  apart. 
Copper  tubes  of  suitable  size  and  weighing  the  same  per  foot  as  the  rods  make  the 
best  uprights.  They  are  supported  by  standards  in  the  form  of  tripods,  thus  being 
strongly  braced. 

The  experiments  with  the  little  electrical  machine  have  shown  us  that  the  flash 
selects  angles  and  prominences,  and  we  know  that  lightning  shows  the  same  pref- 
erence ill  this  respect.  Consequently  points  should  be  placed  near  each  end  of  the 
ridge,  on  or  heside  chimneys,  and  on  cupolas  and  dormers.  Those  on  or  beside 
chimneys  or  cupolas  should  project  above  them  at  least  eighteen  inches. 

On  the  uprights  ornaments  of  one  kind  or  another,  such  as  bright  balls  and 
weather  vanes  are  frequently  placed.  Scientifically  and  according  to  at  least  three 
manufacturers  of  rods  in  Ontario,  the  former  are  of  no  use  in  telling  whether  the 
building  has  been  struck  by  lightning,  as  is  sometimes  stated  by  agents.    The  vanes 


34 

are  a  weakness  if  they  rotate  on  the  upright,  for  in  constantly  oscillating  with  the 
wind  they  in  time  wear  the  uprights  until  they  bend  and  sometimes  even  break 
off  at  the  vane.  Both  balls  and  vanes  add  to  the  appearance,  but  the  latter  had 
better  be  dispensed  with,  unless  they  rotate  on  a  stationary  collar.  When  strong 
tubes  are  used  as  uprights  there  is  no  serious  objection  to  the  balls,  for  they  are 
not  likely  to  catch  enough  wind  to  do  any  damage. 

Metallic  Bodies  Should  Be  Connected  in  the  System 

6,  Metallic  Parts  of  Structure. — Lightning-rod  companies  here  differ  consid- 
erably in  practice.  Some  connect  all  metallic  portions  of  the  structure  to  the 
rods,  others  do  not.  The  former  is  undoubtedly  the  better  practice.  If  the  metal 
body  is  a  long  one,  like  a  steel  track,  roof-gutter,  or  eave-trough  and  conductor  pipe, 
both  ends  of  it  should  be  connected  to  the  rods,  or  one  end  to  the  rod  and  the  other 
grounded.  Where  buildings  are  already  rodded,  but  the  rod  runs  straight  from 
the  peak  to  the  ground,  leaving  the  eave-troughs  and  conductor  pipes  unconnected 
and  ungrounded,  this  could  easily  be  remedied  by  connecting  one  end  to  the  cable 
and  grounding  the  other  end  by  a  new  ground-rod. 

Telephones  should  always  be  protected  by  "  lightning  arresters."  This  we 
believe  is  always  looked  after  by  the  telephone  companies. 


Some  Cases  of  Defective  Eodding. 

« 

In  this  relation  we  wish  to  refer  to  an  occurrence  that  took  place  in  the  town- 
ship of  Adelaide,  County  of  Middlesex,  during  the  past  summer.  Two  barns  belong- 
ing to  Mr.  Harold  Currie  were  burned  on  June  6th,  1913.  It  was  reported  to  us 
that  they  were  rodded.    We  wrote  to  Mr.  Currie  at  once.     Here  is  his  answer : 

"  Yours  of  August  25th  to  hand,  and  in  reply  wish  to  say  that  my  two  barns  were 
burned  by  lightning  on  the  night  of  June  6th,  1913.  They  were  rodded,  and  the  rods  were 
in  first-class  condition  with  no  dead  ends.  In  fact,  the  Inspector  of  Insurance  Company 
examined  the  rod  after  the  fire,  and  pronounced  it  in  good  condition  and  there 
was  not  a  break  in  it.  Then,  since  receiving  your  letter,  I  pulled  the  end  out  of 
the     ground     to     measure     the     length,     and     it     was     nine     feet     in     the     ground. 

Mr. ,  of ,  put  the  rods  on  five  years  ago.     The  barns  were  new  and  were 

upon  cement  and  brick  walls.  Of  course,  one  was  struck  and  the  other  caught  from  it. 
As  to  the  name  of  the  rod  I  can't  tell  you,  but  it  was  a  round  cable  of  coppered  wire. 
The  barn  that  was  struck  was  56  ft.  x  46  ft,  and  had  three  points  on  it,  and  the  rod  ran 
down  at  the  north  end  only.  This  barn  was  also  covered  with  Galvanized  Iron  Shingles, 
the  Oshawa  shingle,  manufactured  by  the  Pedlar  People,  and  was  troughed  all  to  one 
corner  where  the  conductor  pipe  ran  down  into  the  4-inch  tile  which  carried  the  water 
away.  Now,  Sir,  I  wish  to  state  a  few  facts.  I  had  in  those  buildings  (at  the  time  of 
the  fire)  a  number  of  valuable  race  horses,  and  had  just  come  from  the  barn  and  was 
standing  at  the  door  of  the  house  watching  the  storm,  and  saw  the  lightning  come  down 
but  could  not  tell  whether  or  not  it  hit  the  barn,  as  it  dazzled  my  eyes  and  staggered  me 
back  against  the  door.  When  I  got  my  sight  again  there  was  no  sign  of  fire,  so  I  went 
into  the  house  to  go  to  bed,  and  in  passing  a  window  saw  what  looked  like  a  lantern  in 
the  southwest  corner  of  the  barn.  I  am  satisfied  that  the  rods  were  not  touched,  but 
that  the  lightning  went  down  the  conductor  pipe,  which,  by  the  way,  had  a  length  broken 
out  by  the  wind  on  Good  Friday,  just  at  the  top  of  the  brick  wall,  and  as  this  mow  was 
filled  with  straw  and  summer  bedding  for  the  horses,  it  caught  fire  and  burned  fiercely. 
I  am  of  the  opinion  that  if  the  pipe  had  not  been  broken  I  would  have  had  no  fire.  I 
was  insured  in  the  London  Mutual  Co.  I  have  noticed  since  the  number  of  barns  that 
have  the  conductor  pipe  come  down  just  to  the  bottom  of  the  timber,  which  is  a  trap, 
for  if  lightning  ever  comes  down  that  pipe  it  will  surely  go  into  the  barn  at  that  point. 

"  If  there  is  anything  that  I  have  not  made  clear  to  you  I  will  be  pleased  to  answer 
any  further  questions." 


35 

Our  reply  to  this  letter  was  in  part  as  follows : 

"  We  are  in  receipt  of  yours  of  August  25th  re  the  rods  on  your  barns  that  were 
burned.  We  note  that  only  one  barn  was  struck,  and  the  second  caught  from  the  first. 
Judging  from  your  letter  the  rod  ran  down  the  gable  from  the  peak  at  the  north  end, 
and  not  from  the  eaves.  Is  this  correct?  We  also  conclude  that  the  cable  ran  along  the 
peak  of  the  barn,  and  that  there  were  three  uprights  from  this  cable.  Is  this  correct? 
Or  having  a  metal  roof,  was  any  cable  used  except  at  the  ground-rod? 

"  Did  you  examine  the  points  or  were  they  destroyed?  Were  any  of  them  fused?  We 
should  be  glad  to  have  sample  of  the  rods,  also  one  of  the  points,  a  fused  one  if  any 
were  fused. 

"  We  note  that  the  rods  were  in  good  condition,  but  the  system  of  rodding  is  very 
defective  indeed.  In  the  first  place,  there  should  have  been  at  least  two  ground-rods. 
In  the  second  place,  with  a  metal  roof,  the  cable  must  leave  the  roof  at  the  eaves,  because 
in  a  metal  roof  resistance  and  self-induction  are  both  so  small  that  the  obstruction 
offered  by  the  roof,  and  the  air-gap  at  the  corners  may  be  less  than  that  of  a  long  cable 
from  the  peak,  especially  if  air-gap  is  short  on  account  of  conductor-pipe,  and,  thirdly,  one 
of  the  ground-rods  should  have  been  at  the  south-west  corner,  so  that  the  conductor-pipe 
could  have  been  connected  to  the  rod.  If  the  one  ground-rod  that  was  in  had  been  at 
the  south-west  corner,  and  the  conductor-pipe  connected,  as  suggested,  we  are  satisfied 
that  your  barn  would  have  been  saved. 

"  We  are  not  sure  that  you  are  right  in  concluding  that  the  rods  were  not  touched. 
We  know  that  whenever  electricity  has  two  nearly  equal  paths  open  to  it,  part  goes  one 
path  and  part  the  other.  Probably  part  of  the  charge  went  down  the  rod  and  part  down 
the  conductor-pipe.     It  would  appear  that  the  bolt  must  have  been  a  very  violent  one." 

"  The  writer  has  just  come  back  from  Iowa  and  Michigan,  where  he  has  been  inves- 
tigating the  subject  of  protection  against  lightning,  and  without  going  into  detail,  we 
are  going  to  give  you  one  or  two  facts  learned  on  the  trip.  In  the  State  of  Michigan 
there  are  two  mutual  companies  which  insure  buildings  all  over  the  State.  One  insures 
only  rodded  buildings,  we  shall  call  it  the  Protected  Company.  The  other  insures  both 
rodded  and  unrodded,  we  shall  call  it  the  Unprotected  Company,  but  it  keeps  its  rodded 
buildings  in  a  separate  class,  and  this  class  is  assessed  for  its  own  losses.  Both  these 
companies  are  very  particular  in  having  the  buildings  rodded  properly.  Neither  one  of 
them  would  have  accepted  your  building  in  their  rodded  class,  considering  the  rodding 
defective  in  the  respects  pointed  out  above." 

Here  is  another  illustration  that  shows  the  need  of  connecting  metallic  bodies 
to  the  rods:  A  barn  was  rodded,  the  cable  passed  down  the  end  to  the  ground. 
Inside  at  a  distance  of  about  three  or  four  feet  was  the  end  of  a  water-pipe.  Under 
the  water-pipe  stood  a  cow.  A  bolt  of  lightning  struck  the  rod  and  the  cow  was 
killed.  Now  what  happened  was  probably  this:  Part  of  the  charge  side-flashed 
througli  the  wall  to  the  water-pipe,  and  from  that  to  the  cow. 

The  second  damage  suffered  by  the  Protected  Mutual  is  described  by  the  Secre- 
tar}'-  in  the  following  words:  "  The  other  damage  in  1912  was  on  account  of  a  large 
galvanized  storage  tank  in  the  attic  of  the  house,  only  a  few  feet  below  the  rod, 
which  ran  along  the  ridge  of  the  building.  This  tank  was  thoroughly  grounded 
with  gas-pipe,  so  that  the  lightning  split  and  part  of  it  followed  the  rafter  down 
and  jumped  across  to  the  tank.  TTad  the  tank  been  connected  with  the  rod,  we  are 
satisfied  this  damage  would  not  have  occurred." 

In  nearly  all  cases  where  damage  is  done  to  rodded  buildings  it  is  found  that 
the  current  has  jumped  an  air-gap.  The  obvious  remedy  is  to  avoid  possible  air- 
gaps.  If  the  end  of  that  water-pipe  had  been  connected  to  the  cable  outside  the 
barn  and  the  other  end  connected  to  the  other  "  ground  "  the  cow  alcove  referred  to 
would  doubtless  have  been  perfectly  safe. 

On  page  32  attention  was  drawn  to  the  great  importance  of  having  the 
groundings  properly  made.  The  connecting  of  metallic  parts  of  the  structure  to 
the  systems  is  equally  important.  After  the  correspondence  with  Mr.  fnrrie  wo 
observed  a  large  number  of  barns  where  the  gutters,  eave-troughs  and  cotiductor- 
oipes  were  not  connectcfl  in  the  system.  We  are  satisfied  this  is  one  reason  why 
the  efficiency  of  rods  in  Ontario  is  only  92  to  94.5  per  cent.,  while  in  Iowa  it  is  98.7 


36 

per  cent.,  and  in  Michigan,  under  inspection,  99.9  per  cent.     In  those  two  states 
they  are  much  ahead  of  us  in  the  art  and  science  of  redding  buildings. 

Metallic  roofs  should  be  grounded  at  two  corners  at  least,  the  cable  being 
stapled  or  soldered  to  the  metal  roof  at  the  eaves,  and  either  points  or  sharp-edged 
ridge-boards  should  be  used.  It  is  not  necessary  to  run  the  cable  up  to  and  along 
the  peak.  Simply  fasten  the  uprights  to  the  metal  roof  at  the  ridge.  The  metal  roof 
of  cupolas  should  be  connected  to  the  main  roof.  Conductor  pipes  from  metallic 
roofs  should  be  grounded.  Under  no  circumstances  should  metal  roofs  be  grounded 
from  the  peak,  for  if  a  stroke  occurs  low  down  on  the  roof  the  current  will  not 
travel  upward  to  the  peak,  but  will  leave  the  roof  at  the  lowest  point. 

A  windmill  on  a  barn  should  be  connected  to  the  cable,  also  the  bottom  end  of 
the  shaft  either  connected  to  the  cable  or  separately  grounded  to  perpetual  moisture. 

Wire  Fences. 

7.  Fences. — A  wire  fence  is  not  properly  grounded,  unless  in  large  fields  there 
is  a  grounding  at  least  every  twenty  rods,  though  closer  together  is  better,  and  in 
barn  yards  or  small  yards  where  cattle  are  herded,  at  every  corner.  Where  fences 
are  connected  with  a  building  there  should  be  a  grounding  at  the  first  post  from 
the  building,  and  moreover  the  ground-rod  from  the  building  should  be  connected 
with  the  fence.  A  fence  grounding  should  consist  of  a  rod  or  cable  equal  to  three 
No.  18  wires  or  one  No.  9  wire  stapled  over  or  connected  with  each  lateral  wire  of 
the  fence,  and  extending  at  least  three  feet  into  the  ground.  If  the  ground  wires 
are  allowed  to  project  a  few  inches  above  the  fence,  strokes  are  prevented  in  the 
vicinity  just  as  by  the  points  on  a  building.  The  fence  groundings  should  be  made 
of  the  same  material  as  the  fence  wires. 

8.  Shade  Trees. — Where  there  are  a  few  trees  under  which  stock  gather  for 
shade  it  would  be  both  wise  and  feasible  to  rod  the  trees.  The  same  principles 
apply  here  as  in  general  redding. 

Conclusion. 

From  the  days  of  Franklin  to  the  present  time  the  value  of  lightning  rods 
has  been  an  undetermined  quantity,  physicists  of  course  holding  that  they  must  be 
highly  beneficial,  the  greater  mass  of  the  people,  however,  retaining  an  open  mind, 
while  some  accepting  the  teachings  of  science  rodded  their  buildings;  and  still 
others  counted  absurd  the  idea  that  rods  and  points  could  have  any  worth  in  pre- 
venting damage  to  buildings  by  lightning.  From  time  to  time  practical  data  have 
appeared  giving  one  side  of  a  comparison,  but  lacking  the  other — e.g.,  "  A  certain 
insurance  company  over  a  period  of  years  has  never  paid  a  dollar  of  insurance  on 
a  rodded  building  damaged  by  lightning,"  but  they  were  unable  to  tell  what  per- 
centage of  their  risks  were  rodded,  so  no  definite  comparison  could  be  made. 

Now,  however,  the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  pleased  to  present  the  data 
herein  contained,  giving  complete  comparisons,  which  prove  unmistakably  that 
lightning  rods  properly  installed  are  almost  absolute  protection  against  lightning. 

These  practical  results  the  farmers  of  Ontario  can  appreciate  better  than 
scientific  statements,  and  with  these  at  hand  the  Department  can  safely  recommend 
the  roddinff  of  farm  buildings  in  accordance  with  directions  above  given. 


37 

SUMMARY  OP  DIRECTIONS  FOR  ROBBING. 

The  writer  has  omitted  drawings  purporting  to  show  how  to  rod  buildings. 
The  proper  method  can  only  be  decided  after  a  close  examination  of  each  building 
in  question,  for  then  alone  can  one  intelligently  apply  the  principles  already  dealt 
with. 

For  convenient  reference  the  directions  for  proper  rodding  are  repeated  without 
any  of  the  explanations. 

1.  Kind  of  Rods. 

Material — Copper,    aluminum    or    galvanized    iron,    preferably    the    first 
because  of  durability.     Aluminum  may  prove  equally  durable. 

Combinations  are  not  advised,  because  not  as  durable  as  single- 
metal  rods. 

"Weight — Copper — At  least  3  ounces  per  foot. 

Aluminum — At  least  2"'4  ounces  per  foot. 

Steel  (iron) — At  least  41^  ounces  per  foot. 
Form — Any  form  that  will  give  durability  and  convenience  of  installation. 

2.  Ground-connections. 

Bepth — Bown  to  perpetual  moisture.     At  least  8  feet  deep. 
Number — On  an  oblong  building,  at  least  two. 

On  an  L-  or  T-shaped  building,  at  least  three. 
On  a  U- Shaped  building,  at  least  four. 
Location — Preferably  at  opposite  corners,  though  this  may  be  modified 
to  avoid  manure,  or  to  go  down  near  conductor-pipe  or  other  metallic 
portion  of  the  structure.  If  conductor-pipe  is  on  the  side  of  the 
building  the  ground  rods  should  be  at  the  corners  as  above  stated, 
the  eave-troughs  connected  to  it,  and  then  the  conductor  pipe  also 
grounded. 

Ground-rods  should  not  be  bunched,  but  should  be  distributed 
as  well  as  possible. 

Method — In  deep  soil  drill  a  hole  at  least  eight  feet  deep  and  run  cable 
down. 

In  shallow  soil,  attach  cable  to  metallic  ground-plate,  which  is  put 
down  as  deep  in  soil  as  possible;  or  run  it  into  a  well  or  a  stream  or 
a  crevice  in  the  rock.  If  none  of  these  are  feasible,  put  cable  as  deep 
as  possible  and  lay  large,  fiat  stone  over  it. 

Caution — Be  present,  and  see  that  ground-connections  are  properly  made. 
The  rest  of  the  system  may  be  inspected  at  any  time,  but  the  ground- 
ings only  when  they  are  being  put  down. 

3.  Systems. 

Run  cable  from  ground  up  corner  to  eave,  thence  to  ridge,  along  ridge 
to  other  end,  thence  down  to  eave,  thence  to  other  ground,  making 
a  complete  circuit. 

All  cables  should  be  connected  in  one  system. 

No  stubs  or  dead  ends  should  be  left  ungrounded. 

Caution — Ca])]cs  should  be  protected  from  ground  six  or  eight  feet  up  by 
nailing  boards  around  them. 


38 

4.  Attacliment. 

Fasten  cable  to  barn  with  nails,  staples,  clips  or  metal  "dispersers." 
Caution — Do  not  use  insulators, 

5.  Points. 

Number — 30  to  3\J  feet  apart. 

Location — On  ridge,  first  ones  not  over  five  feet  from  end. 
On  or  beside  chimneys  or  cupolas. 
On  dormers.     Also  on  silos. 
Height — Four  to  five  feet,  except  those  on  or  beside  chimneys,  cupolas 
or  similar  prominences;    these  must  extend  at  least  eighteen  inches 
above  the  highest  part. 
Form — Strong  tubes,  of  same  weight  and  material  as  rods. 

6.  Metallic  Portions  of  Structure. 

Eoof-gutters — Top  connected  to  rod,  and  bottom  grounded. 
Eave-troughs  and  Conductor-pipes — Free  end  of  eave-troughs  connected  to 

rod,  and  conductor  pipe  grounded. 
Hay-fork  Track — Both  ends  connected  to  rod. 
Tanks — Connected  to  rod  above,  grounded  below. 
Windmill — Connected  to  rod  above,  shaft  grounded  below. 
Metallic  Eoof — Grounded  at  two  or  four  corners,  not  from  peak  under 

any  consideration. 

Points  should  be  used  on  the  ridge  and  other  prominences. 

7.  Wire  Fences. 

In  field — A  grounding  at  least  every  twenty  rods. 
In  yards — At  the  four  corners. 
At  building — Ground  at  first  post  from  building. 
Weight  of  Groundings — Equal  to  three  No.  12  or  one  No.  9  wire. 
How  Made — Stapled  on  posts  in  contact  with  all  wires  of  fence,  and 
extending  at  least  three  feet  in  the  ground,  and  projecting  above  fence. 

8.  Shade  Trees — Protect  where  feasible. 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  bt  the  Ontario  Dkpabtment  of  Agricultuke,  Toronto. 


Serial 
No.    Date. 

174  Dec.  1909 

175  Dec.  1909 

176  Dec.  1909 

177  Dec.  1909 

178  Dec.  1909 


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1911 

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Jan. 

1914 

220 

Mar. 

1914 

Title.  Author. 

Farm  Underdrainage :    Does  it  Pay  ? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

fj-ggg    D.  H.  Jones. 

''  \  )  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash   |  l.  Caesar. 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  Muckj  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Soils    \  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch. 

,  „       ,      ,  .  I    R.   Harcourt. 

Flour  and  Breadmaking  ■!    j^    ^  Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care   Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making  Dairy  Branch 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease   L-  Cssar. 

Children:   Care  and  Training  J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  MoLh    L-  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)    J-  E-  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (151  revised)   W.  K.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario    Fruit  Branch 

Agricultural  Co-operation  S.   E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch 

Insecticides  and  fungicides.  (No.  154  revised)  |  ^   j  fulmer. 

Tomatoes   A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur  Wash   L.  Caesar. 

Onions  A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices  L.   Meunier. 

j  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario L.  Csesar. 

\  Peach  Diseases  F.  M.  Clement. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower  A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth  Ont.  Dental  Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    ( 

Part  II.     Dairying  on  the  Farm  )  Staff  of  Dairy  School. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   j  Dairy  School. 

II.  Dairying  ou  the  Farm f 

Ice  Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  ^  J.   H.   Hare. 
in  Ontario  County \  T.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)   E.  J.  Zavitz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.     F.  M.  Clement 

Fruits  Recommended   for  Ontario  Planters.     Fruit  Branch. 
(No.  179  revised.) 

Orchard   Surveys   in    Dundas,   Stormont   and 

Glengarry F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Morley  Pettit 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  it  pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science. 

Sewing  and  Nursing   Institute;:  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples  E.  F.  Palmer. 

f  W.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  189  revised)   |  ^   q  McCnlloch. 

Birds  of  Ontario  (No.  173  revised)    C.  W.  Nash. 

The  San  Jose  and  Oyster  Shell  Scales L.  Caesar. 

Lightning  Rods  W.  H.  Day 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


BULLETIN  221 


Food  Value 


OF 


Milk  and  its  Products 


By 
R.  HARCOURT,  B.S.A., 

Professor  of   Chemistry 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO,  APRIL,  1914 


•a 


BULLETIN  221]  [APRIL,  1914. 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


Food  Value  of  Milk  and  Its 

Products 

R.  HARCOURT 

If  the  true  nutritive  value  of  milk  and  its  various  products  were  fully  realized 
they  would  be  more  appreciated  and  much  more  freely  used.  They  are  cheap, 
palatable,  easily  digested,  and  highly  nutritious.  Excepting  in  the  case  of  milk,, 
and  t!ien  only  in  the  case  of  infants  and  invalids,  they  are  rarely  used  as  an 
article  of  the  diet,  but  are  regarded  as  a  luxury  to  be  used  as  a  condiment.  They 
are,  however,  foods  of  exceptionally  high  value,  and  can  very  profitably  be  made 
to  take  a  more  prominent  place  in  our  dietaries. 


FOOD   AXD   ITS   FUNCTIONS. 

A  food  may  be  considered  anything  that  when  taken  into  the  body  will  build 
op  its  tissues  and  keep  them  in  repair,  or  which  is  consumed  in  the  body  to  yield 
force  and  heat.  It  is  used  to  form  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body,  such  as 
muscle,  blood  and  bone,  to  repair  their  waste,  and,  if  in  excess  of  the  daily  re- 
quirements, it  may  be  stored  in  the  body  in  the  form  of  fat  for  future  use.  When 
food  or  body  tissue  is  consumed  in  the  system,  the  energy  contained  therein  be- 
comes active  and  manifests  itself  in  the  force  or  heat  required  by  the  body. 

To  be  a  complete  food  it  must  contain  all  the  constituents  required  by  the 
healthy  growing  animal.  These  are  protein,  fat,  carbohvdrates  and  mineral  mat- 
ter. The  protein  compounds  are  necessary  for  the  building  up  of  new  and  the 
repairing  of  the  old  tissue.  When  eaten  in  excess  of  what  is  thus  needed  they 
may  be  simply  burned  to  produce  force.  The  body  tissue  when  broken  down  also 
yields  energy.  Familiar  examples  of  protein  are  lean  meat,  white  of  egg,  casein 
of  milk  and  cheese  and  gluten  of  wheat.  The  fats  and  carbohydrates  are  used  as 
a  source  of  energy,  and  when  eaten  in  excess  of  this  requirement  may  be  trans- 
formed into  fat  in  the  body.  Fat  is  found  in  meat,  lard,  milk,  oils;  and  the 
starches,  sujjars  and  woodv  fibre  or  cellulose  form  the  bulk  of  the  carbohydrates. 
The  mineral  matter  of  a  food  is  absolutely  essential  for  the  formation  of  bone,  and 
ifi  also  present  in  the  tissues  and  fluids  of  the  body. 


8 

The  chief  function  of  food  in  the  adult  is  to  repair  tissue  and  to  furnish 
energy  to  do  work.  Energy  and  heat  are  closely  related,  and  in  order  to  have 
some  measure  for  expressing  the  amount  of  heat  that  a  given  food  is  capable  of 
producing,  the  calorie  is  taken  as  a  unit.  Roughly  speaking,  this  is  the  amount 
of  heat  required  to  raise  the  temperature  of  one  pound  of  water  4  degrees  Fahren- 
heit. One  pound  of  sugar  or  starch  would,  if  burned  and  all  the  heat  utilized, 
raise  1,860  pounds  of  water  4  degrees  in  temperature.  The  fuel  value  of  protein 
as  it  ia  ordinarily  burned  in  the  body  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  one 
pound  of  carbohydrates,  but  fats  have  a  fuel  value  of  two  and  a  quarter  times 
that  of  protein  and  carbohydrates,  or  4,220  calories  per  pound.  Thus,  M^iile 
the  protein  of  meat,  eggs,  etc.,  are  the  only  materials  in  the  food  that  will  pro- 
duce muscle,  they  have  no  greater  value  as  an  energy-producer  than  carbohy- 
drates. Thus,  the  problem  in  arranging  balanced  dietaries  is  to  use  just  enough 
protein  to  do  the  work  which  they  alone  can  do,  and  use  the  cheaper  fats  and 
carbohydrates  as  the  energy  producers. 

Very  few,  if  any  of  our  food  materials  form  a  complete  and  balanced  food 
in  themselves.  The  mother's  milk  is  for  the  infant,  but  for  the  adult  it  is  too 
bulky.  Bread  is  as  nearly  complete  as  any  of  our  ordinary  foods,  but  it  is  a  little 
low  in  the  protein  compounds.  Milk  used  along  with  bread  improves  it  in  this 
respect  and  the  two  form  a  fairly  complete  and  balanced  diet.  The  best  foods  or 
diets  are  -those  which  perform  their  function  in  the  most  thorough  and  complete 
manner;  that  is,  with  as  little  waste  as  possible  and  with  the  best  physiological 

results. 

There  are,  however,  several  other  factors  which  must  be  considered  in  judging 
of  the  value  of  a  food.  These  are:  digestibility,  palatability ;  they  must  agree  with 
the  system,  and  they  must  be  reasonably  cheap. 


COMPOSITION    OF    MILK. 

Milk,  as  supplied  to  the  consumer,  may  vary  widely  in  composition.  But  the 
average  milk  is  slightly  heavier  than  water,  its  specific  gravity  ranging  form  1.029 
to  1.034  at  60"  F.,  and  the  following  is  possibly  a  fair  average  of  the  composition : 

Water     • ^7.5  per  cent. 

Protein:   Casein ^-^  „ 

Albumin    -I  ,.  „ 

Fat    I'l  ..  .. 

Sugar  ^-^  ..  „ 

Ash    ;'       ,  , 

Fuel  Value  per  100  gms 67  calories 

The  proteins  amount  to  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  solids,  which  is  a  much 
larger  proportion  than  exists  in  many  foods,  including  meats.  The  casein  is  the 
most  abundant  constituent,  and  is  readily  coagulated  by  an  acid,  either  by  that 
found  in  the  milk  when  it  sours,  or  when  an  acid,  as  vinegar  for  example,  is 
added.  It  may  also  be  curdled  or  coagulated  by  rennet,  and  the  curd  thus  ])ro- 
duced  is  utilized  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  It  differs  from  many  other  form^ 
of  proteins  in  the  amount  of  phosphorus  it  contains.  Besides  the  casein,  there  is 
a  small  amount  of  albumin  present,  which  is  very  similar  to  that  which  occurs  in 
blood  and  the  white  of  egg. 


The  fats  are  commercially  the  most  important  of  the  constituents  of  milk. 
The  color  and  opaqueness  of  milk  are  due  mainly  to  globules  of  fat,  which  are 
very  minute  and  almost  numberless.  These  are  held  in  the  liquid  in  the  form  of 
an  emulsion,  which  possibly  helps  to  explain  why  the  fat  of  milk  is  so  easily 
absorbed  when  used  as  a  food. 

The  sugar  of  milk  is  similar  in  composition  to  cane  sugar,  but  it  is  not 
nearly  so  sweet.  This  sugar  readily  undergoes  fermentation  with  the  formation 
of  lactic  acid.  This  change  always  takes  place  when  milk  sours,  and  it  is  this 
acid  which  thickens  the  milk,  due  to  the  coagulating  of  the  casein. 

The  ash  material  is  made  up  of  a  great  variety  of  compounds,  but  it  is  par- 
ticularly rich  in  those  required  for  building  bone  and  to  supply  tlie  mineral  con- 
stituents of  the  blood. 

i 

Nutritive  Value. 

Milk  is  thus  particularly  adapted  for  use  as  a  food  by  man  for  several  rea- 
sons. It  contains  all  of  the  four  classes  of  nutrients — proteins,  fats,  carbohydrates, 
and  mineral  matter — in  more  nearly  the  proper  proportions  to  serve  as  a  com- 
plete food  than  any  other  food  material.  For  the  adult  it  is  too  bulky,  and  can 
well  be  used  with  a  food  rich  in  carbohydrates  to  supply  the  greater  amount  of 
energy  exacted  by  the  grown  person.  It  is  in  a  form  well  adapted  for  various 
uses  in  combination  with  other  food  substances,  and  in  the  preparation  of  various} 
dishes  for  the  table.  Furthermore,  at  the  prevailing  prices  it  is  an  economical 
food. 

Digestibility   of   Milk. 

By  digestibility  of  food  several  things  are,  or  may  be,  meant.  One  is  the  pro- 
portion of  a  given  food  material  or  of  each  of  its  several  constituents  which  an 
ordinary  person  may  digest;  another  is  the  ease  with  which  it  is  digested  or  the 
time  required  by  the  process.  It  may  also  mean  whether  the  food  material  does 
or  does  not  agree  with  the  user. 

Different  people  are  differently  constituted  with  respect  to  the  chemical 
changes  which  the  food  undergoes  in  the  process  of  digestion  and  in  the  effects 
produced.  This  is  true  in  the  digestion  of  milk  as  it  is  with  other  foods.  With 
most  people  milk  is  a  wholesome,  digestible  and  nutritious  food,  there  are  others 
who  are  made  ill  by  it,  just  as  there  are  people  who  cannot  eat  eggs,  fruits,  or 
other  materials  without  feeling  ill  effects.  But  this  does  not  detract  from  the 
value  of  these  foods  for  those  with  whom  they  do  agree. 

Taking  up  more  particularly  the  question  of  the  completeness  of  digestion, 
experiments  show  that  different  people  vary  in  the  amounts  which  they  can  digest 
from  the  same  food.  The  differences,  however,  are  not  as  great  as  might  be  sup- 
posed. The  results,  in  so  far  as  they  apply  to  milk  alone,  and  in  comparison  with 
other  food  materials',  is  summarized  by  Dr.  Langworthy*  as  follows: — 

"  The  protein  of  milk,  especially  when  it  is  used  with  other  food  materials,  is  quite 
readily  and  completely  digested.  In  this  respect  it  is  like  the  protein  of  ordinary 
meats  and  fish.  The  protein  of  vegetable  foods  is  much  less  easily  digested.  Thus, 
in  potatoes  and  whole  wheat  and  rye  flour  it  may  sometimes  happen  that  as  much 


♦Farmers'  Bull.  No.  74,  U.S.A.   Dept.   of  Agriculture. 


as  one-fourth  of  the  protein  may  escape  digestion  and  thus  be  useless  for  nourish- 
ment. From  one-sixth  to  one-tenth  of  the  protein  of  wheat  flour,  corn  meal,  beans, 
and  peas  may  in  like  manner  be  assumed  to  escape  digestion,  or  rather  to  leave  the  body 
without  being  used  for  nutriment.  These  estimates  assume  that  the  materials  are  cooked 
and  eaten  in  the  usual  way.  Under  the  same  circumstances,  from  nine-tenths  to  the 
whole  of  the  protein  of  milk,  meats,  and  fish  are  assumed  to  be  digested.  The  digestibility 
of  the  fats  is  likewise  variable.  Sometimes  a  large  part  of  the  fat  of  the  food  fails  of 
digestion.  In  general  it  may  be  assumed  that  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  fat  of  milk,  meat, 
eggs,  butter,  and  lard,  and  a  considerably  larger  proportion  of  the  fats  of  some  vegetable 
foods,  will  usually  escape  digestion.  When,  however,  the  diet  contains  a  very  large 
amount  of  fat — for  instance,  when  it  consists  largely  of  fat  meat — the  digestion  is  less 
complete.  One  way  in  which  the  fat  of  ordinary  foods  is  digested  is  by  being  made  into 
an  emulsiQn  in  the  intestine.  The  fat  of  milk  is  an  extremely  fine  emulsion,  and  is  thus 
in  a  sense  "  pre-digested,"  or  in  a  partly  digested  form  before  it  is  taken  into  the 
stomach.    This  may  help  to  explain  why  it  is  so  easily  digested. 

"  The  carbohydrates,  which  make  up  a  large  part  of  vegetable  foods,  are  in  general 
very  digestible.  Cane  sugar  is  believed  to  be  completely  digested,  and  this  is  assumed 
to  be  the  case  with  the  sugar  of  milk. 

"  The  animal  foods  have  in  general  the  advantage  of  the  vegetable  foods  in 
digestibility  in  that  they  contain  more  protein  and  their  protein  is  more  digestible. 
Milk  ranks  among  the  most  digestible  of  the  animal  foods  in  respect  to  all  its 
ingredients." 

Effects  op  Cooking. 


Cooking  changes  the  texture  of  a  food  material  and  affects  its  digestibility  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent.  In  general,  it  increases  the  digestibility  of  vegetable 
food  materials.  In  the  case  of  milk  the  experience  of  different  persons  with  cooked 
and  uncooked  milk  is  quite  varied,  and  the  results  of  experiments  are  conflicting. 
The  most  common  experience  seems  to  indicate  that  cooking  or  boiling  the  milk 
makes  the  proteids  somewhat  more  difficult  to  digest.  There  are,  of  course,  ex- 
ceptions. 

Skim  Milk. 

The  average  skim  milk  contains  nearly  10  per  cent,  of  milk  solids  or  nutritive 
ingredients,  while  whole  milk  contains  about  13  to  14  per  cent.  The  cliief 
material  removed  from  the  milk  in  skimming  is  the  fat.  Thus,  naturally,  the 
skim  milk  must  be  richer  in  the  valuable  protein  materials  than  the  whole  milk. 
The  amount  of  fat  left  in  the  skim  milk  must  of  necessity  vary  with  the  com- 
pleteness of  the  skimming,  and  frequently  varies  from  less  than  one-tenth  of  one 
per  cent,  to  as  much  as  three-tenths  or  even  four-tenths  of  one  per  cent. 

The  value  of  skim  milk  as  a  food  is  not  generally  appreciated.  Taken  alone 
it  does  not  satisfy  the  sense  of  hunger,  for  very  large  quantities  would  be  re- 
quired to  furnish  the  food  materials  desired :  but  it  is  a  cheap  source  of  very 
digestible  proteins,  and  when  taken  with  bread  or  used  in  cooking  it  forms  a  very 
nutritious  addition  to  the  diet.  Quoting  again  from  Dr.  Langworthy's  writing 
we  have  the  following  comparisons : — 

"A  pound  of  lean  beef  (round  steak,  for  example)  contains  about  0.18  pound  of 
protein  and  has  a  fuel  value  of  870  calories.  Two  and  a  half  quarts,  or  5  pounds,  of  skim 
milk  will  furnish  nearly  the  same  amount  of  protein  and  have  about  the  same  fuel  value 
as  the  pound  of  round  steak.  Two  quarts  of  skim  milk  has  a  greater  nutritive  value 
than  a  quart  of  oysters;  the  skim  milk  has  0.14  pound  of  protein  and  a  fuel  value  of 
470  calories.  The  nutriment  in  the  form  of  oysters  would  cost  from  30  to  50  cents, 
while  the  two  quarts  of  skim  milk  would  have  a  market  value  of  from  4  to  6  cents,  and 
a  value  on  the  farm  of  from  2  to  4  cents.     An  oyster  stew  made  of  one  part  oysters  and 


two  parts  skim  milk  would  owe  its  nutriment  more  to  the  milk  than  to  the  oysters. 
Bread  made  with  skim  milk  would  contain  more  protein  than  when  made  with  water. 
A  lunch  or  meal  of  bread  and  skim  milk  is  very  nutritious,  as  the  following  computation 
shows: 


Composition  and  Cost  of  a  Lunch  ob  Meal  of  Bbead  and  Skim  Milk. 


Food  Materials. 


'  Amount. 


Bread 

Skim  Milk. 


Total . 


10  oz. 
1  pt. 


Estimated 
Cost. 


Cents. 
3 
1 


Protein. 


Pound. 
.06 
.03 


.09 


Fuel 
Value. 


Cals. 
755 
170 


925 


"  The  commonly  accepted  standard  for  a  man  at  ordinary  muscular  work  calls  for 
0.28  pound  of  protein  and  a  fuel  value  of  3.500  calories  per  day,  so  that  the  above  lunch 
furnishes  very  nearly  one-third  of  a  day's  nutriment  and  at  a  cost  of  about  4  cents. 
If  whole  milk  were  used  instead  of  skim  milk,  the  cost  would  be  about  6  cents  and  the 
fuel  value  1,080  calories,  while  the  protein  would  remain  the  same  in  amount. 

"The  following  lunch,  such  as  might  be  obtained  in  a  restaurant  or  lunch  room, 
will  serve  for  the  purpose  of  comparison: 


Estimated  Cost  and  Nutrients  of  a  Restaubant  Lunch. 


Food  materials 


Soup 

Beef 

Potatoes 

Turnips 

Bread 

Butter 

Coffee: 

Milk 

Sugar 

Total 


Amount 


Ounces 

8 
2 
2 

1 

4 

3 


Estimated 
cost 


Cents 


15  to  20 


Protein 


Poimd 

0.01 
.02 


02 


Fuel  value 


.05 


Calories 

75 

275 
100 
15 
300 
100 

20 
55 


940 


"It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  15-cent  lunch  containing  nine  different  food  materials 
did  not  have  any  greater  nutritive  value  than  the  4-cent  lunch  of  bread  and  skim  milk." 


The  constituent  of  our  food  which  cost  the  most,  has  the  greatest  physiological 
value,  and  which  is  most  apt  to  be  lacking  in  ordinary  dietaries,  is  protein.  Skim 
milk  has  nearly  all  the  protein  of  the  whole  milk.  It  has  practically  all  the  value 
of  the  whole  milk  for  building  and  repairing  tissues,  for  the  making  of  blood, 
muscle  and  bone,  and  about  half  the  value  of  the  whole  milk  for  supplying  heat 
and  muscular  energy.  When  these  facts  are  fully  understood,  skim  milk  will 
doubtless  be  more  wisely  utilized. 


CEEAM     AND     BUTTEE. 

Ordinary  cream  contains  approximately  about  four  and  one-half  times  as 
much  fat  as  an  equal  volume  of  milk,  and  slightly  less  protein  and  carbohydrates 
than  whole  milk.  It  is,  naturally,  chiefly  valuable  for  its  heat  producing  power, 
just  as  skim  milk  is  valuable  for  its  muscle-forming  properties.  TVhien  we  con- 
sider that  a  pound  of  butter  costs  very  little  more  than  a  pint  of  cream,  and  that 
the  butter  contains  fully  two  and  one-half  times  as  much  fat  as  the  cream,  it  will 
be  seen  that  cream  is  not  an  economical  food. 

Buttermilk. 

The  average  composition  of  buttermilk  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  skim  milk, 
though  it  contains  slightly  less  protein  and  sugar  and  a  little  more  fat.  It  has, 
consequently,  about  the  same  value  as  skim  milk.  The  acid  developed  in  souring 
the  cream  gives  it  a  sour  taste  and  possibly  gives  to  it  some  physiological  effects 
not  enjoyed  by  the  skim  milk. 


CHEESE. 


The  cheese  used  in  largest  quantitv'  in  the  homes  of  this  country  is  the  Cana- 
dian Cheddar.  It  was  formerly  made  in  the  farm  homes,  but  it  has  now  become 
a  big  commercial  enterprise  and  practically  all  of  it  is  made  in  factories,  of  which 
there  are  over  1,000  in  the  Province  of  Ontario  alone.  In  the  year  1912  these 
factories  manufactured  129,655,063  pounds  of  cheese,  valued  at  $16,574,573.00. 
A  large  amount  of  this  cheese  is  exported  annually,  and  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
very  little  of  the  best  cheese  finds  its  way  into  Ontario  homes.  Comparatively 
little  of  the  soft,  or  what  are  sometimes  called  fancy  cheese  are  made  here,  al- 
though it  is  estimated  that  probably  one-tenth  of  the  total  amount  of  cheese  con- 
sumed in  the  Province  is  made  up  of  the  numerous  varieties  included  under  this 
name. 

Briefly,  the  general  process  of  cheese-making  is  as  follows:  The  casein  of  the 
milk  is  coagulated  by  rennet,  forming  a  curd,  which  mechanically  holds  nearly  all 
the  fat  of  the  milk.  The  curd  is  broken  up  and  after  heating  to  a  temperature  of 
98  to  104°  P.,  and  developing  a  certain  amount  of  acid,  the  whey  is  drained  off. 
This  contains  nearly  all  the  sugar  and  albumin  of  the  milk.  After  allowing  the 
curd  to  be  still  further  modified  by  the  action  of  acid  and  rennet,  it  is  salted  and 
pressed,  and  set  away  to  ripen.  During  this  "  ripening  "  process  the  tough,  rub- 
berv  curd  is  broken  down  into  a  material  of  a  mellow  and  almost  butterv  con- 
stituency.  By  varying  the  proportion  of  butter  fat  retained  or  added  to  the  milk, 
or  by  varying  the  methods  of  separating,  preparing,  seasoning,  and  handling  the 
curd,  and  by  changing  the  temperature  and  general  conditions  under  which  the 
curd  is  ripened,  an  almost  innumerable  variety  of  cheese  may  be  prepared.  Many 
of  the  soft  or  fancy  cheese  on  the  market  are  desirable  foods,  but,  owing  to  the 
higher  flavor  common  to  many  of  these  and  to  the  fact  that  they  are  more  expen- 
sive, they  will  always  be  used  as  condiments  and  can  never  take  the  place  of 
Cheddar  cheese  as  an  article  of  food. 


XuTRiTivE  Value. 

Cheese  is  one  of  our  most  concentrated  foods.  More  than  one-fourth  of  its 
weight  is  protein,  about  one-third  fats,  and  one-third  water.  It  is  not  only  valu- 
able for  the  amount  of  protein,  or  muscle-forming  material,  and  fat  it  contains, 
but,  also  because  of  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  kept  and  prepared  for  the  table 
and  for  the  variety  of  ways  in  which  it  may  be  served. 

As  a  further  indication  of  the  high  nutritive  value  of  cheese,  it  may  be  pointed 
out  that  one-pound  of  cheese  contains  nearly  all  the  protein  and  fat  in  one  gallon 
of  milk.  Or,  if  we  compare  it  with  other  protein  foods,  we  find  that  one  pound 
of  cheese  has  nearly  the  same  food  value  as  two  pounds  of  fresh  beef,  or  any 
other  fresh  meat  food,  and  it  is  also  equal  to  two  pounds  of  eggs  or  three  pounds 
of  fish. 

Digestibility  of  Cheese. 

Unfortunately,  there  is  a  widespread  belief  that  cheese  is  indigestible,  par- 
ticularly in  the  sense  of  being  hard  to  digest.  Associated  with  this  idea  there  is 
another  popular  belief  that  green  cheese,  or  even  cheese  at  any  stage  in  the  ripen- 
ing, causes  constipation.  There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  tough,  rub- 
bery nature  of  the  green  cheese  and  the  mellowed  substance  of  the  "  cured "  or 
"  ripened  "  cheese.  The  former  contains  very  little  water-soluble  material,  where- 
as in  a  well-ripened  cheese  more  than  half  of  the  protein  may  be  soluble  in  water. 
It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  constituents  of  milk  are  very  digestible  and  make 
an  almost  perfect  food.  Yet,  even  with  this  food  there  is  a  slight  tendency  to 
constipation,  possibly  due  to  the  fact  that,  like  cheese,  it  is  so  completely  digested 
that  there  is  very  little  residue  left  in  the  system.  Again,  with  regard  to  the  difficulty 
of  digestion,  it  is  hard  to  understand  why  the  use  of  rennet,  the  development  of 
a  small  amount  of  acid  and  the  heating  of  the  curd  to  about  100°  F.  should  render 
the  constituents  of  milk  so  indigestible  as  they  are  commonly  regarded. 

Another  interesting  question  regarding  the  food  value  of  cheese  is  with  re- 
ference to  whether  cheese  has  a  place  as  a  staple  food  product,  or  whether  it  is  to 
be  used  only  as  a  luxury,  or  as  a  so-called  appetizer.  It  may  not,  as  is  true  wi+h 
manv  other  foods,  "  agree "  with  certain  individuals,  but  cheese  is  too  cheap  and 
nutritious  a  food  to  be  left  out  of  our  list  of  food  substances  for  this  reason.  It 
is  well  known  that  with  many  European  people  cheese  forms  a  large  part  of  the 
diet,  replacing  meats  as  a  source  of  animal  proteids.  It  is,  therefore,  a  question 
well  worth  considering  whether  we  could  not  with  economy  use  cheese  in  many 
ways  to  replace  the  more  highly  priced  nitrogenous  foods  (meats)  now  in  general 
use.  This  of  course  refers  to  the  Cheddar  cheese  apd  not  to  the  higher-priced 
soft  or  fancy  cheese. 

Owing  to  the  widespread  idea  that  cheese  is  indigestible,  it  may  be  well  to 
include  here  a  rather  full  statement  of  the  results  of  some  experiments  carried 
out  under  the  direction  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  first,  at  the  Wesleyan  University,  Midflletown,  Ohio,  and 
second,  in  conjunction  with  Prof.  Snyder  at  the  Minnesota  Expt.  Station. 

The  work  at  Middletown  was  planned  to  include  green  and  ripe  cheese,  and 
cheese  made  with  difFerent  quantities  of  rennet  and  ripened  at  different  tem- 
peratures. The  diet  in  these  experiments  consisted  of  a  basal  diet  of  whole  wheat 
bread  and  bananas,  as  these  two  articles  have  been  thoroughly  studied  and  the 


8 

digestion  coefficients  have  been  determined.  A  total  of  184  experiments  were 
made  and  a  total  of  65  human  subjects  were  used.  Each  experiment  lasted  three 
days.  The  subjects  were  mostly  students  of  the  Wesleyan  University  between  the 
ages  of  19  and  32  years.  The  results  of  the  experiments  are  summarized  as 
follows : — * 

"  The  results  of  the  several  digestion  experiments  in  the  different  series  are  sum- 
marized in  the  following  tables.  In  these  tables  the  results  are  given  for  the  digestion 
coefficient  of  the  fat  and  the  availability  of  the  energy,  both  m  the  total  diet  and  m  the 

otlGGSG    cllOHO  • 

"  The  amount  and  exact  composition  of  the  basal  ration  used  in  the  experiments  is 
not  ffiven  for  the  reason  that  it  varied  in  different  experiments  with  the  several  subjects, 
and  space  will  not  allow  its  insertion.  All  of  the  data  for  the  entire  series  of  experi- 
ments are  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington. 
D  C  where  they  may  be  consulted  by  those  who  wish  a  more  detailed  account  of  the 
work  '^s  previously  mentioned,  the  basal  ration  was  bananas  and  bread.  The  amount 
of  cheese  eaten  per  man  per  dav  varied  somewhat,  according  to  the  appetite  and  prefer- 
ence of  the  subjects,  but  an  average  was  not  far  from  0.5  to  1  pound  per  day.  The  exact 
amount  eaten  was  in  every  case  recorded,  as  were  all  other  experimental  data.  While 
It  is  believed  that  the  variations  in  the  amount  of  the  basal  ration  doubtless  affected  to 
some  extent  the  digestibility  of  the  cheese,  it  is  thought  best  not  to  enter  into  this 
subject  in  this  brief  account  of  the  work.  From  the  character  of  the  diet  it  will-  be  seen 
that  practically  all  of  the  fat  and  the  greater  part  of  the  proteid  came  from  the  cheese. 

Restilts  of  Digestion  Experiments  with  Cheese  Cubed  in  Different  Ways  Added  to 

A  Basal  Ration.     Middleton  Experiments. 


1 

1 
1 

Age  of 
Cheese 

Digestibility  of 
Proteids 

Digestibility  of 
Fat 

Availability  of 
Energy 

Kind  of  Rations. 

In 
total 
diet 

%     - 

88.1 
86.3 
88.6 
86.8 
88.6 
88.1 
91.0 
87.6 
90.7 

89.1 
88.7 
88.6 
85.5 
88.4 
87.4 
89.0 
90.0 
91.1 

87.0 
88.1 
90.5 

In      1 

Cheese 
alone 

In 
total 
diet 

In 

Cheese 

alone 

In 
total 
diet 

In 
Cheese 
alone 

Low-rennet    cheese    held    at 
60*     F.     added     to     basal 
ration      of      bread      and 

Days 

1 

9- 

16 

30 

44 

58 

93 

128 

156 

1 

9 

16 

30 

44 

58 

86 

115 

142 

30 
44 

58 

% 

99.4 

94.3 

98.3    1 

95.2 

97.0 

96.9 
100.6 

96.1 
100.3 

99.7 

98.7 

98.3 

92.6 

97.8     1 

94.7    1 

97.2 
100.5 
100.4 

95.7 

96.2 

101.5 

■ 

% 

92.8 
92.8 
94.9 
92.4 
95.2 
95.3 
96.2 
93.9 
94.8 

92.8 
95.4 
93.9 
93.1 
95.0 
93.9 
94.3 
92.6 
94.5 

93.8 
94.4 
93.7 

% 

95.8 
95.4 
97.4 
94.3 
97.3 
97.2 
97.9 
96.5 
96.4 

95.3 
97.9 
95.3 
97.1 
96.4 
97.0 
95.9 
95.0 
96.1 

95.8 
95.4 
95.4 

% 

90.0 
90.0 
90.8 
89.6 
91.2 
91.0 
91.8 
89.5 
90.7 

90.8 
90.5 
91.1 
89.2 
90.7 
90.3 
90.8 
90.0 
91.1 

90.5 
90.8 
91.3 

% 

91.6 
88.9 
91.3 

87.7 
92.1 
91  8 

High-rennet   cheese   held    at 
60°     F.     added     to     basal 
ration      of      bread      and 
hTTianas       

93.9 
88.4 
91.4 

91.4 
90.4 
92.0 
86.5 
91.1 
89.8 

Dow-rennet    cheese    held    at 
40°     F.     added     to    basal 
ration       of    bread        and 
bananas 

91.4 
89.6 
92.5 

90.2 
90.9 
92.8 

*  Circular   No.   166,  Bureau   of  Animal  Husbandry,  U.S.  Dept.   of  Agri. 


Digestibility  of 
Proteids 

Digestibility  of 
Fat 

Availability  of 
Energy 

Kind  of  Rations 

Age  of 
Cheese 

In 
total 
diet 

In 

Cheese 

alone 

In 
total 
diet 

In 

Cheese 

alone 

In 
total 
diet 

In 

Cheese 

alone 

Days 

% 

% 

% 

% 

j 

% 

Low-rennet  cheese  placed  at 
40°  F.  when  two  weeks   old 
added  to  basal  ration  of  bread 
and  bananas 

30 

44 

58 
128 
155     i 

87.8 
85.4 
89.4 
89.9 
88.9 

97.0 
91.6 
99.6 
101.1 
98.0 

92.5 
94.6 
95.3 
94.9 
94.3 

94.5 
96.6 
97.1 
97.5 
95.9 

90.3 
90.4 
91.4 
90.7 
90.4 

89.7 
89.6 
93.2 
91.5 

90.7 

High-rennet  cheese  held  at 
40"  F.  added  to  basal  ration 
of  bread  and  bananas 

9 
16 
30 
44 
58 

86.6 
87.1 
86.9 
88.0 
90.8 

94.9 
95.4 
95.2 
97.2 
100.7 

94.3 
91.7 
93.6 
94.0 
94.6 

96.8 
93.1 
97.6 
95.3 

97.7 

90.3 
90.1 
90.3 
90.8 
91.2 

89.7 
89.3 
89.6 
91.3 
92.3 

High-rennet  cheese  placed  at 
40°  F.  when   two   weeks  old 
added  to  basal  ration  of  bread 
and  bananas 

30 

44 

58 

115 

142 

89.4 
90.4 
90.3 
89.9 
92.6 

99.7 
101.8 

99.9 
101.2 
104.5 

94.7 
95.2 
95.7 
94.5 
94.8 

98.8 
96.6 
99.0 
97.2 
96.4 

91.3 
91.5 
91.3 
90.5 
91.5 

92.6 
93.5 
92.4 
91.0 

93.4 

Low-rennet  cheese   held  at 
32°  F.  added  to  basal  ration 
of  bread  and  bananas 

9 

30 
44 

58 

90.3 
86.0 
84.6 
88.1 

102.1 
93.9 
90.3 
97.3 

94.7 
94.2 
92.0 
94.8 

97.4 
96.2 
93.9 
96.6 

91.2 
89.9 
89.7 
91.2 

92.5 
88.4 
87.6 
92.4 

High-rennet  cheese  held  at 
32"  F.  added  to  basal  ration 
of  bread  and  bananas 

9     1 
16    i 
30 
44 
58 

84.9 
89.7 
87.4 
89.5 
89.2 

91.7 
100.4 

96.1 
100.1 

98.0 

91.5 
92.7 
94.4 
94.5 
92.8 

93.8 
94.1 
98.5 
95.9 
95.9 

89.6 
90.9 
90.5 
91.2 
90.7 

87.9 
91.6 
90.5 
92.7 
91.0 

Low-rennet     cheese,    green 
curd,  added  to  basal  ration 
of  bread  and  bananas 

1 

89.2 

99.1 

93.4 

96.9 

89.7 

88.8 

"  The  results  in  the  table  show  that  there  is  little  or  no  difference  in  the  comparative 
digestibility  of  cheese  at  different  stages  of  ripening.  The  perfectly  green  curd  viras 
evidently  as  digestible  and,  so  far  as  nutritive  value  was  concerned,  was  as  good  a 
food  as  the  same  cheese  at  any  stage  of  ripening.  The  casein  of  cheese  either  fresh 
from  the  press  or  thoroughly  ripened  is  very  highly  digestible.  The  cheese  was  eaten 
in  comparatively  large  quantities,  and  it  was  evidently  well  assimilated. 

"  A  record  of  the  health  of  each  individual  was  kept,  and  also  notes  on  the 
palatability  of  the  cheese  ration.  At  first  1,350  grams  of  bread  were  fed  with  2,025 
grams  of  bananas  and  450  grams  of  cheese.  The  length  of  the  experiment  was  three 
days,  and  this  would  make  practically  one-third  of  a  pound  of  cheese  per  day.  The 
bread  was  finally  reduced  to  1,200  grams  and  the  cheese  increased  first  to  525  grams 
and  then  to  600  grams  for  the  three  days.  On  the  whole,  the  cheese  was  very  palatable 
and,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  amount  given  was  not  considered  excessive  by  the 
person  eating  it.  A  number  of  the  subjects  wanted  more  of  the  cheese.  The  subjects  of 
the  experiments  were  about  equally  divided  in  the  preference  for  a  mild  or  a  strong 
cheese. 


10 

"  Coatrary  to  general  belief,  the  green  curd  did  not  appear  to  cause  constipation. 
In  fact,  constipation  resulted  more  frequently  after  the  cheese  had  had  time  to  become 
well  ripened.  There  also  seemed  to  be  more  distress  from  the  cheese  diet  with  the  weii- 
ripened  cheese  than  with  the  green  cheese." 

Minnesota  Experiments  with  Cheese. 

The  primary  objects  of  the  Minnesota  experiments  was  to  study  the  diges- 
tibility of  older  cheese  than  had  been  used  in  the  Connecticut  experiments,  and  to 
study  the  digestibility  of  other  varieties,  as  well  as  the  so-called  condimental  value 
of  some  of  the  more  highly  flavored  varieties.  In  these  experiments  the  basal  diet 
was  bread  and  oranges,  which  were  previously  studied.  The  duration  of  each  ex- 
periment was,  as  in  the  Connecticut  experiments,  three  days. 

^'  Summary  of  Results. 

The  results  of  the  Minnesota  experiments  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 

RESULTS     OF     DIGESTION     EXPERIMENTS     WiTH     CHEESE     OF     DIFFERENT     KINDS     ADDED     TO     A 

Basal  Ration. — Minnesota  Experiments. 
(In  each  case  the  value  represents  the  averapre  of  experiments  with  four  subjects). 


Digestibility  of 
Nitrogen. 


In  total 
diet. 


Old     cold-storage     cheese     (435     grams 

added  to  basal  ration)    

Old     cold-storage     cheese     (585     grams! 

added  to  basal  ration)    

Green  cheese  (750  grams  added  to  basal 

ration)       . .        

Green    cheese    (1,050    grams    added    to 

basal  ration)   

Roquefort  cheese    (520  grams  added  to 

basal  ration )    

Swiss  cheese  (605  grams  added  to  basal] 

ration)     ! 

Skim-milk  cheese  (1,000  grams  added  to 

basal   ration)    

Camembert  cheese  (605  grams  added  to 

basal  ration)    

Camembert  cheese  (240  grams  added  to 

basal   ration)     

Roquefort  cheese    (295  grams  added  to 

basal  ration)    

Cottage    cheese    (540    grams    added    to 

basal   ration)    


% 
92.53 

93.79 
94.39 
94.33 

93.18 
92.67 
95.10 

91.65 
91.07 

90.82 
92.85 


In 
cheese. 


91.79 
96.36 
96.29 
95.83 

93.57 
92.19 
96.65 

88.65 
83.22 

82.59 
92.68 


Digesti- 
bility of 
Fat  in 
total  diet. 


Availability  of 
Energy. 


In  total 
diet. 


In 
cheese. 


91.04 
93.64 
89.96 
93.72 

91.04 
90.84 
88.55 

89.17 
80.86 

88.70 


92.33 
92.21 
92.29 
91.25 

92.40 
92.00 
90.4/ 
92.87 
92.25 
92.41 


86.13 

87.08 
86.45 
86.40 
87.15 
84.38 
79.68 

83.59 
74.95 

82.18 
90.98 


♦Circular  166,  Bureau  of  Animal  Husbandry,  U.S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


11 

"  In  the  discussioq  of  the  results  and  the  interpretation  of  the  digestion  coefficients 
it  is  believed  that  the  calories  should  be  taken  as  the  indirect  index  of  digestibility  of 
the  fats  rather  than  the  fat  determinations. 

"  In  the  calculations  of  the  results  it  was  assumed  that  the  bread  and  oranges  had 
the  following  digestibility:  Protein,  93  per  cent;  carbohydrates,  98  per  cent.;  calories, 
98  per  cent. 

"  As  so  little  fat  was  contributed  by  the  bread  and  oranges,  it  was  deemed  best 
by  Prof.  Snyder,  under  whose  direction  the  tables  of  results  were  prepared,  not  to 
make  any  special  calculations  for  the  digestibility  of  the  fat  of  the  cheese  alone. 

"  The  factor  for  the  digestibility  of  the  protein  of  the  bread  and  oranges  is  higher 
than  was  found  in  the  numerous  experiments  for  bread  alone,  but  it  was  assumed 
because  it  appeared  from  the  first  series  of  results  that  cheese  in  the  ration  increased 
the  digestibility  of  the  protein  of  the  other  foods.  This  assumption  appeared  to  be 
verified  by  the  later  tests  which  had  for  their  special  object  the  influence  of  the  cheese 
upon  the  digestibility  of  th"e  basal  ration. 

"  The  work  both  at  Middletown  and  in  Minnesota,  while  demonstrating  the  same 
general  fact  of  the  high  food  value,  actual  and  comparative,  of  cheese  in  all  stages  of 
ripening,  does  not  give  identical  figures  for  the  digestibility  of  protein  in  the  total 
diet  or  in  the  cheese.  A  different  basal  ration  was  used  in  the  Minnesota  experiment 
from  that  used  at  Middletown.  White  bread  was  used  in  Minnesota,  while  whole-wheat 
bread,  which  has  a  decidedly  lower  digestibility,  was  used  in  the  experiments  at 
Middletown. 

"  Nothing  unusual  was  noted  in  the  health  of  the  subjects  used  in  the  experiments 
at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station.  One  of  the  subjects  believed  before  beginning 
the  experiments  that  a  cheese  diet  did  not  agree  with  him,  but  found  that  it  had  no  ill 
effects. 

"  In  considering  the  results  shown  in  the  table,  it  is  apparent  that  all  the  kinds 
of  cheese  used  in  the  experiments  are  very  digestible.  In  comparing  the  old  cheese 
with  the  green  cheese  the  latter  was  evidently  the  more  digestible,  which  was  not  the 
case  in  the  Middletown  experiments,  where  the  slight  difference  was  in  favor  of  the 
well-cured  cheese.  However,  the  difference  between  the  digestibility  of  green  and  cured 
cheese  in  either  series  of  experiments  is  well  within  the  limits  of  variation  ascribable 
to  personal  peculiarity  of  the  subjects  and  were  to  be  expected  in  this  kind  of  work. 

"  Particular  interest  attaches  to  the  evident  digestibility  and  food  value  of  skim- 
milk  cheese.  This  is  a  product  which  has  not  been  viewed  with  very  great  favor  by 
the  public  in  general.  The  physical  properties  of  cheese  made  from  skim-milk  have 
been  such  as  to  give  consumers  the  impression  that  it  was  indigestible  and,  on  the  whole, 
of  questionable  value  as  food.  The  establishing  of  the  actual  food  value  of  this  com- 
paratively cheap  product  will  at  some  future  time  doubtless  be  of  great  economical 
importance.  Skim-milk  cheese  made  up  in  a  way  to  be  agreeable  to  the  taste  could  be 
sold  at  a  price  that  would  attract  the  attention  of  the  laboring  classes.  Cheese  made 
from  skim-milk  and  sold  for  whole-milk  cheese  is  a  fraud  that  is  a^  positive  injury 
to  the  dairy  business;  but  cheese  made  from  skim-milk  and  sold  for  what  it  is  is  worthy 
of  serious  consideration  on  the  part  of  both  producer  and  consumer.  It  is  very  likely 
that  the  time  is  not  many  years  distant  when  a  comparatively  large  quantity  of  cheese 
from  skim-milk  will  be  made  with  profit  to  the  dairy  industry  and  will  be  consumed 
at  a  pronounced  saving  by  the  laboring  class  in  general. 

"  In  the  same  connection  attention  is  called  to  the  food  value  of  cottage  cheese 
established  by  this  work.  This  is  another  cheap  and  to  many  a  very  palatable  product 
that  could  be  introduced  to  a  much  greater  extent  in  the  dietary  at  a  great  saving  in  the 
total  cost  of  food. 

"  In  general,  the  table  shows  that  all  kinds  of  cheese,  even  the  very  high-flavored  and 
so-called  condimental  cheeses,  have  a  high  food  value.  But  the  so-called  condimental 
value  of  cheese  when  eaten  in  small  quantities  as  a  stimulus  to  the  digestion  of  other 
foods  was  not  demonstrated.  Where  the  cheese  was  eaten  in  small  quantities  the 
digestibility  of  the  basal  ration  fell  below  the  assumed  digestion  coefficient.     The  fact 


12 

that  in  the  work  done  at  Middletown  the  digestibility  of  the  basal  ration  was  increased 
in  many  cases  at  least  is  no  evidence  that  cheese  has  any  particular  properties  as  a 
stimulant  to  digestion,  as  it  has  been  shown  that  other  foods,  such  as  meat,  might  have 
the  same  effect.  This  is  a  physiological  phenomenon  that  may  perhaps  be  explained  on 
some  other  basis  than  that  of  condimental  effects." 

Cheese  as  a  Food. 

The  experiments  described  have  not  only  shown  that  cheese,  even  green  cheese, 
is  very  thoroughly  digested  and  that  it  can,  when  properly  arranged  in  the  diet, 
be  used  in  comparatively  large  quantities  without  causing  any  pronounced  phy- 
siological disturbances,  but  they  have  also  established  the  fact  that  cheese  is  a 
valuable  food,  and  that  it  can  be  safely  used  as  a  substitute  for  other  protein  food 
in  the  diet.  In  connection  with  the  use  of  raw  cheese  there  is,  however,  one  point 
tliat  should  be  emphasized,  and  that  is  that  it  should  be  thoroughly  masticated, 
otherwise  the  digestive  juices  do  not  readily  penetrate  the  fatty  matters  of  the 
cheese. 

In  this  country  cheese  is  used  chiefly  for  its  flavor  or  as  a  condiment,  and 
little  thought  is  given  to  the  food  value  of  it  in  the  diet.  However,  in  view  of  the 
facts  established  by  the  above  experiments,  housekeepers  would  be  justified  in 
going  farther  and  using  cheese  as  a  source  of  protein  material  for  the  diet,  or, 
in  other  words,  use  it  as  a  substitute  for  meats.  In  doing  this  they  will  but  fol- 
low the  example  of  people  in  the  older  European  countries,  where  long  experience 
has  not  only  established  the  value  of  the  full  cream  cheese  such  as  the  Cheddar, 
but  also  the  high  value  of  skim  milk  cheese  and  the  home-made  Cottage  cheese. 

Estimates  made  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  show  that 
the  people  of  that  country  use  about  175  pounds  of  meat  annually  per  capita,  be- 
sides fish  and  poultry,  while  the  annual  consumption  of  cheese  is  only  about  4 
pounds  per  capita.  It  is  probable  that  if  we  had  similar  data  gathered  in  this 
country  the  results  would  be  about  the  same.  Even  granted  that  fresh  meats  are 
more  palatable  to  most  people,  it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  a  good  practice  to  use 
so  little  cheese  when  meats  of  all  kinds  are  so  expensive.  There  are  some  dishes 
that  may  be  prepared  in  which  cheese  is  one  of  the  sources  of  protein,  and,  if 
such  dishes  were  made  to  substitute  meat  once  or  twice  a  week  a  saving  would  be 
effected. 

In  order  that  the  above  phase  of  the  question  may  be  more  clearly  realized,  a 
knowledge  of  the  composition  of  cheese  in  comparison  with  other  foods  is  desir- 
able. But,  since  the  market  prices  vary,  it  may  be  better  to  make  the  comparison 
on  the  basis  of  the  amount  of  the  food  constituents  that  may  be  obtained  in  the 
different  foods  for  a  given  amount  of  money  expended.  The  following  table  shows 
the  number  of  pounds  of  protein,  fat,  carbohydrates  and  the  fuel  value  of  one 
dollar's  worth  of  a  number  of  our  common  foods: 


13 


Price. 


Protein.     Fat. 


Milk     8    cts 

Skim-milk    10 

Buttermilk    ilO 

Butter   iBO 

Cheese  ; |20 

Beef,  hind  quarter 14 

Beef,  flank  :|2i 

Beef,  sirloin   124 

Veal,  cutlets   |22 


Mutton  chops   

Ham,  cooked 

Eggs    

White  bread   

Flour  

Rolled  oats  (in  packages) 
Farinas  (in  packages)   . . . 

Potatoes    

Beans    


20 
40 
25 

4 


per  qt. 


gal. 

gal. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

doz. 

lb. 


$3.00  per  cwt. 

7  lbs.  per  25c . 

6  lbs.  per  25c . 
90  cts.   per  bag, 

5  cts.   qer  lb. 


Carbo-  '     Fuel 
hydrates!  Value. 


lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Calories. 

1.04 

1.27 

1.66 

10, 402 

3.4 

.30 

5.1 

17,070 

3.0 

.50 

' 

l8 

17,362 

.3 

2.83 

12,000 

1.39 

1.84 

10,360 

1.10 

1.31 

7,563 

1.34 

1.51 

8,924 

.69 

.68 

4,132 

.91 

.34 

3,145 

.67 

1.44 

7,326 

.50 

.56 

3,304 

.79 

.56 

3.853 

2.10 

.50 

12.2 

28,710 

3.25 

.03 

25.3 

54,057 

8.5 

1.9 

20.0 

51,730 

2.3 

.24 

18.7 

40,070 

2.18 

.10 

15.6 

33,492 

3.90 

.54 

12.0 

31,000 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  calculate  the  amount  of  digestible  constituents, 
but  it  is  probable  that  over  95  per  cent,  of  the  protein  of  the  milk  and  meats,  and 
about  80  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  cereals  would  be  digested.  The  fat  of  the  cereals 
would  be  less  digestible  than  that  of  the  milk  and  meats,  and  sugar  of  the  milk 
would  be  almost  entirely  absorbed,  while  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  car- 
bohydrates of  the  bread  and  oatmeal  would  resist  the  action  of  the  digestive 
Juices.  It  is  also  quite  probable  that  more  energy  would  be  required  to  digest  the 
vegetable  foods.  However,  after  allowing  for  this,  it  is  evident  that  the  cereal 
foods  are  a  cheap  source  of  protein  and  carbohydrates  and  that  it  is  because  of  the 
presence  of  the  latter  cheap  heat-producing  materials  that  this  class  of  food  has 
such  a  high  fuel  value. 

Taking  the  figures  as  they  stand,  it  is  evident  that  milk  furnishes  protein  and 
■fat  more  cheaply  than  the  various  cuts  of  the  meats.  Skim  milk  and  buttermilk,- 
when  they  can  be  purchased,  are  particularly  cheap  sources  of  protein,  and  are 
probably  the  cheapest  s'ource  of  this  constituent  among  all  our  foods.  Butter 
is  valuable  almost  entirely  for  the  fat  it  contains,  and  as  an  energy  producer  is 
as  cheap  as  any  of  the  meats,  while  cheese  as  a  source  of  protein  and  fat  is  very 
imich  cheaper  than  the  meats.  Thus,  one  dollar  expended  on  cheese  at  20  cents  per 
pound  will  furnish  about  twice  as  much  protein,  nearly  three  times  as  much  fat, 
and  about  two  and  one-half  times  as  much  energy  as  the  same  amount  of  money 
spent  on  sirloin  steak  at  24  cents  per  pound.  From  the  above  it  is  evident  that 
one  dollar  spent  on  milk,  or  any  of  its  products  excepting  butter,  will  furnish  more 
protein,  or  muscle-forming  material,  and  more  energy,  as  indicated  in  the  fuel 
value  column,  than  fresh  meats.  Furthermore,  there  is  no  reason  why  the  cheaper 
milk  products  should  not  at  least  partly  replace  the  more  expensive  meats.  There 
is,  however,  the  whole  problem  of  palatability  to  contend  with  and  it  is  very 
doubtful  if  there  are  many  people  who  will  give  up  meats  for  milk  products,  unless 
these  are  put  up  in  a  form  that  is  equally  palatable. 


14 

Cheese  as  a  Substitute  foe  Meat. 

From  the  standpoint  of  composition  meat  and  cheese  may  be  readily  compared 
with  one  another.  Neither  one  contains  any  appreciable  quantity  of  the  carbo- 
hydrates, and  both  are  valuable  for  the  protein  and  fat  they  possess.  Furthermore, 
they  are  about  equally  well  digested,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
nutrients  of  one  are  any  more  valuable  than  the  other.  One  pound  of  cheese  will, 
however,  furnish  just  about  as  much  actual  nourishment  as  two  pounds  of  fresh 
meat.  Yet,  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  cheese  will  ever  entirely  replace  meat  as  a 
source  of  protein  and  fat,  nor  is  it  desirable  that  it  should,  unless  strict  economy 
in  the  diet  is  essential.  Meat  and  gravy  form  a  natural  relish  for  the  vegetables, 
just  as  cheese  does  for  the  breads.  Both  have  their  places  in  our  dietaries.  At  the 
same  time,  economy  would  be  effected  if  cheese  was  given  a  more  prominent  place 
in  our  diet  and  used  in  at  least  one  meal  a  day  with  the  deliberate  intention  of  pro- 
curing the  essential  proteins  from  this  source  rather  than  from  the  more  costly 
meats.  Bread  and  cheese  can  be  used  in  suoh  amounts  as  to  constitute  what  is 
called  a  balanced  diet,  i.e.,  in  such  amounts  as  to  supply  the  right  proportions  of 
muscle-forming  foods  in  comparison  with  the  energy  value.  But  fruit  added  to 
the  diet  would  render  it  more  attractive  and  palatable  and  favor  digestion.  It  also 
tends  to  decrease  the  possibility  of  constipation.  A  case  was  investigated  and  re- 
ported by  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  of  a 
man  who  lived  for  months  upon  a  diet  of  bread,  cheese  and  fruit,  and  who 
remained  in  good  health  and  active  and  did  not  weary  of  the  monotony  of  the 
diet.  It  will  generally  be  found  that  the  watery  and  refreshing  fruits  or  succulent 
vegetables  with  their  large  supply  of  cellulose  are  a  pleasant  contrast  to  the  con- 
centrated and  fatty  cheese.  Thus,  when  planning  menus  in  which  a  cheese  dish 
is  the  chief  feature,  pains  should  be  taken  to  supply  crisp,  watery  vegetables  or 
fresh  fruit  salads. 

tlHEESE  Dishes  and  Their  Preparation. 

Cheese  may  also  be  cooked  in  a  great  variety  of  ways;  but,  owing  to  its  con- 
centrated and  fatty  nature,  it  must  be  mixed  with  other  materials  and  cannot, 
like  meat,  be  cooked  by  itself.  There  may,  however,  be  many  tasty  dishes  prepared 
by  housekeepers  who  for  one  reason  or  another  are  interested  in  lessening  the 
amount  of  meat  which  they  provide  or  to  substitute  some  other  food  for  it.  The 
problem  with  the  average  family  may  more  often  be  the  occasional  substitution  of 
other  palatable  dishes  for  the  sake  of  variety,  for  reason  of  economy,  or  for  some 
other  reason  than  the  general  replacement  of  meat  dishes  by  other  things. 

The  following  recipes  for  cheese  dishes  have  been  prepared  by  Miss  "Watson, 
Director  of  Home  Economics,  Macdonald  Institute,  Guelph,  who  has  also  made  the 
calculation  of  the  cost.  The  prices  of  the  materials  used  in  these  calculations  were 
about  the  present  prices  for  the  various  articles  in  Guelph,  which  are  as  follows : 

Porterhouse  steak   25  cents  per  pound 

Beef,  as  in  hash,  beef  loaf 18 

Butter    35 

Cheese    20 

Eggs    35 

Milk*    7 


doz. 
quart 


*Skim  milk  was  charged  at  the  same  rate  as  whole  milk,  because  the  family  buys 
whole  milk,  uses  the  cream  for  tea,  coffee  and  cereals,  and  the  skim  milk  for  cooking. 


15 

Bread   4  cents  per     pound 

Dripping*    18 

With  each  recipe  the  total  cost  of  the  materials  is  given,  also  the  cost  per  100 
calories  and  the  cost  per  pound  of  protein.  Like  all  such  estimates,  these  calcula- 
tions only  give  the  relative  cost.  The  housekeeper  may  estimate  the  comparative 
cost  of  the  various  dishes  by  taking  into  account  the  amount  of  materials  used  and 
the  prices  paid  for  the  ingredients  at  any  particular  time.  Furthermore,  these 
recipes  are  not  set  down  to  be  slavishly  followed.  The  skillful  cook  may  lessen 
the  cost  by  reducing  the  number  of  eggs  or  by  substituting  less  expensive  fats  for 
the  butter,  and  will  evolve  many  variations  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  consumers. 

Maoaboni  and  Cheese.     Baked. 

1  cup  macaroni.  1  cup  grated  cheese. 

2  cups  skimmed  milk.  h  teasp.  salt. 

3  tablsp.  butter.  Pepper. 

4  tablsp.  flour.  i  cup  dried  crumbs. 

1  teasp.  butter. 
Add  2  teasp.  salt  to  2  quarts  water.     When  boiling  rapidly,  drop  in  the  macaroni 
broken  into  inch  pieces,  and  boil  hard  20  minutes.    Drain  and  pour  cold  water  through  to 
prevent  sticking  together. 

Melt  the  3  tablsp.  butter  in  a  saucepan;  add  the  flour  and  stir  over  the  fire  until 
frothy;  add  the  milk  and  stir  constantly  until  it  thickens  and  boils.  Season  to  taste 
with  the  salt  and  pepper;  add  the  cheese  and  cooked  macaroni;  mix  carefully,  turn  into 
a  baking  dish. 

Butter  the  crumbs  by  adding  the  teasp.  butter  and  stirring  over  the  fire;  sprinkle 
them  evently  over  the  dish  of  macaroni  and  bake  until  thoroughly  heated,  about  20  min. 

Note. — This  may  be  served  in  a  vegetable  dish,  without  the  crumbs  and  baking,  but 
the  macaroni  must  then  be  heated  in  the  sauce. 

Cost  per  6  persons  is  ' 15.5  cents 

"     per  100  calories  Is 92     " 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is  $1.04 

Welsh  Rabbit. 

1  lb.  cheese.  1  teasp.  salt. 

I  cup  water.  Cayenne. 

Bread — 10  oz. 
12  pieces— 3"  x  4"  x  i" 
Prepare  the  toast,  arrange  on  a  platter  and  keep  it  warm.  Grate  the  cheese,  or  chop 
it  fine.  Put  the  water,  salt,  cayenne  and  cheese  into  a  frying  pan;  set  it  over  gentle 
heat  and  stir  constantly  with  the  flat  of  a  fork  until  the  cheese  melts  and  the  whole  is 
creamy.  Lift  from  the  heat,  beat  hard  for  a  moment,  pour  it  over  the  toast  and  serve 
at  once. 

Note. — The  success  of  this  dish  seems  to  lie  in  the  choice  of  a  mild  flavored  cheese 
which  melts  well,  and  the  slow  raising  of  the  temperature  to  the  melting  point,  which 
permits  of  thorough  mixing  and  beating. 

Beer,  ale,  cider  or  ginger-ale,  may  replace  the  water.  Onion  juice  or  garlic  may  be 
used  to  flavor. 

Cost  for  6  persons  is 22.5  c&nts 

"     per  100  calories  is   77     " 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is  67.2 

Mn>Ky  Cheese  Toast. 

1  lb.  bread.  1  tablsp.  flour. 

3  cups  whole  milk.  1  tablsp.  butter, 

i  cup  grated  cheese.  i!  teasp.  salt. 

Pepper. 

Toast  the  bread  and  pack  into  a  vegetable  dish  or  arrange  on  a  deep  platter  and 
keep  warm. 


♦Dripping  was  reckoned  at  the  same  price  as  meat,  as  it  is  usually  purchased  at  the 
same  price  as  the  meat. 


16 

Put  the  milk  to  heat  in  a  double  boiler.  Mix  the  flour  and  butter  in  a  small  bowl, 
and  thin  down  with  warm  milk,  a  little  at  a  time,  until  thin  enough  to  pour  easily.  Add 
it  to  the  hot  milk,  stirring  constantly  until  it  thickens.  Season  to  taste  and  cook  at 
least  ten  minutes  longer.  Just  before  serving  time  add  the  cheese,  stir  until  it  melts, 
pour  it  over  the  toast  and  serve  at  once. 

Cost  for  6  persons  is 11-8  cents 

"     per  100  calories  is   -56 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is   67.8 


Cheese  Custaed. 


1  teasp. 

salt. 

i  teasp. 

mustard 

Pepper. 

Bread- 

-10  oz. 

12 

pieces — 3"  X  4"  X 

i" 

3  eggs. 

2  cups  skimmed  milk. 

1  cup  grated  cheese. 


Make  the  toast,  arrange  on  a  platter  and  keep  warm. 

Mix  salt,  pepper  and  mustard  in  the  top  of  a  double  boiler.  Add  three  eggs  and 
beat  enough  to  mix  well;  add  the  milk  and  cheese  and  mix  thoroughly.  Stand  over  the 
fire  and  stir  constantly  until  hot,  then  stand  in  the  hot  water  and  stir  until  it  thickens 
like  custard  (that  is,  until  it  begins  to  coat  the  spoon).  Pour  over  the  toast  and  serve 
at    once. 

Note.— This  dish  cannot  be  kept  hot  successfully.  Better  keep  the  family  waiting 
for  the  dish  than  the  dish  for  the  family. 

This  may  be  used  over  soda  biscuits,  plain  bread  slices,  or  milk  biscuits  heated  over, 

and  split. 

Alone        On  toast. 

Cost  for  6  persons  is 16.5c.  19    c. 

"     per  100  calories  is   1.7c.  1.1c. 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is $1.28  72.3c. 

Cheese  Sotjp. 

4  cups   skimmed  milk.  1  teasp.  salt. 

1  cup  grated  cheese.  Pepper — black,  cayenne,  or  paprika. 
H  tablsp.  flour. 

Reserve  i  cup  cold  milk,  and  put  the  rest  to  heat  in  a  double  boiler.  Mix  the  flour 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  cold  milk,  and  thin  down  with  the  remainder;  stir  this  into  the 
hot  milk  and  stir  until  it  thickens.  Season  to  taste  with  the  salt  and  pepper  and  cook 
10  minutes  longer.    Add  the  cheese,  stir  until  it  begins  to  melt  and  serve  at  once. 

Variations. — The  seasoning  may  be  varied  with  celery  salt,  allspice  or  mace.  A 
little  finely  chopped  onion  or  carrot,  or  celery  may  be  boiled  20  minutes  in  a  little  water, 
and  the  water  alone,  or  the  whole,  added  to  the  milk  before  thickening.  The  water 
from  dinner  vegetables  will  serve  the  same  purpose,  replacing  part  of  the  milk. 

Cost  for  6  persons  is   10.6  cents 

"     per  100  calories  is  1.1 

"     of  1  lb.  of  proteid  from  this  food  is 76.1 

Cheese  Pudding. 

12  pieces  bread — 10  oz.  |  teasp.  salt. 

2'cups  grated  cheese.  J  teasp.  mustard. 

2  cups  skimmed  milk.  Pepper. 

Toast  the  bread,  and  fit  a  layer  into  the  bottom  of  a  baking  dish.  Put  next  a  layer 
€f  half  the  cheese;  then  a  layer  of  toast  covered  with  the  remaining  cheese;  top  with 
another  layer  of  toast.  Season  the  milk  with  salt  and  pepper;  pour  it  over  the  contents 
of  the  dish;  bake  in  a  quick  oven  about    30  rainutes  and  serve  at  once. 

Note. — The  quantity  of  milk  will  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  bread  used.  Each 
person  should  determine  the  quantity  suited  to  her  conditions  and  change  the  recipe 
figure  accordingly.    The  result  should  be  a  spongy  mass. 

Cost  for  6  persons  is 15.3  cents 

'■     per  100  calories  is   77 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is 66.7 


17    ^ 

Cheese  Souffle. 

3  tablsp.  butter.  4  eggs. 

4  tablsp.  flour.  1  teasp.  salt. 
§  cup  milk.  Cayenne. 

§  cup  grated  cheese. 
Separate  the  egg-yolks  and  whites,   and   set  the  whites  aside   to   get   as   cold  as 

dossITdIg 

Melt  the  butter  in  a  saucepan;  add  the  flour  and  stir  until  frothy  over  the  fire; 
add  the  milk  and  stir  constantly  until  thickened  and  cooked.  Take  from  the  fire,  drop 
in  the  egg-yolks  and  mix  thoroughly;  mix  in  the  cheese,  salt  and  pepper,  and  set  aside 

When  it  is  cold,  beat  the  egg-whites  stiff,  add  a  little  and  mix  it  in  to  soften  the 
mixture;  add  the  rest  and  fold  it  in  lightly  to  keep  it  as  foamy  as  possible;  turn  into  a 
buttered  baking  dish,  and  bake  in  a  slow  oven  45  to  60  minutes. 
This  needs  a  rather  strongly  flavored  cheese. 

Cost  for  6  persons  is   19-3  cents 

"     per  100  calories  is  1-6 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is $1.55 

Cheese  Sauce. 

2  cups  skimmed  milk.  1  teasp.  salt, 

i  cup  butter.  i  teasp.  mustard. 

J  cup  flour.  Pepper. 

i  cup  grated  cheese.  "^ 

Bread — 10  oz. 
12  pieces— 3"  x  4"  x  h" 
Mix  the  salt  and  mustard  in  a  saucepan;  add  the  butter  and  melt  it;  add  the  flour 
and  stir  over  the  fire  until  frothy;  add  the  milk  and  stir  constantly  until  it  thickens  and 
boils.     Add  the  cheese  and  stir  until  it  melts;   season  to  taste  with  pepper,  and  pour 
over  the  toast.     Serve  at  once. 
Variations — 

1.  May  be  used  over  soda-biscuits,  split  hot  biscuits,  poached  eggs,  hard-boiled  eggs, 
or  vegetables. 

2.  The  butter  may  be  replaced  by  sweet  dripping  or  other  fat,  lessened  in  amount, 
or  omitted.    In  the  latter  case  the  flour  must  be  used  as  in  cheese  soup. 

3.  If  this  sauce  is  to  stand  any  length  of  time,  make  in  a  double  boiler  and  add  the 
cheese  just  before  serving. 

4.  A  mild  cheese  is  best,  or  at  least  only  a  small  proportion  of  strong  cheese. 

Alone.  On  Toast. 

Cost  for  6  persons  is  10.2c.  12.7c. 

"     per  100  calories  is   1.0c.  .72c. 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is $1.33  $1.28 

Cheese  Gnocchi. 

I  cup  butter.  2  cups  skimmed  milk.  » 

i  cup  flour.  2  egg  yolks. 

I  cup  cornstarch.  1  teasp.  salt. 

3  cup  cheese,  grated.  Pepper    (black,  cayenne  or  paprika). 

Mix  the  flour,  cornstarch  and  seasoning  with  enough  cold  milk  to  heat  in  a  double 
boiler.  Stir  the  mixture  into  the  hot  milk;  stir  constantly  until  it  thickens,  and 
occasionally  for  15  minutes.  Stir  in  the  butter.  Add  the  cheese  and  the  egg-yolks  and 
stir  until  the  cheese  melts.     Turn  into  shallow  buttered  pan  to  cool. 

When  cold,  cut  into  squares,  arrange  on  a  platter  a  little  distance  apart;  sprinkle 
the  rest  of  the  cheese  over  the  tops.  Heat  in  a  quick  oven  until  the  top  cheese  melts, 
and  serve  at  once. 

Note. — The  mixture  may  be  made  some  time  before  the  meal  hour. 

Cost  for  6  persons  is   15-2  cents 

"     per  100  calories  is  .94 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is  $1.19 

Scrambled  Eggs  and  Cheese. 

6  eggs.  1  teasp.  salt. 

IJ  cup  grated  cheese.  Pinch  of  nutmeg. 

1  teasp.  chopped  parsley.  Pepper. 


18 

Break  the  eggs  into  a  bowl,  and  sprinkle  the  parsley  on  top  of  the  cheese.  Melt 
the  butter  in  a  frying  pan  over  gentle  heat.  Turn  in  the  eggs,  and  immediately  sprinkle 
the  cheese  over  them.  With  a  broad-bladed  knife  begin  to  scrape  the  mass  from  the 
bottom  as  it  sets.  The  object  is  to  cook  the  mass  without  mixing  the  yolks  and  whites 
too  thoroughly,  and  yet  avoid  hardening  them.  When  the  mass  is  jellied,  turn  at  once 
into  a  hot  vegetable  dish,  or  over  toast  on  a  platter,  and  serve  at  once. 

Cost  for  6   persons  is    26  cents 

"    per  100  calories  is   2 

"    of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is   $1-35 

The  following  recipes  of  common  dishes  that  do  not  contain  cheese  are  given 
for  comparative  purposes: 

Beef  Loaf — ^With  GRA^^^. 

II  lb    lean  beef  minced.  li  teasp.  onion  juice. 

I  egg.  i-i  tablsp.  chopped  parsley. 

3  tablsp.  dripping.  l|  teasp.  salt. 

3  tablsp.  flour. 

Cost  for  6  people  is   • 30.1  cents 

"     per  100  calories  is    2.31 

"     of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is 82.9 

Bacon  and  Eggs. 

t 

n  lb.  bacon   • 371  cents 

6  eggs   IS^ 

Cost  for  6  people  is   56  cents 

"     per  100  calories  is   1-23 

"    of  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is   $2.32 

Note.— Above  assumes  that  all  the  bacon  fat  is  sent  to  the  table  and  consumed. 

Hash. 

2  lbs.  cold  potatoes.  1  cup  water  or  gravy. 

2  lbs.  cold  cooked  lean  beef.  Salt,  pepper. 

3  tablsp.  dripping. 

Cost  for  6  people  is   25.4  cents 

"    per  100  calories  is   1-46 

"    per  1  lb.  proteid  from  this  food  is $1.00  • 

In  the  following  table  the  various  dishes  the  receipes  of  which  are  given  above 
are  arranged  acording  to  the  cost  of  100  calories  of  heat: 

1.  Beef    Loaf    2.31  cents 

2.  Scrambled  Eggs  and  Cheese   2. 

3.  Hash    1-46    'I 

4.  Cheese   Souffle    1-6 

5.  Bacon  and  Eggs   1-23 

6.  Cheese  Custard  on  Toast 1-1      " 

7.  Cheese  Soup    1-1       ]| 

8.  Cheese  Gnocchi    94 

9.  Macaroni  and  Cheese 92 

10  Cheese  Pudding    77 

11.  Welsh  Rabbit   77     || 

12.  Cheese  Sauce  on  Toast   72 

13.  Milky  Cheese  Toast   56     " 

Dishes   to   compare  with: 

Cheese,    Cheddar    93     "^ 

Cottage  Cheese    98 

Bread    33     " 

On  this  basis  of  comparison  beef  loaf  is  the  most  expensive.    Flour  and  bread, 
rich  in  starch,  which  has  a  fuel  value  equal  to  protein,  have,  however,  much  to  do 


19 

with  the  reduction  in  the  cost  of  100  calories  in  some  of  the  other  foods.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  table  the  cost  of  100  calories  of  heat  in  our  ordinary  Canadian  cheese, 
cottage  cheese  and  bread  are  given  for  comparison. 

A  comparison  has  also  been  made  on  the  basis  of  the  cost  of  one  pound  of 
protein  in  each  of  the  various  dishes.    These  are  as  follows : 

1.  Bacon  and  Eggs   $2.32 

2.  Cheese    Souffle    1.55 

3.  Scrambled  Eggs  and  Cheese  1.35 

4.  Chee&e  Sauce  on  Toast  1.28 

5.  Cheese  Gnocchi    1.19 

6.  Macaroni  and  Cheese  1.04 

7.  Hash    1.00 

8.  Beef  Loaf    82.9c. 

9.  Cheese    Soup    76.1 

10.  Cheese  Custard  on  Toast  72.3 

11.  Milky   Cheese   Toast    ; 67.8 

12.  Welsh  Rabbit   67.3 

13  Cheese  Pudding    66.7 

Compare  with. : 

Porterhouse  Steak    4.00 

Bread    44 

Cheese,  Cheddar    71 

At  the  bottom  of  the  above  table  the  cost  of  one  pound  of  profein  in 
cheese,  steak  and  bread  are  given.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  bread  furnishes 
the  cheapest  protein,  then  cheese  and  steak  in  the  order  named.  It  is  also  evident 
that  the  cost  per  pound  of  protein  in  the  various  dishes  must  vary  largely  as  one  or 
other  of  these  constituents  predominates. 

There  are  really  two  classes  of  foods  in  the  above  list,  those  which  are  valuable 
solely  for  their  protein  and  fat,  and  those  which  contain  a  certain  amount  of  the 
cheaper  carbohydrate  materials  derived  from  bread,  wheat  or  potatoes.  Thus,  the 
foUowmg  are  interchangeable  dishes  in  the  dietary,  and  may  be  directly  compared 
with  one  another : 

Cheese  Custard  on  Toast. 
Macaroni  and  Cheese, 
Hash — a  mixture  of  meat  and  I  -  ...  /     Cheese  Pudding, 

potatoes  f  ^^        \     Welsh  Rabbit. 

Cheese  Sauce  on  Toast. 
Milky  Cheese  Toast 

or 

1/    Cheddar  Cheese. 
Cottage  Cheese. 
with        <     Scrambled  Eggs  and  Cheege. 
I    Cheese  Souffle. 
\    Cheese  Soup. 

Bread,  as  a  representative  of  the  cereals  as  a  class,  is  one  of  the  cheapest 
sources  of  heat  and  protein  to  the  body,  and  cheese  and  milk,  especially  skim  milk, 
are  the  cheapest  source  of  animal  protein.  The  two  together  can  be  used  to  make  a 
well  balanced  diet,  perfect  in  every  way  from  the  food  ingredients*  standpoint, 
but  lacking  in  variety  and  in  palatability.  The  physical  condition  of  cheese  ren- 
ders it  difficult  to  make  into  tasty  cooked  dishes  without  mixing  with  other  ma- 
terials, especially  with  e^p^,  and  a.s  eggs  are  among  our  most  expensive  foods, 
this  naturally  increases  the  cost  of  the  cooked  preparations.    There  are,  all  together. 


20 


a  great  variety  of  ways  in  which  cheese  may  be  used  as  a  condiment  and  as  a  cheap 
source  of  the  proteins.  Milk,  both  raw  and  cooked,  has  been  used  in  this  way  for 
ages,  but  the  true  food  value  of  cheese  does  not  seem  to  have  been  as  fully  realized. 


SUMMARY. 


Milk  contains  all  of  the  four  nutrients — proteins,  fats,  carbohydrates,  and 
mineral  matter — in  nearly  the  proper  proportions  to  serve  as  a  complete  food.  It 
is  too  bulky  to  form  the  whole  food  of  an  adult  person,  but  it  is  well  adapted  for 
various  uses  in  combination  with  other  food  substances,  and  in  the  preparation  of 
different  dishes  used  as  food.    It  also  has  the  advantage  of  being  a  cheap  food. 

Skim  Milk  is  a  cheap  source  of  digestible  proteins,  and  when  taken  with 
bread  or  used  in  cooking  it  forms  a  very  cheap  and  nutritious  addition  to  the 
diet.  Two  and  a  half  quarts,  or  five  pounds,  of  skim  milk  will  furnish  nearly  the 
same  amount  of  protein  and  have  about  the  same  fuel  value  as  a  pound  of  round 
steak.  Buttermilk  has  about  the  same  nutritive  value  as  the  skim  milk,  and  both 
substances  are  so  cheap  that  they  could  be  used  in  large  quantities  with  economy. 

Cheese  is  one  of  our  most  concentrated  foods.  More  than  one-fourth  of  its 
weight  is  protein,  about  one-third  fat,  and  one-third  water.  It  is  not  only  valuable 
for  the  amount  of  protein,  or  muscle-forming  material,  and  fat  it  contains,  but, 
also  because  of  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  kept  and  prepared  for  the  table  and 
for  the  variety  of  ways  in  which  it  may  be  served. 

Unfortunately  there  is  a  wide-spread  belief  that  cheese  is  indigestible,  but 
extensive  experiments  have  fully  demonstrated  that  it  is  as  fully  digested  as  milk  or 
meat.  With  this  in  mind,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  one  pound  of  cheese  will 
furnish  about  as  much  protein  and  fat  as  one  gallon  of  milk,  or  as  much  nourish- 
ment as  two  pounds  of  fresh  meat,  two  pounds,  or  fifteen  eggs,  or  three  pounds  of 
fish.  It  may  not  agree  with  every  person,  but  the  same  may  be  said  of  many  other 
foods.  Yet  it  is  not  desirable  that  cheese  should  entirely  replace  these  other 
protein  foods,  unless  strict  economy  in  the  diet  is  essential.  Meat  and  gravy  form 
a  natural  relish  for  vegetables,  just  as  cheese  does  for  the  breads.  Both  have  their 
place  in  our  dietaries.  At  the  same  time,  economy  would  be  effected  if  cheese  was 
used  in  at  least  one  meal  a  day  with  the  deliberate  intention  of  procuring  the 
essential  proteins  from  this  source  rather  than  from  the  more  costly  meats. 


te-- 


Serial 

No, 

Date, 

174 

Dec. 

1909 

175 

Dec, 

1909 

176 

Dec. 

1909 

177 

Dec, 

1909 

178 

Dec, 

1909 

179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan, 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan 

1913 

209  Mar.  1913 

210  Mar.  1913 

211  Mar.  1913 

212  April  1913 

213  April  1913 

214  May  1913 

215  Aug.  1913 

216  Oct.  1913 

217  Dec.  1913 

218  Dec.  1913 

219  Jan.  1914 

220  Mar.  1914 

221  April  1914 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  the  Ontario  Department   of  Agricultube,   Toronto. 


Title.  Author. 

Farm  Underdrainage:    Does  it  Pay? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial   Blight  of  Apple,   Pear   and   Quince 
Trees   D.  H.  Jones. 

Un>e.Su,phur   Wash    I  u  C^^?!"" "' 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  Muck  f  W,  **.  Gamble. 

Soils    i  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No,  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch. 

T^i              J   n       j™  1  •  f  ^-  Harcourt. 

Flour  and   Breadmaking    |  j^j   ^   Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care Ont.   Dental  Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making  Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

Children:    Care  and  Training   J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth -. L.  Ca&sar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario   (No.  128  revised)    J.  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  151  revised)   W.  R.  Graham, 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario    Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural   Co-operation    S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls   S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch. 

Insecticides  and  Fungigides  (No.  154  revised)  |  ^-  L^puJJJgr 

Tomatoes    A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Morley  Pettit. 

LimenSulphur    Wash    L.  Caesar. 

Onions     A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices   L.  Meunier. 

(  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario  F.  M.  Clement. 

\  Peach   Diseases    L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula  T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower   A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of-  the  Teeth   Ont.   Dental   Society, 

Dairy  School  Bulletin   (No.  172  revised)    ^ 

I,  Cheese-Making  and  Butter  Making. ......  [  g.   ^    -  ^  .      ^^     , 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    ....j  ^^^^  °^  ^^"^  bchool. 

II.  Dairying  on  the  Farm / 

Ice^Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm  R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  .  j  jj   jj^j,g 

in  Ontario  County   [r^   ^   Benson. 

Farm  Forestry   (Na.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz, 

rStrawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry . .     F.  M.  Clement. 
Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  179  revised) Fruit  Branch, 

Orchard   Surveys   in   Dundas,    Stormont   and 

Glengarry    F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Morley  Pettit. 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  it  Pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing  Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples E.  F.  Palmer. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  189  revised) {  ^.  ^R-,Gr^aham^ 

Birds  of  Ontario  (No.  173  revised)   , C.  W.  Nash, 

The  San  Jose  and  Oyster-iShell  Scales L.  Caesar. 

Lightning  Rods   W.  H.  Day. 

Food  Value  of  Milk  and  its  Products R.  Harcourt, 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 


BULLETIN  222 


CURRANTS 

AND 

GOOSEBERRIES 

By 
E.  F.  PALMER,  B.S.A. 


TORONTO.  ONTARIO,  APRIL,  1914 


m 


BULLETIN  222]  [APRIL,  1914 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

FRUIT  BRANCH 

Currants  and  Gooseberries 

E.  F.  PALMER 

The  purpose  of  this  bulletin  is  to  give,  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  some 
idea  of  the  extent  and  importance  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry  industries  of  the 
Province,  and  the  most  approved  methods  of  culture  for  the  home  garden  and 
commercial  plantation. 

Both  the  currant  and  the  gooseberry  favor  a  northern  climate  and  do  not 
thrive  in  hot  and  dry  climates.  They  are  a  complete  failure  in  the  Southern 
States  of  the  Union  and  along  the  Gulf  coast.  Ontario  seems  especially  adapted 
to  the  culture  of  these  fruits  and  they  can  be  grown  successfully  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  Province.  Some  varieties  will  be  found  tender  in  certain  districts  but 
there  are  excellent  hardy  varieties  which  will  thrive  well  in  the  lesser  favored 
localities. 

The  area  cf  small  fruits  under  cultivation  in  1901  is  given  in  the  Dominion 
census  as  8,116  acres,  and  for  1911  Ontario  is  credited  with  13,940  acres,  an 
increase  of  71.7  per  cent.  This  includes  all  small  fruits,  strawberries,  currants 
and  gooseberries,  raspberries,  etc.  In  1910,  Ontario  produced  2,019,319  quarts 
of  currants  and  gooseberries  or  practically  sixty-five  per  cent,  of  the  total  pro- 
duction for  Canada.  The  production  of  strawberries  for  the  same  year  (fiscal 
year  1911;  crop  year  1910)  is  given  as  9,386,135  quarts,  and  of  other  small 
fruits  6,841,253  quarts.  The  increase  over  1901  in  the  production  of  all  small 
fruits  is  figured  to  be  12.4  per  cent,  or  a  little  over  two  million  quarts. 

A  blank  form  with  questions  pertaining  to  currants  and  gooseberries  was 
sent  to  the  various  county  representatives  and  out  of  twenty-seven  replies  re- 
ceived, representing  twenty-seven  counties,  only  two  reports  stated  that  currants 
were  grown  to  any  extent  commercially  in  that  county,  and  five  others  reported 
a  few  commercial  patches.  The  report  concerning  gooseberries  .showed  even  less 
interest,  seven  counties  reporting  a  few  commercial  patches.  No  reports,  however, 
were  received  from  Halton,  Wentworth,  Lincoln  and  Kent  counties  concerning 
these  fruits. 

Every  county  reported  that  both  currants  and  gooseberries  were  grown 
in  the  home  gardens  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  some  counties  very  little,  others 
quite  extensively.  Every  county  with  two  exceptions  reported  currants  profitable, 
and  with  three  or  four  exceptions,  gooseberries  were  also  reported  profitable.  Only 
about  half  of  the  counties  stated  that  the  patches  were  cultivated,  pruned  and 
sprayed,  and  that,  not  generally,  there  being  on  tlio  whole  a  lack  of  interest  on 
the  part  of  the  fruit  growers  and  farmers  concerning  those  fruits. 

From  the  Rainy  Piver  District  a  most  encouraging  report  came,  stating  that 
currants  and  gooseberries  have  been  verv  successful  where  thev  have  been  tried. 


Various  causes  were  assigned  for  the  lack  of  interest  in  the  different  counties, 
the  chief  ones'  being  lack  of  help,  excessive  railroad  rates  to  markets,  poor  trans- 
portation facilities  involving  several  changes  in  transit  for  express  shipments, 
little  demand  for  the  fruit,  and  no  profits. 

The  currant  and  gooseberry  have  had  a  share  in  the  increased  acreage  of 
small  fruits,  but,  while  the  area  devoted  to  these  two  fruits  has  been  gradually 
increasing,  and  is  doing  so  especially  at  the  present  time,  they  have  not  yet  been 
given  the  acreage  and  cultivation  that  they  deserve.  The  public,  as  a  whole,  has 
not  been  educated  to  a  correct  appreciation  of  these  fruits  as  a  valuable  addition  to 
the  more  ordinarily  used  kinds,  and  further,  as  they  are  among  our  hardiest  culti- 
vated fruits,  their  value  in  the  northern  districts  where  tree  fruits  grow  with  diffi- 
culty or  not  at  all,  is  hard  to  estimate.  Both  fruits  are  easily  grown,  and  this 
fact  together  with  their  value  for  culinary  purposes  should  insure  there  being 
at  least  a  few  bushes  in  every  home  garden.  If  the  fruits  were  grown  at  home, 
when  possible,  instead  of  being  bought,  much  larger  quantities  would  be  con- 
sumed. 

Where  it  is  possible  then,  one  cannot  do  better  than  grow  these  fruits  for 
home  use.  AVTien  it  is  not  possible  to  grow  them  the  opportunity  for  the 
commercial  grower  comes  in,  and  it  is  to  the  commercial  grower  that  the  urban 
population  must  look.  And  while  the  urban  population  has  increased  tremen- 
dously during  the  ten  years  previous  to  1911,  yet  the  increase  in  the  production  of 
currants  and  gooseberries  has  been  only  twelve  per  cent.  In  other  words  the 
urban  population — the  consuming  population — has  increased  and  is  increasing 
much  more  rapidly  than  the  planting  of  these  fruits.  As  indirect  proof  of  this 
one  has  but  to  compare  prices  ten  years  ago  with  those  now  being  received  by 
the  growers.  In  1901  growers  received  eighty  cents  to  $1  for  black  currants. 
For  1912  and  1913  the  returns  were  $1.75  to  $1.95  per  eleven  quart  basket,  an 
increase  of  practically  100  per  cent.  Eed  currants  and  gooseberries,  too,  have 
S'hown  greatly  increased  returns.  In  1900  red  currants  could  hardly  be  given 
away,  while  for  1912  and  1913  they  averaged  to  the  grower  sixty-five  to  seventy- 
five  cents  per  eleven  quart  basket  of  good  quality  fruit. 

Many  growers  at  present  claim  that  the  money  to  be  made  out  of  currants 
and  gooseberries  is  small.  In  this  regard  I  would  like  to  quote  a  paragraph  from 
Mr.  L.  B.  Henry's  address  before  the  1913  Ontario  Fruit  Growers'  Convention. 
Mr.  Henry  spoke  as  follows :  "A  few  years  ago  the  price  of  currants  went  down 
so  low  that  they  became  unprofitable.  Black  currants  were  selling  in  1899  and 
1900  at  sixty-five  cents  for  a  twenty  pound  basket,  and  at  that  time  you  could 
not  sell  red  currants  at  any  price.  But  from  that  time  up  to  the  present  prices 
have  steadily  risen  until  in  the  last  two  years  we  have  been  getting  very  fair 
results  from  these  crops.  In  fact  as  high  as  ten-and-one-half  cents  per  pound; 
lately  some  at  six-and-one-half  cents  and  red  varieties  less." 

There  is  little  doubt  that  if  growers  now  gave  more  attention  to  their  goose- 
berry and  currant  plantations,  the  added  returns  would  more  than  justify  the 
extra  outlay.  There  are  no  fruits  tliat  respond  more  quickly  to  good  treat- 
ment than  currants  and  gooseberries.  They  will  stand  a  good  deal  of  neglect, 
but  if  we  want  large  fruit  and  productive  bushes,  we  must  take  good  care  of 
them. 

There  is  another  point  to  remember  too  in  connection  with  planting  cur- 
rants and  goosberries.  It  is  this:  that  though  these  fruits  may  sometimes  return 
comparatively  small  profits  yet  they  serve  or  should  serve  as  a  "filler-in"  crop. 
That  ife',  varieties  should  be  planted  which  will  mature  their  fruit  when   there 


would  otherwise  be  a  slack  time  in  the  fruit  season.  The  labor  is  then  profitably 
employed  where  otherwise  it  would  practically  have  to  "  kill  time  "—an  expensive 
operation  for  the  grower,  constituting  an  overhead  charge  on  the  orchard  that  is 
very  seldom  included  in  estimates  of  cost  of  production,  etc. 

When  commercial  growing  is  undertaken  several  points  have  to  be  carefully 
considered,  chief  among  which  are  the  facilities  for  gathering  and  marketing  the 
fruit.  Naturally  a  near  market  is  desirable  since  it  reduces  the  cost  of  shipping, 
but  where  no  near  market  is  available,  this  need  not  prove  the  deciding  factor  in 
the  location  of  a  site  as  currants  and  gooseherries',  especially  gooseberries,  will 
ship  long  distance  with  little  or  no  injury.  Other  small  fruits  will  not  begin  to 
stand  the  same  length  of  shipment. 

Okigin  and  Histoey  of  the  Currant. 

The  currant,  as  compared  with  some  of  our  other  fruits,  is  of  comparatively 
recent  origin.  Before  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  apparently  un- 
known to  cultivation,  and  it  was  during  the  fifty  years  following  that  it  received 
its  modern  improved  form.  Further,  it  is  only  during  the  past  half  century 
or  a  little  better,  that  there  has  been  any  extensive  improvement  of  the  fruit  in 
this  country.  Previous  to  this  time  currants  were  simply  currants  and  were 
commonly  known  as  reds,  whites,  and  blacks.  During  later  years,  however,  keener 
competition  in  the  markets  has  brought  about  considerable  improvement  both  in 
size  of  fruit  and  in  quality.  Many  new  varieties  have  been  originated,  though 
there  are  growers  who  still  believe  that  the  old  Eed  Dutch  variety  is  superior  to 
any  of  the  more  recent  introductions.  Culture  and  fertility  often  appear  to 
have  a  greater  influence  on  this  fruit  than  parentage,  and  it  is  undoubtedly 
true  that  with  good  culture  the  Red  Dutch  will  surpass  the  newer  varieties  under 

neglect. 

The  cultivated  varieties  of  the  red  and  white  currants  are  derived  from 
Rihes  rubrum,  a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  America,  Europe  and  Asia. 
Varieties  of  the  black  currants  are  derived  from  Riles  nigrum,  a  native  of 
northern  Europe  and  Asia.  Although  not  found  in  America  in  the  wild  state, 
the  black  currant  seems  to  have  found  no  difficulty  in  adapting  itself  to  our 
conditions.  One  variety  of  black  currant,  the  Crandall,  comes  from  an  American 
species  Rihes  aureum,  better  known  as  the  fiowering  currant.  It  is,  however,  a 
different  species  from  the   ordinary  black  currant. 

The  currant  is  in  all  cases  a  northern  plant,  found  in  cool  damp  situations, 
and  it  objects  to  any  radical  change  from  these  conditions.  It  does  not  prosper 
i]i  hot  and  dry  climates,  for  though  the  plants  may  look  well,  they  are  com- 
paratively unproductive.  Favoring  a  northern  climate  as  it  does,  the  currant 
succeeds  well  over  a  very  wide  area  in  Ontario.  For  this  reason,  and  also  being 
easy  of  culture,  it  js  one  of  the  best  fruits  for  home  planting.  Anyone  who  has 
the  space  should  grow  satficicnt  at  least  for  home  use. 

For  various  reasons  the  currant  is  not  so  generally  used  in  Ontario  as  most 
of  our  fruits.  Fe^^■  people  care  to  eat  it  in  the  raw  state  as  most  varieties  are 
too  acid  for  dessert  purposes.  When  cooked,  it  is  usually  made  into  jelly  and 
for  jelly  making  it  is  unsurpassed.  In  the  colder  parts  of  Ontario  where  tree  fruits 
do  not  succeed  so  well,  the  currant,  on  account  of  its  hardiness  and  ease  of  culture, 
as  stated  above,  finds  considerably  more  favor. 


Origin  and  History  of  the  Gooseberry. 

Like  tlie  curraut,  the  gooseberry  was  apparently  unknown  to  the  ancients, 
and  it  was  prohably  about  the  sixteenth  century  that  it  was  first  cultivated  in 
Europe.  Since  that  time  a  wonderful  improvement  in  the  size  of  the  fruit  has 
taken  place.  The  Dutch  are  thought  to  have  made  the  first  marked  improvement, 
but  its  present  development  has  been  largely  brought  about  in  P]ngland. 

Varieties  of  English  and  European  gooseberries  are  derived  from  the  species 
Ribes  Gross ularia,  a  native  of  north  Europe.  Varieties  of  this  species  have  not 
succeeded  well  in  America  until  latelv,  being  very  subject  to  Gooseberry  Mildew 
which  was  thought  to  be  very  diflEicult  of  control.  The  past  few  years,  however, 
have  demonstrated  that  the  mildew  can,  if  properly  treated,  be  successfully  corn- 
batted. 


Fig.  2. — Black  currant  plantation  of  Mr.  J.  E.  Henry,  Winona, 


The  American  gooseberries  are  derived  chiefly  from  Ribes  oxyacanthoides.  a 
species  native  to  America.  Concerning  the  origin  and  history  of  our  American 
varieties,  W.  T.  Macoun,  Dominion  Horticulturist.  Ottawa,  writes  in  his  bulletin 
on  bush  fruits,  1907,  as  follows: — 

"  As  late  as  1846  no  cultivated  varieties  of  American  species  of  gooseberries  were 
mentioned  by  writers,  the  first  reference  according  to  Bailey,  being  in  1849,  in  the 
Northern  FruH  Culturist,  by  Goodrich,  where  the  author  writes:  'We  have  it  from 
good  rjuthoritv  that  native  sorts  have  been  discovered  both  in  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont  well  adapted  to  garden  culture.'  In  1847  the  Houghton's  Seedling  was  ex- 
hibited at  a  meeting  of  the  Massachusetts  Horticultural  Society,  this  being  the  first 
improved  form  of  the  native  gooseberry  of  which  there  is  a  record.  This  variety  was 
originated  or  found  by  Abel  Houghton,  Jr.,  Lynn,  Mass.  It  is  probably  a  seedling  of 
tlie  native  species,  Ribrs  o.ryncanthoirlcs.  The  first  improvement  on  the  Hougliton  was 
the  Downing,  a  seedling  of  the  Houghton,  which  was  originated  by  Charles  Downing, 
Newburgh,  N.Y.,  and  first  brought  into  notice  in  1853.  It  is  thought  by  some  authori- 
ties to  have   been   a  hybrid   between    Houghton    and    Ribes   Grossularia.   the   European 


species.  The  Downing  is  still  more  largely  planted  in  America  than  any  other  variety 
of  gooseberry.  This  is  doubtless  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  comparatively  little  has 
been  done  towards  improving  the  gooseberry  in  America  during  the  past  fifty  years. 
The  most  work  seems  to  have  been  done  by  Dr.  Wm.  Saunders,  Director  of  the 
Dominion  Experimental  Farms,  the  originator  of  the  Pearl,  Red  Jacket,  and  many 
other  seedlings  and  crosses  not  yet  on  the  market.  These  varieties  were  all  originated 
in  London,  Ont.  There  is  a  good  field  for  work  in  improving  the  native  gooseberries, 
as  there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  the  size  should  not  be  equal  to  the  best  English 
varieties.  The  quality  of  the  American  varieties  is  considered  by  some  to  be  better 
than  the  average  English  gooseberry,  but  the  flavor  is  not  nearly  as  good  as  the  best 
English  sorts." 


Pig.  3. — Red  currants  and  corn  in  a  Burlington  orchard. 


The  native  species  of  gooseberries  in  Canada  are  found  growing  very  far 
north,  so  that  eventually  its  culture,  as  with  the  currant,  will  extend  to  those  dis- 
tricts where  other  hush  fruits  and  tree  fruits  are  too  tender  to  stand  the  long 
and  severe  winter. 

The  gooseberry  as  now  grown  is  objectionable  on  account  of  its  thorns,  and 
though  this  may  seem  a  trifling  objection  to  many,  yet  it  is  an  important  con- 
sideration when  picking  times  comes  around.  Breeding  and  selection  will,  no 
doubt,  in  time  produce  a  good  commercial  thornless  gooseberry.  An  English 
variety  has  been  recently  introduced  which  is  said  to  be  thornless.  Also  at  the 
■Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  there  are  several  young  seedlings  which  are 
perfectly  free  of  thorns,  though  probably  it  will  be  some  time  before  a  com- 
anercial  thornless  variety  is  originated  from  them. 

For  culture  in  Ontario,  the  American  gooseberries,  perhaps,  have  most  to 
recommend  them,  the  mildew  being  the  great  drawback  to  the  English  varieties. 
American  varieties  have  vigor,  hardiness,  ease  of  propagation,  and  superior  quality, 


being  inferior  only  in  size,  which  selection  and  'breeding  should  overcome  in  time. 
The  English  varieties,  however,  have  been  largely  planted  of  late  years,  as  good 
methods  have  proved  that  the  mildew  can  be  effectually  controlled.  Then,  too, 
the  jam  factories  are  taking  large  quantities  of  these  varieties,  and  it  is  probably 
to  this  fact  mostly,  that  the  stimulus  in  planting  English  gooseberries  is  owing. 
Also  English  gooseberries  usually  bring  a  higher  price  on  the  market  on  account 
of  their  sizze  and  fine  appearance. 

Propagation. 

The  Currant. — Currants  are  usually  propagated  from  cuttings.  The  cut- 
tings should  be  made  about  six  to  eight  inches  long  and  care  taken  to  make 
the  base  of  the  cutting  square  across  and  just  below  a  bud.     This  facilities  cal- 


FiG.   4. — Whitesmith   gooseberries  growing  under   peach   trees.     Orchard   of 

J.    E.   Henry,  Winona. 


lusing  over  of  the  cut  and  therefore  rooting.  The  upper  cut  should  be  made  at 
least  half  an  inch  above  the  top  bud  so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  the  wood 
drying  out  past  that  point.  A  strong  growth  is  desired  from  the  top  bud,  and  if 
the  wood  is  cut  closer  than  half  an  inch,  the  growth  is  likely  to  be  weakened. 

After  the  cuttings  have  been  made  as  described,  they  may  be  planted  right 
in  the  nursery  row — the  usually  recommended  plan — or  they  may  be  heeled  in. 
Another  method,  and  one  which  is  possiblv  better  than  either  of  the  foregoing, 
is  that  followed  by  Mr.  J.  E.  Henry  of  Winona.  He  takes  the  cuttings  in  the 
late  winter  and  stores  them  in  the  cellar,  thoroughly  covering  them  with  damp 
sawdust  which  holds'  moisture  better  than  sand.  This  covering  with  sawdust  en- 
courages a  mass  of  rootlets  to  start.  Early  in  the  spring  the  cuttings  are  set 
out. 


8 

If  the  method  of  taking  the  cuttings  in  August  or  the  heginning  of  Sep- 
tember and  planting  right  in  the  nursery  row  is  followed,  they  will  be  ready 
to  start  a  good  growth  the  following  spring — providing  the  fall  has  been  favorable. 
It  is  well,  however,  to  cover  the  cuttings  with  a  strong  mulch  to  prevent  heaving 
caused  through  intermittent  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  ground.  The  cuttings 
are  placed  six  to  eight  inches  apart  in  furrows  about  three  feet  apart,  and  in  a 
well-drained  location  where  there  is  no  danger  of  standing  water  at  any  time. 
The  furrow  should  be  deep  enough  so  that  only  the  top  bud  or  two  of  the  cutting 
is  above  ground.  This  in  important  as  the  more  of  the  cutting  there  is  below 
ground,  the  more  roots  will  be  formed  and  the  stronger  the  plant  will  be.  There 
is  also  danger  of  the  cutting  drying  out  too  much  before  rooting  if  too  much 
of  it  is  exposed.  Place  the  cutting  in  the  furrow  in  a  slanting  position  and  firm 
the  earth  well  about  them.  In  a  favorable  season  these  cuttings  should  callus  well 
before  winter  and  perhaps  throw  out  a  few  roots.  During  the  winter  it  is  advis- 
able to  mulch  the  cutting  well  as  previously  stated.  Cultivation  should  be  thor- 
ough and  should  begin  as  early  in  spring  as  possible,  and  be  continued  throughout 
the  season. 

If  the  cuttings  are  heeled  in  over  the  winter,  they  should  be  tied  in  bundles 
and  buried  upside  down  with  soil  to  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  over 
them.  This  heeling  in  upside  down  induces  callusing  of  the  cutting  as  the  base 
is  nearer  the  surface  than  if  right  side  up,  and  gets  more  heat  and  air.  In  a 
few  weeks  the  cuttings  should  have  callused  well,  and  they  may  be  left  here 
over  winter  if  a  little  more  soil  is  spread  over  them  to  prevent  them  drying 
out;  or  if  the  season  is  favorable,  they  may  be  planted  out  in  the  nursery;  or 
they  may  be  buried  in  sand  or  sawdust  over  winter  in  a  cool  cellar. 

The  method,  however,  which  I  think  has  most  to  recommend  it,  is  that  fol- 
lowed by  Mr.  Henry.  It  involves  less  labor  and  handling  of  the  cuttings,  and 
there  is  no  danger,  either,  of  the  cuttings  becoming  harmed  through  bad  weather 
conditions  during  the  winter.  Also,  if  one  may  judge  from  the  plantations  of 
enttings  and  currants  on  Mr.  Henry's  place,  it  produces  plants  as  good  as,  or  better 
than  any  other  method. 

The  Gooseberry. — Gooseberries  are  propagated  by  cuttings  and  by  layering. 
As  cuttings  are  apt  to  be  very  unsatisfactory,  being  hard  to  start  into  growth, 
layering  is  probably  the  safest  and  best  method  to  use.  Propagation  by  cuttings 
would  be  essentially  the  same  as  for  the  currant  so  that  it  need  not  be  again 
discussed.  American  varieties  give  fairly  satisfactory  results  by  the  cutting  method. 
Both  English  and  American  varieties  are  sometimes  propagated  from  green  wood 
cuttings  in  greenhouses. 

Where  mound-layering  or  layering,  as  it  is  more  commonly  called  is  practised 
the  bushes  should  be  pruned  severely  in  the  autumn.  This  will  induce  a  strong 
growth  of  young  wood  the  following  season.  Early  in  July  when  these  shoots 
have  about  completed  their  growth,  earth  is  heaped  around  and  through  the  bushes, 
most  of  which  operation  can  conveniently  be  done  with  the  use  of  a  plow.  The 
work  is  completed  by  heaping  up  earth  until  only  the  tips  of  the  shoots  are  above 
ground.  The  earth  is  then  well  packed  leaving  a  mulch  of  loose  soil  on  top  to 
conserve  the  moisture. 

American  varieties  will  have  rooted  well  by  autumn,  when  the  separate  plants 
may  be  transplanted  to  the  nursery  row  at  once  or  left  till  the  following  spring. 
English  varieties  will  not  be  ready  for  transplanting  till  the  following  autumn 
as  they  usually  take  a  year  longer  to  root  well.     As  with  the  American  varieties, 


the  plants  may  then  be  separated  and  planted  out  in  nursery  rows.  It  is  advisable 
especially  in  the  more  northern  sections,  to  delay  planting  till  the  spring,  or  else 
heavily  mulch  the  transplanted  plants  to  prevent  unfavorable  weather  conditions 


heaving  them  out. 


Soil  and  Location. 


Currants  and  gooseberries  are  surface  feeding  plants,  which  fact  largely  deter- 
mines their  soil  requirements. 

Currants  will  do  well  on  most  soils,  but  prefer  a  cool,  moist,  fairly  heavy 
soil,  as  their  natural  habitat  would  indicate.  A  rich  well-drained  clay  loam  will  be 
found  most  suitable,  (rooseberries'  require  a  similar  type  of  soil,  though  a  little 
heavier  and  moister.  In  dry  soils  gooseberries  are  apt  to  suffer  from  premature 
falling  of  the  foliage,  thus  exposing  the  fruit  so  that  it  becomes  scalded  by  the 
sun's  rays'.  The  surface  of  light  soils,  unless  shaded  by  trees,  gets  very  hot  in 
summer,  which  is  not  best  for  the  fruit  as  it  induces  mildew.  A  northern  exposure 
is  to  be  preferred  for  both  currants  and  gooseberries  as  such  a  location  is  not  so 
likely  to  suffer  in  a  dry  season.  A  northern  site  too,  may  in  part  offset  the  disad- 
vantage of  an  unfavorable  soil. 

Some  reduction  in  the  intensity  of  the  sun's  rays  will  be  found  advantageous, 
especially  with  gooseberries,  shading  and  the  cooler  atmosphere  helping  to 
control  the  mildew.  Gooseberries,  too,  are  susceptible  to  sun  scalding.  They 
scald  very  easily  if  left  out  in  the  hot  sun,  or  if  the  bushes  are  very  open.  Currants 
and  gooseberries  therefore  often  thrive  well  in  the  orchard.  One  of  the  most 
successful  growers  of  gooseberries  in  the  Niagara  district  has  part  of  his  goose- 
berry plantation  in  the  peach  orchard.  He  considers  this  block  of  gooseberries 
as  the  most  profitable  he  has,  and  says  that  the  plants  thrive  better  under  the 
peach  trees  and  bear  far  better  than  where  the  fruit  is  grown  in  the  open ;  also 
the  fruit  is  cleaner  and  freer  from  mildew,  and  the  pickers  find  their  work  more 
agreeable  in  the  shade  of  the  peach  trees.  Further,  there  are  two  crops  coming  off 
the  land — gooseberries  and  peaches.  This  shading  is,  of  course,  most  satisfactory 
and  necessary  in  those  districts,  such  as  the  Niagara,  which  have  a  much  warmer 
climate  than  that  naturally  favored  by  gooseberries.  Mulching  tends  to  accom- 
plish the  same  end,  since  it  keeps  the  soil  shaded  and  cool.  The  above  remarks 
apply  equally  as  well  to  currants,  which  will  also  be  found  to  do  better  in  shaded 
locations,  especially  in  the  southern  parts  of  our  Province. 

The  same  grower,  in  discussing  further  his  gooseberry  plantation  in  the  peach 
orchard,  states  that  in  his  experience  English  gooseberries  thrive  best  on  sandy 
loam  soil.  This  is  somewhat  contrary  to  the  generally  accepted  practice,  but  is 
likely  explained  wholly  or  in  part  by  the  shade  from  the  peach  trees,  which  would 
offset  the  need  of  a  heavier  soil,  that  is,  a  cooler  soil.  Mr.  E.  B.  Whyte  of  Ottawa 
states  that:  "  ^Eildew,  the  ,2Teat  enemy  of  the  English  gooseberry  in  this  country, 
results  from  planting  in  sandy  soils.  The  roots  of  gooseberry  bushes  run  close  to 
the  surface  and  consequently  they  become  scorched.  They  should  be  planted  in  soil 
that  wont  heat,  such  as  heavy  clay  loam."  This  apparently  conflicts  with  the  state- 
ment of  the  Niagara  fruit  grower,  but.  as  noted  above,  the  shading  probably 
acfonnts  for  the  difference  in  opinion. 

Planting. 

Preparation  of  the.  Soil. — Thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  is  necessary 
before  pla'diuir  currants  or  gooseberries.  Thev  are  heavy  feeders  so  that  the  land 
should  receive  a  heavv  dressing  of  well-rotted  stable  manure,  be  plowed  deep,  and 


10 

subsoiled  if  necessary.     The  manure,  if  well  worked  in,  will  help  in  putting  the 
soil  in  the  desired  condition. 

Time  to  Plant. — Fall  planting  is  generally  to  be  recommended  as  currants 
and  gooseberrries  start  growth  very  early  in  the  spring.  Also  they  can  be  planted 
comparatively  early  in  the  fall — September — giving  the  plants  ample  time  to  be- 
come established  before  cold  weather  sets  in.  Spring  planting,  if  done  early  enough, 
has  few  objections,  but  the  trouble  is  that,  there  being  so  much  other  work  to  be 
done  at  that  season  the  planting  is  liable  to  be  neglected  until  after  the  plants 
have  started  growth,  for,  as  stated  above,  currants  and  gooseberries  start  growth 
very  early  in  the  spring.  This  check  will  seriously  affect  the  first  season's 
growth. 

Distance  of  planting. — The  usually  recommended  distance  of  planting  is  four 
feet  apart  in  the  rows  with  the  rows  six  feet  apart.  Currants  are  often  given 
a  little  more  room,  especially  the  black  currants,  which  are  stronger  growers. 
If  it  is  intended  to  cross  cultivate  the  land,  five  feet  apart  each  way  will  be  found 
a  good  distance  to  set  the  plants.  Cross  cultivation  is  commonly  only  needed  at 
intervals.  Allowing  the  plants  plenty  of  room  will  facilitate  spraying  and  picking. 
Planting  six  by  six  feet  would,  perhaps,  be  a  better  distance  to  recommend  gener- 
ally for  red  currants  and  gooseberries,  and  seven  by  seven  feet  for  black  currants. 
Mr.  J.  E.  Henry,  of  Winona,  has  his  black  currant  rows  seven  feet  apart  with  a 
nine-foot  space  every  third  row,  this  extra  large  space  being  partly  to  facilitate 
spraying  with  a  power  sprayer. 

The  following  table  shows  approximately  how  many  plants  to  the  acre  there 
will  be  with  different  distances  of  planting. 


DISTANCE.  PLANTS. 

3  ft.  by  5  ft 2,900 

3  ft.  by  6  ft 2,400 

4  ft.  by  4  ft 2,700 

4  ft.  by  5  ft 2,200 

4  ft.  by  6  ft 1,800 

4  ft.  by  7  ft 1,550 

4  ft.  by  8  ft 1,360 

5  ft.  by  5  ft 1,740 

5  ft.  by  6  ft 1,450 


DISTANCE.  PLANTS. 

5  ft.  by  7  ft 1,240 

5  ft.  by  8  ft 1,100 

6  ft.  by  6  ft 1,200 

6  ft.  by  7  ft 1,040 

6  ft.  by  8  ft 900 

7  ft.  by  7  ft 900 

7  ft.  by  8  ft 780 

7  ft.  by  9  ft 700 

8  ft.  by  8  ft 680 


When  planting  gooseberries  under  trees,  Mr.  L.  B.  Henry  of  Winona,  recom- 
mends the  following  method :  "  Supposing  that  the  trees  are  twenty  feet  apart, 
plant  two  bushes  in  each  tree  row,  placing  the  bushes  six-and-one-half  feet  from 
each  tree  with  a  seven-foot  space  in  the  centre.  This  gives  more  room  than 
when  planted  in  the  open,  but  the  bushes  will  grow  larger  in  the  shade." 

Planting. — The  soil  should  be  in  a  fine  mellow  condition  as  deep  as  plowed, 
and  then  marked  both  ways  the  required  distances  with  furrows  in  one  direction. 
It  is  well  to  make  the  furrows  deeper  than  the  plants  are  to  be  set  so  that  a 
little  fine  top  soil  may  be  placed  under  each  plant.  Eoot  prune  the  plants  before 
setting  as  the  roots  are  usually  more  or  less  bruised  and  torn  from  digging  out 
of  the  nursery  row.  The  plants  will  root  stronger  from  smoothly  cut  roots  than 
from  jagged  and  frayed  ends.  Set  the  plants  a  little  deeper  than  they  were 
in  the  nursery  row.  Pack  the  soil  firmly  about  the  roots  with  the  feet.  It  is 
very  essential  that  this  firming  of  the  soil  be  thoroughly  done,  as  otherwise  there 
is  danger  of  the  soil  drying  out  the  following  summers.     Also  the  soil  being  in 


II 

close  contact  with  the  roots  allows  of  the  plant  making  a  stronger  start.  After 
firming  the  soil,  a  layer  of  loose  fine  earth  should  be  at  the  surface  to  act  as  a 
mulch  and  prevent  the  packed  soil  beneath  from  drying  out.  This  mulch  also 
helps  to  keep  the  soil  beneath  cool  and  moist. 

When  a  few  plants  only  are  to  be  i^lanted  for  home  use,  care  must  be  taken 
to  dig  a  hole  big  enough  so  that  the  roots  of  the  plant  may  be  well  spread  out. 
If  a  >pade  is  just  used  to  pry  a  hole  in  the  ground  and  the  plant  set  in  that 
it  Ciinnot  be  expected  to  thrive. 

Choice  of  Plants. — Strong,  well-rooted  one-year-old  plants  are  as  good  as 
two-year-old  phmts,  and  cost  less  money.  It  is,  however,  essential  to  have  them 
well-rooted.     One-year-old  plants  are  easily  set,  suffer  less  check  in  transplanting 


Fig.  5.— Another  view  in  Mr.  Henry's  peach  orchard,  showing  English  gooseberries 

interplanted. 


than  two-year  plants,  and  make  a  better  growth  than  they  would  during  the  same 
time  in  the  nursery  row.  Two-year  plants  are  quite  often  the  cull  stock  left  at  the 
end  of  the  first  year  after  the  best  year-old  plants  have  been  sold.  They  are 
grown  for  a  second  year  and  then  often  sold  as  No.  1  two-year-olds. 

/ 
Subsequent  Cultivation. 

Conservation  of  moisture,  and  coolness  of  soil,  especially  for  gooseberries,  are 
two  very  important  considerations  with  these  fruits,  hence  cultivation  must  be 
thorough  and  frerpient.  Where  the  climate  will  permit,  a  very  good  plan  is  to 
plow  the  land  in  the  fall,  leaving  a  furrow  down  the  centre  of  each  row  to  drain 
off  the  surplus  moisture.     This  plowing  and   also   all   further  cultivations  must 


12 

be  shallow^  as  the  currant  and  gooseberry  are  both  surface  feeders.  When  the 
plants  are  young  cultivation  in  the  middle  of  the  rows  may  be  fairly  deep,  but  as 
the  roots  extend  across  the  rows,  and  take  up  practically  all  of  the  land,  the 
cultivation  will  have  to  be  shallower  else  the  roots  will  likely  suffer  considerable 
injury.  If  this  fall  plowing  is  found  to  he  doing  any  considerable  damage  it  should 
be  discontinued,  and  the  land  worked  up  with  the  aid  of  harrow  tooth  or  spring 
tooth  cultivator.     If  the  land  is  properly  disked,  plowing  may  be  omitted. 

The  land  should  be  worked  down  with  a  cultivator  or  disc  as'  early  as  possible 
in  the  spring  whether  plowed  the  previous  fall  or  not.  As  a  rule  spring  plowing 
will  be  necessary  if  fall  plowing  is  not  done.  Later  cultivations  should  be  given, 
especially  after  heavy  rainfalls,  to  keep  the  top  soil  in  a  fine,  loose  condition  so  as 
to  conserve  the  moisture  and  keep  the  land  cool.  About  a  week  after  the  crop  has 
been  harvested  all  cultivation  should  cease  in  order  to  allow  the  young  wood  to 
ripen  up  thoroughly  before  winter  sets  in. 

Plenty  of  moisture  and  a  cool  soil  are  especially  important  in  gooseberry 
culture  so  that  its  cultivation  should,  if  anything,  be  more  thorough  than  that  of 
the  currant.  Both  moisture  and  a  cool  soil  are  important  factors  in  controlling 
gooseberry  mildew. 

Fertilizees. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  are  gross  feeders  and  nuist  have  their  food  readily 
available  and  close  at  hand,  as  the  roots  do  not  spread  far  or  deeply.  Thorough 
cultivation  should  therefore  be  supplemented  with  liberal  applications  of  fertilizers. 
Barnyard  manure  is  best  with  perhaps  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  applied  extra 
in  some  form.  Manuring  need  not  be  heavy,  of  course,  until  the  plantation  has 
come  well  into  bearing,  when  annual  applications  should  be  made.  There  is  little 
danger  of  over-fertilizing  the  currant  or  gooseberry  plantation;  in  fact,  as  usually 
grown  the  fertilizer  end  of  the  industry  is  one  of  the  most  neglected.  Cultivation 
and  manuring  must  be  thorough  if  good  results  are  to  be  obtained  from  these  fruits. 
They  will  thrive  fairly  well  under  neglect,  but  there  are  no  fruits  that  will  respond 
more  quickly  or  fully  to  proper  treatment. 

Apply  well-rotted  barnyard  manure  in  the  fall  and  supplement  this  with  a 
dressing  of  potash  and  superphosphate  early  in  spring,  especially  if  the  supply  of 
manure  has  been  deficient.  Card  states  in  his  book  of  bush  fruits  that  currants 
contain  about  0.11  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  and  0.27  per  cent,  of  potash,  while 
stable  manure  contains  only  about  one-third  more  potash  than  phosphoric  acid, 
hence  the  need  of  additional  potash.  The  Massachusetts  State  Experiment  Station 
found  that  applications  of  potash  fertilizers  increased  in  every  case  quality  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  currants. 

Peuning. 

Currants. — Proper  pruning  of  currants  is  essential  to  the  production  of  good 
crops  of  high  quality  fruit.  The  fruiting  habit  of  red  currants  and  black  currants 
differs  somewhat,  so  that  the  pruning  of  one  is  slightly  different  from  the  other. 
Red  currants  bear  their  fruit  on  spurs  from  wood  two  or  more  years  of  age, 
while  the  black  currant  bears  the  most  and  best  of  its  fruit  on  wood  of  the 
previous  season's  growth.  Hence  in  pruning  black  currants  we  must  look  to  the 
production  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  young  wood,  and  in  red  and  white  currants, 
two  and  three  year  wood.     Older  wood  produces  inferior  fruit. 

The  old  plan  of  training  the  plants  to  a  tree  form  is  now  seldom  used.  The 
plants'  are  less  productive,  and  if  attacked  by  the  currant  borer,  the  whole  plant  is 


13 

destroyed  instead  of  one  or  two  shoots.  The  bush  form  plan  is  the  generally  used 
one. 

In  pruning  red  currants  the  object  in  view  should  be  to  practice  a  system 
of  renewal,  having  vigorous  young  growth  always  coming  on  to  take  the  place  of 
the  older  branches  as  they  become  unproductive.  Branches  four  and  five  years 
of  age  are  less  productive  and  should  be  removed.  Two  and  three-year  wood  is  the 
most  productive  and  therefore  most  desirable. 

Some  pruning  may  be  necessary  at  the  end  of  the  first  year  after  planting 
to  get  the  bush  into  shape  and  regulate  the  number  of  main  stems  to  be  left. 
From  four  to  eight  main  stems'  properly  distributed  will  bear  a  good  crop  of 
fruit  and  future  pruning  should  have  in  view  the  maintenance  of  this  number 
of  branches  two  and  three  years  of  age  and  a  few  others  coming  on  to  take  their 
places.  It  is  safe  to  plan  to  keep  all  wood  over  three  years  old  cut  out.  Some 
growers,  according  to  Card,  in  "  Bush  Fruits,"  recommend  that  no  wood  over  two 
years  old  should  be  left.  Broken  branches'  and  unnecessary  young  growth  should 
also  be  cut  out,  or  shortened  back  so  as  to  form  fruiting  spurs. 

The  young  vigorous'  shoots  that  are  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  canes  should 
be  shortened  in  to  prevent  the  bush  from  becoming  straggly,  and  to  force  the 
development  of  fruit  spurs  evenly  along  its  whole  growth  instead  of  mostly  at  the 
ends  of  the  branches.  Thus  the  load  of  fruit  will  be  more  evenly  distributed,  and 
the  hush  will  be  able  to  support  a  large  crop  of  fruit  without  breaking  down. 

Pruning  may  safely  be  done  any  time  when  the  wood  is  dormant  though, 
perhaps',  it  is  as  well  to  delay  pruning  until  shortly  before  growth  begins  in  the 
spring.  This  avoids  any  chance  of  the  wood  drying  back  and,  if  there  has  been 
any  winter  killing  of  unripened  wood,  it  can  then  be  observed  and  cut  out.  Also 
buds  are  easily  injured  in  late  spring  pruning.  Pinching  back  the  young  growth 
is  followed  in  some  countries,  the  object  being  to  develop  fruit  spurs.  In  this 
climate  it  might  have  the  tendency  to  force  buds  into  growth  that  would  not  become 
well  ripened  before  winter  set  in. 

The  pruning  of  black  currants  varies  from  that  of  red  currants'  only  in  so 
far  as  the  main  object  is  the  production  of  plenty  of  one  year  wood.  Pruning 
is  therefore  usually  more  severe  than  for  the  red  currant  as  practically  a  com- 
plete renewal  of  wood  has  to  be  obtained  each  year.  Old  growth  must  be  kept 
well  cut  out. 

Gooseherries. — Mr.  W.   T.  Macoun,  Dominion   Horticulturist,  in  his  bulletin 

oil   P)iish   Fruits,  discusses  pruning  the  gooseberry  as  follows: — 

"  As  the  gooseberry  makes  much  more  wood  than  it  is  desirable  ^to  leave,  severe 
pruning  Is  necessary.  English  varieties  are  usually  trained  to  a  single  stem,  but  this 
is  not  necessary,  although  the  freer  circulation  of  air  when  trained  in  this  way  may 
help  to  prevent  the  spread  of  mildew.  The  usual  custom  in  America  Is  to  grow  the 
gooseberry  in  bush  form.  The  bush  should  at  firsit  be  brought  into  a  good  shape  by 
leaving  a  few  of  the  strongest  shoots  regularly  distributed  to  make  an  open  head. 
Five  or  six  of  these  shoots  are  quite  sufficient  to  leave  at  first.  As  the  bush  gets  older, 
new  shoots  are  allowed  to  grow  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  ones,  as  the  pruning 
should  be  done  with  a  view  to  having  only  vigorous  bearing  wood.  Fruit  is  borne 
on  year-old  wood  and  from  spurs  on  older  wood.  It  usually  is  not  desirable  to  have 
any  wood  more  than  three  years  old.  The  best  time  to  prune  is  in  the  autumn  or 
winter.  The  weakest  young  shoots  should  be  cut  off  at  the  ground,  also  all  the 
stronger  shoots  not  required  for  fruiting  or  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  branches 
to  be  cut  away.  The  side  shoots  from  the  older  branches  should  be  headed  back 
or  cut  out  altogether  so  as  to  maintain  a  fairly  open  head,  making  it  as  easy  as  possible 
to  pick  the  fruit  and  yet  leave  sufficient  wood  to  produce  a  good  crop  and  to  shade 
the  fruit  from  the  sun,  as  in  a  hot,  dry  time  gooseberries  are  liable  to  be  injured  by 
scalding.     When  branches  are  more  than  three  years  of  age  they  should  be  removed  to 


14 

make  way  for  younger  wood.  It  is  advisable  to  cut  out  all  branches  which  touch  the 
ground  as  there  will  then  be  a  better  circulation  of  air,  and  the  fruit  will  be  kept  off 
the  ground.  Gooseberries  will  often  begin  to  bear  the  second  year  after  planting,  but 
there  will  not  be  a  full  crop  until  the  fourth  season.  If  the  soil  is  kept  in  good  con- 
dition by  an  annual  application  of  well-rotten  barnyard  manure  in  the  autumn,  har- 
rowed in  the  following  spring,  and  if  the  bushes  are  kept  sprayed  and  well  pruned,  the 
plantation  will  not  need  to  be  renewed  for  many  years." 

The  important  point  to  remember  is  that  the  finest  fruit  is  borne  on  the 
young  wood.  After  two  or  three  3'ears  of  bearing  the  wood  begins  to  fail  and 
produces  inferior  fruit  in  smaller  quantities.  There  should  always  be  strong, 
vigorous  growth  coming  on  to  take  the  place  of  the  older  wood  as  it  is  cut  out. 
Also  excessive  sunlight  induces  mildew,  as  well  as  scalding,  and  in  pruning  this 
point  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind.  The  bush  must  be  kept  fairly  open  to 
facilitate  picking,  etc.,  but  at  the  same  time  the  fruit  thrives  better  where  it 
is  shaded  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun. 

Eenew^al  of  Plantation. 

In  commercial  planting  it  is  unusually  recommended  to  renew  the  plantation 
of  both  fruits  after  eight  to  ten  years.  The  bushes  will  live  and  'bear  much  longer 
than  this,  but  they  will  not  be  as  vigorous  and  bear  as  much  or  as  fine  fruit  as 
younger  bushes.  However,  with  good  care,  liberal  fertilizing,  and  proper  pruning, 
bushes  may  be  kept  in  a  profitable  condition  for  many  years. 

It  is  a  safe  rule  to  replant  as  soon  as  the  first  trace  of  waning  vigor  is 
detected.  The  advantage  of  young  and  vigorous  plants  will  more  than  repay  the 
•cost  of  replanting.  Bushes  in  the  home  garden  may  be  renewed  and  reinvigorated 
by  cutting  back  to  tlie  ground  and  numuring  heavily. 

PlCKINfi. 

In  picking  red  currants  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  pickers  do  not  strip 
the  fruit  off  the  stem,  leaving  the  stem  attached  to  the  bush.  When  the  fruit 
is  stripped  off  in  this  manner,  the  skin  is  often  broken  and  the  fruit  quickly 
spoils.  Pickers  should  be  instructed  to  take  the  whole  bunch  off  intact.  Varieties 
of  currants  which  have  a  long  clear  space  of  stem  at  the  base  of  the  clusters,  as 
for  example.  Fay,  have  quite  an  advantage,  as  they  can  be  easily  picked  without 
crushing  any  of  the  fruit.  Black  currants  are  picked  by  stripping  the  fruit,  leav- 
ing the  cluster  stem  on  the  bush. 

The  thorny  nature  of  the  gooseberry  bush  complicates  the  picking  of  the  fruit 
to  some  extent,  and  apart  from  making  the  picking  a  more  or  less  disagreeable 
task,  it  increases  the  cost  of  the  operation.  When  picked  green,  the  fruit  may 
be  stripped  off,  the  picker  wearing  gloves  to  protect  the  hands.  After  stripping, 
the  fruit  is  run  through  a  fanning  mill  to  clean  out  the  leaves.  Ripe  fruit  is  too 
easilv  crushed  to  be  gathered  and  cleaned  in  this  manner.  The  berries  must  be 
picked  singly.  For  jam-making  gooseberries  are  picked  as  soon  as  they  reach  full 
size,  but  before  they  begin  to  soften — "  hard  ripe." 

Currants  and  gooseberries  should  never  be  picked  when  they  are  wet.  as  if 
packed  up  and  shipped  in  that  condition  they  wull  soon  spoil.  For  near  markets 
currants  should  not  be  picked  until  almost  fully  ripe,  while  for  a  distant  market, 
tlie  fruit  should  be  picked  while  still  firm,  though  colored. 

Pickers  are  usually  paid  about  fifteen  cents  per  eleven  quart  baskets  for 
red  currants'  and  goose'berries,  and,  as  they  will  pick  from  ten  to  twelve  baskets 
in  a  dav  under  average  conditions,  thev  make  fairlv  good  monev  at  it.     Thirtv- 


15 

five  cents  per  basket  is  paid  for  black  currants,  four  to  five  baskets  a  day  being 
the  average  pick. 

Yields. 

Bailey,  in  his  Farm  and  Garden  Eule  Book,  gives  the  average  jdeld  to  be  ex- 
pected from  currants  and  gooseberries  at  100  bushels  per  acre.  For  gooseberries 
this  seems  very  low. 

In  his  book  on  bush  fruits,  Card  estimates  that  under  proper  management 
the  currant  ought  to  yield  from  100  to  150  bushels  per  acre,  while  he  records  a 
yield  of  320  bushels  per  acre.  Such  a  yield  is,  however,  out  of  the  ordinary,  and 
should  not  be  taken  as  a  basis  for  estimates. 

Mr.  W.  T.  Macoun,  of  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  states  that  the 
Eankin's  red  currant,  the  largest  yielder  with  them,  averaged  for  four  years  at  the 
rate  of  8,107  lbs.  or  over  202  bushels  per  acre. '   The  Eed   Dutch  averaged  over 


Fig.  6.— Crate  commonly  used  in  British  Columbia  for  shipping  currants, 
T:-  ^  dimensions  of  the  crate  are  23  in.  long,  16V^  in.  wide  and  5%  in, 
deep,  and  it  holds  twenty-four  4-5  quart  baskets  5^4  in.  by  S^i  in.  by  2  in. 

183  bushels  to  the  acre,  the  Saunders  black  currant  163  bushels,  and  the  Kerry 
159  bushels  per  acre. 

With  gooseberries,  Card  estimates  that  full  grown  vigorous  plants  ought  to 
yield  from  five  to  eight  quarts  per  plant,  or  roughly  speaking,  from  300  to  500 
bushels  per  acre,  with  plants  four  by  six  feet  apart.  At  the  Central  Experimental 
Farm,  six  bushels  of  Pearl  Gooseberry  have  averaged  over  a  period  of  five  years 
at  the  rate  of  310  bushels  per  acre,  while  the  highest  individual  yield  was  esti- 
mated at  a  rate  of  over  680  bushels  to  the  acre.  These  bushes  were  planted  six 
feet  by  four. 

Mr.  L.  B.  Henry,  of  Winona,  states  that  their  Whitesmitli  patch  of  600  bushes 
planted  in  the  peach  orchard  averaged  six  quarts  each,  or  112  bushels  for  the 
whole  patch.  Estimating  this  per  acre,  plants  five  feet  by  seven,  the  yield  would 
be  about  230  bushels.  These  figures  are  not  as  high  as  those  given  by  Card, 
but  are  mostly  actual  figures,  and  therefore  entirely  reliable,  and  indicate  what 
yields  may  be  expected  under  intelligent  and  proper  management. 


16 

•  Markets  and  Prices. 

Prices  for  currants  and  gooseberries  are  uniformly  higher  now  than  they  were 
several  years  ago,  and  there  is  every  indication  that  prices  for  good  fruit  will 
remain  good.  Twelve  or  fourteen  years  ago  currants  could  hardly  be  disposed  of 
at  any  price,  while  during  the  last  two  years',  prices  on  the  Toronto  markets  have 
ranged  from  sixty-five  cents  to  $1  and  over  per  eleven-quart  basket  for  red  cur- 
rants. In  1900,  the  LTOwers  received  sixt3'--five  cents  per  twenty  lb.  basket  for 
black  currants,  while  the  ruling  price  during  1913  was  $1.50  to  $1.75  per  eleven- 
quart  basket,  much  of  the  fruit  selling  at  $2.  White  currants  find  practically  no 
sale  whatever. 

Mr.  L.  B.  Plenry,  Winona,  was  kind  enough  to  supply  the  writer  with  the 
following  prices  taken  from  their  shipping  books: — 

Black  currants,  1901,  80  to  90  cents;   1912-1.3,  $1.75-$1.95. 

Red  currants,  1901,  50  to  60  cents;    1912-13,  60-75c. 

Gooseberries    (English),  1912-13,  90   cents  to  $1. 

Gooseberries    (American),   55   to   60  cents. 

(All  prices  net  to  grower  per  eleven-quart  baskets,  f.o.b.  shipping  point.) 

Prices'  in  detail   on   the  Toronto  market  during  the  season  of  1913   were  as 

follows : — 

♦  Toronto  Market.  1913. 

Date.  Red  Currants.  Black  Currants.  Gooseberries. 

July     4                         $0  65  to  $1  35 

10  $0  65  to  $0  85           60  to  1  25 

15  75  to    85           75  to    85 

22  85  to  1  00  $1  50  to  $1  75  85  to  1  00 

29  85  to  1  00  1  75  to  2  00  75  to  1  00 

Aug.  13  75  to    85  1  00  to  1  50          

All  prices  given  for  11-quart  basket. 

Jas.  E.   Parnall,  Western  Market  Commissioner  for   Ontario,  reported   from 
Winnipeg  on  August  8th,  1912,  as  follows: — 

"  A  few  crates  of  red  currants  coming  forward  from  Ontario,  arriving  in  good 
condition.  Demand  good,  selling  from  $3.20  to  $3.40  per  crate  of  24  boxes.  Market 
wants  more.  Some  Washington  currants  in,  costing,  laid  down  here,  $2.75  per  crate 
of  16  quarts.  Size  and  quality  of  fruit  not  equal  to  Ontario  fruit,  but  appearance  and 
size  of  package  about  equalizes  the  appearance  and  quality  of  fruit.  Had  our  fruit 
been  in  same  class  of  packages  better  prices  would  have  been  realized,  for  in  some 
cases  the  bottom  boxes  were  damaged." 

/ 

i 

The  McNaughton  Fruit  Exchange,  Winnipeg,  out  of  mixed  cars  of  fruit  sold 
as  follows: — 

Aug.     3. — Red  currants,  $1.90,  6  qt.  basket. 

Aug.  13. — Red  currants,  $3.05,  per  24  box  crate;   fruit  a  little  over-ripe. 

Aug.  15. — Black   currants,   $1.60   per   6   qt.   basket. 

Aug.  16. — Red  currants,  $2.10  per  24  box  crate;    fruit  in  bad  shape. 

The  prices  given  are  wholesale  for  1912.  1913  figures  are  not  available,  as 
Ontario  had  no  markets  commissioner  in  the  West  that  year.  However,  prices 
during  1913  ranged  uniformly  higher  than  for  1912. 

Currants  and  gooseberries,  if  picked  at  the  right  time,  and  properly  bandied 
will  stand  long  distance  shipment  such  as  to  the  Western  market  with  very  little,  if 
any,  deterioration.  When  they  arrive  in  bad  condition,  the  fault  can  usually  be 
traced  to  over-ripe  fruit,  picking  when  wet,  or  careless  handling  and  improper  load- 


17 

ing  of  the  car.  Of  course  part  of  the  trouble,  too,  can  often  be  traced  to  poor  trans- 
portation facilities  cars  being  from  one  to  several  days  too  long  on  the  journey  out. 
Apart  from  the  markets  briefly  touched  on  in  the  foregoing  remarks,  the 
jam  factories  are  taking  increasingly  large  quantities  of  currants  and  gooseberries 
each  year,  at  fairly  renninerative  prices.  The  English  gooseberries  are  favored 
by  the  factories  on  account  of  their  larger  size. 

Packages. 

Currants  and  gooseberries  are  usually  sold  in  the  eleven  quart  basket,  and 
for  local  markets  such  a  package  will  suit.  For  long  distance  shipment,  however, 
currants  should  be  put   in  packages  where  there  will  not  be  such  a  great  bulk  of 


Fig.  7. — ^Crate  commonly  used  in  British  Columbia  for  shipping  plums  and 
prunes.  Used  also  for  shipping  currants  and  gooseberries.  Dimensions 
15%  X  15%  X  41/4,  to  hold  four  Veneer  Tin  Top  baskets  as  shown. 


fruit  together  as  in  the  eleven  cpiart  basket.  If  packed  in  the  twenty-four  box 
crate,  they  will  carry  much  better  and  arrive  in  a  much  more  satisfactory  condition. 
Gooseberries  may  be  shipped  to  the  west  satisfactorily  in  the  eleven-quart  basket. 
Two  types'  of  fruit  packages  coininonly  used  in  British  Columbia  for  shipping 
currants  aiut  gooseberries  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustrations. 

In  this  regard  it  might  be  well  to  note  what  Jas.  E.  Parnall  has  to  say  in 
reference  to  packages  in  the  paragraph  quoted  above.  He  states  that  Ontario 
fruit  was  better  quality  than  the  American  fruit,  but  this  was  equalized  by  the 
inferior  appearance  of  the  Ontario  packages.  It  Avould  appear  from  this  that 
Ontario  growers  are  actually  losing  money  through  ship])ing  Iheir  currants  and 
gooseberries  in  the  present  packages.     Appearance  of  package  counts  for  a  great 


18 


Fig.  S.^Fay. 


19 

deal  with  the  ultinuite  consumer  and  it  is  the  tastes  of  the  ultimate  consumer 
which,  in  the  final  analysis,  have  to  be  catered  to. 

Costs  and  Returns. 

Following  are  the  figures  of  two  leading  fruit  growers,  and  although  any- 
such  figures  can  be  merely  approximate  and  not  actual  results,  yet  they  are  valu- 
able as  showing  reasonably  accurately  the  cost  of  the  various  cultural  operations, 
and  the  probable  returns  under  proper  management. 

Mr.  Robt.  Thompson.  St.  Catharines,  was  kind  enough  to  furnish  the  writer 
with  the  following  estimates : — 

One  acre  One  acre 

Red  Currants  Gooseberries 

Rent  of  land  per  year  (one  acre)    $10  00  $10  00 

Taxes    2  50  2  50 

Preparation    of   land    4  00  5  00 

Cultivating  during    season    3  40  3  40 

Spraying    materials    14  00  14  00 

Pruning    4  00  8  00 

Fertilizers    ; 18  00  18  00 

Picking  and    packing    70  00  60  00 

Crates   and    marketing    50  00  25  00 

Cost  of  management    15  00  15  00 

Depreciation   and    anrual    share   of   cost    of   plants 

and    planting    22  00  30  00 

$212  90  $190  90 
Selling  200   24-box   crates   red    currants   at   $1.60..     320  00 

Selling  300  11-qt.  baskets  gooseberries  at  $1.00 300  00 

Net    profit    $107  10  $109  10 

Mr.  Thompson  further  estimates  that  the  cost  of  plants  and  planting  for  one 
acre  of  currants  (1.400  plants  to  the  acre)  is  $76,  and  gooseberries  (1,320  plants 
to  the  acre)  $208.  The  last  items  of  expenditure  given,  $22  and  $30,  in  the 
tabulated  estimates  are  reckoned  as  a  fair  proportion  for  each  year  to  bear  of  de- 
preciation and  the  initial  cost  of  plants  and  planting  as  noted  above.  The  yields 
given  are  those  to  be  expected  from  patches  four  to  eight  years'  planted  in  the  case 
of  currants  and  five  to  ten  years  with  gooseberries. 

The   figures  given   below  were  supplied   through   the  courtesy  of  Mr.   L.   B. 

Henry,  Winona: 

One  acre  One  acre 

Black  Currants  Gooseberries 

Rent  of  land  per  year  (one  acre)    $15  00  $15  00 

Taxes    2  00  2  00 

Preparation  of  land    5  00  '                 5  00 

Cultivating  during  season    5  00  5  00 

Spraving    and    materials    5  00  10  00 

Pruning  10  00  10  00 

Fertilizers   15  00  15  00 

Picking  and  packing   70  00  60  00 

Baskets  and   marketing    19  00  28  00 

Cost  of  management    25  00  25  00 

Depreciation    and    annual    share   of   cost   of   plants 

and    planting    20  00  30  00 

$191   00  $205  00 

Selling  200  baskets  black  currants  at  $1.75    350  00 

Selling  350  baskets  of  gooseberries  at  90c 315  00 

Net  profit $159  00  $110  00 


20 


31 


FfQ.  10.— White  Grape. 


00 


Fig.  11. — Champion. 


23 

Mr.  Henry  states  that  the  initial  cost  of  plants  and  planting  would  be  $73.50 
for  black  currants  (1245  plants  to  the  acre)  and  $190.25  for  gooseberries  (1,200 
plants  to  the  acre).  As  in  Mr.  Thompson's  estimate,  the  last  item  of  expenditure 
is  intended  for  depreciation  and  a  fair  annual  share  of  the  above  initial  expenditure. 

Mr.  Henry's  currant  figures  are  for  the  black,  and  Mr.  Thompson's  for  the 
red  varieties,  hence  t!.e  difference  in  yields  and  returns. 

Uses  of  Curraxts  and  Gooseberries. 

The  currant  is  unequalled  for  jelly-making,  and  for  this  purpose  the  red 
varieties  are  preferred  on  account  of  their  higher  color.  The  currant,  also,  owing 
to  its  acidity  is  valuable  for  addition  when  cooking,  preserving,  or  making  jelly 
from  other  fruits  lacking  acidity  or  sprightliness.  Black  currants  are  especially 
adapted  to  the  making  of  jam  and  pies.  They  are  also  considered  to  be  of  medicinal 
value  in  cases  of  inflammation  or  soreness  of  the  throat,  and  moreover,  the  beverage 
said  to  allay  this  inflammation  is  an  exceedingly  pleasant  one  to  drink  under  any 
circumstances.  Black  currant  jam  and  red  currant  jelly  would  be  welcome  addi- 
tions to  any  home. 

The  gooseberry  is  pre-eminent  as  a  stewed  fruit  and  for  pie-making,  either 
from  fresh  or  canned  stock.  They  make  excellent  jelly  also.  In  the  fresh  and  fully 
ripe  state  they  are  a  most  desirable  fruit  for  eating  out  of  hand,  especially  the 
English  varieties,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  in  time  this  quality  of  the  gooseberry 
will  be  more  generally  appreciated.  It  is  a  great  pity  at  the  present  time  that  more 
of  this  fruit  is  not  consumed  in  this  way.  Those  who  know  rank  the  gooseberry  as 
one  of  the  finest  dessert  fruits  if  allowed  to  ripen  on  the  plant,  and  as  there  are 
none  of  the  ill-effects  usually  attendant  on  the  eating  of  the  green  fruit  one  need 
have  no  fear  on  that  score. 

Varieties. 

The  selection  of  varieties  is  an  important  point  and  should  be  given  careful 
consideration.  Some  varieties  succeed  well  in  some  localities  and  are  highly 
recommended  by  the  growers  of  that  district,  while  they  are  looked  upon  as  a  more 
or  less  failure  in  other  localities.  It  is  well,  therefore,  when  deciding  upon  what 
varieties  to  plant  to  make  careful  enquiry  as  to  what  varieties  are  succeeding 
best  for  that  district.  For  example:  Mr.  Macoun  has  found  that  the  red  currants 
of  the  Fay  type  are  too  tender  for  the  Ottawa  district.  The  Versaillosse,  Fertile 
d' Angers,  Fay,  Cherry,  and  Wilder  amongst  others  have  all  been  found  to  suffer 
from  injury  to  the  buds  during  winter. 

No  technical  descriptions  of  varieties  will  be  attempted  in  this  bulletin,  the 
commercial  value  only  of  the  different  varieties  being  considered.^  For  technical 
descriptions  the  reader  is  referred  to  "  Fruits  of  Ontario,"  published  by  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture. 

Eed  Currants. — The  usually  recommended  varieties  of  red  currants  for 
Ontario  are :  Cherry,  Fay,  Eed  Cross,  Victoria  and  Wilder,  and  to  this  list  I  would 
add  Greenfield  (recommended  by  Mr.  W.  T.  Macoun)  and  Perfection. 

Of  the  above  varieties  the  Chern/  and  Fai/  are  probably  the  most  extensively 
grown  in  Ontario.  They  are  very  similar  in  appearance  except  that  the  bunch 
of  the  Cherry  is  more  compact.  The  stem  of  the  Fay  is  longer  than  that  of  the 
Cherry,   thus"  facilitating  picking.     Both    are   lieaxy   croppers   and    very  desirable 

varieties. 

The  Wilder  is  largely  planted  in  the  States,  and  is  highly  thought  of  there, 
but  is  comparatively  little  plnnt<>(l   in   Ontario  as  yet.     It  is  certainly  worthy  of 


24 


Fk;,  12.— Black  Victoria. 


Fic.  i:^. — Eclipse. 


26 


Fig.  14. — Downing. 


27 

more  general  planting  in  this  country  for  the  milder  districts  as  it  has  been  found 
tender  in  fruit  bud  at  Ottawa.  Its  mild  flavor  and  good  quality  make  it  an 
excellent  sort  where  a  table  fruit  is  desirable. 

The  Red  Victoria  is  one  of  our  best  currants  for  all  round  parposes.  It  com- 
bines long,  well-filled  bunches  of  good-sized  fruit  of  medium  quality  with  hardiness 
and  productiveness.  It  will  succeed  well  where  Cherry,  Fay  and  Wilder  would 
be  tender. 

The  Red  Cross  is  one  of  our  newer  varieties.  It  is  becoming  popular  for  market 
and  home^  use  on  account  of  the  large  size  of  the  fruit  and  its  productive  habits. 
An  objection  to  it  is  that  the  bunches  are  of  only  small  to  medium  size. 

Perfection  and  Greenfield  are  comparatively  little  known,  though  they  are 
two  very  promising  varieties.  The  Perfection  is  a  strong  grower,  though  reported 
to  be  rather  slowgrowing  when  young.  It  is  a  very  productive  variety  bearing  ex- 
ceedingly bright,  attractive-looking  fruit  of  very  large  size  in  well-filled  clusters. 
It  should  prove  a  very  desirable  and  profitable  variety  for  home  and  market  pur- 
poses. The  Greenfield,  originated  by  S.  Greenfield,  Ottawa  East,  Ont.,  is  described 
by  Mr.  Macoun  as  being  a  productive  variety  of  very  large  fruit,  well-filled  bunches, 
quality  above  medium.  Mr.  Macoun,  in  recommending  it,  says:  "I  do  not  know 
whether  it  could  be  obtained  in  the  trade,  but  we  could  supply  cuttings  to  anyone 
who  might  write  for  them." 

The  Prince  Albert,  a  late  variety,  bearing  fruit  of  medium  size  in  long,  well- 
filled  bunches,  should  perhaps  be  included  in  the  above  recommended  list.  It  is  a 
good  late  variety  and  would  be  found  useful  in  lengthening  out  the  season. 

White  Currants.— Except  for  home  use,  the  planting  of  white  currants  is 
not  to  be  recommended,  as  there  is  practically  no  demand  for  them  on  the  market 
at  the  present  time.  The  White  Grape  variety  will  be  found  excellent  for  home 
use,  being  mild  and  of  ver^'  good  quality.  For  eating  out  of  hand  it  is  one  of  the 
most  desirable  varieties,  whether  red  or  white. 

Black  Currants.— Black  Victoria,  Champion,  Lee,  Boskoop  Giant,  Saunders 
and  Naples  are  the  usually  recommended  varieties.  Mr.  W.  T.  Macoun  considers 
that  five  varieties,  Kerry,  Clipper,  Eclipse,  Climax  and  Collin's  Prolific  which  have 
been  under  observation  at  the  Central  Experimental  Farm  are  equal  to  or  better 
than  the  varieties  generally  planted  throughout  the  Province.  The  first  four  of 
these  were  originated  by  Dr.  William  Saunders  from  seedlings  which  he  took  from 
London,  Ont.,  to  the  Central  Experimental  Farm  at  Ottawa  in  1887. 

Mr.  L.  B.  Henry,  in  discussing  the  varieties  of  black  currants  before 
the  1913  Fruit  Growers'  Association  Convention  spoke  as  follows:  "As  regards 
black  currants,  I  only  grow  one  variety,  having  found  it  to  be  the  best  with  us,  that 
is  the  Blach  Naples.  It  is  a  strong  and  vigorous  grower  and  is  very^  prolific.  The 
buds  are  borne  on  short  clusters  and  very  well  distributed  over  the  bush. 

"  The  Champion  is  not  so  vigorous.  It  comes  in  about  five  days  to  a  week 
later  than  Naples  and  this  may  be  a  point  in  its  favor,  as  it  can  be  planted  along 
with  the  Naples  and  will  make  a  yield  that  will  surprise  you.  But  we  have  found 
one  fault  with  it — the  fruit  does  not  ripen  evenly :  that  is  to  say,  the  fruit  may  be 
ripe  on  some  parts  of  the  bush  and  partly  green  on  the  other  sections  and  for  that 
reason  it  requires  more  time  to  pick  the  fruit  properly. 

"  The  Victoria  is  another  black  currant  which  is  very  well  known.  It  is  very 
vigorous,  perhaps  more  so  than  any  other  variety  I  have  mentioned,  but  in  our 
district  it  is  not  as  heavy  a  cropper  as  Naples  or  Champion.  I  have  no  doubt  some 
of  you  will  think  that  is  wrong,  because  I  have  hcnrrl  that  Victoria  in  some 
districts  is  one  of  the  best  currants  there." 


28 


P^iG.  15. — Houghton. 


29 

The  Victoria  ripens  unevenly  like  the  Champion  and  is  also  of  late  season, 
though  not  quite  as  late  as  Champion.  The  fruit  is  large,  but  in  medium-sized 
clusters  only. 

The  Boskoop  Giant  black  currant  has  been  attracting  considerable  attention  of 
late,  and  if  it  lives  up  under  general  culture  to  advance  promises,  it  should  prove 
one  of  our  most  valuable  commercial  varieties  combining,  as  it  does,  size  and 
quality  of  fruit,  size  of  bunch  and  productiveness.  It  is  most  highly  commended  by 
growers  who  have  given  it  a  good  test. 

The  Saunders,  another  of  Dr.  Saunders'  seedlings,  is  a  most  promising  com- 
mercial variet}',  and  has  been  under  general  culture  for  some  years  now.  It  is  a 
very  productive  variety  and  a  strong  grower. 

Kerry  is  considered  by  Mr.  Macoun  to  be  one  of  the  most  promising  for  com- 
mercial purposes  on  account  of  its  great  productiveness  and  quality  of  fruit.  Clipper 
and  Climax  are  also  strong  growing  productive  new  varieties  of  medium  to  late 
season,  and  with  Eclipse,  an  early  season  currant,  are  very  highly  thought  of  at 
the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa.  In  a  table  Mr.  Macoun  has  worked 
out,  based  on  the  productiveness  of  the  different  varieties  of  black  currants,  Saunders 
comes  second.  Kerry  third,  Clipper  sixth,  Eclipse  seventh,  Collins^  Prolific  eighth 
and  Climax  ninth.  Tlnee  other  varieties,  Ogden,  Ontario  and  Eagle,  occupying 
first,  fourth  and  fifth  places  respectively,  are  not  considered  as  good  as  the 
former  varieties  for  various  reasons,  such  as  quality,  evenness  of  ripening,  etc. 
It  is  worthy  of  more  than  passing  notice  that  the  usually  recommended  varieties 
occupy  the  last  half  of  the  table  mentioned,  which  included  thirty-three  varieties. 
Lee  is  twenty-second.  Champion  thirtieth.  Victoria  thirty-first  and  Naples  thirty- 
third.  Locality,  of  course,  might  have  something  to  do  with  this  low  showing  of 
these  varieties,  though  Mr.  Macoun  thinks  not,  but  thinks  the  newer  varieties, 
Kerry,  etc.,  are  simply  better. 

If  Kerry,  Clipper,  Eclipse  and  Climax  cannot  be  obtained  from  any  of  the 
nurseries,  cuttings  can  be  secured  from  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa. 
Collins'  Prolific  has  been  on  the  market  for  some  time,  and  is  considered  one  of  the 
best  commercial  late  varieties,  though,  quality  and  productiveness  combined,  it  is 
not  equal  to  the  former  varieties. 

Gooseberries. — Pearl,  Downing,  Red  Jacket,  Smith's  Improved,  of  the  Ameri- 
can varieties,  and  Whitesmith,  Industry  and  Kee]\*ake,  of  the  English  varieties,  are 
generally  considered  to  be  the  best. 

The  Pearl  and  Doivning  gooseberries  are  very  similar  in  size  and  appearance, 
the  Pearl  averaging  perhaps  a  little  larger.  These  two  and  the  Red  Jacket  or 
Josselyn  are  the  three  most  popular  gooseberries  of  American  origin.  They  are  all 
free  from  mildew,  vigorous  and  very  productive.  The  Downing  is  -probably  the 
most  widely  planted  in  Canada.  The  Smith's  Improved,  a  seedling  of  Houghton, 
originated  on  the  American  side  and  is  well  recommended  bv  American  growers. 
It  is  not  as  well  known  in  Ontario  as  the  Pearl  and  Downing,  but  is  highly  spoken 
of  by  several  Canadian  growers.  L.  B.  Tlenry  highly  recommends  it,  placing  it 
before  Red  Jacket. 

Houghton,  nn  American  variety  not  included  in  those  recommended,  is  a  very 
productive  variety  of  good  quality,  sweet-flavored  fruit,  and  until  the  advent  of  the 
Downing,  it  was  the  most  popular  gooseberry.  The  fruit,  however,  is  small,  though 
it  is  a  very  hardy  variety  and  perhaps  should  therefore  be  iiicludod  in  the  recom- 
mended list.  It  will  thrive  where  many  of  our  otherwise  better  \arioties  will  suffer 
from  the  severe  winters,  probably  being  the  onlv  variety  of  nici-il  that  will  thrive 
in  the  Prairie  Provinces. 


30 


Fig.  16. — Whitesmith. 


31 

The  Whitesmith  is  probably  the  best  of  the  English  varieties  grown  to  any 
extent  in  Ontario.  It,  and  Industry,  are  commonly  supposed  to  be  freer  from 
mildew  than  other  English  varieties.  The  experience  of  Mr.  Macoun  was  that  they 
both  mildewed  rather  badly  at  Ottawa.  Thorough  spraying,  however,  will  control 
the  mildew. 

Mr.  K.  B.  Whyte,  of  Ottawa,  has  several  very  promising  varieties  of  English 
gooseberries  and  seedlings  of  the  same  in  his  garden.  The  value  of  those  that 
succeed  with  him  for  other  parts  of  the  Province  is,  however,  hard  to  estimate, 
as  the  conditions  under  which  his  gooseberries  grow  would  be  impracticable  for 
commercial  culture.  His  best  varieties  and  seedlings  are,  however,  certainly  worthy 
of  trial. 

THE  MOST  IMPORTANT   DISEASES   OF   CURRANTS   AND 

GOOSEBERRIES. 

]..     CAESAE,    PROVINCIAL    ENTOMOLOGIST. 

Powdery  Mildew  of  the  Gooseberry  {Sphaerotheca  mors-uvae). — This  dis- 
ease is  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  successful  groAving  of  European  varieties  of  goose- 
berries in  Ontario.  It  attacks'  the  American  varieties  also,  but  only  to  a  very  small 
extent,  and  is  sometimes  found  on  ciirrants,  rarely  doing  much  damage  to  them. 
Affected  gooseberry  plants  show  the  disease  first  on  the  young  leaves  and  tender  tips 
of  the  new  growth.  It  then  spreads  to  the  young  fruits  soon  after  these  are  formed. 
All  the  diseased  parts  are  soon  covered  over  with  a  white  powdery  substance  from 
which  numerous  summer  spores  are  carried  by  the  wind  from  place  to  place.  Later 
in  the  season  this  whitish  covering  begins  to  brown  and  thicken,  forming  a  dense 
felty  coat  over  the  affected  parts  including  the  fruit.  In  this  brown  substance  the 
winter  spore  cases  are  formed  and  from  these  in  spring  the  disease  is  spread.  As  a 
result  of  the  fungus  the  growth  of  the  twigs  is  stunted  and  the  affected  fruits 
drawfed  and  rendered  useless.     Frequently  nearly  the  Avhole  crop  is  ruined. 

It  is  usually  believed  that  warm  climates  and  lack  of  air  circulation  favor  the 
disease. 

Means  of  Control. — Bordeaux  mixture  has  given  poor  results.  Potassium  sul- 
phide, 1  ounce  to  2  gallons,  has  given  fair  satisfaction,  but  the  best  results  have 
been  obtained  from  lime-sulphur.  At  least  three  applications  should  be  given.  The 
first  should  be  shortly  before  the  buds  begin  to  burst,  using  the  same  strength 
as  for  the  dormant  spray  on  apples,  namely  commercial  lime-sulphur  diluted  about 
1  gallon  to  9  or  10  gallons  with  water,  or  a  specific  gravity  strength  of  about  1.030. 
The  second  application  should  be  soon  after  the  leaves  appear,  but  before  the  blos- 
soms open.  Use  lime-sulphur  specific  gravity  1.015  (commercial  diluted  1  gallon 
to  20).  The  third  shortly  after  the  fruit  has  set.  Use  lime-sulphur  specific  gravity 
1.010  (commercial  1  gallon  diluted  to  30).  The  fourth  application  may  be  made 
in  about  10  days  after  the  third  and  may  be  a  little  weaker.  Care  should  of  course 
be  taken  to  see  that  every  particle  of  the  plants  is  covered  each  time.  It  will  also 
help  to  prune  the  plants  or  support  them  so  that  no  branches  will  rest  on  the 
ground. 

Currant  Anthracnose  (Pseudopeziza  nbis). — -This'  disease  attacks  the  vari- 
ous kinds  of  currants,  being  most  destructive  on  the  white  and  red,  and  usually 
doing  much  less  damage  to  the  black.  It  seems  to  be  only  rarely  found  on  the 
gooseberry.  The  leaves  alone  are  attacked.  On  them  the  disease  causes  small  brown 
areas,  chiefly  on  the  upper  surface.    When  these  spots  are  very  abundant  the  leaves 


32 

become  a  sickly  yellow  color  and  drop  off,  thus  interfering  with  the  plant's  power 
to  store  up  food  for  the  coming  season. 


Fig.   17. — Powdery  Mildew  of  Gooseberry.     (After   Close.) 

Means  of  Control. — A'ery  few  careful  tests  of  control  measures  have  been  made, 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  the  first  three  applications  mentioned  above  for  the 
control  of  gooseberry  mildew,  followed  by  a  fourth  application  as  soon  as  possible 
after  the  crop  has  been  harvested  would  control   the  disease.     Bordeaux  mixture 


Fig.  18. — Currant  Anthracnose  on  Leaf. 
(After  Duggar.) 


4-4-40  or  lime  sulphur  may  be  used.  If  the  latter  is  chosen  the  first  application 
may  be  at  the  strength  mentioned  above  for  mildew,  but  the  second  application  need 
not  be  stronger  than  specific  gravity  1.010  (commercial  1  gallon  diluted  to  30),  nor 
the  third  than  about  1.009  (commercial  1  gallon  diluted  to  33  to  35)  nor  the  fourth 
than  about  1.008  (commercial  1  gallon  diluted  to  35  to  40). 


CuREANT  Leaf-Spot  (Sepforia  ribis).- — This  disease  attacks  the  various  kinds 
of  currants  and  gooseberries,  and  seems  to  be  quite  common  throughout  the  Pro- 
vince. As  it,  like  the  one  inentioned  above,  causes  spots  on  the  leaves  and  when 
very  severe  in  its  attack  causes  them  to  turn  a  sickly  yellow  color  and  drop,  much 
after  the  manner  of  the  Anthracnose,  it  is  very  easy  to  confuse  the  two  diseases. 
A  microscopic  examination,  however,  shows  that  the  spores  are  very  different  in 
appearance.  Moreover  the  spots  caused  by  Anthracnose  are,  as  a  rule,  brown 
throughout,  while  those  caused  by  the  Leaf-spot  have  usually  white  or  grayish-white 
centres  and  brown  borders. 

Means  of  Control. — Some  tests  with  lime-sulphur  made  by  the  writer  show  that 
the  disease  can  be  prevented  by  spraying.  For  best  results  at  least  four  applications 
should  be  given.  The  first  before  the  buds  burst,  using  lime-sulphur  specific  gravity 
strength  1.030    (commercial  1  gallon  diluted  to  9  or  10)  ;  the  second  just  before 


Fig.  19. — Currant  Leaf-spot.   (Original.) 

the  blossoms  appear,  specific  gravity  1.010  (commercial  diluted  1  gallon  to  30)  ; 
the  third  soon  after  the  fruit  is  set,  specific  gravity  1.009  (commercial  1  gallon  to 
33  to  35)  ;  and  the  fourth  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  fruit  is  picked,  using  a 
slightly  more  diluted  strength.  Bordeaux  mixture  instead  of  lime-sulphur  has  also 
been  used  satisfactorilv  to  control  the  disease. 


THE  CHIEF  IXSECT  PESTS  OF  CUREAXTS  AND  GOOSEBEEPIES. 

L.  Caesar,  Provincial  Entomologist. 
The  Imported  Currant  Worm  or  Currant  Sawfly  (Pteromis  rihesii). — The 
most  common  and  destructive  insect  attacking  both  currants  and  gooseberries  in 
Ontario  is  the  Imported  Currant  Worm  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  the  Currant 
Sawfly.  The  larvse  are  greenish  caterpillars  almost  three-quarters  of  an  inch  long 
when  full  grown  and  with  black  heads  and  many  black  spots  over  the  body.  The 
adults  are  four-winged  insects  known  as  Sawflies.  The  female  is  about  the  size 
of  a  house  fly  and  has  a  black  head  a]ul  conspicuous  honey-colored  body:  the  male 
is  smaller  and  blackish.    Adults  appear  soon  after  the  leaves  come  out  and  lay  eggs 


34 

in  chains  along  the  veins  of  the  underside  of  the  leaves.  These  soon  hatch  and  the 
young  larvae  feed  on  the  foliage^  often  being  most  numerous  in  the  central  parts 
of  the  plants,  and  doing  much  damage  there  before  attacking  the  outer  leaves.  The 
foliage  in  many  a  plantation  is  almost  entirely  destroyed,  only  the  main  veins  and 
the  fruits  being  left.  There  are  two  broods  in  a  year,  the  larvae  of  the  second 
appearing  about  the  time  the  currants  are  ripening.  When  the  larvae  are  full 
grown  they  enter  the  ground  and  make  earthen  cocoons.  The  winter  is  spent  in 
there. 

Means  of  Control. — Fortunately  this  pest  is  easily  controlled  by  spraying  with 
arsenicals.  The  first  application  should  be  with  2  pounds  of  Arsenate  of  lead  to 
40  gallons  of  diluted  lime-sulphur,  or  of  Bordeaux  mixture  applied  Just  before  the 


I    6    \ 


Fig  20. — Imported  Currant  Worm:  (a)  Female  and  male 
adults  enlarged  (the  lines  to  the  left  show  the  natural  size); 
(&)  larvae,  those  to  the  left  immature,  the  others  about  mature; 
(c)  pupa  enlarged;  id)  cocoon  formed  in  the  soil;  (e)  eggs 
laid  on  under  surface  of  leaf.    (After  Lugger.) 

blossoms  appear  and  repeated  soon  after  the  fruit  is  set.  See  to  it  that  all  the  inner 
and  lower  leaves  are  covered.  The  lime-sulphur  or  Bordeaux  is  added  to  control 
diseases.  If  the  second  brood  is  seen  to  be  present,  hellebore,  1  ounce  to  1  gallon  of 
water,  should  at  once  be  used.  The  hellebore  should  be  fresh,  as  it  loses  strength 
if  exposed  to  the  air.    It  is  unsafe  to  use  arsenicals  on  the  fruit  at  this  stage. 

Tpie  Imported  Currant  Borer  {Aegeria  tipuliformis) . — Most  currant  and, 
to  a  lesser  extent,  gooseberry  plantations  are  attacked  by  a  borer  which  works  in 
the  canes,  especially  in  the  larger  ones.  Affected  canes  not  infrequently  become 
sickly  and  in  the  following  season  die.  The  borer  is  the  white  larva  of  a  clear- 
winged  moth  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  blackish  in  color  with  several  narrow 
yellow  bands  around  the  body.  It  looks  somewhat  like  a  wasp.  In  Ontario  the 
moths  appear  in  June  and  may  often  be  seen  in  considerable  numbers  on  the  leaves. 
They  lay  eggs  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  or  on  any  little  opening  on  the  canes'  and 
the  young  larvae  on  hatching  bore  into  the  pith  where  they  feed  till  full  grown. 


35 

They  winter  here.     If  an  infested  cane  Js  cut  through  tlie  darkened  pith  shows 
clearly  the  work  of  the  borers.    There  is  only  one  brood  each  year. 

Means  of  Control. — It  is  impossible  to  do  anything  against  this  pest  by  spray- 
ing, and  the  only  practicable  means  of  control  seems  to  be  not  to  grow  currants  in 
tree,  but  in  bush  form,  and  to  practise  a  system  of  pruning  by  which  the  wood  is 
not  allowed  to  become  old,  but  is  removed  after  bearing  one  or  at  the  most  two  crops, 
and  new  shoots  allowed  to  grow  up  to  take  their  place.  All  prunings  must  be  burned 
before  the  end  of  May,  or  the  moths  will  emerge  from  them.  Any  dying  or  sickly 
canes  should  also  be  promptly  removed  throughout  the  season  and  either  burned  or 
the  borers  inside  them  killed. 

The  Cureant  Aphis  (Myzus  rihis). — The  leaves  of  currants  and.  to  a  lesser 
extent,  of  gooseberries  are  often  severely  attacked  by  green  plant  lice,  aphids,  which 
feed  upon  the  under  surface  and  cause  the  leaves  to  curl  downwards.     The  parts 


Fig.  21. — Imported  Currant  Borer;  moth, 
larva  and  empty  pupae  case  still  attached 
to  exit  hole.  The  dark  hole  in  the  end  of 
the  cane  shows  where  the  larva  has  tun- 
nelled in  the  pith.    (After  Lugger.) 


of  the  upper  surface  between  the  veins  are  usually  elevated  in  large  irregular  blisters' 
that  are  often  reddish  in  color.  Affected  leaves  in  many  cases  are  so  much  weakened 
that  they  die.  The  aphids  pass  the  winter  in  the  egg  stage.  Eggs  are  very  small, 
black  and  glossy  and  are  placed  in  the  axils  of  the  buds  and  the  wood.  They  hatch 
a  few  days  before  the  buds  burst  and  the  5'oung  aphids  at  once  proceed  to  feed  upon 
the  developing  buds  and  leaves.  Eeproduction  in  early  summer  is  very  rapid,  and 
enormous  numbers  of  the  insects  may  be  found.  Natural  enemies',  however,  both 
parasitic  and  predaceous,  usually  bring  them  under  control  in  midsummer. 

Means  of  control. — Arsenical  mixtures  are  useless  as  aphids  are  sucking  insects; 
hence  contact  poisons  must  be  applied.  Of  these  probably  the  best  is  Black  Leaf  40, 
a  tobacco  extract.  The  only  objection  to  this  is  that  it  is  somewhat  expensive.  It 
should  be  used  with  linic-sulphur  as  soon  as  the  eggs  have  hatched,  that  is.  a  day  or 
two  before  the  buds  burst.  This  will  destroy  most  of  the  insects  and,  if  another 
application  combined  with  the  lime-sulphur  or  Bordeaux  mixture  is  given  just 
before  the  blossoms  come  out,  almost  every  aphid  can  be  destroyed.  Of  course,  in  the 
latter  case  the  spray  must  be  shot  up  from  beneath  so  that  the  under  surfaces  may 
be  covered.  The  lime-sulphur  or  Bordeaux  is  added  with  the  object  of  controlling 
diseases    (see  under  Leaf-spot  above).     Kerosene  Eniulsidii   (ir  Whaleoil   Soap,   1 


36 

pound  in  6  gallons  of  water,  may  be  used  instead  of  Black  Leaf  40,  but  should  not 
be  combined  with  lime-sulphur.  It  is  almost  useless  to  spray  after  the  leaves  have 
become  curled  because  it  is  then  impossible  to  hit  all  or  nearly  all  the  aphids. 

Eed  Spiders  {Teiranyclius  himaculatus) . — Red  Spiders  are  mites  that  feed 
on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  of  numerous  plants.  They  have  sucking  mouth 
parts  and  cause  currant  leaves  to  become  brownish  or  reddish-yellow  in  color  and 
therefore  unhealthy  in  appearance.  Such  leaves  in  dry  weather,  when  the  plants 
need  them  most,  dry  up  and  die.  The  mites  have  the  habit  of  spinning  a  very  fine 
web  on  the  undersurface  of  the  leaves,  beneath  the  protection  of  which  they  feed 
and  lay  their  eggs.  Eed  Spiders  are  not  all  red,  as  one  would  expect;  frequently 
most  of  them  are  a  pale  green  or  nearly  transparent  whitish  color.  They  can  just 
be  seen  with  the  naked  eye.  The  eggs  are  like  little  glistening  drops  of  dew.  The 
spiders  winter  in  the  soil  around  the  base  of  the  plants. 


Fig.  22. — Currant  leaves  curled  by  aphids.   (After  Close.) 


Means  of  Control. — If  lime-sulphur  is  used  for  the  various  spray  applications 
mentioned  above  and  the  under  surface  of  the  leaves  is  well  covered  there  will  be 
little  trouble  from  this  pest.  Wet  weather  also  helps  to  control  it,  as  the  mites 
thrive  best  in  dry  seasons. 

San  Jose  and  Oyster  Shell  Scales. — Currant  bushes  frequently,  and  goose- 
berry bushes  sometimes,  are  severely  attacked  by  either  the  San  Jose  or  Oyster  Shell 
Scale.  If  no  remedial  measures  are  taken  the  former  of  these  insects  will  soon  kill 
affected  plants,  and  the  latter  will  weaken  them  and  occasionally  cause  their  death. 
For  a  full  description  of  the  appearance  and  habits  of  these  insects  see  Bulletin 
No.  219. 

Means  of  Control. — Prune  the  bushes  out  well  so  that  every  part  can  be  thor- 
oughly sprayed  and  use  lime-sulphur,  specific  gravity  strength  1.032  to  1.035  (com- 
mercial lime-sulphur  1  gallon  to  about  8),  a  little  while  before  the  buds  burst.  A'ery 
badly  infested  bushes  should  receive  two  applications  before  the  buds  burst. 

Many  other  insects  and  diseases  attack  currants  and  gooseberries  in  Ontario,  but 
as  they  seldom  do  mnrh  rlamaire  it  ha>  not  soomed  desirnhle  to  give  an  account  of 
them  here. 


No. 

Date. 

174 

Dec. 

1909 

175 

Dec. 

1909 

176 

Dec, 

1909 

177 

Dec. 

1909 

178 

Dec, 

1909 

179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May- 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan 

1913 

209  Mar.  1913 

210  Mar.  1913 

211  Mar.  1913 

212  April  1913 

213  April  1913 

214  May  1913 

215  Aug.  1913 

216  Oct  1913 

217  Dec,  1913 

218  Dec.  1913 

219  Jan.  1914 

220  Mar.  1914 

221  April  1914 

222  April  1914 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  thk  Ontario  Depaetment  of  Ageiculttjbe,   Tobonto. 


Title.  Author, 

Farm  Underdrainage:    Does  it  Pay? W.  H.  Day. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations   W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial  Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and  Quince 

Trees   D-  H.  Jones. 

T 1       or  1  I,       tir    1,  i  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur   Wash    I  L.  Csesar. 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  Muck  i  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Soils    1a.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch. 

„,              J   T,       J      n  •          '  I  K-  Harcourt. 

Flour  and  Breadmaking    {^   ^   Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care Ont.   Dental   Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 4k 

Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

Children:    Care  and  Training   J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth L.  Caesai". 

Weeds  of  Ontario   (No.  128  revised)    J.  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  151  revised)   W,  R.  Grahana. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario    Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural    Co-operation    S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls    S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding   Fruit  Branch, 

Insecticides  and  Fungicides  (No.  154  revised)  |  j^    L^'^Fulmer, 

Tomatoes    A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit, 

LimenSulphur    Wash    L.  Caesar. 

Onions A.  McMeans. 

Fruiit  Juices   L-  Meumier. 

(  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario  F,  M.  Clement 

[  Peach   Diseases    L-  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula  T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower   A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth   Ont.   Dental   Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    "j 

I.  Cheese-Making  and  Butter  Making.. I  g^^    j  jj  •       gehooj. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    ....(  iii  j'  ou  uwi, 

II.  Dairying  on  the  Farm ) 

Ice-Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm  R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  /  j^  jj^  Hare. 

in  Ontario  County   \t.  A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry..     F.  M.  Clement, 
Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  179  revised) Fruit  Branch. 

Orchard  .Surveys   in   Dundas,   Stormont  and 

Glengarry    F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Morley  Pettit. 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  4t  Pay? Live  Stock  Brancll. 

Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing  Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples   E.  F.  Palmer. 

.  .     -„^         -     ^v  fW.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  ■  (No,  189  revised) \  A.  C.  McCulloch. 

Birds  of  Ontario  (No.  173  revised)   C.  W.  Nash. 

The  San  Jos6  and  Oyster-<Shell  Scales L.  Caesar. 

Lightning  Rods   W.  H.  Day. 

Pood  Value  of  Milk  and  its  Products R.  Harcourt. 

Currants  and  Gooseberries  E.  F.  Palmer. 


iOntario  Department  of  Agriculture 


ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


BULLETIN  223 


Fertilizers 

In  Relation  to  Soils  and  Crop  Production 


By 

R.  HARCOURT,    Professor  of  Chemistry 

A.  L.  GIBSON,  Demonstrator  in  Soils 


TORONTO.  ONTARIO.  MAY,  1914 


BULLETIN  223]  '  [MAY,  1914 

Ontario    Department    of    Agriculture 

ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL   COLLEGE 


Fertilizers 

IN  RELATION  TO  SOILS  AND  CROP  PRODUCTION 

By  E.  Harcourt  and  A.  L.  Gibson. 

INTEODUCTIOK 

On  our  comparatively  new  lands,  and  in  general  farm  practice  wlie  a  a 
judicious  rotation  of  crops  is  followed,  and  where  grain  is  fed  on  the  farm  and 
the  manure  properly  cared  for,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  use  commercial  fertilizers ; 
but  where  the  nature  of  the  crops  grown  prevents  rotation,  and  where  very  little 
farmyard  manure  is  produced,  they  may  be  required.  More  and  more  each  year 
it  is  found  that  the  increased  cost  of  production  and  the  consequent  need  of 
producing  maximum  crops,  and  the  growing  demands  of  the  larger  towns  and 
cities  for  garden  and  fruit  products  of  high  quality,  are  causing  market  gardeners 
and  fruit  growers  to  consider  seriously  the  advisability  of  using  some  form  of 
fertilizer.  This  has  created  a  demand  for  information  concerning  these  substances 
which  it  has  not  been  easy  to  fill;  for  experience  has  shown  that  the  farmer  must 
possess  a  wide  knowledge  of  plants,  soils,  and  the  fertilizers  themselves  before  he 
can  properly  use  them. 

To  intelligently  and  economically  use  fertilizers,  it  is  essential  that  the  farmer 
understands  the  needs  of  the  crops,  their  power  to  gather  the  essential  plant  food 
constituents  from  the  soil,  and  the  purpose  of  their  growth,  i.e.,  whether  the 
object  is  to  produce  an  immature  plant  for  early  market,  or  whether  maturity 
is  required.  He  must  also  know  something  about  the  available  supply  of  plant 
food  in  the  soil  and  the  nature  of  the  fertilizer  being  used.  These  fertilizers  are 
expensive,  and  unless  they  are  intelligentiy  applied  in  conjunction  with  very 
thorough  cultivation  they  will  not  give  their  best  results.  They  cannot  take  the 
place  of  cultivation;  for  they  are  food  materials,  and  can  only  aid  the  growth 
of  the  plant  as  they  are  absorbed  by  the  roots,  and  these  cannot  develop  fully  in 
a  poorly  cultivated  soil. 

Because  of  the  wide  variation  in  the  amount  of  available  plant  food  in  soils, 
the  differences  in  the  needs  of  plants,  and  the  necessity  of  the  farmer  gaining 
some  definite  information  regarding  the  nature  of  the  fertilizers  he  is  using  and 


the  effect  of  these  upon  crops  grown,  we  strongly  recommend  those  who  contemplate 
using  fertilizers  to  commence  in  a  small  way  and  prove  for  themselves  whether 
they  can  or  cannot  use  these  substances  with  profit.  The  object  of  this  bulletin 
is  to  point  out  some  of  the  main  features  regarding  plants,  soils,  and  fertilizers, 
which  should  be  known  in  order  that  the  work  may  be  done  intelligently,  and  to 
indicate  briefly  how  experimental  plots  may  be  arranged  to  show  whether  special 
fertilizing  materials  are  or  are  not  required. 


THE  PLANT. 


Most  young  plants  start  from  a  seed,  which  contains  an  embryo,  or  germ, 
that  is  extremely  rich  in  albuminoids,  fat,  phosphates,  and  potash.  The  seed 
also  contains  a  store  of  food,  in  the  form  of  starch,  fat,  etc.,  intended  to  nourish 
the  young  plant  until  the  roots  and  leaves  are  sufficiently  developed  to  gather 
their  own  supplies.     The  future  health  and  vigor  of  the  plant  will  depend  on: 

(1)  the  amount  of  food  available  to  the  tiny  rootlets  sent  out  by  the  young  plant; 

(2)  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  (3)  an  abundance  of  sunshine,  and  (4)  a  sufficient 
supply  of  oxygen.  The  plant  requires  oxygen  for  respiration,  and  it  gives  off 
carbon  dioxide  as  a  result  of  the  oxidation  of  its  food,  that  is,  it  breathes;  it 
gives  off  water  from  its  leaves,  or  lungs,  it  assimilates  food,  and  it  even  excretes 
waste  material.  In  all  this  it  is  very  similar  to  the  animal.  But  it  even  goes 
further,  and  collects  its  food  from  the  simple  substances,  such  as  carbon  dioxide, 
anc  various  soluble  salts  found  in  the  soil,  and  from  these  builds  up  the  complex 
sugars,  starches,  fat,  and  albuminoids  which  are  essential  for  the  life  processes 
of  the  plant  and  which  are  the  only  foods  of  the  animal.  It  is  subject  to  im- 
provement by  selection  and  breeding,  as  is  the  animal,  but,  unlike  the  animal, 
it  is  entirely  dependent  upon  the  supply  of  food  constituents  within  its  reach, 
and  it  has  no  way  of  drawing  attention  to  its  wants,  excepting  as  its  appearance 
may  make  them  known  to  the  careful  and  trained  observer.  A  clear  conception 
of  the  fact  that  an  infant  plant,  like  the  infant  animal,  requires  warmth,  air, 
sunshine,  and  an  abundance  of  easily  absorbed  food,  will  greatly  aid  in  under- 
standing the  conditions  under  which  it  will  make  the  best  growth. 

Food  of  Plants. 

The  plant's  food  is  derived  from  the  atmosphere  and  from  the  soil.  From 
the  atmosphere  it  gathers  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen,  and  some  plants,  through 
outside  agencies,  are  able  to  collect  nitrogen.  Nearly  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  dry 
matter  of  a  plant  is  made  up  of  carbon  which  is  entirely  derived  from  the  carbon 
dioxide  of  the  air.  Although  this  compound  forms  but  3  or  4  parts  in  10,000 
parts  of  the  atmosphere,  the  quantity  is,  sufficient,  owing  to  the  wind  continually 
bringing  fresh  supplies  to  the  leaves.  Thus  there  is"  an  abundance  of  air  around 
the  leaves  of  the  plant,  but,  if  the  soil  is  not  open  and  porous,  there  may  not 
be  enough  in  contact  with  the  roots,  for  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  air  in  the  soil 
in  which  crops  are  growing  is  as  essential  to  the  life  of  plants  as  air  in  the  stable 
is  to  the  animal.  This  ventilation  of  the  soil  is  necessary  to  supply  oxygen 
required  in  germination  of  seed,  to  permit  the  roots  to  live,  for  they,  too,  must 
breathe,  and  to  supply  this  life-giving  element  to  the  millions  of  little  organisms 


in  the  soil  which  are  busy  preparing  soluble  food  for  the  plant.  The  ventilation 
of  the  soil  k  also  required  to  supply  free  nitrogen  for  the  use  of  nitrogen-fixing 
germs,  and  to  remove  the  excess  of  carbon  dioxide  which  is  being  continually  set 
free  in  the  soil. 

From  the  soil  the  plant  derives  nitrogen,  chiefly  in  the  form  of  nitrates,  the 
ash  substances,  and  water.  Fortunately,  although  ten  elements  are  essential  for 
the  growth  of  the  plant,  there  are  only  four  that  particularly  interest  the  farmer, 
as  the  other  six  are  usually  found  in  abundance.  These  four  are,  nitrogen, 
potassium,  phosphorus,  and  calcium.  A  continuous  supply  of  all  the  essential  ele- 
ments of  plant  growth  is  absolutely  necessary;  for,  if  one  constituent  is  absent, 
or  present  in  an  insufficient  quantity,  no  matter  what  amount  of  the  other 
nutrients  may  be  available,  the  plant  cannot  be  fully  developed.  Consequently, 
just  as  a  chain  is  only  as  strong  as  its  weakest  link,  so  the  crop-producing  power 
of  a  soil  is  limited  by  the  essential  nutrient  present  in  relatively  the  smallest 
quantity. 

Function  of  Plant  Food  Constituents. 

In  the  .absence  of  nitrogen  the  plant  makes  no  appreciable  growth.  With 
only  a  limited  supply,  the  plant  commences  to  grow  in  a  normal  way,  but  as 
soon  as  the  available  nitrogen  is  used  up,  the  lower  and  smaller  leaves  begin 
gradually  to  die  down  from  the  tips  and  all  the  plant's  energy  is  centered  in  one 
or  two  leaves.  Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  main  constituents  of  protein,  which  is 
possibly  the  most  valuable  part  of  a  plant.  .  It  is  also  a  constituent  of  chlorophyll, 
the  green  coloring  matter  of  plants;  hence  with  a  limited  supply  of  nitrogen,  the 
leaves  will  have  a  sickly  yellow  color.  Plants  with  large,  well-developed  leaves 
are  not  suffering  for  nitrogen.  An  abundance  of  this  substance  will  produce  a 
luxuriant  growth  of  leaf  and  stem,  but  it  will  retard  maturity,  and,  with  cereals, 
will  frequently  cause  the  crop  to  "lodge."  Therefore,  when  crops  such  as  cereals, 
tomatoes,  potatoes,  etc.,  are  to  be  matured,  an  over  supply  of  nitrogen  is  injurious: 
but  with  the  crops  such  as  lettuce,  cabbage,  etc.,  which  are  harvested  in  the  green 
condition,  an  abundance  of  nitrogen  will,  other  fertilizing  constituents  being  present, 
tend  to  produce  a  strong  vigorous  growth,  and  give  crispness  or  quality  to  these 
crops. 

Potassium,  or  potash,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
and  least  variable  of  all  the  elements  of  the  ash  of  plants.  It  is  quite  evenly 
distributed  throughout  the  leaves,  stem,  and  seed,  and  generally  occurs  in  the 
entire  plant  in  the  largest  proportion  of  any  of  the  essential  ash  constituents. 
The  function  of  potassium  is  apparently  to  aid  in  the  production  and  transporta 
tion  of  the  carbohydrates.  The  flavor  and  color  of  fruits  is  generally  credited 
to  potassium.  In  fact,  this  element  seems  to  supplement  the  action  of  nitrogen 
by  filling  out  the  framework  established  by  the  latter.  Potash  with  nitrogen  is 
always  an  important  fertilizer  with  special  crops  where  the  object  is  to  produce 
sugar,  starch — as  with  sugar  beets  and  potatoes.  It  is  also  apparently  essential 
for  the  formation  of  protein,  and,  thus,  indirectly  aids  in  fonnation  of  all 
organic  matter. 

Phosphorus,  in  the  form  of  phosphates,  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the  plant, 
but  tends  to  accumulate  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  stem  and  leaves,  and  particularly 
in  the  seed.  Its  function  is  apparently  to  aid  in  the  production  and  transportation 
of  the  protein.     It  also  seems  to  aid  the  assimilation  of  the  other  plant  food 


elements.  An  insufficient  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  always  results  in  a  poorh 
developed  plant,  and  particularly  in  a  poor  yield  of  shrunken  grain.  Nitrogen 
forces  leaf  and  stem  growth,  and  phosphoric  acid  hastens  maturity. 

Calcium,  or  lime,  is  a  constituent  of  the  stem  rather  than  the  seed,  and 
deems  to  impart  hardiness  to  the  plant.  It  has  been  noticed  that  soils  containing 
an  abundance  of  lime  usually  produce  well  nourished  crops  that  are  capable  of 
withstanding  unfavorable  climatic  conditions,  as  drouth  and  early  frosts,  better 
than  are  crops  not  so  well  supplied  with  lime.  The  exact  function  of  lime  is 
not  clearly  understood,  but  it  seems  to  aid  in  the  construction  of  the  cell  walls. 
According  to  some  authorities,  its  absence  is  felt  in  less  time  than  either  potassium 
or  phosphorus.  It  is  claimed  that  a  supply  of  lime  is  just  as  essential  to  the 
plant  in  order  that  it  may  form  cell  walls  from  sugar  and  starch,  as  it  is  for 
the  formation  of  bone  in  animals.  It  also  has  a  very  decided  influence  on  the 
mechanical  condition  of  the  soil,  and  is  a  liberator  of  plant  food,  particularly  potash, 
held  in  insoluble  forms  in  the  soil. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  a  proper  balance  in  the  supply  of  these  four 
important  plant  nutrients  has  a  very  decided  influence  on  the  nature  of  the  plant 
produced.  Each  has  its  own  particular  work  to  do,  and  the  absence  or  deficiency 
of  any  one  of  them  will  cause  the  death  or  the  incomplete  development  of  the 
plant.  Moreover,  they  are  absorbed  during  the  early  stages  of  growth;  for  a 
cereal  crop  contains  at  the  time  of  full  bloom  all  the  nitrogen  and  potash  which 
is  found  in  the  mature  plant;  the  assimilation  of  phosphoric  acid  continues  some- 
what later.  It  is  thus  plain  that  crops  require  a  good  supply  of  these  important 
constituents  of  plant  growth  in  a  readily  available  form  if  they  are  to  make  a  proper 
development. 

Differences  in  Food  Requirements. 


Again,  plants,  like  animals,  differ  very  much  in  their  requirements  and  in 
their  ability  to  secure  that  which  they  need.  Cereal  crops  contain  much  less 
nitrogen  than  legumes,  but  they  have  more  difficulty  in  securing  it.  The  autumn 
sown  cereals  have  both  deeper  roots  and  longer  period  of  growth  than  those  sown 
in  the  spring,  and  consequently  are  better  able  to  supply  themselves  with  the 
necessary  ash  constituents.  The  spring  tillage  for  barley,  oats,  and  garden  crops 
aid  nitrification  in  the  soil,  therefore  these  crops  have  less  difficulty  in  securing 
nitrogen.  Barley,  however,  has  a  very  short  period  of  growth  and  is  shallow 
rooted  and  cannot  rustle  for  its  food  to  the  same  extent  as  oats.  Corn  and  the 
root  crops  are  not  only  spring  sown,  but  have  a  much  longer  period  of  growth 
than  the  cereals,  and  will  thus  have  command  of  the  nitrates  produced  during 
the  whole  summer.  They  have  fairly  good  root  development,  but  may  not  always 
secure  all  the  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  required  for  the  production  of  a  full  crop. 

The  striking  characteristic  of  all  the  legumes  is  the  large  amount  of  nitrogen, 
potash,  and  lime  found  in  them.  However,  although  they  contain  fully  twice  as 
much  nitrogen  as  the  cereals,  because  of  the  power  they  possess  of  making  use 
of  the  free  nitrogen  of  the  atmosphere,  they  have  comparatively  little  difficulty  in 
securing  the  required  amount.  On  the  other  hand,  they  have  difficulty  in 
collecting  potash.  Consequently,  it  may  sometimes  happen  that  legumes  suffer 
for  want  of  this  constituent  on  the  same  soil  that  cereals  would  find  an  abundance. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  plants  differ  widely  in  composition,  range  of  root, 
period  of  growth,  and  in  tlieir  ability  to  gather  that  which  they  need  from  the 


,soil.  These  are  facts  which  a  farmer  should  be  familiar  with  in  order  that  he 
may  intelligently  manure  the  soil  and  plan  the  rotation  of  crops  he  wishes  to 
follow  in  a  manner  that  will  give  the  best  possible  results. 


THE  SOIL. 


But  a  knowledge  of  the  plant  and  its  requirements  alone  is  not  sufficient. 
It  is  very  important  that  the  farmer  should  know  something  about  the  constituents 
of  the  soil  and  the  manner  in  which  they  may  be  brought  into  solution. 

Soils  are  formed  from  rock  by  the  prolonged  action  of  water,  frost,  and  air. 
combined  with  that  of  vegetable  and  animal  life  and  their  products.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  go  into  details  regarding  the  action  of  these  various  agencies.  It  is 
sufficient  to  point  out  that  through  their  combined  action,  extending  over  thou- 
sands of  years,  the  rocks  have  been  broken  down  and  their  materials  more  or 
less  separated  by  water  into  gravelly,  sandy  and  clayey  soils,  and  all  the  mixture? 
of  these  so  commonly  found  throughout  the  Province.  In  these  soils  there  is 
practically  all  the  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  that  was  present  in  the  original 
rocks.  They  are  differently  distributed,  as,  for  instance,  clays  are  richer  w 
potash  than  sands;  but  the  rocks  are  the  sole  source  of  the  natural  supply  of  these 
and  all  the  other  ash  constituents  essential  for  the  growth  of  plants. 

Drainage. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  soil  is  the  home  of  the  plant,  and  if  the 
plants  are  to  make  good  growth,  the  home  must  be  congenial.  The  factors  that 
make  it  so  are  an  abundance  of  readily  available  food,  water,  air,  and  a  suitable 
temperature.  To  secure  this  good  drainage  is  of  primary  importance.  No  soil 
can  be  warm  or  well  aerated  that  is  full  of  water.  Nor  will  the  organisms  that 
bring  about  the  decay  of  the  organic  matter  exist  in  such  a  soil.  IIence>  good 
drainage  must  precede  all  other  work  in  endeavoring  to  get  the  maximum  result? 
from  the  soil. 

Decaying  Organic  Matter. 

iSTitrogen  is  derived  from  the  air  and  is  incorporated  into  the  soil  largeh 
by  means  of  plants.  Consequently,  the  natural  richness  of  a  soil  in  nitrogen 
is  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  the  amount  of  decaying  organic  matter  present. 
Through  careless  cultivation,  this  original  supply  of  nitrogen  may  be  depleted; 
or  by  growing  plants,  particularly  legumes,  the  nitrogen  gatherers,  it  may  be 
increased.  There  is  an  almost  unlimited  supply  of  nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  man  has  been  given  the  means  of  gathering  this  and  incorporating  it  in 
the  land.  As  a  result,  the  amount  of  this  element  in  the  soil,  more  than  any 
other  plant  food  constituent,  is  within  the  control  of  the  farmer.  Moreover,  the 
addition  of  organic  matter  to  a  soil  has  a  very  much  wider  bearing  than  the 
simple  addition  of  nitrogen ;  for,  in  its  decay  the  vegetable  acids  and  the  carbon 
dioxide  formed  tend  to  bring  the  insoluble  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  into  an 
available  form.  Humus,  which  has  such  a  wonderful  effect  on  the  mechanical 
condition  of  the  soil,  and  which  so  increases  its  water-holding  capacity,  is  also 
a  product  of  the  decay  of  organic  matter.     In  fact,  the  presence  of  an  abundance 


of  decaying  organic  matter  is  practically  indispensable.  It  is  the  source  of 
nitrogen;  tlie  acids  liberated  in  its  decay  make  available  the  important  ash 
materials  which  would  otherwise  be  useless ;  it  warms  the  soil ;  increases  its 
capacity  to  hold  water  needed  to  dissolve  the  plant  food ;  and  improves  its  physical 
condition.  Without  the  presence  of  organic  matter  and  the  associated  germ  life 
and  the  proper  conditions  for  their  action,  a  soil  cannot  produce  its  best  results, 
no  matter  how  rich  it  may  be  in  all  the  essential  constituents  of  plant  growth. 

Lime. 

Lime  materials  not  only  furnish  calcium,  which  is  essential  for  the  growth 
of  crops,  but  they  have  the  power  of  improving  the  mechanical  condition  of 
both  sands  and  clays.  This  they  do  by  binding  the  materials  more  firmly  together. 
In  the  case  of  sands,  lime  thus  renders  them  more  compact  and  improves  their 
water-holding  power.  With  clays,  the  tenacity  of  which  is  largely  due  to  the 
fineness  of  the  particles,  the  lime  causes  the  fine  particles  to  adhere  to  one  another, 
and  these  aggregations  make  the  soil  act  like  one  composed  of  larger  particles. 
Hence,  it  improves  the  mechanical  condition,  renders  the  soil  more  easily  cultivated 
and  it  is  better  aerated.  Frost  and  humus  also  improve  the  physical  state  of 
sticky,  impervious  soils;  but  lime  is  possibly  the  most  potent  agency,  and  it  is 
certainly   the  agency   most   readily   controlled   by   the   farmer. 

Lime  also  corrects,  or  neutralizes,  the  acid  which  naturally  forms  in  soils, 
especially  tliose  rich  in  decaying  organic  matter.  Experience  and  investigation 
show  that  many  of  the  soils  of  this  Province  are  gradually  being  depleted  of 
their  natural  supply  of  lime,  leaving  them  in  an  acid  or  "sour"  state,  which  is 
detrimental  to  the  development  of  many  crops,  and  absolutely  prevents  the  growth 
of  alfalfa,  clover,  or  the  plants  of  the  leguminous  family  in  general. 

Lime  materials  are  also  necessary  for  the  useful  and  beneficial  bacteria  and 
other  organisms  of  the  soil.  They  supply  these  organisms  with  the  element 
calcium,  which  appears  to  be  just  as  essential  a  food  constituent  for  them  as 
it  is  for  the  higher  plants.  Furthermore,  in  improving  the  physical  state  of  the 
soil,  lime  produces  good  air  and  moisture  conditions  which  are  so  essential  to 
the  well-being  of  these  organisms  upon  whose  activity  the  availability  of  the 
plant  food  in  the  soil  so  largely  depends.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  decaying 
organic  matter  and  lime  are  very  important  constituents  of  soils.  In  fact,  their 
presence  is  fundamental.  Without  these  the  soil  is  practically  useless  no  matter 
how  much  other  plant  food  may  be  present.  In  one  sense  it  may  be  correct  to 
speak  of  the  soil  as  a  reservoir  of  plant  food,  to  be  drawn  on  for  the  growth 
of  successive  crops,  but  it  is  equally  correct  to  regard  it  as  a  busy,  complex 
manufacturing  establishment  in  which  all  the  various  parts  must  work  together 
under  proper  conditions  to  bring  the  store  of  plant  food  into  a  form  available  to 
plants.     To  bring  this  about  is  the  object  of  cultivation. 

Losses  of  Plant  Food  by  Leaching. 

These  combined  agencies,  while  beneficial,  are  destructive  unless  means  are 
taken  to  prevent  loss  by  drainage.  They  tend  to  bring  nitrogen,  lime,  magnesia, 
potash,  etc.,  into  a  soluble  form,  which,  unless  taken  up  by  plants,  is  lost  in 
the  drainage  water.  As  proof  of  this,  we  have  the  familiar  fact  that  water  taken 
from  underground  drains  or  from  wells  is  "hard"  because  of  the  lime  which  it 


holds  in  solution.  Consequently,  a  surface  soil  is  generally  poorer  in  lime,  and 
frequently  in  potash,  than  the  subsoil.  The  complete  impoverishment  of  the 
soil  is  prevented  by  the  presence  of  certain  constituents  which  combine  chemically 
with  the  liberated  plant  food  substances,  and  by  the  conservative  action  of  vegeta- 
tion. The  plant  is  continually  collecting  from  the  soil  and  subsoil  dissolved  or 
easily  soluble  matter,  storing  these  in  its  tissues,  and  at  its  death  leaving  them 
in  the  surface  soil.  But  even  with  the  best  of  management  there  is  some  plant 
food  leached  from  the  soil. 

However,  according  to  a  well  known  law,  Nature  allows  nothing  to  be  lost, 
and  these  leached-out  materials  are,  through  various  agencies,  at  least  partially, 
made  to  accumulate  in  great  beds  of  limestone,  phosphatic  rock  and  potash  salts. 
It  is  these  accumulations  of  past  ages  that  are  to-day  furnishing  the  main  con- 
stituents of  fertilizers.  Who  knows  but  what  the  plant  food  which  is  being 
annually  leached  from  our  fields  will  come  into  use  in  future  ages. 

Losses  of  Plant  Food  in  Crops* 

But  the  leaching  away  of  plant  food  is  not  the  only  way  in  which  these 
materials  are  lost  from  the  soil.  The  vegetable  and  animal  produce  of  the  land 
are  frequently  consumed  off  the  land  which  reared  them.  A  partial  return  of 
the  plant  food  thus  taken  from  the  soil  is  made  by  the  application  of  farmyatd 
manures,  but  the  sale  of  vegetables,  fruit,  grain,  animals,  and  animal  products, 
the  congregating  of  men  in  towns  and  cities,  and  the  difficulty  in  employing 
sewage  with  profit;  and  the  loss  of  fertilizing  constituents  from  farmyard  manure 
before  it  is  applied  to  the  land,  all  tend  to  make  the  return  of  the  manurial  con- 
stituents to  the  soil  incomplete. 

Some  soils  are  naturally  so  rich  in  the  elements  of  plant  food  that  when  the 

crops   are   properly   rotated   and   "catch"   crops  used   to   economize   this   natural 

wealth  of  fertilizing  constituents,  it  may  be  a  long  time  before  the  soil  needs 

.  special  manures ;  but,  if  the  land  is  naturally  poor,  or  injudiciously  cultivated,  or 

'  if  special  crops  of  like  nature  have  to  be  grown  year  after  year  on  the  same 

ground,  it  may  soon  need  some  extra  manure. 

On  naturally  poor  soils  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  a  complete  return  of 
all  the  elements  of  plant  food  removed  by  crops;  but  in  most  soils  there  is  an 
abundance  of  some  one  or  more  of  these  elements,  and  a  partial  manuring  will 
consequently  suffice.  With  intensive  farming,  where  thorough  cultivation  is  prac- 
tised, a  good  system  of  rotation  followed,  where  little  grain  is  sold  and  some 
food  is  purchased  in  its  place,  and  every  care  taken  of  the  manure,,  the  land  may 
even  gain  in  fertility.  These,  however,  are  not  the  conditions  which  exist  with 
the  gardener  and  fruit  grower,  and  they  must  of  necessity  purchase  manure  of 
some  kind. 


MANURES. 


Manures  may  be  defined  as  anything  that  when  added  to  the  soil  increases 
the  amount  of  available  plant  food  in  a  reasonable  length  of  time.  Generally 
speaking,  they  may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  general  and  simple  manures. 

The  general  manures  include  farmyard  manure,  the  various  products  of  the 
abattoirs,  and  substances  of  vegetable  origin.     These  materials  not  only  furnish 


8 

plant  food,  but  contain  varying  quantities  of  organic  matter.  The  simple  manures 
supply  only  one  plant  food  substance  and  constitute  what  are  generally  known 
as  the  mineral  fertilizers. 

Farmyard  Manure, 

Farmyard  manure  is  the  most  popular  manure  on  the  farm.  Its  action  is 
three-fold:  First,  it  supplies  plant  food;  second,  it  supplies  organic  matter,  the 
importance  of  which  has  been  referred  to  in  a  previous  paragraph;  and,  third,  it 
possibly  serves  as  the  main  source  of  supply  for  the  re-seeding  of  the  soil  with 
those  desirable  organisms  which  bring  about  decay  in  the  soil.  The  composition  of 
farmyard  manure  will  vary  according  to  the  kind  of  animals  contributing  to  it, 
the  quality  of  the  food,  and  the  nature  and  proportion  of  the  material  used  as 
bedding. 

In  the  case  of  a  full  grown  animal  neither  gaining  nor  losing  in  weight,  a 
working  horse  for  instance,  the  quantity  of  nitrogen  and  ash  constituents  voided 
in  the  manure  will  be  nearly  the  same  as  that  in  the  food  consumed.  In  cases 
where  the  animal  is  increasing  in  size,  is  producing  young,  or  furnishing  wool 
or  milk,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  and  ash  constituents  in  the  manure  will  be  less 
than  that  in  the  food;  that  is,  it  will  be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
these  substances  which  has  been  converted  into  animal  increase.  Thus,  with 
fattening  cattle,  sheep  and  with  work  horses  more  than  95  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen 
and  ash  constituents  in  the  food  are  voided  in  the  manure.  The  pig  retains  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  nitrogen,  but  no  more  of  the  ash  constituents.  A  milking 
cow  retains  a  still  larger  proportion  of  the  nitrogen  and  ash,  but  the  best  (yield) 
in  animal  increase  is  obtained  in  the  case  of  a  young  calf,  when  70  per  cent,  of 
the  nitrogen  consumed  is  built  into  new  tissues  of  the  body  and  only  30  per  cent, 
excreted  as  manure. 

The  amount  of  nitrogen  voided  in  the  urine  is  always  greater  than  the 
quantity  contained  in  the  solid  excrement,  and  in  the  case  of  the  fattening  animals 
it  may  be  three  or  four  fimes  as  much.  This  will  vary  according  to  the  diet. 
If  the  food  is  nitrogenous  and  easily  digested  a  large  proportion  of  the  nitrogen 
will  occur  in  the  urine.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  food  is  one  imperfectly  digested 
the  nitrogen  in  the  solid  excrement  may  form  a  larger  quantity.  When  horses 
are  fed  on  poor  hay  the  nitrogen  in  the  solid  excrement  will  somewhat  exceed 
that  contained  in  the  urine,  but  when  grains  or  other  concentrates  are  fed  there 
will  be  a  large  excess  of  nitrogen  in  the  urine. 

The  ash  constituents  are  quite  differently  distributed  in  the  solid  excrement 
and  urine.  In  the  former  is  frequently  found  nearly  all  the  phosphoric  acid  and 
a  greater  part  of  the  lime  and  magnes'ia,  while  the  urine  contains  a  greater  part 
of  the  potash.  Horse  urine  is  the  exception  to  the  above  rule  as  it  contains  a  rather 
notable  amount  of  lime. 

It  is  evident,  then,  that  if  the  urine  carries  such  a  large  proportion  of  the 
nitrogen  and  potash  it  should  be  carefully  preserved.  The  simplest  and  easiest 
way  to  accomplish  this  is  to  use  plenty  of  bedding  in  the  stall.  In  city  stables 
sawdust  and  other  woody  materials  are  frequently  used,  and  if  dried  are  good 
absorbents.  In  the  country,  straw  is  still  the  most  common  absorbent,  but  on 
many  farms  where  peaty  materials  are  plentiful  it  might  be  well  to  use  some 
t)f  these  dried  substances  to  aid  in  the  absorption,  and  increase  the  amount  of 
nitrogen  in  the  manure. 


9 

Treatment  of  Manure,  The  treatment  of  manure  is  very  important.  As 
stated  above,  the  greater  part  of  the  nitrogen  and  potash  are  found  in  the  urine, 
consequentl}^  if  the  liquid  is  lost  or  the  manure  is  washed  with  water  and  the 
washings  are  allowed  to  drain  away,  serious  loss  of  nitrogen  and  potash  will 
occur.  Again,  it  may  also  be  pointed  out  that  the  nitrogen  in  the  urine  is  largely 
in  the  form  of  urea,  a  compound  that  is  speedily  changed  by  fermentation  into 
ammonium  carbonate.  This  compound  is  volatile,  consequently  loss  of  nitrogen 
easily  occurs,  and  chiefly,  while  the  manure  is  still  in  the  stable.  German  experi- 
menters have  pointed  out  that  in  the  case  of  horses  and  cows  the  loss  may  amount 
to  30  per  cent,  of  the  nitrogen  voided  by  the  animal.  The  best  way  to  diminish 
this  loss  is  by  liberal  use  of  bedding  so  as  to  absorb  all  of  the  liquid.  For  this 
purpose  dried  peat  would  be  especially  valuable.  This  material  is  found  in  large 
quantities  in  many  parts  of  the  Province  and  in  many  cases  might  be  very  profit- 
ably used  as  an  absorbent  in  the  stable. 

Farmyard  manure  readily  undergoes  decomposition;  the  nature  of  the  pro- 
ducts formed  depend  on  the  amount  of  air  admitted  or  excluded.  If  the  manure 
is  thrown  loosely  into  a  heap  it  becomes  very  hot  and  rapidly  wastes.  The  organic 
matter  in  this  case  is  virtually  burned,  or  is  '''firefanged"  as  it  is  commonly  termed, 
and  ammonia  is  one  of  the  products  lost.  If,  on  the  other-  hand,  the  manure  is 
consolidated  and  kept  thoroughly  moist  so  that  air  is  excluded;  the  mass  ferments 
with  but  little  rise  in  temperature,  and  nitrogen  gas  is  volatilized.  The  loss  of 
organic  materials  will  be  far  less  with  this  kind  of  fermentation  than  in  the 
previous  one,  but  in  both  cases  nitrogen  is  given  off  from  the  manure.  Experience 
proves  that  there  is  the  least  waste  of  manurial  constituents  when  the  manure  is 
preserved  in  a  box  stall.  It  has  been  shown  that  a  quantity  of  food  and  litter  which 
in  a  box  stall  yielded  10  tons  of  manure  containing  108  pounds  of  nitrogen  yielded 
when  carried  daily  to  a  heap  only  7.5  tons,  containing  64  pounds  of  nitrogen. 

Undoubtedly,  especially  on  heavy  lands,  the  best  returns  from  the  manure 
can  be  got  when  it  is  put  on  the  land  and  at  once  plowed  in.  The  losses  that 
are  inevitable  when  manure  is  stored  would  be  prevented  and  a  greater  amount  of 
organic  matter  added  to  the  soil.  Naturally,  this  is  not  always  possible,  but 
when  the  manure  must  be  kept  it  should  be  made  without  delay  into  a  solid  heap  or 
mass  and  must  not  be  allowed  to  get  dry.  The  practice  is  sometimes  followed 
of  drawing  manure  to  the  field  during  the  winter  months  as  fast  as  it  is  made. 
Provided  the  land  is  not  too  hilly,  or  too  clayey,  this  will  give  good  results.  It 
is  evident,  however,  that  this  method  does  not  prevent  losses,  but  is  recommended 
to  economize  labor.  When  the  manure  is  drawn  to  a  field  and  put  in  a  big  heap 
care  should  be  taken  to  make  the  heap  as  firm  as  possible,  and,  theoretically,  it 
should  be  covered  with  earth,  but  this  under  our  conditions  of  labor  is  impossible. 

The  returns  from  the  application  of  farmyard  manure  are  not  so  quick  as  may 
be  got  from  certain  forms  of  fertilizers.  This  is  because  the  materials  must 
undergo  decay  before  the  plant  can  use  them,  which  will  take  some  time  in  the 
soil.  The  total  amount  of  the  three  most  important  constituents  in  the  manure 
will  naturally  vary  with  the  conditions  which  have  been  mentioned.  The  nitrogen 
will  vary  between  .45  and  .65  per  cent,  or  even  higher  if  produced  by  highly  fed 
animals.  The  amount  of  potash  may  vary  between  .4  to  .8,  and  the  phosphoric 
acid  from  .2  to  .4.  Thus,  one  ton  of  farmyard  manure  will  contain  from  9  to 
13  or  14  pounds  of  nitrogen,  8  to  16  pounds  of  potash,  and  4  to  8  of  phosphoric 
acid.     Possibly  a  good  figure  to  carry  in  mind  would  be  that  one  ton  of  manure 


10 

contains  10  pounds  of  nitrogen,  10  pounds  of  potash  and  5  pounds  of  phosphoric 

aoid. 

Experience  shows  that  no  manures  can  quite  take  the  place  of  the  farmyard 
manure.  It  is  what  may  be  spoken  of  as  the  natural  return  to  the  soil  of  the 
constituents  taken  from  it.  All  other  substances  are  in  a  sense  supplements, 
materials  added  to  make  good  some  special  deficiency  in  the  soil,  or  to  supply 
some  plant  food  constituent  particularly  required  by  the  crop  to  be  grown.  Hence, 
the  care  and  treatment  of  the  farmyard  manure  is  fundamental  in  all  good 
agriculture. 

Guano. 

Guano  is  the  dried  dung  of  sea  birds,  together  with  portions  of  their  feathers, 
bones  and  the  refuse  of  their  food.  This  material  accumulates  on  islands  or 
near  the  coast  in  tropical  climates.  The  chief  deposits  have  been  found  in  Korth 
and  South  America,  Africa,  Australia,  the  West  Indies  and  Islands  of  the  Pacific. 
Some  of  the  original  deposits  are  now  exhausted.  Where  the  deposits  of  Guano 
have  been  got  from  rainless  districts,  or  at  least,  where  they  have  not  been  subjected 
to  the  leaching  action  of  water,  they  are  rich  in  nitrogen  and  may  contain  from 
7  to  11  per  cent,  of  .nitrogen  and  5  to  15  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid.  Where 
they  have  been  subjected  to  a  leaching  action,  the  amount  of  nitrogen  is  very 
much  reduced,  and  as  the  phosphates  are  not  soluble,  these  materials  have  increased 
in  proportion.  This  makes  the  chief  difference  between  the  two  forms  of  guanos 
that  are  brought  into  the  country.  There  is,  however,  comparatively  little  of 
this  material  brought  into  Ontario,  as  most  of  the  small  supply  which  now  remains 
is  taken  to  the  European  countries. 

One  feature  that  has  lent  value  to  the  guanos  is  that  the  nitrogen  is  largely 
in  the  amide  and  ammoniacal  condition  and  is  thus  very  quickly  brought  into 
an  available  condition.     In  this  respect  it  stands  next  to  the  nitrates. 

Deied  Blood. 

Dried  blood  from  our  large  slaughter  houses  is  frequently  used  as  a  manure. 
It  is  one  of  the  richest  of  the  organic  nitrogenous  materials  in  nitrogen  and  it  is 
one  of  the  best  since  its  physical  character  is  such  as  to  permit  of  its  very  rapid 
decay  in  the  soil  during  the  growing  season.  It  contains  9  to  12  per  cent,  of 
nitrogen  and  a  small  amount  of  phosphoric  acid.  Dried  blood  is  frequently 
applied  along  with  nitrate  of  soda  when  a  fairly  large  continuous  supply  of 
the  nitrogen  is  wanted  throughout  the  growing  season. 

Dried  Meat  Meals,  or  Meat  Guanos. 

This  material  is  another  source  of  high  grade  organic  nitrogen  and  consists 
of  meat  scraps,  or  of  nitrogenous  materials  from  the  slaughter  houses.  When 
relatively  pure  it  contains  from  13  to  14  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  thus  compares 
favorably  with  blood. 

Bones. 

Bones  form  a  very  important  manure,  particularly  on  soils  which  show  a 
deficiency  of  phosphoric  acid  or  for  crops  that  require  considerable   quantities 


11 

of  this  constituent.  They  are  valuable  as  they  contain  nitrogen  and  phosphoric 
acid.  Ground  raw  hones  may  contain  about  3Cr  per  cent,  of  organic  matter,  with 
perhaps  3  to  4  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  about  20  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid. 
Raw  bones,  however,  also  contain  considerable  fat.  This  ingredient  is  objection- 
able since  it  hinders  the  decomposition  of  the  organic  matter  after  the  bones 
are  applied  to  the  soil,  and  it  also  renders  it  practically  impossible  to  reduce 
the  bones  to  a  finely  divided  condition  before  applying.  For  this  reason,  and 
also  in  order  to  extract  gelatine,  they  are  submitted  to  the  action  of  steam  under 
pressure  and  thus  robbed  of  their  fat  and  some  of  the  gelatine  and  brought  into 
a  condition  to  be  easily  reduced  to  a  fine  state.  This  steamed  hone  meal  will  con- 
tain 1  or  2  per  cent,  or  under  some  methods  of  extraction  even  more,  nitrogen, 
with  from  20  to  25  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid.  The  phosphoric  acid  is  chiefly 
in  the  form  of  tri-calcic  phosphate,  which  is  insoluble  in  water;  consequently, 
the  finer  the  bones  are  ground  the  more  rapidly  the  material  will  come  into 
solution  in  the  soil.  Bones  are  particularly  valuable  for  their  phosphoric  acid, 
and  are  usually  classed  as  a  phosphatic  manure. 

Tankage. 

Tankage  is  a  nitrogenous  product  and  consists  chiefly  of  dried  animal  Avastes 
from  slaughter  houses.  It  varies  somewhat  in  composition  since  it  includes  other- 
wise unsalable  parts  of  the  carcass,  as  bones,  flesh,  hair,  hoof,  horn,  etc.  The 
keratine  substances  do  not  decompose  readily  in  the  soil,  consequently,  while  tankage 
may  be  approximately  as  rich  in  nitrogen  as  dried  blood  and  meat  meals,  it  is 
not  so  valuable  because  it  does  not  give  as  quick  returns.  It  usually  contains 
a  varying  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid. 

Fish  Manuee. 

The  bodies  of  fish  are  highly  nitrogenous  and  their  bones  contain  large 
quantities  of  phosphates.  Sometimes  the  refuse  from  the  fish  canneries  is  incor- 
porated in  these  fish  manures.  In  general,  the  most  objectionable  feature  to  them 
is  the  oil  which  they  contain,  as  this  hinders  the  fermentation  and  decay  of  the 
materials  by  repelling  the  water. 

Naturally,  this  manure  varies  widely  in  composition.  American  dried  fish 
refuse  is  said  to  contain  about  7  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  and  about  the  same  amount 
of  phosphoric  acid. 

Vegetable  Eefuse. 

Certain  forms  of  vegetable  refuse,  as  oil  cakes,  husfe,  etc.,  which  are  left 
after  the  oil  is  extracted  from  certain  seeds  arc  sometimes  used  as  a  fertilizer. 
These  materials  are  frequently  highly  nitrogenous  and  contain  a  considerable 
quantity  of  phosphates  and  potash.  Some  of  them  decompose  slowly  in  the  soil 
and  are  not  quick  acting  manures.  These  materials  are  usually  used  as  cattle 
feeds,  but  in  some  cases  owing  to  the  presence  in  the  seed  of  poisonous  or  unpalat- 
able substances,  they  are  used  in  the  making  up  of  certain  forms  of  fertilizers. 
They  may  contain  as  much  as  5  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  potash 
and  3  to  3  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid. 


12 

Simple  oe  Mineral  Manures. 

Besides  the  organic  materials  which  have  been  discussed,  we  have  a  number 
of  other  substances,  generally  of  mineral  or  artificial  origin,  which  are  employed 
is  fertilizers.     These  may  be  divided  into  nitrogenous,  phosphatic  and  potassic. 

Many  of  the  organic  materials  already  described  contain  variable  quantities 
of  the  chief  manurial  substances,  but  those  about  to  be  dealt  with  are  as  a  rule 
intended  to  supply  only  one  important  element  of  plant  food.  Their  use  makes  it 
possible  for  the  farmer  to  apply  one  or  more  elements  of  plant  food  that  may 
be  necessary  on  his  farm,  and  thus  obviates  the  need  of  purchasing  other  elements 
vhich  he  may  not  require. 


NITROGENOUS  FERTILIZEES. 

Although  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere  is  nitrogen  and  thousands  of  pounds 
of  this  element  are  over  every  acre  of  land,  it  is  the  most  costly  plant  food 
iubstance.  As  has  been  pointed  out,  the  growing  of  leguminous  plants  makes  it 
possible  for  the  farmer  to  gather  some  of  this  immense  supply.  Hence,  the  more 
:he  leguminous  crops  are  introduced  into  the  rotation,  the  more  this  free  nitrogen 
:s  incorporated  into  the  soil.  Through  this  agency  the  soil  may  be  enriched  in 
aitrogen,  and  every  effort  ought  to  be  made  to  gather  some  atmospheric  nitrogen 
md  thereby  reduce  the  amount  that  has  to  be  provided  from  other  sources. 

The  most  important  nitrogenous  fertilizers  are:  nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of 
immonia,  and  calcium  cyanamid.  These  are  all  soluble  in  water,  and  should 
oe  used  as  a  direct  food  to  the  plant  and  not  to  build  up  a  reserve  in  the  soil. 

Nitrate  of  Soda. 

Sodium  nitrate  (nitrate  of  soda.  Chili  saltpetre)  occurs  in  enormous  deposits  in 
Peru  and  Chili.  It  is  found  in  rainless  districts  and  comparatively  near  the 
surface.  The  raw  material  is  found  beneath  a  covering  of  sand,  gypsum,  clay 
ind  gravel,  which  is  usually  removed  with  the  aid  of  gunpowder.  The  crude 
aaaterial  thus  exposed  varies  from  a  few  inches  to  12  feet  in  thickness  and  is 
oroken  up  and  carried  to  the  refinery  where  it  is  purified  by  crystallization. 
The  material  is  then  put  up  in  sacks  containing  200  pounds  and  in  this  foim 
-s  shipped  to  all  parts  of  tha  world.  The  product  supplied  for  agricultural 
purposes  contains  approximately  95  per  cent,  of  real  sodium  nitrate  and  conse- 
quently yields  about  15.6  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  Tt  is  extremely  soluble  and  diffusible 
and  is  at  once  available  to  plants,  hence  the  greater  part  should  be  applied  when 
the  crop  is  sufficiently  grown  to  be  capable  of  assimilating  it,  otherwise,  since  it  is 
aot  retained  by  any  constituent  of  the  soil,  considerable  loss  in  drainage  may 
occur. 

Ammonium  Sulphate. 

When  organic  nitrogenous  substances  are  submitted  to  destructive  distillation, 
shat  is,  heated  strongly  without  access  of  air,  the  nitrogen  which  they  contain 
is  to  a  large  extent  expelled  as  ammonia.  Therefore,  when  coal  is  heated  by 
destructive  distillation  in  the  preparation  of  coal  gas  the  nitrogen  which  it  con- 


13  ^ 

tains  is  vaporized  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  Ammonia  is  also  got  in  the  same 
way  from  coke  ovens,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  preparation  of  producer  gas 
and  water  gas.  The  ammonia  thus  secured  is  passed  into  sulphuric  acid  and 
ammonium  sulphate  is  formed.  This  crude  material  is  then  more  or  less  purified 
and  sold  under  the  name  of  "Ammonium  Sulphate."  In  the  form  in  which  it 
is  used  as  a  fertilizer  it  usually  contains  about  30  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 

Ammonium  sulphate  is  not  so  quick  in  its  action  as  nitrate  of  soda,  because 
it  has  to  undergo  nitrification,  or  change  into  nitrates,  before  it  can  be  absorbed 
The  presence  of  calcium  carbonate  is  essential  for  this  change,  consequently,  i^ 
should  not  be  applied  to  soils  deficient  in  lim:e,  and  furthermore,  its  use  i^ 
always  associated  with  a  rapid  depletion  of  the  soil  in  lime.  Nitrate  of  sods 
is  best  applied  in  several  small  dressings  during  the  growth  of  the  plant,  whereas, 
ammonium  sulphate  may  be  applied  at  once,  even  before  the  crop  is  sown,  without 
fear  of  loss,  because  in  various  ways  it  is  retained  by  the  soil.  The  asual  quanti- 
ties of  either  of  these  materials  applied  is  from  100  to  200  pounds  to  the  acre, 
but  with  such  crops  as  mangels  and  potatoes  and  many  garden  crops  large? 
quantities  may  be  used. 

Calcium  Cyanamid. 

Calcium  cyanamid  is  one  of  the  newer  forms  of  nitrogenous  manures.  Ii 
is  prepared  by  heating  calcium  carbide  to  a  very  high  temperature  by  electricitr 
and  passing  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  over  it.  The  resulting  compound  is  some- 
what bluish  black  in  color  and  contains  about  15  per  cent,  of  nitrogen.  It  alsc 
contains  calcium  equivalent  to  70  per  cent,  of  slaked  lime.  Many  of  its  forme? 
disadvantages  are  being  overcome  and  it  will  doubtless  become  one  of  the  most 
valuable  of  our  nitrogenous  manures.  At  present  it  is  used  principally  as  & 
constituent  of  mixed  fertilizers. 

Calcium  Niteate. 

Calcium  nitrate  is  another  of  the  newer  products  in  which  the  nitrogen 
of  the  atmosphere  is  put  into  a  commercial  form.  Little  or  none  of  this  com- 
pound has  been  used  in  this  country,  although  it  is  becoming  a  somewhat  commoE 
product  of  commerce  in  some  parts  of  Europe. 

Nitrogen  in  the  Organic  Form. 

Considerable  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the  value  of  organic  nitrogen. 
From  a  purely  plant  food  standpoint,  organic  nitrogen  has  no  higher  value  thai 
the  available  nitrate  nitrogen,  since  it  must  be  changed  into  the  nitrate  conditioE 
before  it  can  be  assimilated  by  the  plant.  The  value  of  organic  nitrogen  as  a 
plant  food  compared  with  quickly  available  forms  lies  in  the  fact  that  as  it 
gradually  decomposes,  it  fonns  a  gradual  supply  of  available  nitrogen  to  the  grow- 
ing plant  over  a  long  period.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  many  organi( 
nitrogenous  manures  are  so  complex  that  their  decomposition  is  extremely  difficul: 
and  they  are  of  little  service  to  increase  the  crop  yield.  Among  these  slowlv 
available  nitrogenous  substances  may  be  mentioned  rags,  hair,  skin,  horn,  crushed 
hoofs  and  leather.  Of  the  more  valuable  and  easily  rendered  available  forms  of 
organic  nitrogen  may  be  mentioned  feeding  cake  refuse  such  as  rape  cake,  dried 


14 

blood,  tankage  and  wool  waste.  The  value  of  organic  material  in  improving  the 
physical  nature  of  soils  is  a  well  established  fact,  but  to  buy  large  quantities  of 
nitrogenous  organic  fertilizer  as  a  source  of  organic  matter  to  the  soil  cannot 
be  considered  economical.  Farmyard  manure  is  a  cheap  source  of  organic  matter, 
but  where  it  cannot  be  produced  its  place  may  be  taken  by  growing  a  catch  crop 
of  rye,  mustard  or  clover  ready  to  be  plowed  under  as  green  manure. 

In  brief,  we  may  say  regarding  the  three  forms  of  nitrogen  that  if  during  a 
rotation  a  quick  result  is  needed  within  one  season  a  supply  of  nitrate  and 
ammonia  nitrogen  will  be  most  effective.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  effect  of  the 
manure  is  required  only  after  considerable  time  and  then  a  gradual  supply  is 
needed,  organic  nitrogen  would  be  most  suitable. 


PHOSPHATIC  MANUEES. 

Several  materials  are  used  as  a  source  of  phosphoric  acid.  Chief  of  these 
are  superphosphate,  bone  meal,  ground  rock  phosphate,  and  basic  slag.  The  bone 
meal  has  been  referred  to  under  organic  manures  and  need  not  be  discussed  here. 

Ground  Eock  Phosphate. 

This  material  differs  from  those  of  animal  origin  mainly  in  the  fact  that 
it  is  not  comibined  with  organic  matter  and  is  more  dense  and  compact  in  its 
structure.  The  phosphate  is  got  in  South  Carolina,  Florida,  Tennessee  and  some 
of  the  Eastern  Provinces  of  Canada.  It  varies  in  composition,  but  contains  from 
25  to  even  40  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  (P=Or).  The  phosphoric  acid  in  this 
material  is  in  the  form  of  the  tricalcic  phosphate,  and  therefore  insoluble  in 
water,  and  is  very  slowly  rendered  available.  Fine  grinding  is  the  means  used 
to  increase  the  solubility.  Dependence  is  placed  upon  the  acids  formed  by  the 
decaying  organic  matter  to  bring  this  material  into  solution. 

Basic  Slag. 

Basic  slag,  or  Thomas  phosphate,  is  a  very  finely  ground,  heavy  black  powder. 
It  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  from  iron  and  contains  from  12 
to  20  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  (P2O5).  The  availability  of  the  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  crude  basic  slag  varies  greatly,  even  as  much  as  from  20  to  nearly 
100  per  cent.  Consequently,  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  material 
that  is  to  be  prepared  for  use  as  a  fertilizer.  The  better  forms  on  the  market 
contain  from  about  11  to  13  per  cent,  of  available  phosphoric  acid.  This  is  in  the 
form  of  tetra-calcic  phosphate,  which  appears  to  be  more  soluble  under  soil 
conditions  than  the  tri-calcic  phosphate,  "The  standard  for  fineness  is  that  80 
per  cent,  of  the  material  should  pass  through  a  sieve  with  10,000  openings  to 
the  square  inch. 

Superphosphate  or  Acid  Phosphate. 

Years  ago,  when  phosphoric  acid  was  recognized  as  an  essential  plant  food 
constituent,  bone  meal  was  the  chief  source  of  this  material.  To  increase  its 
availability  the  bones  were  ground  to  a  very  fine  powder,  but  even  tliis  did  not 


15 

make  it  quick  enough  in  its  action.  To  improve  it  in  this  respect  a  method 
was  introduced  whereby  the  most  of  the  insoluble  tri-calcic  phosphate  of  bone  was 
converted  into  soluble  mono-calcic  phosphate.  This  was  accomplished  by  treat- 
ment with  sulphuric  acid  and  the  product  became  known  as  superphosphate  or 
acid  phosphate.  Gradually  the  cheaper  rock  phosphate  has  replaced  the  bone 
meal  in  the  preparation  of  the  acid  phosphate,  until  to-day  comparatively  little 
of  the  bone  meal  is  being  used  for  this  purpose.  The  bone  in  the  finely  ground 
condition  is  really  too  valuable  applied  direct  to  be  used  in  this  way,  especially 
as  the  tri-calcic  phosphate  of  the  rock  material  treated  with  the  sulphuric  acid 
forms  just  as  available  a  form  of  plant  food  as  would  be  got  from  the  bones.  Most 
of  the  superphosphates  on  the  market  contain  about  14  to  16  per  cent,  available 
phosphoric  acid.  The  chief  advantage  of  this  m'aterial  over  the  undissolved  forms 
is  that  the  phosphoric  acid  is  quickly  available.  Basic  slag  cannot  be  used  for 
this  purpose  because  it  contains  a  large  amount  of  iron,  and  under  the  treatment 
with  sulphuric  acid  phosphoric  acid  would  be  converted  into  the  iron  phosphate, 
which  would  be  much  more  insoluble  than  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  originally 
held.  The  ground  bone  and  basic  slag  are  not  quick  enough  in  their  action  to  fully 
roieet  the  needs  of  quick  growing  crops,  but  may  be  used  with  such  crops  as  grow 
through  long  periods,  as  meadows,  orchards,  vineyards,  etc.  The  rock  phosphate 
will  be  still  slower  in  its  action,  and  should  be  applied  to  soils  that  are  fairly 
rich  in  organic  matter,  because  under  these  conditions  the  phosphoric  acid  may 
be  brought  into  solution  by  the  acids  which  are  formed  in  the  decay  of  the 
organic  matter.  Basic  slag  should  also  be  applied  to  soils  rich  in  organic  matter, 
or  even  to  those  which  have  a  tendency  towards  sourness,  as  it  contains  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  lime. 

Superphosphate,  on  the  other  hand,  should  never  be  applied  to  soils  that  are 
inclined  to  be  sour,  because  it  is  of  an  acid  nature.  The  chief  advantage  of  the 
superphosphate  over  the  other  forms  is  that  it  contains  soluble  phosphate  which 
dissolves  on  being  placed  in  the  soil,  and  is  thus  more  evenly  distributed  through 
the  ground  than  can  be  done  by  mechanical  distribution.  In  a  longer  or  shorter 
time  it  is  reverted  to  the  insoluble  form  in  which  it  was  originally,  but  in  the 
meantime  it  has  become  so  distributed  through  the  ground  that  the  roots  can  come 
more  in  contact  with  it  and  it  is  better  absorbed. 


POTASH  MANUEES. 

Until  the  discovery  of  tlie  potash  mines  in  Germany  in  1860,  wood  ashes 
were  the  chief  source  of  this  constituent  as  a  fertilizer.  To-day,  practically  all 
potash  salts  used  in  the  world  comes  from  the  famous  mines  in  Germany.  It 
is  placed  on  the  market  in  a  variety  of  forms,  but  the  chief  materials  that  reach 
this  country  are  kainite,  muriate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  potash. 

The  Jcainite  is  a  crude  salt  containing  about  12.5  per  cent,  of  actual  potash, 
which  is  largely  in  the  form  of  the  sulphate.  Along  with  it,  however,  there  are 
large  quantities  of  ordinary  salt  and  small  percentages  of  chloride  and  sulphate 
of  magnesium.  Freight  rates  make  it  almost  prohibitive  to  bring  this  product 
inland. 


Wood  Ashes. 

Wood  ashes  are  valuable  as  a  source  of  jDotasli  and  previous  to  the  opening 
of  the  potash  mines  in  Germany  were  very  much  sought  after.  Good  unleached 
ashes  should  contain  at  least  5  or  6  per  cent,  of  potash  and  from  1.5  to  2  per 
cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  (PaOo).  The  potash  is  is  an  excellent  form  to  serve  as 
a  plant  food  and  is  immediately  available.  Valuing  the  potash  at  5  cents  per 
pound,  which  is  about  the  cost  of  it  in  sulphate  of  potash,  v/ood  ashes  are  worth 
25  to  30  cents  per  hundred,  or  $5  or  $6  per  ton  for  the  potash  alone.  But  they 
also  contain  some  phosphoric  acid,  and  25  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  whole  of  the 
material  is  carbonate  of  lime. 

Leached  ashes  are  ashes  that  have  been  exposed  to  the  weather  and  usually 
have  lost  all  but  about  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of  their  potash.  The  phosphoric 
acid  and  lime,  however,  remain  unchanged. 

Muriate  of  Potash. 

Muriate  of  potash  or  potassium  chloride  is  more  generally  used  than  any 
of  the  other  salts.  It  varies  somewhat  in  composition  according  to  the  method 
of  manufacture,  but  the  product  most  commonly  met  with  in  this  country  contains 
about  50  per  cent,  of  actual  potash.  The  chief  impurities  are  common  salt,  and 
certain  insoluble  matters  which  are  not  injurious.  All  the  potash  in  this  material 
is  immediately  available. 

Sulphate  of  Potash. 

This  salt  is  usually  from  90  to  95  per  cent,  pure  and  therefore  contains  an 
equivalent  of  from  48  to  51  per  cent,  of  actual  potash.  It  is  preferable  to  the 
muriate  for  certain  crops.  Thus,  the  muriate  is  not  recommended  for  potatoes, 
sugar  beets  and  tobacco.  The  sulphate,  however,  costs  from  $7.00  to  $10.00  per 
ton  more  than  the  muriate.  Possibly  if  the  muriate  of  potash  were  applied  some 
time  before  planting  the  ill  effects  attributed  to  this  material  miight  be  overcome. 
The  potash  manures  may  be  applied  some  time  previous  to  the  seeding  or  planting, 
but  should  not  be  plowed  do\vn.  They  react  with  other  compounds  in  the  soil 
and  are  fixed  or  so  firmly  held  by  the  soil  constituents  that  there  is  no  fear  of 
heavy  loss  by  leaching.  Early  applications  give  the  material  a  chance  to  become 
diffused  through  the  ground  so  that  it  can  come  in  contact  with  the  roots  as  they 
spread  themselves  throughout  the  soil. 


LIME. 


The  chief  formis  in  which  lime  is  used  to-day  are:  quick  lime,  carbonate  of 
lime  and  marl.  Hydrated  lime  is  slaked  lime  screened  and  is  too  expensive  to 
use  for  liming  soils.  Air-slaked  lime  is  a  mixture  of  slaked  lime  and  carbonate 
of  lime.  The  ammmt  of  the  latter  substance  present  is  dependent  upon  the 
length  of  time  the  lime  has  been  exposed. 


1? 

Quick  Lime. 

Quick  lime,  or  fresh  burnt  lime,  is  more  active  than  the  carbonate  and, 
possibly,  where  there  is  a  great  deal  of  acid  to  neutralize,  it  may  be  preferable 
to  the  other  forms.  It  hastens  the  decay  of  the  organic  matter.  On  deep  swamp 
soils  this  may  be  a  decided  advantage,  but  on  light  arable  soil  it  may  be  a  dis- 
advantage. Unless  there  is  a  large  amount  of  acid  to  neutralize,  it  should  not 
be  applied  at  heavier  applications  than  about  a  ton  per  acre.  This  may  be  dropped 
in  heaps  on  the  field  at  convenient  distances  for  spreading,  covered  with  a  little 
soil  and  allowed  to  slake,  and  then  spread  with  a  shovel.  It  should  not  be  plowed 
down  but  thoroughly  worked  into  the  soil  by  surface  cultivation. 

Makl  and  Carbonate  of  Lime. 

Marl  is  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime  and  may  contain  traces  of  phosphoric  acid. 
The  chief  marl  beds  in  this  Province  are  associated  with  our  swamp  lands.  The 
carbonate  of  limie  is  simply  ground  limestone  rock.  Some  experiments  seem  to 
indicate  that  the  dolomite  rock  is  more  valuable  as  a  fertilizer  than  tlie  purer 
limestones.  To  secure  quick  results  limestone  should  be  finely  ground.  We 
have,  however,  large  quantities  of  dust  from  the  stone  crushers  preparing  stone 
for  roadmaking  that  is  very  suitable  for  this  work.  It  is  not  all  fine  enough  to  act 
quickly,  but  nearly  50  per  cent,  of  it  will  pass  through  a  sieve  with  10,000  open- 
ings to  the  square  inch.  This  material  can  be  procured  at  50  cents  per  ton  in 
carload  lots.  The  freight  charges  will,  in  many  cases,  be  greater  than  the  cost 
of  the  materials;  consequently,  as  it  can  be  procured  in  a  number  of  places  in 
the  Province,  care  should  be  exercised  in  purchasing  at  the  nearest  point  and 
thus  reduce  the  cost  of  transportation.  In  applying  ground  limestone  rock  it 
is  well  to  remember  that  it  takes  practically  two  tons  of  this  material  to  supply 
as  much  calcium  as  one  ton  of  quick  lime.  The  ground  rock  is  not  so  active 
as  the  quick  lime  and  therefore  may  be  applied  in  very  heavy  quantities  without 
doing  any  harm. 

Gypsum. 

• 

Grypsum,  land  plaster,  or  sulphate  of  calcium,  exerts  a  similar  effect  to  that 
ot:  lime  in  improving  the  mechanical  condition  of  clay  soils.  It  serves  as  a  source 
of  calcium,  as  a  plant  food,  and  it  serves  to  stimulate  the  beneficial  soil  organisms 
on  the  roots  of  leguminous  plants  like  the  clovers,  alfalfas,  peas,  beans,  etc.  In 
these  ways  it  acts  in  the  same  manner  as  lime,  but  gypsum  will  not,  like  lime, 
correct  or  neutralize  the  acid  of  a  soil.  Xor  does  it  hasten  the  decay  of  organic 
matter  as  does  the  quick  lime.  As  an  aid  to  the  growth  of  the  legumes  it  may 
be  applied  at  the  rate  of  300  to  500  pounds  to  the  acre.  If  used  to  "lighten," 
or  improve,  the  physical  condition  of  clay  soils  heavier  applications  will  be 
required. 

Salt, 

Agricultural  salt  was  formerly  used  in  this  Province  in  considerable  quantities, 
but  of  late  years  very  little  has  been  applied.  It  supplies  no  essential  plant  food 
constituent  and  its  value  appears  to  be  due  to  indirect  action,  and  thus  it  acts  more 
as  a  stimulant. 


13 

HIGH-GRADE  FERTILIZERS. 

Fertilizers  may  also  be  divided  into  high-grade  and  low-grade  materials. 
Nitrate  of  soda,  sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  dried  blood  are,  for  example,  standard 
or  high-grade  nitrogenous  materials.  They  are  so  classified  because  they  are 
fairly  constant  in  composition  and  furnish  nitrogen  in  some  constant  and  definite 
form,  which  will  act  the  same  under  like  conditions.  Further,  they  are  rich  in 
nitrogen  and  the  element  is  immediately  or  quickly  available  to  the  plant.  Ground 
rock  phosphates  differ  in  this  respect  from  the  above  mentioned  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances, because,  in  the  raw  state,  the  phosphoric  acid  for  which  they  are  valued, 
though  present  in  large  quantities  and  quite  constant  and  definite  in  its  form 
of  combination,  is  not  available  to  plants.  After  it  has  been  treated  with  sulphuric 
acid  and  converted  into  superphosphate  it  is  high-grade,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
tlie  phosphoric  acid  has  been  rendered  available. 

The  various  German  potash  salts,  such  as  muriate  of  potash,  sulphate  of 
potash,  etc.,  are  also  high-grade,  since  the  composition  of  each  grade  and  kind 
is  practically  uniform  in  its  content  of  potash,  which  will  always  act  the  same 
under  all  conditions,  and  since  they  are  richer  in  potash  than  any  other  potassic 
compounds  suitable  for  making  fertilizers. 


LOW-GRADE  FERTILIZERS. 

The  products  which  are  included  in  the  second  class  differ  from  the  first, 
in  that  they  may  not  only  vary  in  their  composition,  but  the  constituents  con- 
tained in  them  do  not  show  a  uniform  rate  of  availability.  Different  samples  of 
bone  derived  from  the  same  source,  treated  in  the  same  way,  and  ground  to  the 
same  degree  of  fineness,  would  be  high-grade,  but  because  these  conditions  differ, 
bone  from  various  sources  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  act  the  same  under  similar 
climatic  and  soil  conditions.  The  same  is  true  of  tankage;  but  it  varies  also  in 
the  proportion  of  its  two  main  constituents,  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid,  and 
in  the  rate  at  which  they  become  available  to  plants.  In  this  class  we  must  also 
place  fish  scrap,  wood  ashes,  and  the  miscellaneous  substances  that  may  be  used 
in  building  nip  mixed  or  complete  fertilizers. 


GUARANTEES. 

It  is,  therefore,  evident  that  mdxed  fertilizers  manufactured  from  these  two 
classes  of  raw  material  differ  in  value;  for  the  nitrogen  from  nitrate  of  soda  or 
dried  blood  will  act  quicker  and  is  worth  more  than  that  from  ground  leather  or 
horn.  In  the  making  of  the  ordinary  complete  fertilizers  of  commerce,  in  which 
nitrogenous,  potassic,  and  phosphatic  materials  are  all  mixed  together,  it  is  im- 
possible for  the  purchaser  to  judge  of  the  nature  of  the  materials  used  by  the 
appearance,  weight,  or  smell  of  the  mixture,  and,  furthermore,  he  can  form  no 
idea  of  the  probable  amount  of  plant  food  constituents  present. 

To  aid  in  the  intelligent  purchase  of  fertilizers  the  Dominion  Government 
have  enacted  a  law  whereby  it  is  made  illegal  for  any  manufacturer  or  manu- 
facturer's agent  to  offer  for  sale  any  fertilizer  without  giving  a  guarantee  of  the 


19 

amiount  of  plant  food  constituents  contained  therein.  According  to  our  present 
Fertilizer  Act  "Every  brand  of  fertilizer  offered  for  sale  in  Canada  shall  bear  a 
registration  number,  which  shall  be  permanently  assigned  to  the  particular  brand 
or  species  of  fertilizer  for  which  it  is  issued.  The  number  shall  be  granted  by 
the  Minister  on  the  application  of  the  manufacturer  of  such  brand  of  fertilizer, 
or  his  agent,  and  on  payment  of  a  fee  of  two  dollars." 

"The  registration  number  must  be  affixed  by  the  manufacturer,  or  agent, 
in  a  plain  and  legible  manner,  to  every  package  of  fertilizer  sold  or  offered  for 
sale,  and  shall  constitute  an  identification  of  the  brand.  In  addition  to  the  registra- 
tion number  there  must  be  legibly  printed,  on  every  package  of  fertilizer  sold,  the 
statement  set  out  in  Schedule  A  to  this  Act.  This  condition  shall  be  held  to 
be  fulfilled  if  a  printed  tag,  bearing  the  registration  number  and  the  statement 
required,  is  securely  attached  to  the  package." 

"Any  purchaser  of  a  registered  fertilizer  may  obtain  from  the  Minister  an 
analysis  of  the  fertilizer  as  delivered  to  him,  by  making  application  for  such 
analysis,  accompanied  by  a  sample  of  the  fertilizer  of  at  least  one  pound  weight, 
and  taken  in  accordance  with  the  directions  given  in  Schedule  B  to  this  Act,  and 
•on  payment  of  a  fee  of  one  dollar. 

"If  any  fertilizer  is  imported  for  the  personal  use  of  the  importer,  and  not 
for  sale,  this  Act  shall  not  apply  thereto,  but  such  importer  may  secure  an 
analysis  of  the  fertilizer,  as  delivered  to  him,  on  application  to  the  Minister  and 
on  payment  of  a  fee  of  five  dollars.  The  sample  submitted  must  be  taken  in 
accordance  with  the  requirements  of  section  10  of  this  Act." 

SCHEDULE  A. 
Statement  to  be  attached  to  package. 

1.  (Name  of  brand.) 

2.  (Registration  number.) 

3.  (Name  and  address  of  manufacturer.) 

4.  (Analysis,  as  guaranteed  by  the  manufacturer.) 

5.  Notice.  Any  purchaser  may  have  an  analysis  made  by  the  Department  of  Inland 
Revenue  on  payment  of  one  dollar.  Samples  must  be  taken  in  conformity  with  the 
regulations.    For  regulations  address  the  Deputy  Minister  of  Inland  Revenue,  Ottawa. 

-  SCHEDULE  B. 

Instructions  for  taking  samples  of  fertilizers  to  be  submitted  for  analysis  in  accord- 
ance with  Section  10. 

"  Samples  of  fertilizer  submitted  by  a  purchaser  for  analysis  must  be  inclosed  in 
glass  jars  or  bottles,  and  properly  sealed.  The  samples  must  be  taken  in  the  presence 
of  the  vendor  or  of  his  representative. 

Process  of  Sampling. 

"  In  lots  of  five  tons,  or  less,  portions  shall  be  drawn  from  each  separate  package, 
and  from  at  least  ten  packages;  or  if  less  than  ten  packages  are  present,  all  shall  be 
sampled.  In  lots  of  over  five  tons,  at  least  ten  per  cent,  of  the  packages  shall  be 
sampled.  The  portions  so  taken  shall  be  thoroughly  mixed  in  the  presence  of  the  parties 
interested,  and  from  this  mixture  the  sample  sent  to  the  Minister  is  to  be  taken; 
and  must  bear  the  signature  of  vendor  and  purchaser;  and  at  the  same  time  a  duplicate 
sample  is  to  be  left  with  the  party  whose  goods  are  inspected,  subject  to  the  call  of  the 
manufacturer  or  agent" 

In  compelling  the  manufacturer  to  guarantee  the  amount  of  plant  food  in 
a  fertilizer,  the  Government  have  done  what  they  can  to  aid  the  farmer  to  purchase 
intelligently.     But  to  make  use  of  this  data  the  purchaser  must  be  familiar  with 


20 

the    turms    used    and    know    tlie    commercial    value    of    the    diiferent    plant    food 
constituents. 

Statement  of  Guakantee. 

The  statement  of  a  guarantee  should  be  as  simple  as  possible.  All  that 
is  required  is  the  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  potash  and  available  phosphoric  acid. 
The  amount  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  miay  also  be  given,  but  as  little  value  is 
placed  on  this  part  of  the  material  it  is  not  important.  Sometimes,  however,  the 
per  cent,  of  nitrogen  is  given  and  its  equivalent  of  ammonia.  This  is  simply  two 
ways  of  stating  the  same  fact.  Again,  phosphoric  acid  may  be  quoted  in  terms  of 
'Vater  soluble,"  "citrate  soluble,"  "available,"  "insoluble,"  and  "total."  Out  of 
all  of  these  statements  the  only  one  that  is  required  is  the  "available,"  or,  if  we 
want  to  know  the  amount  of  other  forms  of  phosphoric  acid,  the  "insoluble"  may 
be  included.  The  potash  is  also  very  often  stated  in  two  ways,  as  "potash"  and 
as  "equal  to  sulphate  of  potash."  This  again  is  a  statement  of  the  amount  in 
two  ways.  In  rare  instances  the  fuller  statement  may  be  of  interest  to  a  purchaser. 
Unfortunately,  the  Act  does  not  limit  the  number  of  times  and  ways  the  manu- 
facturer may  state  the  same  thing  in  the  guarantee,  and  consequently  he  is  within 
his  rights  in  multiplying  the  number.  The  purchaser,  however,  will  do  well 
to  remember  that  no  matter  kow  complex  the  guarantee  may  be  the  valuation 
should  be  made  on  the  three  itemis:  (1)  "nitrogen,"  (2)  "available  phosphoric 
acid,"  and  (3)  "potash."  This  fact  is  recognized  in  the  concise  statement  used  in 
speaking  of  a  fertili^^er  as  being  a  3-6-10.  The  meaning  is  that  it  contains  3  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen,  fi  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  10  per  cent,  of  potash. 

Teade  Names. 

The  need  of  a  guarantee  is  emphasized  by  the  great  number  of  different  brands 
of  fertilizers  on  the  market.  The  trade  name  given  a  particular  brand  is  usually 
an  indication  of  the  crop  to  which  it  should  be  applied,  as  "  Potato  Manure," 
"Grape  and  Small  Fruit  Special,"  "  Orchard  Special,"  "  Tobacco  Grower,"  etc. 
Doubtless  these  preparations  are  well  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  plants, 
but  it  is  impossible  to  make  any  one  mixture  that  will  give  the  best  results  with 
all  kinds  and  conditions  of  soils.  The  trade  named  substances  are  useful  and  are 
an  attempt  to  furnish  a  fertilizer  that  is  properly  balanced  for  the  particular  crop 
named.  This,  however,  does  not  mean  that  any  fertilizer  named  for  a  particular 
crop  will  under  all  conditions  give  the  best  results. 

To  use  fertilizers  intelligently  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  a  study  be  made 
of  the  fertilizers  themselves  and  the  crop  and  soil  requirements.  The  first  can  only 
be  got  by  studying  the  literature  on  the  subject  and  by  observation.  The  second 
can  be  best  got  by  reading  and  experimenting. 


CALCULATION  OF  THE  VALUE  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

The  true  money  value  of  fertilizers  cannot  be  estimated.  This  would  be 
measured  by  the  increased  crop  produced  and  it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  fix 
a  value  to  any  fertilizer  which  would  be  correct  under  the  varying  conditions  of 
climate,  soil,  crop,   season,   and  method  of  use.     It  is   important,   however,   for 


^1 

the  farmer  when  purchasing  a  fertilizer  to  have  some  system  of  calculation  whereby 
he  may  be  able  to  tell  whether  that  fertilizer  is  selling  at  a  price  according  to 
its  true  market  value,  or  not.  In  other  words,  he  should  know  if  he  is  getting 
his  money's  worth  according  to  the  trade  value.  In  the  case  of  purely  mineral 
fertilizers  it  is  evident  from  previous  reading  that  the  value  depends  upon  the 
amount  and  condition  of  the  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  present.  Now, 
if  we  consider  a  simple  mineral  fertilizer  like  nitrate  of  soda,  which  we  buy 
only  for  the  nitrogen  it  contains,  it  is  readily  seen  that  according  to  the  market 
price  of  this  mineral  we  can  fix  a  ''unit  value"  for  nitrogen.  Any  unit  may  be 
adopted,  but  the  unit  most  conveniently  adopted  in  the  trade  is  stated  as  being  one 
per  cent,  on  the  basis  of  a 'ton,  or  20  pounds.  Thus,  if  nitrate  of  soda  containing 
15  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  is  selling  at  $55.00  per  ton,  the  price  of  a  unit  of  nitrogen 
is  found  by  dividing  $55.00  by  15  per  cent. =$3. 66  per  unit. 

Similarly,  superphosphate  selling  at  $16.00  per  ton  and  containing  16  per  cent, 
available  phosphoric  acid  gives  the  price  for  a  unit  of  available  phosphoric  acid 
at   *i«^o<i     =$1.00  per  unit. 

Again,  muriate  of  potash  selling  at  $41.80  per  ton  and  containing  48  per  cent, 
potash  gives  the  price  for  a  unit  of  potash  at  **-ij|-<'-=87c.  per  imit. 

According  to  these  calculations  we  have  the  following  unit  values: 

Nitiogen    $3.66  per  unit. 

Available  phosplioric   acid    1.00     "      " 

Potash 87     " 

Knowing  a  value  for  each  of  these  units  we  can  now  readily  estimate  from 
the  guaranteed  analysis  which  accompanies  a  fertilizer  whether  it  is  being  offered 
for  sale  at  a  legitimate  price,  or  not. 

Two  potato  manures  of  the  following  composition,  respectively,  are  placed  on 
the  market  at  the  prices  mentioned,  and  it  is  required  to  ascertain  which  is 
better  value. 

No.  I. 

Price  $32.00  per  ton. 

Analysis :     Nitrogen :'. ...       4  per  cent. 

Available   phosplioric   acid    8     "      " 

Potash      10     "       " 

No.   II. 

Price  $30.00  per  ton. 

Analysis :     Nitrogen      2  per  cent. 

Available   phosphoric   acid    6     "      " 

Potash    12     " 

,      From    the   above   unit   values   the    value   of   these   two   fertilizers   would    be 
estimated  as  follows: 

I.  Nitrogen     4  per  cent.,  or  4  units,  at  $3.66  =  $14.64 

Available  phosphoric  acid   ..     8     "       "        "8       "       "      1.00  =      8.00 
Potash     10    "       "        "10       "       "         .87=      8.70 


Actual  value  per  ton   =  $31.34 

Price  charged  per  ton   :=     32.00 

II,  Nitrogen    2  per  cent.,  or  2  units,  at  $3.66  =    $7.32 

Available  phosphoric  acid   ..     6     "       "        "6       "       "      1.00=      6.00 
Potash      12     "       "         "12       "       "         .87=     10.44 


Actual  value  per  ton    =  $23.76 

Price  charged  per  ton  =    30.00 


22 

N'o.  1  is  satisfactory  value  at  $32.00  per  ton,  while  No.  2,  although  ofEered  at 
a  lower  price,  is  still  $6.24  above  the  actual  value. 

Many  farmers  make  the  mistake  of  assuming  that  a  manure  of  a  low  price 
is  economical.  This,  however,  is  not  necessarily  the  case;  indeed,  it  is  usually 
found  that  the  high-grade  manures  are  in  reality  the  cheaper  when  valued  accord- 
ing to  their  composition. 

Unit  Values. 

In  making  a  valuation  of  any  fertilizer  it  should  be  thoroughly  understood 
that  the  unit  prices  for  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric  acid  and  Potash  are  based  entirely 
on  the  market  values  of  the  raw  fertilizers  supplying  but  one  of  these  plant  food 
elements.  These  unit  values  may  vary  in  the  different  raw  fertilizers  according 
to  their  percentage,  composition  and  price,  as  follows: — 

Unit  Values  of  Nitbogen. 

%  iNitrogen  Price  Condition 

tPrice  or  Units  of  per  Unit  of  or  liind  of 

Fertilizer                              per  ton.  Nitrogen  in  one  ton.     Nitrogen.  Nitrogen. 

Nitrate  of  Soda   $55  00  15  $3  66  Nitrate 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia 70  00  19  3  68  Ammonia 

Calcium    Cyanamid    48  00  15  3  20  Organic 

Dried  Blood  Meal   55  00  11  5  00  Organic 

The  unit  value  of  organic  nitrogen  may  be  obtained  from  other  manures 
such  as  Meat  Meal  and  Tankage,  which  are  sold  chiefly  for  their  nitrogen  content. 
One  per  cent,  ammonia  is  equivalent  to  four-fifths  of  one  per  cent,  of  nitrogen. 
Thus,  if  the  nitrogen  is  stated  as  per  cent,  of  ammonia,  to  convert  to  per  cent, 
nitrogen  multiply  by  4-5,  or  more  accurately  .823. 

Unit  Values  of   Soluble  oe  Available*   Phosphoric   Acid. 

Price  per  unit  of    Conditions 
tPrice  %  Phosphoric  acid,     phosphoric        or  kind  of 

Fertilizer.  per  ton        or  units,  in  one  ton.        acid.        phosphoric  acid. 

Superphosphate     $16  00  16  $1  00  Acid 

Basic    Slag    18  00  12  1  50  Basic  or 

Alkali 

Unit  Value  of  Insoluble  or  Slowly  Available  Phosphoric  Acid. 

A  unit  value  for  insoluble  phosphate  in  the  organic  form  can  be  obtained 
from  the  price  of  bone  meal  containing  2.5  per  cent.,  or  units  of  nitrogen,  and 
23  per  cent,  or  units  of  insoluble  phosphoric  acid,  at  $30.00  per  ton.  2.5  units 
of  nitrogen  at  the  highest  unit  value  (in  the  organic  form)  would  be  $3.68  per 
unit  =  $9.20.  Subtracting  this  from  $30.00  ($30.00— $9.20)  =  $20.80  for  23 
units  of  Phosphoric  acid;  =  90  cents  per  unit  of  insoluble  organic  phosphoric  acid. 

The  market  price  of  Ground  Eock  Phosphate  would  establish  a  unit  value 
for  insoluble  mineral  phosphate  which  has  not  been  treated  with  strong  acid. 
Though  this  kind  of  phosphate  is  a  popular  fertilizer  in  some  places,  as  yet 
it  is  rarely  used  in  Ontario  and  the  price  is  seldom  quoted  at  present. 

*  By  available  phosphoric  acid  is  meant  that  which  is  soluble  in  water  or  very  weak 
acid.  In  the  case  of  a  phosphate  fertilizer  which  has  been  treated  with  very  strong 
acid  the  phosphate  which  remains  insoluble  is  considered  of  little  or  no  value. 


23 
Unit  Values  of  Potash. 


tPrice  %  Potash,  or  units 
Fertilizer.                             per  ton  in  one  ton. 

Sulphate    of   Potash    $50  30  47 

Muriate      "         "         41  80  48 


Price  per 

Condition 

unit  of 

or  kind 

potash. 

of  potash. 

$1  07 

Sulphate 

87 

Muriate 

or  Chloride 

From  the  study  of  the  use  of  the  different  kinds  of  Nitrogen,  Phosphoric 
Acid  and  Potash  which  has  already  been  given,  it  will  be  realized  that  the 
fertilizer  supplying  the  cheaper  unit  value  is  not  necessarily  the  best  to  use. 
Each  fertilizer  has  ita  own  particular  use  which  should  be  considered  in  conjunc- 
tion with  its  cost. 


OBJECT  OF  EXPERIMENTING  WITH  FERTILIZERS. 

The  proper  and  profitable  use  of  fertilizers  will  only  come  with  considerable 
experience.  There  is  no  better  way  for  the  farmer  to  familiarize  himself  with 
the  peculiarities  of  his  soil,  the  characteristics  of  his  crops  and  the  various  con- 
stituents of  fertilizers  than  by  actual  experiments.  Considering  all  the  different 
conditions  existing  it  is  unwise  for  the  farmer  to  use  large  quantities  of  these 
expensive  materials  without  proving  that  they  will  give  profitable  results.  These 
experiments  may  be  of  a  very  simple  nature  and  the  time  and  labor  required 
in  conducting  them  is  practically  negligible.  An  examination  of  soil  in  the 
laboratory  often  provides  valuable  information  on  which  to  base  experiments  and 
the  results  of  fertilizer  applications  on  similar  soils  are  a  useful  guide.  In 
practice,  however,  no  two  soils  of  the  same  class  are  found  exactly  alike,  and 
each  field  may  be  looked  upon  as  having  its  own  peculiarities.  Hence,  it  is  most 
important  that  the  farmer  should  find  out  what  is  the  best  and  most  profitable 
treatment  on  his  own  farm. 

Furthermore,  when  the  experiments  include  the  use  of  the  simple  materials, 
such  as  nitrate  of  soda,  muriate  of  potash  and  superphosphate,  the  experimenter 
becomes  familiar  with  the  fact  that  he  is  dealing  with  three  distinct  constituents 
of  plant  growth.  It  is  to  be  feared  that  in  many  cases  purchasers  of  mixed  fer- 
tilizers do  not  fully  realize  the  fact  and  buy  the  material  more  from  the  name  it 
bears  than  from  any  definite  knowledge  of  the  amount  of  nitrogen,  -phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  that  may  be  in  the  fertilizer.  Again,  carefully  conducted  experiments 
enable  the  experimenter  to  note  the  effect  of  the  different  constituents  upon  the 
growth  of  the  crops.  This  in  itself  is  valuable,  because  it  helps  him  to  form  some 
idea  of  the  needs  of  a  growing  crop  from  its  appearance. 

In  this  way  the  experiments  not  only  help  to  make  clear  the  peculiarities  of 
the  soil  and  crops,  but  they  also  aid  the  experimenter  to  become  more  familiar  with 
the  fertilizers  themselves.  Thus,  properly  conducted  experiments  should  lead  to  the 
more  intelligent  and  economical  use  of  these  expensive  materials. 

t  The  above  prices  were  quoted  in  the  spring  of  1914  for  ton  lots  from  the  Toronto 
warehouses.  These  prices  may  vary  considerably  each  year,  and  in  different  places,  and 
the  farmer  should  •al«ulate  the  unit  values  accordingly. 


24 

HOW  TO  EXPERIMENT  WITH  FEETILIZEES. 

The  important  question  in  using  any  fertilizer  is  "Will  it  pay?"  This  can 
always  be  answered  by  a  simple  "Two  Plot  Experiment."  The  details  of  con- 
ducting such  an  experiment  are  as  follows:  Select  a  uniform  area  of  soil  and 
carefully  measure  out  two  plots  as  illustrated. 

■ii  ft 


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o^f-he  ^ioi'3  a./  the  t/'^c  tAay  <*^^  /*./<•  o^o^pv. 

The  exact  position  of  the  plots  in  the  field  should  be  noted  by  measured 
distances  from  the  corners  of  the  plot  to  permanent  stakes  by  the  fence,  as 
shown.  Stakes  left  at  the  corners  of  the  plot  invariably  become  misplaced 
through  intertillage  during  the  growing  seasons  and  being  unnoticed  may  cause 
damage  to  harvesting  implements.  The  plots  should  be  a  sufficient  distance  from 
the  fences  of  the  field  so  as  to  be  free  of  the  headlands  and  well  away  from 
any  trees.  Keep  the  boundaries  of  the  plots  at  right  angles.  There  should  be  a 
dividing  strip  between  each  plot,  so  that  the  treatment  of  one  plot  will  not  be 
contaminated  with  that  of  another  and  the  results  will  be  entirely  separate.  The 
size  of  the  plots  may  vary  according  to  the  convenience  of  the  experimenter,  but 
one-twentieth  or  one-tenth  of  an  acre  is  usually  most  satisfactory  for  farm  crops. 
^If  no  platform  scales  large  enough  to  take  a  waggon  or  cart  is  available,  the 
difficulties  of  dealing  with  the  harvest  of  large  areas  are  too  great.  With  small 
areas,  greater  accuracy  is  required  owing  to  the  multiplication  of  any  errors  in 
calculating  quantities  per  acre.  Fertilizer  plots  with  vegetables  and  market  garden 
produce  may  be  very  small.  The  shape  of  the  plots  should  be  long  and  narrow 
rather  than  square  so  as  to  ensure  a  better  uniformity  of  soil.  Where  the  crop 
is  in  drills  particular  attention  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  same  number  of 
rows  are  in  each  plot. 

Eegarding  the  "Two  Plot  Experiment"  under  discussion,  both  plots  are  pre- 
pared in  exactly  the  same  manner,  receiving  an  application  of  farmyard  manure 


35 


like  the  rest  of  the  field.  Plot  Xo.  1  receives  no  fertilizer  and  is  a  check  result 
of  untreated  land  identical  to  Plot  No.  2,  which  receives  the  dressing  of  fertilizer. 

This  experiment  should  simply  prove  whether  the  fertilizer  heing  tested  was 
profitable  to  use  or  not  for  that  particular  soil  and  crop.  In  judging  the  result 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  an  increased  yield  does  not  necessarily  mean  an 
increased  profit.  The  cost  of  the  fertilizer  and  its  application  should  be  deducted, 
though  apart  from  this  very  little  more  expense  is  entailed  in  dealing  with  a 
maximum  as  compared  with  a  minimum  crop. 

The  "Two  Plot  Experiment"  is  best  suited  to  the  testing  of  any  complete 
fertilizer  mixture  containing  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  If,  however, 
more  detailed  information  is  required  regarding  the  deficiency  of  a  soil  m  one 

i*  'if 

/vVg    P/o f    E xhen ??t en/  — - 


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f 


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i  — ^^  Ag  p^o^hio^fc  Add     i'^'*^. 


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\^\*oAcjre.^ ~  _    _  _  _  _      _1_ i     _         5  •> 


! 


■ Te-^t^/^ei^tx-rjf  S'/-<t/ef>s  A/ckceot    outs/oie  /Ae  coyrterT 

0^  St/te  /^  to  ^"J      a  T  T fie  7/  >n  <>  ^Aej   a  r-e  /<x.fof  o/o  v^rt 


A  -»t 


cl   ^a-yvfsfpcl 


2% 

f 

or  more  plant  food  constituents  we  would  recommend  the  "Five  Plot  Experiment" 
here  illustrated  and  laid  with  the  same  detail  as  previously  mentioned. 

Plot  1,  is  a  check  receiving  no  fertilizer. 

Plot  2,  receives  a  complete  mixture  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 

at  the  rate  of : 

Per  Acre.  1/20  Acre. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia    150  lbs.  IVz  lbs. 

Superphosphate    400   "  20        " 

Muriate   of   Potash    150    "  T^     " 

Plot  3,  receives  a  mixture  of  phosphoric  add  and  potash  only,  at  the  rate  of : 

Per  Acre.        1/20  Acre. 

Superphosphate   400  lbs.  20      lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash   150   "  T^     " 

Plot  4,  receives  a  mixture  of  nitrogen  and  potash  only,  at  the  rate  of: 

Per  Acre.         1/20  Acre. 

Sulphate   of  Ammonia    150  lbs.  7%  lbs. 

Muriate  of  Potash   150    "  7i^     " 

Plot  5,  receives  a  mixture  of  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid  only,  at  the  rate  of:  ■ 

Per  Acre.         1/20  Acre. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia    150  lbs.  7^^  lbs. 

Superphosphate    400    "  20 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia  is  recommended  as  a  source  of  nitrogen  in  this  experi- 
ment because  it  is  more  suitable  for  mixing  with  Superphosphate  and  Muriate 
of  potash,  and  all  the  fertilizers  can  be  applied  in  one  operation. 

The  results  of  a  "Five  Plot  Experiment"  show  whether  a  complete  mixture 
of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash,  or  a  mixture  of  any  two  of  these 
ingredients  is  most  profitable  in  the  proportions  used.  The  leaving  out  of  nitrogen, 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash  in  Plots  3,  4  and  5,  respectively,  will  also  show  which 
of  these  constituents  is  most  needed  for  that  particular  soil  and  crop.  The  pro- 
portions in  future  applications  can  thus  be  adjusted  so  that  the  plant  food  most 
needed  for  the  same  soil  and  crop  will  suitably  predominate  in  the  mixture. 

In  every  case,  however,  the  main  principle  of  the  successful  use  of  fertilizers 
should  not  be  forgotten,  namely,  Fertilizers  cannot  tal'e  the  place  of  Farmyard 
Manure  hut  are  merely  to  supplement  its  deficiencies  in  supplying  the  right 
proportion  of  available  plant  food.  Never  discard  Farmyard  Manu/re  for  the  use 
of  fertilizers  entirely,  hut,  ivhenever  possible  %ise  the  two  together.  If  Farmyard 
Manure  cannot  be  obtained  every  effort  mmst  he  made  to  supply  organic  matter 
by  means  of  catch  crops  plowed  in  as  green  manure. 


MIXING  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

From:  what  has  been  said  it  will  be  realized  that  as  the  farmer's  knowledge  of 
fertilizers  increases,  especially  through  experimenting,  the  more  he  will  desire 
to  apply  fertilizers  according  to  the  requirements  which  he  finds  necessary  in 
his  own  practice.  He  will  naturally  prefer  to  use  the  simple  fertilizers  and  to 
make  up  his  own  mixtures  in  the  proportions  which  his  experiments  demonstrate 
to  be  most  profitable.  In  some  instances  he  may  find  that  an  application  of  only 
one  or  two  plant  food  constituents  produces  the  greater  profit.  Very  often  the 
expensive   nitrogenous   fertilizers   can   be   economically   dispensed   with.     This   is 


27 

especially  true  where  leguminous  crops  have  been  largely  used  in  the  rotation, 
thereby  increasing  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil,  as  previously  described.  Thus, 
providing  the  farmer  sufficiently  understands  the  use  and  properties  of  the  simple 
fertilizers,  it  is  a  decided  advantage  to  make  up  his  own  mixtures  according  to 
the  requirements  of  his  soil  and  crops.  Home  made  mixtures  can  be  made  up 
at  a  minimum  cost.  The  nature  and  availability  of  fertilizers  can  be  considered 
in  making  up  a  mix-ture.  A  farmer  knowing  exactly  what  he  is  applying  is  enabled 
to  read  his  results  more  intelligently  and  to  improve  future  applications. 

There  is  no  reason  whatever  why  the  farmer  should  not  use  Tankage,  Dried 
Blood  and  other  offal  from  the  pork-packing  and  slaughter  houses  as  a  basis  in 
his  mixtures  and  as  a  source  of  organic  nitrogen  and  phosphate. 

How  TO  Mix  Fertilizers. 

It  is  highly  important  that  fertilizers  be  thoroughly  mixed.  Unless  a  farmer 
is  prepared  to  carry  out  the  work  efficiently  home  mixing  will  prove  a  failure. 
In  mixing  manures  the  following  directions  should  be  followed :  Select  a  clean, 
dry  floor,  preferably  of  concrete,  and  spread  out  the  fertilizers  in  the  required 
proportions  in  a  heap.  By  means  of  a  broad  shovel  turn  the  heap  completely 
several  times  until  thoroughly  mixed  and  crush  finely  any  lumps.  The  mixture 
should  be  finally  passed  through  a  fine  riddle  or  screen  (of  one-eighth  inch  mesh) 
such  as  is  used  for  sifting  sand  or  gravel  in  making  cement.  Should  a  mixture  form 
only  a  small  quantity  to  cover  a  large  area,  the  bulk  should  be  increased  to  at  least 
half  a  ton  per  acre  by  adding  a  quantity  of  sand  or  fine  dry  earth.  This  ensures 
more  even  distribution  on  applying. 

Fertilizers  Which   Should   Not   be   Mixed. 

Some  manures  cannot  be  mixed  on  account  of  chemical  action  being  thereby 
set  up  which  results  in  a  loss  or  depreciation  of  the  fertilizing  ingredients.  To 
avoid  this  trouble  do  not  mix  the  following: 

1.  Lime,  wood  ashes  or  basic  slag  with  any  manure  containing  ammonia, 
such  as  Sulphate  of  Ammonia,  Farmyard  Manure,  or  any  organic  manure. 

2.  Lime,  Wood  Ashes  or  Calcium  Cyanamid  with  any  fertilizer  containing 
soluble  phosphate,  such  as  Superphosphate  or  Dissolved  Bones. 

3.  Nitrate  of  Soda  with  Superphosphate  or  Dissolved  Bones,  except  for  im- 
mediate application,  and  under  no  circumstances  if  the  Superphosphate  or  Bones 
be  not  in  a  fine  dry  condition. 

4.  ^AHien  fertilizers  of  a  crystalline  nature  like  the  potash  salts  are  mixed 
with  Superphosphate  or  Basic  Slag,  a  hard,  cement-like  mass  is  likely  to  result 
if  the  mixture  is  not  spread  within  a  few  hours.  This  can  be  avoided  by  adding 
a  quantity  of  sawdust,  dry  peaty  material,  or  earth. 


APPLICATION  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

The  successful  use  of  fertilizers  depends  largely  on  the  method  of  application. 
Uniformity  and  evenness  of  distribution  on  the  land  is  all  important.  It  is 
common  where  Nitrate  of  Soda  has  been  used  as  a  top  dressing  to  see  lines  or 
patches  of  darker  green  and  stronger  growth,  especially  in  the  case  of  a  hay  or 
cereal  crop.     This  is  due  to  the  uneven  distribution  of  the  supply  of  nitrogen  and 


28 

represents  where  the  I^itrate  of  Soda  fell  thicker  during  the  process  of  sowing. 
To  obtain  even  distribution  by  hand  it  is  necessary  to  increase  the  bulk  of  fertilizer 
to  at  least  10  cwt.  per  acra  by  adding  sand,  fine  earth  or  ashes  and  to  divide  the 
mixture  into  two  parts.  Application  is  then  accomplished  in  like  manner  to 
the  sowing  of  seed  broadcast,  one  part  of  the  mixture  being  sown  lengthwise  and 
the  other  part  crosswise. 

The  use  of  a  machine  for  sowing  fertilizers  will  always  accomplish  better 
and  quicker  work.  There  should,  however,  be  sufficient  work  of  the  kind  on  the 
farm  to  justify  the  expense  of  such  a  purchase.  Many  types  of  machines  are 
made  and  nearly  all  work  well,  provided  the  fertilizers  are  fine  and  dry.  Those 
machines,  however,  which  possess  moving  parts  working  in  the  fertilizers  are 
very  apt  to  clog  when  sowing  mixtures  of  a  wet  or  sticky  nature. 

Sovnng  fertilizers  broadcast  is  as  a  rule  preferable  to  sowing  in  the  drill. 
Broadcasting  is  quicker  and  brings  about  more  even  distribution.  Thus,  the  crop 
grows  more  uniform  and  healthy  with  more  extensive  root,  than  when  the  manure 
is  concentrated  immediately  under  the  plants. 

When  to  Apply   Fertilizers. 

Broadly  speaking,  the  time  of  application  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of 
the  fertilizer,  together  with  the  use  for  which  it  is  required  and  the  nature  of 
the  crop, 

Farmyard  manure  and  insoluble  organic  fertilizers  in  general  can  be  applied 
with  advantage  in  the  late  fall.  Before  these  can  become  available  to  the  plant  they 
must  undergo  a  process  of  decomposition  or  decay.  By  applying  in  the  fall  there 
is  not  only  a  saving  of  time  in  the  spring,  but  decomposition  sets  in  without  delay 
and  the  possible  benefits  to  be  derived  that  season  are  thereby  increased.  To 
obtain  the  full  action  of  Lime  and  Basic  Slag  during  the  next  season  their  applica- 
tion is  also  made  in  the  fall. 

Usually  all  soluble  fertilizers  are  applied  in  the  spring.  Except  in  the  case 
of  Nitrate  of  Soda,  the  best  time  is  about  two  weeks  before  seeding  or  planting. 
This  will  permit  of  the  fertilizers  being  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  soil  during  the 
working  up  of  the  seed  bed  and  any  injurious  effects  which  accompany  immediate 
application  are  avoided. 

In  order  to  reduce  loss  by  leaching  to  a  minimum,  jSTitrate  of  Soda  is  best 
applied  as  a  top  dressing  after  the  young  plants  have  appeared  above  ground  and 
when  the  growth  needs  stimulating. 

Always  select  a  calm  day  for  sowing  fertilizers.  Early  morning  and  sun- 
down when  the  wind  is  low  are  the  most  suitable  times. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Introductiox    i 

Febtilizees  :  High  Grade 18 

Low  Grade 18 

Guarantees 18 

Calculation   of  the   Value   of 30-23 

Object  of  Experimenting  With 23 

How  to  Experiment  With 24 

Mixing  of 26 

How  to  Mix 27 

Fertilizers  Which  Should 'not  be  Mixed ' 27 

Application  of 27 

When  to  Apply 28 

Lime lG-17 

Quick  Lime 17 

Marl  and  Carbonate  of  Lime 17 

Gypsum 17 

Manures   7-12 

Farmyard  Manure 8 

Farmyard  Manure,  Treatment  of 9 

Guano 10 

Dried  Blood 10 

Dried  Meat  Meals  or  Meat  Guanos 10 

Bones 10 

Tankage 11 

Fish  Manure 11 

Vegetable  Refuse 11 

Simple  or  Mineral  Manures 12 

Nitrogenous  Fertilizers    .- 1 3-13 

Nitrate  of  Soda 12 

Ammonium  Sulphate 12 

Calcium  Cyanamid 13 

Calcium  Nitrate 13 

Nitrogen  in  the  Organic  Form 1,'') 

Phosphatic  Manures 1  1-15 

Ground  Rock  Phosphate 14 

Basic  Slag , 14 

Superphosphate  or  Acid  Phosphate 14 

29 


30 


Page. 


The  Plant .- 3.4 

Food  of  Plants 2 

Function  of  Plant  Food  Constituents 3 

Differences  in  Plant  Food  Eequirements 4 

Potash   Manures    15-16; 

Wood  Ashes 1& 

Muriate  ©f  Potash 16^ 

Sulphate  of  Potash 16. 

Salt lY 

The  Soil 5.7 

Drainage 5 

Deca3dng  Organic  Matter 5 

Lime 6 

Losses  of  Plant  Food  by  Leaching '  6 

Losses  of  Plant  Food  in  Crops T 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

PtTBLISHED  BY  THE  OXTABIO  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE,  TORONTO. 


Serial 
No,   Date. 

175  Dec  1909 

176  Dec.  1909 

177  Dec.  1909 

178  Dec.  1909 


179 

Feb. 

1910 

180 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov, 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan 

1913 

209  Mar.  1913 

210  Mar.  1913 

211  Mar.  1913 

212  April  1913 

213  April  1913 

214  May  1913 

215  Aug.  1913 

216  Oct.  1913 

217  Dec..  1913 

218  Dec.  1912 

219  Jan.  1914 

220  Mar.  1914 

221  April  1914 

222  April  1914 

223  May  1914 


Title.  Author. 

Farm  Drainage  Operations  W.  H.  Day. 

Bacterial   Blight  of  Apple,  Pear  and   Quince 
Trees D.  H.  Jones. 

^  ._,.,„    ,  i  H.  L.  Fulmer. 

Lime-Sulphur   Wash [^   ^^^^^ 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  Muck  i  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Soils I  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised) Fruit  Branch. 

^,              ^   _       ,      ,  .  (  R.  Harcourt. 

Flour  and  Breadmaking   , i^  ^  Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  ,     Ont.   Dental   Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario Fruit  Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease   L.  Caesar. 

Children:    Care  and  Training   J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth    L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario  (No.  128  revised)    J.  B.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  151  revised)   W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario    Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural    Co-operation    S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis  of  Fowls    S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding  Fruit  Branch. 

Insecticides  and  Fungicides  (No.  154  revised)  {  ^  ^^^pui^er. 

Tomatoes    A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

Lime-Sulphur    Wash    L.  Caesar. 

Onions     A.  McMeans. 

Fruit  Juices   L.  Meunder. 

(  Peach  Growing  In  Ontario F.  M.  Clement. 

\  Peach   Diseases    L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B,  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower   A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth   Ont.   Dental   Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   ^ 

I   Cheese-Making  and  Butter  Making    I  ^^^^  ^^  ^airy  School. 

Dairy  Schof^i  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)   j  •' 

n.  Dairying  on  the  Farm ; 

Ice-Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm  R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  ^  j  jj  Hare. 

In  Ontario  County   J  t    A.  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)   E.  J.  Zavitz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry..  F.  M.  Cleinent. 
Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  179  revised) Fruit  Branch. 

Orchard   Surveys   In   Dundas,   Stormont   and 

Glengarry    F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  In  Ontario  Morley  Pettit. 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  it  Pay?  ....  Live  Stock  Branch. 
Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing  Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples E.  F.  Palmer. 

^          ^     ,x       .TTwT     ..on        1     J'.  f  W.  R.  Graham, 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  189  revised) [^   ^   McCulloch. 

Birds  of  Ontario  (No.  173  revised)   C.  W.  Nash. 

The  San  Jos6  and  Oyster-Shell  Scales L.  Ca&sar. 

Lightning  Rods W.  H.  Day. 

Food  Value  of  Milk  and  Its  Products R.  Harcourt. 

Currants  and  Gooseberries  E.  F.  Palmer. 

_-,,,,  /  R.  Harcourt 

^^^"lizers [  A.  L.  Gibson. 


m 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


VEGETABLE  GROWERS'  ASSOCIATION 


BULLETIN  224 


Greenhouse  Construction 


By 

S.  C.  JOHNSTON,  B.S.A.,  Vegetable  Specialist 
Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture. 


^^7 


TORONTO.  ONTARIO,  SEPTEMBER,  1914 


BULLETIN  224]  [SEPTEMBER,  1914 

Ontario    Department    of    Agriculture 

VEGETABLE  GROWERS'   ASSOCIATION 


Greenhouse   Construction 

By  S.  C.  JOHNSTON,  B.S.A 


ITvTTRODUCTTON. 

Eecognizing  that  the  production  of  vegetables  under  glass  has  been  and  is 
rapidly  becoming  one  of  the  important  branches  of  agriculture,  the  Ontario  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  at  the  request  of  the  Executive  of  the  Ontario  Vegetable 
Growers'  Association,  deemed  jt  advisable  to  investigate  the  types  of  construction 
of  green  houses  used  by  American  growers.  This  investigation  work  covered  the 
principal  vegetable  growing  districts  of  the  Northern  and  Eastern  States,  and  the 
following  report  is  intended  to  convey  to  the  prospective  builders  some  of  the  details 
of  construction  which  may  help  to  solve  the  problem  of  what  is  the  most  economical 
form  of  house  to  build,  and  otlier  points  which  should  be  carefully  dealt  with 
before  the  house  or  houses  are  begun.  The  object  of  this  investigation  trip  was 
to  find  the  lightest,  most  durable  and  most  economical  type  of  construction  backed 
by  the  experience  of  growers  in  all  parts  of  the  states  visited.  Over  one  hundred 
greenhouse  plants  Ave  re  visited  and  the  experience  of  the  several  groAvers  taken, 
and  all  information  possible  Avas  gathered  Avhich  might  be  of  use  in  this  line. 

The  growing  of  vegetables  under  glass  is  yearly  becoming  one  of  the  very 
important  ends  of  the  A'egetable  grower's  business.  Intensive  cultivation  of  the 
land  out  of  doors  during  the  summer  months  has  increased  the  demand  for  large 
quantities  of  fresh  produce  during  this  period,  and  gradually  the  consumer  has 
begun  to  Avant  fresh  vegetables  on  his  table  the  year  round.  The  building  of 
structures  covered  with  glass  and  supplied  with  artificial  heat  haA^e  been  intro- 
duced, and  by  their  use  the  vegetables  are  grown  to  perfection,  thus  supplying  the 
demand  for  vegetables  each  day  of  the  year. 

The  greenhouse  business  in  Ontario,  of  course,  has  not  advanced  to  the 
degree  that  it  has  in  the  United  States,  but  Avithin  the  last  five  ,years  there  has 
been  an  increase  in  the  building,  and  there  has  been  considerable  improA^ement  in 
the  forms  of  construction.  At  the  present  time  in  Ontario  there  are  seA'eral  large 
plants  devoted  entirely  to  the  production  of  vegetables,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  the  vegetable  growers  in  all  districts  of  the  Province  haA^e  small  plants  from 
which  they  take  several  crops  of  lettuce  during  the  season  and  later  use  as  a 
starting  house  for  their  fielcl  crops  for  the  summer.  At  the  present  time  large 
quantities   of   greenhouse-groAvn   vegetables   are   annually   imported   into    Ontario 


i'roni  the  United  States.  These  are  principally  tomatoes,  cucumbers,  and  lettuce, 
and  by  referring  to  the  reports  of  the  Department  of  Customs  it  has  been  found 
that  during  the  winter  months  of  December,  January,  February,  March,  April  and 
May  the  imports  into  On-tario  alone  for  the  one  vegetable,  tomatoes,  have  amounted 
to  in  the  neighbourhood  of  $10,000  per  month.  The  other  above-named  crops 
come  in  probaibly  at  the  lesser  rates.  A  certain  percentage  of  these  vegetables  are 
grown  under  glass  by  men  working  large  establishments,  and  who  devote  practic- 
ally all  their  time  and  ability  to  the  production  and  selling  of  indoor-grown  crops. 
Ontario  growers  are  not  producing  one-half  of  the  indoor  vegetables  which  are 
being  consumed  in  the  Province  at  the  present  time,  and  the  demand  is  increasing 
daily.  Growing  these  crops  under  glass  is  not  the  easiest  occupation  to  be  found. 
No  amateur  should  be  misled  and  think  there  is  a  fortune  in  greenhouse  vegetables. 
Because  the  crop  has  to  be  grown  under  artificial  conditions,  and  because  these 
conditions  are  many  and  of  a  very  intricate  nature,  the  grower  has  to  be  on  the 
alert  the  whole  season  through  to  prevent  as  far  as  possible  the  many  causes  which 
check  the  growth  and  development  of  the  tender  plants  in  the  middle  of  winter. 
Heating,  ventilation,  methods  of  planting,  etc.,  are  conditions  which  he  can  con- 
trol, providing  a  first-class  greenhouse  is  erected  at  the  start.  The  grower  should 
build  the  very  best  construction  his  means  will  allow.  A  cheaply-built  house  is 
always  a  source  of  worry  and  expense,  and  the  time  has  come  when  durability  is 
looked  into  far  more  than  initial  cost.  We  hear  complaints  on  all  sides  of  the 
inability  to  secure  competent  labor  at  a  reasonable  or  unreasonable  cost.  From  the 
gardener's  standpoint  this  is  principally  because  he  has  work  for  men  during  only 
six  or  seven  months  of  the  year.  Progressive  growers  in  several  parts  of  the  States 
have  overcome  the  labor  problem  by  huilding  a  greenhouse  plant  and  thus  employ 
a  certain  amount  of  help  the  year  round.  During  the  summer  months,  when  the 
greenhouse  does  not  need  so  much  attention,  these  men  are  available  for  work  on 
the  outside.  The  grower  is  money  in  pocket  by  making  at  least  a  certain  part  of 
his  land  produce  both  winter  and  summer.  In  this  way  his  help  is  steady,  and  the 
labor  problem  does  not  bother  him. 

CO-OPEEATIVE  BUILDING. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  there  are  several  ranges  which  have  been 
built  on  a  co-operative  scheme.  Several  growers  having  money  to  invest  in  green- 
house lines  formed  a  co-operative  society,  and  with  the  bulk  of  their  capital  built 
a  large  range  and  are  producing  vegetables  only.  They  have  a  range  of  moder)i 
construction,  and  it  is  being  managed  by  a  competent  grower  who  receives  a  stated 
salary  for  his  services.  He  is  directly  responsible  to  the  Board  of  Directors,  and 
has  practically  free  charge.  This  co-operative  idea  spread,  and  now  three  large 
ranges  are  being  conducted  along  these  lines  in  a  very  satisfactory  manner  from  a 
financial  standpoint  to  all  concerned.  Two  of  the  three  have  enlarged  their  plants 
already,  and  the  other  one  will  be  added  to  in  the  coming  season.  Dividends  are 
large,  and  there  is  a  feeling  that  the  investment  has  been  wise.  Why  not  this  same 
idea  in  some  parts  of  Ontario? 

LOCATION. 

To  the  persons  who  are  starting  a  new  house  or  range,  certain  points  must  be 
looked  into  carefully.    Nowadays  any  point  which  means  a  saving  of  labor  is  con- 


pidered  a  good  investment,  and  for  this  reason  the  greenhouse  should  be  located 
in  the  best  possible  place  from  a  labor-saving  standpoint.  Possibly  the  securing 
of  fuel  at  a  reasonable  cost  is  the  largest  item  for  consideration,  and  next  to  that 
the  marketing  of  the  produce.  Where  the  grower  is  at  liberty  to  start  his  plant 
close  to  a  railroad — either  a  steam  or  an  electric  line,  which  will  haul  freight 
and  express — he  has  considerable  advantage  over  those  who  cannot.  The  proximity 
to  a  railroad  which  assures  good  service  is  a  very  valuable  asset  to  a  greenhouse 


Boiler  Room  Located  so  as  to  Minimize  Hauling  Operations. 

grower,  and  should  be  carefully  looked  for  before  an  extensive  plant  is  built.  Long 
Hauls  of  fuel  and  supplies  mean  an  added  outlay  of  capital  which  should  be  in- 
vested in  the  plant  At  the  present  time  as  much  of  the  hauling  operations  are 
being  eliminated  as  possible  and  being  done  by  means  of  having  a  switch  right 
on  to  the  owner's  place,  and  in  the  majority  of  new  plnnls  running  up  on  a  trestle 
so  that  the  coal  can  be  unloaded  into  the  coal  hoppers  or  ])ins  with  tlie  least  pos- 
sible amount  of  handling. 


A  few  years  ago  it  was  considered  a  wonderfully  up-to-date  plant  which  had 
the  car  unloaded  outside  the  boiler  house  door  and  the  coal  then  hauled  in  by 
means  of  wheelbarrow  or  dump  cart.  That  is  all  changed,  and  the  coal  is  simply 
dumped,  with  very  little  labor,  into  the  bins  located  close  to  the  boiler.  The 
vegetable  grower  marketing  his  produce  at  a  local  market  spends  much  of  his  time 
on  the  road,  and  for  this  reason  good  roads  are  a  necessity  and  a  benefit  to  the 
vegetable  grower,  as  liiey  allow  the  produce  to  be  taken  in  in  a  much  shorter  time 
than  over  rough,  rutty  roads.  The  buying  public  are  now  demanding  quality  rather 
than  quantity,  and  will  not  accept  bruised  tomatoes  or  crushed  or  wilted  lettuce. 
The  grower  who  carries  his  produce  over  a  good  road  realizes  more  for  it  than  the 
one  who  has  had  to  jar  his  goods  over  stones  and  through  ruts.  Growers  in  some 
parts  of  the  States  have  done  much  toward  securing  better  means  of  travel  to  and 
from  their  market,  and  claim  that  they  are  making  considerably  more  than  in  the 
4)1  d  days. 

Prospective  greenhouse  builders  looking  for  a  location  shouLl  consider  this 
"point  and  select  a  site  either  on  or  close  to  a  good  road. 

The  growers  in  some  districts  do  not  attempt  to  sell  their  produce  locally. 
They  ship  by  express  to  cities  and  towns  within  a  radius  of  150  to  200  miles.  To 
them  quick,  safe  and  certain  service  is  necessary,  and  they  use  both  electric  and 
steam  roads;  some  even  build  switches  into  their  plants  from  an  electric  line  for 
fast  service.  With  the  coming  of  radials  into  Ontario,  and  the  increasing  de- 
mand for  greenhouse  vegetables,  the  grower  does  not  of  necessity  have  to  locate 
Jiis  plant  close  to  the  market  of  one  large  city.  A  central  location  with  the 
aid  of  electric  and  steam  roads  will  give  him  the  whole  of  the  Province  as  his 
market.  To  the  man  who  wishes  to  build  a  house  or  range  on  the  piece  of  land  he 
now  has  there  are  certain  other  points  which  apply  to  him  as  well  as  the  man  seek- 
ing a  new  location.  First  and  foremost  the  plant  must  not  be  built  in  a  low 
place.  Several  plants  visited  this  year  were  giving  trouble  by  being  too  low  and  too 
close  to  a  stream  which  flooded  very  much  in  the  spring.  Several  plants  had  crops 
totally  destroyed  by  heing  in  the  path  of  an  extra  strong  spring  freshet.  Again, 
the  houses  should  not  be  located  so  as  to  receive  the  full  force  of  the  prevailing 
winds.  This  has  been  overcome  by  some  growers  by  the  planting  of  quick  growing 
trees  to  form  a  windbreak,  or  in  other  cases  by  simply  building  a  high,  tight  board 
fence  to  break  the  direct  force  of  the  wind.  To  sum  up,  the  points  to  be  con- 
sidered in  choosing  the  location  and  site  for  a  greenhouse  plant  are  as  following: — 

1.  Long  hauls  and  re-handling  increase  the  cost  of  production. 

2.  Proximity  to  railroads  lessens  hauls  and  handling,  thus  lessening  cost  of 
production. 

3.  Good  roads  mean  good  quality  and  better  returns. 

4.  Low  places  should  be  avoided,  and  care  taken  not  to  locate  where  there  is 
any  danger  of  spring  freshets. 

5.  Being  in  the  direct  pa.th  of  the  prevailing  winds  increases  fuel  consump- 
tion. Where  possible  windbreaks  of  trees  should  be  used,  or  high,  tight  board 
fences  should  be  built. 

FOUNDATION  AND  WALLS. 

The  most  important  part  of  any  structure  is  its  foundation.  A  first-class 
superstructure  having  a  poor  foundation  will  cause  more  trouble  than  a  first-class 
foundation  at  the  beginning.     Builders  should  aim  to  have  a  strong  foundation  of 


the  very  best  materials.  This  should  be  of  concrete,  as  a  permanent  structure  is 
required,  and  as  a  rule  should  be  eight  inches  in  thickness  and  should  be  set  in  the 
ground  sufficient  depth  to  give  a  good  foundation  and  be  below  the  frost  line.  The 
walls  should  be  of  concrete,  wood,  wood  and  shingles,  or  siding  or  concrete  blocks. 
As  a  rule  the  walls  are  not  built  higher  than  two  feet,  while  some  prefer  them  three 
and  others  wish  only  one  foot  of  wall,  the  remainder  being  of  glass.  Twenty-four 
inches  of  a  solid  wall  seems  to  be  about  the  right  height,  and  this  allows  four  feet 
for  side  wall  ventilation  purposes  where  six  feet  eaves  are  used.  Wood  in  any  form 
is  rapidly  heing  replaced  with  some  form  of  concrete,  either  solid  or  as  concrete 
blocks.  Both  forms  are  substantial,  and  Avill  give  satisfaction.  Some  growers 
prefer  the  concrete  blocks  hecaase  they  can  make  them  during  the  winter  months 
when  not  husy.  The  only  point  to  remember  in  making  blocks  is  to  make  them 
so  as  to  fit  exactly  to  the  pipe  or  iron  gutter  supports.  Concrete  work  of  any  de- 
scription should  be  carefully  done  so  as  to  give  the  outside  walls  an  attractive 
appearance.  As  the  foundation  is  to  be  lasting  it  should  be  smooth  and  imiform, 
so  that  the  whole  plant  will  have  a  pleasing  appearance.  Some  growers  prefer  a 
three-foot  wall  of  solid  concrete,  and  while  this  is  not  advisable  on  account  of  the 
need  of  plenty  of  side  ventilation,  those  Avho  so  desire  should  leave  openings  about 
every  ten  feet  in  order  to  facilitate  the  handling  of  rhubarb  roots,  manure,  or  soil. 
These  should  be  fixed  with  a  small  door  and  should  be  built  so  as  to  fit  snugly. 
Much  time  can  be  saved  by  the  use  of  these  doors  in  bringing  in  the  season's  supply 
of  rhubarb  roots  or  new  manure  for  the  beds  or  benches. 

DEAINAGE. 

Some  soils  require  drainage  around  the  walls  to  prevent  frost  action.  These 
should  be  of  2  or  2^/2  inch  tile  and  set  at  base  of  foundation  on  the  outside.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  secure  a  good  outlet  for  these  drains.  These  drains  are  usually  set 
one  foot  away  from  wall.  Some  growers  use  posts  for  their  side  wall  supports. 
These  are  only  adWsable  under  certain  conditions.  Where  only  a  temporary  house 
is  needed  whole  cedar  posts  set  3  ft.  in  the  ground,  4  ft.  apart,  are  what  are  usually 
used.  Tile  drains  are  needed  both  inside  and  out,  as  mentioned  hefore.  In  these 
houses  the  walls  are  usually  sheeted  with  inch  lumber,  then  grey  building  paper  one 
thickness  and  clap  boards,  or  Manitoba  sheeting  or  shingles  used  for  the  outside. 
Shingles  are  not  advised  because  they  will  curl  with  the  sun's  heat.  Clap  boards 
or  siding  cost  practically  the  same  and  will  last  longer  and  give  less  trouble.  Tar 
paper  should  never  be  used  on  the  walls  as  the  fumes  will  kill  the  plants  inside. 

HEIGHT  OF  EAVES. 

During  the  past  five  years  there  has  arisen  considerable  controversy  among 
greenhouse  builders  and  growers  as  to  what  was  the  best  height  at  which  to  have 
the  eaves.  Here,  again,  there  seems  to  he  various  opinions  which  suit  only  in- 
dividual conditions.  Years  ago  it  was  considered  almost  necessary  to  have  no  side 
to  the  greenhouse  at  all,  running  the  sash  bars  doAvn  to  the  plate,  which  was 
nearly  always  set  on  top  of  the  ground.  Since  then  great  advances  have  been  made 
in  construction  and  we  now  find  greenhouses  and  oaves  ten  feet  from  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  This  is  rather  high,  and  is  the  iflea  of  one  man,  and  he  claims  he 
has  the  best.  It  is  quite  common  to  sec  eaves  six  to  six  and  one-half  and  seven 
feet  in  height  in  large  commercial  plants.     This,  as  with  many  other  points  in 


6 

greenhouse  construction,  is  modified  to  suit  conditions  and  to  cut  down  the  cost  of 
production.  High  eaves  are  built  in  the  first  place  to  allow  plenty  of  head  room 
for  growing  plants,  such  as  tomatoes  or  cucumbers,  which  need  stakes  or  trellis 
work  for  support.  To  give  this  necessary  head  room  the  eaves  are  usually  built 
six  and  one-half  or  seven  feet.  This  gives  ample  room  for  glass  sides  and  also 
side  ventilators.  It  is  recommended  on  any  house  thirty  feet  or  over  that  the 
eaves  be  placed  at  least  six  feet  above  the  level  of  the  surface  soil.  Lower  eave 
plates  than  this  cause  endless  knocking  against  the  roof  members  and  greatly 
iiamper  the  economic  handling  of  plants. 

DIRECTION  OF  THE  EIDGE. 

Different  ideas  are  prevalent  with  regard  to  the  direction  of  the  ridge  of  a 
greenhouse.  Many  experienced  growers  prefer  to  have  the  ridge  run  east  and  west, 
and  many  others  have  a  preference  toward  having  the  ridge  run  north  and  south. 
In  the  old  style  house,  where  the  sash  bars  were  heavy  and  close  together,  there  was 
more  room  for  argument  on  this  question,  but  to-day,  when  the  wide  houses  are 
being  built  of  materials  which  cut  down  the  possibility  of  shade  to  a  minimum, 
it  seems  that  houses  running  east  and  west  and  north  and  south  give  equally 
as  good  results.  The  question  of  the  direction  of  the  ridge  is  an  open  one,  and, 
as  said  hefore,  different  growers  prefer  each.  It  seems  that  this  point  has  been 
given  altogether  too  much  attention,  and  the  result  of  investigation  regarding  it 
leads  to  the  following  conclusion :  Build  the  house  facing  either  south  or  west, 
according  to  the  location  which  you  have.  While  men  favor  both  east  and  west 
and  north  and  south,  the  majority  seem  to  favor  east  and  west,  but  can  give  no 
specific  reason  for  so  doing. 


Previously  only  narrow,  low  roofed  houses  were  used,  but  wider  ones  are  now  the  only 
ones  in  demand.    The  change  from  14  ft.  to  75  ft.  houses  can  plainly  be  seen  here. 

WIDTH  OF  HOUSES. 

Practically  all  greenhouses  built  up  to  the  last  fifteen  years  have  been  of 
comparatively  narrow  widths.  This  has  been  due  largely  to  the  mistaken  idea  that 
the  plants  should  be  located  as  near  the  glass  as  possible.  During  later  years  this 
idea  has  been  misproven,  and  houses  are  now  being  built  much  wider.     The  large 


greenhouse  growers  are  convinced  that  better  returns  can  be  received  from  houses 
of  a  wider  span  than  from  the  old  fashioned  narrow  ones.  In  houses  having  a 
wider  span,  and  of  necessity  higher  eaves,  the  volume  of  air  is  increased,  the 
glass  surface  is  proportionately  iiicreased,  and  the  working  cost  of  the  greenhouse 
is  lessened.  The  volume  of  air  is  increased  due  to  the  increased  length  of  the 
sash  bars  and  the  increased  height  of  the  eaves,  and  this  is  what  greenhouse  men 
require  for  successful  growing — more  air.  It  is  an  experiment  no  longer,  but  an 
actual  cultural  necessity,  to  have  plenty  of  air  over  the  plants.  The  plants  grow 
better  in  every  stage,  and  are  not  so  liable  to  suffer  so  much  from  the  sudden 
lowering  of  temperature.  With  the  increased  length  of  sashbar,  etc.,  the  glass  sur- 
face is  increased,  and  this  admits  more  light  and  also  makes  adequate  ventilation 
easy. 

With  the  higher  eaves  the  ventilating  apparatus  can  be  easily  placed  and 
operated,  taking  up  practically  no  room  in  the  house.  The  working  cost  or  crop 
costs  are  several  per  cent,  cheaper  in  wide  houses  than  in  the  old  narrow  ones, 
because  the  houses  have  higher  eaves,  and  cultural  operations  can  be  carried  on 
close  up  to  the  sides  without  fear  of  bumping  into  the  sash  bars,  etc.,  as  is  common 
on  going  into  the  narrower  houses. 

Widths  of  houses  are  arbitrary  to  the  builder.  The  prevailing  width  of 
house  being  built  at  the  present  time  in  the  United  States  seems  to  be  seventy-five 
feet.     Many  plants  have  passed  from  the  twenty  foot  width  to  the  twenty-five 


Seventy-five  foot  houses  are  preferred  by  the  majority  of  large  growers.     The  doors  in 
this   75   X  460   ft.   house  admit  all   cultivating  machinery. 


foot  and  then  to  the  forty  foot,  and  experienced  men  seem  to  agree  that  the  seventy- 
live  foot  house  gives  them  as  nearly  a  perfect  house  as  tliey  can  get.  The  forty 
foot  house  has  been  built  extensively  by  many  vegetable  growers,  and  gives  entire 
satisfaction;  but  as  soon  as  the  seventy-five  foot  house  has  been  operated  a  season 
95  per  cent,  of  the  growers  ^vill  have  no  others. 

The  increased  facilities  of  handling  materials,,  supplies  and  soil  cut  down  the 
cost  of  production  in  the  wider  houses  at  a  greater  rate  than  in  the  narrower  houses. 
Conditions  alter  cases.    For  this  reason  the  man  who  is  starting  a  small  plant  could 


not  afford  to  build  the  length  of  honse  in  kee])ing  ^\dth  the  wide  houses,  and  for 
tliis  reason  he  should  insist  on  getting  just  as  wide  a  house  as  his  means  will  allow. 
For  the  man  growing  greenhouse  products  during  all  the  winter  it  is  not  economical 
to  build  a  house  less  than  forty  feet  in  width.  Much  better  that  he  build  over 
forty  feet  in  width  and  not  so  long,  than  a  long  narrow  house  which  prevents 
the  easy  handling  of  all  parts  of  work,  etc.  It  is  cheaper  by  far  to  add  to  a  wide 
house  after  a  few  years  than  to  tear  down  a  long  narrow  house  and  rebuild  it. 
Narrow  houses  have  their  place,  quite  true,  and  many  are  making  good  returns 
from  large  plants  of  narrow  houses;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  seeing  the 
point  of  the  wide  house,  and  m  many  cases  rebuilding.  For  the  grower  on  ten 
acres  of  land  who  wishes  to  have  a  house  to  grow  lettuce  in  during  the  winter  and 
use  as  a  plant  house  towards  spring,  it  is  just  possible  that  a  house  twenty-five  feet 


In  wide  houses  the  crop  can  be  handled  with  minimum  expense.     Horse-drawn  imple- 
ments were  used  to  prepare  the  land  here  for  this  crop.     Interior  of  previous  view. 

in  width  will  give  as  good  results  where  the  heating  and  ventilating  are  carefully 
looked  after.  On  the  whole  it  will  pay  any  man  who  is  building  a  greenhouse  at 
all  to  put  up  a  house  of  wide  span,  because  he  has  more  room,  better  control  of 
ventilation,  less  chance  of  disease,  and  the  heating  cost  of  the  wide  house  is  con- 
siderably less  than  that  of  the  same  width  made  up  of  several  narrow  houses. 

IRON  FEAME  CONSTRUCTION. 

Possibly  this  form  of  construction  is  receiving  more  attention  at  the  present 
time  than  any  other.  Growers  in  many  sections  of  the  United  States  are  finding 
that  the  best  is  none  too  good,  and  the  iron  frame  greenhouse  meets  with  their 
approval  better  than  any  other.  Prominent  vegetable  growers  in  the  vicinities  of 
Boston,  Rochester,  Erie,  and  Philadelphia,  who  are  competent  men  on  greenhouse 
construction  details,  favor  this  form,  and  back  it  up  by  securing  more  houses  as 
their  demand  increases.     They  are  the  best  judges  as  to  the  value  of  these  houses. 


Descriptiox. — In  houses  of  the  iron  frame  construction  all  possible  parts  are 
constructed  of  iron.  Flat  iron  posts  bolted  together  set  in  concrete  form  the 
supporting  members  for  eaves,  etc.  Flat  iron  rafters  run  from  these  wall 
supports  to  the  ridge,  baing  held  together  \Aith  angle  iron  purlins.  The 
sash  bars  are  of  wood  and  are  attached  to  this  iron  frame  work.  In  a  few  words, 
this  construction  simply  is  a  frame  of  iron  which  supports  the  sash  bars  on  which  the 
glass  is  laid.  It  has  been  found  that  metal  cannot  take  the  place  of  wood  in  manu- 
facturing; owing  to  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  metal  in  different  weathers. 


Iron  frame  construction — showing  tlie  iron  member 
which  acts  as  the  supporting  part  of  the  house. 
Solidity  is  tlie  feature  here. 


For  this  reason  wooden  bars  are  used  to  support  the  glass,  and  thus  breakage  is 
checked. 

Different  manufacturers  vary  somewhat  in  the  forms  of  iron  that  are  tised, 
some  using  flat  iron  others  T  iron  and  others  ordinary  galvanized  pipe  for  their 
supporting  members.  The  majority  of  growers  seem  to  favor  the  flat  iron  rafter 
house,  that  is  a  strip  ol'  iron  runs  from  wall  post  to  the  ridge  at  intervals  of  eight 
feet  four  inches  or  thereabouts.  As  a  rule  this  distance  has  been  found  to 
be  the  farthest  apart  that  these  iron  members  may  be  set  without  sacrificing  strength 
and  support.     These  iron  frame  houses  are  all  bolted  together,  so  that  once  the 


10 

structure  is  properly  erected  the  house  is  strong  and  substantial.  Houses  of  this 
construction  practically  cut  out  all  supports  in  the  house,  and  this  is  what  the 
vegetable  grower  requires. 

Houses  40  ft.  in  width  may  be  constructed  with  no  central  supports  whatever 
from  the  ground,  using  only  a  fonn  of  compression  trussing  which  holds  the  house 
together  and  down.  A  house  75  ft.  in  width  will  require  but  two  lines  of  supports 
with  braces  and  struts. 

Widths.— These  iron  frame  houses  can  be  built  any  width  a  grower  wishes. 
It  is  not  economical  to  use  this  form  of  construction  in  a  house  under  fort}--  feet  in 
width,  but  it  is  not  advised  to  build  over  75  or  85  ft.  in  width.  Many  houses  75  ft. 
in  width  are  being  built  throughout  the  States,  as  well  as  a  few  in  Canada,  and  this 
width  seems  to  be  an  economical  one  to  use.  Houses  40  ft.  in  width  with  no 
supports  save  the  truss  work  also  are  very  much  in  favor. 

Erection. — These  iron  frame  houses  are  'all  manufactured  in  separate  pieces 
m  foundries,  iron  parts  cut  required  lengths,  all  holes  bored  and  the  house  in  many 
cases  set  up  to  see  that  everything  fits  before  being  shipped  on  to  the  builder.  The 
parts  are  all  properly  labeled,  and  a  blue  print  of  the  plan  of  the  houses  showing 
details  which  accompanies  each  house  gives  the  exact  position  for  each  member.  It 
is  no  trouble  to  erect  one  of  these  iron  frame  houses,  for  the  whole  house  goes 
together  in  sections,  and  once  one  section  is  satisfactorily  erected  the  remainder  of 
the  house  goes  together  like  clock  work.  Growers  differ  as  to  whether  it  is  more 
economical  to  erect  the  house  by  means  of  home  labor  or  by  letting  the  contract  to  a 
construction  company  whose  employees  do  nothing  else  but  erect  these  houses. 
One  grower  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston  purchased  a  house  from  another  grower,  took 
it  down  and  re-erected  it  for  himself,  and  says  he  had  no  trouble  whatever;  in  fact 
he  claims  to  have  made  a  better  job  than  some  of  the  construction  firms  would  have 
done.  Another  grower  near  Erie  erected  a  house  75  by  460  ft.  from  start  to  finish, 
and  one  would  not  wish  to  see  a  better  house.  A  man  with  average  mechanical 
ability  can  erect  a  house  of  this  construction  with  very  little  trouble,  but  whether 
it  will  pay  him  to  do  so  rather  than  let  the  contract  to  a  firm  who  make  a  business 
of  this  erection  is  a  question.  Some  progressive  men  told  me  that  they  were  money 
in  pocket  when  they  gave  the  construction  company  the  contract  to  do  all  the  work 
on  the  house.  They  claimed  that  they  more  than  made  what  it  cost  them,  to  erect 
the  house  by  being  free  from  all  worr\%  and  being  able  to  look  after  the  selling  of 
the  produce  on  other  parts  of  their  plant.  It  is  simply  a?  the  man  himself  looks  at 
it,  and  whether  he  has  the  time  to  look  after  the  erection  himself  and  bear  the 
responsibilities  of  having  it  go  together  in  good  shape. 

Ontario  growers  should  use  this  form  of  construction  in  preference  to  others 
under  certain  conditions.  In  the  first  place  these  houses  cost  in  some  cases 
more  to  build  than  other  forms  of  houses  of  other  construction.  The  initial 
cost  is  high,  there  is  no  question  about  it.  But  this  must  be  borne  in  mind  by  all 
prospective  builders :  that  once  one  of  these  houses  is  up  it  is  up  to  stay,  and  will 
last  as  long  as  the  grower  and  still  have  a  further  lease  of  life.  Houses  which  cost 
much  less  to  build  at  the  start  soon  show  effects  of  wear  and  tear.  In  ten  to  fifteen 
years  time  they  need  many  repairs,  and  in  many  cases  require  new  stock  all  through. 
Not  so  with  greenhouses  in  which  a  framework  of  iron  is  used.  They  are  still 
giving  entire  satisfaction  at  the  end  of  thirty  years'  service.  The  iron  greenhouse 
gives  a  solid  house  which  no  wind  can  blow  in  or  out.  This  has  been  proven  in 
Ontario  and  in  parts  of  the  IJnited  States  durinnr  the  past  two  years.  The  iron 
work  when  properly  made  and  erected  can  weather  the  worst  of  storms.  Xo  vibra- 
tion of  glass  is  seen  in  a  windstorm,  in  fact  practically  no  motion  is  felt  in  any  part 


11 


12 

of  the  house.     The  average  grower  will  think  on  the  face  of  things  that  a  house  of 
this  form  of  construction  will  cost  more  to  heat. 

This  has  been  tried  out  by  growers  themselves,  and  they  have  found  that  once 
they  get  a  house  to  the  correct  heat  it  costs  considerably  less  to  keep  it  there.  The 
iron  frame  houses  are  usually  built  wider  and  higher,  and  the  volume  of  air  helps 
a  lot  in  lessening  the  fuel  bill ;  but  the  very  fact  that  the  iron  frame  house  is  so  rigid 
and  in  this  way  allows  no  openings  for  air  to  get  in,  no  spreading  of  Joints  or 
pulling  out  of  nails  or  breaking  of  sash  bars  with  over-load  of  snow,  the  cost  of 
heating  one  of  these  houses  is  cut  down  in  some  cases  one-half  that  of  the  same  area 
under  "houses  of  other  construction.  The  advantages  of  iron  frame  greenhouses 
and  the  merits  of  this  construction  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

1.  Cost  of  upkeep  very  small  as  compared  with  other  forms,  of  construction. 

2.  Solidity.  The  houses  of  this  form  have  been  in  use  thirty  years  and  are 
still  in  good  condition. 

3'.  Cost  less  to  lieat. 

4.  Glass  breakage  is  considerably  less. 

5.  Lack  of  columns. 

6.  Minimum  shade. 

Objections. — The  main  objection  to  houses  of  this  construction  is  that  of 
initial  cost.  This  is  often  higher  than  that  of  inferior  forms.  To  o^'set  that  the 
growers  should  figure  that  these  are  permanent  houses  built  to  stay.  The 
upkeep  is  cut  down  because  there  is  very  little  in  the  house  to  wear  out.  Iron 
frame  houses  are  about  as  good  an  insurance  as  any  grower  can  get  for  good  crops. 
If  he  cannot  grow  crops  in  these  houses  he  cannot  in  any  other,  that  is  certain. 
Growers  agree  that  the  best  is  none  too  good,  and  a  poor  thing  is  dear  at  any  price; 
and  those  who  have  used  houses  of  this  stamp  recommend  them  without  any  hesita- 
tion as  being  the  lightest,  brightest  and  most  economical  houses  on  the  market. 

PIPE  FEAME  CONSTEUCTION". 

For  growers  having  limited  capital  or  those  not  desiring  to  build  the  first  class 
construction  as  described  previously  tl^e  pipe  frame  construction  is  considered  as  a 
good  investment.  This  form  of  construction  has  met  with  approval  in  many  parts 
of  the  States  during  later  years  and  many  houses  of  this  style  are  to  be  found  in 
Ontario.  However,  the  growers  in  the  United  States  who  have  had  these  houses 
are  now  building  houses  ttsing  the  iron  frame  construction  and  the  majority  state 
they  have  better  houses  and  are  more  satisfied  with  results.  Men  intending  build- 
ing small  houses  which  will  be  used  only  as  plant  houses  will  find  this  form  of  con- 
struction best  suited  to  their  needs  in  many  cases.  The  cost  is  not  so  high  as  those 
of  the  iron  frame  style  but  the  difference  is  not  so  much  as  to  warrant  building  a 
large  range  of  the  pipe  frame  construction.  Both  forms  are  giving  good  service 
but  the  preference  is  tovv^ard  the  more  substantial  and  lasting  form  of  houses. 

DESCEIPTTON. 

In  this  form  of  c^nstrnction  all  the  snpprrtinG^  members  are  made  of  iron 
pipe — eave  or  gutter  supports,  purlin?  and  purlin  supports.  Galvanized  iron  pipe 
is  used  in  all  cases  and  all  supporting  meml)ers  are  set  in  concrete  to  a  sufficient 
depth  to  make  them  solid.  Wooden  sash  bars  are  placed  on  this  frame  work  and 
held  in  position  by  means  of  a  metal  band  or  clasp  which  goes  around  the  pipe 
purlin  and  is  held  to  the  bar  by  two  screws. 


13 


Pipe  frame  construction,  showing  the  network  of  pipes  necessary  to  insure  safety. 
Compare  these  views  with  the  one  on  the  next  page. 


Interior   of    larsrsf    r.ir.e   framp    srppnlinnsp    in    P.anarla 


14 


15 


ERECTION. 


Here  again  any  one  with  ordinary  medianiccil  ability  can  erect  one  of  these 
houses.  Pipe  can  be  bought  cut  and  threaded  as  required  l^y  a  local  man  and  the 
grower  can  erect  liis  own  house.  Care  must  be  taken  to  have  all  parts  set  in  line 
and  at  the  correct  height.  A  slight  variance  in  setting  supportiug  members  will 
give  endless  trouble.  Supporting  members  should  be  set  on  a  solid  foundation 
preferably  concrete,  and  should  be  filled  in  around  with  concrete  to  a  depth  of 
eight  inches.  Usually  growers  have  the  concrete  work  come  up  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground  some  five  inches  to  prevent  the  surface  water  from  rusting  the  pipe. 
A  common  method  is  to  place  an  ordinary  field  tile  around  the  base  of  the  pipe 
allowing  it  to  come  up  above  the  surface  and  filling  it  in  with  concrete  and  mould- 
ing it  ofE  on  top. 

Supporting  members  have  to  be  set  so  that  there  is  a  purlin  every  eight  feet  on 
the  sash  bar.  These  purlins  have  to  be  supported  every  eight  feet.  It  has  been 
found  that  to  increase  this  distance  increases  the  risk  of  solidity  in  the  house.  In 
some  cases  this  has  been  tried  with  some  degree  of  success  but  the  grower  took 
considerable  risk  in  building  such  a  house. 

The  purlins  do  not  of  necessity  need  to  have  their  supporting  members  come 
directly  from  the  ground  in  all  cases.  By  using  a  V  or  Y  brace  the  ridge  support 
will  carry  two  purlins  as  well.  This  does  away  with  two  rows  of  columns.  In 
cases  where  this  brace  is  used  there  should  be  a  brace  running  from  the  eave  support 
to  the  ridge  support  usually  of  three-quarter  or  one  inch  pipe  held  in  position  by 
split  T's.     These  should  be  set  high  enough  from  the  ground  to  permit  operating 


\SXHI 


--^ 


5Mr* 


W^'     4  -    •      ■: 


Angle  iron  purlins  are  sometimes  used.     The  Y  brace  is  used  to  lessen  the  number  of 

supports. 


16 

crop,  etc.  Gable  ends  should  bj  secauely  b:'aced  in  this  form  of  construction. 
The' lack  of  these  braces  has  been  the  cause  of  much  damage  in  several  large 
houses.  During  severe  windstorms  the  end  would  give  and  the  force  of  the  wind 
would  tend  to  wreck  the  whole  house.  Horizontal  bars  in  the  end  should  be  used 
and  these  again  supported  from  the  lines  oi'  purlin  supports.  One  and  one-half 
inch  and  two  inch  pipe  are  usually  used  for  supporting  members  and  one  inch  and 
one  and  one-quarter  as  purlins  depending  on  size  and  shape  of  houses. 

MODIFICATION'S. 

Instead  of  using  the  pipe  purlins  some  growers  have  used  angle  irons.  These 
are  bored  to  fit  screws  which  are  attached  to  each  sash  bar.  This  method  is  used  by 
some  men  and  they  claim  to  have  a  stronger  house  than  with  the  pipe,  claiming 
there  is  some  danger  of  weakness  at  the  coupling.  The  rigidity  of  the  angle  iron 
is  said  to  overcome  this.  The  difi'erence  in  cost  is  very  little,  the  angle  iron  cost- 
ing a  trifle  more  than  the  pipe.  This  modification  is  bsin:^-  used  and  is  giving 
satisfaction  in  several  large  ranges  but  is  not  common.. 

OBJECTIONS. 

The  objection  to  houses  of  this  form  of  construction  is  that  a  house  of  any 
size  there  are  so  many  supporting  members  that  the  ground  in  the  house  cannot  be 
cultivated  with  horses  as  easily  as  with  other  forms  of  construction..  This  appears 
to  be  true  in  large  houses.  Horses  cannot  be  used  with  the  same  freedom^  as  in 
houses  requiring  fewer  supporting  members.  Some  claim  the  columns  being  so 
close  help  to  give  more  shade.     Others  claim  there  is  very  little  difTerence. 

Pipe  frame  houses  have  more  material  in  them  which  must  be  kept  up  thus 
increasing  running  expenses.  The  same  degree  of  solidity  can  not  be  found  as  in 
houses  of^the  iron  frame  construction  and  there  seems  to  be  more  danger  of  glass 
breakage  in  these  houses  than  in  the  iron  frame  houses. 

MERITS. 

A  very  economical  house  for  the  man  requiring  only  a  small  house  to  be  used 
with  raised  benches.  Cost  of  a  small  house  is  considerably  less  tlian  if  the  con- 
struction were  of  iron  frame. 

ALL  WOOD  CONSTRUCTION. 

This  form  of  construction  is  practically  out  of  date  at  the  present  time.  It 
cannot  be  used  economically  because  of  the  limited  age  of  wooden  parts.  Wooden 
posts,  usually  cedar,  are  set  four  feet  apart  to  form  the  side  walls  and  the  houses 
made  very  narrow  requiring  but  few  supports  for  the  ridge.  These  have  been 
found  to  be  small  trees  cut  required  lengths,  split  cedar  posts  or  two  by  four  inch 
scantling. 

Hot  bed  sash  usually  form  the  glass  covering  and  these  houses  are  sometimes 
called  sash  houses.  This  form  of  house  is  not  to  be  recommended  as  a  greenhouse. 
As  a  house  used  as  a  substitute  for  hot  beds  or  cold  frames  it  may  be  of  some  use 
in  the  early  part  of  the  season  when  it  can  bs  heated  with  a  coal  or  wood  stove. 
Many  gardeners  have  used  these  houses  in  previous  years  and  know  their  limitations 
and  no  gardener  is  advised  to  build  one. 


17 
SIDE  HILL  HOUSES. 

Some  years  ago  it  was  the  custom  to  build  a  greenhouse  on  a  side  hill,  using  the 
side  of  the  hill  as  one  side  and  having  the  glass  run  on  a  gradual  slope  to  the  bottom 
of  the  hill.  These  were  thought  to  be  excellent  houses,  this  probably  being  that  one 
side  of  glass  was  saved  and  that  the  house  was  always  free  from  heavy  wind  storms, 
etc.,  owing  to  its  peculiar  location.  Of  recent  years  this  idea  has  been  entirely 
changed,  and  the  side  Jiill  houses  are  practically  a  thing  of  the  past.  Growers  now 
demand  light  on  both  sides  of  the  roof  and  also  demand  good  side  ventilation.  This 
cannot  be  had  with  ordinary  side  hill  houses.  Another  objectionable  feature  of 
houses  built  on  the  hill  side  is  that  the  beds  or  benches  all  must  be  on  different 
levels  as  one  goes  down  the  hill.  This  entails  extra  labor  and  prohibits  the  possib- 
ility of  horse  cultivation.  There  are  those  who  stick  to  the  side  hill  house,  but  they 
are  a  very  small  minority,  and  the  general  opinion  of  growers  is  that  the  upright 
two  sided  greenhouse  is  what  is  required.  Some  men  have  ideal  locations  for 
greenhouses  of  the  hill  slope  style  but  refrain  from  building,  because  they  realize 
that  they  are  money  in  pocket  by  paying  for  increased  ventilation  and  the  decrease 
of  labor  cost. 

VENTILATION. 

Ventilation  of  the  greenhouse  is  a  necessity  for  the  growing  of  any  crop.  Too 
much  attention  cannot  be  given  this  part  of  construction,  and  the  most  approved 


■  .  f ..  .  ■  - 


Side  ventilation  is  necessary  in  large  plants.  Continuous  runs  of  ventilator  are  usually 
located  at  the  eave  or  lower.  Usually  made  to  open  out,  but  some  have  them  open- 
ing both  in  and  out. 


arrangements  and  forms  of  ventilating  apparatus  should  be  carefully  inspected 
before  the  installation  of  any.  Ventilators  are  now  being  used  on  both  sides  of  the 
house  and  in  continuous  runs,  both  sides  of  the  ridge,  and  also  in  continuous  runs, 
or  in  broken  or  alternate  runs.  Gable  end  vents  are  also  being  advocated  and  used 
by  some  progressive  growers.  These  are  not  common  as  yet,  but  some  men  claim  to 
have  had  a  marked  degree  of  success  with  them.  They  are  arranged  in  different 
ways  and  as  yet  seem  to  be  more  the  ideas  of  individual  growers. 


18 

Side  Ventilation. — The  eaves  of  the  greenhouse  should  be  built  high  enough 
to  permit  the  installation  of  plenty  of  ventilators  along  the  side.  Particularly 
where  the  summer  crop  of  cucumbers  is  to  be  grown.  This  crop,  for  best  results, 
requires  side  ventilation  as  well  as  ventilation  of  the  ridge.  There  are  various  ways 
of  setting  those  side  ventilators  and  a  brief  description  of  each  may  be  of  value. 
The  ventilator  may  take  up  practically  the  whole  of  the  glass  surface  of  the  side  of 
the  house  or  it  may  be  limited  to  less.  As  a  general  rule  too  much  ventilation  on 
the  side  cannot  be  had.  Some  growers  prefer  one  continuous  run  of  ventilation, 
three  or  six  lights  in  length  and  two  or  three  lights  wide.  Others  claim  to  have 
equal  success  with  about  one-half  the  amount  of  ventilation  given  by  means  of 
making  the  ventilators  come  alternate  with  equal  sized  spaces  of  stationary  glass. 
Side  ventilators  are  used  either  opening  directly  beneath  the  eave  plate  or  opening 
from  a  header  set  right  below  the  eave.     Both  give  satisfaction  and  both  have 


Ventilators  at  the  ridge  may  open  from  the  ridge  or  from  a  header.  Both  ways  are 
good.  The  majority  prefer  them  to  open  from  ridge.  Continuous  runs  or  broken 
runs  as  shown  are  in  favor. 


their  advocates.     Possibly  those  preferring  the  ventilator  to  be  continuous  and 
opening  from  the  header  are  in  the  majority. 

Ridge  Ventilation. — This  placing  of  ventilators  has  been  in  use  since  green- 
houses were  built  on  any  scale  and  they  are  still  a  necessity.  The  ventilators  in  this 
case  are  attached  in  two  ways,  namely,  from  the  ridge  board  or  from  the  header  set 
between  the  sash  bars.  In  this  way  the  vents  open  out  from  the  ridge  and  from  the 
headers  or  more  easily  explained  opening  back  to  back  and  away  from  one  another. 
.From  this  arrangement  we  have  in  the  case  of  one  opening  from  the  header  the  air 
admitted  in  one  large  opening  and  going  straight  down  into  the  house  and  in  the 
case  of  those  opening  from  the  ridge  the  air  is  admitted  through  two  openings,  the 
air  being  deflected  against  the  ventilator  on  the  opposite  side  before  going  down. 
In  this  way  the  force  of  the  air  is  broken. 


19 

Where  ventilators  open  from  the  header  there  is  greater  danger  from 
the  rain  getting  in  even  if  the  ventilator  is  partially  closed.  Where  the 
ventilator  opens  from  the  ridge  the  air  can  come  in  with  very  little  danger  of 
any  rain  getting  in.  An  important  point  to  be  considered  in  ridge  ventilation, 
whether  ridge  or  header  type,  is  that  both  lines  should  work  separate  in  order  that 
in  the  case  of  a  strong  wind  from  one  side  the  ventilators  on  that  side  may  be 
closed,  while  the  others  will  remain  open  and  complete  ventilation  of  the  house  still 
be  carried  on.  Some  growers  complain  that  the  ridge  type  of  ventilators  allow  an 
inward  rush  of  air  which  has  caused  severe  checks  on  the  plants,  while  in  the  header 
type  this  rush  is  broken  and  the  air  admitted  is  distributed  evenly  through  the 
house. 


■Gable  end  ventilation  as  yet  is  the  idea  of  some  one  grower.     This  shows  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  ventilators  which  open  out.    Houses  also  have  ridge  and  side  ventilators. 


Gable  end  ventilation  is  probably  more  or  less  of  an  experiment  as  yet,  but  it  is 
being  advocated  by  some  plant  owners.  They  would  advise  a  continuous  or  broken 
line  of  ventilators  on  a  wide,  high  house  set  in  a  horizontal  position  or  two  or  three 
jsmall  vents  in  a  perpendicular  position.  In  both  cases  these  vents  should  be  above 
the  door.  It  is  quite  possible  that  very  little  more  ventilation  will  be  needed  in 
many  houses  than  that  given  by  the  door,  which  should  be  built  sufficiently  large 
■enough  to  be  used  for  admitting  a  waggon.  All  forms  of  ventilators  are  usually 
■operated  by  a  system  of  ventilating  machinery  which  is  controlled  by  a  wheel  or  a 
chain  driving  some  form  of  gear  which  by  revolving  will  open  the  ventilators. 
Many  forms  are  on  the  market,  and  it  is  difficult  to  choose  as  each  and  every  device 
lias  its  exponents.  In  large  houses  a  system  running  150  to  200  feet  should  be 
secured  in  order  to  opon  the  maximum  amount  of  glass  with  minimum  labor.  For 
the  smaller  houses,  grovvers  in  many  cases  do  not  btiy  ventilator  machinery,  but  have 
some  appliance  such  as  an  iron  rod  with  holes  drilled  in  it,  which,  when  the  vent  is 
opened  fit  on  to  nails  set  on  the  plate.  These  may  be  all  right  in  some  cases,  but  as 
a  general  rule,  in  any  house  20  by  60  ventilating  apparatus  will  pay  for  itself  in  the 
amount  of  labor  saved.  AVhere  two  systems  are  necessary  to  open  up  the  glass  they 
should  be  located  so  that  both  can  be  operated  from  the  one  point,  preferably  the 
■centre  of  the  house,  instead  of  being  located  at  both  ends  of  the  house  thus  neces- 
sitating extra  labor. 


20 


Double   ridge  ventilation  and  side  ventilators   on   both   sides  are  found   in   this   house. 
Ridge  ventilators   operated   in   centre   of   house  by   two   gear   supports. 


JOINED  OR  SEPARATE  HOUSES. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  considerable  controversy  about  the  merits  of  joined 
or  separate  houses.  Growers  in  the  east  use  separate  houses  almost  entirely  while 
those  around  Chicago  Jiave  used  ranges  of  joined  houses.  It  appears  on  investiga- 
tion  that   Avhere   wide   houses   are    being   built,    separate   ones   are    used   entirely. 


Joined  and  separate  houses  are  often  found  in  the  same  range.  In  such  cases  the 
grower  nearly  always  prefers  the  separate  house  and  advocates  this  arrangement 
only. 


21 

Eanges  of  narrow  houses  are  giving  good  satisfaction  but  the  growers  are  build- 
ing their  new  ones  of  wide  separate  houses.  The  merits  of  the  separate  houses  may 
be  given  briefly  as  follows: 

(1)    Side  ventilation  is  recognized  as  a  necessity  among  vegetable  growers,  and 
this  can  be  secured  amply  by  having  separate  houses. 

(2)  Different  temperatures  may  be  kept  in  different  houses  thus  enabling  the 
growing  of  crops  requiring  several  degrees  difference  in  temperature. 

(3)  Heating  systems  can  be  built  so  as  to  shut  off  entirely  one  house  if  the 
occasion  should  so  demand. 

(4)  Disease  is  not  so  liable  to  spread  from  one  house  to  another. 


OBJECTION  TO  JOINED  HOUSES. 

(1)  Where  the  rauge  is  large  adequate  side  ventilation  cannot  be  secured. 

(2)  Unless  glass  partitions  are  erected  in  joined  houses  different  crops  re- 
quiring high  and  low  temperatures  cannot  be  successfully  grown. 

(3)  Heating  cannot  be  regulated  in  case  of  accident,  etc. 

(4)  In  joined  houses  disease  will  spread  quickly  from  one  house  to  another. 
In  regard  to  the  heating  of  the  two  styles  of  houses  it  is  claimed  by  owners  of 

large  ranges  that  there  is  very  little  difference  in  the  cost.     Of  course  some  claim 


Large  houses  built  separately  are  usually  joined  by  an  alley  house  from  10  to  30  ft.  in 
length.  The  space  between  the  houses  is  often  utilized  for  hot  beds,  cold  frames, 
and  for  such  crops  as  corn,  squash,  staked  tomatoes  or  rhubarb. 


exorbitant  saving  on  their  parficular  houses  but  this  cannot  always  be  verified. 
On  the  whole  separate  houses  can  be  heated  with  practically  the  same  cost  as  houses 
on  the  connected  style. 

Alley  houses  are  usually  built  connecting  the  separate  houses  for  convenience 
of  carrying  supplies,  etc..  and  the  heating  main  is  usually  carried  through  fhese 
minimizing  the  loss  of  heat. 


22 


WALKS. 


In  the  majority  of  large  plants  visited,  no  permanent  paths  or  walks  were  to 
be  found.  In  all  houses  having  raised  benches  a  path  would  be  found  in  between 
beds.  The  growers  at  the  present  time  seem  to  be  eliminating  everything  that 
hinders  the  most  intensive  cultivation  of  the  soil  under  glass.  Where  all  crops  are 
grown  on  the  soil,  and  where  horses  are  used  to  prepare  the  soil  for  the  crop,  no 
paths  are  to  be  found,  because  they  would  be  more  of  a  hindrance  than  a  help. 
Sufficient  room  is  left  at  intervals  in  planting  the  crop  to  allow  for  passage  between. 
In  the  majority  of  cases  the  ordinary  greenhouse  soil  is  trodden  down  until  it 
becomes  solid  for  walking.  In  some  oases  men  lay  a  ten  or  twelve  inch  board 
down  the  house  and  use  this  for  a  walk.  Never  a  slat  walk  18  inches  or  two  feet, 
this  would  be  a  waste  of  productive  soil.  In  other  houses  concrete  walks  are  to  be 
found.    These  are  usually  about  12-15  inches  wide,  and  are  made  on  either  side  of 


Walks  are  usually  12  to  15  In.  wide,  allowing  ample  room  for  crop  to  grow. 


a  line  of  purlin  supports,  or  as  close  to  the  gutter  supports  as  possible,  leaving  all 
room  possible  for  the  growing  of  the  crop. 

More  elaborate  houses  have  a  concrete  walk  with  a  3-5  inch  side,  which  acts  as 
a  side  for  the  bed,  being  3-1  inches  high.  These  walks  are  never  more  than  18 
inches  in  width.  Where  a  house  is  fitted  out  in  this  manner  there  is  usually  some 
good  reason  for  it,  which  usually  amounts  to  the  grower  having  easy  access  to  a  sand 
or  gravel  pit  or  that  the  paths  are  a  necessity  to  accommodate  the  visitors.  In 
making  concrete  walks  the  foundation  should  be  down  about  5-6  inches.  Coarse 
stones  and  gravel  will  do  for  this,  and  should  be  made  at  the  ratio  of  6-1  with 


23 

cement.  A  smooth  surface  on  top  is  necessary,  no  stones  being  allowed  to  come 
near  the  surface.  A  well  pounded  cinder  path  will  give  satisfaction,  but  is  not  so 
good  as  concrete  where  a  path  is  absolutely  necessary. 


Concrete  walks  should  be  placed  so  as  to  enable  ease  of  cultivation.  Eaves  should  be 
high  enough  to  permit  walking  under.  This  view  is  of  ten  acres  under  glass  near 
Toledo,  Ohio. 


Raised  benches  are  necessary  where  rhubarb  is  forced.     In  narrow  pipe  frame  houses 
iron  supports  are  often  clamped  to  the  supports  to  make  a  shelf  for  early  plant  boxes. 


BEDS  OR  BENCHES. 

A  question  which  must  be  decided  before  the  heating  system  is  installed  is 
whether  the  crops  are  to  be  grown  on  beds  or  benches.  For  many  years  it  was  taken 
for  granted  that  the  crops  must  be  grown  as  close  to  tbe  glass  as  possible,  and  for  this 


24: 


reason  the  houses  were  built  with  short  sides  and  the  crops  were  grown  on  benches 
raised  up  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  to  about  four  or  five  feet,  thus  bringing 
the  plants  fairly  close  to  the  roof.  During  late  years  this  idea  has  almost  entirely 
disappeared,  and  lettuce,  tomatoes,  and  cucumbers  are  set  in  the  soil  as  it  has 
been  enclosed  by  the  glass  house.  No  raising  of  beds  is  to  be  found  in  any  of 
the  larger  plants  where  vegetables  are  grown  extensively.  There  are  certain 
points  in  favor  of  both  of  these  methods  and  it  may  be  of  interest  to  go  over 
them  briefly  here.  In  a  greenhouse  75  by  200,  for  example,  all  operations  of 
cultivation,  etc.,  are  carried  on  by  means  of  horses.  Plowing,  harrowing,  disking 
and  spreading  of  manure,  lime  or  fertilizer  are  all  done  by  means  of  horse  drawn 
implements,  and  for  this  reason  no  raised  benches  are  found  in  houses  of  this 
kind.  It  is  quite  obvious  why  plants  can  be  handled  quicker  and  with  less  labor 
on  ground  beds  and  such  operations  as  tying  of  supports,  staking  or  even  trans- 
planting can  be  carried  on  much  more  satisfactorily.  G-rowers  find  that  they 
can  grow  any  crop  just  as  satisfactorily  on  solid  beds  as  on  the  raised  benches 
used  by  many  growers  for  years. 

In  case  of  a  small  house,  say  22  by  80,  where  the  grower  is  not  making  a 

specialty  of  indoor   crops,   but   is   using   the   house   more   as   a   plant   house   for 

early  plants  such  as  cabbage,  tomatoes,  onions  and  celery,  etc.,  the  raised  benches 

are  very  often  used  with  success.     Conditions  are  entirely  different  in  houses  of 

this  width,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  better  results  may  be  had  from  raised 

benches  for  starting  early  plants.     Watering  can  is  controlled  more  easily  and 

that  is  a  prime  necessity  in  a  plant  house.     In  houses  of  this  size,  and  using 

raised  benches,  their  height  from  the  soil  will  depend  on  the  grower's  individual 

ideas.     Some  prefer  them  only  (two  and  one-half  feet  from   the  surface,  others 

three  feet  up  to  four  feet.     A  very  good  bench  is  one  raised  three  feet  from  the 

top  of  the  surface  soil.     Heating  pipe  will  have  to  be  laid  under  this  to  get 

the  best  results,  and  as  a  general  rule  a  section  of  the  return  runs  are  brought 

back  under  the  benches.     Where  it  is  desired  to  force  rhubarb  in  the  greenhouse 

the  raised  benches  serve  the  purpose  better  than  any  other  method.     There  is 

sufficient  room  for  the  plants,  the  hea;t  can  be  controlled,  the  plants  are  out  of 

the  way,  and  the  darkening  can  be  controlled  as  well. 

Points  against  the  use  of  raised  benches  are : — 

1.  Initial  cost  is  very  high  and  so  is  the  upkeep,  as  the  benches  are  con- 
tinually rotting  out. 

2.  Cultivation  cannot  be  easily  handled. 

3.  A  great  deal  of  space  is  wasted  by  paths,  etc. 

Raised  benches  seem  to  be  the  best  thing  for  the  small  greenhouse  grower, 
because  he  can  force  his  rhmbarb  or  grow  his  mushrooms  under  them,  and  he 
is  not  pressed  for  time,  etc.,  and  uses  the  house  more  as  a  plant  house,  making 
what  returns  he  can  during  the  winter  months.  For  the  commercial  grower 
the  solid  beds  are  recommended  and  give  entire  .satisfaction  on  good  soil  which 
has  the  proper  drainage,  etc. 

The  benches  are  supported  by  cedar  posts  or  by  solid  concrete  supports, 
the  latter  being  fitted  with  an  enlarged  base  which  sits  on  the  ground  and  supports 
either  wooden  or  concrete  sides.  Ordinary  pine  or  hemlock  is  often  used  for 
these  benches,  but  most  florists  prefer  cypress  on  account  of  its  lasting  powers, 
and  pecky  cypress  is  coming  into  favor  more  each  year.  Pipe  supports  are 
now  being  used  considerably  for  the  support  of  benches,  and  give  very  good  satis- 
faction. The  width  of  the  bench,  etc.,  would  determine  the  size  of  bracing  of 
pipe.     Benches  for  use  in  vegetable  houses  usually  have  six  to  eight  inches  of  soil. 


25 


WORKROOMS. 


Not  the  least  important  part  of  the  greenhouse  is  the  workroom.  The  crop 
has  to  be  handled  right  in  the  plant  several  times  before  it  can  be  shipped  out, 
and  all  or  most  of  this  work  must  be  done  in  the  workroom.  Greenhouse  men 
are  beginning  to  realize  that  this  room  must  be  a  permanent,  well  built  structure, 
sufficiently  large  to  handle  all  the  crop,  and  not  become  congested  at  any  time. 

Usually  the  workroom  is  located  close  to  the  boiler  room  in  as  central  a  position 
as  ")ossible.  The  boiler  house  will  have  to  be  set  according  to  the  location  of  the 
plant,  so  as  to  heat  economically  each  part  of  the  house  or  houses.  As  a  general 
rule  the  workrooms  are  built  to  one  end  of  the  boiler  room.  Light,  airy,  con- 
venient rooms  are  bes't. 

A  brief  description  of  some  rooms  seen  might  be  of  value. 

R.  YonJcers,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.  Boiler  room  and  workroom  end  to  end. 
Building  constructed  of  concrete  blocks  laid  with  red  mortar,  size  30  by  50  feet. 
Angle  iron  rafters  with  truss  supports,  several  large  casement  windows,  concrete 
floors  throughout  with  drains,  concrete  wash  tubs  and  a  bench  for  dripping  at 


Greenhouse  plants  require  good  workrooms.    More  attention  is  being  paid  to  them  each 
year.     Each  labor-saving  device  should  be  well  considered  before  being  installed. 

right  hand  of  tub.  A  small  division  is  made  to  form  an  office  in  which  all 
accounts,  etc.,  are  kept.  The  whole  room  is  lighted  with  electricity.  Door  on 
front  is  large  enough  to  allow  waggon  or  motor  truck  to  be  backed  in  and  loaded 
handily  from  the  packing  floor.  All  woodwork  is  painted  and  the  whole  inside 
is  of  a  pleasing  appearance  and  spotlessly  clean. 

R.  L.  Reutenih,  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Workrooms  located  along  ends  of  houses. 
Concrete  floors  and  wooden  walls.  Here  again  permanent  wash  tubs  and  tables 
are  found.  Here  the  waggon  is  backed  into  another  shed  which  is  at  one  end 
of  the  workroom  and  the  bottom  of  the  waggon  is  set  lower  down  than  the  floor 
of  the  workroom  so  that  the  boxes  do  not  have  to  be  lifted  so  high  in  loading. 
This  room  is  also  well  lighted  and  fairly  airy. 

Ooldwood  Greenhouse  Co.,  Cleveland.  ISTew  plant  with  boiler  room  and  work 
room  together.  Concrete  is  used  as  main  form  of  construction,  plenty  of  windows, 
electrically  lighted  and  ^\ash  tubs,  etc.  The  particular  point  is  that  waggon  may 
be  backed  into  excavated  part  and  goods  may  be  loaded  on  the  level.  No  lifting 
whatever  is  needed  on  this  account. 

The  builder  in  Ontario  will  do  well  to  realize  the  importance  of  these 
large    airy    rooms.       Small    cooped    up    workrooms    are    not    an    advantage    and 


26 

the  produce  tends  to  become  mangled.  The  points  mentioned  particularly  a^out 
the  above  houses  are  labor  savers  and  have  been  well  considered  before  they 
were  adopted.  Men  who  have  to  drive  their  produce  to  market  have  found 
out  that  lettuce  loaded  in  a  fairly  warm  room  and  securely  covered  has  a  better 
selling  value  than  lettuce  carried  out  into  the  frosty  air  to  be  loaded.  Little 
points  like  these  are  what  are  making  money  for  these  men  in  the  greenhouse 
business  on  the  other  side  and  some  might  well  be  copied  here. 


GLASS  AND   GLAZING. 

Too  much  importance  cannot  be  given  by  the  builder  to  these  points.  The 
outside  surface  of  the  greenhouse  is  that  which  receives  the  direct  blows,  and 
it  must  be  strong  enough  to  withstand  the  severest  storms. 

There  are  many  grades  of  glass  on  the  market  which  have  been  sold  as 
suitable  for  greenhouse  building.  Ordinary  window  glass  will  not  do;  a  stronger 
grade  is  necessary.  A  heavier  grade  of  glass  is  used  for  greenhouses.  The  glass 
should  be  carefully  gone  over  and  all  lights  having  flaws  or  whorls  in  them 
should  be  discarded.  Burning  of  the  crops  underneath  will  result  from  the 
strength  of  the  sun's  rays.  Another  point  which  should  be  remembered  here  is 
that  of  evenness  of  edge.  This  is  absolutely  necessary  where  success  is  expected 
with  butted  glass. 

Sizes  16  by  24  inch  glass  is  the  most  popular  size  in  the  U.  S.,  while  many 
growers  use  even  a  larger  size.  Some  using  as  large  as  20  by  30  in  districts  where 
there  is  litle  danger  from  hail  or  from  very  severe  wind  storms.  16  by  24  is 
used  in  different  ways  laying  it  the  16  inch  way  and  the  24  inch  way,  thus 
placing  the  sash  bars  16  inches  apart  and  24  inches  apart.  Some  growers  claim 
that  there  is  considerably  less  breakage  when  the  bars  are  laid  to  hold  the  16  inch 
glass.  In  other  sections  it  seems  to  be  the  rule  to  use  glass  the  same  width  as 
above,  but  12  inches  in  length.  This  still  gives  the  bars  16  inches  apart,  but 
makes  the  joints  come  just  twice  as  many  as  with  the  16  by  24  inch  glass.  This 
method  uses  the  same  amount  of  supports,  but  is  not  in  favor  by  the  majority 
of  growers  owing  to  the  fact  that  there  are  such  a  number  of  joints  or  laps 
whichever  the  case  may  be.  Growers  prefer  the  16  by  24  inch  glass,  and  take  the 
chance  of  heavy  breakage  bills.  In  Ontario,  glass  20  by  20  inches  in  size  is  the 
most  popular  among  those  having  plants  of  any  size.  This  gives  a  good  light,  and 
is  convenient  for  use  with  bar  and  cap,  which  is  the  common  method  of  putting 
on  the  glass  in  Ontario  houses.  Owing  to  the  square  there  is  double  the  Chance 
of  securing  a  tight  fitting  joint,  as  the  four  sides  of  the  glass  may  be  fitted. 
This  is  a  good  size  of  glass  to  use,  giving  plenty  of  light,  and  being  not  too 
large  so  as  to  increase  the  breakage  cost;  16  by  16  inch  glass  can  also  be  used 
and  for  the  same  reasons.  It  is  not  advisable  to  use  glass  of  a  larger  size  than 
16  by  24  in  Ontario,  and  most  growers  will  not  chance  that  size,  preferring  to 
take  a  little  more  shade  but  lessening  the  repairs  and  using  either  16  by  16  or 
20  by  20. 

Butted  oe  Lapped  Glass. — Butted  glass  is  commonly  to  be  found  on  green- 
houses in  Ontario,  and  means  that  the  sash  bar  is  so  constructed  as  to  allow  the 
glass  to  be  laid  on,  one  light  butting  against  the  next  one  up,  and  then  a  wooden 
strip  which  fits  on  to  the  bar  is  screwed  on,  and  this  holds  down  the  side  of 
the  glass. 


27 

Lapped  glass  is  commouly,  almost  entirely,  used  in  the  United  States.  This 
means  that  the  glass  is  laid  up  in  the  same  manner  as  shingles,  one  light  overlap- 
ping the  one  underneath  it.  The  lap  is  usually  3/16  or  ^  inch.  Any  more  makes 
a  poor  job  and  dirt  collects  in  the  small  space,  and  becomes  very  unsightly  and 
causes  a  certain  amount  of  shade.  With  the  lapped  glass  construction  the  glass 
is  usually  bedded  in  putty,  while  with  the  bar  and  cap  no  putty  is  used  nor  no 
glazing  point.  A  zinc  strip  attached  to  the  gutter  or  eave  holds  the  bottom 
light  in  place  and  the  others  above  rest  on  it.  If  lapped  glass  is  to  be  laid, 
only  first  class  greenhouse  putty  should  be  used.  Ordinary  putty  secured  from 
a  hardware  store  will  not  do.  It  will  crack  and  peel  off  in  a^bout  two  years  time, 
necessitating  going  over  the  whole  house  again. 

This  grade  of  putty  will  cost  a  few  cents  more  per  pound  Taut  will  save  in 
the  long  run.  It  cost  some  growers  in  the  States  this  last  year  several  hundreds 
of  dollars  to  re-putty  their  houses  because  they  used  an  inferior  putty  at  the 
start.  This  can  be  pi-ocured  from  any  reliable  firm  who  make  and  handle  green- 
house materials. 

Glass  should  be  laid  convex  side  up  or  with  the  bowed  side  to  the  weather, 
practically  all  American  houses  are  equipped  with  lapped  glass,  and  practically 
all  Ontario  houses  have  butted  glass.  The  butted  glass  is  handier  in  some  cases  to 
put  on  in  case  of  breakage,  and  yet  the  close  fits  and  the!  Jagged  edges  sometimes 
found  tend  to  cause  more  breakage.  If  there  is  any  jar  or  move  of  the  frame  one 
piece  of  glass  is  pushing  against  another  in  the  case  of  the  butted  glass,  whereas 
with  the  lapped  glass  the  one  light  has  a  chance  to  slide  on  the  one  beneath 
before  it  will  break.  Lapped  glass  properly  toedded  in  putty  will  give  a  warmer 
house  than  the  butted  one.  There  is  always  an  opening  between  the  best  butted 
glass,  and  this  allows  for  the  escape  of  warm  air  and  permits  rain  and  moisture 
to  get  in.  More  unsightly  houses,  due  to  collecting  of  dirt  on  the  lights  which 
has  run  in  through  the  butt  opening  and  down  the  inside  of  the  light,  will  be 
found  than  from  dirt  collected  under  the  lap  in  a  well  bedded  house. 

The  objections  to  lapped  glass  encountered  more  than  anything  else  was 
that  it  was  awkward  to  fit  a  broken  light.  This  point  was  admitted  by  many 
growers,  but  they  have  a  counter  claim  that  the  breakage  is  not  one-quarter  that 
of  a  butted  glass  house.  The  glass  in  the  latter  is  simply  shoved  in  at  the 
bottom,  thus  shoving  all  the  lights  up  until  there  is  sufficient  room  for  the  light 
being  replaced. 

Glass  comes  in  boxes  holding  100  square  feet.  There  is  always  more  or 
less  ^breakage  in  them,  but  the  huilder  should  insist  that  he  is  given  D.  D. 
English  21  oz.  glass  or  he  should  get  double  strength  (D.S.)  American  glass. 

HEATING. 

Hot  Water  Heating. — The  heating  is  the  next  point  which  must  be 
considered.  Hot  water  and  steam  are  the  two  sources  of  heat  for  green- 
houses yet.  A  great  deal  can  be  said  for  and  against  each  kind  of  heating,  and 
it  is  a  problem  to  say  which  is  used  the  most.  Both  systems  have  been  improved 
in  the  last  10-15  years,  and  both  systems  are  Ibuilt  to  give  maximum  service. 
Hot  water  heating  may  be  divided  into  two  systems;  the  gravity  system  and  the 
pressure  system.  In  the  gravity  system  the  water  circulates  from  the  boiler 
through  the  coils  and  back  into  the  boiler  again,  because  after  it  reaches  a  certain 
point  there  is  a  drop  in  the  pipe  system  and  the  water  naturally  seeks  its  own 


28 

level.  The  pressure  system  is  where  there  is  some  device  which  forces  the  water 
on  its  own  course  over  the  pipe  system.  This  is  usually  a  mercury  generator  or 
some  form  of  pump.  Both  of  these  machines  have  their  advocates,  and  many 
have  success  with  either.  The  gravity  system  has  its  limitations,  however,  and 
the  first  one  is  that  the  water  cannot  be  carried  over  150  ft.  of  coil  away  from 
the  boiler  with  good  success.  Some  plants  are  working  to-day  at  200  ft.  away 
from  the  boiler,  but  the  best  results  are  not  'being  obtained  ^because  of  overloading 
the  boiler.  Some  growers  claim  that  the  highest  point  of  the  heating  system 
should  be  at  the  boiler,  thus  giving  the  water  a  drop  all  the  way  into  the  boiler 
again.  The  pipes  should  have  a  drop  oE  ten  inches  per  100  ft.,  for  suc- 
cessful running  of  the  gravity  system.  With  the  mercury  generator  or  some 
form  of  circulator  the  water  can  be  forced  oveir  400  ft.,  this  being  over  twice 
the  distance  of  the  gravity  system.  The  pipes  do  not  need  so  much  grading  in  this 
form  of  heating.  In  this  system  the  water  is  forced  through  at  a  greater  rate 
than  by  gravity,  and  it  comes  back  to  the  boiler  containing  more  degrees  of 
heat  than  that  which  has  passed  over  the  system  working  according  to  the  laws 
of  gravity.  This  point  means  more  than  is  often  thought,  and  should  be  investi- 
gated thoroughly  before  any  system  is  selected.  The  longer  the  water  takes  to 
travel  around  a  heating  system  the  less  numher  of  degrees  of  heat  it  contains 
when  it  again  comes  to  the  boiler.  All  this  water  has  to  be  heated  over  again, 
and  thus  it  is  quite  apparent  the  more  degrees  the  water  has  to  be  raised  in 
temperature  the  more  units  of  heat  required  and  this  falls  back  again  and 
increases  the  consumption  of  coal. 

The  gravity  system  is  to  be  recommended  for  small  houses  such  as  30  or  40 
by  100  or  150  but  may  be  used  up  to  30,000  square  feet  of  glass.  For 
larger  houses,  and  where  there  are  several  in  a  range  and  hot  water  is 
wanted,  some  form  of  circulator  is  recommended.  There  are  some  good 
pumps  on  the  market,  and  as  a  rule  they  are  run  by  steam.  A  small  steam 
boiler  is  necessary  for  the  pump  alone.  One  of  these  is  giving  good  service  at 
the  Goldwood  greenhouse  near  Cleveland,  Ohio.  Another  method  used  in  the 
vicinity  of  Eoehester  is  that  of  a  centrifugal  pump  operated  by  a  >^  h.p.  electric 
motor.  This  system  has  given  entire  satisfaction,  and  the  cost  for  power  is  very 
small.  This  method  is  not  a  common  one  and  should  be  inquired  into  thoroughly 
before  being  attempted.  Hot  water  heating  is  never  recommended  for  plants 
having  much  over  100,000  sq.  ft.  of  glass  but  this  will  no  doubt  be  overcome  in  the 
future. 

Steam  Heating. — For  long  houses  and  for  large  houses  or  large  ranges  the 
use  of  steam  is  advised.  In  these  cases  where  the  heat  has  a  long  way  to  travel  it 
can  be  carried  to  a  better  advantage  and  with  a  less  cost  of  fuel  by  the  steam 
system.  There  are  several  systems  of  steam  heating  which  may  be  installed,  but 
there  are  only  two  of  thes3  that  have  b3en  satisfactorily  applied  to  greenhouse 
heating.     These  are  the  high  pressure  and  the  low  pressure  systems. 

The  low  pressure  system  is  used  to  a  great  extent  and  this  is  one  that  operates 
at  a  pressure  of  1-10  lbs.,  usually  5-6.  This  works  by  gravity  and  the  con- 
densation is  carried  back  to  the  boiler  without  any  circulator  of  any  kind.  This 
system  necessitates  that  the  boiler  must  be  several  feet  below  the  lowest  return  in 
the  house.  This  is  the  limiting  factor  for  this  system  as  it  is  not  always  convenient 
to  have  the  boilers  in  a  pit  as  this  entails.  This  pit  may  be  overcome  and  the 
.boilers  placed  on  a  level  with  the  houses  by  the  addition  of  a  steam  trap  which 
lifts  the  water  into  the  boiler  from   the   returns.     This   arrangement  is   found 


29 

in  many  plants  giving  good  satisfaction.  Here  again  the  steam  pump  may  be 
used  to  draw  back  the  condensation  but  the  steam  trap  is  more  effective  and  is 
less  liable  to  get  out  of  repair. 

The  other  system  of  steam  heating  used  in  greenhouses  to  some  extent  is 
known  as  the  high  pressure  system  and  is  where  over  ten  pounds  of  pressure 
is  carried  at  the  boiler,  reducing  it  as  desired  for  the  houses  and  bringing  the 
condensation  back  by  means  of  steam  traps  or  pumps.  This  system  should  only 
be  attempted  on  large  ranges  and  then  installed  by  men  competent  to  do  so. 

A  vacuum  system  of  heating  is  being  installed  in  some  plants  and  works  on 
the  principle  of  high  pressure  at  the  boiler  and  by  the  use  of  reducing  valves  and 
vacuum  pumps  the  steam  passes  through  the  coils  in  the  houses  at  atmospheric 
pressure  or  under.  This  form  of  heating  for  large  plants  is  recommended  as  the 
most  economical  now,  but  must  be  properly  installed  by  competent  men  to  be 
worked  successfully. 


ADVICE  TO  PEOSPECTTVE  BUILDERS. 

(1)  All  construction  companies  keep  a  staff  of  men  whose  business  it  is  to 
give  all  information  in  regard  to  their  forms  of  construction.  They  are  there  for 
the  builders'  benefit. 

(2)  Find  out  all  about  the  different  makes  before  making  your  selection. 

(3)  Do  not  give  an  order  for  material  until  you  are  satisfied  it  is  exactly  what 
you  require. 

(4)  If  in  doubt  ask  or  write  some  grower  who  will  give  you  an  unbiased 
opinion  and  knows  whereof  he  speaks. 

(5)  Successful  growers  follow  the  rules  "the  best  is  none  too  good"  and  "a 
poor  thing  is  dear  at  any  price." 

(6)  Construction  companies  are  used  to  building  large  ranges  and  will  give 
you  the  benefit  of  their  experience  in  regard  to  location,  site,  etc. 

(7)  Insist  that  all  the  accessories  such  as  nails,  ventilating  apparatus,  putt}'', 
paint,  etc.,  be  of  first  class  and  that  they  are  properly  used. 


J 


0^ 


Serial 

Xo. 

Date. 

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Dec. 

1910 

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Jan. 

1911 

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April 

1911 

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June 

1911 

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July 

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Nov. 

1911 

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Dec. 

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Mat. 

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April 

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Aug. 

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Oct. 

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April 

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May 

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Sept. 

1914 

LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  the  Oxtaeio  Department  of  Agriculture,  Toronto 


Title.  Author. 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  Muck  (  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Soils    • (A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch. 

„,              ^    _.        -       -  .  (  R.  Harcourt. 

Flour  and   Breadmakmg    (  ^   ^   Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  Oni,   Dental   Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease    L.  Caesar. 

Children:     Care  and  Training   J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth    L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario   (No.  128  revised)    J.  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  151  revised)   W.  R.  Graham. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keeping   in   Ontario    Fruit  Branch. 

Agricultural    Co-operation S.  E.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis   of   Fowls    S.  F.  Edwards. 

Apple  Orcharding   Fruit  Branch. 

Insecticides  and  Fungicides  (No.  154  revised)  j  ^j  ^^^pui'i^er. 

Tomatoes A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Morley  Pettit. 

Lime-iSulphur    Wash     L.  Caesar. 

Onions     A.  McMeans. 

Fruit   Juices    L.  Meunier. 

i  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario  F.  M.  Clement. 

\  Peach   Diseases L.  Caesar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower    A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth   Ont.   Dental   Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    ^ 

I.  Cheese-Makirg  and  Butter  Making    g^^g  ^^ 

Dairy  Scho-^i  Bulletin   (No.  172  revised)    ' 

II.  Dairying  on  the  Farm ) 

Ice-Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm   R.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  .  j  u  j^^re. 
in  Ontario  County    ^  I*   a".  Benson. 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz. 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry..  F.  M.  Clement. 
Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planiera 

(No.  179  revised) Fruit  Branch. 

Orchard    Surveys    in    Dundas,    Stormont   and 

Glengarry     F.  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario  Morley  Pettit. 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  it  Pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing  Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples   E.  F.  Palmer. 

■r,          T^     ,x       /XT     -.Oft         •     j\  f  W.  R.  Graham. 

Farm  Poultry  (No.  189  revised) {  ^    j.    McCulloch. 

Birds  of  Ontario  (No.  173  revised)   C.  W.  Nash. 

The  San  Jose  and  Oyster-tShell  Scales L.  Caesar. 

Lightning  Rods   W.  H.  Day. 

Food  Value  of  Milk  and  its  Products R.  Harcourt. 

Currants  and  Gooseberries  E.  F.  Palmer. 

_,     . ,,,  f  R.  Harcourt 

Fertilizers ••••\  A.  L.  Gibson. 

Greenhouse  Construction S.  C.  Johnston. 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


BULLETIN  225 


Swine 


By 

G.  E.  DAY,  B.S.A. 
Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry 


TORONTO,  ONTARIO.  NOVEMBER.  1914 


BULLETIN  225]  [DECEMBER    1914 

Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 

ONTARIO  AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE 


SAvine 

By  G.  E.  DAY,  B.S.A. 


PART   I. 


THE  PLACE  OF  THE  HOG  UPON  THE  FARM 

The  swine  industry  occupies  a  rather  peculiar  position  in  many  localities. 
Swine  multiply  rapidly  and  come  into  use  for  breeding  at  an  earlier  age  than  other 
farm  animals;  consequently,  it  takes  only  a  short  time  for  farmers  to  increase  or 
decrease  their  stock,  as  the  case  may  be. 

Fluctuations  in  Hog  Supply. — When,  owing  to  scarcity  in  the  supply  of 
hogs,  the  price  for  hogs  goes  up,  we  find  farmers  increasing  the  number  of  breeding 
sows,  and  in  a  very  short  time  the  supply  of  hogs  coming  to  market  increases  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  price  is  likely  to  break.  If  the  decrease  in  price  is  very 
severe,  the  farmer  becomes  disgusted,  and  the  chances  are  that  many  farmers  will 
sell  their  breeding  sows  and  practically  go  out  of  the  business.  This  unloading 
process  adds  to  the  burden  of  the  market,  and  general  demoralization  is  apt  to 
follow.  By  and  by,  after  the  market  has  absorbed  the  excessive  supplies  thrown 
upon  it,  a  scarcity  occurs  again,  owing  to  so  many  having  gone  out  of  the  business 
of  hog  raising,  and  prices  once  more  reach  a  high  level.  This  is  a  signal  for 
farmers  to  rush  again  into  hog  raising,  and  overstock  their  farms  in  many  cases, 
so  that  once  more  the  market  becomes  top-heavy,  and  the  history  of  the  hog  market 
repeats  itself. 

Now,  it  is  altogether  probable  that  very  few  of  those  who  were  tempted  to  rush 
into  the  business  on  account  of  high  prices  obtained  any  profit  from  the  venture. 
They  paid  high  prices  for  breeding  stock,  but  by  the  time  they  had  hogs  ready  for 
the  market  the  decline  in  prices  began,  and  before  they  were  throiigh  they-  were 
selling  their  hogs  at  a  loss, 

Profit  from  Hogs. — The  man  who  makes  money  out  of  hogs  is  the  man 
who  has  hogs  to  sell  when  prices  are  high,  whose  farm  is  never  over-stocked,  nor 
yet  entirely  depleted  ot  its  supply.  He  knows  how  many  hogs  his  farm  will  carry 
to  advantage  under  average  circumstances,  and  he  practises  a  wise  conservatism. 
When  prices  are  high,  he  has  a  good  profit,  when  they  are  low,  his  profit  is  small 
but  the  average  is  fairly  satisfactory.  He  may  slightly  expand  or  contract  his 
operations  at  various  times,  but  he  never  "  plunges." 

The  "  plunger  "  is  apt  to  find  himself  "  in  "  when  he  ought  to  be  "  out,"  and 
"  out"  when  he  ought  to  be  "  in."  The  other  man  is  "  in  "  at  all  times,  but  never 
to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  seriously  damaged  when  the  market  goes  wrong. 


It  is  not  the  object  of  the  writer  to  urge  farmers  to  feed  more  hogs — far  from 
it.  Every  farmer  must  be  his  own  jutlge  in  this  matter,  and  many  farmers  should 
never  attempt  to  raise  hogs,  owing  to  the  fact  that  either  the  man  himself  is  not 
adapted  to  the  business  or  his  conditions  are  unsuitable.  Nevertheless,  it  is  true 
that  a  few  hogs  might  be  kept  profitably  upon  many  farms  where  they  do  not  find 
a  place  to-day. 

Hogs  a  By-Product. — Generally  speaking,  the  hog  may  be  regarded  as  a 
by-product  of  the  farm,  or,  in  other  words^  he  is  a  means  of  marketing  the  by- 
products of  the  farm.  In  the  cattle  feed  lots,  we  find  him  utilizing  the  corn  which 
the  cattle  have  failed  to  digest  and  which  otherwise  would  be  wasted.  In  the 
dairy  district,  he  is  th3  means  of  obtaining  good  value  for  skim  milk,  buttermilk, 
and  whey.  Where  mixed  farming  is  practised,  he  consumes  any  dairy  by-products, 
small  potatoes,  and  various  other  unmarketable  substances,  and  gleans  the  stubble 
fields,  returning  to  his  owner  cash  value  for  substances  that  are  completely  neg- 
lected on  many  farms.  Even  the  cottager  frequently  utilizes  him  to  obtain  a  cash 
return  from  kitchen  refuse  and  table  scraps.  It  is  as  a  consumer  of  by-products 
and  so-called  worthless  materials  that  the  hog  shows  to  the  best  advantage  from 
the  standpoint  of  profit. 

Advantages  of  Home-grown  Feeds.— The  farmer  who  raises  most  of 
his  own  feed  is  in  a  much  better  position  to  feed  hogs,  or  any  other  class  of  stock, 
than  the  man  who  has  to  purchase  all  his  feed.  The  farmer  who  grows  his  own 
feed  may  not  get  any  more  than  market  prices  for  the  grain  or  other  produce  con- 
sumed by  the  hogs,  and  may  still  have  a  fair  profit  through  selling  his  produce  at 
market  prices  in  the  form  of  pork;  but  the  man  who  buys  his  feed  can  have  for 
profit  only  what  he  obtains  in  excess  of  the  market  value  of  the  feeds  consumed  by 
the  hogs.  Thus  the  farmer  who  grows  his  feed  has  two  sources  of  profit,  namely, 
the  grower's  profit,  or  the  profit  obtained  by  selling  his  produce  at  market  price; 
together  with  the  feeder's  profit,  or  what  he  obtains  for  his  produce  in  excess  of 
market  price  by  selling  it  in  the  form  of  pork.  The  man  who  has  to  buy  all  the 
produce  which  he  feeds  his  hogs  can  have  only  the  feeder's  profit,  and  under  un- 
favorable conditions  this  profit  may  be  so  small  that  it  will  scarcely  pay  for  the 
labor  involved. 

Raising 'Pigs. — Another  point  worthy  of  consideration  is  the  fact  that 
ander  favorable  conditions  and  skilful  management,  young  pigs  can  be  raised  for 
feeding  at  a  lower  cost  than  that  for  which  they  can  be  bought.  This  point  will 
be  dealt  with  more  fully  in  another  place  but  is  mentioned  here  as  one  of  the 
factors  which  help  to  explain  why  some  people  can  make  hog  feeding  profitable, 
while  others  cannot. 

Judgment  Needed.' — One  of  the  great  difficulties  in  connection  with  the 
swine  industry  is  the  fact  that  so  many  people  are  not  content  to  engage  in  the 
undertaking  except  on  a  large  scale,  and  the  people  who  can  handle  hogs  in  large 
numbers  and  make  the  business  a  financial  success  are  comparatively  few.  The 
average  farmer  is  safer  to  handle  hogs  in  rather  small  numbers,  and  use  them  as 
an  adjunct  to  his  other  farm  operations.  Used  in  this  way,  and  handled  with 
a  reasonable  degree  ox  judgment,  the  hog  will  give  a  good  account  of  himself  in 
adding  to  the  revenue  and  the  profits  from  the  farm.  A  very  few  years'  exper- 
ience should  enable  a  farmer  to  determine  just  about  how  many  hogs  he  can  raise 
to  advantage.  Some  farms  will  carry  very  large  numbers  owing  to  the  system  of 
farming  which  is  carried  on.  but  for  many  of  the  smaller  farms  one  breeding  sow 
is  plenty. 


Hogs  and  Dairying.— The  hog  fits  in  especially  well  upon  dairy  farms 
where  skim-milk,  butt'^rmilk,  or  whey  has  to  be  fed  upon  the  farm.  Perhaps  no 
animal  will  give  as  high  returns  for  dairy  by-products  consumed  as  the  hog,  and 
no  feed  gives  a  finer  quality  of  bacon  than  dairy  by-products.  It  is  also  worthy 
of  note  that  the  man  vdio  has  skim-milk  is  in  a  better  position  to  raise  pigs  than 
the  man  who  has  none,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  difficult  to  find  a  satisfactory  sub- 
stitute for  skim-milk  for  young  pigs  just  after  weaning. 

Pure-bred  Hogs. — AVhat  has  been  said  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  has 
no  reference  to  the  raising  of  pure-bred  hogs  for  breeding  purposes,  but  applies 
simply  to  the  production  of  maa-ket  hogs.  The  breeders  of  pure-bred  hogs  under- 
stand their  business,  and  know  about  how  far  their  conditions  warrant  the  exten- 
sion of  their  operations,  so  that  it  is  not  so  necessary  to  offer  suggestions  to  them 
along  this  line.  It  is  true  that  the  breeder  of  market  hogs  always  has  a  use  for 
pure  blood,  but  it  is  not  every  person  who  can  make  a  success  of  breeding  pure-' 
breds  to  supply  the  demand  for  breeding  stock,  and  the  average  farmer  is  safer  to 
adhere  to  producing  market  hogs. 

Summary.— To  sum  up,  it  may  be  said  that  the  hog  is  especially  valuable 
for  consuming  the  by-products  of  the  farm,  'and  the  number  of  hogs  carried  to 
advantage  upon  a  farm  is  governed  very  largely  by  the  quantity,  and  character  of 
the  by-products  to  be  consumed.  When  carried  in  appropriate  numbers,  the  hog 
is  an  exceptionally  economical  producer  of  meat,  preventing  waste,  and  giving 
cash  returns  for  substances  that  are  frequently  wasted,  or  which  have  little  market 
value.  Trying  to  take  advantage  of  fluctuating  market  prices  by  alternately  over- 
stocking and  under-stocking  with  hogs  is  seldom  a  financial  success.  The  man 
who  consistently  follows  up  the  business  upon  conservative  lines  is  the  man  who 
is  well  satisfied  with  the  hog  as  a  source  of  profit. 


PART    II. 

TYPES   OF    SWINE 

There  are  two  well-defined  types  of  hogs,  which  are  the  outcome  of  local  con- 
ditions and  market  requirements, — namely,  the  fat  or  lard  type  and  the  bacon  type. 

Reasons  for  Two  Types. — The  fat  or  lard  type  of  hog  is  the  product 
of  the  "  corn  belt,"  Corn  feeding  has  a  tendency  to  produce  fat  at  the  expense  of 
muscle  or  lean  meat,  and  corn  is  the  principal  hog  feed  of  the  United  States.  Most 
of  the  hogs  of  the  United  States  are  grown  in  the  great  corn-producing  States,  and 
it  is  here  we  find  the  lard  type  in  its  highest  degree  of  perfection.  This  type  plays 
an  important  part  in  the  exports  of  the  country. 

But,  in  addition  to  the  demand  for  the  products  of  the  lard  hog,  there  is  an 
important  demand,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  for  a  leaner  class  of  meat.  In  some 
of  the  large  cities  of  England  this  demand  has  taken  a  definite  form,  and  what  is 
known  as  the  "Wiltshire  side"  is  especially  designed  to  meet  this  demand.  A 
hog  suitable  for  manufacturing  into  "  Wiltshire  sides "  is  known  as  a  "  bacon 
hog,"  and  breeding  stock  of  a  type  suitable  for  producing  bacon  hogs  is  said  to 
possess  bacon  type.  Bacon  hogs  cannot  be  produced  successfully  under  a  system 
of  corn  feeding,  and  hence  we  find  the  bacon  hog  produced  in  greater  numbers  in 
countries  where  the  feed  for  the  hog  is  more  varied  in  character,  and  where  the 
conditions  are  less  favorable  for  producing  the  lard  hog  than  they  are  in  the  United 


Champion  bacon  carcass,  Provincial  Winter  Fair,  Guelpb. 


[■i1 


states.  The  countries  sending  the  greatest  number  of  Wiltshire  sides  to  Great 
Britain  are  Denmark,  Canada,  and  Ireland.  Generally  speaking,  hogs  cannot  be 
grown  so  cheaply  in  Canada  and  Denmark  as  they  can  in  the  United  States,  par- 
ticularly in  the  corn  belt;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Wiltshire  sides  usually  command 
a  higher  price  per  pound  in  England  than  the  meat  of  the  lard  hog.  This  higher, 
price  for  finished  product  affords  some  protection  to  the  swine  industry  in  Canada 
and  Denmark,  and  it  was  to  escape  direct  competition  with  the  American  product 
in  Great  Britain  that  Canada  and  Denmark  engaged  in  the  production  of  bacon 
hogs  and  the  manufacture  of  Wiltshire  sides.  Such  an  arrangement  seems  to  be 
the  part  of  wisdom,  each  country  devoting  its  attention  to  the  type  of  hog  which  it 
can  produce  to  best  advantage. 

The  Bacox  Type. 

To  produce  a  good  Wiltshire  side  of  bacon  requires  a  hog  of  certain  definite 
peculiarities  as  to  weight,  condition,  and  conformation.     The  customers  for  this 


Fig.  1. — Pair  of  export  bacon  liogs. 

class  of  bacon  are  extremely  fastidious,  and.  if  the  bacon  does  not  come  up  to  the 
standard  in  every  particular,  it  is  very  heavily  discounted  in  price.  As  a  rule,  the 
weight  limits  are  usually  fixed  at  160  pounds  to  200  pounds  live  weight.  It  is 
true  that  a  hog  may  weigh  slightly  more  than  200  pounds  and  still  make  a  very 
good  Wiltshire  side,  but  most  hogs  are  inclined  to  be  too  fat  after  they  pass  the 
200-pound  mark,  and  consequently  this  is  fixed  as  the  limit,  though  it  is  not 
strictly  adiiered  to.  As  to  condition,  it  is  possible  to  have  the  hog  too  thin  or  too 
fat.  When  the  carcass  is  split  down  the  back,  the  layer  of  fat  along  the  back 
should  run  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in  thickness,  and  should  be  as 
uniform  in  thickness  as  possible  from  the  loin  to  the  neck.  The  most  valuable 
meat  in  a  Wiltshire  side  is  the  upper  part  of  the  side  from  the  liam  to  the  back  of 
the  shoulder,  including  the  upper  corner  of  the  gammon  or  ham,  the  loin,  and  the 
upper  half  of  the  ribs.     The  lower  part  of  ham  and  the  flank  and  belly  meat  are 


An  Ideal  Wiltshire  side  of  bacon,  showing  how  the  side  is 
trimmed  and  the  shape  in  which  it  is  placed  upon  the  British 
market. 

[G] 


A  side  of  bacon  which  Is  too  short  and  decidedly  too  fat 
for  a  Wiltshire  side. 


r'^ 


not  worth  as  much  per  pound  as  the  upper  portions,  and  the  shoulder  and  neck  are 
comparatively  cheap  parts. 

Conformation. —  lu  form,  the  bacon  type  of  hog  is  very  different  from  the 
lard  type.  It  is  longer  in  the  leg  and  body,  has  less  thickness  and  depth  of  body, 
and  is  lighter  in  the  shoulder,  neck,  and  jowl.  The  hog  should  be  long  from  the 
back  of  the  shoulder  to  the  ham.  but  comparatively  short  from  the  back  of  the 
shoulder  to  the  snout.  Along  with  the  length,  however,  the  hog  must  have  sufficient 
depth  and  thickness  to  denote  constitution.  No  matter  how  long  in  body  it  may 
be,  if  it  has  long,  coarse  legs,  and  a  narrow,  cramped  chest,  it  is  an  undesirable 
type  to  breed  from.  A  trim  belly  is  desirable,  because  the  belly  meat  is  cheaper 
tilian  the  upper  part  of  the  side.  In  judging  sows  that  have  produced  several 
litters  of  pigs,  some  allowance  must  be  made  in  this  connection. 

A  fine,  smooth  coal,   of  hair  denotes  thriftiness  and  good  quality  of  flesh. 
Wrinkles  on  the  skin,  if  at  all  marked,  indicate  coarse-grained  flesh.     Softness  or 


Pig.  2. — Bacon  type.     Note  light  jowl,  neck  and  shoulder. 


flabbiness  of  flesh  denotes  too  much  fat  in  proportion  to  lean.  There  is  a  marked 
difference  between  the  handling  qualities  of  a  finished  bacon  hog  and  a  finished 
lard  hog,  the  former  being  much  firmer  to  the  touch.  The  bacon  type  of  hog  has 
heavier  bone  than  the  fat  or  lard  type,  but  very  coarse,  puffy  looking  bone  denotes 
poor  quality  of  flesh  and  is  often  associated  with  poor  feeding  qualities.  Though 
the  bone  is  fairly  heavy,  the  legs  should  present  a  clean-cut  appearance. 

The  jowl  has  very  little  market  value.  A  heavy  jowl  denotest  tendency  to 
put  on  too  much  fat.  Good  width  of  jowl  is  desirable  from  a  feeder's  standpoint, 
but  it  should  be  very  trim  and  neat. 

A  long,  scrawny  necl-  indicates  weak  constitution  and  slow  feeding  qualities. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  short,  thick  neck  with  an  arch,  or  crest  of  fat  on  top,  such  as 
is  commended  in  the  fat  hog,  will  cause  the  side  of  bacon  to  be  heavy  at  the 
shoulder  and  neck  end  and  this  is  the  cheap  end  of  a  side  of  bacon.  The  neck 
should  be  of  only  medinm  length,  and  should  possess  no  tendency  to  arch  on  top. 


9 

The  shoulder  of  the  bacon  hog  is  somewhat  upright,  making  the  animal  com- 
paratively short  from  the  back  of  the  shoulder  to  the  snout,  but  long  from  the  back 
of  the  shoulder  to  the  rump.  The  shoulder  is  a  clieap  part,  and,  therefore,  should 
be  rather  light.  It  should  be  very  compact  over  the  top,  should  be  no  wider  than 
the  back,  and  should  blond  smoothly  into  the  body  at  all  points. 

The  back  carries  the  most  valuable  meat,  but  it  should  not  be  wide,  because  a 
wide  back  invariably  carries  too  much  fat  for  a  Wiltshire  side.  It  should  possess 
medium  width,  and  should  carry  its  width  evenly  throughout.  Tlie  top  line 
should  be  slightly  arched,  the  highest  point  being  over  the  loin. 

The  loin  is  the  most  valuable  cut  in  a  Wiltshire  side,  and  should  be  as  wide 
as  the  rest  of  the  back,  full,  strong,  and  well  packed  with  flesh. 

The  spring  of  rib  of  a  bacon  hog  is  very  characteristic.  It  should  spring  out 
boldly  from  the  backbone,  then  turn  sharply  and  drop  in  an  almost  vertical  direc- 
tion, giving  a  flat,  straight  side. 

From  a  packer's  standpoint,  a  bacon  hog  cannot  have  too  long  a  side,  but  the 
breeder  must  exercise  care  that  he  does  not  secure  this  extreme  length  at  the 
expense  of  constitution.  It  is  well  to  avoid  extremes  of  all  kinds.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary,  however,  that  the  hog  should  have  good  length  of  side,  much  more  than 
is  found  in  the  fat  type. 

The  rump  affords  a  valuable  cut,  but  a  flat,  broad  rump  indicates  the  presence 
of  too  much  fat.  The  rump  should  be  the  same  width  as  the  back,  should  be  very 
smooth,  and  slightly  rounded  from  side  to  side  over  the  top. 

Great,  broad,  bulging  hams  are  not  wanted  on  the  bacon  hog.  Such  hams 
carry  too  much  fat,  and  require  severe  trimming  in  preparing  the  side  of  bacon 
for  market.  The  ham  of  the  bacon  hog  is  smooth  and  firm,  and  tapers  toward 
the  hock.  The  flesh  should  be  carried  well  around  the  bone,  leaving  no  bareness  of 
bone  on  the  inside  of  the  thigh. 

Bacon  Breeds. — The  leading  breeds  of  the  bacon  type  of  swine  are  the 
Tamworth  and  Large  Yorkshire. 

DESCELPTION    AND    SCALE   OF   POINTS    FOB    BACON    TYPE. 

A.  General  Appearance : 

Counts. 

Size — ^Well  developed  for  age   5 

Form — QLiong,   smooth,   all   parts  proportionately  developed   so  as   to  give   the 

Impression   of   a   well-balanced,   strongly-built   animal.     Top   line,   strong; 

under  line,  straight;   belly,  trim  and  neat 10 

Quality — Hair,  fine;  skin,  smooth,  showing  no  tendency  to  wrinkle;  bone,  clean 

and  strong  but  not  coarse;   flesh,  firm  and  smooth,  with  no  flabbiness  at 

jowl,  foreflank,  ibelly,  or  ham    10 

Condition — "Well  covered  with  firm  flesh,  especially  along  back  and  loin,  but  not 

heavily   loaded   with    fat    6 

Style — Active  and  sprightly,  walking  without  a  swaying  movement,  and  standing 

up  welT  on  toes.     Breeding  animals  should  show  strong  character  4 

B.  Head  and  Neck  : 

Snout — 'Medium   length   and   moderately   fine    1 

Face — Broad  between  eyes;   poll,  broad  and  full   1 

Eyes — Good   size,   full    and    bright    1 

Jowl — Fair  width  and  muscular,  but  very  neat,  showing  no  flabbiness   2 

Sars— .Moderately  thin,  and  fringed  with  fine  hair   1 

Neck — Medium  length  and  muscular,  but  possessing  no  tendency  to  arch  on  top  2 
2-225 


10 


C.     Fore  Quarters  : 


Shoulders — Smooth,  somewhat  rounded  from  side  to  side  over  top,  and  very 
compact;    no   wider  than   back,  and   not   running  back   on  side  so  as  to 

shorten  distance  between  shoulders  and  ham   6 

Breast — Good  width  and  full   3 

Fore  Legs — iSet  well  apart,  medium  length,  and  straight;   pasterns,  upright; 

bone,  clean  and  strong;    feet,     medium  size  and  strongly  formed 4 

D.  Body  : 

Back — Medium  width,  rising  slightly  above  the  straight  line,  and  forming  a 

very  slight  arch  from  neck  to  root  of  taij  6 

Loin — Wide  as  rest  of  back,  strong  and  full,  but  not  unduly  arched  5 

Ribs — Good  length  and  moderately  arched   4 

Side — Fairly  deep;  long,  smooth,  and  straight  between  shoulder  and  ham; 
a  straight-edge  laid  over  shoulder  point  and  ham  should  touch  the  side 

throughout    8 

Heart  Girth — Full,  but  not  flabby  at  fore  flanks,  filled  out  even  with  side  of 
shoulder;    there  should  he  no   tucked-up   appearance  back  of  fore   legs, 

nor  droop  back  of  shoulder  top 5 

Flank — ^Full    and    low    2 

E.  Hind  Quarters  : 

Rump — iSame  width  as  back;   long  and  slightly  rounded  from  a  point  above 

hips  to  tail,  and  somewhat  rounde'd  from  side  to  side  over  top  4 

Ham — Full  without  flabbiness;  thigh,  tapering  towards  hock  without  wrinkles 

or  folds,  and  carrying  flesh  well  down  towards  hock   6 

Hind  Legs — Medium  length;  hocks,  set  well  apart,  hut  not  bowed  outward; 
bone,  clean  and  strong;  pasterns,  upright,  feet,  medium  size  and  strongly 
formed    4 


Total 100 


The  Fat  Type. 

The  fat  or  lard  type  of  ^og  is  characterized  by  a  compact,  thick,  deep,  smooth 
body,  remarkable  for  its  depth  and  thickness  rather  than  its  length.  There  should 
be  a  proportionate  development  of  the  different  parts,  and  all  parts  should  blend 
smoothly  together,  giving  what  is  called  compactness  of  form.  The  hams,  back, 
and  shoulders  are  the  most  valuable  parts  from  a  market  standpoint,  and  should  be 
largely  developed.  The  market  hog  should  be  fattened  to  a  high  degree,  because 
lard  is  an  important  consideration  with  the  packer,  and  a  well-fattened  hog  will 
dress  a  larger  percentage  of  its  live  weight  than  one  which  is  not  well  finished, 
which  is  another  important  point  with  the  packer. 

Quality  is  denoted  by  fine  hair,  smooth,  clean  skin,  rather  fine,  clean  bone, 
and  even  distribution  of  flesh.  There  should  be  no  wrinkles  in  the  skin,  the  jowl 
should  be  broad,  plump,  and  full,  but  not  flabby,  and  the  belly  should  be  reasonably 
trim,  that  is,  not  sagging  or  baggy  in  appearance.  In  breeding  animals,  some 
allowance  would  have  to  be  made  for  sows  which  had  produced  several  litters 
of  pigs. 

The  animal  should  be  able  to  walk  freely,  without  apparent  effort,  and  the 
pasterns  should  be  short  and  upright. 

The  snout  should  be  moderately  fine,  the  face  wide  between  the  eyes,  and  the 
poll  wide  and  full.  Width  between  the  eyes  and  fullness  of  poll  denote  a  good 
feeder.  The  eye  should  be  full,  bright  and  of  good  size,  and  there  should  be 
an  absence  of  creases  and  folds  of  fat  about  the  eyes.  The  size  and  shape  of  the 
ear  varies  in  different  breeds,  but  the  ear  should  be  fine,  soft,  and  generally 
somewhat  small. 


11 


The  jowl  should  be  full,  broad,  deep,  smooth,  and  firm,-  carrying  its  fullness 
well  back  toward  the  point  of  the  shoulder.  The  nech  should  be  short  and  deep, 
and  should  blend  smoothly  into  the  shoulder  at  all  parts. 


Fig.   3. — Champion  barrow  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition,  Chicago.     This 
hog  shows  practically  perfection  of  form  from  the  fat  or  lard  type  standpoint. 


Fig.  4. — Grand  champion  pen  of  barrows  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition, 

Chicago. 


The  shoulder  of  the  fat  hog  has  considerable  market  value,  and  hence  should 
be  largely  developed.  It  should  be  broad,  deep,  and  smooth;  compact  on  top, 
blending  smoothly  into  the  body,  and  being  well  covered  with  flesh  over  all  its 
parts.  The  Ireast  should  be  wide,  deep,  and  full,  denoting  constitution;  and  the 
fore-legs  should  be  set  well  apart,  short,  tapering,  and  straight.     The  pasterns 


should  be  upright,  the  bone  rather  fine   and  clean  cut  in  appearance,  and  the  feet 
strongly  formed. 

Along  the  region  of  the  back  and  loin  lie  some  of  the  most  valuable  cuts,  and, 
therefore,  large  development  is  asked  for  in  this  region.  The  hacJc  should  be 
broad,  straight,  or  very  slightly  arched,  medium  length,  uniform  width  from 
ahoulder  to  ham,  thickly  fleshed,  even,  and  smooth,  without  creases  or  lumps.  The 
loin  should  be  broad,  strong,  full,  and  thickly  and  smoothly  fleshed.  The  rihs 
should  be  well  sprung,  and  the  side  deep,  smooth,  and  even  between  shoulder 
and  ham. 

The  heart-girth  should  be  large,  the  animal  being  full  back  of  the  shoulder, 
and  deep  and  full  at  tlie  fore  flanks.     The  hind  flank  should  also  be  deep  and  full. 

The  ham  is  another  important  consideration  from  a  packer's  standpoint.  It 
should  be  broad,  deep,  plump,  smoothly  and  heavily  fleshed,  with  the  flesh  carried 


Fig.  5.— 'Champion  pen  of  Berkshire  barrows  at  the  International  Live  Stock 

Exposition,  Chicago. 


well  down  towards  the  hock  on  the  inside  as  well  as  at  the  rear.  The  rump  should 
be  the  same  width  as  the  back,  long,  smooth,  and  slightly  rounded  from  the  loin 
to  the  base  of  the  tail.  The  hind  legs  should  be  short,  straight,  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  the  body,  with  bone,  pasterns,  and  feet  as  already  described. 

The  above  description  gives  a  fairly  clear  impression  of  the  general  type  of 
the  fat  hog,  and  shows  how  well  the  type  meets  the  requirements  of  feeders  in  the 
coni  belt. 

Breeds  of  the  Fat  Type. — Poland-China,  Berkshire,  Chester  White,  and 
Durco- Jersey  are  the  most  popular  breeds  of  the  fat  type.  Others  of  less  im- 
portance in  America  are  Cheshire,  Victoria,  small  Yorkshire,  Essex,  and  Sut^olk. 

The  Hampshire  is  intermediate  between  the  lard  and  bacon  typfes,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  more  lengthy  type  of  Berkshire. 


13 

Description  and  Scale  of  Points  fob  Fat  Type, 

A.  General  Appearance  : 

Ckiunta. 
Size — Well  developed  for  age   5 

Form-^Deei>,  thick,  smooth,  low  set,  good  length,  but  compactly  built,  stand- 
ing on  well-placed  legs.  Top  line  straight,  or  slightly  arching;  under 
line  straight;    belly,  trim  and  neat 10 

Quality — Hair,  fine;  skin,  smooth,  showing  no  tendency  to  wrinkle;  bone,  clean 

and  fine;  flesh,  smooth  and  mellow,  but  showing  no  flabbiness  10 

Condition— Deeply  and   evenly  covered  with  flesh,   but  not  overdone   for  the 

purpose  for  which  the  animal  is  intended   6 

Style — Active  and  sprightly,  walking  without  a  swaying  movement,  and  stand- 
ing well  up  on  toes.    Breeding  animals  should  show  strong  character 4 

B.  Head  and  Neck  : 

Snout — Moderately  fine   1 

Face — Broad  between  eyes;  poll,  broad  and  full 1 

Eyes — Good  size,  full  and  bright   ,[[[  j 

Jowl — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth,  and  firm,  carrying  fullness  back  near  to  point 

of   shoulder    2 

Ears — 'Medium  size,  fine,  and  soft  ] 

Neck — Short,  thick  and  deep.    Rounding  and  full  from  poll  to  shoulder  top 2 

C.  Fore  Quarters  : 

Shoulders— Broad  and  compact  on  top,  deep,  well  fleshed,  blending  smoothly 

with  neck  and  body   g 

Breast— Wide,    deep    and    full    .'.'.".'.'         3 

Fore  Legs — Set  well  apart,  short,  tapering,  and  straight;   pasterns,  upright; 

bone,  clean  and  flne;   feet,  medium  size  and  strongly  formed   3 

D.  Body  : 

Back — Broad,  straight  or  very  slightly  arched,  medium  length,  uniform  width 
from  shoulder  to  ham,  thickly  fleshed,  even,  and  smooth,  without  creases 

or   projections    8 

Loin — Broad,  strong,  full,  and  thickly  and  smoothly  fleshed    6 

Ribs — Long  and  well  sprung   4 

Side— Medium  length,  deep,  smooth,  even  between  shoulder  and  ham   6 

Heart  GirfTi- Large,  full  back  of  shoulder,  and  deep  and  full  at  fore  flanks...  5 

Flank— Deev  and  full 2 

E.  Hind  Quarters  : 

Rump — ^Same  width  as  back,  long,  smooth,  slightly  rounded  from  loin  to  base 

of  tail    4 

Ham — Broad,    deep,    heavily    fleshed,    plump,    and    rpasona"i:y    smooth;    flesh 

carried  well  down  to  hock  on  inside  as  well  as  at  rear  8 

Hind  Legs— Short,  straight,  set  well   apart  and   squarely   under  body;    bone, 

fine  and  clean;  pasterns,  strong;  feet,  medium  size  and  strongly  formed..         3 

Total     J 100 


Relation  of  Breed  and  Type  to  Economy  of  Production, 

Probably  the  most  extensive  tests  with  breeds  of  swine  have  been  conducted 
by  the  Ontario  Agricultnral  College  and  the  Iowa  State  Experiment  Station.  At 
the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  five  tests  were  conducted  in  which  six  breeds  of 
swine  were  compared  as  to  the  amount  of  feed  required  for  100  pounds  gain  live 
weight.  At  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station,  three  tests  were  made  in  which  the 
same  six  breeds  were  compared  as  to  the  amount  of  feed  required  for  100  pounds 
gain  live  weight.  The  results  of  these  two  series  of  tests  are,  therefore,  of  con- 
siderable importance.  In  the  Ontario  tests,  only  the  meal  is  considered  in  four 
of  the  tests,  such  feeds  as  dairy  by-products  and  green  feed,  which  were  the  same 


14 

for  all  breeds,  being  omitted.     Iti  one  test,  the  results  are  given  in  terms  of  dry 
matter. 

Ontario  Feeding  Trials. — Following  are  the  results  of  the  Ontario  tests: 

Meal  Consumed  Pee  100  Pounds  Gain  in  Weight, 

Ist  Test. 

Pounds  Pounds 

Berkshire 398  Duroc-Jersey  424 

Tamworth    400  Chester  White  452 

Poland-China 417  Yorkshire 468 

2nd  Test. 

Pounds  Pounds 

Berkshire    327  Chester  White   340 

Tamworth 331  Yorkshire 341 

Poland^China 333  Duroc-Jersey  368 

3rd  Test. 

Pounds  Pounds 

Yorkshire  350  Chester  White 378 

Berkshire 370  Tamworth    378 

Duroc-Jersey  376  Poland-China 383 

ith  Test   (Dry  Matter). 

Pounds  Pounds 

Berkshire 318  Chester  White   337 

Tamworth   331  Duroc-Jersey 337 

Yorkshire    335  Poland-China 350 


5th  Test. 


\ 


Pounds  Pounds 

Berkshire   409  Chester  White   433 

Yorkshire    422  Tamworth  462 

Duroc-Jersey    426  Poland-China 474 

Before  any  comment  is  made  on  the  Ontario  results,  we  will  look  at  the  Iowa 
results,  which  are  based  upon  dry  matter. 

Iowa  Feeding  Trials.— Following  are  the  results  of  the  Iowa  tests: 

Pounds  Dry  Matter  Consumed  per  100  Pounds  Gain  in  Weight. 

1st  Test. 

Pounds  Pounds 

Duroc-Jersey    386  Poland-China    424 

Yorkshire   398  Chester  White   460 

Tamworth    403  Berkshire    462 

2nd  Test. 

Pounds  ^^"^Jo 

Duroc-Jersey    337  Poland-China    392 

Yorkshire    365  Chester  White   394 

Berkshire 381  Tamworth   407 

3rd  Test. 

Pounds  Pounds 

Poland-China    441  Chester  White   506 

Berkshire  481  Duroc-Jersey  |"5 

Yorkshire   505  Tamworth    °^^ 


15 

These  results  suggest  some  diflEicult  questions.  Why,  for  instance,  do  Berk- 
shires,  Yorkshires,  Du roc- Jerseys,  and  Poland-Chinas  range  all  the  way  from  the 
top  to  the  bottom  of  the  list  in  the  different  tests;  and  why  should  an  average  of 
the  Ontario  tests  give  a  rating  of  the  breeds  which  is  entirely  different  from  an 
average  of  the  Iowa  tests?  The  averages  have  been  purposely  omitted,  because 
they  are  entirely  misleading  in  a  case  of  this  kind.  For  example,  one  breed  may 
suffer  from  some  unfavorable  circumstance  in  one  or  more  of  the  tests  which  is  in 
no  way  related  to  or  influenced  by  the  breeding  of  the  animals,  yet  this  circum- 
stance may  seriously  affect  the  standing  of  the  breed  in  question. 

Eliminating  averages  and  looking  over  the  individual  tests  with  an  un- 
prejudiced mind,  we  can  scarcely  escape  the  conclusion  that  the  factor  which  placed 
a  certain  group  at  the  top  in  any  of  the  tests  was  in  no  way  related  to  the  breed 
represented  by  that  group. 

The  point  is  further  emphasized  by  a  test  reported  by  Professor  Burns  in 
Texas  Bulletin  131.  In  this  test  "razor  backs"  or  scrubs  were  fed  against  good 
average  Poland-China  grades.  The  Poland-China  grades  made  more  rapid  gains 
and  sold  for  a  higher  price  per  pound,  but  th6  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  of 
gain  was  practically  the  same  for  both,  being  approximately  $6.02  for  the  scrubs 
and  $5.94  for  the  grades,  a  difference  of  two  twenty-fifths  of  a  cent  per  pound. 

If  any  person  wishes  to  test  the  question  further,  let  him  take  8  or  10  pigs 
of  the  same  litter,  divide  them  into  two  groups  as  nearly  even  as  possible,  and  feed 
the  two  groups  exactly  the  same.  The  question  of  breed  cannot  enter  into  such  a 
comparison,  but  in  almost  any  such  test  it  will  be  found  that  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  amount  of  feed  required  for  100  pounds  gain  in  the  two  groups. 

Bacon  and  Fat  Types  Compared.— Another  interesting  point  brought 
out  in  these  breed  tests  is  the  fact  that  the  bacon  type  is  able  to  hold  its  own  against 
the  lard  type  in  economy  of  production.  Take  the  two  bacon  breeds,  Yorkshire 
and  Tamworth,  in  the  Ontario  tests,  and  compare  their  standing  with  such  breeds 
as  thp  Poland-China,  Chester  White,  and  Duroc- Jersey ;  or  take  the  Yorkshire  in 
the  Iowa  tests  and  compare  it  with  the  other  breeds.  So  far  as  breed  tests  go, 
therefore,  they  fail  to  demonstrate  that  it  costs  any  more  to  put  a  pound  of  gain 
on  a  hog  of  bacon  type  than  it  does  to  put  a  pound  of  gain  on  a  hog  of  lard  type. 

Conclusion.-Breed  tests,  therefore,  have  served  a  useful  purpose  in  dem- 
onstrating that  no  one  breed  is  superior  to  all  other  breeds  in  ability  to  make  cheap 
gains.  A  healthy,  thrifty  hog  will  make  economical  gains  no  matter  what  breed  it 
represents. 


PART  III. 


INVESTIGATIONS  WITH  SWINE 

It  is  out  of  the  question  to  review  in  detail  all  the  work  of  experiment  stations 
in  swine  feeding,  but  there  are  certain  phases  of  the  work  which  may  be  dealt  with 
profitably  in  a  somewhat  general  way.  The  problems  which  face  the  swine  feeder 
are  numerous,  and  the  experiment  stations  have  been  working  for  years  to  find 
solutions  for  some  of  them.  To  solve  any  problem  in  stock  feeding  is  a  tedious 
matter,  because  animals  differ  so  much  individually  in  their  ability  to  utilize  feed, 
that  it  requires  many  repetitions  and  the  employment  of  large  numbers  of  animals 


16 

to  answer  an  apparently  simple  question.  Great  care  is  necessary,  therefore,  in 
interpreting  the  results  of  live-stock  experiments,  and  it  will  not  do  to  draw 
general  conclusions  where  only  a  limited  amount  of  work  has  been  done. 

Influence  of  Feed  upon  the  Body  of  the  Pig. 

In  his  excellent  book,  "  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  Professor  Henry  gives  an 
account  of  work  done  along  this  line  by  Sanborn  at  the  Missouri  Agricultural 
College,  Henry  at  the  Wisconsin  Experimental  Station,  Shelton  in  Kansas,  Duggar 
in  Alabama,  and  Fortier  in  France. 

Corn,  which  is  the  standard  hog  feed  of  the  United  States,  is  a  feed  rich  is 
carbohydrates,  or  fat-forming  constituents,  but  rather  low  in  protein,  or  muscle- 
forming  constituents.  It  is  also  low  in  ash,  or  bone-forming  material.  The 
question  arose,  therefore,  whether  a  feed  such  as  corn  would  not  have  a  tendency 
to  produce  more  fat  in  the  body  of  a  hog  than  would  feeds  which  contain,  a  higher 
percentage  of  protein  and  ash.  Without  going  into  details,  it  may  be  said  that 
corn  was  fed  in  opposition  to  mixtures  containing  such  feeds  as  dried  blood,  wheat 
middlings,  peas,  skim-milk,  bran,  and  cow-peas,  which  are  feeds  much  richer  than 
corn  in  protein. 

Results. — The  methods  employed  in  the  investigation  varied  somewhat,  but 
tlie  general  results  were  as  follows: 

1.  The  pigs  fed  the  protein-rich  ration  generally  dressed  a  somewhat  lower 
percentage  of  their  live  weight  than  those  fed  the  corn  ration. 

2.  In  nearly  every  case,  the  pigs  fed  the  protein-rich  ration  had  the  largest 
quantity  of  blood,  and  in  every  case  they  had  heavier  livers  than  the  others.  Their 
kidneys  were  also  heavier,  as  a  rule,  though  there  were  some  exceptions. 

3.  In  the  Wisconsin  and  Kansas  experiments,  the  tenderloin  muscles  were 
removed  and  weighed,  and  in  both  cases  these  were  heavier  in  the  case  of  the 
protein-fed  pigs.  The  tenderloin  muscle  is  an  indication  of  the  amount  of  lean 
throughout  the. carcass,  and  hence  it  was  demonstrated  that  the  carcasses  of  the 
protein-fed  pigs  contained  more  lean  than  the  others. 

4.  As  a  rule,  the  corn-fed  pigs  gave  more  leaf-lard  than  the  others. 

5.  At  the  Wisconsin  and  Kansas  stations,  the  breaking  strength  of  the  thigh- 
bones was  tested  by  a  machine  designed  for  such  purposes,  and  in  every  case  the 
bones  from  the  pigs  fjd  the  mixed  ration  proved  stronger  than  those  of  the  corn- 
fed  pigs,  the  difference  being  as  high  as  32  per  cent,  in  one  trial. 

Limitations.— Though  the  experiments  described  demonstrate  very  clearlj 
that  it  is  possible  to  modify  the  carcass  of  the  pig  by  a  judicious  selection  of  feeds, 
we  must  not  assume  that  lean  or  fat  can  be  developed  to  any  extent  which  the 
feeder  may  desire.  Nature  has  set  a  limit  in  this  connection,  and  what  may  be 
accomplished  by  the  feeder  in  the  way  of  developing  lean  meat  cannot  go  beyond  a 
certain  point.  The  theory  that  any  breed  of  hogs  can  be  fed  in  such  a  way  as  to 
produce  choice  bacon  for  the  English  market  is  not  borne  out  by  these  or  any 
other  experiments,  nor  by  the  experience  of  practical  breeders  who  really  under- 
stand the  demands  of  the  market. 

A  peculiar  featur-^,  of  swine  is  their  tendency  to  develop  fat.  If  the  very 
best  specimens  of  the  bacon  type  are  fed  largely  upon  corn,  they  quickly  assume 
the  fat  or  lard  type,  and  in  one  or  two  generations  of  such  treatment  the  tendency 
to  become  shorter  in  side  and  thicker  in  body  becomes  so  firmly  fixed  that  it  is  very 


17 

difficult  to  change  them  back  to  the  bacon  type  again  under  any  system  of  breed- 
ing and  feeding.  On  the  other  hand,  breeders  of  bacon  hogs  know  that  it  requires 
careful  selection  and  feeding  to  maintain  the  type.  Even  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  bacon  type  to  change  gradually  in  the 
direction  of  the  fat  type,  unless  care  is  exercised  in  selection.  It  is  safe  to  say, 
therefore,  that  it  is  easier  to  increase  the  proportion  of  fat  in  a  hog's  carcass  than 
it  is  to  increase  the  proportion  of  lean,  and  that  the  extent  to  which  the  lean  may 
be  increased  by  the  character  of  the  feed  is  very  limited  and  is  fixed  by  the  in- 
dividuality of  the  animal.  Further,  any  attempt  to  increase  the  amount  of  lean 
through  feeding  must  be  started  when  the  pig  is  very  young  in  order  to  be 
successful. 

Causes  of  Soft  Bacon. — In  the  manufacture  of  "Wiltshire  sides"  Can- 
adian packers  have  experienced  a  great  deal  of  difficulty  with  sides  turning  soft 
in  the  process  of  curing.  In  a  soft  side  the  fat  is  soft  and  spongy,  and  sometimes 
the  lean  is  affected.  A  really  soft  side  is  practically  worthless,  and  even  a  slight 
degree  of  tenderness  detracts  very  seriously  from  the  value  of  the  bacon. 

The  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  Guelph,  and  the  Central  Experimental 
farm,  Ottawa,  Canada,  have  conducted  exhaustive  experiments  in  connection  with 
the  causes  of  soft  bacon,  and  following  are  the  principal  points  brought  out  in  the 
investigation : 

1.  Lack  of  Maturity. — Generally  speaking,  the  more  immature  a  hog  is,  the 
greater  the  tendency  to  be  soft.  Almost  invariably  the  largest  percentage  of  soft- 
ness occurs  among  the  light  sides  of  bacon. 

2.  Lack  of  Finish. — Thin  hogs  have  a  marked  tendency  to  produce  soft  bacon. 
Marketing  hogs  before  they  are  finished  is,  no  doubt,  responsible  for  a  great  deal 
of  softness. 

3.  Unthriftiness  in  hogs,  no  matter  what  the  cause  may  be,  almost  invariably 
produces  soft  bacon. 

4.  Lack  of  exercise  has  a  tendency  to  produce  softness,  but  this  tendency  can 
be  largely  overcome  by  judicious  feeding. 

5.  Exclusive  meal  feeding  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  common  causes  of  soft- 
ness, especially  wheri  hogs  are  not  given  exercise,  ^ome  kinds  of  meal  are  more 
injurious  than  others,  but  wherever  csclusive  meal  feeding  is  practised  and  the 
exercise  is  limited,  more  or  less  softness  is  always  sure  to  result. 

6.  Corn. — Of  the  grains  in  common  use,  corn  has  the  greatest  tendency  to 
produce  softness.  Its  injurious  tendency  can  be  modified  by  mixing  it  largely  with 
other  meal,  or  by  feeding  skim-milk,  green  feed,  and  roots,  but  its  tendency  to 
produce  softness  is  so  strong  that  it  must  be  regarded  as  an^  undesirable  food  for 
bacon  hogs. 

Corn  appears  to  give  a  good  quality  of  meat  in  the  case  of  the  lard  hog,  but 
it"  must  be  remembered  that  the  bacon  hog  is  marketed  at  lighter  weights  and  in 
thinner  condition  than  the  lard  hog,  and  possibly  this  may  explain  why  corn  is 
unsatisfactory  for  feeding  bacon  hogs.  It  is  possible  also  that  the  difference  in 
the  methods  of  curing  may  have  an  infiuence. 

7.  Beans  seem  to  have  a  more  marked  effect  than  corn  in  producing  softness, 
and  should  not  be  used  for  finishing  bacon  hogs. 

Various  Grains,  Meals  and  By-products. 

Corn. — Corn  is  essentially  a  fat  forming  feed,  and  is  not  a  good  bone  and 
muscle    former.      The    evil    effects    of    exclusive    corn    feeding    are    most    con- 


18 

Bpicuous  in  the  case  of  young  growing  pigs  or  in  the  case  of  breeding 
stock,  especially  sows  during  the  period  of  gestation.  Corn  may  be  fed 
either  whole  or  ground,  results  of  experiments  varying  widely  as  to  re- 
lative merits  of  the  two  methods  of  feeding.  Bulletin  106  of  the  Iowa  Experi- 
ment Station  reports  results  of  two  years  work  upon  different  methods  of  feeding 
corn,  and  the  following  extracts  are  taken  from  the  conclusions  published  in  the 
bulletin :  "  The  fastest  and  most  profitable  gains  were  secured  by  feeding  dry  ear 
corn  until  the  hogs  were  close  to  200  pounds  in  weight.  Then,  if  the  hogs  were 
to  be  fed  longer  and  the  weather  permitted,  the  most  profitable  gains  were  secured 
by  changing  them  to  soaked  shelled  corn  ...  It  proved  useless  to  grind  corn 
for  hogs  of  any  age  when  the  weather  was  warm  enough  to  permit  soaking.  In 
every  case  where  grinding  has  shown  a  saving  of  corn,  simply  soaking  twelve  hours 
in  water  has  shown  a  still  greater  saving.'" 

Fed  by  itself,  corn  does  not  give  very  large  gains  with  hogs.  Figures  compiled 
from  a  large  number  of  tests  show  an  average  of  10.25  pounds  gain  in  weight  from 
a  bushel  of  corn.  Young  pigs  fed  on  corn  alone  often  become  dwarfed,  over-fat, 
and  weak  in  bone.  In  such  cases,  the  addition  of  bone  meal,  or  even  hardwood 
ashes,  to  the  corn  ration,  will  effect  a  marked  improvement.  The  greatest  im- 
provement, however,  is  effected  by  the  use  of  foods  rich  in  protein  along  with  com. 
Supplementing  corn  with  foods  rich  in  protein  has  been  tested  by  many  experiment 
stations,  and  in  every  case  the  hogs  have  made  greater  and  cheaper  gains  than  when 
corn  was  fed  alone.  Among  the  most  effective  feeds  to  supplement  corn  are  the 
by-products  of  packing  houses,  such  as  blood  meal,  meat  meal,  and  tankage.  These 
products  are  all  extremely  rich  in  protein,  and  must  be  fed  in  small  proportions  to 
be  economical.  Pea  meal,  linseed  meal  (ground  oil  cake),  soy  bean  meal,  wheat 
middlings,  barley,  skim-milk,  as  well  as  alfalfa  and  other  pasture  crops,  have  all 
been  used  with  corn  to  excellent  advantage.  The  richer  the  supplementary  feed  la 
in  protein,  the  sinaller  the  proportion  it  is  necessary  to  use. 

Peas,  or  Canada  Field  Peas.  —This  grain  is  comparatively  _  little 
known  in  the  United  States,  and  is  used  to  a  smaller  extent  for  pig  feeding  in 
Canada  than  it  was  some  years  ago,  mainly  owing  to  the  high  price  it  commands 
for  other  purposes. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station,  hogs  fed  upon  ground  peas  and  J)ran,  equal 
parts,  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.09  pounds  and  required  363  pounds  of  meal 
for  lOO  pounds  of  gain;  while  hogs  fed  corn  and  bran  made  an  average  daily  gain 
of  .63  pound  and  required  455  pounds  for  100  pounds  of  gain. 

At  the  South  Dakota  Station  the  daily  gain  of  pigs  fed  whole  soaked  peas 
was  1.21  pounds,  and  for  soaked  corn  meal  1.40  pounds;  but  the  grain  required  for 
100  pounds  gain  was  421  pounds  for  the  pea  group  and  458  pounds  for  the 
corn  lot. 

The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  found  that  feeding  pea  meal  alone  was 
injurious  to  pigs,  the  heavy,  close  nature  of  the  meal  making  it  indigestible.  This 
peculiarity  of  pea  meal  is  generally  recognized.  Pea  meal  alone  was  less  satis- 
factory than  corn  meal  alone,  but  when  mixed  with  one-third  of  its  weight  of  wheat 
middlings   it  gave  much  better  results  than  corn  meal. 

Pea  meal  is  very  rich  in  protein  and  should  make  a  good  supplementary  feed 
with  corn. 

Barley. — Barley  is  richer  in  bone  and  muscle-forming  constituents  than 
com,  having  a  higher  percentage  of  ash  and  protein.  In  fattening  constituents  it 
is  scarcely  equal  to  corn. 


19 

The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  reports  two  feeding  trials  with  barley  and 
corn.  In  the  first  trial  the  grains  were  fed  alone,  and  in  the  second  they  were  fed 
with  skim-milk. 

The  first  of  the  two  trials  shows  that  it  required  471  pounds  of  barley  to 
produce  100  pounds  of  gain,  and  -135  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain. 

In  the  second  trial  it  required  330  pounds  of  barley  and  398  pounds  of  skim- 
milk  for  100  pounds  of  gain,  and  306  pounds  of  corn  and  371  pounds  of  milk  for 
100  pounds  of  gain.  In  each  trial,  therefore,  it  required  more  barley  than  corn 
for  100  pounds  gain. 

The  South  Dakota  Station  found  barley  and  corn  practically  equal  as  pork 
producers,  it  requiring  453  pounds  of  corn  and  457  pounds  of  barley,  respectively, 
for  100  pounds  of  gain. 

Colorado  and  Ontario  experiments  were  in  favor  of  barley  as  compared  with 
corn. 

The  first  Wisconsin  trial  gave  the  most  marked  results  in  favor  of  corn,  and 
it  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  hogs  in  this  trial  averaged  ovej  200  pounds  in  weight 
at  the  commencement  of  the  trial.  Where  younger  hogs  were  used,  barley  made 
a  better  showing  as  compared  with  corn.  There  is  little  doubt  that,  considered  as 
a  fat  former,  corn  is  superior  to  barley,  and  hence  well-grown  pigs  should  be  able 
to  stand  exclusive  corn  feeding  much  better  than  younger  pigs.  The  writer's 
experience  would  lead  him  to  prefer  barley  to  corn  as  a  meal  ration  for  growing 
pigs,  and  this  view  is  borne  out  by  the  experiments  noted.  The  extensive  use  made 
of  barley  for  swine  feeding  in  Canada,  Great  Britain,  Denmark,  and  other 
countries,  is  strong  evidence  of  its  value. 

One  disadvantage  of  barley  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not  eaten  so  readily  by  pigs 
as  one  might  wish,  and  should  be  mixed  with  some  other  feed,  to  increase  its 
palatability.  Barley  is  well  adapted  to  mixing  with  corn  as  a  ration  for  almost 
any  class  of  pigs. 

Wheat. — Wheat  has  been  experimented  with,  more  or  less,  as  a  feed  for 
swine,  and  results  show  that  there  is  comparatively  little  difference  between  wheat 
and  com  in  feeding  value.  Wheat  contains  less  fibre  than  barley,  but  ground 
wheat  alone  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  a  satisfactory  ration,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  likely  to  cause  digestive  troubles.  It  gives  much  better  results  when  mixed 
with  other  meal,  and  combines  well  with  corn.  As  a  general  thing,  feeding  sound 
wheat  is  out  of  the  question,  owing  to  its  relatively  high  price.  It  is  only  under 
exceptional  circumstances  that  it  can  be  counted  among  feeds  for  swine. 

The  Wyoming  Station  secured  better  gains  for  feed  consumed  from  wheat  than 
from  corn  in  each  of  two  tests,  reported  in  Bulletin  74. 

Frosted  Wheat. — In  some  years,  considerable  of  this  product  is  placed  upon 
the  market.  In  the  northern  belt,  wheat  may  be  sufficiently  injured  by  frost  to 
render  it  unfit  for  milling,  and  yet  be  practically  equal  to  sound  wheat  for  feeding 
purposes.  Frozen  wheat  varies  much  in  character,  ^depending  upon  the  degree  of 
maturity  reached  by  the  grain  before  being  frozen. 

In  his  evidence  before  the  Committee  on  Agriculture,  J.  H.  Grisdale,  of  the 
Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  gives  details  of  swine  feeding  experiments 
with  frozen  wheat,  fed  alone  and  in  combinations.  The  following  table  brings  out 
the  principal  points : 


^0 


Character  of  Ration 

Average  Weight 

of  Pigs  at 
Comraencement 

Average 
Daily 
Gain 

Pounds  Meal  per 
100  Pounds 
Gain 

Lot  1.    No.  1  Frozen  Wlieat   2  Parts. 
1  Part 

Shorts 

lbs. 

99.1 

76. 

118.2 
140 
85 

104.1 

112.1 

74.2 

99. 
150.4 
96.3 

124.8 

lbs. 
.76 

.77 

1.03 

1.23 

.71 

.81 

1.02 

.66 

.86 
.94 
.79 

.94 

lbs. 
390 

Lot  2.    No.  1  Frozen  Wheat  2  Parts, 
t  Part 

Corn  1 

870 

Lot  3.    No.  2  Frozen  Wheat  2  Parts, 
Part 

Com  1 

390 

Lot  4.    No.  2  Frozen  Wheat  only 

360 

Ljt  5.    No.  2  Frozen  Wheat  only 

380 

Lot  6.    No.  2  Frozen  Wheat  2  Parts, 
1  Part 

Barley 

4ie 

Lot  7.    No.  1  Frozen  Wheat  2  Parts, 
Part :    

Oats  1 

890 

Lot  8.    No.  1  Frozen  Wheat  2  Parts, 
Part 

Oats  1 

390 

Lot  9.    No.  2  Frozen  Wheat  with  3  lbs.  Skim- 
Milk  daily  per.  Pisr 

340 

410 

Lot  11.    No.  1  Frozen  Wheat  only 

390 

Lot  12.    Equal  Parts  No.  1  Frozen  Wheat.  No. 
2  Frozen  Wheat  and  Corn 

470 

It  is  unsafe  to  make  comparisons  of  the  different  rations,  but  the  table  fails 
CO  show  any  advantage  of  the  No,  1  frozen  wheat  ever  the  No.  2. 

The  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  experiment  is  the  uniformly  good  results 
obtained  with  all  the  groups,  indicating  frozen  wheat  to  be  a  valuable  feed  for  swine. 

The  same  would  probably  be  found  of  wheat  slightly  affected  with  smut  disease 
and  of  otherwise  shrunken  wheat. 

Frozen  Wheat  vs.  Barley.— At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  the 
writer  fed  three  lots  of  pigs  to  compare  frozen  wheat  with  barley.  The  frozen 
vheat  tested  only  431/2  pounds   per  bushel. 

Lot  1  contained  18  pigs  and  was  fed  ground  barley  and  wheat  middlings. 

Lot  2  contained  20  pigs  and  was  fed  ground  frozen  wheat  and  wheat  middlings. 

Lot  3,  contained  18  pigs  and  was  fed  ground  barley  and  frozen  wheat,  equal 
parts,  with  middlings. 

The  proportion  of  middlings  varied,  beiiig  reduced  as  the  experiment  pro- 
gressed, but  was  the  same  for  all  lots. 

The  pigs  in  lot  1  averaged  41  pounds  in  weight  at  the  start,  lot  2,  37.7  pounds, 
and  lot  3,  54.5  pounds. 

Lot  1  made  an  average  daily  gain  per  pig  of  1.08  pounds,  lot  2,  1.1  pounds, 
and  lot  3,  1.18  pounds. 

The  amount  of  meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain  was  as  follows : 

Lot  1,  430.9  pounds;  lot  2,  431.4  pounds;  lot  3,  432.9  pounds. 

Both  in  rate  of  gain  and  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain  the  three  rations 
may  be  said  to  have  given  practically  the  same  results.  In  this  experiment,  there- 
fore, frozen  wheat  proved  eqiial  to  barley  when  fed  with  middlings. 

Oats. — Owing  to  their  high  percentage  of  fibre,  oats  do  not  possess  a  high 
value  for  fattening  hogs.  When  used  at  all,  they  should  be  used  as  a  comparatively 
small  part  only  of  the  ration,  and  they  show  to  best  advantage  when  used  to  lighten 
and  give  more  bulk  to  a  heavy,  close-textured  meal,  such  as  pea  meal,  or  even  corn 


2i 

meal.     They  are  especially  useful  for  making  up  part  of  the  ration  of  boars  oi 
breeding  sows,  where  the  aim  is  to  maintain  vigor  without  unduly  fattening. 

Rye. — Extensive  Danish  experiments,  summarized  by  Professor  Henry  in 
"  Feeds  and  Feeding,"  indicate  that  rye  and  barley  are  about  equal  in  value  for  pig 
feeding.  Very  little  experimental  work  with  the  grain  of  this  cereal  has  been  don€ 
in  America.     Eye  meal  is  best  fed  in  combination  with  other  kinds  of  meal. 

Buckwheat. — The  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  reports  two  trials 
in  which  buckwheat  was  compared  with  wheat.  In  the  first  trial,  ground  buck- 
wheat was  fed  against  ground  wheat,  and  in  this  trial  445  pounds  of  ground  buck- 
wheat were  required  for  100  pounds  gain,  and  410  pounds  ground  wheat  for  100 
pounds  gain. 

In  the  second  trial,  one  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  a  mixture  of  one-half  ground 
buckwheat  and  one-half  mixed  meal,  and  the  other  lot  a  mixture  of  one-half  ground 
wheat  and  one-half  mixed  meal.  In  this  trial  it  required  405  pounds  of  the  buck- 
wheat mixture  for  100  pounds  of  gain,  and  380  pounds  of  the  wheat  mixture  for 
100  pounds  gain.  This  is  a  much  better  showing  for  buckwheat  than  might  b€ 
expected,  since  buckwheat  has  a  thick,  fibrous  hull  which  the  hog  cannot  digest. 
Ground  wheat  showed  an  advantage  of  only  about  8i/^  per  cent,  over  ground  buck- 
wheat, and  the  wheat  mixture  an  advantage  of  6V2  per  cent,  over  the  buckwheal 
mixture. 

Emmer. — This  grain  is  commonly  known  as  "spelt"  or  "^  speltz."  Genuinf 
spelt  is  aJ  distinct  plant,  possessing  general  characters  similar  to  emmer,  but  is  a 
smaller  yielder  and  possesses  about  ten  per  cent,  more  hull  than  emmer. 

The  South  Dakota  Station  reports  one  experiment  with  emmer,  under  th< 
name  of  "  speltz."  One  lot  of  pigs  was  fed  whole  emmer,  one  ground  emmer,  and 
one  emmer  and  corn.  Wliole  emmer  required  771  pounds  of  feed  for  100  poundf 
gain,  ground  emmer  826  pounds,  and  emmer  and  corn  529  pounds.  It  will  be  seer 
that  a  marked  improvement  was  effected  when  corn  was  added  to  emmer.  Appar- 
ently emmer  has  too  much  hull  or  husk  (about  21  per  cent.)  to  make  a  first-clasf 
hog  feed.  Its  rational  use 'would  be  for  mixing  with  concentrated,  heavy  meals  to 
give  more  bulk  to  the  ration. 

Millet  Seed. — The  South  Dakota  Station  (Bulletin  83)  reports  a  com- 
parison of  millet  seed  with  barley  and  wheat.  The  authors  of  the  bulletin  stat« 
that  millet  seed  can  be  grown  profitably  as  a  fattening  ration  for  swine,  but  it  does 
not  furnish  as  good  a  ration  as  Karley  or  wheat.  It  is  also  stated  that  it  required 
one-fifth  more  millet  than  it  did  barley  meal,  and  a  trifle  more  barley  meal  than  it 
did  wheat,  to  make  a  pound  of  grain,  and  that  a  bushel  of  56' pounds  of  millet  seed 
is  equal  to  a  bushel  of  48  pounds  of  barley  for  hog  feed.  Millet  meal  produced  a 
softer  quality  of  fat  than  did  either  barley  or  wheat  meal. 

Beans.— Beans  are  best  thoroughly  cooked  before  they  are  fed  to  swine. 
Bulletin  243  of  the  Michigan  Experimental  Station  reports  results  from  feeding 
cull  beans  to  growing  pigs  and  fattening  pigs.  Without  going  into  details,  it  may 
be  stated  that  an  exclusive  ration  of  beans  is  not  regarded  as  satisfactory.  For 
growing  pigs,  a  ration  consisting  of  three  parts  beans  and  four  parts  corn  meal 
did  not  prove  so  satisfactory  as  a  mixture  of  two  parts  beans,  two  parts  wheat 
middlings,  and  three  parts  corn  meal.  The  last  named  mixture  gave  an  average 
daily  gain  per  pig  of  about  one  and  one-third  pounds,  which  is  regarded  a? 
satisfactory. 


22 


Three  trials  of  beans  compared  with  equal  part*  heans  and  corn  meal  "were 
made  with  fatteninor  ho^s.     The  results  of  the  three  trials  are  briefly  summarized 


in  the  following  table; 


Fed  Beaas 
Alone. 


Fed  Equal  Parts, 
Beans  and  Com 


Average  Uve  weight  .of  hogs' 

Average  daily  gain  per  hog 

Average  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain 


lbs. 
163 
1.1 

420.9 


lbs. 

159 

1.52 
406.4 


The  addition  of  corn  meal  increased  the  efficiency  of  the  ration  about  dYo 
per  cent. 

The  relative  cost  of  the  two  feeds  and  the  cost  of  cooking  would  have  to  be 
considered  by  the  feeder  in  coming  to  a  decision  regarding  the  economy  of  the 
rations. 

Wheat  Middlings.— '^Vheat  middlings,  frequently  called  "shorts,"  is  one 
of  the  very  best  feeds  for  young  pigs.  It  is  rich  in  bone — and  muscle — forming 
constituents,  and  does  not  tend  to  make  growing  pigs  too  fat.  Its  value  as  a 
supplement  to  com  has  already  been  noted,  and  it  combines  well  with  almost  any 
kind  of  meal.  As  a  single  feed  for  fattening,  it  is  not  economical,  but  it  is  con- 
ducive to  thrift  and  growth  when  used  as  a  part  of  a  meal  ration  for  fattening 
pigs.     The  younger  the  pig  the  greater  the  value  derived  from  feeding  middlings. 

Wheat  Bran. — Bran  is  too  bulky  and  fibrous  to  constitute  a  large  part  of 
a  pig's  ration,  but  is  useful  for  mature  animals,  such  as  stock  boars  and  breeding 
sows,  or  where  it  is  desired  to  give  bulk  to  a  ration  that  is  considered  too  heavy  in 
character.  As  a  rule,  however,  middlings  can  be  used  to  better  advantage  than 
bran  for  the  purposes  mentioned. 

Flour.— Various  brands  of  low-grade  flour  are  occasionally  put  upon  the 
market.  Low-grade  flour  has  a  higher  feeding  value  than  middlings,  but  is 
entirely  unsuitable  for  feeding  alone,  owing  to  its  pasty  nature.'  The  writer's  ex- 
perience is  that  it  will  cause  digestive  derangement  when  fed  alone,  and  must  be 
diluted  t-o  a  large  extent  with  other  feeds.  Ballerin  16?  of  the  Virginia  Ex- 
periment Station  reports  better  results  from  soaking  low-grade  flour  than  from 
feedinor  it  freshlv  mixed  with  water. 

Corn-and-Cob-Meal. — The  Iowa  Experiment  Station  reports  a  test  of 
corn-and-cob  meal,  both  dry  and  soaked,  and  a  summary  of  the  results  is  given 
below.     The  test  lasted  14:0  days. 


Kind  of  Feed. 


»  n  n    n  •         Pounds  Com  Re- 

Average  Dady  Gam   quired  for  100  Pounds 

P«^  P^^-  Gain. 


Dry  com 

Soaked  com 

Soaked  corn  meal 

Soaked  com-and-cob  meal 

Dry  com  meal 

Dry  com-and-cob  meal  . . . 


23 

In  the  table  given  above  the  cob  has  been  deducted  from  the  figures  for  corn- 
and-cob  meal,  so  that  the  actual  corn  is  compared  in  all  cases. 

It  cost  6  cents  per  bushel  to  grind  the  corn-and-cob  meal,  and  2  cents  per 
bushel  to  grind  corn  meal.  The  results  of  the  test  were  regarded  as  so  conclusive 
against  corn-and-cob  meal  that  no  further  tests  were  made. 

The  Missouri  Experiment  Station  also  gives  a  decidedly  adverse  report  upon 
feeding  corn-and-cob  meal  to  hogs,  but  Kansas  and  New  Hampshire  report  in  its 
favor. 

Gluten  Meal. — The  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  reports  un- 
favorably upon  gluten  meal  as  a  feed  for  swine.  J.  H.  Grisdale  says  regarding  it: 
"  Gluton  has  been  fed  in  limited  quantities,  but  has  not  proven  very  satisfactory 
for  either  bacon  production,  young  pigs,  or  breeding  stock.  It  seems  to  be  rather 
unpalatable,  and  produces  soft  bacon." 

The  Cornell  Station  also  gives  an  unfavorable  report  of  this  feed  as  compared 
with  corn  when  both  feeds  were  fed  with  skim-milk. 

Linseed  Meal. —  (Oil  Meal) — Linseed  meal  has  been  referred  to  under 
supplementary  feeds  with  corn.  It  is  seldom  advisable  to  feed  linseed  meal  to  a 
greater  extent  than  one-fifth  of  the  total  meal  ration,  and,  as  a  rule,  half  this 
quantity  will  be  found  more  economical.  It  is  highly  recommended  by  some  as  a 
feed  for  nursing  sows,  and  for  young  pigs  after  weaning.  The  writer  has  had  only 
fair  success  in  its  use  as  a  substitute  for  skim-milk  with  young  pigs. 

In  experiments  with  substitutes  for  skim-milk  for  young  pigs,  the  Central 
Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  obtained  an  average  daily  gain  of  six-tenths  of  a 
pound  per  pig  with  a  mixture  consisting  of  four  parts  wheat  middlings  and  one 
part  linseed  meal.  It  required  280  pounds  of  the  mixture  for  100  pounds  of  gain, 
which  is  a  very  satisfactory  showing.  The  linseed  meal  was  not  so  satisfactory 
as  skim-milk,  but  gave  better  results  than  other  substitutes  for  skim-milk  tested  at 
the  same  time. 

Cottonseed  Meal.  —This  very  concentrated  feed  possesses  some  property 
which  renders  it  fatal  to  hogs  when  used  in  considerable  quantities.  A  small 
allowance  per  day  may  be  fed  without  injurious  results,  but  great  care  is  necessary. 
There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  good  reason  for  feeding  cottonseed  meal  to  hogs  in 
Canada. 

Oat  Feed. — This  by-product  of  the  oatmeal  mill  sometimes  has  a  consider- 
able feeding  value,  but,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  often  contains  a  large  proportion 
of  oat  hulls,  it  is  not  a  very  satisfactory  feed  to  buy  for  swine.  Experiments  with 
oat  feed  are  not  satisfactory,  because  the  product  is  anything  but  constant  in  com- 
position. The  same  remarks  apply  to  all  by-products  of  fhe  oatmeal  mills,  under 
whatever  name  they  may  be  sold. 

Brewers'  and  Distillers'  Grains. — Grisdale,  of  the  Central  Experi- 
mental Farm,  reports  economical  gains'frora  "spirit  grains"  when  fed  in  com- 
bination with  a  meal  ration.  Generally  speaking,  these  products  are  rather  bulky 
and  fibrous  for  swine,  unless  used  in  limited  quantity  as  a  supplement  to  a  grain 
ration,  in  much  the  same  way  as  alfalfa  hay  or  roots  may  be  used. 

Sugar-Beet  Pulp. — In  the  wet  state  this  product  may  'be  regarded  as 
similar  in  feeding  value  to  roots,  and  may  be  employed  in  exactly  the  same  way. 
The  dried  pulp  is  hardly  a  satisfactory  feed  for  swine. 


24 


Beet-Sugar  Molasses. — Beet  molassos  is  unpalatable  and  generally  un- 
satisfactory for  swine.  Bulletin  199  of  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  reports 
apparent  poisoning  of  hogs  fed  beet  molasses;  and  Utah  (Bulletin  101)  reports 
scouring,  and  bad-flavored  pork. 

Black-Strap  Molasses.— Texas  Bulletin  131  reports  a  test  with  ground 
corn  compared  with  ground  corn  and  black-strap  molasses.  Three  groups  of  hogs 
were  used.  Lot  1  was  fed  equal  weights  of  ground  corn  and  molasses.  Lot  Z  was 
fed  two  parts  ground  corn  to  one  part  of  molasses  by  weight.  Lot  3  was  fed 
ground  corn  alone.  There  were  eight  hogs  in  each  lot,  and  the  test  lasted  91  days. 
The  average  weight  of  the  hogs  at  the  commencement  of  the  test  was  approximately 
120  pounds  each.  Ground  corn  was  valued  at  $28.20  per  ton,  and  molasses  at 
$16.66  per  ton. 

The  average  daily  gain  per  hog  and  cost  of  gain  were  as  follows : 


Lot  1. 
Lot  2. 
Lot  3. 


Corn  and  molasses,  equal  parts 
Com  2  parts,  molasses  1  part, . . 
Corn  alone 


Average  Daily  Gain. 


Cost  100  Pounds  Gain. 


.9  pound 
1.45  pounds 
1.66  pounds 


$10.75 
7.53 
7.36 


In  this  test  molasses  proved  lower  in  value  than  corn.  It  is  pointed  out  in  the 
bulletin  that  molasses  is  poor  in  protein,  and  would  likely  have  given  better  results 
if  fed  with  a  feed  richer  in  protein  than  corn. 

Tankage.— This  by-product  of  the  packing  house  is  referred  to  under 
supplementary  feeds  with  corn,  and  also  under  substitutes  for  skim-milk.  A  good 
brand  of  tankage  contains  over  50  per  cent,  of  protein.  It  is  valuable,  therefore, 
to  use  when  the  ration  is  deficient  in  protein.  It  costs  a  high  price  per  ton,  but  it 
is  necessary  to  use  only  a  small  proportion  in  the  feed,  ten  per  cent,  of  the  total 
meal  ration  being  sufficient  in  most  cases.  When  corn  constitutes  the  main  ration, 
or  when  skim-milk  is  not  available  for  young  pigs,  the  judicious  use  of  a  feed  like 
tankage  increases  the  rate  of  gain  and  reduces  the  cost  of  each  pound  of  gain. 

Weed  Seeds. — Professor  Henry  conducted  two  trials  at  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station  with  pigeon-grass  seed,  cooked  and  uncooked,  for  swine.  The 
results  are  reported  in  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 

Lot  1  was  fed  two-thirds  cooked  pigeon-grass  meal  and  one-third  corn  meal 
uncooked. 

Lot  2  was  fed  corn  meal  only,  uncooked. 

Lot  3  was  fed  one-third  pigeon-grass  meal  and  two-thirds  corn  meal,  both 
uncooked. 

Lot  1  made  the  largest  gains  and  required  the  least  feed  for  100  pounds  of 
Justin,  and  lot  3  made  the  smallest  gains  and  required  the  most  feed  for  100  pounds 
of  gain. 

Professor  Henry  .says :  "  It  is  evident  that  pigeon-grass  seed  when  cooked  is  a 
valuable  feed  for  swine  ...  To  be  satisfactory  for  pig  feeding  the  seed  of 
this  grass  should  be  ground  and  cooked." 

At  the  large  elevators,  weed  seeds  and  small  wheat  accumulate  in  large 
quantities,  and  this  product  can  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  feeding  swine  when 
judiciously  mixed  with  other  meal. 


25 

"Stock  Feeds" — In  Bulletin  151  o£  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station, 
Prof.  F.  W.  WoU  gives  a  review  of  the  work  of  experiment  stations  with  so-called 
"stock  feeds,"  or  "  condimental  stock  feeds."  In  summing  up,  Professor  Woll 
says,  in  part:  "The  feeding  experiments  include  twenty-three  different  trials,  con- 
ducted at  more  than  a  dozen  different  experiinent  stations,  with  993  animals  in  all; 
viz.,  v/ith  78  steers,  81  dairy  cows,  604  sheep,  112  pigs,  and  117  hens. 

"  In  going  over  the  evidence  presented,  we  find  that  only  two  out  of  the  twenty- 
three  different  trials  showed  the  stock  feed  to  possess  any  merit;  the  conclusions 
drawn  from  the  results  of  the  twenty-one  trials  is  to  the  effect  that  nothing  was 
gained  by  including  these  feeds  in  the  ration  fed;  in  fact  they  are  shown  to  be 
a  positive  detriment  in  so  far  that  they  rendered  the  rations  more  expensive  and 
increased  the  cost  of  the  product  obtained  whether  this  be  gain  in  live  weight, 
milk,  butter  fat,  wool  or  eggs." 

Among  the  conclusions  drawn  from  investigation  work  with  "  stock  feeds " 
are  the  following: 

"  They  are  of  no  benefit  to  healthy  animals  when  fed  as  directed,  either  as  to 
increasing  the  digestibility  of  the  feed  eaten  or  rendering  it  more  effective  for  the 
production  of  meat,  milk,  wool,  etc." 

"  They  are  of  no  benefit  as  a  cure-all  for  diseases  of  the  various  classes  of  live 
stock;  neither  do  they  possess  any  particular  merit  in  case  of  specific  diseases,  or 
for  animals  out  of  condition,  off  feed,  etc,  since  only  a  small  proportion  of  in- 
gredients having  medicinal  value  is  found  therein,  the  bulk  of  the  feeds  consisting 
of  a  filler  which  possesses  no  medicinal  properties  whatever." 

"  Exorbitant  prices  are  charged  for  these  feeds." 

"  By  adopting  a  liberal  system  of  feeding  farm  animals  and  furnishing  a 
variety  of  feeds,  good  results  may  be  obtained  without  resorting  to  stock  feeds  of 
any  kind.  If  a  farmer  believes  it  is  necessary  to  feed  stock  feeds  at  times,  he  can 
purchase  the  ingredients  at  a  drug  store  and  make  his  own  stock  feeds  at  a  fraction 
of  the  cost  charged  for  them  by  the  manufacturers." 

The  following  formula?  for  stock  feeds,  suggested  by  two  American  experi- 
ment stations,  are  giveji  in  the  bulletin : 

"1.  Ground  gentian,  1  pound;  ground  ginger,  V4  pound;  powdered  saltpetre, 
Va  pound;  powdered  iron  sulphate,  1/4  pound.  Mix  and  give  one  tablespoonful  in 
feed  once  daily  for  ten  days,  omit  for  three  days,  and  feed  as  above  for  ten  days 
more.  Estimated  cost,  20  cents  per  pound.  Estimated  tonic  value,  about  four 
times  that  of  most  condimental  feeds  on  the  market." 

"  2.  Fenugreek,  8  pounds ;  ginger,  8  pounds ;  powdered  gentian,  8  pounds ; 
powdered  sulphur,  8  pounds;  potassium  nitrate,  8  pounds;  resin,  8  pounds; 
cayenne  pepper,  4  pounds;  flax-seed  meal,  44  pounds;  powdered  charcoal,  20 
pounds;  common  salt,  20  pounds;  wheat  bran  100  pounds." 

This  mixture  is  said  to  be  "so  near  the  average  stock  feed  that  neither  the 
farmer  nor  his  stock  could  tell  the  difference."  Estimated  cost,  less  than  $4.42  per 
hundred  pounds. 

"  3.  Powdered  gentian,  1  pound ;  powdered  ginger,  1  pound ;  fenugreek,  5 
pounds;  common  salt,  10  pounds;  bran,  50  pounds;  oil  meal,  50  pounds. 
Estimated  cost  $1.50  per  hundred  pounds. 

Soft  Coal,  Charcoal,  and  Tonic  Mixture.— Bulletin  150  of  the 
Maryland  Experiment  Station  gives  results  of  a  single  test  with  soft  coal,  charcoal, 
and  tonic  mixture,  made  up  as  follows :  Wood  charcoal,  1  pound ;  sulphur,  1  pound ; 
common  salt,  2  pojinJs;  bread  soda,  2  pounds;  sodium  hyposulphite,  2  pounds; 

3-225 


26 


sodium  sulphate,  1  pound;  black  antimony,  1  pound.  The  ingredients  of  the 
tonic  were  pulverized  and  thoroughly  mixed.  The  cost  of-  the  mixture  was  4  cents 
per  pound. 

Tour  groups  of  pigs  eleven  weeks  old  were  used  in  the  test,  and  all  groups  were 
fed  a  meal  mixture  coniposed  of  corn  meal,  wheat  middlings,  wheat  bran,  and 
linseed  meal. 

Lots  1  and  2  were  given  free  access  to  soft  coal  and  charcoal,  respectively,  lot 
3  was  fed  one  ounce  of  the  tonic  to  every  10  pounds  of  meal,  and  lot  4  was  fed 
nothing  but  the  meal  ration. 

The  average  daily  gain  per  pig  in  the  four  lots  was  as  follows :  Soft  Coal,  .695 
pound;  charcoal,  .738  pound;  tonic  mixture,  .958  pound;  no  corrective,  .614  pound. 

The  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  gain  in  weight  was  as  follows : 


Lot  1. 
Soft  Coal. 

Lot  2. 
Charcoal. 

Lot  3. 
Tonic. 

Lot  4. 
Nothing, 

Meal • 

$5.93 
.20 

$5.42 
.14 

$4.74 
.11 

$5.84 

Corrective 

•  «  •  • 

Total  Cost 

.$6.13 

$5.56 

$4.85 

$5.84 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  lot  receiving  the  tonic  mixture  made  the  most  rapid 
and  most  economical  gains,  the  lot  receiving  the  charcoal  coming  second.  The 
hogs  which  were  allowed  access  to  soft  coal  made  greater  gains  than  those  fed  meal 
alone,  but  the  gains  were  more  expensive.  It  is  stated  that  the  hogs  fed  correctives 
had  a  decidedly  better  appetite  than  those  which  received  none. 

The  experiment  indicates  that  correctives  or  tonics  may  be  used  to  advantage 
at  times,  but  that  it  is  easily  possible  to  pay  too  much  for  them. 

Pasture  and  Soiling  Crops. 

Alfalfa.  — Bulletin  155  of  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  gives  a  summary 
of  results  from  feeding  alfalfa  to  hogs  at  that  institution.  The  following  is  quoted 
directly  from  the  bulletin  : 

"  At  this  station  some  years  ago,  a  gain  of  800  pounds  of  pork  was  made  from 
a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay,  and  a  little  less  than  that  amount  of  gain  was  made  from  an 
acre  of  alfalfa  pasture.  In  another  test  here,  an  acre  of  alfalfa  produced  $20.20 
worth  of  pork,  while  an  acre  of  rape  fed  to  a  similar  lot  of  hogs  returned  $10.05 
worth  of  pork. 

"In  a  later  experiment  we  found  that  100  pounds  of  alfalfa  "hay  saved  96 
pounds  of  corn.  Figuring  on  the  basis  of  5  pounds  of  corn  producing  one  pound 
of  pork,  the  96  pounds  of  alfalfa  would  produce  19  pounds  of  pork.  Estimating 
the  average  of  alfalfa  to  be  four  tons  per  acre,  on  this  basis  it  would  mean  a  pro- 
duction of  1,600  pounds  of  pork  per  acre  with  alfalfa  fed  in  the  form  of  hay  in  con- 
nection with  corn.     This  experiment  was  conducted  during  the  winter  season.  • 

"  In  an  experiment  during  the  summer,  we  found  that  170  pounds  of  green 
alfalfa,  cut  and  fed  to  hogs  fresh  in  a  dry  yard,  was  equal  to  100  pounds  of  corn, 
and  in  this  experiment  it  took  6  pounds  of  corn  to  produce  a  pound  of  pork. 
Therefore,  assuming  170  pounds  of  green  alfalfa  woulrl  produce  16  2-3  pounds  of 
pork,  a  fraction  over  ten  pounds  of  green  alfalfa  woud  produce  one  pound  of  pork. 
Estimating  that  an  acre  of  alfalfa  will  yield  during  the  season  ^20,000  pounds  of 


27 

green  hay,  this  experiment  would  show  that  such  an  acre  of  alfalfa,  cut  green  and 
fed  fresh,  would  produce  something  like  3,000  pounds  of  pork.  Of  course  this  is 
fed  in  connection  with  corn,  and  a  statement  that  an  acre  of  green  alfalfa  would 
produce  2,000  pounds  of  pork  would  be  very  misleading.  Figuring  on  the  basis  of 
these  two  experiments,  alfalfa  hay,  yielding  four  tons  per  acre  (8,000  pounds), 
would  produce  1,600  pounds  of  pork,  and  its  value  at  4  cents  per  pound  would  be 
something  like  $6i.00  per  acre;  and  green  alfalfa  producing  ten  tons  per  acre 
(20,000  pounds)  would  produce  2,000  pounds  of  pork,  which,  at  4  cents  per  pound, 
would  be  worth  $80.00  per  acre." 

Wyoming  Trials. — The  Kansas  results  from  feeding  alfalfa  are  about  the 
most  favorable  of  which  the  writer  is  aware.  Very  fair  results  were  obtained  at 
the  Wyoming  Experiment  Station,  where  alfalfa  hay  and  wheat  were  fed  against 
wheat  alone.  In  this  experiment  it  required  449  pounds  of  wheat  for  100  pounds 
of  gain  where  wheat  was  fed  alone;  and  319.3  pounds  of  wheat  and  291.3  pounds 
of  alfalfa  for  100  pounds  of  gain  where  wheat  and  alfalfa  hay  were  fed.  On  this 
basis,  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  would  give  scarcely  200  pounds  of  pork,  which  is  only 
one-quarter  as  much  pork  as  was  obtained  at  Kansas  from  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay.  It 
is  well  to  remember,  however,  that  alfalfa  hay  varies  very  much  in  quality,  ^ell- 
cured,  fine-stemmed,  leafy  hay  would  be  best  for  hog  feeding,  and  coarse-stemmed 
hay  that  had  been  damaged  more  or  less  by  the  weather  miglit  have  very  little 
value  for  this  purpose.  Such  a  discrepancy  as  that  noted  between  the  Kansas  and 
Wyoming  results  might  easily  be  accounted  for  on  the  basis  of  different  qualities 
of  hay,  and  in  the  meantime  we  may  regard  the  Kansas  results  as  representing  the 
maximum  returns  from  alfalfa.  It  is  also  worthy  of  note  that  in  onn  Kansas  ex- 
periment the  amount  of  pork  produced  by  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  was  only  235  pounds, 
an  amount  only  slightly  greater  than  that  obtained  at  Wyoming,  so  that  it  would 
be  safer  to  regard  the  800  pounds  of  pork  from  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  as  a  possibility, 
rather  than  as  something  which  can  be  generally  depended  upon. 

The  Wyoming  Station  also  tried  feeding  young  pigs,  weighing  from  60  to  70 
pounds,  a  ration  of  y^  corn  meal,  or  wheat  meal,  and  2-3  alfalfa  hay,  but  the  pigs 
lost  weight,  and  one  died.  On  the  other  hand,  mature  sows  were  successfully 
maintained  on  a  ration  of  alfalfa  hay  and  turnips  without  other  feed,  indicating 
that  alfalfa  hay  is  best  suited  to  pigs  that  are  fairly  well  grown. 

Rape. — Rape  is  a  crop  which  is  higlily  recommended  wherever  it  can  be 
grown  successfully.  For  hog  pasture  it  is  best  sown  in  drills  about  28  inches  apart 
at  the  rate  of  three  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  It  may  also  be  sown  broadcast.  (In 
most  localities,  it  is  safer  not  to  sow  until  after  the  first  of  June.  If  there  is 
enough  moisture  in  the  soil  to  germinate  the  seed,  it  is  generally  ready  for  pasture 
in  about  six  weeks. 

Rape  Compared  with  Alfalfa. — The  Kansas  Experiment  Station  com- 
pared rape  with  alfalfa  for  pigs  averaging  52  pounds  at  the  commencement  of  the 
experiment.  Ten  pigs  were  used  in  each  lot.  'Following  are  daily  gains  per  heai 
and  pounds  of  grain  consumed  per  100  pounds  of  gain : 


Lot  1.      No  pasture 
Lot  2.      Rape  pasture.., 
Lot  3.     Alfalfa  pasture 


Daily  Gain. 


1.04  pounds 

1.09  pounds 

1.10  pounds 


Grain  Consumed  per 
100  Pounds  Gain. 


371  pounds 
301  pounds 
200  pounds 


28 

An  acre  of  rape  was  required  for  ten  pigs,  but  half  an  acre  of  alfalfa  was 
sufficient  for  the  same  number. 

An  acre  of  rape  pasture  produced  302  pounds  of  pork,  and  an  acre  of  alfalfa 
pasture  produced  408  pounds  of  pork. 

"  This  experiment  emphasizes  the  superior  value  of  alfalfa,  and  likewise 
emphasizes  the  value  of  dwarf  Essex  rape,  which  can  be  seeded  in  the  feed  lots  that 
would  otherwise  go  to  waste  or  grow  up  to  weeds,  and  be  made  to  pay  a  handsome 
profit  on  the  investment." 

Rape  for  Pasture. — At  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  Craig  con- 
ducted two  experiments  with  hogs  on  rape.  In  the  first  experiment,  10  hogs,  about 
eight  months  old,  were  pastured  on  one-third  of  an  acre  of  rape  for  76  days,  and 
fed  corn  and  shorts  in  addition.  Aaother  lot  was  fed  in  a  pen  on  corn  and  shorts 
only.  In  the  second  experiment,  19  hogs  were  pastured  seven  weeks  on  six-tenths 
of  an  acre  of  rape,  as  compared  with  a  similar  lot'in  pens  on  grain  only. 

In  the  first  trial  one-third  of  an  acre  of  rape  was  equivalent  to  1,063  pounds 
of  grain,  and  in  the  second  trial,  six-tenths  of  an  acre  of  rape  was  equivalent  to 
1,330.8  pounds  of  grain.  Therefore,  in  one  case  an  acre  of  rape  was  equivalent  to 
3,186  pounds  of  grain,  and  in  the  other  to  3,317  pounds  of  grain. 

I^ter,  Carlyle,  of  the  same  institution,  repeated  the  work  and  states:  "With 
pigs  from  four  to  teii  months  old,  representing  the  various  breeds  of.  swine,  an 
acre  of  rape,  when  properly  grown,  has  a  feeding  value  when  combined  with  a 
ration  of  corn  and  short=  equivalent  to  2,346  pounds  of  a  mixture  of  these  grain 
feeds." 

The  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  reports  feeding  six  pigs  on  three- 
sixteenths  of  an  acre  of  rape  pasture  from  August  14th  until  snow  covered  the 
ground.  It  is  estimated  that  the  rape  saved  156  pounds  of  meal,  or  an  acre  of  rape 
would  save  833  pounds  of  meal.  This  is  far  short  of  the  Wisconsin  returns,  but 
the  pigs  were  young  at  the  commencement  of  the  trial,  and  it  is  the  writer's  ex- 
perience that  young  pigs  do  not  make  as  good  use  of  pasture  as  older  ones. 

Rape  vs.  Clover. — The  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  reports  two  trials 
with  pigs  on  rape  and  clover.  In  the  first  trial  there  were  twenty  pigs  in  each 
group,  and  in  the  second  trial  twenty-one  in  each  group.  The  pigs  were  from  five 
to  six  months  old  at  the  commencement.  The  following  table  shows  gains  and  feed 
consumed : 


First  Trial 

Second  Trial. 

Eape. 

Clover. 

Eape. 

Clover. 

AvpTft^p*  Hailv  P'ain  nfr  niff    » 

lbs. 
.87 
891. 

lbs. 
.78 
439. 

lbs. 
1.27 
332. 

lbs. 
1.22 

Amouiit  of  erain  for  100  ibs.  sfain 

340. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  rape  gave  somewhat  better  gains  witli  a  smaller  meal 
requirement  per  100  pounds  gain  than  the  clover,  though  ihe  difference  was  not 
great  in  the  second  trial. 

Rape  vs.  Soy  Beans. — The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  fed  soy  beans 
and  rape  to  pigs  in  pens,  the  green  fodder  being  cut  and  carried  to  the  pigs.  The 
pigs  were  fed  meal  and  skim-milk  in  addition. 


29 

An  acre  of  rape  furnished  22  tons  of  green  fodder,  and  an  acre  of  soy  beans 
15  tons  of  green  fodder. 

Soy  beans  had  a  higher  feeding  value  per  ton  than  rape,  but  when  the  dif- 
ference in  yield  was  taken  into  consideration,  the  two  crops  proved  about  equal  in 
amount  of  pork  produced  per  acre. 

Eape  has  an  advantage  over  soy  beans  in  that  it  may  be  sown  on  a  wider  range 
of  dates,  and  retains  its  green  condition  for  a  longer  period. 

Eape  also  makes  a  better  pasture  crop  than  soy  beans,  as  it  suffers  less  from 
trampling. 

Clover  and  Timothy. — In  experiments  at  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station, 
hogs  were  pastured  upon  both  clover  and  timothy.  Without  going  into  details,  it 
may  be  said  that  the  experiments  indicate  tliat  clover  produced  pork  at  the  rate  of 
400  pounds  per  acre,  and  timothy  at  the  rate  of  278  pounds  per  acre.  This  is 
probably  more  than  can  be  expected  from  these  crops  as  a  general  rule. 

Hairy  Vetch  or  Sand  Vetch. — ^This  crop  is  very  much  relished  by 
hogs,  and  if  sown  in  the  fall  gives  an  early  pasture  of  high  nutritive  value. 
Smooth  vetch  is  sown  in  the  spring,  but  it  is  rather  late  in  the  season  before  it  is 
ready  for  pasture,  and  does  not  give  the  amount  of  pasture  which  is  desirable.  The 
liability  of  hairy  vetch  to  winter-kill  in  some  districts  when  sown  in  the  fall,  and 
the  high  price  of  seed,  prevent  the  crop  from  becoming  widely  popular. 

Various  Forage  Crops. — Bulletin  95  of  the  Missouri  Experimental 
Station  reports  three  years'  work  with  several  forage  crops. 

Shelled  corn  and  corn  meal  were  used  to  supplement  ihe  rape  and  the 
leguminous  forage;  and  a  ration  of  corn  meal  G  parts  and  oil  meal  1  part  was  used 
to  supplement  the  sorghum,  blue  grass,  and  rye  grain  forage?. 

Blue  Grass. — "  An  average  of  12,6  head  of  hogs  was  pastured  for  an 
average  of  155.3  days  for  the  seasons  of  1908-09-10,  and  produced  on  the  average 
285.2  pounds  of  pork  which  could  be  accredited  to  each  acre  of  forage  eaten.  With 
pork  at  6  cents  per  pound  there  was  returned  per  acre  of  blue  grass  forage  an 
average  of  $17.12.  The  average  amount  of  grain  per  pound  gain  was  4.49  pounds. 
Profits  from  hogs  on  blue  grass  forage  must  be  secured  early  in  the  s«ason.  The 
blue  grass  forage  became  dry  and  unfit  for  swine  grazing  purposes  in  August." 

Alfalfa. — "  Under  ordinary  conditions  alfalfa  will  forage  from  10  to  20 
shoats  per  acre.  A  new  seeding  should  be  pastured  very  slightly  the  first  season. 
N"o  larger  number  than  ten  shoats  per  acre  or  one  sow  and  her  litter  should  be 
used.  After  the  first  season  as  high  as  20  head  per  acre  or  two  sows  and  their 
litters  may  be  pastured  on  it  throughout  the  season."  Only  one  test  was  con- 
ducted with  alfalfa  and  this  on  newly  seeded  ground.  The  test  was  started  with 
12  hogs  per  acre,  which  number  was  reduced  to  10  at  the  end  of  eight  weeks.  The 
hogs  averaged  58.5  pounds  at  the  commencement  of  the  test,  and  were  turned  on 
the  alfalfa  when  it  was  six  inches  high.  "  The  average  amount  of  grain  required 
to  produce  a  pound  gain  was  3.07  pounds.  The  amount  of  pork  which  could  be 
accredited  to  the  alfalfa  forage  was  596.8  pounds  per  acre.  With  pork  at  6  cents 
the  return  per  acre  was  $35.73." 

Red  Clover. — Two  tests  were  conducted  with  red  clover,  and  it  is  stated 
that  clover  will  pasture  from  8  to  12  shoats  per  acre.  It  is  recommended  not  to 
pasture  clover  until  it  is  10  inches  high.  The  bulletin  recommends  feeding  shoats 
about  a  pound  of  corn  per  head  per  day. 

"A  herd  averaging  11  hogs  was  pastured  for  an  average  of  130  days  for  the 
seasons  of  1908  and  1910,  and  produced  an  average  of  572.2  pounds  of  pork  that 


30 

could  be  accredited  to  each  acre  of  forage  eaten.  These  experiments  indicate  that 
a  value  of  98  cents  ma}^  be  obtained  for  each  bushel  of  corn  fed  to  hogs  pasturing 
on  clover,  when  pork  is  worth  6  cents,  and  when  rent  of  land,  taxes,  labor,  etc.,  are 
valued  at  $10.00  per  acre." 

Rape,  Oats  and  Clover. — This  mixture  was  sown  at  the  rate  of  5  to  7 
pounds  of  rape,  i/2  bushel  of  oats,  and  6  to  10  pounds  of  clover  per  acre.  The 
results  are  summarized  as  follows :  "  A  herd  averaging  10  hogs  per  acre  was 
pastured  on  rape,  oats,  and  clover  forage  for  an  average  of  96  days  for  the  seasons 
of  1909  and  1910,  and  produced  an  average  of  391  pounds  of  pork  that  could  be 
accredited  to  each  acre  of  forage  eaten.  A  value  of  89  cents  may  be  obtained  for 
every  bushel  of  corn  fed  to  hogs  on  rape,  oats,  and  clover  forage  when  pork  is  worth 
6  cents  per  pound,  and  when  rent,  labor,  taxes,  etc.,  are  valued  at  $10.00  per  acre." 

Hogging  Of  Bye. — The  authors  state  that  when  rye  is  intended  for 
"hogging  off"  purposes  it  should  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  ripe,  so  that 
the  heads  crinkle  down  and  droop  near  the  ground.  In  three  tests  a  supplementary 
ration  of  corn  meal  6  parts  and  oil  meal  1  part  was  fed  at  the  rate  of  1  pound  per 
head  per  day.  In  two  tests  16  hogs  were  pastured  per  acre,  and  in  one  test  8  hogs 
per  acre.  The  amount  of  pork  accredited  to  an  acre  of  rye  in  the  three  tests  was 
215  pounds,  257  pounds,  and  260  pounds  respectively.  With  pork  at  6  cents  per 
pound  the  returns  are  accounted  about  equal  to  the  returns  when  the  crop  is  sold 
as  grain  but  the  fertility  is  retained  under  the  pasturing  system. 

General  Conclusions. — Of  the  general  conclusions  given  in  the  bulletin, 
the  following  are  of  special  importance : 

1.  "The  number  of  hogs  which  may  be  kept  on  each  acre  of  forage  will 
depend  upon  the  abundance  of  forage,  but  in  general  not  more  than  10  to  12  head 
should  be  used." 

2.  "The  greatest  returns  have  been  obtained  when  grain  was  fed  in  addition 
to  the  forage  at  the  rate  of  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  hogs  per  day. 
The  amount  fed  per  liead  per  day  should  be  increased  as  the  hog  increases  in  size." 

3.  "  A  very  good  plan  in  feeding  80  to  100  pound  hogs  on  forage  would  be  to 
feed,  per  head  per  day  during  May,  1.75  pounds  of  grain;  during  June,  2  pounds 
grain ;  during  July,  3  pounds  grain,  and  during  August,  4  to  5  pounds  grain." 

4.  '^ Gains  made  on  forage  are  made  at  20  to  30  per  cent,  less  cost  than  gains 
produced  with  grain  and  dry  lot  feeding.  With  pork  at  6  cento  the  average  value 
of  a  bushel  of  corn  fed  to  hogs  in  dry  lot  was  &Q  cents ;  and  the  average  value  of  a 
bushel  of  corn  fed  to  hogs  on  forage  was  SO  cents,  after  a  $10.00  charge  (per  acre) 
had  been  paid  for  rent,  taxes,  etc." 

Fall  Rye. — Eye  does  not  make  so  valuable  a  pasture  as  many  other  crops 
and  its  main  feature  is  its  early  growth.  For  supplying  pasture  very  early  in  the 
spring,  a  small  plot  oi  rye  can  often  be  used  to  good  advantage. 

Mixtures. — Various  mixtures  have  been  used  as  pasture  crops  for  swine. 
The  writer  has  used  oats  and  peas,  also  a  mixture  of  oats,  peas,  and  vetches.  These 
crops  do  not  stand  pasturing  well,  and  are  better  suited  for  soiling  purposes. 

The  Michigan  Experiment  Station  speaks  well  of  a  mixture  of  corn,  peas,  oats, 
rape,  and  red  clover.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  waste  in  pasturing  this  crop.  If, 
however,  the  first  crop  could  be  cut  for  soiling  purposes,  the  second  growth  would 
furnish  a  good  deal  of  pasture.     (See  also  Missouri  test  reported  in  this  chapter.) 

Jerusalem  Artichokes — The  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada, 
reports  good  results  from  this  crop.  One-sixteenth  of  an  acre  was  planted  on  May 
19th  with  70  pounds  of  tubers.     The  tubers  were  planted  about  four  inches  deep,  in 


31 

rows  24  inches  apart,  and  in  hills  about  20  inches  apart  in  the  row.^.  Six  pigs, 
averaging  a  little  over  100  pounds  each,  were  turned  into  the  plot  on  October  3 
and  allowed  to  harvest  the  crop,  which  lasted  them  three  weeks.  They  were  fed  a 
light  meal  ration  while  eating  the  tubers.  The  six  pigs  gained  197  pounds  in 
three  weeks,  and  consumed  only  189  pounds  of  meal.  This  is  a  most  extraordinary 
result,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  experiment  lasted  a  very  short  time. 
The  experiment  certainly  indicates  possibilities  for  this  crop.  Pigs  eat  artichokes 
very  greedily. 

Pasture  vs.  Soiling. — Some  experiments  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College  indicate  that  more  rapid  gains  with  a  smaller  consumption  of  feed 
per  pound  of  gain  can  be  secured  by  soiling  pigs  than  by  pasturing.  This 
is  especially  true  of  young  pigs,  and  the  writer's  experience  leads  him  to  believe 
that  pigs  should  weigh  at  least  100  pounds  before  being  turned  on  pasture,  to  get 
best  results.  There  i^=  considerable  extra  labor  in  cutting  green  crops  and  carry- 
ing them  to  the  pigs  under  the  soiling  system,  which  brings  the  two  systems  fairly 
close  together  from  the  stand-point  of  economy. 

Amount  of  Grain  on  Pasture.— Growing  or  fattening  pigs  cannot 
be  produced  satisfactorily  on  pasture  alone,  but  a  grain  ration  is  necessary.  The 
Montana  Experiment  Station  found  that  hogs  fed  a  full  grain  ration  on  pasture 
gained,  on  an  average,  1.39  pounds  per  hog  per  day,  and  required  412  pounds  of 
grain  for  100  pounds  of  gain.  Hogs  fed  a  half  ration  of  grain  gained  .98  pounds 
per  hog  per  day,  and  required  291  pounds  of  grain  for  100  pounds  of  gain.  Thus, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  hogs  fed  a  full  ration  on  pasture  made  more  rapid  gains, 
but  consumed  much  nv.re  grain  for  every  100  pounds  of  gain. 

The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  fed  two  lots  of  pigs  five  weeks  on  clover 
and  ten  weeks  on  rape.  One  lot  received  a  full  meal  ration  and  the  other  a  two- 
thirds  meal  ration.  As  in  the  Montana  experiments,  the  hogs  fed  a  full  meal 
ration  made  more  rapid  gains  than  the  others,  but  they  consumed  421  pounds  of 
meal  for  100  pounds  of  gain,  as  compared  with  353  pounds  meal  for  100  pounds  in 
the  lot  fed  the  two- thirds  ration. 

It  seems  to  be  clearly  demonstrated  that  it  is  a  mistake  to  feed  hogs  all  the 
meal  they  will  eat  when  upon  pasture,  unless  it  becomes  necessary  to  do  so  near 
the  end  of  the  feeding  period  in  order  to  fit  them  for  market.  (See  also  Missouri 
recommendations.) 

Methods  of  Feeding  Alfalfa.— Bulletin  123  of  the  Nebraska  Experi- 
ment Station  reports  a  series  of  winter  tests  with  varying  proportions  of  corn  and 
alfalfa.  The  tests  covered  three  years,  and  they  appear  to  have  been  carefully 
conducted. 

Summary  of  Resulis. —  (1)  The  gains  made  by  the  rations  containing  one- 
half  alfalfa  were  much  slower  and  more  expensive  than  those  obtained  from  any  of 
the  other  rations.  The  tests  during  two  winters  showed  that  a  fattening  ration 
should  contain  less  than  half  alfalfa,  but  a  ration  of  half  alfalfa  and  half  corn  was 
found  quite  satisfactory  for  wintering  brood  sows. 

(2)  When  half  the  ration  consisted  of  alfalfa,  alfalfa  meal  gave  faster  gains 
with  less  grain  than  chopped  alfalfa,  but  the  difference  was  not  enough  to  pay  for 
the  extra  cost  of  the  alfalfa  meal. 

(3)  The  average  of  four  tests  with  160  pigs  showed  that  rations  containing 
one-fourth  alfalfa  produced  slower  gains  than  a  ration  of  corn  alone,  or  of  9  parts 
of  corn  and  1  part  of  alfalfa.     It  would  seem  that  a  ration  containing  one-fourth 


32 

alfalfa  is  not  as  satisfactory  for  fattening  hogs  as  a  ration  of  corn  alone,  or  a  ration 
containing  a  larger  proportion  of  corn  and  a  smaller  proportion  of  alfalfa. 

(4)  Alfalfa  meal  proved  more  satisfactory  than  chopped  alfalfa  when  the 
ration  consisted  of  one  part  of  alfalfa  to  three  parts  of  corn. 

(5)  In  three  tests  with  90  pigs,  a  ration  containing  9  parts  of  corn  to  1  part 
of  alfalfa  proved  more  profitable  than  corn  alone, 

(6)  When  the  alfalfa  comprised  only  one-tenth  of  the  ration,  chopped  alfalfa 
and  alfalfa  meal  gave  almost  the  same  gains,  but  the  chopped  alfalfa  proved  more 
profitable  owing  to  its  lower  cost. 

(7)  In  three  tests  with  90  hogs,  the  feeding  of  corn  with  alfalfa  hay  in  a  rack 
gave  very  similar  returns  to  feeding  9  parts  of  corn  mixed  with  1  part  of  chopped 
alfalfa,  with  the  difference  in  favor  of  rack  feeding. 

(8)  The  results  of  5  years'  indicate  that  for  fattening  hogs  the  way  to  feed 
alfalfa  most  satisfactorily  is  to  feed  it  without  grinding  or  chopping. 

(9)  In  these  tests,  50  pounds  of  hay  were  worth  more  in  the  ration  than  a 
bushel  of  corn. 

(10)  The  rations  used  in  these  tests  are  ranked  in  order  of  merit  as  follows: 

1st.  Corn  and  alfalfa  hay  in  a  rack. 

2nd.  9  parts  corn  and  1  part  chopped  alfalfa. 

3rd.  9  parts  corn  and  1  part  alfalfa  meal. 

4th.  Corn  alone. 

5th.  3  parts  com  and  1  part  alfalfa  meal. 

6th.  3  parts  corn  and  1  part  chopped  alfalfa. 

7th.  1  part  corn  and  1  part  chopped  alfalfa. 

8th.  1  part  corn  and  1  part  alfalfa  meal. 

(11)  It  is  recommended  to  feed  the  finest  and  brightest  hay  possible.     Hogs 
will  not  eat  the  coarse  stems. 


EoOTS,  Potatoes,  Pumpkins,  Apples  axd  Dairy  By-products. 

Roots. — In  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding"  there  is  an  excellent  summary 
of  Danish  experiments  with  roots  for  swine.  The  meal  equivalent  of  roots  was 
found  to  vary  in  a  marked  degree  in  different  trials,  and  100  pounds  of  barley 
^vere  found  to  he  equivalent  to  600  to  800  pounds  of  mangels  and  400  to  800 
pounds  of  stock  beets.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada,  wide  variations  in 
the  meal  equivalent  of  roots  have  also  occurred  in  various  tests.  The  following 
table  gives  an  idea  of  the  range  of  values  found  at  several  stations : 

Meal  Eqcivatent  of  Roots. 

Central  Experimental  Farm    100  pounds  meal  =  786      pounds  roots 

Ohio  Experiment  Station   100  pounds  meal  =  642.5  pounds  roots 

Montana  Experiment   Station    100  pounds  meal  =  529      pounds  roots 

Utah  Experiment  Station   100  pounds  meal  =  455     pounds  roots- 
Ontario  Agricultural  College  100  pounds  meal  =  441.5  pounds  roots 

Average    100  pounds  meal  =  570.8  pounds  roots 

The  variations  in  these  trials  are   similar  to  the  variations  in  the  Danish 
experiments.     Ontario  obtained  a  remarkably  high  meal  equivalent  for  roots,  and 


33 

it  is  worthy  of  note  that  in  the  Ontario  trials  the  roots  were  pulped  and  mixed 
with  an  equal  weight  of  meal,  the  hogs  being  fed  all  they  would  eat  of  the 
mixture. 

In  the  writer's  experience,  hogs  fed  roots  are  thriftier  looking  and  possess 
better  appetites  than  hogs  fed  meal  alone,  and  it  is  no  doubt  due  to  their  influence 
upon  the  general  health  of  the  animal  that  roots  are  able  to  make  such  a  favorable 
showing.  The  degree  to  which  the  general  thrift  of  the  animals  is  injured  by 
exclusive  meal  feeding  will  be  reflected  in  the  relative  feeding  value  shown  by 
roots  and  grain,  and  this  fact  renders  extreme  variations  quite  possible. 

Generally  speaking,  it  may  be  said  that  sugar  beets  possess  the  highest  feeding 
value  among  ordinary  roots,  and  are  most  readily  eaten  by  swine.  Mangels,  Swede 
turnips,  and  carrots  may  be  counted  practically  equal  in  value,  but  hogs  eat 
mangels  with  greater  relish  than  they  eat  turnips. 

Potatoes. — At  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  441  pounds  of  potatoes, 
cooked  and  fed  to  swine,  proved  equal  to  100  pounds  of  cornmeal.  In  "  Feeds  and 
Feeding,"  Henry  summarizes  experiments,  where  400  pounds  of  potatoes  proved 
equal  to  J. 00  pounds  of  mixed  meal.  In  connection  with  these  investigations^ 
Professor  Henry  says :  "  In  general,  we  may  say  that  a  bushel  of  corn  is  worth 
four  and  one-half  bushels  of  potatoes  for  fattening  purposes  when  cooked  and  fed 
with  corn  meal.  Potatoes  may  have  a  higher  value  than  the  rating  here  given,  in 
furnishing  variety  in  ration  to  growing  animals." 

Potatoes  must  be  cooked  for  swine,  and  this  item  of  expense  cancels  some  of 
the  advantage  which  they  possess  over  roots  as  a  feed  for  swine. 

Pumpkins  and  Squashes. — Pumpkins  belong  to  the  same  class  of  feeds 
as  roots,  giving  bulk  and  succulence  to  the  ration  and  thus  promoting  thrift. 
J.  H.  Orisdale,  Central  Experimental  Farm,  has  a  high  opinion  of  pumpkins  for 
swine.  He  says :  "  "We  cook  them  and  mix  meal  with  them,  and  I  don't  think 
there  is  anything  that  will  surpass  them  as  a  cheap  fattening  ration."  He  also 
states  that  the  pigs  like  the  seeds  best,  and  that  no  injury  comes  from  feeding  the 
seeds.  Excellent  results  were  obtained  at  the  Xew  Hampshire  Experiment  Sta- 
tion from  feeding  raw  pumpkins,  with  meal  and  skim-milk. 

The  Oregon  Experiment  Station  found  that  a  200-pound  hog  consuming  26 
pounds  of  cooked  pumpkin  and  a  small  amount  of  shorts  gained  1.2  pounds  per 
day.  Other  investigators  have  found  that  273  pounds  of  grain  and  376  pounds 
of  raw  pumpkin  produced  100  pounds  of  pork.  Some  experiments  show  that 
cooking  pumpkins  does  not  add  to  their  value. 

The  squash  may  he  counted  as  equal  to  the  pumpkin  in  feeding  value. 

Apples. — Apples  do  not  appear  to  possess  a  high  feeding  value,  but  may 
often  be  used  to  good  advantage  to  give  variety  and  succulence  to  a  ration.  They 
are  perhaps  most  suitable  for  mature  breeding  stock,  but  a  hog  should  never  be 
expected  to  subsist  upon  apples  as  the  main  part  of  its  ration. 

Skim-Milk. -The  results  of  nineteen  trials  with  eighty-eight  pigs  at  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  are  well  summarized  (by  Henry  in  "Feeds  and 
Feeding."  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  when  a  small  proportion  of  skim-milk  is 
fed  with  meal,  the  milk  shows  a  higher  meal  equivalent  than  when  a  large  pro- 
portion is  fed:  that  is  to  say,  it  requires  a  smaller  amount  of  skim-milk  to  be 
equivalent  to  a  given  amount  of  meal  when  a  small  proportion  of  milk  to  meal  is 
used.     Henry  summarizes  the  Wisconsin  results  as  follows:  v 


34 
(Meal  Equivalents  of  Skim-Milk. 


Propoi-tion  of  Milk  to  Meal 

Pounds  of  Milk  Eiiuivalent 
to  100  Pounds  Meal 

1  lb.  corn  meal,    1  to  3  lbs,  milk 

1  lb.  com  meal,    3  to  5  lbs.  milk 

1  lb.  corn  meal,    5  to  7  lbs.  milk : 

1  lb.  corn  meal,    7  to  9  lbs.  milk 

Average  of  1 9  trials 

327  lbs.  milk  =  100   lbs.  meal 
446  lbs.  milk  =  100    lbs.  meal 
574  lbs.  milk  =  100    lbs.  meal 
552  lbs.  milk  =  100   lbs.  meal 
475  lbs.  milk -100   lbs.  meal 

The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  reports  a  trial  in  which  355.6  pounds  of 
fikim-milk  proved  equal  to  100  pounds  of  meal.  The  proportion  of  milk  to  meal 
was  ahout  2.5  to  1,  and  the  result  is  similar  to  the  Wisconsin  result  with  a  similar 
proportion  of  milk  to  meal. 

The  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  reports  six  trials  in  which  the  proportion 
of  milk  to  meal  varied,  the  highest  proportion  heing  about  five  pounds  of  milk  to 
one  of  meal.  The  average  of  these  trials  gives  467  pounds  of  milk,  equivalent  to 
100  pounds  of  meal,  which  is  very  close  to  the  Wisconsin  average. 

Utah  experiments  show  43]  pounds  of  skim-milk  equal  to  100  pounds  of 
grain,  and  Tennessee  experiments,  476  pounds  of  skim-milk  equal  to  100  pounds 
of  grain.  The  Tennessee  results  are  practically  identical  with  the  Wisconsin  aver- 
age, and  the  Utah  results  are  reasonably  close. 

These  experiments  show  that,  where  skim-milk  can  be  obtained  conveniently 
and  in  suitable  quantity,  it  has  a  very  considerable  value  in  hog-feeding.  When 
meal  is  worth  $20  per  ton,  skim-milk  is  easily  worth  20  cents  per  hundred  pounds, 
unless  an  exceptional  amount  of  labor  is  involved  in  procuring  it.  For  young 
pigs  just  after  weaning,  however,  its  value  is  very  much  higher  than  for  older  hogs. 

Sweet  vs.  Sour  Skim-Milk. — Several  experiments  with  sweet  and  sour 
skim-milk  indicate  that  there  is  little  or  no  difference  in  the  feeding  value  of  the 
two  products, — in  fact,  the  sour  milk  has,  if  anything,  had  the  advantage.  For 
very  young  pigs  sweet  milk  is  preferable. 

Whey. — At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  the  writer  conducted  seven 
trials  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  the  value  of  whey  for  pig  feeding.  The  average 
of  these  seven  trials  gives  744.5  pounds  of  whey,  equivalent  to  100  pounds  of  meal. 

Two  trials  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  gives  an  average  of  800 
pounds  of  whey,  equivalent  to  100  pounds  of  meal. 

These  trials  probably  show  the  maximum  value  of  whey  for  pig  feeding. 
Under  ordinary  methods  of  feeding  it  would  hardly  be  safe  to  expect  quite  as 
good  returns  for  whey.  Where  labor  is  involved  in  procuring  the  whey,  due  allow- 
ance must  be  made  in  estimating  the  value  of  this  product. 

Sweet  VS.  Sour  Whey.  — Five  trials  made  by  the  writer  failed  to  show 
any  appreciable  difference  between  the  feeding  value  of  sweet  and  sour  whey. 

Separated  vs.  Ordinary  Whey. — In  an  experiment  conducted  by  the 
writer,  ordinary  whey  proved  to  be  worth  twenty-five  per  cent,  more  than  separated 
whey.  The  separated  whey  had  been  run  through  the  cream  separator  to  remove 
the  fat  for  making  whey  butter. 

Buttermilk. — Experiments  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  and  else- 
where show  that  buttermilk  is  practically  equal  to  skim-milk  for  feeding  pigs. 


35 

Substitutes  for  Skim-Milk.  —For  young  pigs,  just  atter  weaning,  it  is 
difficult  to  find  anything  that  will  take  the  place  of  skim-milk.  When  skim-milk 
is  not  available,  there  is  danger  of  the  pigs  becoming  stunted  at  this  period  of 
their  life,  especially  pigs  that  are  weaned  young.  The  Ontario  Agricultural  Col- 
lege conducted  two  trials  with  Swift's  digester  tankage  and  blood  meal  as  substi- 
tutes for  skim-milk.  These  two  feeds  proved  nearly  equal  in  value,  and,  since  the 
tankage  costs  much  less  per  ton,  it  was  regarded  as  the  more  satisfactory. 

In  the  first  trial  the  tankage  constituted  about  one-fourteenth  of  the  total 
ration,  and  in  the  second  trial  one- tenth  of  the  total  ration. 

About  two  pounds  of  milk  to  one  pound  of  meal  were  fed  in  each  trial. 

The  average  of  the  two  trials  shows  that  to  produce  100  pounds  of  gain  it 
required : 

375  pounds  meal  and  34  pounds  tankage. 

390  pounds  meal  and  737  pounds  skim-milk. 

The  pigs  getting  tankage  ate  their  feed  quite  as  eagerly  as  those  getting  skim- 
mil"k,  and  continued  thrifty  throughout  the  experiment. 

Tankage,  therefore,  proved  a  very  satisfactory  substitute,  as  far  as  gains  in 
weight  were  concerned,  but,  when  skim-milk  can  be  obtained  at  15  cents  per 
hundredweight,  it  is  cheaper  than  tankage  at  prevailing  prices,  according  to  this 
test. 

In  a  second  trial,  tankage  made  by  the  Harris  Abattoir  Co.,  of  Toronto,  was 
compared  with  skim-milk  for  young  pigs.  The  tankage  was  fed  in  proportion  of 
one  pound  of  tankage  to  six  pounds  of  meal.  The  tankage  pigs  made  an  average 
gain  of  1.02  pounds  per  pig  per  day,  the  skim-milk  group,  0.93  pounds,  and  the 
check  group,  on  meal  only,  0.74  pounds.  Placing  a  value  of  $33  per  ton  on  the 
meal,  we  find  that  in  this  test  the  skim-milk  was  worth  37  cents  per  100  pounds, 
and  the  tankage,  $3.93  per  100  pounds.  This  test,  therefore,  like  the  preceding 
one,  shows  that  it  is  economical  to  furnish  young  pigs  with  feed  rich  in  protein, 
and  that  it  is  good  practice  to  use  a  feed  like  tankage  when  skim-milk  is  not 
available.  It  also  goes  to  show  that  young  pigs  can  be  raised  economically  with- 
out skim-milk. 

In  other  experiments  by  the  writer,  the  results  of  which  have  not  been  pub- 
lished, other  substances,  such  as  linseed  meal,  "  black-strap "  molasses,  and  tea 
from  alfalfa  hay,  have  been  tried,  but  none  of  these  approached  tankage  in  efficiency 
as  a  substitute  for  skim-milk  for  young  pigs. 

The  Michigan  Experiment  Station  also  compared  tankage  with  skim-milk  for 
young  pigs.  The  pigs  on  skim-milk  made  slightly  larger  gains,  but,  when  skim- 
milk  was  valued  at  80  cents  per  100  pounds,  and  tankage  at  $1,631/^  per  100  pounds, 
the  tankage-fed  pigs  made  cheaper  gains  than  the  skim-milk  pigs. 

PRErAKATION  OF  FeED. 

Cooking  and  Steaming.  — Years  ago  there  was  a  popular  belief  that 
cooking  or  steaming  feed  increased  its  digestibility,  and  hence  its  feeding  value. 
The  work  of  experiment  stations  and  private  investigators  has  thoroughly  exploded 
this  idea,  and  indicates  that  digestibility  may  be  decreased  rather  than  increased 
by  cooking  in  the  case  of  many  feeds.  There  are  some  feeds  which  are  rendered 
more  palatable  by  cooking,  such  as  potatoes  and  beans,  but  in  the  case  of  feeds 
which  are  eaten  readily  without  cooking,  it  may  be  taken  as  settled  that  cooking 
or  steaming  is  poor  economy.  Instead  of  being  a  commendable  practice,  cooking 
is  something  which  should  be  avoided  as  far  as  circumstances  will  permit,  and 
employed  only  when  feeds  are  not  acceptable  in  the  raw  state.     Where  economy 


36 

is  no  object,  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  larger  gains  in  weight  by  cooking  a  certain 
portion  of  the  feed  to  make  the  ration  more  palatable,  thus  stimulating  the  appe- 
tite of  the  animal,  but  such  gains  are  usually  obtained  at  a  comparatively  high 
cost. 

Grinding. — The  question  of  grinding  was  discussed,  under  corn,  and  it 
was  shown  that,'  so  far  as  corn  is  concerned,  t]ie  gain  from  grinding  is  compara- 
tively small.  Numerous  experiments  have  been  made  with  other  grains  to  determine 
the  effect  of  grinding,  it  being  generally  supposed  that  grinding  would  ibe  more 
effective  in  the  case  of  small  grains  than  it  would  be  with  corn.  It  is  out  of  the 
question  to  review  experimental  work  in  detail  in  regard  to  this  point,  but  it 
may  be  said  that  grinding  small  grains,  such  as  peas,  barley,  oats,  and  rye,  has 
almost  invariably  proved  beneficial.  Sometimes  the  advantage  of  the  ground  grain 
has  been  very  slight,  and  sometimes  very  marked,  but  the  general  evidence  indi- 
cates that  it  is  advisable,  when  practicable,  to  grind  such  grains.  When  the  cost 
of  grinding  is  excessively  high,  the  practice  may  not  be  advisable,  but,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  it  is  tlie  safe  course.  According  to  a  compilation  of 
experiment  station  results,  made  by  G-.  M.  Eommel  (Bulletin  47,  TJ.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agr.),  the  average  saving  effected  by  grinding  small  grains  is  13.36  per  cent. 

Wet  vs.  Dry  Feed. — Considerable  experimental  work  has  been  done  with 
wet  and  dry  feed,  and  results  are  very  contradictory.  On  an  average,  the  two 
methods  of  feeding  show  practically  equal  results.  The  writer's  experience  is 
that  when  hogs  can  be  fed  dry  meal  in  such  a  manner  that  they  cannot  waste 
it,  they  make  as  good  use  of  it  as  when  it  is  wet.  There  is  more  tendency  to  waste 
feed  when  it  is  fed  dry,  especially  when  a  considerable  number  of  hogs  are  fed 
out  of  the  same  trough.  Troughs  arranged  so  as  to  prevent  crowding  will  tend 
to  lessen  the  waste.  In  cold  pens,  dry  meal  feeding  has  some  advantages,  and 
mixing  dry  meal  with  an  equal  weight  of  pulped  roots  makes  a  good  ration.  Under 
ordinary  conditions,  it  is  difficult  to  see  much  advantage  from  dry  feeding. 

Soaking. —Soaking  feed  is  another  practice  which  seems  to  give  variable 
results,  according  to  experimental  data.  There  seems  little  doubt,  however,  that, 
in  the  case  of  dry  hard  grain  fed  whole,  soaking  is  to  be  commended.  In  the  case 
of  meal,  freshly  mixed  feed  will  likely  give  as  good  results  as  soaked  feed. 

Fermenting. — The  practice  of  fermenting  feed  for  swine  was  formerly 
much  more  common  than  it  is  at  present  In  the  case  of  cotton-seed  meal,  the 
Texas  station  recommends  mixing  the  cotton-seed  meal  with  other  meal,  and  allow 
the  whole  mass  to  sour.  The  New  Hampshire  Station  obtained  better  results 
from  fermented  bran  than  from  unfermented  bran.  With  feeds  well  adapted  to 
pig  feeding,  it  is  not  likely  that  fermentation  would  he  of  any  benefit. 

Mfthods  of  Feeding. 

"  Hog  Motor  Grinder  "  vs."  Hopper.  ''—The  Maryland  Experiment 
Station  (Bulletin  150)  reports  tests  with  the  "hog  motor  grinder,"  a  contrivance 
by  means  of  which  hogs  grind  their  own  grains  as  they  require  it.  The  grinder  was 
compared  with  a  self- feed  hopper.  In  the  first  test  whole  corn  was  used  in  the 
hopper,  and  in  the  second  test  ground  corn  was  used.  The  pigs  were  from  four  to 
five  months  old  at  the  commencement  of  the  experiment. 

In  the  first  test  the  hopper-fed  pigs  made  an  average  daily  gain  per  pig  of 
1.85  pounds,  and  the  grinder-fed  pigs  1.65  pounds. 


37 

The  feed  cousumed  per  100  pounds  gain  was  as  follows:  Hopper  pigs. — 
Corn,  256  pounds;  middlings,  68  pounds;  milk,  339  pounds.  Grinder  pigs.— 
Corn,  224  pounds;  middlings,  76  pounds;  milk,  385  pounds. 

In  the  second  test  the  hopper-fed  pigs  made  an  average  daily  gain  per  pig  of 
2.11  pounds,  and  the  grinder-fed  pigs,  1.86  pounds. 

The  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain  in  the  second  test  was:  Hopper 
pigs.— Corn,  287  pounds;  middlings,  71  pounds.  Grinder  pigs.— Corn,  273  pounds; 
middlings,  80  pounds. 

The  author  of  the  bulletin  states :  "'  The  hog  motor  grinder  and  feeder  gave 
good  results  in  two  tests.  However,  when  used  in  comparison  with  hopper  feeding 
of  both  shelled  corn  and  cornmeal,  the  margin  of  profit  was  in  favor  of  the  hopper- 
fed  pigs." 

Hopper  Feeding  vs.  Trough  Feeding.— The  bulletin  referred  to  above 
also  reports  two  tests  in  which  the  self-feed  hopper  was  compared  with  trough 
feeding.  In  the  first  test  10  five-months-old  pigs  were  used,  and  in  the  second  test 
10  pigs  about  three  and  one-half  months  old  were  used. 

In  the  first  test  all  the  pigs  were  fed  a  mixture  of  ground  corn,  wheat  middlings, 
and  bran;  and  in  the  second  test,  hominy  chop  and  middlings.  In  each  test  dry 
meal  was  fed  in  the  hoppers,  and  wet  meal  in  the  troughs. 

The  results  of  the  two  tests  were  as  follows: — 

First  Test :  Hopper  fed. — Average  daily  gain  per  pig,  .71  pound.  Meal  con- 
siimed  per  100  pounds  gain,  520  pounds.  Trough  fed.— Average  daily  gain  per 
pig,  1.36  pounds.     Meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain,  348  pounds. 

Second  Test:  Hopper  fed. — ^Average  daily  gain  per  pig,  1.26  pounds.  Meal 
consumed  per  100  pounds  gain,  387  pounds.  Trough  fed. — Average  daily  gain 
per  pig,  1.36  pounds.    Meal  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain,  348  pounds. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  both  tests  the  trough-fed  pigs  made  more  rapid  and 
cheaper  gains  than  those  fed  from  hoppers,  though  there  is  less  labor  when  hoppers 
are  used. 


PART  IV. 
SELECTION,  FEEDING  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

The  Boar. 

Selection. — In  these  days,  when  pure-bred  males  are  plentiful  and  reason- 
able in  price,  there  is  practically  no  excuse  for  using  anything  but  a  pure-bred 
boar,  even  though  the  sows  be  merely  grades.  The  pure-bred  male  will  transmit 
his  own  qualities  to  his  progeny  with  greater  certainty  than  a  grade  or  cross-bred, 
and  will  get  pigs  of  more  uniform  quality  and  excellence,  so  that  it  pays  to  use 
a  pure^bred  boar  even  for  producing  market  hogs.  It  is  true  that  many  pure-bred 
boars  should  not  be  used  for  breeding,  but  this  affords  no  reason  for  using  a  grade 
boar.  The  "  scrub  "  pure-bred  should  be  rejected  along  with  the  grade  and  cross- 
bred, and  there  are  reasonably  good  pure-bred  boars  always  available  to  the  man 
who  will  make  an  effort  to  get  one. 

When  selecting  a  boar  to  head  a  pure-bred  herd,  it  will  not  do  to  be  too 
economical  regarding  price.  This  does  not  mean  that  we  are  to  pay  fancy  prices, 
running  into  the  thousands,  such  as  we  sometimes  read  about:  but  it  is  well  to 


38 

bear  in  mind  that  a  boar  which  is  not  good  enough  to  command  a  fair  price  is 
seldom  good  enough  to  put  at  the  head  of  a  pure-bred  herd.  The  importance  of 
the  herd  will  determine  the  price  which  the  owner  can  afford  to  pay  for  a  boar, 
but  a  few  extra  dollars  on  the  price  of  a  boar  is  a  small  matter  when  it  is  the  means 
of  securing  something  that  the  breeder  really  needs.  The  mere  size  of  the  price, 
however,  is  not  a  safe  criterion  of  the  merit  of  the  hoar,  but  it  rests  with  the  man 
who  makes  the  selection  to  see  that  he  gets  value  for  his  money.  It  is  right  here 
that  a  wide  experience  and  a  seasoned  judgment  count  for  so  much  in  stock 
breeding.  Sometimes  aged  boars,  which  have  proved  their  excellence  as  stock 
getters,  are  to  be  had  at  a  very  reasonahle  price,  and  if  they  are  still  active  they 
are  much  safer  to  buy  than  young,  untried  boars.  There  is  much  unreasonable 
prejudice  against  aged  boars,  and  many  an  excellent  aged  hoar  is  sent  to  the 
butcher  long  before  his  usefulness  is  past  merely  because  no  person  would  buy  him 
for  breeding  purposes;  and  young  boars,  many  of  which  should  have  gone  to  the 
butcher  before  being  used  at  all,  are  taken  in  preference.  These  things  are  matters 
of  judgment,  and  to  select  wisely  the  breeder  must  know  what  he  requires. 


Fig.  6. — Large  Yorkshire  boar;    an  English  Royal  Show  winner. 

When  huying  a  young  boar,  it  will  be  found  safer  to  buy  one  from  eight  to 
twelve  months  old  than  a  pig  two  or  three  months  old.  The  reason  for  this  recom- 
mendation is  plain,  it  being  impossible  to  foretell  just  how  the  very  young  pig  is 
going  to  develop.  Highly-fitted  show  boars  had  better  be  avoided.  It  is  more 
satisfactory  to  select  by  personal  inspection  than  to  buy  through  correspondence. 
A  visit  to  the  herd  which  produced  the  hoar  enables  one  to  judge  the  general 
quality  of  the  hogs  produced  in  the  herd,  and  one  can  pick  up  information  regarding 
the  sire  and  dam  that  could  not  otherwise  be  obtained. 

If  the  boar  is  shipped  some  distance  and  arrives  excited  and  tired,  he  should 
be  fed  very  lightly  at  first,  and  not  used  for  several  weeks  after  his  arrival. 

The  desirable  conformation  of  the  boar  will  depend  upon  whether  he  belongs 
to  the  fat  type  or  the  bacon  type,  and  will  also  be  influenced,  more  or  less,  by  the 
breed  to  which  he  belongs.  The  general  type  of  the  fat  hog  and  the  bacon  hog  is 
discussed  in  another  place,  but  it  may  he  said  that  we  expect  a  boar  to  be  stronger 
in  the  head  and  to  possess  a  more  muscular  neck,  more  massive  shoulders,  and 
heavier  bone,  than  a  sow  or  barrow.     He  should  conform  to  the  best  type  of  the 


39 

breed  to  which  he  belongs,  and  should  have  a  bold,  impressive  carriage  and  general 
appearance.  There  should  be  nothing  effeminate  about  his  appearance  and  general 
make-up.  Coarseness  and  roughness  are  not  desirable,  but  if  it  came  to  a  choice 
between  two  boars,  one  of  which  was  fine  and  effeminate  and  the  other  inclining 
to  coarseness,  but  strongly  masculine,  the  writer's  experience  would  lead  him  to 
choose  the  latter,  other  things  being  equal. 

Use.— The  age  at  which  a  young  boar  may  be  first  used  depends  largely  upon 
his  development.  Some  boars  may  be  used  to  a  few  sows  when  not  more  than 
seven  months  old  without  apparent  injury.  As  a  rule,  it  is  safer  not  to  use  a  boar 
before  he  is  eight  months  old,  and  to  use  him  as  sparingly  as  possible  until  he  is  a 
year  old.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  laid  down,  and  the  owner  must  use  his 
judgment  in  the  matter.  Excessive  use  when  young  is  likely  to  shorten  the  period 
of  a  boar's  usefulness,  and,  since  a  boar  will  usually  leave  the  best  pigs  after  he 
reaches  maturity,  the  importance  of  saving  him  while  he  is  young  will  be  readily 


I^ig.  7. — Berkshire  boar,  championship  winner  at  the  Iowa  State  Fair. 

appreciated.  Some  good  breeders  will  not  allow  more  than  one  service  a  day,  with 
intervals  of  one  or  two  days  a  week  without  being  used  in  the  case  of  valuable 
boars.  This  is  a  matter  which  can  be  regulated  better  in  large  herds,  where  several 
stock  boars  are  kept,  than  it  can  where  only  one  boar  is  kept  and  where  outside 
sows^  are  admitted.  The  owner  of  a  boar  under  the  last  named  conditions  will 
require  to  exercise  all  his  ingenuity  to  prevent  his  boar  from  being  used  too  freely 
during  certain  seasons  of  the  year.  In  no  case  should  more  than  one  service  to  a 
sow  be  permitted,  and  the  boar  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  with  sows  to  which 
he  is  to  be  bred.  Excessive  use  is  likely  to  result  in  small,  weak  litters,  and  the 
aim  should  be  to  save  the  boar  as  much  as  possible.  It  is  not  good  to  use  a  boar 
immediately  after  he  has  been  fed. 

Exercise. — Probably  nothing  is  more  essential  to  the  health  and  vigor  of  an 
animal  than  exercise.  In  summer  it  is  usually  a  comparatively  simple  matter  to 
provide  exercise  in  a  paddock  or  pasture  lot,  but  in  winter  it  is  more  difficult.    A 


40 

roomy  pen  should  be  provided,  with  a  sheltered  outside  yard.  When  practicable^ 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  feed  the  boar  outdoors  at  some  distance  from  his  sleeping 
quarters,  thus  compelling  him  to  take  exercise  in  walking  back  and  forth  between 
his  pen  and  the  feeding  place.  Icy  ground  is  the  greatest  drawback  to  this  method^ 
but.  this  can  be  overcome  by  littering  the  walk  with  some  strawy  horse  manure 
Sometimes  the  boar  can  be  fed  in  a  well-littered  barnyard,  which  makes  a  yery 
good  arrangement  when  practicable. 

When  several  boars  are  kept,  it  is  diffieult  to  provide  separate  runs  for  each 
boar,  and  it  simplifies  matters  if  they  are  taught  to  run  together.  The  tusks 
should  be  removed,  and  a  cool  day  should  be  selected  for  turning  them  together 
for  the  first  time.  It  takes  a  very  short  time,  as  a  rule,  to  settle  the  question  of 
supremacy,  and  when  once  settled  no  further  disputes  arise.  The  writer  has  had 
considerable  experience  with  this  method,  and  has  never  known  bad  results  to 
follow.  The  two  mentioned  conditions  are  necessary — namely,  the  tusks  must  be 
broken  off  and  a  cool  day  selected  for  the  tournament.  After  the  first  struggle  the 
boars  will  live  together  as  peaceably  as  sows. 

Removing  Tusks.— Armed  with  long,  sharp  tusks,  the  boar  is  capable  of 
inflicting  serious  injury  upon  man  or  beast  should  he  take  the  notion,  but  deprived 
of  his  tusks  he  becomes  comparatively  harmless.  It  is  the  part  of  wisdom,  there- 
fore, to  remove  these  tusks  before  any  damage  is  done,  because  we  never  know  what 
the  quietest  boar  may  do  under  provocation.  Several  methods  may  be  employed, 
and  the  following  one  will  answer  very  well :  The  boar  is  first  made  fast  to  a  post 
by  means  of  a  rope  noosed  about  his  upper  jaw  back  of  the  upper  tusks.  Then  one 
man  takes  a  crowbar  and  another  a  sharp  cold  chisel  and  a  hammer.  The  sharp 
edge  of  the  crowbar  is  placed  against  the  tusk  near  its  base  and  held  firmly  in 
position,  and  the  edge  of  the  cold  chisel  is  placed  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  tusk 
directly  opposite  to  the  edge  of  the  crowbar.  A  sharp  blow  with  the  hammer  on 
the  cold  chisel  does  the  job. 

Feeding. — It  requires  good  judgment  to  keep  a  boar  in  the  best  possible  con- 
dition. Extremes  are  to  be  avoided.  The  over-fat  boar  does  not  make  a  satisfactory 
sire,  as  a  rule,  and  a  half-starved  boar  cannot  transmit  vigor  and  constitution  to 
his  progeny  to  the  same  degree  that  he  would  if  properly  managed.  To  get  the 
best  results  the  boar  should  be  in  fair  flesh.  A  reasonable  amount  of  fat  on  his 
bones  will  do  him  no  harm  if  he  gets  suSicient  exercise. 

An  exclusive  meal  ration  will  not  give  good  results,  especially  if  the  ration 
is  made  up  of  corn.  It  is  true  that  corn  can  be  fed  to  a  boar  without  injuring  him,, 
but  it  must  be  fed  in  the  right  way.  Corn  is  fattening,  but  its  exclusive  use  is 
debilitating,  and  the  feeder  must  combine  something  with  it  to  get  good  results. 
Equal  parts  ground  oats  and  wheat  middlings  make  a  first-class  meal  ration  when 
corn  is  not  used.  It  gives  sufficient  bulk,  and  is  nutritious  without  being  heating 
or  too  fattening.  Ground  oats,  middlings,  or  bran  may  be  used  singly  to  dilute 
corn  or  other  heavy  meal;  in  fact  a  very  great  variety  of  grains  may  be  fed  so  long 
as  the  feeder  uses  judgment. 

^Supplemental  Feeds. — But  a  boar  needs  something  besides  grain  and  meal 
to  be  in  his  best  condition.  Skim-milk  and  buttermilk  are  excellent,  and  will  give 
good  results  with  meal  even  if  nothing  else  is  used.  In  winter  roots  of  any  kind 
are  much  relished.  They  have  a  cooling,  laxative  effect,  preventing  constipation 
and  keeping  the  animal  thrifty  and  vigorous.  If  roots  are  not  available,  alfalfa 
hay  of  fine  quality  or  even  red  clover  may  be  used  to  give  bulk  to  the  ration.  Some 
feed  the  alfalfa  hay  dry  in  racks,  and  others  prefer  to  cut  it  and  soak  it  with  the 


41 

meal  ration  or  scald  it  with  boiliu^  water  before  mixing  with  the  meal.  As  a  sub- 
stitute for  roots,  the  soaked  or  steeped  alfalfa  would  be  preferable  to  the  dry  hay. 
Alfalfa  or  clover  hay  may  he  fed  along  wiih  roots,  and  will  be  found  to  give  good 
results  it'  the  feeder  takes  care  to  supply  a  reasonable  amount  of  concentrated  feed 
to  make  the  ration  sufficiently  nourishing. 

Summer  management  is  usually  simpler  than  winter.  A  pasture  lot  provided 
with  shade  is  one  of  the  best  places  to  keep  a  boar.  The  grass  or  clover,  or  what- 
ever the  pasture  may  consist  of,  will  furnish  the  bulky,  succulent  feed  necessary 
for  health,  and  gathering  part  of  his  food  from  pasture  compels  the  boar  to  take 
exercise.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  provide  the  pasture,  he  should  be  liberally  supplied 
with  green  feed  in  his  pen. 

The  quantity  of  meal  to  feed  a  boar  will  vary  with  circumstances.  During 
the  season  when  he  is  used  most,  he  will  require  liberal  treatment,  but  at  no  time 
should  lie  be  fed  more  than  he  will  eat  up  clean  before  leaving  the  trough.    During 


Fig.  8. — Duroc-Jersey  boar,  championship  winner  at  Iowa  State  Fair. 


comparatively  idle  seasons  a  very  light  meal  ration  will  be  sufficient,  and  if  on 
good  pasture  he  will  require  but  little  feed  in  addition.  -  It  is  entirely  a  matter  of 
judgment,  and  the  feeder  must  be  guided  by  the  condition  of  the  boar.  It  is  never 
wise  to  make  sudden  changes  in  the  ration — that  is,  to  change  suddenly  from  a  light 
ration  to  a  heavy  one,  or  from  a  heavy  ration  to  a  light  one.  Changes  should  be 
made  gradually,  and  the  feeder,  knowing  about  when  the  heaviest  season  commences, 
should  start  in  plenty  of  time  to  prepare  the  boar  for  it. 

Breeding  Crate. — When  it  is  necessary  to  breed  heavy  boars  to  rather  small 
sows,  a  breeding  crate  often  can  be  used  to  advantage.  There  are  many  types  of 
breeding  crates,  but  the  one  shown  in  the  illustration  is  easily  made,  and  will 
answer  the  purpose  very  well. 

The  dimensions  of  the  crate  are:  Length,  5'  6";  width,  2',  and  height,  3'  6". 
The  uprights  at  i\iQ  corners  are  made  of  2"  x  4"  scantling,  and  the  sides  may  be 


43 

made  of  4"  strips  of  inch  lumber,  with  a  10"  board  at  the  bottom  on  each  side. 
The  supports  for  the  feet  of  the  boar  (AA)  are  hinged  at  the  front  end  of  the 
crate,  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  the  chains  (B).  On  the  outside 
of  the  crate  are  hooks  for  holding  the  chains.  "  C  "  is  an  iron  rod  which  slips 
through  holes  (D)  bored  in  the  bottom  side  boards  of  the  crate.  The  rod  should 
come  just  above  the  hocks  of  the  sow,  and  there  should  be  enough  holes  to  permit 
adjusting  the  rod  to  the  size  of  the  sow.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  a  small  boar  on  a 
large  sow,  the  crate  may  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose  by  simply  placing  a  cleated 
sloping  platform  at  the  rear  of  the  crate. 


The  Sow. 

Selection. — For  the  production  of  market  hogs  it  is  not  essential  that  a  sow 
should  be  pure-bred.  A  grade  sow  of  good  type  and  parentage  will  usually  produce 
very  satisfactory  pigs  for  market  purposes,  if  mated  with  a  boar  of  good  breeding 
and  quality,  but,  of  course,  none  of  lier  boar  pigs  should  be  kept  for  breeding 
purposes.  i  ■ 


Fig.  9.— Breeding  crate. 


Whether  pure-bred  or  grade,  a  sow  selected  for  breeding  should  be  from  a  pro- 
lific mother,  and  by  a  boar  that  comes  of  a  prolific  family,  because  fecundity  is 
hereditary  to  a  very  high  degree.  It  is  safest  to  select  a  sow  from  a  matured  mother 
who  has  had  a  chance  to  demonstrate  her  usefulness.  In  making  a  selection,  the 
number  and  character  of  the  teats  should  be  noted.  A  sow  is  more  likely  to  make 
a  good  mother  if  she  has  at  least  twelve  well-developed  teats,  set  well  apart,  and  the 
front  ones  well  forward  on  the  body. 

In  character,  the  sow  is  directly  the  opposite  of  the  boar,  and  there  is  a  femin- 
inity about  her  general  appearance  and  bearing  which  indicates  the  prolific  and 
indulgent  mother. 

When  a  really  good  sow  is  once  obtained,  she  should  be  kept  in  the  herd  as  long 
as  she  retains  her  usefulness.  A  really  first-class  sow  is  not  too  easily  obtained,  and 
when  once  acquired  it  will  be  found  the  part  of  wisdom  to  keep  her  as  long  as  she 
continues  to  produce  satisfactory  litters. 


43 

Age  of  Breeding. — 'Jlio  age  at  which  a  young  sow  is  first  bred  will  depend 
upon  her  development,  but  it  is  very  seldom  that  it  is  advisable  to  breed  her  before 
she  is  eight  months  old.  Many  good  breeders  prefer  not  to  breed  sows  before  they 
are  ten  or  even  twelve  months  old,  and  if  they  are  intended  for  show  purposes  it  is 
scarcely  advisable  to  breed  them  earlier.  One  of  the  great  objections  to  breeding 
sows  very  early  is  the  fact  that  the  very  young  sow  is  seldom  able  to  raise  a  fair- 
sized  litter  of  pigs,  and  if  she  raises  only  a  few  pigs  in  her  first  litter  her  mammary 
glands  do  not  develop  properly,  and  she  rarely  makes  as  good  a  nurse  with  sub- 
sequent litters  as  the  sow  which  raises  a  good-sized  first  litter.  Another  objection 
to  early  breeding  is  the  fact  that  the  very  young  sow  has  not  the  strength  to  stand 
the  strain  of  nursing  a  litter  of  pigs,  and  her  vitality  is  sapped  to  such  a  degree  that 
she  never  develops  as  she  should.  As  a  result,  she  will  not  retain  her  usefulness  for 
so  long  a  period,  nor  is  she  so  likely  to  give  strong,  vigorous  litters  as  though  she 
had  possessed  more  maturity  before  being  l)ro(l. 


Fig.  10. — Tamworth  sow,  winner  of  championsliip  at  the  English  Royal  Show. 


Breeding  Mature  Sows.— Many  sows  will  accept  service  a  few  days  after 
farrowing,  but  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  to  breed  a  sow  at  this  time  is  bad 
practice.  ISTo  sow  can  do  justice  to  herself  and  two  litters  o,f  pigs  at  the  same  time, 
and  the  man  who  attempts  to  gain  time  by  following  such  a  practice  will  surely 
lose  by  it  in  the  end. 

Usually  the  sow  may  be  bred  again  a  few  days  after  her  pigs  are  weaned,  if 
not  too  much  pulled  down  in  condition  by  nursing.  If  she  has  raised  a  large  litter 
and  is  very  much  emaciated,  the  chances  are  that  she  will  produce  a  small  litter  the 
next  time  if  she  is  hred  immediately  after  the  pigs  are  weaned.  In  such  cases  she 
should  be  given  three  weeks  or  a  month  of  liberal  feeding  to  enable  her  to  regain 
something  of  her  lost  strength  and  vitality  before  she  is  bred. 

Though  the  sow  need  not  be  fat,  she  should  be  in  good  heart  and  thriving  at 
the  time  she  is  bred.  Many  a  man  has  been  puzzled  to  know  why  his  sow,  which 
had  raised  a  large  litter,  should  drop  down  to  four  or  five  pigs  the  next  time.     The 


4-i 

reason  is  not  difficult  to  find,  because  a  sow  must  be  strong  and  full  of  vitality  at 
the  time  of  service  in  order  to  produce  a  large,  vigorous  litter. 

Period  of  Gestation. — The  period  of  gestation  in  sows  is  usually  placed 
at  112  days.  Often,  young  sows  will  farrow  a  few  days  sooner  than  the  stated  time, 
and  old  sows  will  frequently  go  a  few  days  over  it.  It  is  not  a  good  sign  when  a  sow 
goes  much  over  the  sixteen  weeks,  as  the  litters  are  often  lacking  in  vitality  when 
carried  much  over  time.  If  a  sow  has  been  properly  handled,  she  will  seldom  go 
more  than  a  few  days  over  sixteen  weeks,  though  there  are  exceptions  to  all  rules. 

Best  Times  for  Farrowing. — Where  winters  are  at  all  severe,  it  requires 
exceptional  skill  and  equipment  to  make  a  success  of  winter  litters.  Most  farmers 
will  find  it  safer  to  have  their  sows  farrow  in  April  and  October.  It  is  generally 
possible  to  give  April  pigs  a  little  outdoor  exercise  at  an  early  stage  of  their  growth, 
which  will  be  found  a  great  help  in  keeping  them  healthy  and  thrifty.  The  October 
pigs  will  also  be  able  to  get  outdoor  exercise  for  a  time,  which  will  enable  them  to 


Fig.  11. — Tamworth  sow,  a  prize  winner  at  leading  Canadian  shows. 


get  a  good  start  and  make  them  bettex  able  to  endure  the  closer  confinement  neces- 
sary during  winter. 

One  or  Two  Litters. — The  man  who  is  breeding  for  show  purposes,  and 
who  wishes  to  have  his  pigs  with  the  sow  as  long  as  possible,  as  well  as  get  his  sows 
into  high  condition  between  litters,  will  find  it  necessary  to  breed  his  sows  only 
once  a  year ;  but  the  general  practice  of  farmers  is  to  require  their  sows  to  do  more 
than  this.  There  is  no  good  reason  why  a  sow  should  not  produce  two  litters  a 
year  when  properly  handled,  provided  that  the  sow  is  not  to  be  fitted  for  the  show 
ring. 

Exercise. — Though  exercise  is  important  in  the  case  of  the  boar,  it  is  doubly 
important  with  sows  during  the  period  of  gestation.  Without  considerable  exercise 
during  this  time,  sows  cannot  be  made  to  give  satisfactory  results.  In  summer, 
pasture  should  be  provided  in  which  there  is  plenty  of  shade.  A  good  pasture 
affords  ideal  conditions  for  sows,  the  green  feed  and  the  exercise  keeping  the  sows 
'n  the  best  possible  condition. 


45 

Winter  Exercise  and  Quarters. —The  greatest  difficulty  will  be  en- 
countered in  giving  the  sows  sufficient  exercise  during  the  winter.  Where  only  a 
few  sows  are  kept,  it  is  often  possible  to  give  them  the  run  of  a  barnyard,  where  they 
will  take  exercise  rooting  in  the  manure,  or  working  in  scattered  straw  or  chaff  to 
find  what  little  grain  it  may  contain.  If  a  dry,  well-bedded  sleeping-place  is  pro- 
vided, which  is  free  from  draughts,  the  conditions  are  about  as  good  as  can  be 
obtained. 

When  it  is  impossible  to  use  the  barnyard,  a  roomy  shed  with  earth  floor,  and 
a  sleeping-place  arranged  in  one  corner,  can  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose  very 
well.  By  littering  the  shed  with  cut  straw  or  chaff  and  sprinkling  a  very  little 
whole  grain  in  the  chaff  every  day,  the  attendant  can -induce  the  sows  to  take  con- 
siderable exercise.  Another  method  is  to  use  portable  pens  set  in  outside  lots.  The 
pens  should  be  placed  facing  the  south,  and  fifty  yards  or  more  from  the  feeding- 


Fig.  12. — Large  Yorkshire  sow,  championship  winner  at  the  English  Royal  Show. 


place.  If  kept  well  bedded,  and  banked  about  the  bottom  with  strawy  horse  manure, 
they  make  comfortable  sleeping  quarters.  The  sows  are  forced  to  take  exercise  in 
walking  backwards  and  forwards  between  the  pen  and  the  feeding  place. 

It  is  better  to  keep  not  more  than  five  or  six  sows  in  a  pen  of  this  kind,  and 
care  should  be  taken  to  provide  plenty  of  trough  room.  The  troughs  should  be 
placed  on  dry  ground,  or  on  a  platform,  and  it  is  preferable  to  have  them  in  a  place 
that  is  sheltered  from  the  wind.     (See  under  "  Portable  Pens,"  Part  VI.) 

Feeding  and  Management  during  Gestation. — During  the  period 
of  gestation  the  sow  should  be  kept  in  good,  strong  condition,  but  not  overloaded 
with  fat.  Extremes  in  condition  are  to  be  avoided.  The  very  fat  sow  is  apt  to  be 
clumsy  with  her  pigs,  and  sometimes  her  pigs  are  few  in  number  or  lacking  in 
vitality.  On  the  other  hand,  the  very  thin  sow  will  either  not  do  justice  to  her 
pigs,  or  will  become  a  mere  wreck  herself  during  the  time  she  is  nursing  her  litter, 
and  the  chances  are  that  both  these  things  will  happen.     A  sow  may  be  kept  in 


46 

fairly  high   condition   and   will   produce   satisfactory   litters,   provided   she   take? 
plenty  of  exercise. 

In  districts  where  corn  is  plentiful,  there  is  a  temptation  to  feed  almost  ex- 
clusively upon  corn.  Such  a  method  of  feeding  cannot  give  the  best  results, 
because  corn  does  not  furnish  enough  bone  and  muscle-forming  constituents  to 
properly  develop  the  unborn  pigs.  It  is  also  rather  too  fattening  and  heating  to 
feed  in  large  quantities  to  a  sow  at  this  stage.  It  is  true  that  corn  may  be  fed,  but, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  boar,  it  must  be  fed  with  judgment.  The  ration  recommended 
for  the  boar — namely,  equal  parts  ground  oats,  and  wheat  middlings — will  answer 
very  nicely  for  the  sow.  The  proportion  of  corn,  if  fed,  should  not  be  over  one- 
third  of  the  meal  ration,  and  wheat  middlings  or  bran  may  be  used  to  dilute  the  corn 
meal  without  oats.  In  cold  weather,  if  sows  have  a  good  deal  of  outdoor  exercise, 
they  may  be  fed  more  corn  with  safety  than  when  they  are  kept  pretty  closely 
confined. 


Fig.  13. — ^Champion  Berkshire  sow  at  tiie  Iowa  State  Fair. 


A  meal  ration  which  is  preferred  by  the  writer  to  all  others  is  equal  parts 
ground  oats  and  middlings,  leaving  out  corn  altogether.  It  is  possible,  however,  to 
use  a  wide  variety  of  feeds,  so  long  as  the  feeder  realizes  the  importance  of  furnish- 
ing considerable  bulk  and  of  restricting  the  proportion  of  heating  or  highly  fatten- 
ing feeds. 

As  in  the  case  of  the  boar,  the  sow  requires  something  besides  meal,  and  the 
furnishing  of  some  such  feeds  as  roots,  or  alfalfa,  or  red  clover  hay,  is  even  more 
important  than  in  feeding  the  boar.  Skim-milk  is  also  excellent  but  is  not  always 
available  for  sows. 

In  summer,  a  pasture  field  will  furnish  the  bulky  part  of  the  ration,  and,  if 
sows  are  in  good  condition  to  start  with  and  are  given  a  good  pasture,  they  will  get 
along  very  well  without  other  feed  for  two  or  three  months.  They  should  be  given 
a  little  meal  for  several  weeks  before  farrowing,  to  accustom  them  to  its  use,  and 
render  the  change  less  violent  when  they  are  taken  into  the  pens.    With  regard  to 


47 

the  quantity  of  meal,  the  feeder  must  be  guided  entirely  by  the  condition  of  the 
sows. 

Meal  may  be  fed  either  wet  or  dry.  When  roots  are  fed,  a  good  plan  is  to  mix 
the  dry  meal  with  pulped  roots,  though  the  feeder  has  wide  latitude  in  regard  to  the 
methods  he  may  see  fit  to  follow. 

In  Cold  Weather,  when  sows  are  fed  out-doors,  very  little  water  shoud  be  used 
in  mixing  their  feed.  It  will  be  found  better  to  furnish  them  with  water  separately, 
should  they  require  it.  If  they  are  fed  roots,  they  will  take  very  little  water  in 
cold  weather.  It  should  be  seen  to,  however,  that  they  have  water  when  they  need 
it,  and  in  hot  weather  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  water  is  very  important. 

A  record  should  he  kept  of  the  date  of  service  of  each  sow,  so  that  the  date  of 
farrowing  will  be  known  in  advance,  and  due  precaution  taken.     A  week  or  two 


Fig.  14. — Large  type  Berkshire  sow,  representing  the  type  popular  in  Canada. 


before  farrowing,  the  sow  should  be  placed  in  the  farrowing  pen,  so  as  to  become 
accustomed  to  her  surroundings  and  changed  conditions  befor^e  the  pigs  are  born. 

Constipation  is  the  bane  of  the  swine  breeder,  and  if  the  sow  becomes  con- 
stipated before  she  farrows,  the  chances  are  that  she  will  lose  her  pigs,  and  possibly 
her  own  life.  Constipation,  therefore,  is  one  of  the  main  things  to  be  guarded 
against  at  this  time.  When  it  once  occurs,  very  little  can  be  done  to  overcome  it 
and  save  the  pigs,  so  that  it  is  almost  altogether  a  matter  of  prevention.  If  a  sow 
is  taken  directly  from  a  pasture  field,  shut  up  in  a  pen,  and  fed  upon  an  exclusive 
meal  ration,  trouble  is  almost  sure  to  occur.  Eadical  changes  in  feeding  are  to  be 
avoided,  and  the  ration  should  be  kept  practically  the  same  after  taking  the  sow 
into  the  pen  as  it  was  before.  If  anything,  the  feed  should  be  made  rather  more 
sloppy,  and  the  green  feed  or  roots  should  be  supplied  the  same  as  they  were  before 
the  sow  was  taken  in.  A  small  amount  of  linseed  meal  (oil  meal)  or  ground  flax- 
seed added  to  the  ration  is  also  helpful  in  preventing  constipation.     The  wisdom 


48 

of  feeding  meal  to  sows  while  on  pasture  for  a  time  before  they  farrow  can  be 
readily  appreciated,  as  it  prevents  a  violent  change  in  their  ration.  The  sow 
should  also  be  given  a  chance  and  encouraged  to  take  exercise. 

Farrowing. — The  farrowing  pen  should  be  dry,  well  ventilated,  and  free  from 
draughts.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  the  pen  with  a  guard  rail  made  of  two  by 
eight  incli  planks  fastened  with  their  edges  against  the  sides  of  the  pen  a  little 
above  the  bed.  These  prevent  the  sow  from  lying  against  the  partition,  and  lessen 
the  danger  of  injury  to  the  little  pigs,  which  often  find  the  space  under  the  guard 
a  very  convenient  refuge. 

There  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  amount  of  bedding  which  should  be 
used,  some  maintaining  that  the  sow  should  be  liberally  supplied  with  bedding, 
and  others  that  the  bedding  should  be  limited.  The  writer's  experience  is  that 
active  sows  in  comparatively  light  condition  can  generally  be  trusted  with  a  liberal 


Fig.  1.5.— Chester  White  sow,  a  prize  winner  at  American  shows. 

amount  of  bedding,  but  sows  which  are  in  high  condition,  or  which  are  at  all 
clumsy,  had  better  be  given  only  a  moderate  amount  of  cut  straw. 

Sows  should  not  be  allowed  to  farrow  in  a  large  piggery  where  many  other 
pigs  are  kept,  unless  it  is  warm  weather  and  windows  and  doors  can  be  left  open. 
The  air  of  a  piggery  where  many  pigs  are  kept  seems  to  be  poisonous  to  little  pigs, 
when  the  weather  is  cold  and  the  doors  and  windows  have  to  be  kept  closed,  in 
spite  of  ordinarily  good  methods  of  ventilation. 

The  writer  has  had  good  results  from  sows  farrowing  in  portable  single  pens 
placed  in  a  sheltered  yard,  even  in  zero  weather.  Tarred  paper  was  put  on  the 
studding,  and  the  pen  tightly  boarded  outside  and  inside.  A  ceiling  of  slats  was 
put  in  the  pen,  and  the  space  above  the  ceiling  stuffed  with  straw.  A  window  in 
the  side,  a  small  ventilator  running  from  the  ceiling  out  through  the  roof,  and  a 
lighted  lantern  hung  in  the  pen  on  the  coldest  days  when  the  pigs  were  very  small, 
completed  the  equipment.  The  air  in  this  pen  always  felt  dry  and  comfortable, 
and  the  pigs  all  kept  healthy  and  thrifty.     (See  under  "  Portable  Pens,"  Part  VI. > 


49 

It  pays  to  treat  sows  kindly  and  to  have  them  quiet.  If  they  are  on  good 
terms  with  the  attendant  and  regard  him  as  a  friend,  there  is  much  less  danger 
of  trouble  from  nervous,  excited  sows  when  the  critical  time  of  farrowing  arrives. 

Feeding  and  Management  after  Farrowing. — After  farrowing, 
the  sow  should  not  be  disturbed,  and  if  she  lies  quietly  for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  or 
even  more,  so  much  the  better.  When  she  wants  anything  she  will  go  to  the  trough 
for  it.  At  first  she  should  have  little  more  than  a  drink.  A  very  thin  slop  of 
middlings  and  water  will  answer  very  well.  If  the  weather  is  cold,  tepid  water 
should  be  used.  During  the  first  three  days,  great  care  must  be  exercised  not  to 
over  feed,  and  tlie  ration  should  be  kept  very  light.  After  this,  the  feed  may  be 
gradually  increased,  taking  a  week  or  ten  days  to  reach  full  feed.  A  good  mother 
with  a  large  litter  requires  very  liberal  feeding,  but  if  the  litter  is  small,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  reduce  the  feed. 


Fis.  16. — Champion  Poland-China  sow  at  the  Illinois  State  Fair. 


Many  different  rations  are  used  for  nursing  sows.  Equal  parts  of  finely 
ground  oats  and  wheat  middlings,  allowed  to  soak  between  feeds,  makes  a  most 
excellent  ration.  If  sweet  skim-milk  can  be  added  to  the  mixture,  it  makes  an 
almost  ideal  ration.  Corn  may  be  used  as  recommended  for  sows  before  farrowing, 
and  in  larger  quantities  if  skim-milk  is  available.  A  certain  amount  of  roots  and 
green  feed  are  always  in  order,  but  the  sow  should  not  be  expected  to  subsist  upon 
such  feeds  at  this  time.  A  limited  amount  of  bulky,  succulent  feed  helps  to  keep 
the  sow  healthy. 

The  sow's  udder  may  become  hard  and  inflamed.  If  so,  it  is  a  good  plan  to 
bathe  thoroughly  with  hot  water  and  apply  equal  parts  of  lard  and  turpentine. 

When  the  pigs  are  weaned,  the  feed  should  be  cut  down  to  check  the  secretion 
of  milk.  Dry  oats  make  a  safe  feed  for  the  sow  for  a  few  days  after  the  pigs  arc- 
weaned.  If  the  udder  gets  very  full,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  turn  the  sow  in  with  the 
pigs  once  a  day  for  a  few  days. 


50 

Sows  which  Eat  their  Pigs. — Occasionally  a  sow  will  be  found  which 
will  eat  her  pigs.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  the  tendency  to  eat  their  young  is 
sometimes  caused  by  allowing  sows  to  eat  their  afterbirth.  As  a  precautionary 
measure,  the  afterbirth  should  be  promptly  removed  from  the  pen.  There  is  little 
doubt  that  the  trouble  is  generally  caused  by  a  fevered  condition  in  the  sow,  often 
induced  by  injudicious  feeding  before  farrowing,  or  even  after  farrowing.  A 
remedy  that  has  been  suggested  is  to  feed  the  sow  salt  pork,  but  the  danger  is  that 
once  the  sow  has  eaten  her  pigs  she  acquires  the  habit  and  is  likely  to  do  it  again. 
Unless  she  is  a  very  valuable  sow,  it  is  safer  not  to  give  her  a  second  opportunity, 
but  to  turn  her  into  the  feed  lot  and  fatten  her  for  the  butcher. 

The  Young  Pigs. 

Feeding  and  Management  before  Weaning.— When  the  pigs  are 
born,  the  attendant  should  be  on  hand  to  see  that  everything  goes  well.    If  the  pigs 


Fig.  17. — Group  of  young  Large  Yorkshire  sows.     Note  the  uniformity  of  type  and 

the  excellent  quality  throughout. 


are  strong  and  the  sow  lies  quiet,  it  is  better  not  to  interfere.  Sows  that  have 
been  properly  fed  and  given  sufficient  exercise  seldom  have  difficulty  in  farrowing. 

If  the  pigs  seem  somewhat  weak,  or  if  the  sow  is  very  restless,  it  is  safer  to 
place  the  pigs  in  a  well-bedded  box  or  basket  to  keep  them  out  of  the  way  until  all 
are  born.  If  the  pen  is  chilly,  a  bottle  of  hot  water  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
basket  and  covered  with  a  blanket,  with  another  blanket  over  the  top  of  the  basket, 
will  help  keep  up  the  vitality  of  the  pigs. 

The  pigs  should  be  placed  to  the  teat  to  suck  as  soon  as  possible.  The  weaker 
the  pigs,  or  the  colder  the  pen,  the  more  important  an  early  drink  of  the  mother's 
milk  becomes.  If  parturition  is  not  unduly  protracted,  and  if  the  pigs  are  strong, 
lively,  and  comfortable,  they  may  wait  for  their  first  drink  until  all  are  born,  but 
in  such  matters  the  attendant  must  use  his  judgment. 

In  cases  of  difficult  parturition,  a  pig  that  is  apparently  lifeless  can  often  be 
revived  by  opening  its  mouth  and  blowing  into  it.  To  be  successful,  this  operation 
must  ])e  performed  as  soon  as  it  is  born.  A  chilled  pig  can  sometimes  be  revived 
by  immersing  up  to  the  neck  in  water  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about  08  degrees. 


51 

When  removed  from  the  water,  it  should  be  rubbed  dry,  and  induced  to  suck  if 
possible. 

As  soon  as  the  sow  appears  to  have  settled  down  quietly,  it  is  best  to  put  the 
little  pigs  with  her  and  leave  them  together.  It  is  well  not  to  interfere  except  when 
it  is  absolutely  necessary. 

By  the  time  the  pigs  are  about  three  weeks  old  they  will  have  learned  to  eat. 
If  at  all  possible,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  give  them  access  to  another  pen  in  which  is 
kept  a  small  trough.  Here  they  can  be  fed  a  little  skim-milk  with  a  very  little 
middlings  stirred  into  it.  The  quantity  of  middlings  can  be  increased  gradually 
as  the  pigs  grow  older.  If  they  can  be  taught  to  nibble  at  sugar-beets  or  mangels 
during  this  time,  so  much  the  better.  A  small  amount  of  soaked  whole  corn,  or 
almost  any  other  grain,  scattered  on  the  floor  of  the  pen,  will  cause  them  to  take 
exercise  while  hunting  for  it.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  provide  an  extra  pen,  the 
sow  may  be  shut  out  of  the  pen  while  the  pigs  are  being  fed.  Many  people  simply 
allow  the  young  pigs  to  eat  with  the  sow,  and  many  good  pigs  are  raised  in  this 
way,  but  better  results  will  be  obtained  if  the  pigs  can  be  fed  separately. 


Exercise  is  very  important  for  young  pigs,  and  every  possible  means  of 
securing  it  must  be  adopted.  If  they  are  kept  in  a  small  pen  with  the  mother, 
some  of  the  best  of  them  will  likely  become  too  fat,  and  probably  sicken  and  die. 
Outdoor  exercise  is  especially  beneficial,  but  pigs  should  be  protected  from  cold 
winds  or  from  a  very  hot  sun.  If  the  sow  is  turned  out  with  her  pigs,  it  is  not 
well  to  give  her  a  very  large  range  at  lirst,  as  she  is  likely  to  travel  too  far  and 
unduly  tire  the  pigs. 

Boar  Pigs  not  intended  for  breeding  purposes  should  be  castrated  before 
weaning,  to  get  the  best  results,  though  there  is  not  much  danger  from  castrating 
at  a  later  date,  provided  care  is  exercised  in  connection  with  the  operation.  Clean 
hands,  a  clean  knife,  and  the  use  of  a  disinfectant  upon  the  wound  will  obviate 
practically  all  danger. 

Ruptured  Pigs.  —Pigs  ruptured  in  the  scrotum  may  be  easily  castrated 
as  follows:  Have  an  assistant  hold  the  pig  up  by  the  hind  legs.  In  making  the 
incision,  cut  only  through  the  skin  of  the  scrotum,  being  careful  not  to  cut  the 
membrane  or  sac  which  envelops  the  testicle.  Then  draw  out  the  testicle  enclosed 
in  its  membrane,  and,  at  the  same  time,  work  the  intestine  back  into  the  body  of 
the  pig.  With  the  pig  held  as  described,  the  intestine  jwill  go  back  to  its  place  with 
little  or  no  assistance.  Having  drawn  out  the  testicle  far  enough,  tie  a  strong 
string  firmly  around  the  cord  of  the  testicle  (including  the  membrane),  and  then 
cut  away  the  testicle  (enclosed  in  its  membrane)  just  outside  of  where  the  string 
is  tied.  Leave  the  ends  of  the  string  three  or  four  inches  long,  so  that  they  hang 
outside  the  wound.  If  the  string  does  not  come  away  in  a  couple  of  weeks,  it  may 
be  pulled  out. 

If  the  rupture  is  only  on  one  side,  the  remaining  testicle  may  be  removed  in 
the  ordinary  way.  The  scrotum  should  be  washed  with  disinfectant  before  any 
incision  is  made.  The  hands  of  the  operator  and  the  knife  should  also  be  washed 
with  disinfectant,  and  the  string  should  be  soaked  in  disinfectant  before  it  is  u^ed. 
The  incision  in  the  scrotum  should  extend  well  downwards  to  facilitate  drainage 
/rem  the  wound.     These  simple  precautions  assure  success. 

The  writer  has  employed  this  method  successfully,  and  when  the  wound  heals 
no  person  could  tell  that  the  pig  had  been  ruptured. 


53 

Feeding  and  Management  after  Weaning. — There  is  considerable 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  best  age  at  which  to  wean  pigs.  Some  advocate 
leaving  the  pigs  with  the  sow  for  ten  or  twelve  weeks — in  fact,  the  sows  is 
allowed  practically  to  wean  her  own  pigs.  For  producing  show  pigs  this 
method  may  answer  very  well,  but  it  means  only  one  litter  a  year;  at  any 
rate,  it  does  not  admit  of  two  litters  a  year.  The  average  farmer  will  find 
it  more  proiitable  to  wean  his  pigs  early  enough  to  permit  two  litters  a  year 
to  be  raised.  If  the  young  pigs  have  been  taught  to  eat  as  described,  and  skim- 
milk  is  available,  they  may  be  weaned  successfully  when  six  weeks  old.  It  is  true 
that  many  pigs  are  weaned  before  they  are  six  weeks  old,  but  it  is  seldom  advisable 
to  do  so  if  they  appear  to  be  thriving  with  the  sow.  If  skim-milk  is  not  available, 
it  is  generally  advisable  to  defer  weaning  for  two  weeks  more,  and  special  pains 
should  be  taken  to  have  the  pigs  well  accustomed  to  their  new  feed,  and  eating 
heartily  before  they  are  weaned.  (See  Part  III,  "Substitutes  for  Skim  Milk"*)- 
Skim-milk  and  middlings  make  about  the  best  feed  for  young  pigs  after 
weaning.  If  the  middlings  are  fine  and  floury,  which  is  not  very  likely  to  occur 
under  present-day  methods  of  milling,  they  will  sometimes  cause  indigestion, 
which  may  show  itself  either  in  the  form  of  diarrhoea  or  constipation.  Diluting 
the  middlings  with  a  little  bran  or  finely  ground  oats  will  help  prevent  the  trouble. 
Soaking  or  scalding  the  middlings  will  also  tend  to  prevent  digestive  troubles. 
Scalding  the  middlings  is  especially  useful  when  no  skim-milk  is  to  be  had,  as  it 
makes  the  pigs  like  the  feed  better.  To  scald  the  middlings,  it  is  best  to  pour  boil- 
ing water  on  them,  cover  the  vessel,  and  allow  to  stand  several  hours,  or  from  one 
time  of  feeding  until  the  next.  When  the  pigs  are  first  weaned,  it  is  better  to  feed 
four  times  a  day,  giving  only  a  small  quantity  of  feed  each  time,  and  taking  care 
to  keep  the  trough  clean.  When  well  started,  they  may  be  changed  to  three  feeds 
a  day. 

It  is  not  well  to  be  in  a  hurry  to  commence  feeding  grain.  Generally  speaking, ' 
when  pigs  are  about  three  months  old  a  little  grain  may  be  introduced  into  their 
ration.  Two  parts  of  middlings  and  one  part  of  corn  meal  or  ground  barley,  mixed 
with  skim-milk  to  form  a  slop,  make  an  excellent  ration  for  growing  pigs.  As  the 
pigs  grow  older  the  proportion  of  grain  to  middlings  may  be  increased,  but  at  no 
time  should  they  be  fed  exclusively  or  almost  exclusively  upon  corn,  because  corn 
is  a.  poor  bone  and  muscle-former.  The  importance  of  feeding  supplementary 
feeds  with  corn  has  been  pretty  fully  discussed  under  the  work  of  experiment 
stations.  The  need  of  such  feeds  is  most  important  during  the  early  life.  A  few 
roots  will  be  found  most  helpful  in  keeping  young  pigs  healthy  during  the  winter, 
and  green  feed  of  almost  any  kind  will  answer  the  purpose  during  the  summer. 
The  feeder  has  a  wide  range  of  feeds  to  choose  from,  and  if  he  understood  some- 
thing of  their  nature  he  should  have  no  difficulty  in  compounding  a  ration  which 
will  give  satisfaction. 

The  aim  should  be  to  develop  bone  and  muscle  during  the  early  stages  of 
growth,  and,  while  the  pigs  should  be  thrifty  and  sleek  in  the  hair,  they  should 
not  be  fed  in  such  a  way  as  to  overload  them  with  fat.  This  is  especially  true  of 
pigs  which  are  intended  for  breeding  purposes,  and  which  should  be  carried  right 
through  to  breeding  age  upon  feeds  which  stimulate  growth  and  general  vigor 
rather  than  fat.  A  reasonable  amount  of  fat  is  not  objectionable,  but  the  develop- 
ment of  the  frame,  the  muscular  system,  and  the  vital  organs  must  not  be  neglected, 
if  a  satisfactory  breeding  animal  is  to  be  produced.  Variety  in  feeds  and  plenty 
of  exercise  are  very  essential  features  in  raising  an  animal  that  will  possess  all- 
round  development. 


oo 


Cost  of  Raising' Pigs. — The  Ontario  Agricultural  College  obtained  some 
interesting  figures  relative  to  the  cost  of  raising  young  pigs  until  six  weeks  old,  at 
which  age  they  are  commonly  weaned. 

Feeds  were  valued  as  follows :  Meal  of  all  kinds,  induding  bran  and  middlinss. 
$20.00  per  ton;  roots,  $3.00  per  ton;   skim-milk,  15  cents  per  100  pounds. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  sow  raises  two  litters  a  year,  and  that  she  nurses  each 
litter  six  weeks.  This  would  leave  about  nine  and  one-quarter  months  during  the 
year  that  the  sow  would  not  be  nursing  pigs,  and  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  sow 
during  the  time  she  is  dry  is  estimated  at  75  cents  a  month,  it  being  assumed  that 
the  sow  is  fed  as  economically  as  possible  during  that  time.  The  maintenance 
during  the  nine  and  one-quarter  months  at  75  cents  per  month  amounts  to  $6.94, 
or,  in  round  numbers,  $7.00.  Half  of  this  amount,  $3.50,  is  charged  against  each 
litter,  in  addition  to  the  cost  of  feed  consumed  by  the  sow  and  pigs  before  the  pigs 
are  weaned. 

Eisk,  interest  on  investment,  labor,  and  manure  are  left  out  of  the  calculation. 

Twelve  litters  of  pigs  were  used,  which  were  weaned  at  six  weeks  old  in  each 
case. 

The  following  table  gives  particulars  of  each  litter: 


Sow  and 
Litter. 

No.  of  Pigs 
in  Litter. 

How  Bred. 

Cost  of  Feeding 
Sow  and  Litter 
for  Six  Weeks. 

No.  1 

4 
9 
6 
5 
8 
3 
9 
8 
8 
8 
6 
4 

Pure  Yorkshire   

$3  20 

3  08 

"    2 

Berkshire  sire,  Tamworth  dam 

"    3 

Pure  Yorkshire 

3  87 

"    4 

Yorkshire  sire,  Tamworth  dam   

3  70 

"    5 

Yorkshire  sire,  Tamworth  dam  

3  04 

"    6 

Yorkshire  sire,  Berkshire  dam 

Berkshire  sire,  Yorkshire  dam 

Pure  Yorkshire 

5  85 

"    7 

4  31 

-    8 

4  33 

"    9 

Pure  Tamworth 

3  88 

"  10 

Yorkshire  sire,  Tamworth  dam 

3  94 

"  11 

"  12 

Tamworth  sire,  Berkshire  dam   

Tamworth  sire,  Berkshire  dam 

3  33 
2  37 

Average 

6.1 

3  74 

Total  and  Average  Costs. — To  arrive  at  the  total  cost  of  the  pigs  at  six 
weeks  old,  the  service  fee  and  half  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  sow  when  dry  are 
charged  against  the  average  cost  of  maintaining  the  sow  and  litter  for  six  weeks, 
making  the  total  cost  as  follows: 

Service  fee  $1  00 

Half  cost  of  maintaining  dry  sow  (V^  of  $7.00)   3  50 

Average  cost  of  feed  for  sow  and  litter 3  74 

Total $8  24 


Average  number  of  pigs  in  litter,  6^^. 
Average  cost  per  pig  six  weeks  old,  $1.27. 

Variations  in  Cost. — If  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  dry  sow  were  placed 
at  $1.00  per  month,  it  would  bring  the  cost  of  the  young  pigs  to  $1,44  each  at  six 
weeks  old.     It  is  probably  a  safe  statement,  therefore,  that  young  pigs  can  be 


54 

raised  to  the  age  of  six  weeks  at  $1.50  each,  making  some  allowance  for  items  not 
considered  in  the  experiment  described. 

J.  H.  Grisdale,  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Canada,  estimates  that  a  breeding 
sow  can  be  maintained  during  a  whole  year  at  from  $12.00  to  $15.00,  under  care- 
ful management,  and  produce  two  litters  during  the  year.  This  approximates, 
very  closely,  the  Ontario  results,  which,  omitting  service  fee,  make  the  cost  of 
maintaining  a  sow  half  a  year,  and  one  litter  of  pigs  for  six  weeks,  $7.24. 

Since  the  above  calculations  were  made,  there  has  been  a  very  material 
increase  in  the  cost  of  feeds,  but  if  we  add  50  per  cent,  to  the  cost  of  maintenance 
all  round,  the  cost  of  a  pig  six  weeks  old  is  about  $1.85,  which  is  a  very  moderate 
cost, 

FATTENING. 

Many  of  the  problems  connected  with  the  fattening  of  hogs  have  already  been 
discussed  under  experiment  station  work.  Corn  may  be  used  much  more  freely 
for  fattening  hogs  than  for  those  intended  for  breeding,  but  experiments  show 
conclusively  that  corn  has  its  limitations,  even  for  fattening,  and  that  it  is  greatly 
improved  by  having  some  feed  richer  in  protein  combined  with  it.  The  importance 
of  using  some  sort  of  supplementary  feed  with  almost  any  meal  ration  in  order  to 
give  bulk  and  variety  has  also  been  demonstrated,  and  the  important  place  which 
pasture  may  play  in  the  fattening  of  hogs  has  been  quite  fully  dealt  with.  There 
are  a  few  general  facts  of  more  or  less  importance  remaining  to  be  given  under  this 
heading. 

Winter  Feeding. — Generally  speaking,  winter  feeding  is  more  expensive 
than  summer  feeding.  Part  of  the  extra  feed  required  in  winter  is  probably  due  to 
the  fact  that  more  feed  is  required  to  keep  up  the  heat  of  the  body  during  cold 
weather.  There  is  little  doubt,  however,  that  much  of  the  advantage  of  summer 
feeding  is  due  to  more  sanitary  surroundings — that  is,  more  fresh  air  and  out- 
door exercise,  coupled  with  more  succulent  feed,  which  seems  to  aid  digestion.  The 
man  who  feeds  hogs  in  winter,  therefore,  should  aim  to  approach  summer  con- 
ditions as  nearly  as  possible.  He  cannot  get  summer  temperature,  it  is  true,  but 
he  can  provide  a  fair  amount  of  fresh  air,  and  feeds  that  will  keep  the  digestive 
organs  in  good  condition.  It  is  just  here  that  a  man  who  grows  a  few  roots  for 
winter  feeding  has  a  great  advantage  over  the  man  who  does  not.  Skim-milk, 
buttermilk,  and  alfalfa  may  also  be  made  to  perform  a  useful  part  in  giving 
variety  and  aiding  the  digestive  organs  to  perform  their  functions  properly. 

Quantity  of  Feed — The  test  of  the  skill  of  the  feeder  is  his  ability  to 
keep  just  slightly  within  the  appetite  of  the  animals  under  his  charge.  He  must 
watch  the  animals  closely  and  see  that  they  clean  up  with  apparent  relish  all  that 
he  gives  them.  Feed  left  in  the  trough  is  a  sign  that  something  is  wrong  with  the 
methods  employed,  and  to  have  to  cut  back  in  the  quantity  of  feed  means  a  loss  of 
time.  The  quantity  should  be  so  gauged  that  there  is  a  gradual  increase  as  fatten- 
ing advances,  and  radical  changes,  either  in  quantity  or  kind,  should  be  avoided. 
To  be  successful,  the  feeder  must  learn  the  lesson  that  all  changes  should  be  made 
gradually,  and  that  undue  haste  in  fattening  may  mean  serious  delay  in  the  process, 
together  with  a  waste  of  feed. 

Regularity  and  Comfort. — Regularity  in  time  of  feeding  is  necessary 
to  regularity  in  the  appetite  of  the  animal.  The  animal  which  is  fed  at  the  same 
hours  every  day  will  take  more  feed  with  less  danger  of  surfeiting  than  the  one  fed 
at  any  time  to  suit  the  convenience  of  the  feeder. 


55 


Dry,  comfortable  quarters,  and  sanitary  conditions  generally  in  pen  or  feed  lot, 
are  important  factors  in  securing  satisfactory  gains,  and  in  avoiding  disastrous 
loss  through  disease. 

Cost  Increases  with  Age.— Prof.  Henry,  in  ''Feeds  and  Feeding," 
gives  a  very  instructive  table,  compiled  from  results  from  numerous  experiment 
stations,  showing  the  feed  consumed  per  100  pounds  gain  by  hogs  of  different 
weights.    Following  is  an  abbreviation  of  the  table  as  given  in  Prof.  Henry's  book : 


Weight  of  Animals 
in  Pounds. 


Total 

Number  of 
Animals  Fed 


15  to  50. 

50  to  100. 
100  to  150. 
150  to  200. 
200  to  250. 
250  to  300. 
300  to  350. 


174 
417 
495 
489 
300 
223 
105 


Average 

Feed  Eaten 

Per  Day. 


lbs. 
2.23 
3.35 
4.79 
5.91 
6.57 
7.40 
7.50 


Feed  Eaten 

Daily  per 

100  lbs. 

Live  Weight. 


lbs. 
5.95 
4.32 
3.75 
3.43 
2.91 
2.74 
2.35 


Average 

Gain 
Per  Day. 


lbs. 
.76 
.83 
1.10 
1.24 
1.33 
1.46 
1.40 


Feed  for 

100  lbs. 

Gain. 


lbs. 
293 
400 
437 
482 
498 
511 
535 


The  table  shows  that  the  heavier  hogs  made  more  rapid  gains  and  consumed 
less  feed  per  100  pounds  of  their  live  weight,  but  there  was  a  steady  increase  in 
the  amount  of  feed  required  for  100  pounds  gain  as  fattening  advanced. 

A  similar  result  was  obtained  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  with  36 
pure-bred  pigs  of  different  breeds,  as  shown  by  the  following  table : 


Live  Weight  of  Hogs. 

Meal  Required  for  100  pounds 
Increase  in  Weight. 

54  to    82  pounds 

310  pounds. 
375  pounds. 
438  pounds. 
455  pounds. 

85  to  115  p  junds 

115  to  148  pounds 

148  to  170  pounds 

These  figures,  together  with  others  that  might  be  given,  show  very  clearly 
that  the  cost  of  production  steadily  increases  as  the  hogs  become  older. 

Correctives.  — ^Swine  appear  to  have  a  craving  for  what  might  be  called 
"  unnatural "  substances.  This  is  especially  true  of  hogs  which  are  kept  in  con- 
finement, which  will  eat  greedily  such  substances  as  charcoal,  ashes,  mortar,  soft 
coal,  and  rotten  wood.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  these  substances  are  not  good 
for  hogs,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  charcoal  and  wood  ashes  have  a  beneficial 
effect.  Charcoal  made  from  corn  cobs  answers  very  well.  It  is  a  good  practice  to 
supply  hogs  with  charcoal,  especially  during  the  winter  months,  but,  if  the  hogs 
have  not  had  any  charcoal  for  a  considerable  time  and  are  then  given  a  liberal 
.supply,  there  is  danger  that  they  may  take  too  much  for  their  own  good.  The 
same  caution  must  be  observed  in  regard  to  salt. 

Theodore  Louis,  a  veteran  American  swine  breeder,  recommends  the  f ollowincj : 

"  Take  3  bushels  of  charcoal,  8  lbs.  salt,  2  quarts  of  air-slaked  lime,  and  1 

bushel  of  wood  ashes.     Break  the  charcoal  well  down,  and  thoroughly  mix  with 

other  ingredients.    Then  take  ll^  lbs.  copperas,  dissolve  in  hot  water,  and  with  a 


56 

watering  pot  sprinkle  over  the  whole  mass,  and  mix  thoroughly  again.  Put  this 
mixture  in  boxes  and  place  where  hogs  of  all  ages  can  eat  it  at  pleasure." 

This  mixture  is  spoken  of  very  highly  by  many  who  have  used  it. 

Another  very  good  mixture  can  be  made  up  of  one  part  salt,  one  part  sulphur, 
and  about  ten  parts  of  wood  ashes.  This  is  placed  in  boxes  where  pigs  have  free 
access  to  it. 

Prof.  Dietrich  recommends  keeping  salt,  charcoal,  air-slaked  lime,  bone  meal, 
and  wood  ashes  in  separate  compartments  of  a  trough,  so  that  the  pigs  can  take 
what  they  desire  of  any  one  of  the  substances.  Sods  make  a  good  corrective  for 
swine.  A  wagon-load  or  two  of  sods  placed  conveniently  near  the  piggery  so  that 
the  feeder  can  throw  one  or  two  into  each  pen  occasionally  will  be  found  very  bene- 
ficial during  the  winter. 

Hogs  that  are  out-doors  during  the  summer  and  have  access  to  earth  and 
vegetable  matter  have  little  need  of  other  correctives. 

Money  Returns  for  Feed  Consumed  by  Hogs.— Some  interesting 
results  have  been  obtained  by  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  relating  to  the 
value  it  is  possible  to  obtain  for  feed  consumed  by  hogs,  when  the  hogs  are  sold  at 
varying  prices  per  pound  live  weight.  The  investigation  includes  hogs  fed  by  the 
College,  as  well  as  a  large  number  fed  by  farmers  throughout  the  Province.  The 
following  summary  shows  the  scope  of  the  investigation: 

Number   of  hogs    297 

Weight   when   marketed    56,718  pounds. 

Average   weight  per   hog    190*9  " 

Total  meal  consumed,  which  included  barley, 

peas,  oats,  corn,  middlings,  and  bran 165,911       " 

Total  skim-milk  consumed  113,500       " 

Total  roots  consumed    64,600       " 

Miscellaneous    feeds,    such    as    pasture,    green 

feeds,  etc.,  valued  by  experimenters  at...  $77  00 

The  pigs  are  valued  at  $1.50  each  at  weaning  time.  This  amount,  together 
with  the  value  of  the  skim-milk  at  20  cents  per  cwt.,  roots  at  10  cents  per  bushel, 
and  the  miscellaneous  feeds  valued  at  $77.00,  is  first  deducted  from  the  gross  pro- 
ceeds derived  from  the  assumed  sale  of  the  hogs  at  each  of  the  different  prices  per 
pound,  and  the  remainder  represents  the  cash  received  for  the  meal  consumed  by 
the  hogs.  The  following  table  shows  the  prices  obtained  for  feed,  under  each 
valuation  of  the  hogs  when  sold : 

Prices  Realized  for  Feeds  Consumed  hy  297  Hog.'?. 


Assumed  Selling  Prices  of  Hogs, 
Live  Weight. 


1  f  sold  at  4%  cents  per  pound 
If  sold  at  5  cents  per  pound  . 
1  f  sold  at  SJ  cents  per  pound 
If  sold  at  6  cents  per  pound. 
If  sold  at  6J  cents  per  pound 


Meal,  including 

Mixed  Grain, 

Middlings    and 

Bran. 


Per  ton. 
$20  45 


23 
27 
30 
34 


87 
29 
71 
13 


Milk. 


Per  cwt. 
$0.20 
.20 
.20 
.20 
.20 


Roots. 


Per  Bush. 
$0.10 
.10 
.10 
.10 
.10 


or 

Figures  such  as  the  above,  obtained  from  a  large  number  of  hogs  fed  under 
varying  conditions,  carry  considerable  weight.  They  show  that  the  hog  is  able  to 
give  a  good  account  of  the  feed  he  consumes,  provided  he  is  handled  with  intelli- 
gence. Of  course,  the  figures  in  the  table  are  averages.  Some  tests  showed  larger 
returns  and  some  did  not  show  as  large,  but  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  two  tests 
which  showed  exceptionally  good  results  were  omitted  from  the  computation  in 
order  to  make  the  results  as  conservative  as  possible. 


PART  V. 

CURING  PORK 

Farmers'  Bulletin  183  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  by  Professor 
Andrew  Boss,  gives  much  useful  information  regarding  the  curing  of  meats,  and 
has  been  liberally  drawn  upon  in  the  preparation  of  material  for  this  section. 

Cooling. — "  Meat  must  be  properly  and  thoroughly  cooled  to  insure  good 
keeping  qualities  when  cured.  If  salted  before  the  animal  heat  is  out,  the  shrink- 
age of  the  muscles  causes  the  retention  of  injurious  gases,  giving  an  offensive  odor 
to  the  meat.  Neither  should  meat  be  frozen  when  salted,  as  the  action  of  the  frost 
will  prevent  the  proper  penetration  of  the  salt,  and  uneven  curing  will  result. 
While  the  temperature  cannot  well  be  controlled  on  the  farm,  it  is  possible  to 
slaughter  when  the  weather  is  favorable  to  cooling  the  carcass  before  the  surface 
freezes.  The  most  desirable  temperature  for  cooling  meat  is  34  to  40  degrees 
Fahrenheit.  It  is  important,  also,  that  meat  be  cured  as  soon  as  cooled,  and  while 
3till  fresh.  Ordinarily,  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours  after  slaughtering  will  allow 
sufficient  time  for  cooling." 

Vessels  for  Curing.— "A  clean,  hard-wood  barrel  is  a  suitable  vessel  in 
which  to  cure  meat.  A  barrel  made  for  the  purpose  is  best,  but  where  it  cannot  be 
had,  a  molasses  or  syrup  barrel  will  answer.  The  important  point  is  to  have  it 
clean  and  tight  enough  to  prevent  leakage.  A  large  stone  jar  is  the  best  vessel 
that  can  be  had.  A  barrel  or  a  jar  that  has  once  held  meat  may  be  used  again  and 
again,  unless  meat  has  been  spoiled  in  it.  If  used  repeatedly,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  scald  it  out  thoroughly  each  time  before  packing  with  fresh  meat." 

Brine  Curing  and  Dry  (Curing. — "Brine-cured  meats  are  best  for 
farm  use,  for  the  reason  that  a  suitable  place  for  dry  curing  is  not  usually  obtain- 
able. It  is  also  less  trouble  to  pack  the  meat  in  a  barrel  and  pour  on  a  brine  than 
to  go  over  it  three  or  four  times  to  rub  in  the  salt.  The  brining  method  also  gives 
better  protection  from  insects  and  vermin.  Trouble  is  sometimes  experienced  in 
keeping  brine,  but  if  pure  water  is  used  and  directions  followed  in  making  the 
brine  (see  next  paragraph),  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  keeping  it  for  a  reason- 
able length  of  time.  During  warm  weather,  brine  should  be  closely  watched.  If 
it  becomes  *  ropy,'  like  syrup,  it  should  be  boiled,  or  a  new  brine  made.  A  cool, 
moist  cellar  is  the  best  place  for  brine  curing.  Dry  curing  may  be  done  success- 
fully in  a  cellar  also,  though  even  more  moisture  is  needed  to  effect  a  thorough 
cure.  The  cellar  should  be  dark  and  tight  enough  to  prevent  flies  and  vermin 
from  damaging  the  meat." 


58 

Plain  Salt  Pork.  — "  Rub  each  piece  of  meat  with  fine,  common  salt  and 
pack  closely  in  a  barrel.  Let  stand  over  night.  The  next  day  weigh  out  ten 
pounds  of  salt  and  two  ounces  of  saltpetre  to  each  100  pounds  of  meat  and  dissolve 
in  four  gallons  of  boiling  water.  When  cold  pour  this  brine  over  the  meat,  cover, 
and  weight  down  to  keep  it  under  the  brine.  Meat  will  pack  best  if  cut  into  pieces 
about  six  inches  square.    The  pork  should  be  kept  in  the  brine  until  used." 

To  keep  the  meat  under  the  brine  use  a  loose-fitting  wooden  cover,  and  weight 
with  a  heavy  stone  or  several  vitrified  bricks.  The  cover  should  be  made  of  some 
hard  wood,  oak  preferred.     Such  woods  as  pine  or  cedar  will  taint  the  brine. 

Sugar-cured  Hams  and  Bacon.— "When  the  meat  is  cooled,  rub  each 
piece  with  salt  and  allow  it  to  drain  over  night.  Then  pack  it  in  a  barrel  with  the 
hams  and  shoulders  in  the  bottom,  using  the  strips  of  bacon  to  fill  in  between  or 
to  put  on  the  top.  Weigh  out  for  each  100  pounds  of  meat  8  pounds  of  salt,  2 
pounds  of  brown  sugar  and  2  ounces  of  saltpetre.  Dissolve  all  in  four  gallons  ol 
water,  and  cover  the  meat  with  the  brine.  For  summer  use  it  will  be  safer  to  boil 
the  brine  before  using.  In  that  case  it  should  be  thoroughly  cooled  before  it  is 
used.  For  winter  curing  it  is  not  necessary  to  boil  the  brine.  Bacon  strips  should 
remain  in  this  brine  four  to  six  weeks ;  hams,  six  to  eight  weeks.  This  is  a  standard 
recipe,  and  has  given  the  best  of  satisfaction.  Hams  and  bacon  cured  in  the  spring 
will  keep  right  through  the  summer  after  they  are  smoked." 

The  length  of  time  the  meat  is  kept  in  the  brine  depends  upon  the  size  of  the 
pieces.    A  large  ham  takes  more  time  to  cure  than  a  small  one. 

Dry-cured  Pork. — "  For  each  100  pounds  of  meat  weigh  out  5  pounds  of 
salt,  2  pounds  of  granulated  sugar,  and  2  ounces  of  saltpetre,  and  mix  them 
thoroughly.  Rub  the  meat  once  every  three  days  with  a  third  of  the  mixture. 
While  the  meat  is  curing  it  is  best  to  have  it  packed  in  a  barrel  or  a  tight  box. 
For  the  sake  of  convenience,  it  is  advisable  to  have  two  barrel's,  and  to  transfer 
the  meat  from  one  to  the  other  each  time  it  is  rubbed.  After  the  last  rubbing  the 
meat  should  lie  in  the  barrel  for  a  week  or  ten  days,  when  it  will  be  cured  and 
ready  to  smoke.  To  cure  nicely  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  cool  and  rather  moist 
place  in  which  to  keep  it.  This  recipe  should  not  be  used  where  the  meat  must  be 
kept  in  a  warm  and  dry  place,  as  the  preservatives  will  not  penetrate  evenly  and 
uniformly." 

Smoking. —"  The  smoke-house  should  be  eight  or  ten  feet  high  to  give  the 
best  results,  and  of  a  size  suited  to  the  amount  of  meat  likely  to  be  smoked.  One 
6  by  8  feet  will  be  large  enough  for  ordinary  farm  use.  Ample  ventilation  should 
be  provided  to  carry  off  the  warm  air  in  order  to  prevent  overheating  the  meat. 
Small  openings  under  the  eaves  or  a  chimney  in  the  roof  will  be  sufficient  if 
arranged  so  as  to  be  easily  controlled.  A  fire-pot  outside  of  the  house  with  a  flue 
through  which  the  smoke  may  be  conducted  to  the  meat  chamber  gives  the  best 
conditions  for  smoking.  When  this  cannot  well  be  arranged,  a  fire  may  be  bui'.t 
on  the  floor  of  the  house  and  the  meat  shielded  by  a  sheet  of  metal.  Where  the 
meat  can  be  hung  six  or  seven  feet  above  the  fire,  this  precaution  need  not  be  taken. 
The  construction  should  be  such  as  to  allow  the  smoke  to  pass  up  freely  over  the 
meat  and  out  of  the  house,  though  rapid  circulation  is  at  the  expense  of  the  fuel. 

"  Brick  or  stone  houses  are  best,  though  the  first  cost  is  greater  than  if  they 
are  built  of  lumber.  Large  dry  goods  boxes,  and  even  barrels,  may  be  made  to 
serve  as  smoke-houses  where  only  small  amounts  of  meat  are  to  be  smoked,  but  a 
permanent  place  is  much  more  satisfactory. 


59 

"  The  best  fuel  for  smoking  meats  is  green  hickory  or  maple  wood  smothered 
with  sawdust  of  the  same  material.  Hard  wood  of  any  kind  is  preferable  to  soft 
wood.  Corn-cobs  are  the  best  substitute  for  hardwood,  and  may  be  used  if 
desired. 

"  Meat  that  is  to  be  smoked  should  be  removed  from  the  brine  two  or  three 
days  before  being  put  in  the  smoke-house.  Washing  the  meat  in  tepid  water  and 
scrubbing  clean  with  a  brush  is  a  good  practice.  The  pieces  should  then  be  hung 
up  to  drain  for  a  day  or  two.  When  drained  they  may  be  hung  in  the  smoke- 
house. All  should  be  suspended  below  the  ventilators,  and  should  hang  so  that 
no  two  pieces  come  in  contact. 

"  A  slow  fire  may  then  be  started,  warming  up  the  meat  gradually.  During 
the  winter  months  in  cold  climates  it  is  best  to  keep  the  fire  going  continually 
until  the  smoking  is  complete,  holding  the  temperature  at  about  the  same  point. 
During  the  spring  months  and  in  the  summer,  a  light  fire  may  be  started  every 
second  or  third  day  for  a  couple  of  weeks,  the  meat  being  allowed  to  hang  in  the 
smoke-house  until  sufficiently  colored.  When  the  fire  is  kept  going  steadily,  twenty- 
four  to  thirty-six  hours  will  be  required  to  finish  one  lot  of  meat.  Smoke  will  not 
penetrate  frozen  meat.  As  soon  as  smoked  sufficiently  the  meat  should  be  cooled 
by  opening  the  ventilators  or  doors.  When  hard  and  firm  it  may  be  packed 
away." 

Keeping  Smoked  Meats. — "  A  dry,  cool  cellar,  or  an  attic  with  free  cir- 
culation, will  be  a  satisfactory  place  for  smoked  meats  at  all  seasons,  if  it  is  kept 
dark  and  flies  are  excluded." 

"If  to  be  held  only  a  short  time,  hams  and  bacon  will  need  only  to  be  hung 
out  separately  without  covering.  For  longer  keeping  it  will  be  necessary  to  wrap 
them  first  in  paper,  and  then  in  burlaps,  canvas,  or  muslin,  and  bury  them  in  a 
grain  bin  (or  in  wood  ashes)  or  other  suitable  place,  the  object  being  to  gain  a 
uniform  temperature"  and  to  keep  away  insects.  For  absolute  safekeeping  for  an 
indefinite  period  of  time,  it  is  essential  that  the  meat  be  thoroughly  cured.  After 
it  is  smoked  and  has  become  dry  on  the  surface,  it  should  be  wrapped  in  parch- 
ment paper  or  old  newspapers.  Then  inclose  in  heavy  muslin  or  canvas,  and  cover 
with  yellow  wash  or  ordinary  lime  whitewash,  glue  being  added  to  the  white- 
wash. Hang  each  piece  out  so  that  it  does  not  come  in  contact  with  other  pieces. 
Do  not  stack  in  piles." 

Trying  Out  Lard. — "  Only  the  best  of  fat  should  be  used  for  choice  lard. 
Leaf  fat  is  the  best.  The  back  strip  of  the  side  also  makes  nice  lard,  as  do  the 
ham,  shoulder,  and  neck  trimmings.  Gut  fat  should  never  be  mixed  with  the  leaf 
and  back  fat.  It  makes  a  strong-smelling  lard  and  should  be  kept  separate.  All 
scraps  of  lean  meat  should  be  cut  out  of  the  fat  before  trying  out,  as  they  are 
very  likely  to  stick  to  the  kettle  and  get  scorched,  giving  an  unpleasant  flavor  to 
the  lard.  When  preparing  the  fat  for  trying,  cut  it  into  pieces  from  1  to  IV2  inches 
square.  They  should  be  nearly^  equal  in  size,  so  that  they  will  try  out  in  about 
the  same  time.  Fill  a  clean  kettle  about  three-fourths  full,  and  put  in  a  quart 
of  water,  or,  if  convenient,  a  quart  of  hot  lard.  One  or  the  other  is  necessary 
to  prevent  the  fat  from  burning  before  the  heat  is  sufficient  to  bring  out  the 
grease.  Keep  the  kettle  over  a  moderate  fire  until  the  cracklings  are  brown  and 
light  enough  to  float.  Frequent  stirring  is  necessary  to  prevent  burning.  When 
done,  remove  from  the  stove  and  allow  to  cool  slightly,  and  then  strain  through 
a  muslin  cloth  into  a  suitable  jar  or  crock.  Stirring  while  the  lard  is  cooling 
tends  to  whiten  it  and  make  it  smoother.  A  quarter  of  a  pound  of  saleratus 
(baking  soda)  added  to  each  100  pounds  of  fat  has  a  like  effect." 


PART  VI. 
BUILDINGS 

The  question  of  buildings  for  swine  is  such  a  complicated  one  that  it  seems 
almost  a  hopeless  task  to  attempt  a  discussion  of  the  subject.  Almost  every  piggery 
that  is  built  possesses  certain  features  peculiar  to  itself  and  rendered  necessary 
by  the  circumstances  which  it  is  intended  to  meet.  All  that  can  be  attempted 
is  to  discuss  the  most  desirable  features  of  a  piggery,  for  the  general  guidance  of 
those  who  wish  to  build,  but  every  man  will  have  to  adapt  his  building  to  his 
own  peculiar  requirements. 

The  most  important  qualities  of  a  piggery  are  dryness,  ventilation,  light, 
freedom  from  draughts,  reasonable  warmth,  and  convenience. 

Dryness. — Dryness  is  closely  associated  with  ventilation,  but  is  also  influ- 
enced hy  the  material  of  which  the  building  is  constructed.  Good  results  cannot 
be  obtained  in  a  damp  pen,  and  dripping  walls  are  a  pretty  sure  indication  of 
impending  disaster.  Stone  and  cement  walls  are  very  cold  in  winter  and  chill 
the  air  of  the  pen,  causing  it  to  deposit  its  moisture  upon  their  surface.  In  a 
short  time  the  wall  becomes  quite  wet,  and  trouble  is  stored  up  for  the  pigs. 
A  hollow  cement  or  hollow  tile  wall  is  much  less  objectionable  than  a  solid  one, 
but  there  is  little  doubt  that  wooden  walls,  constructed  in  such  a  way  as  to  form 
a  complete  dead-air  space  inside  are  the  best. 

The  floors  and  foundation  may  be  constructed  of  cement  concrete,  and  the 
foundation  may  rise  about  two  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  floor.  This  will  pre- 
serve the  wood  of  which  the  walls  are  constructed  and  it  is  not  likely  to  prove 
at  all  injurious  to  the  pigs. 

A  very  good  wall  can  be  made  by  setting  two-by-four  scantlings  on  end,  and 
first  boarding  inside  and  out  with  rough  lumber.  This  rough  lumber  should 
then  be  covered  with  tarred  paper,  and  then  the  walls  should  be  tightly  boarded 
up  with  matched  lumber.  If  preferred,  the  outside  of  the  pen  may  be  clap- 
boarded.  Smooth,  matched  lumber  is  best  for  the  inside  of  the  pen.  Patent 
building  paper  may  be  used  outside. 

If  it  is  thought  desirable  to  have  a  loft  over  the  pen,  the  ceiling  can  be  made 
of  poles,  placed  a  few  inches  apart,  and  well  covered  with  straw.  The  straw 
absorbs  moisture  and  helps  to  keep  the  pen  dry.  Where  this  is  done,  the  straw 
should  be  renewed  at  least  every  year,  otherwise  it  becomes  a  harbor  for  dust 
and  disease  germs. 

Ventilation.— Thorough  ventilation  is  a  great  help  in  preserving  dryness, 
but  it  is  a  difficult  thing  to  secure  in  a  piggery  without  unduly  lowering  the 
temperature.  It  is  an  aid  to  ventilation  to  provide  a  large  air  space;  in  other 
words,  to  have  a  high  ceiling.  Some  breeders  have  no  loft  over  the  piggery,  but 
have  the  space  above  the  pigs  extend  to  the  roof.  This  gives  more  air  space 
and  makes  ventilation  a  simpler  problem,  but  it  necessitates  lining  the  under 
side  of  the  rafters  with  matched  lumber  in  order  to  prevent  the  pen  from  becoming 

too  cold. 

There  are  two  well-known  methods  of  ventilation.  One  of  these  is  the  King 
system.  In  this  system,  fresh  air  is  admitted  by  constructing  shafts  in  the  walls 
at  intervals  of  about  fifteen  feet.  The  shafts  mav  be  about  four  bv  six  inches, 
inside  measurement,  and  open  outside  near  the  ground,  and  inside  at  the  ceiling. 
Provision  should  be  made  for  closing,  or  partially  closing,  these  intakes  when 
cold  air  is  admitted  too  rapidly.     The  shafts  for  carrying  out  the  foul  air  should 

[601 


(51 


be  about  eight  inches  square,  starting  near  the  floor  and  running  out  through 
the  roof.  It  is  usually  more  convenient  to  place  these  outlet  shafts  beside  the 
walls,  in  which  case,  after  passing  through  the  ceiling,  they  may  follow  the 
slope  of  the  roof  to  the  peak,  where  they  can  be  given  outlet.  In  any  case,  the 
top  of  the  shaft  should  be  higher  than  the  peak  of  the  ro(^.     The  inside  of  the 


"^^^^^7:^=5:^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 


Pig.  18. — Method  of  admitting  fresh  air. 


shaft  should  be  perfectly  smooth,  and   there  should  be  no  sudden  turns  in  its 
course,     A  right-angled  turn  will  render  an  outlet  shaft  practically  useless. 

The  second  method  takes  in  the  fresh  air  at,  or  near,  the  floor,  and  the  foul 
air  escapes  through  shafts  which  open  at  the  ceiling,  and  run  straight  up  through 
the  roof.  As  in  the  other  case,  the  top  of  the  shaft  should  be  higher  than  the 
peak  of  the  roof.  Fig.  18  shows  how  the  inlet  is  constructed.  The  drawing  shews 
the  outside  structure  made  of  concrete,  but  it  may  be  made  of  wood  if  desired. 


62 

Both  inlets  and  outlets  should  be  fitted  with  slides  on  the  inside  of  the  pen,  so 
that  the  inflow  and  outflow  of  air  may  be  regulated  to  suit  circumstances.  There 
should  also  be  a  guard  placed  in  front  of  the  opening,  several  inches  from  the 
wall,  to  turn  the  current  of  cold  air  upwards,  and  thus  prevent  a  direct  draught 
into  the  pen. 

If  a  feed  cooker  is  used,  it  could  be  utilized  to  great  advantage  in  assisting 
ventilation.  If  the  building  is  not  a  very  long  one,  the  chimney  may  be  con- 
structed at  the  opposite  end  of  the  building  from  the  feed  cooker,  and  the  pipe 
from  the  feed  cooker  run  the  whole  length  of  the  building  before  it  enters  the 
chimney.  In  a  long  building  the  chimney  may  he  placed  about  the  centre,  so  as 
not  to  have  too  great  length  of  stove-pipe.  The  heat  from  the  stove-pipe  has  a 
wonderful  influence  in  aiding  the  circulation  of  air  in  the  pen,  as  well  as  modify- 
ing the  temperature  and  helping  to  keep  the  air  dry. 

In  fact,  where  winter  litters  are  raised  in  large  pens,  some  helpful  device 
like  this  is  absolutely  necessary. 

Light. — Light,  especially  sunlight,  has  a  wonderful  influence  in  promoting 
health.  So  far  as  possible,  the  windows  should  be  on  the  south  side  of  the  building, 
because  the  south  side  gets  the  most  sun  and  is  least  exposed  to  cold  winds. 

Draughts.  —While  ventilation  is  necessary,  draughts  are  extremely  injurious, 
and  their  prevention  should  be  kept  in  view  when  building. 

Warmth. — Warmth  is  a  good  thing,  but  it  should  not  be  secured  at  the 
expense  of  ventilation.  A  somewhat  cold  pen,  well  ventilated,  but  free  from 
draughts,  is  preferable  to  a  warm  pen  where  the  air  is  damp  and  foul,  and  the 
pigs  will  suffer  less  discomfort  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  Very  young 
pigs  require  warmer  quarters  than  older  ones,  and  when  a  sow  farrows  in  winter 
special  pains  should  be  taken  to  secure  warmth  and  freedom  from  draughts.  If 
ishe  is  in  a  large  piggery  it  is  often  a  help  to  lay  poles  across  the  tops  of  the 
partitions  over  the  bed  and  then  cover  these  poles  with  straw. 

Plan  of  Piggery. 

A  feature  of  this  piggery  is  the  placing  of  the  pens  and  out-door  yards  on 
the  south  side  of  the  building.  The  main  windows  are  placed  on  the  south  side 
also,  thus  letting  the  sunlight  freely  into  the  pens.  The  main  objection  to  the 
plan  is  the  fact  that  it  is  not  economical  of  space,  because  the  same  passage  could 
be  made  to  serve  another  row  of  pens  on  the  opposite  side.  By  making  the  build- 
ing about  twelve  feet  wider,  a  row  of  pens  could  be  put  on  each  side  of  the  passage, 
in  which  case  it  would  be  necessary  to  provide  for  a  feed-room,  because  it  would 
not  be  practicable  to  have  the  feed-bins  in  the  passage.  The  feed  passage  conTd 
be  made  narrower  if  the  feed-bins  were  removed. 

Troughs. — Better  made  of  cement.  Eight  inches  high  next  to  the  passage, 
four  inches  high  next  to  the  feeding  pen,  and  ten  inches  wide,  inside  measure- 
ment, are  suitable  dimensions. 

The  dotted  line  running  along  the  back  of  the  feeding  floor  indicates  the 
drain,  which  may  be  given  a  fall  towards  either  end  of  the  pen,  to  suit  cir- 
cumstances. 

The  beds  should  be  raised  several  inches  above  the  feeding  floor,  and  given 
a  slight  fall  towards  the  drain.  The  feeding  floor  should  be  given  a  fall  from 
the  trough  to  the  drain. 

Floors  are  cement.  Cement  makes  a  durable,  clean,  sanitary  floor.  A  cement 
floor  may  be  made  as  dry  and  practically  as  warm  as  a  wooden  floor  by  putting 


63 
Explanation 

'•  w  " — Windows,  which  should  be  large,  especially  on  the  south  side. 

«'  d  " — .Doors  leading  from  pens  to  outdoor  yards. 

«« di  •' — Doors  which  constitute  part  of  partitions  when  closed,  but  which  can  be 
swung  back,  confining  the  pigs  to  the  apartment  containing  the  bed,  and  leaving  a 
continuous  passage  for  cleaning  out  the  pens,  taking  pigs  to  the  loading  chute,  etc. 

"  d2  " Doors  leading  from  pen  to  ipassage.     Note  how  the  partitions  are  set  back 

to  economize  trough  room.    These  doors  should  be  at  least  eighteen  inches  wide. 


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Fig.  19. — Plan  of  piggery. 


"  m.d.  " — Door  through  which  manure  is  carried  when  cleaning  the  pen. 

"l.d."— Door  leading  to  loading  chute. 

"  p  "—Partitions,  three  feet  six  inches  high.  These  keep  the  bedding  in  place  and 
help  protect  from  draughts. 

V  —Ventilating  shafts  opening  at  the  celling  and  running  up  through  the  roof. 

I._Fresh  air  inlets.  (See  under  ventilation.)  If  pens  were  made  on  each  side  of  the 
passage,  the  Inlets  would  have  to  be  made  at  the  ends  of  the  passage. 


64 

a  coat  of  pitch  on  top  of  the  grouting  before  the  facing,  or  finishing  layer,  of  sand 
and  cement  is  put  down.  For  this  purpose,  a  mixture  of  about  eight  parts  of 
pitch  to  one  part  of  coal  tar,  applied  hot,  is  very  effective.  Coal  tar  alone  may 
be  used,  and  is  cheaper  than  the  mixture  just  mentioned,  as  well  as  more  easily 
applied.  It  is  not  so  effective  as  pitch,  but  makes  a  very  marked  improvement 
in  the  warmth  and  dryness  of  the  floor.  If  a  person  does  not  feel  inclined  to 
go  to  the  expense  of  treating  the  whole  floor  with  pitch  or  coal  tar,  he  will  find 
it  well  worth  the  extra  cost  to  treat  at  least  the  portion  occupied  by  the  beds. 
If  the  pens  are  used  for  farrowing,  it  is  usually  safer  to  put  a  plank  over-lay  on 


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3  ^ 


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Fig.  20. — ^Front  view  of  portable  pen  for  wintering  sows. 


Fig.  21. — End  view  of  pen  shown  in  Fig.  20. 

the  floor  of  the  part  occupied  by  the  bed.  This  over-lay,  or  platform,  is  better 
to  be  made  so  that  it  can  be  lifted  up  when  it  is  necessary  to  clean  and  disinfect 
the  pens. 

The  surface  of  the  floors  should  be  finished  by  using  only  a  wooden  float. 
If  trowelled  down  smooth,  they  are  too  slippery,  and  are  dangerous  to  the  pigs. 


Portable  Pens. 

The  accompanying  sketches  (Figs.  20  and  21)  show  a  very  cheap  and  easily- 
constructed  pen,  suitable  for  winter  quarters  for  breeding  sows.  The  pen  is  sixteen 
feet  long  by  eight  feet  wide.     It  is  seven  feet  high  in  front  and  thi-ee  and  a  half 


65 

feet  high  at  the  rear.  It  is  boarded  with  cheap  lumber,  but  all  cracks  are 
securely  battened.  It  should  be  practically  wind  and  rain  proof.  The  opening 
i?  at  one  corner,  and  the  pen  should  be  set  with  the  opening  towards  the  south. 
A  door  is  not  necessary.  Plenty  of  bedding  should  be  supplied  and  the  pen  should 
be  banked  up  outside  with  fresh  horse  manure  to  a  depth  of  about  two  feet,  in 
order  to  prevent  draughts  about  the  floor.  This  method  of  housing  sows  is  better 
than  close  confinement  in  warm  pens,  and  will  be  found  to  answer  very  well  when 
other  means  to  provide  shelter  and  exercise  are  not  available. 


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The  A-shaped  Pen.— The  accompanying  sketches  (Figs  22  and  23)  show 
a  convenient  portable  pen,  which  may  be  used  for  a  sow  and  her  litter,  or  as  a 
shelter  for  two  or  three  sows.  The  description  is  taken  from  Bulletin  153  of 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station.  The  pen  is  constructed  by  nailing  inch 
boards  on  six  joists,  each  2  by  4  inches,  and  7  feet  8  inches  long,  for  the  floor. 
Beneath  the  joists  are  nailed  three  stringers,  each  2  by  6  inches,  and  8  feet  long, 
which  serve  ae  runners  for  moving  the  house.  Next,  a  plate  piece  2  by  8  inches, 
and  9  feet  4  inches  long,  is  spiked  to  the  ends  of  the  joists,  having  the  bottom 
of  the  2  inch  by  8  inch  even  with  the  bottom  of  the  joists,  which  will  allow  it  to 
project  3  inches  above  the  floor.     It  will  also  extend  out  7  inches  at  each  end. 


66 


This  2  inch  by  8  inch  forms  a  plate  to  which  the  rafters  and  roof  boards  are  nailed. 
The  7-inch  extensions  of  the  plate  at  the  ends  support  the  cornice,  and  protect 
the  lower  corners  of  the  roof,  which  otherwise  would  be  easily  split  off.  The  2-inch 
by  8-inch  planks,  besides  strengthening  the  house,  raise  the  rafters  and  the  roof 
boards  nailed  to  them  at  least  three  inches  off  the  floor,  and  thereby  increase 
the  floor  space  and  capacity  of  the  Jiouse. 

If  the  house  is  to  be  used  in  cold  weather,  a  door  will  be  necessary,  which 
may  be  hung  on  hinges  or  made  to  slide  up  out  of  the  way.  The  doorway  is  shown 
in  the  drawings  20  inches  by  30  inches.  In  the  case  of  very  large  sows,  it  would 
be  better  to  make  the  door  three  feet  high. 


Fig.  23. — End  view  of  A-shaped  pen. 

The  dotted  lines  in  the  drawings  indicate  the  scantlings  which  constitute  the 
framework  of  the  pen. 

The  ventilator  is  made  by  cutting  the  upper  ends  from  two  roof  boards,  oppo- 
site one  another.  Then  2-inch  by  2-inch  pieces  are  nailed  on  top  of  the  battens 
on  each  side  of  the  opening,  meeting  at  the  top,  and  boards  are  nailed  on  top  of 
these  strips  on  each  side  of  the  roof.  The  upper  ends  of  these  boards  meet  at 
the  top,  and  the  lower  ends  come  an  inch  or  two  past  the  lower  sides  of  the  opening. 

It  is  recommended  to  have  a  door  at  the  back  of  the  building  similar  to  the 
one  in  front,  for  purposes  of  ventilation  in  hot  weather;  also  a  small  opening 
near  the  peak  at  the  rear  of  the  building,  which  could  be  covered  with  a  slide, 
and  used  to  assist  ventilation  under  some  circumstances. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  runners  are  likely  to  decay,  some  prefer  to  have 
them  not  fastened  to  the  building,  so  that  they  can  be  renewed  conveniently.    In 


67 

the  plan  shown,  the  runners  are  fastened  to  the  structure,  but  they  could  be 
attached  by  means  of  bolts,  so  that  it  would  not  be  diflficult  to  renew  them.  An 
application  of  tar  would  save  them  many  years. 

Portable  Cold  Weather  Farrowing  Pen.— The  farrowing  pen  shown 
in  the  illustrations  (Figs.  24  and  25)  is  the  one  referred  to  when  discussing  the 
management  of  the  sow.  The  pen  is  8  feet  square  and  five  feet  from  the  ground 
to  the  eaves.  The  base,  the  corner  posts,  and  the  two  plates  are  made  of  4-inch  by 
4-inch  scantling,  and  the  remainder  of  the  frame  is  made  of  2-inch  by  4-inch 


2. '  X  Ai 


II    X  IH 


10.    f.  I  i*- 


I  1     K    /  '*- 


Li    K  u 


<^ 


l'-    9' 


Fig.  24.— Side  view  of  portable  farrowing  pen. 


scantling.  The  dotted  lines  in  the  drawings  show  the  position  of  the  scantlings 
comprising  the  frame. 

An  opening  should  be  made  in  the  gable  at  the  end  farthest  from  tlie  ventil- 
ator. Then,  if  a  few  strips  are  laid  across  the  plates,  straw  can  be  shoved  in 
through  the  opening,  filling  the  peak  of  the  roof,  and  making  the  building  warmer. 
As  shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  the  ventilator  shaft  is  run  down  to  the  ceiling. 

The  roof  may  be  shingled,  or  made  of  boards  with  battens  over  the  cracks. 
The  battens  are  not  shown  in  the  drawing  except  in  the  end  view  of  the  roof. 
Outside,  the  pen  is  single  boarded,  with  battens  over  the  cracks.  Inside,  tarred 
paper  may  be  put  on  the  studding  and  then  tightly  boarded,  but  a  better  job  will 


68 

be  made  bj'  first  covering  the  studding  with  rough  lumber,  covering  this  with  tarred 
paper,  and  then  tightly  boarding  on  the  inside. 

The  window  comprises  three  12-inch  by  14-inch  panes  set  in  a  sash,  which 
Bhould  be  hinged  at  the  top  so  that  it  will  swing  inwards.  In  hot  weather  it  can 
be  swung  up  to  the  ceiling  and  fastened  there,  allowing  a  good  circulation  of  air. 

The  pen  may  be  built  on  runners,  or  temporary  skids  may  be  provided  when 
it  is  necessary  to  move  the  pen.  In  very  cold  weather,  a  lighted  lantern  hung  in 
the  pen  will  make  it  quite  comfortable  for  new-born  pigs.     By  the  time  the  pigs 


H-     1^     ^ 


?• 


Fig.  25. — End  view  of  portable  farrowing  pen. 


are  twenty-four  hours  old,  the  pen  will  need  no  artificial  heat.  A  pen  such  as 
this  will  be  found  much  safer  for  winter  litters  than  a  large  building  where  other 
pigs  are  kept. 

The  various  plans  which  have  been  submitted  are  capable  of  many  modifica- 
tions, and  the  man  gifted  with  a  little  ingenuity  may  be  able  to  improve  upon 
them  so  far  as  his  conditions  are  concerned.  They  are  presented  in  the  hope 
that  they  may  prove  suggestive  of  ideas  to  the  man  who  intends  to  build,  and  each 
man  must  decide  for  himself  what  modifications  would  render  them  most  suitable 
to  his  circumstances. 


PART  VII. 
SANITATION 

The  hog  is  a  difficult  animal  to  treat  when  attacked  by  disease,  and  hence  the 
breeder  must  adopt  every  means  within  his  power  to  prevent  disease  from  entering 
the  herd.  One  can  never  be  too  careful  in  this  matter,  and  the  proverb :  "  An 
ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure,"  is  especially  applicable  in  the 
management  of  swine. 

Cleanliness. — Filth  is  an  excellent  harbor  and  breeding  ground  for  disease 
germs.  Care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  pens  cleaned  frequently,  and  the  pens 
should  be  so  constructed  that  there  are  no  places  for  filth  to  accumulate  where  it 
cannot  be  cleaned  out.  Water-tight  floors  with  as  few  cracks  and  corners  as  pos- 
sible, together  with  adequate  drainage,  are  important  in  a  piggery. 

Disinfection. — Every  swine  breeder  or  feeder  should  acquire  the  habit  of 
using  disinfectants  freely.  There  are  numerous  proprietary  or  patent  disinfect- 
ants upon  the  market,  and,  so  far  as  the  writer  is  aware,  the  well-known  ones  are 
quite  effective  if  used  according  to  directions  accompanying  them.  Crude  carbolic 
acid  and  creolin  are  excellent  disinfectants.  A  five  per  cent,  solution  of  either,  or 
five  parts  of  the  disinfectant  to  one  hundred  parts  of  water,  will  be  found  effective 
for  disinfecting  pens.  Chloride  of  lime  is  also  good,  and  is  especially  recommended 
by  some  for  pens  where  cholera  has  existed.  Five  or  six  ounces  of  chloride  of  lime 
to  a  gallon  of  water  makes  an  effective  disinfectant. 

In  case  of  disease,  all  bedding  and  manure  should  be  removed  and  burned. 
Loose  boards  or  planks  should  also  be  removed,  and  all  adhering  filth  scraped  off 
the  floors,  partitions  and  troughs.  It  is  of  little  use  applying  a  disinfectant  on 
top  of  a  coating  of  filth  which  may  conceal  and  protect  millions  of  disease  germs. 
A  good  spray  pump  is  best  for  applying  the  disinfectant,  so  as  to  force  the  liquid 
into  every  crack  and  cranny,  and  it  is  not  wise  to  be  economical  in  the  use  of  the 
disinfectant.  Every  part  of  the  pen  should  be  thoroughly  saturated  with  the 
solution. 

If  there  are  small  outside  yards  attached  to  the  piggery,  they  should  be  floored 
with  concrete,  and  then  they  can  be  disinfected  in  the  same  way  as  the  interior  of 
the  building.  If  they  are  not  floored  it  is  almost  impossible  to  disinfect  them 
thoroughly,  and  they  are  a  constant  menace  to  the  health  of  the  animals. 

Pasture  lots  and  large  paddocks  or  feed  lots  are  more  difficult  to  deal  with. 
Liberal  liming  and  plowing  up  is  about  all  that  can  be  done.  In  case  of  some 
diseases,  such  as  cholera,  it  is  safer  to  remove  the  hogs  to  other  feed  lots  or 
pastures  for  at  least  several  months.  Of  course,  the  lots  could  be  disinfected  by 
saturating  the  surface  soil  with  a  good  disinfectant,  but  it  would  be  an  expensive 
operation. 

Systematic  disinfection  of  the  premises  should  not  be  neglected  even  if  there  is 
no  disease.  A  small  spray  pump  and  a  constant  supply  of  disinfectant  to  be  used 
at  frequent  intervals  about  the  buildings  constitute  an  important  part  of  the  equip- 
ment of  a  piggery.  At  least  once  a  year,  a  general  house-cleaning  is  advisable, 
and  whitewashing  the  walls,  ceiling,  and  partitions  with  lime  and  crude  carbolic 
acid  will  go  a  long  way  towards  keeping  the  building  sanitary.  A  good  pint  of 
crude  carbolic  acid  to  three  gallons  of  whitewash  will  answer  the  purpose. 

Quarantine. — Provision  should  be  made  in  large  herds  for  quarters  where 
hogs  that  have  been  purchased,  or  brought  home  from  shows,  can  be  kept  entirely 

[69] 


70 

separate  from  the  rest  of  the  herd  for  at  least  three  weeks.  The  plan  of  using 
portable  pens  and  dividing  the  herd  up  into  small  groups  has  a  marked  advantage 
over  keeping  the  hogs  in  a  large  piggery,  in  case  a  contagious  disease  breaks  out. 
With  the  portable  pens,  all  hogs  are  not  exposed,  and  it  is  a  simpler  matter  to  effect 
a  quarantine. 

Hog  cholera  is  the  most  dangerous  contagious  disease  that  the  swine  breeder 
has  to  contend  with.  In  case  of  an  outbreak  of  either  cholera  or  swine  plague  in 
the  neighborhood,  a  most  rigid  quarantine  should  be  put  into  force.  There  should 
be  no  visiting  back  and  forth  by  either  man  or  beast  between  infected  farms  and 
those  which  are  clear,  because  the  virus  which  causes  the  disease  may  be  easily 
carried  on  the  boots  of  the  persons  or  the  feet  of  animals.  Even  dogs  have  been 
known  to  carry  the  disease  from  one  farm  to  another.  Dogs  should  be  tied  up 
until  an  outbreak  of  this  disease  is  under  control.  Carcasses  of  hogs  which  die 
should  be  burned  or  buried  so  deeply  that  they  are  not  likely  to  be  dug  up  by  dogs 
or  other  animals,  and  disinfection  should  be  systematic  and  thorough. 

Feeding  for  Health. — Feeding  has  been  dealt  with  -in  another  place,  but 
the  importance  of  feeding  in  such  a  way  as  to  maintain  vigor  cannot  be  too  deeply 
impressed.  Hogs  which  are  fed  in  an  injudicious  manner  have  their  vitality 
weakened  and  are  more  likely  to  contract  disease  than  those  which  have  been 
furnished  a  suitable  ration. 

Light.— Sunlight  is  a  good  disinfectant,  and  an  effort  should  be  made  to 
admit  plenty  of  direct  sunligliL  into  all  pens.  It  must  be  remembered  that  disease 
germs  flourish  best  in  the  dark. 

Ventilation  and 'Dryness. — To  the  difficulty  of  securing  adequate  ven- 
tilation in  the  piggery,  may  be  traced  a  great  many  troubles  which  affect  pigs. 
Wlieumatism,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and  scours,  the  last  mentioned  being  most 
common  m  young  pigs,  are  among  the  commonest  winter  troubles  of  swine,  and 
are  generally  caused  by  lack  of  ventilation  and  consequent  dampness  in  the 
building.  Unless  ventilation  is  provided  and  the  pens  kept  reasonably  dry,  good 
results  cannot  be  expected. 

Lice. — When  lice  once  become  well  established  in  a  herd,  it  requires  a  good 
deal  of  painstaking  effort  to  eradicate  them.  They  may  be  the  cause  of  serious 
loss,  and  lousy  pigs  cannot  give  as  good  returns  for  feed  consumed  as  those  which 
are  kept  clean.  It  is  also  claimed  by  good  authorities  that  lice  weaken  the  vitality 
of  hogs  and  render  them  more  susceptible  to  disease. 

Almost  any  of  the  better  known  dips  will  prove  effective  if  used  according  to 
directions.  A  two  per  cent,  solution  of  creolin  (2  parts  creolin  to  100  parts  water) 
makes  i  good  dip  for  lice.  Coal  oil  is  very  effective,  but  is  apt  to  blister,  and 
should  be  applied  lightly.  Crude  petroleum  is  excellent.  It  is  inexpensive,  does 
not  blister,  and  is  more  lasting  in  its  effects  than  some  patent  preparations. 

In  applying  a  dip,  care  must  be  taken  to  wet  thoroughly  all  parts  of  the 
animal's  body.  Lice  are  commonly  found  on  the  inside  of  the  legs,  about  the  ears, 
or  in  the  folds  of  the  skin  on  any  part  of  the  body,  and,  unless  the  application  of 
dip  is  thoroughly  made,  many  of  them  will  escape.  Dipping  is  one  of  the  most 
effective  methods,  and,  when  large  numbers  are  to  be  treated,  it  is  necessary  to  have 
a  special  dipping  vat  through  which  the  hogs  are  compelled  to  swim.  The  dip 
may  be  applied  also  by  means  of  a  good  spray  pump,  which  forces  the  dip  through 
the  hair,  and  into  all  crevices.     It  may  also  be  applied  by  means  of  a  broom. 


71 

using  a  pail  to  hold  the  dip.  By  brushing  the  dip  into  the  hair  the  job  can  be  done 
thoroughly. 

When  lice  have  been  in  a  building  for  some  time,  it  will  be  necessary  to  treat 
the  building  in  practically  the  same  way  as  recommended  for  disinfection,  the 
disinfectants  being  also  good  insecticides. 

In  treating  for  lice,  one  application  of  insecticide  is  seldom  suflBcient,  because 
there  will  be  many  eggs  to  hatch  out  to  give  a  new  brood.  A  second  treatment, 
about  a  week  after  the  first,  should  always  be  given,  and  a  third  treatment  would 
not  be  out  of  place. 


PART  VIII. 

COMMON  DISEASES  OF  SWINE 

Hog  Choleea^  (Swine  Fever). 

This  highly  infectious  disease  is  due  to  a  germ,  and  causes  a  loss  of  many 
millions  of  dollars  annually  in  the  United  States.  In  Canada  it  is  not  so 
prevalent,  thanks,  mainly,  to  the  very  vigorous  measures  adopted  for  its  eradi- 
cation. In  spite,  however,  of  all  efforts,  it  continues  to  inflict  considerable  loss 
upon  Canadian  swine  growers.  It  causes  an  inflammation  and  ulceration  of  the 
stomach  and  intestines,  enlargement  and  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  glands, 
and  various  other  disturbances.  The  most  characteristic  lesions  of  the  disease  are 
inflamed  areas  on  the  lining  membrane  of  the  intestines  and  stomach,  which  even- 
tually change  into  raised  ulcers,  circular  in  outline. 

Symptoms. — The  hog  usually  goes  off  by  itself  and  lies  in  a  cool  place. 
The  back  is  arched,  the  hind  parts  appear  stiff,  causing  the  hog  to  stagger  and 
cross  the  hind  legs  as  it  walks.  There  is  a  watery  secretion  from  the  eyelids, 
which  later  becomes  thicker  in  character,  causing  the  lids  to  adhere.  Owing  to 
increased  secretions  from  the  skin,  dirt  adheres  to  it,  giving  the  animal  a  dirty 
appearance.  Alternate  diarrhoea  and  constipation  is  common,  and  the  diarrhoea! 
discharge  is  thin  and  watery,  and  some  times  mixed  with  blood. 

Acute  cases  usually  terminate  in  death  in  from  two  days  to  two  weeks,  but 
sometimes  death  occurs  before  the  symptoms  become  well  marked. 

In  the  subacute  or  mild  form,  the  symptoms  may  escape  notice,  but  there  is 
usually  a  slight  fever,  with  loss  of  appetite,  constipation,  and  diarrhoea.  The  pig 
generally  recovers  in  a  few  days. 

The  disease  is  said  to  be  chronic  when  it  lasts  for  a  considerable  time,  possibly 
several  weeks  or  even  two  or  three  months.  Often  the  pig  becomes  a  complete 
wreck,  and  death  at  last  occurs. 

Treatment.  — When  a  hog  once  contracts  the  disease,  little  can  be  done  in 
the  way  of  treatment.  Preventive  measures  are  the  only  effective  means  for 
fighting  this  disease.  In  Canada,  treatment  for  hog  cholera  is  not  allowed,  it 
being  compulsory  to  slaughter  affected  herds.  Full  .particulars  regarding  this  law 
may  be  obtained  by  writing  the  Veterinary  Director-General,  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, Ottawa,  Ontario. 

Swine  Plague. 

Swine  plague  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  hog  cholera,  and  often  accompanies 
the  latter  disease.     It  is  an  infectious  disease  caused  by  a  germ,  and  the  symptoms 


72 

are  similar  to  those  of  cholera.  As  a  rule,  the  lungs  and  pleural  membrane  are 
inflamed,  but  the  button-like  ulcers  on  the  lining  membrane  of  the  intestines  and 
stomach,'  which  are  characteristic  of  cholera,  are  absent.  The  lining  membrane 
of  the  stomach  and  intestines  is  commonly  inflamed,  and  sometimes  ulcers  are 
present,  but  the  ulcers  differ  from  those  of  cholera,  being  more  hollowed  out  and 
less  button-like  in  appearance. 

The  germs  which  cause  swine  plague  are  more  easily  destroyed  and  are  less 
readily  carried  from  one  farm  to  another  than  those  of  cholera.  Up  to  the  present, 
medicinal  treatment  has  not  been  successful,  and  the  farmer  must  rely  upon  pre- 
ventive measures.  (See  under  Sanitation.)  This  disease  comes  under  the  same 
law  as  cholera. 

Bronchitis. 

Bronchitis  commonly  attacks  young,  growing  pigs,  and  may  be  caused  by  dust, 
lung-worms,  or  damp,  chilly  quarters.  A  distressing  cough,  especially  when  dis- 
turbed from  their  bed,  is  one  of  the  most  prominent  symptoms.  Many  of  the  pigs 
become  unthrifty,  and,  if  the  disease  attacks  very  young  pigs,  it  is  likely  to  cause 
death. 

Dry,  comfortable  quarters  and  nourishing  feed  will  often  pull  the  pigs 
through",  and  care  should  be  taken  in  making  the  pens  and  yards  sanitary  before 
any  more  young  pigs  are  put  in  them. 

Pneumonia. 

Pneumonia  is  more  serious  than  bronchitis  and  frequently  causes  death  in  a 
very  short  time.  It  often  results  from  a  severe  cold,  and  may  also  be  brought  on 
by  over-exertion,  such  as  being  chased,  or  driven  at  too  rapid  a  rate.  Damp  and 
unsanitary  conditions  in  the  pen  may  also  be  a  cause.  A  cough,  fever,  and  hurried 
or  labored  respiration  are  among  the  symptoms. 

About  all  the  farmer  can  do  is  to  aim  to  prevent  the  disease.  If  he  has  a  case 
to  deal  with,  careful  nursing  is  the  main  thing.  Comfortable,  well-ventilated 
quarters,  and  a  light,  sloppy  diet,  are  important.  Daily  doses  of  castor  oil  will 
help  keep  the  bowels  active,  and  if  the  weather  is  cold  the  animal  should  be  kept 
covered  with  a  blanket.  Treatment  is  not  very  satisfactory,  as  it  is  difficult  to 
nurse  a  very  sick  pig. 

Tuberculosis. 

The  following  extracts  are  quoted  from  a  report  issued  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry : 

"  Reports  gathered  from  the  various  meat-packing  centres  of  the  United 
States  show  tuberculosis  of  hogs  to  be  on  the  increase,  and  causing  heavier  loss  to 
raiser  and  packer  alike  than  any  other  disease." 

"  Statistics  show  that  when  there  were  over  56,000,000  hogs  in  this  country 
their  value  at  that  time  was  over  $339,000,000.  Federal  inspection  at  the  abattoirs 
of  the  country  show  two  per  cent,  of  the  hogs  slaughtered  to  be  affected  with 
tuberculosis.  Reports  from  Europe  show  a  far  more  widespread  infection,  that 
runs  from  5.5  to  7.5  per  cent." 

"  Hogs  from  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  Texas  are  remarkably  free  from  tuber- 
culosis, due  to  the  methods  of  caring  for  them,  or  rather  the  lack  of  care.  They 
are  not  restricted  to  feed-lots,  wher^  disease  is  commonly  found,  but  roam  over 


73 

large  areas  to  shift  for  themselves.  jSTo  prolonged  feeding  is  practised  in  narrow 
limits,  but  from  birth  to  maturity  they  are  pastured  on  alfalfa,  oats,  corn,  rape,  and 
peanuts  ...  In  striking  contrast  are  tlie  hogs  slaughtered  at  three  cities  in 
one  of  the  leading  dairy  states,  where  there  are  a  large  number  of  co-operative 
creameries  and  the  raw  skim-milk  is  fed." 

"  Buyers  for  packing-houses  are  learning  from  bitter  experience  to  avoid 
sections  of  certain  states,  and  two  firms  will  not  buy  hogs  from  one  state  known  to 
be  badly  infected.  In  fact,  many  of  the  smaller  packers  in  the  Central  "West  buy 
subject  to  post-mortem  inspection,  as  a  measure  of  self-protection." 

"  It  is  known  beyond  all  doubt  that  the  majority  of  tuberculous  hogs  are 
produced  by  the  following  causes : 

"  1.  Feeding  raw  milk  and  slime  from  creameries." 

"2.  Feeding  hand-separated  milk  from  tuberculous  cows." 

"  3.  Feeding  behind  tuberculous  cattle.'" 

"  4.  Feeding  tuberculous  carcasses." 

"  5.  Feeding  slaughter-house  oflFal." 

"  The  danger  of  feeding  hogs  behind  tuberculous  cattle  lies  in  the  fact  that 
such  cattle  discharge  enormous  numbers  of  tuberculosis  germs  in  their  faeces." 

Symptoms  Obscure. — '-The  quotalions  given  show  the  importance  of 
this  disease,  and  the  need  for  the  farmer  to  be  on  his  guard.  It  is  a  contagious 
disease  and  must  be  treated  as  such.  The  symptoms  are  not  well  marked,  and  a 
hog  may  be  badly  diseased  and  show  practically  no  clinical  symptoms.  If  the 
lungs  are  affected,  the  hog  usually  has  a  cough,  and.  if  the  digestive  organs  are 
badly  affected,  there  is  generally  indigestion,  and  general  lack  of  thrift;  but 
similar  symptoms  may  show  themselves  with  other  diseases,  and  it  requires  a  great 
deal  of  experience  to  diagnose  the  disease  with  certainty. 

Treatment. — Entirely  preventive.  Since  the  disease  is  usually  communi- 
cated to  hogs  through  their  feed,  it  is  necessary  to  make  certain  that  their  feed 
contains  no  germs.  In  dairy  districts,  the  practice  of  sterilizing  skim-milk, 
buttermilk  and  whey  is  to  be  commended,  because  dairy  by-products  constitute  the 
main  medium  for  transmitting  the  disease  to  hogs.  Sanitary  surroundings,  pure 
-  feed,  and  fresh  air  are  the  feeder's  main  safeguards  in  connection  with  this 
dangerous  disease. 

IXDIGESTIOX. 

Indigestion  in  varigus  forms  is  caused  by  mistakes  in  feeding.  Over-feeding 
and  lack  of  exercise  will  sometimes  bring  on  the  trouble,  or  the  feeding  of  swill 
containing  injurious  substances,  such  as  washing  powders,  ,is  apt  to  cause  de- 
rangement. In  the  acute  form  it  causes  the  animal  a  good  deal  of  pain,  causing 
it  to  arch  its  back  and  give  general  evidences  of  suffering.  In  such  cases  it  is  well 
to  have  a  veterinarian  prescribe  for  the  trouble. 

The  chronic  form  sometimes  follows  an  attack  of  acute  indigestion,  causing 
an  unthrifty,  stunted  condition  of  the  animal.  Perhaps  the  best  home  remedy 
is  a  dose  of  castor  oil,  followed  by  careful  feeding  upon  easily  digested  feeds.  If 
the  trouble  is  not  relieved,  a  veterinarian  should  be  consulted. 

Constipation. 

As  mentioned  in  another  place,  constipation  is  most  disastrous  in  the  case  of 
pregnant  sows,  and  is  the  result  of  too  little  exercise  and  too  much  concentrated 


74 

feed.  In  cases  of  constipation,  perhaps  the  simplest  remedy  is  to  give  them  from 
two  to  four  ounces  of  raw  linseed  oil  once  daily  in  the  slop  of  a  mature  animal.  If 
this  is  not  effective,  give  four  ounces  of  Epsom  salts.  Give  exercise  and  supply 
laxative  feeds,  such  as  bran,  oil  meal,  or  ground  flax-seed,  roots  or  alfalfa. 

Scours. 

Dr.  Alexander  (Wisconsin  Bulletin  181)  writes  as  follows:  "When  young 
nursing  pigs  begin  to  scour,  it  is  evident  that  the  milk  of  the  sow  is  disagreeing 
with  them,  and  immediate  attention,  therefore,  should  be  directed  towards  im- 
proving her  ration.  Most  often  the  trouble  comes  from  overfeeding  on  corn,  or  ■ 
other  rich  feed,  just  after  farrowing,  and  pigs  of  fat,  flabby,  pampered,  cross, 
nervous,  constipated  sows  are  most  apt  to  suffer.  Sudden  changes  of  feed,  or  feeding 
sour  or  decomposing  slop,  or  feed  from,  dirty  troughs  or  sour  swill-barrels,  also 
tend  to  cause  diarrhoea  either  in  nursing  pigs  or  those  that  have  been  weaned,  and 
all  such  causes  should  be  prevented  or  remo.ed. 

"  To  correct  scouring  in  nursing  pigs,  give  the  sow  15  to  20  grains  sulphate 
of  iron  (copperas)  in  her  slop  night  and  morning,  and  if  necessary,  slightly 
increase  the  dose  until  eft'ective.  Lime  water  may,  with  advantage,  be  freely  mixed 
with  the  slop  as  a  preventive  when  there  is  a  tendency  to  derangement,  or  after 
the  trouble  has  been  checked,  and  it  is  also  an  excellent  corrective  for  weaned  pigs 
showing  a  tendency  to  scour  on  slop  or  skim-milk.  Where  little  pigs  are  scouring 
severely,  each  may  with  advantage  be  given  a  raw  egg  and  5  to  10  grains  of  sub- 
nitrate  of  bismuth  twice  daily,  in  addition  to  changing  the  feed  of  the  sow  and 
mixing  copperas  in  her  slop.  In  cases  which  do  not  promptly  respond  to  treat- 
ment, success  may  follow  the  administration  of  a  dose  of  castor  oil  shaken  up  in 
the  milk.  In  all  cases  it  is  important  to  set  right  all  errors  in  diet  and  sanitation, 
and  to  provide  the  pigs  with  dry,  sunny,  well-ventilated  quarters.  The  derange- 
ment is  always  most  apt  to  occur,  and  sure  to  prove  disastrous,  among  pigs  kept 
in  unsanitary  conditions." 

Infectious  Sore  Mouth. 

This  disease  is  quite  common  in  small  pigs  from  a  few  days  to  several  weeks 
old.  It  is  caused  by  a  germ.  Filthy  quarters  and  damp,  muddy  yards  favor  the 
development  of  the  disease. 

One  of  the  first  symptoms  is  a  disinclination  to  suck  on  the  part  of  nursing 
pigs,  or  a  falling  off  in  appetite  in  older  pigs.  The  lining  membrane  of  the  mouth 
becomes  inflamed,  and  sometimes  the  snout  and  lips  become  swollen.  Later, 
ulcers  form,  often  involving  the  lips  and  snout. 

Dr.  Craig  recommends  the  following  treatment: 

"  As  soon  as  the  disease  breaks  out  in  a  litter,  both  the  mother  and  pigs  should 
be  removed  from  the  herd,  The  affected  pigs  can  be  treated  by  dipping  head  fore- 
most into  a  four  per  cent,  water  solution  of  some  reliable  disinfectant;  or  per- 
manganate of  potassium,  one  ounce  to  a  gallon  of  water,  can  be  used.  A  more 
thorough  way  to  treat  them  is  to  wash  out  the  mouth  by  injecting  the  solution 
directly  into  it  with  a  syringe.  It  is  advisable  to  use  this  method  wherever  practi- 
cable, and  especially  in  advanced  cases.  It  is  also  advisable  to  clean  the  ulcerated 
parts  by  scraping  away  the  dead  tissue  and  rubbing  the  surface  of  the  ulcer  with 
lunar  caustic.  The  above  treatment  should  be  repeated  twice  a  day  in  advanced 
cases,  and  in  mild  ones  once  a  day.  It  should  be  kept  up  for  as  long  a  time  as 
necessary.     It  is  usually  more  economical  to  kill  the  badly  diseased  pigs  than  it  is 


?5 

to  treat  them,  as  they  are  apt  to  scatter  the  disease  and  become  badly  stunted  and 
deformed." 

If  treatment  is  adopted  from  the  first  appearance  of  trouble,  the  disease  is  not 
too  difficult  to  cure. 

Thumps. 

This  disease  is  caused  by  a  disordered  digestion  which  irritates  the  nerves 
connected  with  the  diaphragm,  causing  sudden  contractions  of  the  diaphragm  at 
irregular  intervals.  The  contractions  or  spasms  of  the  diaphragm  cause  a  jerking 
movement  of  the  flank,  which  is  a  characteristic  symptom  of  the  disease.  The  pig 
becomes  unthrifty  and  stunted,  and  very  young  pigs  are  likely  to  succumb  or  to 
become  practically  worthless. 

Too  liberal  a  supply  of  feed  and  too  little  exercise  will  often  bring  on  the 
trouble.  Young  pigs  often  contract  the  disease  before  they  are  weaned  if  they 
have  a  good  mother  and  are  not  given  much  exercise,  and  it  is  usually  the  finest 
and  fattest  pig  in  the  litter  which  is  the  first  to  go  wrong. 

Treatment  is  mainly  preventive,  and  hence  the  necessity  for  providing  exer- 
cise for  young  pigs,  especially  if  their  mother  is  a  liberal  milker  and  the  pigs 
become  very  fat.  Judicious  feeding  and  exercise  will  entirely  prevent  the  disease. 
If  a  case  occurs,  it  is  a  signal  that  a  change  in  methods  should  be  made  at  once. 
Sometimes  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  exercise  for  young  pigs  in  cold  weather,  and  some 
recommend  shutting  them  in  a  pen  away  from  the  mother  for  an  hour  or  so  twice 
a  day.  As  a  rule,  this  plan  will  stimulate  the  laziest  of  them  to  take  considerable 
exercise. 

Inflammation  of  the  Udder. 

Heavy  milkers  are  most  liable  to  have  this  trouble.  Whatever  the  cause,  the 
disease  calls  for  prompt  treatment.  Dr.  R.  A.  Craig,  in  his  excellent  book, 
"  Diseases  of  Swine,"  recommends  the  following  treatment : 

"Milking  the  sow's  udder  two  or  three  times  a  day  will  usually  relieve  its 
congested  condition.  A  physic  of  Epsom  salts  should  be  given  every  other  day, 
and  a  sloppy  diet  fed. 

"  In  case  the  udder  becomes  inflamed,  it  should  be  kneaded  gently  with  the 
fingers,  and  the  following  ointment  applied  daily:  Extract  of  belladonna  and  gum 
camphor  (one  drachm  of  each),  and  vaseline,  (three  ounces).  Hot  fomentations 
may  also  be  used. 

"  Sore  teats  should  be  bathed  daily  with  white  lotion  (one  part  zinc  sulphate, 
three-fourths  of  a  part  lead  acetate,  and  thirty  parts  water)  until  healed.'' 

Eczema. 

Eczema,  and  similar  skin  troubles,  can  usually  be  successfully  treated  by 
washing  or  spraying  with  a  one  per  cent,  solution  of  creolin,  or  some  of  the  well- 
known  tar  disinfectants.  The  hog  should  be  kept  in  a  clean,  dry  place,  and  out  of 
the  sun  until  cured.  It  sometimes  requires  time  to  effect  a  cure,  and  the  treatment 
should  be  given  every  day  until  the  disease  is  conquered. 

Eheumatism. 

In  northern  latitudes,  rheumatism  often  occurs  among  swine,  especially  during 
cdld,  damp  weather.     Damp,  ill-ventilated  pens  are  a  common  cause,  and  it  may 


76 

sometimes  be  caused  by  over-feeding.  Piggeries  built  with  stone  or  concrete  walls 
and  floors  are  generally  more  dangerous  than  those  built  of  wood.  When  such 
walls  are  hollow  and  the  floors  insulated  with  a  tar  layer,  they  are  mach  safer. 

The  hog  becomes  very  lame  and  stiff  and  moves  about  with  difficulty.  Some- 
times the  joints  become  swollen  and  very  painful,  and  the  animal  becomes  practi- 
cally helpless.     In  such  cases  it  is  seldom  that  the  hog  makes  a  recovery. 

The  feeder  must  be  on  his  guard  against  this  disease.  Dry,  well-ventilated 
pens  and  careful  feeding  will  generally  enable  him  to  avoid  disaster.  Animals 
which  become  affected  should  be  kept  in  dry,  warm  quarters.  Dr.  Craig  ("Diseases 
of  Swine ")  says :  "  Salicylate  of  soda  is  the  most  useful  drug  to  give  in  this 
disease.  The  dose  is  twenty  or  thirty  grains  in  the  feed,  or  as  a  drench,  three  times 
a  day.  Larger  doses,  and  at  more  frequent  intervals,  may  be  given  in  acute  cases 
for  a  short  time.  Quinine  and  bitter  tonics  can  also  be  given.  Blistering  oint- 
ments and  liniments  should  be  applied  to  the  inflamed  articulations." 

ElCKETS. 

In  this  disease,  which  is  commonly  found  among  young  pigs,  there  is  enlarge- 
ment, bending,  and  distortion  of  the  bones  of  the  joints  and  limbs,  and  fractures 
of  leg  bones  are  not  uncommon.  The  bones  do  not  contain  their  normal  proportion 
of  mineral  matter,  and  hence  lack  strength.  It  is  claimed  that  the  disease  is  most 
common  among  closely  in-bred  hogs.  The  excessive  feeding  of  corn  throughout 
generations  of  swine  is  believed  to  be  an  exciting  cause,  or  any  conditions  which 
interfere  with  proper  nutrition,  such  as  disease  or  unsanitary  surroundings,  may 
predispose  towards  the  disease  in  question. 

Dr.  Alexander  of  Wisconsin  says :  "  Pigs  affected  with  rickets  can  seldom  be 
profitably  treated.  Prevention  is  to  be  sought  by  avoiding  the  causes  mentioned, 
maintaining  sanitary  conditions  about  the  hogs,  providing  adequate  supplies  of 
various  feeds,  rich  in  all  the  requisites  of  a  perfectly  nourished  animal,  and  obviat- 
ing degeneracy  by  careful  selection  of  robust  sows  and  timely  infusion  of  new  blood." 

Plenty  of  mineral  matter  should  be  provided  at  all  times  during  the  life  of 
the  pig.  Methods  and  forms  of  supplying  mineral  matter  have  already  been  given 
in  this  bulletin. 

Paralysis. 

In  Virginia  Bulletin  189,  Dr.  Mayo  writes :  "  The  disease  first  appears  as  a 
slight  loss  of  control  of  the  hind  legs,  as  shown  by  a  weaving  of  the  body,  knuckling 
of  the  fetlocks,  and  finally  a  paralysis  more  or  less  complete.  The  animal  is  unable 
to  raise  itself  on  its  hind  legs,  and  often  drags  the  hind  quarters  as  it  moves  about. 
The  disease  occurs  in  swine  of  all  ages.  This  disease  is  popularly  supposed  to  be 
caused  by  "kidney  worm,"  but  there  is  no  evidence  to  support  this  belief.  The 
disease  seems  to  be  located  in  the  spinal  cord  at  the  lumbar  region,  but  the  actual 
cause  is  unknown  at  present. 

"  Some  cases  recover  without  treatment,  but  a  majority  of  the  cases  prove 
fatal.  Generally  the  treatment  is  to  give  a  purgative  of  from  one-half  to  two 
ounces  of  castor  oil,  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  animal,  followed  by  nourishing, 
easily  digested  feed.  Rubbing  the  back  vigorously  with  a  good  veterinary  liniment 
once  daily  is  also  beneficial." 

Mange. 

Mange  is  caused  by  very  small  animal  parasites  called  mange  mites,  whicli 
burrow  in  the  outer  laver  of  the  skin. 


77 

The  disease  is  most  troublesome  in  young  pigs,  causing  great  irritation, 
indicated  by  the  little  pigs  scratching  and  rubbing  themselves.  Later,  the  hair 
stands  erect,  and  thick  scabs  form  at  the  roots  of  the  hair  on  the  neck  and  shoulder 
top  and  about  the  ears  and  face.     Often  the  scabs  extend  along  the  back  to  the  root 

of  the  tail. 

Dr.  Mayo,  of  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station,  strongly  recommends  the  lime 
and  sulphur  dip,  which  is  made  as  follows:  Take  8  pounds  of  fresh  lime  and 
slake  with  enough  water  to  form  a  thick  paste.  Sift  into  this  paste  24:  pounds  of 
flowers  of  sulphur  and  mix  thoroughly  with  a  hoe.  Place  in  a  kettle  with  35  or  30 
gallons  of  water  and  boil  for  at  least  one  hour,  then  add  enough  water  to  make  100 
gallons   of  idip.       The   dip   should   be   used   warm,    about   100    or    110    degrees 

Fahrenheit,  . 

The  coal-tar  dips,  such  as  chloro  naphtholeum,  zenoleum,  and  others  of  this 
class,  give  good  results,  and  are  more  convenient  Avhen  a  small  number  of  animals 

are  to  be  treated.  .  -in 

It  is  very  important  that  the  animals  be  kept  wet  with  the  solution  until  all 
the  scabs  are  thoroughly  soaked  through,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  scrub  ofE  with  a 
stiff  brush  to  remove  as  much  as  possible  of  the  scabs.  Two  thorough  treatments, 
ten  days  apart,  are  necessary. 

Pens  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  disinfected.  Sows  should  be  treated 
as  well  as  the  young  pigs,  though  the  disease  may  not  show  to  any  great  extent  in 
the  olcler  pigs.  The  disease  is  transmitted  by  contact,  and  the  young  pigs  almost 
invariably  become  infected  through  coming  in  contact  with  a  diseased  mother. 

Intestinal  Worms. 

Common  Round  Worm.— The  most  common  intestinal  worm  affecting 
swine  is  the  round  worm,  which  is  found  mainly  in  the  small  intestine.  If  a 
post-mortem  examination  is  made  some  time  after  death,  the  worms  may  be  found 
in  the  stomach,  having  made  their  way  there  after  the  death  of  the  animal.  The 
worms  vary  from  six  to  seven  inches  in  length,  and  taper  somewhat  towards  the 
extremities.  In  color  they  are  usually  a  yellowish  white.  The  eggs  of  the  female 
pass  out  with  the  excrement  and  become  scattered  over  the  premises.  Eventually, 
some  of  them  are  taken  up  by  other  hogs  along  with  their  food. 

They  do  not  seem  to  cause  the  hog  any  inconvenience  unless  they  are  present 
in  large  numbers,  when  they  may  cause  digestive  troubles,  and  the  writer  has 
known  death  to  result.  There  can  be  little  doubt,  however,  that  a  pig  affected  with 
worms  cannot  make  the  best  use  of  its  feed,-  even  though  it  may  appear  quite 
thrifty. 

Thorn-headed  Worm. — This  parasite  is  much  less  common  than  the 
round  worm.  It  is  usually  found  attached  to  the  wall  of  the  intestines  by  its 
hooked  proboscis,  from  v/hich  it  derives  the  name  "  thorn-headed."  In  length  it 
is  similar  to  the  round  worm,  but  its  surface  is  somewhat  wrinkled,  and  the 
posterior  extremity  is  blunt.  Though  only  a  few  are  usually  found  in  an  animal, 
they  do  much  more  damage  than  the  round  worm,  irritating  the  lining  of^  the  in- 
testine, and  sometimes  causing  severe  inflammation.  It  would  be  difficult  to 
distinguish  the  symptoms  from  other  intestinal  derangement's,  but  a  post-mortem 
examination  would  readily  reveal  the  presence  of  the  worm. 

Pin-Worm.— The  pin-worm  is  very  small  and  might  be  easily  overlooked 
in  a  careless  post-mortem.     It  is  usually  found  near  the  beginning  of  the  large 


78 

intestine^  often  hidden  in  the  folds  of  the  lining  membrane.     It  is  a  very  common 
parasite  of  swine,  and  does  not  seem  to  cause  much  inconvenience  to  the  animal. 

Whip- Worm. — This  is  also  a  small  worm,  being  about  one  and  one-half 
inches  long.  It  attaches  its  head  to  the  lining  of  the  intestine,  and  is  usually 
found  in  the  beginning  of  the  large  intestine.  The  anterior  portion  is  very  thin 
and  hairlike,  and  the  posterior  portion  is  thick  and  cylindrical  in  shape.  Like 
.the  pin-worm,  it  does  not  seem  to  create  much  disturbance,  but  must  be  more  or 
less  injurious. 

Treatment  for  Intestinal  Worms. — Preventive  treatment  consists  in 
keeping  buildings  and  surroundings  clean  and  sanitary.  Feeding  in  filthy  yards 
and  allowing  to  drink  stagnant  water  are  practices  which  favor  the  spread  of 
parasites. 

As  to  medicinal  treatment,  the  writer  has  found  that  allowing  hogs  to  have 
access  to  a  mixture  of  charcoal  and  salt,  or  charcoal,  wood  ashes,  and  salt,  seems  to 
be  quite  effective  in  driving  out  round  worms. 

Turpentine  is  commonly  recommended  for  worms,  especially  the  thorn-headed 
worm.  The  dose  is  a  teaspoonful-for  every  eighty  or  one-hundred  pounds  live 
weight  of  the  hogs  to  be  treated.  It  can  be  given  in  the  feed,  and  the  hogs  should 
be  fasted  at  least  twelve  hours  before  treatment.  A  dose  each  day  for  three  days 
will  generally  prove  effective. 

Another  remedy  which  is  recommended  is  five  grains  of  calomel  and  eight 
grains  of  santonin  for  every  hundred  pounds  live  weight  of  the  hogs.  This  remedy 
can  also  be  given  in  the  feed.  It  is  generally  advisable  to  give  a  physic  after 
treatment  for  worms. 

Lung  Worms. 

The  lung  worm  is  a  small,  thread-like,  whitish  worm,  sometimes  found  in 
large  numbers  in  the  air  passages  of  the  lungs.  Ordinarily,  about  the  only 
symptom  is  a  spasmodic  cough,  which  is  somewhat  similar  to  the  cougl-:  which 
accompanies  bronchitis.  Sometimes  the  irritation  caused  by  the  worms  produces 
inflammation  and  consolidation  of  the  lung  tissue,  in  which  case  the  animal  dies, 
but  in  many  cases  no  bad  effect  is  apparent.  In  a  post-mortem  examination,  the 
worms  can  be  detected  by  cutting  the  lung  near  the  apex  and  then  squeezing  the 
tissue  next  to  the  cut.  The  pressure  forces  the  thread-like  worms  out  upon  the  cut 
surface. 

There  is  practically  no  effective  treatment  for  this  parasite.  Clean  pens,  in 
which  disinfectants  are  liberally  used,  and  clean,  well-drained  yards,  will  help  keep 
the  worm  in  check.  Filthy  yards  and  wallows  favor  its  development.  Plough- 
ing up  old  hog  lots  and  re-seeding  them  is  also  a  preventive  measure. 

Other  Diseases. 

The  diseases  which  have  been  mentioned  represent  only  a  few  of  the  troubles 
which  may  affect  the  hog,  and  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  treat  the  subject  fi'om 
a  veterinarian's  standpoint.  There  are  other  diseases.  The  aim  has  been  to  note 
only  a  few  simple  remedies  for  common  ailments,  rather  than  the  cure  of  disease. 
The  hog  is  not  easy,  to  treat  for  disease,  and  the  main  effort  of  the  farmer  should 
be  towards  maintaining  health  and  preventing  the  entrance  of  disease  into  his 
herd.  In  regard  to  the  long  list  of  diseases  which  have  not  been  mentioned, 
together  with  many  of  those  included  in  the  list,  it  will  generally  be  advisable  to 


79 

consult  a  skilled  veterinarian,  but  the  services  of  a  veterinarian   can   often  be 
rendered  unnecessary  if  the  farmer  makes  the  best  use  of  the  means  at  his  disposal. 

Examine  Carcasses.  — Every  man  who  has  to  deal  with  stock  should  make 
a  practice  of  holding  a  post-mortem  upon  every  animal  that  dies  upon  the  farm. 
He  will  soon  learn  wiiat  healthy  organs  should  look  like,  and  will  be  able  to  locate 
the  seat  of  the  trouble.  If  he  cannot  determine  the  nature  of  the  disease,  he  can 
take  the  diseased  organ  or  organs  to  a  veterinarian,  or  send  them  immediately  to 
the  nearest  experiment  station,  and  have  the  disease  identified.  Experiment 
stations  exist  for  the  purpose  of  helping  the  farmer,  and  the  officers  of  the  stations 
will  be  glad  to  send  any  information  they  can  to  help  him  overcome  his  difficulties. 

Administration  of  Medicine. 

Medicines  which  are  not  distasteful  can  be  given  with  the  feed,  provided  the 
hog  lias  not  completely  lost  its  appetite.  Wherever  possible  the  administration  of 
medicine  in  the  feed  is  preferable  to  drenching. 

Dr.  Craig  (''Diseases  of  Swine")  recommends  the  following  method  of 
drenching  hogs : 

"  To  hold  the  animal  while  drenching  it,  a  noose  of  sash-cord  or  quarter-inch 
rope  can  be  placed  around  the  upper  jaw  well  back  toward  the  angles  of  the  lips,  and 
the  medicine  thrown  into  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  with  a  dose  syringe.  As 
there  is  a  danger  of  the  hog  breaking  the  syringe,  it  is  best  to  use  a  metal  one. 
Sometimes,  when  the  drench  is  bulky  and  the  hog  hard  to  hold,  it  is  necessary  to 
elevate  the  head  and  raise  the  fore-feet  off  the  ground.  For  this  purpose  a  pulley 
and  rope  wire  stretcher  is  recommended.  It  is  best  to  wait  until  the  hog  has 
become  quiet  and  well  under  control  before  giving  it  the  drench,  as  there  is  some 
danger  of  the  medicine  getting  into  the  air-passages  and  doing  harm." 

The  writer  has  seen  more  than  one  hog  killed  in  the  operation  of  drenching. 
If  the  drench  is  poured  too  rapidly  into  the  throat,  it  is  almost  sure  to  be  drawn 
into  the  lungs,  and  the  hog  will  probably  die  in  a  few  minutes.  The  medicine 
should  be  poured  very  slowly,  and  it  is  best  to  pour  it  just  inside  the  cheek  instead 
of  into  the  throat. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Alfalfa    26,29,31 

Apples    33 

Artichokes     30 

Bacon  type  of  hog   7,  8,  9, 15 

Barley 18,20 

Beans    21 

Beet  Sugar  Molasses  24 

Berkshires    12,  39,  46,  47 

Black  Strap  Molasses   24 

Blue    Grass    29 

Boar,  management  of   37 

Breeding    Crate    41,42 

Brewers'    and    Distillers'    Grains....     23 

Bronchitis    72 

Buckwheat    21 

Buildings    60 

Buttermilk    34 

Chester  White    48 

Cholera   (Swine  Fever) 71 

Clover  and  Timothy 29 

Constipation    73 

Cooking  and  Steaming  Food 35 

Corn    16,17 

Corn-and-Cob-Meal     22 

Correctives    55 

Cost  of  Raising  Pigs    53,  55,  56 

Cotton  Seed  Meal  23 

Curing   Pork 57 

Dairying  and  Hogs   3 

Diseases   of  Swine    71-79 

Disinfection 69 

Duroc-Jersey    41 

Eczema    75 

Emmer    21 

Exercise     39,  44,  45,  51 

Farrowing    48 

Fattening    54 

Fat    type     10,12,15 

Feed,  influence  of  16 

Feed,  preparation  of  35 

Feeding    40 

Fermenting  Feed   36 

Flour    22 

Forage  Crops  29 

Gestation,  Feeding  and  Management 

during    45 

Gluten  Meal   23 

Grain  on  Pasture,  amount  of 31 

Grinding   Feed    37 

Hogging  off  Rye  30 

Home  grown  feeds  2 

Hopner    feeding    35,36 

Indigestion 73 

Inflammation  of  the  udder 75 

Influence  of  feed 16 

Iowa  feeding  trials 14 

Jerusalem   artichokes    30 

Lard    59 

Lice    70 

Linseed  meal   23 

Litters    44 

Mange     76 


PAGE 

Medicine,  administering  79 

Millet  seed    21 

Oat  feed   23 

Oats   20 

Ontario  feeding  trials 14 

Paralysis    76 

Pasture,  rape  for  28 

Pasture  vs.  Soiling   31 

Peas   18 

Pens,   portable    64-68 

Plans   of  Piggery    62,  63 

Pneumonia    72 

Poland  China  49 

Potatoes    33 

Profits    1 

Pumpkins    33 

Pure-bred    Hogs    3 

Quarantine    69 

Rape    27,28,30 

Red  clover   29 

Rheumatism    75 

Rickets  76 

Roots    32 

Ruptured  pigs   51 

Rye    21,»30 

Sanitation     69 

Scours    74 

Skim-milk     33,  34,  35 

Soaking  feed    36 

Smoking    58 

Soft  Bacon   17 

Soft  coal,  charcoal  and  tonic  mixture     25 

Soiling  vs.  Pasturing 31 

Sore   Mouth    74 

Sows  eating  pigs 42 

Sows,  management  of 42 

Squashes    ^3 

Stock  feeds  25 

Sugar  Beet  pulp   23 

Supply,  fluctuation  of  1 

Swine  Plague 71 

Tamworth    43,  44 

Tankage  24 

Thumps     '^^ 

Trough  feeding  37,  39 

Tuberculosis    72 

Tusks,  removing  of   40 

Tyipes  of  Swine  3 

Vetch,  Hairy  or  Sand 29 

Ventilation    60,  70 

Weaning     50,  52 

Weed  Seeds 24 

Wet  vs.  dry  feed   36 

Wheat    19.20 

Wheat  bran    22 

Wheat  middlings    22 

Whey 34 

Winter  feeding  54 

Worms     73,  78 

Wyoming  trials   •  •     27 

Yorkshire    38,45 


80 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  the  Ontario  Depabtment  of  Agriculture,  Toronto. 

Serial  ,    ^^ 

No.        Date.  Title.  Author. 

179  Feb      1910      Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch, 

(  R.  Harcourt. 

180  April    1910      Flour  and  Breadmakmg |  jvj   j^   Purdy. 

181  June  1910  The  Teeth  and  Their  Care  i     Ont.   Dental   Society. 

182  July  1910  Bee-keeping  in  Ontario  Fruit  Branch. 

183  Aug.  1910  Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making Dairy  Branch. 

184  Nov.  1910  Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey - 

185  Nov.  1910  Little  Peach  Disease L-  Caesar. 

186  Dec.  1910  Children:    Care  and  Training J.  J.  Kelso. 

187  Jan.  1911  The  Codling  Moth    L.  Caesar. 

188  April  1911  Weeds  of  Ontario    (No.  128  revised)    J.  K.  Howitt. 

189  May  1911  Farm  Poultry  (No.  151  revised)   W.  R.  Graham. 

190  May  1911  Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch^ 

191  June  1911  Bee-keeping  in   Ontario    Fruit  Branch. 

192  July  1911  Agricultural    Co-operation    S.  E.  Todd. 

193  Nov.     1911       Tuberculosis   of  Fowls    S.  F.  Edwards. 

194  Dec.      1911       Apple  Orcharding   Fruit  Branch. 

..,  ,^        ..,       ,,.,     ,^.         •      ,\fR.  Harcourt. 

195  Jan.      1912       Insecticides  and  Fungicides  (No.  lo4  revised)  |  ^    j^    Fulmer. 

196  Jan.  1912  Tomatoes    A.  G.  Turney. 

197  Feb.  1912  Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario Morley  Pettit. 

198  Feb.  1912  Lime-iSulphur    Wash    L.  Caesar. 

199  Feb.  1912  Onions     A.  McMeans. 

200  April  1912  Fruit  Juices    L-  Meunier. 

„,  „  -,  n,  o  (  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario  F.  M.  Clement. 

201  May  1912  [  peach   Diseases    L.  C^sar. 

202  May  1912       Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula    ......     T.  B.  Revett. 

203  May  1912       Cabbage  and  Cauliflower A.  McMeans. 

204  June  1912       Decay  of  the  Teeth    Ont.    Dental    Society. 

205  Sept.  1912  Dairy  School  Bulletin  (No.  172  revised)    ^ 

I.  Cheese-Making  and  Butter  Making |  g^^g  ^^  j^^jj,     gd^ooL 

206  Nov.     1912       Dairy  Scho'^l  Bulletin   (No.  172  revised)    ....  j 

II.  Dairying  on  the  Farm ) 

207  Dec.      1912       Ice-Cold  Storage  on  the  Farm   R-  R-  Graham. 

208  Jan       1913       Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  c  j   ^   Hare. 

in  Ontario  County    \'i\  a..  Benson. 

209  Mar.     1913       Farm  Forestry   (No.  155  revised)    E.  J.  Zavitz. 

210  Mar.     1913       Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry. .      F.M.Clement. 

211  Mar.     1913       Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontaiio    Planiers 

(No.  179  revised) Fruit  Branch. 

212  April    1913       Orchard    Surveys    in    Dundas,    Stormont    and 

Glengarry     F.  S.  Reeves. 

213  April    1913       Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario   Morley  Pettit. 

214  May      1913       Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  it  Pay? Live  Stock  Branch. 

215  Aug.     1913       Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing  Institutes  Branch. 

216  Oct.      1913       Box  Packing  of  Apples   E.  F.  Palmer. 

(  W.  R.  Graham. 

217  Dec,    1913      Farm  Poultry  (No.  189  revised) )  A.  C.  McCulloch. 

218  Dec.      1913        Birds  of  Ontario  (No.  173  revised)   C.W.Nash. 

219  •  Jan.      1914       The  San  Jose  and  Oyster-Shell  Scales L.  Caesar. 

220  Mar.     1914       Lightning  Rods    W.  H.  Day. 

221  April    1914       Food  Value  of  Milk  and  its  Products P.  Harcourt. 

■n<     "py    PflliTlfii* 

222  April    1914     Currants  and  Gooseberries  ,  j^ '  Harcourt 

223  May     1914       Fertilizers  \  ^    l.  Gibso^ 

224  Sept.     1914     Greenhouse  Construction    S.  C.  Johnston. 

225     Dec.     1914       Swine  G.E.Day 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 


BULLETIN  226 


Plum  Culture 

IN 

Ontario 

By 

F.  M.  CLEMENT,  B.S.A. 

Director  of  Horticultural  Experiment  Station, 

Vineland  Sta.,  Oat, 


TORONTO.  ONTARIO,  DEC.  1914 


BULLETIN  226]  [DECEMBER,  1914 


Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture 


FRUIT  BRANCH 


Plum  Culture  in  Ontario 

F.  M.   Clement. 


Of  the  important  tree  fruits  plums  and  pears  have  received  least  attention  at 
fruit  meetings,  and  in  the  agricultural  press  during  the  last  few  years.  Apples  are 
worth  a  great  deal  more  money  to  the  Province,  and  as  a  consequence  are  more  gen- 
erally popular,  and  take  the  leading  place  in  the  discussions.  Peaches,  though 
adapted  commercially  to  limited  areas  in  the  Province,  have  through  the  energy  and 
organization  of  the  growers  been  boosted  excessively  in  tender  fruit  sections.  J^ven 
in  cherries,  of  late,  a  few  are  quoting  the  large  profits  that  have  been  made  and  are 
to  be  made  from  them,  and  the  plantings  are  rapidly  increasing.  1914  crop  and  low 
prices  will,  however,  check  this  advance  for  a  time.  Pears  have  begun  to  grow  in 
popularity  because  of  the  more  gradual  upward  trend  of  prices  and  the  more  suc- 
cessful control  of  blight,  but  plums  at  date  of  writing  are  not  holding  their  own  in 
the  Province,  and  except  for  a  few  growers  who  are  making  a  success  of  them  the 
interest  is  dead.  Prices  are  from  medium  to  low,  few  trees  are  being  planted,  their 
care  is  incidental,  or  secondary,  and  they  are  almost  everywhere  considered  a  side 
line,  not  a  specialty.    The  purposes  of  this  Bulletin,  therefore,  are : 

1.  To  sum  up  the  status  of  the  industry  as  a  whole. 

2.  To  study  causes  of  the  lack  of  interest. 

3.  To  study  the  cultural  methods  of  the  most  successful  growers. 

4.  To  describe  a  few  varieties  that  are  important  commercially. 

5.  And  to  offer  suggestions  for  future  development. 

(1)  PEESENT  STATUS  OF  THE  INDUSTRY. 

The  census  returns  for  1911  show  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  trees  in  the 
Province.  In  1901  Ontario  was  credited  with  1,685,719  trees.  Of  this  number 
999,091  were  bearing  and  686,628  were  non-bearing.  In  1911,  the  last  year  for 
which  the  census  figures  are  available,  Ontario  was  credited  with  1,124,022  trees, 
767,827  of  which  were  bearing  and  356,195  were  non-bearing.  The  number  of 
bearing  trees  had  decreased  by  330,433,  or  48.1  per  cent.,  while  the  total  decrease 
was  561,697  trees,  or  33.3  per  cent.     The  greatest  decrease  is  in  the  non-bearing 


2: 


stock,  for  during  the  last  decade  conditions  do  not  seem  to  have  been  such  that 
growers  cared  to  take  a  chance  on  future  markets.  The  yields  in  the  census  years 
above  mentioned  were  337,108  bushels  and  331,378  bushels,  or  approximately  a 
million  baskets  each  year.  The  latter  figure  is,  however,  no  indication  of  the  decay 
or  growth  of  the  industry,  as  the  two  seasons  may  have  been  very  variable.  They 
indicate,  however,  a  fair  average  yield. 

Compared  with  this,  pears  have  decreased  by  105,253  trees,  or  12.4  per  cent. ; 
apples  have  decreased  by  1,775,362  trees,  or  18. G  per  cent. ;  vineyards  have  increased 
by  3,629  acres,  or  66.7  per  cent.;  small  fruits  have  increased  by  5,824  acres,  or  71.7 
per  cent.;  cherries  have  increased  by  151,389  trees,  or  22.1  per  cent.;  and  peaches 
have  increased  399,356  trees,  or  31.1  per  cent.  The  total  number  of  fruit  trees  in 
the  Province  has  decreased  by  1,835,138,  or  13  per  cent.,  or  about  2-5  the  per  cent, 
decrease  in  the  plums. 

The  question  now  arises  as  to  whether  the  consumption  of  plums  has  fallen 
off,  or  if  the  consumption  has  not  fallen  off,  since  the  amount  produced  has  not 
decreased  to  any  great  extent,  who  has  supplied  the  plums  for  the  ever-increasing 
number  of  persons  in  'Canada  who  desire  this  fruit. 

Prunes  should  in  part  be  considered  plums,  and  in  the  following  table  prunes 
and  plums  are  considered  one  fruit,  because  as  the  consumption  of  dried  plums 
and  prunes  increases  the  consumption  of  fresh  plums  must  decrease. 

Following  are  the  imports  of  "  prunes  and  plums,  dried  unpitted "  for  con- 
sumption in  Canada  as  furnished  by  the  Customs  Department  at  Ottawa : 

Year.  Quantity.  Value. 

1895 2,798,256  lbs.  $75,232.00  1 

1900  4,013,089    "  156,178.00 

1905  6,034,815    "  147,637.00  • 

1910  10,145,969    "  384,127.00 

1913  8,942,599    "  466,868.00  y 

1914    10,592,068    "  ,       550,175.00  ' «; 


The  marked  increase  in  the  consumption  of  dried  plums  or  prunes  to  me  in- 
dicates quite  clearly  that  some  other  fruit  has  suffered  a  decrease  in  consumption, 
and  that  the  consuming  public  is  willing  to  pay  for  a  good  article  that  may  be  had 
at  a  reasonable  price  at  such  times  of  the  year  as  desired. 

During  the  same  period  of  years  the  imports  into  Canada  of  "  fresh  plums  " 
for  consumption,  as  furnished  by  the  Customs  Department,  were  as  follows : 

Year.  Bushels.  ,       Value. 

1895  25,417  $22,688.00 

1900  38,854  38,849.00 

1905 53,593  66,473.00 

1910  69,529  158,756.00 

1913  151,650  267,563.00 

These  figures  show  a  steady  increase  and  seem  to  indicate  that  the  plum 
growers  of  this  country  have  not  been  awake  to  their  opportunities.  Or,  as  men- 
tioned previously,  it  may  be  that  the  consumer  prefers  the  imported  product  because 
of  the  uniformity  and  neat  packing  of  the  fruit. 

For  the  years  1911,  1912  and  1913  the  importations  by  months  of  fresh  plums 
for  consumption  in  Canada  are  as  follows : 
2-226 


I 

Months.                                                               Bushels.  Value. 

April,  1911   .... 

May    .... 

June   2  $22.00 

July    11,014  41,816.00 

August .      28,957  78,193.00 

September    .  .' 38,254  85,006.00 

October 17,988  32,866.00 

November   1,006  1,905.00 

December    22  22.00 

January  1912 .... 

February  1  6.00 

March 2  20.00 


97,246  $239,856.00 

April,  1912   10  $10.00 

May    •  •  •  • 

June   33  151.00 

July    20,073  46,636.00 

August  43,808  89,711.00 

September 74,452  111,332.00 

October    11,799  17,521.00 

November   825  1,178.00 

December 301  435.00 

January,  1913    .... 

February .... 

March 349  606.00 


151,650  $267,580.00 

April,  1913    ■ 3  $22.00 

May .... 

June   1,430  6,330.00 

July    25,519  91,435.00 

August  30,017  95,446.00 

September 50,407  99,142.00 

October    14,403  21,019.00 

November   1,739  3,100.00 

December    2  7.00 

January,  1914 .... 

February 3  24.00 

March 8  35.00 


^  123,531  $316,560.00 

Our  heaviest  shipping  months,  or  when  Ontario  growers  are  putting  most 
plums  on  the  market,  are  August,  September  and  October.  At  the  same  time  the 
imports  into  Canada  are  heaviest  during  these  months,  and  this  in  the  face  of  a 
duty  of  thirty  cents  a  bushel. 

From  the  foregoing  figures  and  statements  it  is  possible  to  draw  certain  con- 
clusions. 

(1)  Plums  and  prunes  grown  in  Canada  show  a  marked  decrease  in  number  of 
trees,  value  and  interest  during  the  last  few  years. 

(2)  The  imports  of  fresh  plums  into  Canada  show  a  steady  increase  during  the 
same  period  of  time. 

(3)  The  imports  of  dried  plums  and  prunes  into  Canada  show  a  marked  in- 
crease during  the  same  period  of  time. 

Therefore  (1)  either  plums  are  produced  under  more  favorable  natural  con- 
ditions elsewhere  and  the  imported  product  is  of  a  higher  quality  than  ours. 

(2)   Or  the  fruit  can  be  produced  cheaper  elsewhere  than  we  can  produce  it. 


(3)  Or  the  organizations  of  our  competitors  are  more  complete  than  ours  and 
their  methods  of  packing  and  sale  are  superior. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  last  two  reasons  are  the  main  causes,  namely : 

(1)  Cheaper  production. 

(2)  Better  organizations,  including  packing  and  selling. 

Before  discussing  directly  the  two  factors  mentioned,  I  wish  first  to  draw 
attention  to  conditions  in  two  adjoining  counties,  both  fairly  heavy  producers  of 
plums,  one  in  Ontario,  Canada,  and  the  other  in  the  State  of  New  York.  Niagara 
County,  N.Y.,  has  approximately  180,000  plum  trees,  or  about  1-5  of  the  total  num- 
ber in  the  State.  The  orchards  are  large,  a  great  many  of  them  ranging  from  six 
acres  up.  In  some  cases  the  varieties,  or  perhaps  I  should  say  the  rows  of  the  dif- 
ferent varieties,  are  badly  mixed,  but  a  large  number  of  orchards  contain  quite  large 
blocks  of  one  variety.     Niagara  or  Bradshaw  is  the  favorite.     The  land  on  which 


Plum  orchard  at  Lockport,  N.Y. 


they  are  growing  is  valued  at  about  50  to  60  per  cent.,  or  less,  than  that  in  the 
adjoining  county  mentioned.  Tlie  cultivation  meihods  are  exleiisive  and  thorough; 
less  money  is  spent  on  fertilizers,  and  the  aim  of  the  grower  is  to  make  his  money 
from  a  large  quantity  grown  cheaply,  and  marketed  as  cheaply  as  possible. 

Notice,  again,  large  orchards,  large  blocks  of  one  variety';  cheaper  land,  exten- 
dive  cultivation  methods;  marl-eted  quiclcly.  In  Lincoln  County  (and  a  part  of  Went- 
worth  County,  included  in  the  Niagara  Peninsula)  Ave  have  very  few  large  orchards, 
many  varieties  hadly  mixed,  intensive  cuUivation  methods,  high-priced  lands,  and  an 
attempt  to  market  the  fruit  over  a  long  season  no  matter  what  the  rush  of  other 
fruits.  A  few  growers  can  take  exception  to  this,  as  they  have  large  orchards  of 
good  varieties  and  are  making  money  from  them,  but  the  general  condition  is  as 
stated. 

The  men  immediately  across  the  border — and  these  men  have  the  largest 
orcliards — prefer,  at  present  prices,  to  sell  in  Canadian  markets,  and  on  the  state- 
ments of  the  growers  themselves  I  have  it  that  with  a  minimum  of  a  cent  and  a 
quarter  to  a  cent  and  a  half  a  pound — with  now  and  then  a  good  year — the  fruit 


6 

is  a  very  profitable  one  to  grow.     Quantity  and  quick  handling  at  a  fair  average 
price  is  the  motto. 

The  imports  at  Queenston  Bridge  for  the  season  of  1911  were  6,740  bushels; 
for  1913,  3,789  bushels;  and  for  1913,  363  bushels.  This  is  one  port  only,  and 
represents  largely  the  quantity  that  was  drawn  across  the  bridge  in  wagons  for 
canning  purposes.  Queenston  is  the  port  between  the  two  counties  before  men- 
tioned through  which  the  largest  share  of  the  trade  passes,  but  the  figures  do  not 
take  into  consideration  any  that  may  have  entered  at  Niagara-on-the-Lake  or 
Niagara  Falls. 

This  one  port  is  mentioned  only  as  an  example,  and  to  still  further  emphasize 
the  fact  that  there  is  an  opportunity  in  plums  where  conditions  for  production  are 
similar  to  those  of  our  neighbors. 

The  question  of  cheaper  production  is  covered  largely  in  the  comparison  drawn 
above,  but  that  of  methods  of  packing  and  sale  is  not  included,  as  the  trade  there 
is  local — the  large  cities  of  the  middle  and  eastern  States — whereas  the  greater  part 
of  the  fruit  of  our  competitors  is  sold  either  in  our  Prairie  Provinces  or  the  large 
cities  of  the  East. 

Nearly  all  Ontario  plums  are  sold  in  the  two  sizes  of  fruit  baskets,  eights  and 
elevens,  so  well  known  to  all  growers.  The  baskets  are  also  known  to  the  trade  and 
are  an  indication  of  their  origin.  This  fruit  is  sold  largely  for  cooking  or  canning 
purposes.  The  American  product  is  largely  in  smaller  baskets  packed  in  cases,  all 
fruit  carefully  placed  and  the  packages  faced.  These  are  to  be  seen  in  our  fruit 
stores  at  all  times  during  the  plum  season;  and  it  is  this  trade — the  fancy  trade 
that  seems  to  have  been  neglected  by  our  growers.  Trade  in  fancy  packages  is  neces- 
sarily not  as  extensive'  as  the  general  trade,  but  still  it  is  profitable. 

It  cannot  be  developed  in  a  year,  but  if  it  is  given  "  careful  consideration  "  by 
our  fruit  men  in  the  same  manner  that  box-packed  pears  and  apples  have  been  in 
the  last  few  years  a  certain  amount  of  the  trade  at  least  will  fall  to  the  Ontario 
shipper. 

In  order  that  at  least  a  fair  idea  might  be  obtained  of  the  present  commercial 
plum  areas  of  the  Province  a  list  of  questions  was  sent  each  of  the  District  Repre- 
sentatives. The  replies  were  for  the  most  part  very  general,  but  gave  some  idea 
of  the  industry  in  the  particular  county.  Prom  the  replies  the  Province  might  be 
divided  into  three  parts : 

( 1 )  -The  colder  Northern  parts  where  plums  are  grown  only  in  the  home  garden 
as  a  hobby  or  not  at  all. 

(2)  The  western  part  of  Eastern  Ontario  and  all  of  Central  and  Western 
Ontario,  except  a  few  locations  where  they  are  grown  locally  and  marketed  in  the 
nearby  towns  and  villages;  where  local  production  supplies,  or  almost  supplies,  the 
local  demand. 

(3)  The  centres  where  the  commercial  orchards  are  situated;  Lincoln,  Went- 
worth,  some  favored  spots  on  Lake  Huron  in  Grey  County,  on  Lake  Erie  in  Elgin, 
Kent  and  Essex,  and  on  Lake  Ontario  in  Prince  Edward  County. 

It  is  with  these  latter  districts  that  we  are  mostly  concerned  at  present,  so  far  as 
production  is  concerned,  and  also  the  first  division  in  which  are  situated  many  small 
towns  that  would  take  regular  shipments  during  the  season  from  the  commercial 
districts. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  from  the  above  remarks  that  every  man  in  the  State 
of  New  York  is  an  expert  plum  grower,  or  that  every  man  in  Ontario  is  making  a 
failure,  because  such  is  not  the  case,  and  that  is  not  the  idea  that  the  writer  intends 


i 


to  convey.  The  percentage  of  men  in  New  York  who  are  making  money  from  plums 
is  probably  a  little  higher  than  in  Ontario,  but  not  all  are  specialists.  Plum 
specialists  are  scarce,  and  the  idea  that  the  Avriter  means  to  convey  is  that  certain 
phases  of  the  methods  and  plans  of  our  American  friends  could  be  profitably 
adopted  by  us.  Those  particulars  have  been  enumerated,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the 
suggestions  thrown  out  will  be  of  some  interest  and  value  to  Ontario  plum-growers. 
The  question  might  rightly  be  asked,  how  do  successful  plum-growers  consider 
plums  compared  with  other  fruits  as  a  profitable  line  to  follow?  The  general  idea  is 
that  plums  are  a  secondary  consideration,  and  one  prominent  grower  remarked  to 
me  that  he  believed  the  last  dollar  had  been  made  in  plums,  and  that  he  would  not 
take  the  trees  as  a  gift  if  he  had  to  set  them  out  and  wait  for  them  to  bear.  It 
was  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  to  find  a  man  who  gives  his  plums  the  same 
attention  as  he  gives  other  fruits,  but  still  they  yield  fair  returns. 

The  situation  is  summed  up  quite  well  in  a  letter  from  a  prominent  grower 
in  the  State  so  often  mentioned,  which  is  here  quoted  in  part :  "  Plums  were  very 
low  here  also,  but  I  got  better  prices  than  I  expected,  from  8  to  10  cents  per  7  lb. 
basket  loaded  on  the  car  here;  prunes  15  cents  a  basket.  My  plums  and  prunes 
were  never  better  and  more  perfect  than  this  year,  and  the  largest  crop  I  ever  had. 
Plums  and  prunes  pay  fairly  well,  as  they  come  into  market  when  one  is  not  very 
busy,  and  they  generally  bear  abundantly." 


(2)  THE  CAUSES  OF  THE  LACK  OF  INTEREST. 

Many  causes  or  reasons  might  be  assigned  for  this  lack  of  interest  in  the  plum 
industry  of  the  Province,  but  I  believe  the  principal  ones  may  be  found  in  the 
following : 

(1)  The  prevailing  prices  have  been  low.. 

(2)  A  large  number  of  poor  varieties  were  planted  in  the  decade  previous  to 
1901  and  the  few  years  following. 

(3)  Low  prices  did  not  seem  to  warrant  the  adoption  of  careful  cultivation, 
pruning  and  spraying  methods,  and  as  a  result  much  fruit  has  been  of  low  quality, 
and  large  quantities  were  in  a  state  of  over-ripeness  or  decay  before  they  reached  the 
consumer. 

(4)  The  other  fruits  are  more  popular  with  both  producer  and  consumer,  and 
the  plums  are  crowded  out  in  favor  of  the  more  highly  praised  and  advertised 
fruits.  Plums  and  the  culture  of  plums  have  scarcely  been  discussed  at  fruit  con- 
ventions during  the  last  few  years. 

Low  Prices. — Prices  and  net  returns  are  the  key-note  of  growth  or  decay  in 
any  business,  and  around  this  hang  the  other  reasons  for  lack  of  interest. 

The  following  returns,  worked  out  by  L.  B.  Henry,  B.S.A.,  of  Winona,  and  by 
whose  courtesy  I  am  permitted  to  use  them,  are  of  great  interest  and  value  in  that 
they  show  the  variation  in  price  from  year  to  year  and  the  variation  in  price  of  the 
different  varieties.  They  represent  the  gross  returns  of  five  good  growers — not 
average  or  poor  growers — in  the  "Winona  district,  per  eleven  quart  basket  for  a 
period  of  ten  years.  These  figures  I  consider  very  reliable,  and  represent  what  a 
man  who  understands  his  business  might  expect. 


8 


Bradshaw. 

MediumBlue 

and 

Burbank. 

21.2 
38.3 
19.3 
42.0 
63,7 
29.2 
27.3 
27.3 
32.7 
26.9 

Lombard. 

Fancy  Blue 
and  Red. 

Reine 
Claude 

1903 

21.1 

44.8 
31.6 
42.0 
78.3 
25.3 
26.5 
28.0 
35.3 
33.7 

11.9 
35.0 
14.0 
41.9 
60.0 
15.9 
15.0 
25.0 
35.1 
26.3 

19.6 
45.2 
24.0 
43.4 
77.9 
29.4 
33.0 
33.2 
42.5 
38.0 

,  19.5 

1904 

52.5 

1905 

35.3 

1906 

41.1 

1907 

1908 

95.6 
32.4 

1909 

36.4 

1910 

47.0 

1911 

42.9 

1912 

36.5 

Ayeragre 

36.6 

32.8 

28.0 

38.4 

44.2 

In  "  Medium  Blue  "  are  included  Gueii  and  Quackenboss.  In  "  Fancy  Blue  '* 
are  included  Glass  Seedling,  Monarch  and  Grand  Duke. 

The  year  of  lowest  prices  was  1903,  when  the  average  of  all  varieties  was  only 
18.6  cents  per  eleven  quart  basket  gross.  The  year  of  highest  prices  was  1907  when 
the  average  for  all  varieties  was  75.1  cents  gross;  certainly  an  exceptional  price  for 
plums: 

Again  the  average  for  all  varieties  for  the  ten  years  was  36  cents  per  eleven 
quart.  This  price,  though  low  to  nianv,  I  consider  fair,  and  consequently  it  does  not 
warrant  the  present  partially  neglected  state  of  the  industry.  If  five  good  growers 
received  this  for  all  varieties  for  a  period  of  ten  years  does  not  the  increasing  demand 
warrant  more  careful  methods  of  culture  and  sale  and  the  planting  of  selected 
varieties  ? 

Carrying  yields  and  returns  still  further  we  have  in  New  York  State  (1909 
census)  919,017  bearing  plum  and  prune  trees,  with  a  yield  of  553,553  bushels. 
Ontario  (1911  census)  has  767,827  bearing  plum  and  prune  trees  with  a  yield  of 
331,278  bushels.  The  New  York  product  was  valued  at  $519,192.  The  Ontario 
product,  at  the  average  rate  quoted  previously  in  the  table  for  that  year  (37.7  cent$, 
average  of  all  varieties),  and  considering  three  baskets  to  the  bushel,  would  be  worth 
$374,675.48. 

Estimating  thus,  the  product  of  Ontario  was  worth  48.8  cents  per  tree  on  an 
average,  while  that  of  New  York  was  worth  56.5  cents  per  tree  on  the  average. 
The  figures  are  admitted  to  be  only  approximate  averages,  but  still  they  are  fairly 
correct.  The  figures  are  even  for  different  years,  but  they  illustrate  comparative 
values,  and  the  fact  that  plums  as  a  whole  are  worth  as  much,  or  more,  in  the  open 
markets  of  the  neighboring  republic  as  they  are  in  our  open  markets.  In  Ontario 
the  average  price  per  bushel  was  lower  in  1909 — the  year  of  the  last  New  York 
census — than  in  the  year  quoted  (from  figures  quoted  previously),  but  the  yield  was 
higher,  so  the  comparative  values  per  tree  will  still  be  the  same.  The  total  yield  for 
Ontario  is  not  available  for  1909,  so  we  must  use  the  census  year.  This  again,  to  me, 
at  least,  illustrates  that  the  production  and  marketing  methods  of  our  competitors  are 
cheaper  than  ours,  and  that  the  industry  could  be  made  a  profitable  one,  if  given  the 
same  attention  as  the  other  branches  of  the  fruit  industry. 

Poor  Varieties. — Scarcely  had  the  old  and  tried  domestica  varieties  of  plums 
become  widely  distributed  and  well  known  Avhen  the  much  lauded,  much  advertised, 
over  praised  Japanese  varieties  were  put  on  the  market.  A  word  as  to  their  history 
will  make  clear  their  standing.  The  first  trees  were  imported  in  1870  (Bailey)  and 
fruited  in  1876.    Commercial  propagation  began  in  1883,  or  really  only  tliirty-one 


years  ago.  For  twenty  or  more  years  they  were  heralded  as  the  best  possible,  and  it  is 
only  within  the  last  few  years  that  they  have  found  their  level.  But  they  were  planted 
promiscuously  and  over-planted,  and  the  whole  industry  has  suffered  as  a  result.  Most 
of  the  varieties  are  not  equal  to  the  domesticas,  and  though  the  tide  has  found  its 
ocean  level  it  will  be  some  years  yet  before  the  results  of  the  mistake  are  completely 
obliterated.  I  do  not  mean  to  infer  that  the  Japanese  varieties  have  no  place,  but 
that  their  place  is  not  above  the  best  domestica  varieties.  It  might  be  said,  too,  that 
early  ripening  domesticas  (with  the  exception  of  Bradshaw  or  Niagara)  have  to  a 
certain  extent  been  over-planted.  Some  are  making  money  from  them  in  a  limited 
way,  but  the  majority  are  not.  The  best  growers  have  of  late  been  watching  the  ex- 
panding markets,  and  the  varieties  now  being  planted  are  being  more  carefully 
selected  and  for  the  markets  of  the  near  and  distant  future. 

Spraying^  Cultivation,  etc. — The  percentage  of  growers  who  spray  and  care 
for  their  plum  orchards  as  carefully  as  they  spray  and  care  for  their  other  fruits  is 
very  small  indeed.  The  interest  in  their  care  is  such  that  as  a  general  rule  the 
trees  are  given  such  care  and  attention  as  time  will  permit  after  the  other  fruits 
have  received  their  special  treatments.  In  very  many  cases  the  orchards  are  not 
given  any  spray  treatment  after  the  dormant  spray.  Other  applications  would 
necessitate  special  effort,  and  consequently  the  trees  are  left  untreated.  A  small 
per  centage  are  more  thorough  and  produce  good  fruits.  The  former  and  larger 
percentage  are  as  a  consequence  not  getting  the  highest  returns.  The  latter  are 
receiving  returns  commensurate  with  their  efforts.  The  returns  of  the  more  careful 
growers  are  quoted  previously. 

Popularity  of  Other  Fruits. — Plums  are  common  property.  They  grow 
almost  everywhere  and  nearly  all  are  familiar  with  their  habits.  They  have  not 
been  favored  with  heavy  yields  at  high  prices.  When  yields  are  heavy  prices  are  low. 
We  have  no  big  returns  to  quote  for  them  as  we  have  for  the  strawberry,  the  peach, 
and  the  apple.  At  least  we  have  not  been  quoting  them.  Their  quality,  flavor  and 
character  is  such  that  they  do  not  appeal  to  the  taste  in  sufficient  degree  to  be 
desired  in  the  largest  quantities.  The  production  and  consumption  of  prunes,  dried, 
is  increasing  yearly  and  making  inroads  on  the  fresh  plum  industry.  The  former 
can  be  purchased  from  the  provision  merchant  in  any  quantity,  large  or  small,  at 
any  time,  whereas  fresh  plums  must  be  canned  or  preserved  at  once  or  they  will 

spoil. 

The  plum  must  be  of  first-class  quality  and  marketed  in  an  attractive  manner 
if  it  is  to  hold  its  own  with  its  natural  competitors. 

(3)   PLUM  CULTURE  OR  CULTURAL  METHODS. 

The  history  of  plums  and  plum  culture  dates  back  to  many  years  before  Christ. 
Plums  were  cultivated  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  pits  or  seeds  were  scat- 
tered from  this  centre  throughout  Western  Europe.  Nor  are  all  our  common  best 
varieties  products  of  modern  civilization.  Our  best  varieties  are  European  importa- 
tions or  offshoots  from  them,  and  we  have  not  a  single  variety  evolved  from  our 
native  American  species  that  is  equal  to  them.  The  Japanese  varieties  are  im- 
portations, or  have  been  produced  from  imported  stock,  and  as  yet  not  a  single 
variety  has  been  produced  that  has  maintained  a  permanent  hold  on  the  public— a 
hold  equal  to  that  of  the  Peine  Claudes,  Prunes,  and  Damsons. 

In  order  to  more  thoroughly  understand  the  discussion  later  it  might  be  well 
to  outline  a  classification  that  covers  the  common  varieties.  Each  class  requires 
somewhat  special  treatment  or  care,  and  it  is  well  at  the  outset  to  make  mention  of 


10 

them.  "We  have  in  all  twenty-four  distinct  species  of  plums  (Hedrick),  and  more 
than  two  thousand  varieties,  but  we  are  directly  concerned  with  only  four  species 
and  about  thirty  varieties,  or  even  less. 

Prunus  Americana  includes  nearly  all  our  best  native  varieties.  These  are  not 
grown  largely  in  commercial  orchards,  but  are  found  in  many  gardens  throughout 
the  Province.  The  principal  varieties  are  De  Soto,  Hawkeye,  Stoddard,  Wolf, 
Wyant  and  New  Ulm.  One  other  variety  that  is  very  similar  to  the  above  is 
Cheney,  but  is  a  distinct  species  {Prunus  nigra). 

Prunus  domestica  includes  nearly  all  our  best  varieties,  those  that  have  been 
imported  direct  from  Europe  or  developed  from  the  importations.  Some  of  our 
best  varieties  are  'Monarch,  Grand  Duke,  Smith  Orleans,  German  Prune,  Italian 
Prune,  Pond  Seedling,  Quackenboss,  Shipper's  Pride,  Peine  Claude,  Green  Gage, 
Washington,  Yellow  Egg,  Lombard,  General  Hand,  Gueii,  Bradshaw,  Moore^s 
Arctic,  Glass  Seedling. 

Prunus  Triflora  includes  the  Japanese  varieties,  those  that  have  been  im- 
ported from  Japan  or  developed  here  from  the  importations.  Abundance,  Burbank, 
Ked  June,  Willard  are  the  best  known  varieties. 

Prunus  insititia  includes  the  Damsons,  the  most  important  of  which  are  the 
Sweet  Damson,  Common  Damson  and  Shropshire  Damson.  Besides  the  four  above 
mentioned  species  we  have  a  number  of  common  and  important  hybrids,  plums  that 
have  been  produced  by  crossing.    The  most  important  of  these  are  Climax  and  Shiro. 

Soils. 

Plums  are  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils,  but  like  most  other  fruits  have  a 
preference.  The  domestica  or  European  plums  are  best  suited  to  clays  and  clay 
loams.  They  will  thrive  on  sands  and  heavy  clays,  but  the  largest  and  most  regular 
yields  of  the  highest  quality  fruit  seem  to  be  found  on  the  clays  and  clay  loams.  It 
is  sometimes  written  that  plums  will  thrive  on  wet  soils,  but  in  the  main  the  state- 
ment is  inccrrect.  They  will  thrive  under  damper  soil  conditions  than  the  peach  or 
cherry,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  such  a  soil  is  wet.  Warm  bottomed  lands  are  as 
much  preferred  by  plums  as  by  any  other  fruit,  but  they  will  maintain  their  vigor 
under  more  adverse  conditions. 

The  Damsons  are  well  adapted  to  a  little  greater  variations  and  will  thrive  to 
the  fullest  degree  on  the  heavy  clays.  Japanese  plums,  on  the  other  hand,  though 
also  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  soils,  may  be  expected  to  yield  highest  returns  on 
the  lighter  soils.  Many  of  these  species  are  worked  on  peach  roots — especially  in 
the  South,  and  in  such  cases  are  adapted  to  soils  that  favor  that  particular  fruit. 

Soils,  generally  speaking,  are  not  as  important  as  the  drainage  of  the  soil.  If 
the  subsoil  is  sufficiently  open  to  permit  of  an  extensive  development  of  the  root 
system,  if  it  dries  off  readily  in  the  spring  or  after  a  heavy  rain,  if  it  is  sufficiently 
open  to  permit  of  easy  drainage  and  at  the  same  time  holds  moisture  well  under 
judicious  management,  be  it  sand  or  heavy  clay,  it  is  adapted  to  fruit  trees,  and 
plums  will  thrive  on  it.  It  is  a  mistake  to  put  plums  where  no  other  fruit  would 
grow. 

There  is  no  objection  to  a  large  number  of  stones  in  the  soil  provided  they  do 
not  interfere  with  cultivation,  as  such  a  soil  fs  usually  open  and  quite  fertile. 

The  above  statements  will  arouse  this  question:  If  plums  are  only  a  fair 
investment,  and  do  not  pay  as  well  as  some  other  fruit,  why  should  we  not  reserve 
the  good  soil  for  the  better  paying  fruit?  By  all  means  put  the  plum  orchard  on 
the  heavier  and  cheaper  land,  but  only  if  that  cheaper  land  is  adapted  to  them. 


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13 

Drain  it,  and  fertilize  and  cultivate  it  and  the  plums  will  respond  as  readil}  as  any 
other  fruit.  Plant  them  under  the  best  conditions  possible  in  your  particular  cir- 
cumstances. 

Propagation. 

Plum  trees  used  in  the  commercial  orchards  of  Ontario  are  grown  almost 
entirely  by  the  local  nursery  firms.  A  few  are  imported  from  the  United  States, 
but  a  large  percentage  are  home-grown. 

Seedling  stocks  (Myrobolan)  are  obtained  from  France  in  the  winter  and 
planted  in  the  nursery  rows  the  following  spring.  At  one  time  St.  Julien  stocks 
(prunus  insititta)  a  species  of  Damson  were  used  almost  entirely  by  the  nursery- 
men of  the  Eastern  United  ^States,  but  they  have  given  way  for  the  Myrobolan.  It 
is  generally  admitted,  however,  that  domestica  and  Damson  plums  make  better 
trees,  thrive  better  and  live  longer  on  St.  Julien  than  Myrobolan,  and  there  are  to-day 
many  orchards  on  this  stock  in  the  State  of  New  York. 

The  nurserymen,  however,  prefer  the  Myrobolan  stock,  because  it  gives  a  larger 
and  thriftier  tree  in  one  year,  and  is  easier  to  bud  successfully.  Also  it  is  less 
subject  to  disease,  and  it  costs  less  than  St.  Julien,  Naturally,  then,  under  these 
conditions  the  nurseryman  is  going  to  use  the  stock  that  gives  the  best  growth  while 
in  the  nursery  and  makes  the  most  money  for  him. 

The  seedling  stocks  planted  in  spring  are  budded  the  summer  immediately  fol- 
lowing (August),  and  sold  a  year  from  the  following  spring  as  yearling  trees,  or  sold 
two  years  from  the  spring  following  the  bud,  as  first  or  second  class  trees  of  standard 
sizes  according  to  grade. 

The  stock  may  either  be  dug  from  the  nursery  row  in  the  fall  and  heeled  in  a 
dry  place  near  the  buildings,  or  what  is  more  generally  the  practice,  and  is  the  best 
practice,  tied  in  bundles  and  piled  in  the  storage  houses,  where  they  are  held  at  a 
low  temperature  to  prevent  any  starting  of  the  bulbs.  Heeling  in  is  also  practiced 
sometimes  in  the  storage  cellars,  but  requires  a  vast  amount  of  space.  In  a  few 
oases  trees  are  left  all  winter  in  the  nursery  row,  but  such  a  practice  cannot  be 
recommended  for  spring  delivery. 

In  winter  the  trees  in  the  storage  are  sorted  into  sizes  or  grades  and  with 
the  opening  of  spring  are  packed  for  delivery. 

The  larger  trees  are  in  greatest  demand,  but  smaller  sizes,  and  especially  the 
good  grades  of  clean  straight  stock  of  one  and  two  year  old  trees  are  to  be  preferred. 
One  year  old  stock  of  the  rapid  growing  Japanese  varieties  is  recommended.  The 
Reine  Claudes  and  similar  types  are  slower  growers,  and  are  much  smaller  than  the 
Japanese  varieties  at  one  3^ear.    Two  years  are  required  for  them  to  attain  their  size. 

Site. 

The  site  for  the  plum  orchard  is  generally  largely  determined  by  the  soil 
factor.  Two  other  factors  are,  however,  worthy  of  consideration.  Plums  when 
banging  heavily  on  the  trees  rot  very  easily  if  the  weather  is  at  all  warm  and  damp. 
Brown  Rot  is  especially  adapted  to  warm,  humid  conditions,  and  the  application  of 
spray  materials  is  much  more  effective  when  aided  by  air  circulation  and  sun- 
light. The  rot  spores  cannot  thrive  under  dry  conditions,  and  the  freer  the  air 
circulation  the  less  rot  there  will  be.  Do  not  hide  the  trees-  behind  a  woods  or  thick 
hedge  where  air  currents  cannot  reach  them. 


13 

The  other  factor,  that  of  sunlight,  is  controlled  largely  by  pruning,  but 
proximity  to  a  high  hill,  or  part  enclosure  by  woods,  is  of  considerable  importance. 
The  orchard  should  be  as  much  in  the  open  as  possible  without  undue  exposure  to 
heavy  winds.  Proximity  to  woods,  old  fences,  etc.,  is  also  conducive  to  rot  and  insects 
because  of  the  nearness  of  the  breeding  grounds  of  the  curculio.  Curculio  stings 
admit  rot  spores. 


Orchard  showing  the  result  of  too  close  planting.    18  ft.  x  18  ft.  is  a  good  average  distance. 


To  get  most  sunlight  and  tlir  circulation  keep  away  from  the  hollows,  and 
unless  the  soil  is  too  valuable  select  as  good  a  site  as  for  the  peach  or  the  apple. 

Another  factor  of  some  importance  is  the  freezing  of  the  blossoms  in  the 
spring.  The  Japanese  varieties  open  comparatively  early,  and  if  there  is  any 
preference  they  should  have  it.  Japanese  varieties  cannot  be  raised  in  many  sec- 
tions of  Ontario  because  of  this.  They  blossom  freely,  but  fail  to  set  any  fruit,  or  if 
any  does  set  it  turns  yellow  and  falls  off  soon  after.  For  these  varieties  a  northern 
slope  or  one  near  the  water  is  preferred  in  all  sections  subject  to  late  spring  frosts. 


14 


Planting. 


The  planting  of  the  nursery  stock  may  be  done  either  in  the  fall  or  spring. 
Spring  planting  is  the  most  popular  time  at  present,  but  there  is  no  reason  why 
they  should  not  be  set  in  the  fall,  if  well  matured  trees  can  be  obtained  in  late 
September  or  in  October,  or  even  later.  The  trees  must  be  well  matured  for  trans- 
planting, and  unless  good  well-ripened  individuals  can  be  obtained  it  is  better  to  wait 
till  spring.  Ordinarily  they  can  be  obtained.  Experiments  conducted  here  with  one 
variety,  Reine  Claude,  over  a  period  of  three  years,  indicate  that  something  is  gained 
by  fall  planting.  Six  trees  were  planted  in  the  falls  of  each  of  the  years  of  1911, 
1912,  1913,  and  in  the  springs  of  1912,  1913,  1914.  In  every  case  the  fall  planted 
trees  show  a  greater  growth;  are  more  vigorous  and  thrifty.  One  tree  planted  in 
the  spring  of  1913  died,  but  all  others  are  still  under  observation.  Some  discus- 
sion has  also  taken  place  with  regard  to  the  merits  of  dynamiting  holes  for  trees. 
The  experiments  have  not  been  conducted  sufficiently  long  to  report  definitely,  but 
the  results  to  date  are  included  in  the  following  table.  The  wood  growth  per  tree 
and  the  diameter  of  the  trunk  of  each  tree,  with  averages  for  spring  and  fall 
planting,  are  also  included  in  the  table.    No  fruit  has  been  produced. 


Dynamited  Holes  1912 

Spring  Planted  1912 

Autumn  Planted,  Fall  of  1911 

Diameter  of        New  Growth 
Trunk                     1914 

Diameter  of 
Trunk 

New  Growth 
1914 

Diameter  of 
Trunk. 

New  Growth 
1914 

Tree  1    1.11 
"     2    1.11 
"     3    1.43 
"     4    1.27 
"     5    1.34 
"     6    1.27 

188J 

164 

317i 

222 

216 

209 

.       1.58 
1.75 
1.41 
1.34 
1.43 
1.58 

299 

278 

138^ 

216J 

1611 

274 

1.66 
1.66 
1.58 
1.66 
1.75 
1.75 

266S 

338 

255 

274i 

237 

266i 

Total      7.53 
Average  1.255 

1317 
219.5 

9.09 
1.515 

13671 
227.9 

10.06 
1.676 

16371 
272.9 

There  is  possibly  a  labor  advantage  in  fall  planting  sometimes,  but  not  always. 
The  rush  of  fruit  picking  is  often  more  trying  than  spring  cultivation  and  planting. 

If  the  soil  can  be  put  into  first  class  shape  and  the  trees  obtained  when  ready 
it  will  pay  to  plant ;  otherwise  wait  till  spring. 

The  distance  apart  to  plant  varies  a  great  deal  with  the  different  varieties. 
Some  are  quick,  vigorous  growers  and  make  large  trees ;  others  are  small  trees  even 
when  matured.  Seventeen  feet  square  is  a  good  average,  or  on  rich  loam  twenty 
feet  square  is  not  too  great  a  distance.  The  Abundance  is  a  small  grower  and  will 
adapt  itself  to  a  square  fifteen  feet  each  way.  Burbanks  are  more  spreading  and 
should  have  at  least  seventeen  feet ;  eighteen  are  better.  Where  it  is  desired  to  plant 
a  number  of  varieties  the  rows  may  be  kept  in  straight  lines  and  the  trees  an  equal 
distance  apart  in  the  row,  but  the  rows  brought  closer  together.  For  instance,  the 
trees  in  the  rows  may  be  eighteen  feet  apart  and  the  rows  eighteen  feet  apart  for 
the  larce  growing  domesticas,  but  when  the  rows  of  Abundance  or  Lombard  are 
planted  they  may  be  planted  the  same  distance  apart  in  the  row  but  fifteen  feet 
between  the  rows. 

Don't  make  the  mistake  of  planting  too  closely.  Just  as  much  and  better  fruit 
will  be  produced  at  the  greater  distance,  and  it  will  not  all  be  in  the  tops  of  the  trees. 


15 


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16 


Pollination. 
The  question  of  pollination  is  important  where  large  quantities  of  Japanese 
and  Americana  varieties  are  grown,  but  not  so  important  where  the  domesticas  are 
in  evidence.  Most  varieties  of  Japanese  and  Americana  are  self -sterile ;  that  is, 
the  varieties  will  not  pollinate  or  fertilize  themselves.  Cross  fertilization  is  much 
stronger.  Damson  and  Domestica  varieties  are  not  self-sterile,  as  far  as  the  present 
evidence  will  permit  of  a  final  judgment,  but  they  are  stronger  and  more  likely  to 
produce  abundantly  when  cross  pollinated.  Japanese  varieties  are  readily  pollinated 
by  Americana  varieties  that  blossom  at  the  same  time. 


^- 


Heine  Claude  in  midsummer  of  the 
third  year. 

A  large  block  of  Burbank  or  a  large  block  of  Abundance  will  not  pollinate 
freely  if  isolated,  but  if  the  blocks  are  near  each  other  or  the -rows  mixed  through, 
pollination  will  be  almost  certain.  The  same  might  be  added  with  regard  to  Eed 
June.  The  popular  American  varieties,  De  Soto  and  Hawkey  e,  are  self -sterile,  as 
is  also  the  popular  Nigra  variety  Cheney,  but  they  all  cross  pollinate  readily.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  large  block  of  domesticas,  say  Bradshaws,  will  produce  well  even 
when  isolated  from  other  varieties. 

The  question  of  the  "  June  Drop  "  might  be  taken  up  here.  By  this  I  mean 
the  falling  of  a  large  number  of  fruits  soon  after  the  blossoms  fall  or  even  when  the 
fruits  are  the  size  of  beans,  and  in  a  few  cases  very  much  larger.  The  fruit  turns 
yellow,  shrivels  up  and  falls  off. 

There  are  two  main  causes  of  this  drop — weak  pollination  and  attacks  of  Plum 
curculio. 


17 

No  plum  can  produce  seed  unless  it  is  pollinated,  and  fruit  cannot  form  unless 
the  seed  is  strong  and  vigorous.  Those  plums  that  are  not  fertilized  will  drop  almost 
with  the  blossoms;  those  that  are  partly  or  weakly  pollinated  will  fall  later,  and 
only  those  that  are  vigorous  will  grow  to  maturity. 

An  examination  of  the  fallen  specimens  will  show  that  the  curculio  is  also 
responsible  for  a  large  share  of  the  damage.  This  can  only  be  remedied  by  careful 
spraying  and  general  tidy  methods. 

Pruning. 

The  pruning  of  plums  as  generally  practised  is  a  haphazard  operation,  and  I 
feel  that  I  can  safely  prophesy  that  the  plum  growers  fifty  years  hence  will  smile 
at  the  methods  of  to-day.  For  no  fruit  has  pruning  received  the  scientific  study 
that  spraying  or  even  fertilizing  has.     Plums  are  no  exception  to  the  rule,  and 


A  good  low-headed  Reine  Claude,  two  years  planted;   was  cut  back 
to  a  whip  and  headed  very  low  when  planted  In  the  spring  of  1911. 


when  we  consider  the  various  tree  types  even  in  the  different  species  we  have  a 
magnitude  in  variations  and  habits  of  growth. 

Americanas  at  best  are  generally  a  tangled,  crooked,  thorny  bunch  of  limbs 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  work  amongst.  The  cross  and  broken  limbs  must  be 
cut  away,  but  the  head  left  fairly  thick  to  protect  the  trunk  and  main  limbs.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  thin  out  a  little,  but  sections  to  which  this  species  is  adapted 
are  cold  and  severe,  and  heavy  pruning  is  not  to  be  recommended.  Low  heading  is, 
however,  strongly  recommended.  Even  where  the  snowfall  is  heavy  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  have  a  three  or  more  foot  trunk  to  protect  the  trees  from  the  rabbits,  etc. 
A  trunk  of  thirty  inches  as  a  maximum,  and  perhaps  I  should  have  said  twenty- 
four  inches,  is  less  liable  to  sunscald  and  winter  injury. 

Japanese  plums  are  also  varied  in  their  habits  of  growth.  We  have  the  extremes 
in  Barbank  and  Wickson.  Burbank  is  a  broad,  low  growing,  flat-topped  tree,  while 
Wickson  is  narrow  and  upright.  Abundance  is  intermediate,  in  shape  vasiform, 
and  may  be  taken  as  a  t}^e.    Burbank  must  be  thinned  out  and  headed  in  as  much 


18 

as  from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  the  new  wood.  Its  heavy  bearing  qualities  make 
it  necessary  often  to  thin  very  heavily.  Burbank  also  bears  some  fruit  on  the  new 
or  one-year  wood.  Besides  thinning  out  and  heading  in,  as  mentioned,  the  tree 
must  be  pruned  upward. 

With  Wickson  the  dense  top  must  be  thinned,  but  the  pruning  must  be  to 
induce  growth  downward,  not  upward.  This  variety,  as  far  as  growth  and  pruning 
are  concerned,  resembles  somewhat  the  Yellow  Transparent  apple  and  requires  much 
the  same  treatment. 

The  domestica  plums  vary  as  much  as  the  Japanese,  and  with  a  few  rules 
they  must  be  left.  The  illustrations  will  be  somewhat  of  a  guide,  but  only  a  guide, 
as  the  requirements  of  each  variety  are  very  varied. 

(1)  Cut  out  all  cross  and  tangled  limbs. 

(2)  Let  some  sunlight  in  at  the  top,  but  not  as  much  as  with  the  apple. 

(3)  But  little  heading  in  is  necessary. 

(4)  Thin  out  so  the  sunlight  is  fairly  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  tree. 

(5)  Prune  horizontal  trees  upward  and  upright  trees  downward. 

(6)  Study  the  fruiting  habit;  that  is,  examine  all  buds  and  spurs  and  find 
out  how  the  buds  are  borne  and  which  ones  bear  blossoms  and  fruit.  Are  they  on 
one,  two  or  three-year  wood,  lateral,  terminal  or  on  spurs.  Pruning  can  be  done 
intelligently  only  when  these  things  are  observed. 

The  illustration  on  page  17  is  a  good  type  of  a  spreading  tree  and  that 
on  page  19  of  an  upright  tree. 

The  fruit  buds  are  for  the  most  part  borne  on  spurs,  on  wood  older  than  one 
year.  Some  Japanese  varieties  bear  on  one-year  wood — Burbanks  partly — and  in 
such  cases  the  cutting  back  of  new  growth  thins  the  fruit.  This  will  not  apply 
to  Domesticas  and  Americanas.  Fruit  buds  are  generally  in  clusters  of  from  two 
to  six  or  seven  and  sometimes  more  on  a  spur.  Their  size  and  form  is  very  similar 
to  leaf  buds  and  their  denomination  is  more  to  be  determined  from  position  than 
any  other  characteristic.  The  central  bud  may  be  considered  a  leaf  bud  and  the 
near  lateral  buds  fruit  buds. 

The  general  opinion  is  that  plums  do  not  require  as  severe  pruning  as  some 
other  fruits,  but  nevertheless  we  sometimes  see  pruning  carried  to  the  extreme 
with  no  harmful  results.  The  writer  has  visited  orchards  where  the  trees  (Brad- 
^haw),  were  as  open  headed  as  any  Baldwin  apple  in  Ontario,  headed  in  severely 
at  the  top  and  all  growth  forced  downward.  In  one  orchard  of  this  type  the 
trees  were  set  about  20  by  30  feet,  diagonally,  and  were  good  yielders  of  fruit  of 
good  quality.  The  writer  has  also  visited  orchards  where  the  other  extreme  was 
practised.  On  one  orchard  in  particular  the  trees  were  planted  10  by  12,  pruned 
high,  all  the  lower  limbs  and  ground  were  shaded,  and  yet  for  the  first  foot  or 
two  in  the  tops  the  trees  promised  well  and  the  owner  claimed  a  profitable 
orchard. 

What  then  are  we  to  do  in  the  face  of  the  greatest  extremes.  Individual 
tastes  only  can  answer.  The  habits  of  the  varieties  must  be  studied  and  the 
trees  pruned  accordingly. 

Cultivation,  Fertilizing,  and  Cover- Cropping. 

The  three  above  headings  are  each  in  themselves  worthy  of  discussion  and 
.scientific  investigation,  but  at  present  it  seems  that  as  far  as  practical  results  are 
concerned  they  are  best  discussed  together.  Thorough  cultivation  is  the  cheapest 
fertilizer  obtainable.  Cover  crops  add  the  humus  that  breaks  down,  and  makes  not 
only  its  own  substance  available,  but  also  the  locked  up  plant  food  in  the  soil. 


19 

Cultivation  destroys  the  weeds  that  would  absorb  plant  food  at  the  critical  season 
of  the  year;  it  conserves  the  moisture  that  dissolves  the  fertilizer,  it  prepares  the 
soil  for  the  covercrop,  the  seed  of  which  is  to  be  sown  in  what  is  usually  a  dry 
season  of  the  year. 

We  talk  covercrops,  fertilizer  and  soil  moisture  and  I  repeat,  each  is  im- 
portant, but  the  lion's  share  of  their  possible  values  is  dependent  on  thorough 
cultivation.  Cultivate  repeatedly  during  the  season  for  cultivation  and  the  mois- 
ture problem  will  partly  be  solved;  cultivate  repeatedly  to  break  down  the  cover 
,crop  you  have  plowed  under,  and  it  will  work  for  you;  cultivate  to  incorporate 
the  humus  with  the  soil,  to  make  it  sufficiently  open  to  admit  air  freely  and  plant 
food  will  be  liberated  fronf  the  clay  and  made  available  to  the  plant.  Cultivate 
to  make  available  the  fertilizer  you  have  applied. 


.:? 


Niagara  or  Bradshaw  at  the  end  of  the  third 
summer,  showing  what  is  possible  from  a  one-year 
whip  very  low  headed. 


The  cover  crop  should  be  placed  second  in  importance.  'Just  as  it  is  import- 
ant that  the  trees  be  given  all  opportunity  in  the  spring  and  early  summer  to 
grow,  so  is  it  important  that  in  late  summer  and  fall  that  they  ripen  their  wood 
and  buds  for  the  following  season.  Sow  the  cover-crop  in  July  or  August  depending 
on  moisture  and  the  quantity  of  fruit  on  the  tree.  Crimson  Clover,  18  lbs.  per 
acre.  Rye,  l^/^  bushels  per  acre,  Buckwheat,  40  lbs.  per  acre,  Red  Clover,  15  lbs. 
per  acre,  Vetch,  30  lbs.  per  acre  or  oats  51  lbs.  per  acre,  may  be  used.  Or  if 
chickweed  (so  popular  with  many  growers)  is  plentiful  and  wants  to  grow  tnere 
is  no  objection  to  it  in  the  orchard.  There  is  objection  if  it  spreads  to  other 
fields — especially  strawberry  plantations. 

Little  attention  has  been  paid  to  scientific  fertilization  of  plums.  Even  the 
best  growers  do  not  fertilize  regularly.     Some  have  tried  commercial  fertilizers. 


20 

hut  because  of  inadequate  returns  they  have  not  come  to  be  used  generally.  Farm- 
yard manure  is  most  used  and  even  with  this  the  other  fruits  seem  to  have  the 
preference  and  if  any  is  left  the  plums  may  get  it.  A  light  application,  eight 
or  ten  tons  once  every  two  years  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  A  few 
apply  light  dressings  annually,  and  the  returns  seem  to  warrant  the  expenditure; 
but  these  are  only  the  few,  and  the  best,  but  it  indicates  that  plums  under  skilful 
management  are  a  paying  crop. 

Two  serious  objections  might  be  raised  to  the  foregoing  statements  re  culti- 
vation and  cover  crops.  The  extreme  of  cultivation  produces  heavy  tender  growth, 
but  thorough  spring,  not  late  cultivation,  only  is  advocated.  And  covercrops  tend 
to  harbor  curculio  and  rot.  This  is  the  sound  objecHon  in  som.e  instances,  but 
where  the  best  pruning  and  spraying  methods  are  followed  the  danger  of  infection 
is  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

Picking  and  Packing. 

Is  there  anything  to  be  said  about  the  picking  of  plums?  Very  little,  I  am 
afraid,  except  to  repeat  the  oft-quoted  rules  with  regard  to  other  fruits. 

Because  of  the  lack  of  confidence  in  the  plum  trade,  and  prices  generally,  the 
fruit  is  often  picked  roughly — "shelled"  so  to  speak  in  baskets  without  any  par- 
ticular care  being  exercised.  This  applies  more  particularly  to  such  varieties  as 
Burbank  and  Lombard.  Baskets  containing  plums  of  various  sizes  in  various 
degrees  of  maturity,  sometimes  also  some  leaves,  can  be  purchased  on  the  large 
markets  during  the  rush  of  the  season.  To  some  extent  at  least  this  is  the  cause 
of  low  prices.  The  grower  has  had  a  large  quantity  and  received  a  medium  price 
which  has  paid  him  well  enough,  but  it  has  hurt  the  sale  of  plums  as  a  whole. 

A  single  decayed  plum  in  a  basket  soon  plays  havoc  with  the  fruit  nearest  it, 
and  the  infection  soon  spreads.  Much  care  should  be  exercised  to  prevent  such 
waste.  The  writer  has  seen  baskets  of  plums — and  other  fruits  also — spoiling 
on  the  hands  of  the  retailer.  This  may  seem  to  be  far  from  the  producer,  but 
when  the  loss  from  decay  is  heavy  the  good  fruit  must  be  sold  at  a  correspondingly 
high  price  to  protect  the  retailer  from  financial  loss.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons 
of  high  cost  to  the  consumer  that  the  producer  does  not  always  consider.  A  large 
share  of  the  apparently  large  retail  price  is  due  to  loss  caused  by  careless  picking 
and  packing  methods. 

At  no  time  should  plums  be  placed  in  baskets  when  they  are  at  all  damp. 
This  only  hastens  the  decay.  All  plums  are  not  ripe  when  they  begin  to  turn 
blue;  German  Prunes,  for  instance,  are  not  ripe  till  many  days  later  and  should 
be  left  till  in  a  better  state  for  shipment.  They  are  better  picked  a  little  green 
than  over-ripe  though,  especially  for  long-distance  shipment.  Most  of  the  early 
Japanese  varieties  should  be  picked  a  little  green  as  they  quickly  "go  down" 
if  over-ripe.  The  above  are  the  conditions  generally.  A  few  men  are  more 
careful,  and  are  paving  the  way.  Their  plums  are  graded  into  "  extra  fancy," 
"fancy,"  "medium,"  and  "Lombard"  grades,  and  as  such  their  fruit  is  known 
to  the  trade.  Their  baskets  of  plums  carry  the  same  guarantee  as  their  baskets 
of  other  fruits  and  the  returns  are  commensurate  with  the  extra  trouble  and 
expense  of  picking  and  packing.  Wet  or  damp  weather  conditions  during  the 
ripening  and  picking  season  are  in  some  measure  responsible  for  heavy  loss  from 
decay  in  transit  and  when  in  the  hands  of  the  retailer.  Loss  at  this  time  can  not 
be  avoided  except  by  careful  pruning  to  admit  an  abundance  of  air  and  sunlight 
into  the  tree  and  by  the  use  of  fungicides  to  prevent  scab  development. 


21 

To  the  Western  markets  only  the  best  varieties  and  the  best  grades  should 
be  sent  and  the  fruit  must  be  picked  a  little  greener  than  for  the  nearby  markets. 
As  soon  as  the  fruit  is  partly  colored  and  has  attained  nearly  full  size  it  should 
be  picked  and  shipped  at  once.  The  week  or  more  in  transit  will  give  them  some 
time  to  reach  maturity.  For  fancy  shipments  the  fruit  should  be  picked  with  the 
stems  on  the  same  as  cherries  are  always  picked  for  shipment. 

The  cost  of  picking  will  vary  a  great  deal  depending  on  the  quantity  of  fruit 
on  the  tree,  the  variety  and  the  care  that  is  exercised.  On  an  average  it  should 
not  cost  more  than  three  and  one-half  cents  or  four  cents  per  eleven-quart  basket. 

The  packing  generally  consists  in  putting  the  plums  into  the  eight  or  eleven- 
quart  baskets  and  tacking  on  the  cover.  No  special  packing  methods  are  followed. 
A  few  attempts  have  been  made  to  market  in  small  baskets,  four  in  a  case  (the 
western  plumcase),  but  at  present  the  market  does  not  seem  to  be  ready  for 
Ontario  fruit  in  this  case.  It  might  be  developed  in  the  same  steady,  progressive 
manner  the  box  trade  in  apples  has  been  developed.  Eleven-quart  baskets  are 
used  almost  entirely,  but  the  demand  for  the  smaller  basket  seems  to  be  increasing. 
At  any  rate  the  fruit  carries  better  in  them — the  smaller  quantity — and  it  is  a  much 
more  convenient  quantity  for  the  consumer  to  handle.  A  very  large  quantity  of 
the  product  in  New  York  State  is  marketed  in  seven-pound  baskets  and  they 
seem  to  give  satisfaction. 

Cost  of  Production. 

Cost  of  production  is  as  important  a  factor  as  the  selling  price.  Following 
are  given  two  estimates  that  are  intended  to  be  a  guide  only.  They  represent 
average  costs  and  average  returns.  They  might  be  exceeded  by  a  great  many 
growers  and  a  large  number  will  come  much  under  them  when  they  balance  their 
books  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

As  worked  out  by  L.  B.  Henry,  of  Winona,  and  based  on  the  results  obtained 
through  experience  in  that  district  and  from  figures  quoted  previously: — 

For  buying  10  acres  of  orchard,  7  years  old,  at  $500.00  per  acre $5,000.00 

Interest  on  $5,000.00  at  6  per  cent 300 .  00 

Taxes    20 .  00 

Pruning,  40  days  at  $1.50  60.00 

Gatliering  Brusli 10 .  00 

First  spraying,  40  barrels  Lime-Sulphur 40.00 

Second  spraying,  40  barrels  Lime-Sulphur  and  Arsenate 40.00 

Third  spraying,  40  barrels  Lime-Sulphur  and  Arsenate 40.00 

Cultivation,  10  acres  at  $5.00  per  acre '. 50.00 

Picking  6,075  baskets  at  3  cents 182.25 

Fertilizer  200 .  00 

Delivery  to  station  80 .  00 

Depreciation,  5  per  cent  for  20  years 250 .  00 

Management    300 .  00 

Total    $1,572.25 


Receipts. 

6,075  baskets  at  29.7  cents $1,804.25 

Cost   1,572 .  25 

Profit    $232 .  00 


22 

The  above  estimates  are  based  on  the  figures  quoted  previously :  average  crop 
4.5  baskets  per  tree;  trees  planted  18  by  18  feet  or  135  to  the  acre;  rate  per  basket 
33.5  cents  gross  or  29.7  net  to  the  grower  for  the  fruit.  (In  the  latter  figure,  the 
cost  of  the  basket  is  deducted). 

The  following  is  worked  out  by  the  writer  and  is  based  on  general  conditions 
where  land  prices,  etc.,  are  not  so  higli,  as  in  the  Winona  district : 

Cost  of  land,  10  acres  at  $200.00  an  acre $2,000.00 

Planting  and  cultivating,  fertilizing,  pruning,  spraying,  etc.,  8  years  at 

$22.50  per  acre ". 2,250.00 

$4,250.00 

Estimates  based  on  an  average  crop  of  three  baskets  per  tree,  the  trees  planted 
135  to  the  acre  at  a  net  to  grower  price  of  thirty  cents  a  basket  for  the  fruit. 

Interest  on  investment,  $4,250.00  at  6  per  cent $255.00 

Taxes,  10  acres  at  $1.50 15 .  00 

Pruning  and  picking  brush  at  $7.00  per  acre 70.00 

Spraying  three  times,  labor  and  including  150  barrels  of  diluted  spray 

with  arsenate  when  needed  150.00 

Cultivation,  10  acres  at  $4.00  per  acre 40 .  00 

Fertilizer,  10  acres  at  $15.00 150.00 

Picking  4,050  baskets  at  3i^  cents 141.75 

Delivery  at  1  cent  a  basket 40 .  50 

Depreciation,  5  per  cent,  for  20  years 212 .  50 

$1,074.75 

4,050  baskets  at  30  cents $1,215.00 

Cost  1.074.75 

Profit • .     $140.25 

Or  in  other  words  after  paying  interest  at  six  per  cent,  on  the  investment  the 
returns  from  the  above  estimates  would  be  $140.25  or  $14.03  per  acre  for  the 
management. 

It  is  said  that  figures  won't  lie,  but  they  sometimes  are  misleading.  Never- 
theless, if  the  intending  planter -will  use  these  only  for  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  intended,  using  them  for  a  guide  only,  he  may  find  them  helpful. 

The  personal  factor  is  one  that  can  not  be  estimated  in  dollars  and  cents,  and 
on  it  depends  the  whole  proposition.  What  the  grower  receives  in  profits  is  really 
a  dividend  on  his  ability  as  a  managing  fruit  grower. 

Diseases  Affecting  Fruit  and  Teee. 

Brown  Eot,  Sclerotina  fruitigena. — This  is  the  most  serious  disease  affecting 
the  fruit  of  the  plum  and  requires  very  thorough  measures  to  control.  The  fruit 
becomes  a  soft,  rotten  mass  and  quickly  spreads  the  infection  to  other  fruit,  and 
particularly  those  in  contact  with  it.  The  diseased  fruit,  if  allowed  to  hang  on 
the  tree,  shrivels  up  and  dries  and  will  remain  hanging  all  winter. 

The  disease  is  a  fungus  that  rapidly  develops  during  warm,  moist  weather. 

Control :  If  the  disease  is  established  pick  off  all  the  dried  or  mummied  fruits 
and  bury  or  plow  under. 

Pruning  the  tree  and  thinning  the  fruit  so  that  plenty  of  air  and  sun  can 
find  its  way  to  all  the  leaves  and  fruits  will  make  conditions  that  are  adverse  to 
its  development. 


23 

The  regular  spraying,  as  outlined  under  spraying,  should  keep  it  under  control. 
Sometimes,  however,  rot  will  develop  as  the  fruit  is  ripening  and  sprays  that 
mark  the  fruit  can  not  be  used.    At  this  time  use  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate. 

Copper  carbonate,  5  ounces.  Ammonia,  (20°  Baume)  three  pints.  "Water, 
forty-five  gallons, 

Eefer  to  Bulletin  195,  Ontario  Department  of  Agriculture,  page  36,  for  full 
instructions  in  making. 

Black  Knot^  PloiorigJitia  morbosa. — This  is  the  most  serious  disease  affecting 
the  tree.  It  is  a  fungus  that  works  in  the  inner  tissues  of  the  limbs  and  twigs 
and  cannot  be  controlled  by  spraying.  It  shows  itself  quite  plainly  by  making 
rough  looking  knots  in  various  places. 

Control:  All  diseased  parts  must  be  cut  out  and  destroyed  in  late  fall  or 
winter.  Don't  wait  till  late  spring  or  early  summer.  If  the  trunk  or  main 
limbs  are  affected  the  diseased  parts  may  be  cut  out  as  thoroughly  as  possible  and 
the  wound  painted  with  red  lead.  It  is  recommended,  however,  that  when  the 
trunk  is  badly  affected,  to  remove  the  tree  entirely  to  prevent  the  spread  of  in- 
fection. If  a  large  limb  is  badly  affected  it  is  safer  to  cut  out  and  destroy  than 
to  attempt  a  remedy.  The  orchardist  can  not  be  too  careful  about  the  removal 
of  all  infested  parts  as  fast  as  they  appear.  Oontrol  will  not  be  complete  unless 
the  methods  are  thorough. 

Leaf  Spot  oe  Shot-Hole  Fungus,  Cylindrosporium  padi,  is  a  fungus  which 
shows  itself  by  making  somewhat  cylindrical  holes  in  the  leaves.  It  is  not  com- 
paratively serious  and  is  controlled  by  good  orchard  methods  and  the  regular 
sprays  applied  thoroughly. 

Plum  Pockets,  Exoascus  pruni,  is  not  common  in  Ontario,  but  is  worthy  of 
mention.  The  small  green  plums  become  enlarged,  soft  and  spongy.  The  nu- 
trition of  the  stone  seems  to  be  interfered  with,  as  it  does  not  develop.  It  also 
causes  a  curling  of  the  leaves  similar  to  peach  leaf  curl. 

Control :  Eemove  or  cut  out  all  signs  of  disease.  The  first  spray  should  keep 
it  under  control  if  applied  just  as  the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell. 

Sun-Scald  is  injury  caused  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  blistering  and  destroying 
the  exposed  trees  and  limbs.  It  might  be  considered  a  form  of  winter  injury. 
The  bark  cracks  and  shells;  breaking  away  from  the  wood  beneath,  exposing  the 
tissues.  When  once  the  bark  is  broken  disease  spores  are  likely  to  get  in  and 
start  decay. 

Control:  Prevention  is  the  only  remedy.  Bank  up  the  tree  with  earth  to  a 
height  of  about  eight  or  ten  inches.  Cut  ordinary  rolls  of  building  paper  into 
about  four  lengths  with  a  saw  and  use  this  to  wrap  the  trunks  from  the  top  of  the 
bank  to  the  lower  limbs.  Put  on  the  paper  much  the  same  as'  a  bandage  or  legging 
and  tie  at  the  top  with  twine.    Wrap  loosely  but  tie  tightly. 

If  the  tree  is  already  damaged  cut  away  the  loose  bark  and  all  decayed  and 
dead  parts,  if  possible,  and  paint  with  white  or  red  lead.  Or  if  you  prefer  it,  cover 
the  whole  of  the  exposed  tissues  with  grating  wax.  Low  heading  lessens  the 
liability  to  the  trouble,  Gummosis  or  gumming  of  the  wood,  is  somewhat  common 
and  where  common  is  serious.  It  apparently  is  the  result  of  mechanical  injuries, 
though  it  is  not  proven,  Hedrick  in  ''Plums  of  New  York"  says,  "The  disease 
i^  least  common  in  specfes  and  varieties  having  hard  wood ;  on  trees  on  soils 
favoring  the  maturity  of  wood;  under  conditions  where  sun  and  frost  are  not 
injurious;  and  obviously,  in  orchards  where  by  good  care  the  primary  causes  of 
gumming  are  kept  out. 


24 

Insects. 

San  Jose  Scale^  Aspidiotus  perniciofms. — The  most  serious  insect  pest  of  the 
plum  tree  is  undoubtedly  the  San  Jose.  It  is  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  com- 
mercial plum  districts.  Here  it  needs  no  description,  but  unless  kept  well  under 
control  the  damage  will  be  similar  to  that  on  peaches  and  apples.  The  trees  wilJ 
become  weakened  and  the  fruit  will  be  unsaleable. 

Control:  Spray  thoroughly  with  lime-sulphur  just  before  growth  starts.  If 
scale  is  quite  plentiful  use  the  spray  as  strong  as  the  1.032  specific  gravity  hydro- 
meter test.    The  work  must  be  done  thoroughly. 

Plum -CuRCULio,  conotrachelus  nenuphnr,  is  the  most  serious  pest  on  the  fruit. 
It  is  a  rough  looking  grayish  snout-beetle  about  one-fifth  inch  in  length,  the 
female  of  which  lays  eggs  in  the  green  plums.  The  eggs  hatch  and  the  larvae 
develop  in  the  fruit.  The  adult  beetles  also  sometimes  do  damage  by  eating  the 
leaves,  though  this  is  not  serious.  The  larvae  in  the  plum  destroys  it  and  causes 
it  to  drop  prematurely. 

Control :  All  old  brush  piles,  weeds,  rail-fences,  etc.,  that  are  the  hiding 
places  of  the  insects  should  first  be  cleaned  up  or  burned.  Jarring  the  trees, 
causing  the  insects  to  fall  in  nets  held  below,  was  once  practised,  but  has  now  given 
way  to  spraying  methods.  The  regular  sprays  as  outlined  under  spraying  will  keep 
this  pest  under  control.  In  case  the  regular  sprays  are  not  applied  three  pounds 
of  lead  arsenate  in  forty  gallons  of  water  applied  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  fall 
and  again  ten  days  later,  will  keep  them  under  control.  It  is  much  better  to  use 
the  summer  strength  lime  sulphur  than  the  water  as  it  tends  to  control  Brown-Rot 
as  well. 

Shot-Hole  Borers  of  various  species  attack  the  trunks  and  main  limbs  of 
plums.  Their  work  can  be  recognized  by  small  gum  exudations  which,  if  removed, 
expose  an  opening  in  the  bark  about  the  size  of  a  small  shot.  If  a  few  trees 
are  more  attacked  than  others  it  is  almost  a  sure  sign  that  those  trees  are  weak 
or  unhealthy. 

Control:  Control  measures  are  not  very  effective.  Eemove  any  brush  piles 
or  piles  of  wood  that  may  be  near  and  clean  up  all  waste.  This  destroys  the 
breeding  grounds.  Increase  the  health  and  vigor  of  the  tree  by  heavy  applications 
of  barnyard  manure.    The  insects  cannot  thrive  where  there  is  a  good  sap  flow. 

Aphids,  attack  the  twigs  and  foliage  of  plums  very  seriously  at  times.  They 
might  be  recognized  in  the  spring  as  tiny  green  or  black  ^^ugs"  on  the  buds  just 
before  they  burst.  In  the  summer  and  fall,  if  plentiful,  they  give  the  tree  a  dark, 
dirty  appearance.    They  do  damage  by  sucking  sap  from  the  leaves  and  twigs. 

Control:  When  once  they  get  established  they  are  very  difficult  to  control, 
as  they  live  on  the  under  side  of  the  leaf  which  appears  to  curl  around  and 
protect  them.  Examine  the  buds  just  when  they  are  beginning  to  burst  and 
if  present  in  quite  large  numbers  spray  at  once  with  Kerosene  emulsion  or  whale 
oil  soap.  At  this  time  they  have  not  the  means  of  protection  that  is  afforded  them 
later. 

Other  insects  attacking  the  plum  are  Tent  Caterpillars,  Tussock  Moth,  Spring 
and  Fall  Canker  Worms,  and  Green  Fruit  Worm.  These  sometimes  become  serious, 
but  not  generally,  and  all  should  be  controlled  by  the  regular  spray  application. 
It  is  always  best  to  spray  while  the  larvae  is  small  and  it  can  not  be  too  strongly 
urged  to  apply  the  regular  applications  thoroughly  rather  than  make  any  special 
applications  later.  There  are,  I  believe,  about  thirty  other  species  of  insects  listed 
as  attacking  the  plum  or  becoming  occasional  parasites,  but  the  most  serious  one^, 
with  the  treatment  for  each,  is  civen  above. 


25 

Spkat  Calendar  foe  Plums. 

First  Spray :  Before  growth  starts  and  as  near  ihe  bursting  of  the  buds  as 
possiWe  use  home-boiled  lime-sulphur  or  commercial  lime-sulphur  or  home-made 
concentrated  lime-sulphur,  winter  strength.  It  is  well  to  use  a  hydrometer  and 
test  the  mixture  that  is  being  used  before  applying.  1.032  or  1.030  specific  gravity 
is  an  average  strength,  that  is,  dilute  about  one  to  ten.  This  controls  the  Scale 
insects,  some  Black-Knot  and  Black-Rot  spores  and  cleans  up  the  tree  generally. 

Second  Spray :  This  is  applied  just  after  the  fruit  is  set.  The  blossoms  will 
be  off  but  all  the  fruits  will  not  yet  be  free  from  their  calyces.  Use  commercial 
lime-sulphur  about  one  to  fifty  or  home-made  concentrated  lime-sulphur  about 
1.007  test  (this  would  have  to  be  tested  in  the  concentrated  form  and  diluted 
accordingly),  or  Bordeaux  mixture.  To  whichever  mixture  is  used  add  two  and 
one-half  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  each  forty  gallons  of  the  mixture. 

This  further  tends  to  control  the  disease  spores  and  at  the  same  time  the 
curculio. 

Third  Spray:  About  two  weeks  after  the  second  spray  repeat  the  application 
and  use  the  same  material  at  the  same  strength  as  for  the  second  spray.  This 
will  tend  to  check  any  insects  or  disease  spores  that  may  have  escaped  the  former 
applications. 

Fourth  Spray :  This  spray  is  optional  and  is  applied  only  if  disease  or  insects 
appear  aJbout  ten  days  or  two  weeks  later. 

(4)  THE  LEADIXG  COMMON  AND  COMMERCIAL  VARIETIES 

DESCRIBED. 

The  following  list  of  varieties  is  by  no  means  complete,  but  it  is  hoped  that 
it  will  be  of  some  assistance  to  intending  planters.  Only  those  varieties  that  are 
most  common  in  Ontario  are  mentioned  and  in  each  case  where  the  variety  is  of 
special  merit,  mention  is  made  of  it.  They  are  roughly  arranged  alphabetically, 
and  in  most  cases  season  of  ripening  is  mentioned. 

Abundance. — This  is  one  of  the  over-planted  Japanese  varieties,  and  perhaps 
the  best  known  of  them  all.  As  the  name  implies  it  bears  regularly  and  heavily, 
but  the  fruit  is  soft,  rots  easily  and  is  a  poor  shipper.  The  tree  is  medium  to 
large  and  adapted  to  a  large  range  of  soils.  Its  medium  to  large  fruit  of  a 
handsome  red  color  makes  it  rather  attractive  to  the  average  amateur,  but  its 
commercial  qualities  do  not  bear  out  its  appearance.  Season  early  and  short,  about 
the  second  and  third  week  in  August.  Not  recommended  for  commercial  planting 
on  a  large  scale. 

BurbanJc. — This  is  another  one  of  the  over-planted  Japanese  varieties,  as  al- 
most every  person  who  grows  plums  has  a  tree  or  two.  It  bears  annually  and 
abundantly;  'but  blossoms  early  and  is  consequently  sometimes  injured  by  frost. 
The  tree  makes  rank  wood  growth  and  is  .characteristic  in  its  branching  habit  of 
growth.  The  fruit  ripens  the  latter  part  of  August,  and  when  of  fair  size  brings 
a  fair  price.  It  should  be  thinned  to  get  size.  A  few  trees  will  add  to  the  returns 
if  they  are  properly  cared  for,  tout  the  variety  is  not  recommended  for  extensive 
commercial  planting. 

Bradshaw. — ^This  variety  also  goes  by  the  name  of  Niagara,  and  is  the  earliest 
good  commercial  blue  plum  that  we  have,  ripening  about  the  third  week  in  August. 
It  is  the  heaviest  planted  plum  in  many  sections  and  is  a  favorite,  largely  blue  in 
color  and  of  good  quality.     The  tree  is  vigorous  and  upright,  medium  to  heavy 


26 

bearer,  but  sometimes  comes  into  bearing  late.  The  .fruit  is  a  favorite  with  the 
consuming  public,  and  also  with  the  canners,  as  it  comes  in  at  a  season  that  is 
comparatively  slack.  One  of  the  best  plums  for  commercial  planting,  but  must 
be  marketed  quickly  as  it  does  not  stand  long  shipment  as  well  as  some  other 
varieties. 

Bixby  is  one  of  the  midseason  American  varieties  of  medium  quality,  skin 
thick,  flesh  tender.  It  is  a  good  variety  to  plant  only  in  the  colder  sections  where 
domesticas  will  not  grow.    It  is  adapted  to  local  trade  only, 

Cheney  is  the  leading  native  plum.  It  is  the  wild  plum  of  Canada  and  the 
United  States.  The  quality  is  fair  and  the  tree  productive,  but  it  is  recommended 
only  for  planting  in  the  parts  for  home  consumption  and  local  trade.  It  is  ex- 
tremely hardy.     Eipens  first  week  in  September. 

Climax  is  a  hybrid  plum,  but  to  the  grower  it  is  Japanese,  as  it  shows  dis- 
tinctly characteristics  of  this  species.  It  is  quite  largely  planted  in  the  leading 
plum  section  but  has  not  proved  a  marked  success.  Its  color  and  beauty  make  it 
an  attractive  plum  to  grow,  but  because  of  irregular  bearing  habits  and  compara- 
tively tenderness  of  tree  it  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  large  commercial  planting. 
The  demand  for  all  such  varieties  is  limited.  Eipens  the  second  and  third  weeks 
in  August, 

Damsons. — There  are  a  large  number  of  varieties  of  Damson  plums,  but  the 
one  that  is  of  most  interest  to  us  is  the  Shropshire.  Damsons  have  been  grown 
.ever  since  before  Christ,  but  the  variety  mentioned  above  originated  in  England 
about  150  years  ago.  The  trees  are  vigorous,  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  territory 
and  very  productive.  The  small  blue  fruit  is  a  little  tedious  to  pick,  but  it 
grows  in  such  abundance  and  such  clusters  that  the  trees  produce  large  quantities. 
It  is  much  favored  as  a  canning  and  preserving  plum  and  as  such  is,  at  the 
present  time  in  much  demand  on  the  Western  markets.  The  flavor  is  tart  but 
pleasant,  and  is  well  worthy  of  more  consideration  than  it  has  received  of  late. 
Damsons  are  well  known  to  the  trade  everywhere  and  are  in  demand.  Season  of 
ripening  is  late. 

De  Soto  is  one  of  the  best  if  not  the  best  American  plum  for  commercial 
purposes  ripening  at  midseason.  The  tree  has  more  the  halbit  of  the  domesticas, 
bears  well  and  regularly  and  is  extremely  hardy.  It  might  be  planted  for  local 
trade  in  the  colder  districts.  Fruit  is  medium  size,  red  in  color  and  as  firm  and 
good  a  quality  as  the  other  varieties  of  the  species. 

Emerald. — This  variety  is  highly  recommended  by  some  leading  growers. 
Fruit  and  commercial  value  is  unknown  to  the  writer. 

German  Prune. — This  is  in  many  respects  the  most  popular  plum  on  the 
market  to-day.  It  is  well  known  to  the  trade  and  in  great  demand.  Its  large 
size,  blue  color,  free  stone  and  good  eating  and  cooking  qualities  as  well  as  its 
good  keeping  qualities  put  it  in  the  foremost  rank.  The  trees  are  hardy,  fairly 
regular  bearers,  but  are  slow  coming  into  bearing.  The  fruit  changes  color  before 
it  is  really  ripe  and  hecause  of  this  it  is  sometimes  put  on  the  market  before  it 
is  ready.  Season  of  ripening  is  late  September  and  early  October,  The  trade  in 
this  plum  might  easily  be  developed  still  further  and  it  is  worthy  of  favorable 
consideration  by  intending  planters. 

General  Hand  is  a  large  dessert  plum  belonging  to  the  Eeine  Claude  Group. 
It  ripens  in  September  and  is  quite  popular  in  the  garden  but  not  commercially. 

Glass  Seedling.  This  is  a  large  blue  plum  of  medium  quality,  fair  dessert 
and  a  good  cooker,  ripening  in  September.    The  tree  is  hardy  and  very  productive 


2? 

and  as  such  is  recommended  for  the  section  of  Ontario  just  beyond  the  good  com- 
mercial districts. 

Golden  Drop  (Coe's)  is  of  doubtful  value  commercially.  The  tree  is  only 
fairly  productive,  the  fruit,  not  as  disease-resistant  as  most  domesticas,  is  some- 
times badly  affected  by  Brown  Eot.  It  is  more  adapted  to  its  English  home  and 
to  the  American  Pacific  coast  than  to  Ontario.  It  might  be  recommended  for  the 
home  garden;  season  is  second  and  third  weeks  in  September. 

Grand  Duke.  This  is  in  many  respects  one  of  our  leading  market  plums.  Its 
large  size,  blue  color,  firm  flesh  and  handsome  appearance  generally,  commend  it 


A  good  type  of  Monarch  top-worked  on 
Lombard. 


to  the  consuming  public.  The  tree  is  fairly  vigorous  and  fairly  productive  and 
the  fruit  ripens  the  third  and  fourth  weeks  in  September.  It  is  highly  recom- 
mended for  commercial  planting. 

Oueii  holds  a  doubtful  place.  It  is  considered  by  many  to  be  one  of  the  best 
varieties  because  of  its  early  bearing  and  heavy  bearing  qualities.  As  such  it  is 
undoubtedly  a  money  maker.  The  tree  is  vigorous  and  thrifty.  The  fruit  is 
medium  size  and  poor  quality.  The  fruit  is,  however,  firm,  and  it  is  a  fair  shipper. 
Many  grower?  condemn  it  because  it  is  somewhat  subject  to  Brown  Hot.  It  ripens 
the  last  week  in  August  and  the  first  week  in  September.    Though  it  is  a  large 


28 

favorite  with  manj^  I  would  hesitate  to  recommend  it  for  commercial  planting 
except  in  limited  quantities. 

HawJceye  is  another  of  the  midseason  American  varieties  of  good  quality  either 
as  dessert  or  cooked.  It  is  quite  popular  hut  is  recommended  only  for  local  planting 
and  in  home  gardens.  It  is  worthy  of  a  plax?e  in  the  orchards  of  Eastern  and 
Northern  Ontario. 

Italian  Prune  or  Fellenlerg  has  heen  largely  planted  in  the  last  few  years.  It 
is  the  leading  variety  for  prune  making  in  the  Western  ^States,  but  in  Ontario 
has  not  been  tried  out  in  large  orchards.  The  fruit  ripens  in  mid-September,  is 
large,  blue  in  color  and  an  excellent  cooker.  WHien  fully  ripe  it  is  first-class  for  des- 
sert. The  tree  is  medium  liardy  ?nd  medium  thrifty  and  does  not  seem  to  be  so  well 
adapted  to  the  varied  soil  conditions  as  some  other  domesticas.  It  does  not  always 
bear  as  heavily  as  might  be  expected.  Given  good  soil  conditions,  and  then  well 
cared  for,  it  should  prove  a  leading  variety  in  the  commercial  districts  of  Ontario, 
but  I  would  not  care  to  plant  it  as  a  "sure  crop"  until  I  had  seen  it  more  thoroughly 
tested.    The  fruit  is  in  big  demand  on  the  leading  markets. 

Lombard.  Some  growers  claim  that  Lombard  has  made  them  more  money 
than  any  other  variety.  At  the  same  time  there  are  often  years  when  large 
quantities  are  not  picked.  It  is  a  heavy  regular  bearer  and  the  fruit  unless  thinned 
is  likely  to  run  small.  It  is  in  demand  for  canning  purposes  and  is  well  known 
to  the  trade.  The  money  is  made  from  large  quantities  quickly  handled  at  low 
prices.  It  is  largely  planted  all  over  Ontario  and  well  known  to  all,  but  in  the 
light  of  present  prices  and  developments  except  where  the  grower  is  prepared 
to  spray  thoroughly  and  then  when  needed  thin  it,  I  would  not  recommend  planting 
it.  It  rots  badly  during  the  ripening  season  if  the  weather  is  at  all  warm  and 
damp.    Spraying  and  thinning  will  remedy  this  and  increase  the  size. 

Monarch.  This  is  one  of  the  most  popular  market  varieties  at  the  present 
time.  The  fruit  is  large,  blue,  medium  to  good  quality  for  both  cooking  and  dessert; 
it  ships  well  and  will  keep  for  some  time  in  the  basket  without  waste  if  picked 
before  too  ripe.  The  tree  is  hardy,  vigorous  and  an  early  and  abundant  bearer. 
Though  it  has  been  introduced  but  a  short  time  it  is  largely  planted  and  well 
known  to  the  trade.  It  ripens  in  late  September.  It  is  highly  recommended  for 
planting  in  the  commercial  orchard. 

Moore's  Arctic  is  recommended  only  because  of  its  hardiness.  The  fruit  is 
medium  in  size  and  quality  and  the  tree  dwarfish  in  its  nature.  The  trees  in  the 
Experimental  orchard  at  Macdonald  College  have  produced  but  a  few  fruits  and  are 
not  entirely  hardy.  For  sections  warmer  than  this  and  colder  than  the  commercial 
plum  districts  it  is  recommended.  It  is  a  profitable  local  variety  where  the  less 
hardy  domesticas  cannot  be  grown. 

Pond  Seedling.  A  large  blue  plum,  that  is  planted  to  some  extent  commerci- 
ally, but  not  very  productive  and  somewhat  subject  to  rot.  A  favorite  with  some 
but  not  recommended  for  extensive  commercial  planting;  ripens  the  second  and 
third  weeks  in  September. 

QuacJcenhoss.  This  variety  is  a  favorite  with  many  growers  because  of  its 
large  size,  handsome  blue  color  and  good  shipping  qualities.  The  tree  is  large, 
hardy  and  vigorous  and  usually  bears  well.  It  ripens  about  the  last  week  in  Sep- 
tember and  brings  a  fair  price  for  home  canning  purposes.  It  has  a  place  in  the 
commercial  orchard. 

Quaker  is  an  American  variety  of  some  merit  and  has  a  place  in  the  liome 
gardens  and  local  markets  of  the  colder  sections. 


29 

Bed  June  is  one  of  the  heavily  planted  Japanese  varieties  tha_t  is  not  gaining 
in  popularity.  It  has,  however,  some  points  in  its  favor.  It  is  an  early  and  fairly 
abundant  bearer,  hlossoms  quiet  late  for  a  Triflora  and  the  fruit  ripens  very 
early,  the  last  of  July  or  first  of  August.  As  such  it  should  have  some  value  when 
well  grown.  It  must  be  cross  pollinated  to  produce  well.  It  is  worth  planting 
in  small  numbers. 

Reine  Claude  has  of  late  years  been  planted  quite  heavily  because  of  the 
demand  for  canning  purposes.  It  also  sells  well  in  the  open  market.  Its  yellow 
cobr  when  ripe,  and  high  quality  will  always  give  it  a  place  in  the  plum  kingdom. 
It  is  considered  by  many  the  standard  of  quality  in  plums.  The  tree,  however, 
is  tender  and  not  as  thrifty  as  most  domesticas,  but  it  bears  fair  crops  regularly. 
The  nursery  tree  is  small  compared  to  other  varieties  and  it  is  a  little  more 
difficult  to  grow.  The  price  for  the  last  ten  years  has  averaged  as  high  or  higher 
than  for  any  other  variety.  It  is  well  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  commercial  orchard. 
With  this  variety  might  also  be  classed  the  plums  that  go  under  the  name  of 
Green  Gage.    The  fruit  ripens  from  mid  to  late  August. 

Shipper's  Pride.  This  variety  is  grown  in  small  numbers  in  all  the  plum 
districts,  but  has  never  come  into  prominence,  because  it  is  only  a  medium  bearer 
and  is  susceptible  to  rot.  It  is  a  large  blue  plum  of  fair  quality,  good  for  canning 
and  a  good  shipper.  It  is  being  planted  to  some  extent  and  is  perhaps  worthy 
of  the  attention  it  is  receiving.  It  ripens  about  the  first  or  second  week  in 
September. 

Smith  Orleans  is  planted  quite  largely  but  is  losing  ground.  It  is  medium 
to  large  sized  blue  plum  but  ripens  in  late  August  at  a  time  when  plums  are 
plentiful.  Scarcely  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  commercial  orchard  with  such  a  large 
list  to  choose  from. 

Stoddard  is  one  of  the  best  American  varieties,  ripening  in  late  September. 
It  is  worthy  of  a  place  in  the  garden  because  of  its  large  size  and  flavor. 

Shiro  is  a  comparatively  new  variety  that  gives  fair  promise  of  becoming  a 
favorite.  It  ripens  early  and  is  fairly  large,  of  a  yellow  color  with  flesh  so  clear 
that  it  is  semi-transparent.  It  bears  heavily  and  early  and  is  worthy  of  a  trial 
in  Ontario  orchards. 

Washington  is  a  large  plum  of  the  Eeine  Claude  type,  of  the  highest  quality 
but  the  tree  is  generally  a  poor  bearer  and  the  fruit  bruises  easily  and  rots  readily 
in  transit.  When  marketed  in  good  condition  it  commands  a  high  price.  A 
few  growers,  however,  consider  it  a  profitable  variety  and  the  writer  this  past 
season  (1913),  saw  as  fine  a  crop  on  trees  top-worked  on  Pond  Seedling  as  could 
be  desired.     The  trees  had  borne  heavily  for  three  successive  years. 

Wolf  is  another  of  the  popular  American  varieties  that  has  long  held  a  place 
and  is  worthy  of  consideration  in  sections  where  the  domesticas  are  not  hardy. 
Does  well  at  Macdonald  College, 

Wyant  is  also  a  good  American  variety  and  is  worthy  of  a  place  along  with 
the  varieties  before  mentioned. 

Willard,  a  very  early  ripening  Japanese  variety  that  is  raised  quite  exten- 
sively but  the  fruit  is  of  too  poor  a  quality  and  the  tree  too  light  a  bearer  to  win 
and  hold  a  place. 

WicJcson  is  one  of  the  largest  plums  grown  and  because  of  this  and  much 
advertising  it  was  quite  heavily  planted.  It  has,  however,  not  proven  a  success 
commercially  and  is  deserving  only  of  a  place  in  the  garden.     The  tree  is  tender 


30 

and  it  blossoms  too  early  to  always  escape  frost.  It  is  largely  grown  in  California 
where  conditions  are  more  adapted  to  its  requirements. 

Yellow  Egg.  This  variety  is  widely  distributed  and  well-known,  but  is  losing 
favor  because  of  its  susceptibility  to  rot.  Its  large  size  and  yellow  color  make  it 
attractive  to  the  purchasing  consumer,  but  its  quality  is  only  fair.  It  has  not 
won  a  leading  place  in  years  of  test  in  Ontario. 

At  present  plum  breeding  or  variety  improvement  is  not  receiving  as  much 
attention  as  some  of  the  other  fruits  at  the  Experimental  Farm,  Vineland,  but  they 
are  not  being  neglected  and  some  attempts  were  made  at  hand  pollination  this 
year.  Few  plums  set,  but  the  results  are  far  from  being  discouraging.  A  few  seed- 
lings are  growing  in  the  nursery  plots. 


A  Shiro  plum  that  gave  7  quarts  of  good 
fruit  the  third  year. 


The  following  varieties  are  under  test: — Eockford,  Improved  Lombard,  Arch 
Duke,  Victoria,  Gideon,  Eeine  Claude,  Moore's  Arctic,  Fellenberg,  Smith's  Or- 
leans, Yellow  Egg,  Pearl,  Field,  Gueii,  Cullin's  Golden  Gage,  Tennant  Prune,  Early 
Prolific,  King  of  the  Damsons,  Duane's  Purple,  Early  T'ransparent,  Blue  Permain, 
German  Prune,  Moyer,  Pond  Seedling,  Shipper's  Pride,  Coe's  Golden  Drop,  Mary, 
Early  Rivers,  Mallard,  Washington,  Shropshire  Damson,  Beauty  of  Naples,  Togo, 
General  Hand,  Monarch,  Quackenboss,  Lombard,  Ancaster,  Latchford,  "Warner's 
Late,  Staunton,  Monroe,  Imperial  Gage,  Bleaker's  Gage,  Emerald,  Lowry's  Gage, 
Maynard,  Formosa,  Vesuvius,  Santa  Eosa,  Gaviota,  Eed  Egg,  Huling's  Superb, 
McLaughlin,  Canada  Orleans,  Grand  Duke,  Satsuma,  Kelsey,  Shiro,  Oriental, 
Bartlett,  Diamond,  French  Damson,  Purple  Egg,  Kingston,  America,  Prunus 
Simoni,    Burbank,    Willard,    Chabot,    Earliest   of    All,    Waugh,    Czar,    Saunders, 


31 

Columbia,  Bradshaw,  Glass  Seedling,  York  State  Prune,  Lucy  Gray,  Peter's  Yellow 
Gage,  Klondyke,  Large  Golden  Prolific,  Riley  Damson,  Apple,  Mathews,  Sutton, 
iraperial  Peach,  October  Purple,  Climax,  Clyman,  Ickworth,  Paynes, 
Thanksgiving,  Sultan,  Stella,  World  Beater,  Poole  Pride,  Hawkeye,  Daisy, 
Omaha,  Belle  de  Louvain,  Hunt  Hybrid,  Wolf,  Darwin  Peach,  Goliath, 
Femmonzi,  Wyedale,  Belle,  Gisborne,  Splendor,  Improved  French  Prune, 
Silver,  Uncle  Ben,  Sergent,  Cox's  Emperor,  Belgian,  Curlew,  Sugar  Prune, 
Pacific  Prune,  Belle  de  Paris,  Saratoga,  Reine-Claude,  Gabriel  Combes.  Also  we 
have  twelve  trees  of  each  of  eight  leading  varieties  planted  in  rows  side  by  side.  - 
These  are  used  for  the  thinning  and  spraying  experiments. 

For  discussion  of  the  industry  we  divided  the  Province  into  three  divisions: — 

(1)  The  colder  parts  where  plums  are  at  present  grown  only  in  home  gardens 
— a  large  part  of  Eastern  Ontario  and  Northern  Ontario. 

(2)  The  Western  part  of  Eastern  Ontario  and  a  large  share  of  Western 
Ontario  where  plums  are  grown  locally  to  supply  the  trade. 

(3)  The  commercial  districts,  including  Lincoln,  Wentworth,  some  favored 
spots  on  Lake  Huron  and  Georgian  Bay  and  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie  and 
Ontario  in  various  places. 

For  district  number  one,  the  following  varieties  are  recommended :  American 
and  Nigra  varieties:  Cheney,  Wolf,  Stoddard,  Hawkeye,  De  Soto,  Quaker.  The 
domestica  varieties  are  a  doubtful  proposition,  but  the  following  are  worthy  of 
trial :  Mount  Royal,  Perdrigon,  Glass  and  Early  Red. 

For  district  number  two,  the  following  are  recommended:  Glass,  Lombard, 
Bradshaw,  Mount  Royal  and  Shipper's  Pride.  For  district  number  three,  the  fol- 
lowing are  recommended :  Reine  Claude,  Bradshaw,  Damsons,  Monarch,  Grand  Duke, 
German  Prunes  and  Italian  Prunes.  To  this  list  might  be  added :  Shiro,  Burbank, 
Quackenboss,  Lombard,  Coe's  Golden  Drop  and  Smith  Orleans,  and  for  deep,  dry, 
warm  peach  soils,  Washington. 

It  is  suggested  to  the  intending  planter  that  he  read  the  short  description  here 
given  and  pick  from  the  list  the  varieties  that  seem  best  adapted  to  his  particular 
conditions  and  markets.  It  is  recommended  also  that  the  planter  limit  the  number  of 
his  varieties  to  about  from  four  to  seven  rather  than  plant  a  few  trees  of  each  of  a 
large  number  of  varieties. 

The  following  is  the  writer's  choice  of  seven  varieties  for  an  orchard  of  seven 
hundred  trees:  Shropshire  Damson  125,  Monarch  125,  Grand  Duke  125,  German 
Prune  125,  Reine  Claude  100,  Bradshaw  75,  and  Shiro  25. 

If  I  desired  to  experiment  I  would  add  a  few  trees  each  of  Fellenburg  and 
Emerald,  and  if  I  had  the  proper  soil  some  Washington. 

Any  of  the  varieties  given  in  the  descriptive  list  may  be  experimented  with 
in  the  home  garden. 

(5)   SOME   GLEANINGS   AND   SUGGESTIONS. 

(1)  But  little  attempt  has  been  made  to  improve  our  native  varieties,  and 
still  less  attempt  has  been  made  to  introduce  the  best  that  we  now  have  into 
the  gardens  and  home  plantings  of  the  Northern  parts  of  the  province.  A  few 
trees  would  add  to  the  interest  of  the  garden,  and  would  in  no  way  interfere  with 
the  commercial  side  of  the  business. 

(2)  The  tendency  is  to  drop  the  once  greatly  lauded  Japanese  varieties  and 
the  poorest  of  the  earlier  domestica  varieties  for  heavier  planting  of  Reine  Claude, 
Bradshaw,  Monarch,  Grand  Duke,  Italian  Prunes,  German  Prunes  and  Damsons. 


32 

(3)  Plums  at  present  prices  seem  adapted  to  large  scale  production;  that  is 
in  blocks  of  from  about  five  acres  up  rather  than  in  small  lots  of  one  or  two 
hundred  trees  or  less. 

(4)  The  tendency  is  to  plant  larger  blocks  of  one  variety  that  can  be  har- 
yested  quickly  and  not  interfere  with  the  gathering  of  other  fruits.  The  idea 
seems  to  be  to  gather  quickly  as  cheaply  as  possible  and  get  them  out'  of  the 
way  to  make  room  for  something  else. 

(5)  Plums  thrive  and  produce  just  as  well  on  the  heavier  and  cheaper  lands 
as  on  the  valuable  peach  and  cherry  soils. 

(6)  Plums  have  few  large  yields  at  high  prices  to  their  credit  but  they  give 
a  moderate  return  regularly  for  the  money  expended. 

(7)  Orchards  that  have  been  given  reasonable  care  have  repaid  the  owners 
well  for  their  labor — and  a  little  besides.  If  plums  are  worthy  of  a  place  on  the 
fruit  farm  they  are  worthy  of  attention. 

(8)  The  time  is  ripe  for  planting  selected  varieties  of  plums.  The  demand 
will  have  increased  very  materially  by  the  time  they  come  into  bearing. 

(9)  Plums  are  worthy  of  further  study  and  of  more  attention  at  our  fruit 
meetings.  Interest  in  better  varieties  and  better  quality  marketed  in  a  more 
attractive  manner  can  only  be  awakened  in  this  way. 

(10)  This  last  suggestion  I  put  in  brackets  because  it  is  the  work  of  organiza- 
tions not  the  work  of  the  producers. 

[How  many  consumers  know  the  best  varieties  of  pliuns  and  what  season  they 
may  expect  to  find  them  on  the  market? 

How  many  dealers  allow  fruit  to  spoil  on  their  hands,  because  of  direct 
exposure  to  sunlight,  rough  handling,  deep  piling  of  baskets,  no  refrigeration? 
What  percentage  of  the  great  difference  between  the  wholesale  and  retailers  prices 
is  due  waste  caused  by: — 

(1)  Carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  producer. 

(2)  Carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  transportation  companies. 

(3)  Carelessness  on  the  part  of  the  retailer. 

What  percentage  of  waste  is  due  to  exposure  to  dust,  dirt  and  winds  when 
exposed  on  the  fruit  stands? 

It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  put  all  blame  for  certain  unsatisfactory  conditions 
on  the  fruit-grower — he  can  stand  it  because  he  is  accustomed  to  it,  but  in  the 
humble  opinion  of  the  writer  as  vigorous  an  educational  campaign  is  needed  among 
the  retailers  and  consumers  as  among  the  growers.  They  are  a  large  part  of  the 
business  and  also  require  instruction. 

ACKNOV^^LEDGMENTS. 

The  writer  desires  to  thank  the  many  fruit  growers  in  Ontario  and  especially 
in  the  Niagara  Peninsula  for  their  assistance  and  for  the  kindness  and  courtesy 
extended  to  him  in  his  visits  to  their  orchards  and  homes.  He  desires  especially 
to  thank  Mr.  J.  E.  Henry  and  Mr.  L.  B.  Henry  for  their  assistance  and  permission 
to  use  the  figures  on  returns  previously  quoted. 

Thanks  are  due  many  growers  in  Kew  York  State  who  willingly  and  cheer- 
fully guided  me  through  their  orchards  ^nd  explained  their  methods,  and  to  the 
state  inspectors  who  directed  me  to  the  leading  men  in  their  respective  districts. 


I 


Serial 

No. 

Date. 

178 

Dec. 

1909 

179 

Feb. 

1910 

1£0 

April 

1910 

181 

June 

1910 

182 

July 

1910 

183 

Aug. 

1910 

184 

Nov. 

1910 

185 

Nov. 

1910 

186 

Dec. 

1910 

187 

Jan. 

1911 

188 

April 

1911 

189 

May 

1911 

190 

May 

1911 

191 

June 

1911 

192 

July 

1911 

193 

Nov. 

1911 

194 

Dec. 

1911 

195 

Jan. 

1912 

196 

Jan. 

1912 

197 

Feb. 

1912 

198 

Feb. 

1912 

199 

Feb. 

1912 

200 

April 

1912 

201 

May 

1912 

202 

May 

1912 

203 

May 

1912 

204 

June 

1912 

205 

Sept. 

1912 

206 

Nov. 

1912 

207 

Dec. 

1912 

208 

Jan 

1913 

209 

Mar. 

1913 

210 

Mar. 

1913 

211 

Mar. 

1913 

212 

April 

1913 

213 

April 

1913 

214 

May 

1913 

215 

Aug. 

1913 

216  Oct.       1913 

217  Dec.      1913 


LIST  OF  BULLETINS 

Published  by  the  Ontabio  Department   of   Agbicultube,   Toronto. 


Title.  Author. 

Character  and  Treatment  of  Swamp  or  Muck  f  W.  P.  Gamble. 

Soils     1  A.  E.  Slater. 

Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

(No.  147  revised)    Fruit  Branch, 

^,              ,    ^       o      ,  •  f  R-  Harcourt. 

Flour  and   Breadmaking    |  j^   ^   Purdy. 

The  Teeth  and  Their  Care Ont.   Dental   Society. 

Bee-keeping  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Notes  on  Cheddar  Cheese-making  Dairy  Branch. 

Uses  of  Vegetables,  Fruits  and  Honey 

Little  Peach  Disease    L.  Caesar. 

Children:     Care  and  Training   J.  J.  Kelso. 

The  Codling  Moth  L.  Caesar. 

Weeds  of  Ontario    (No.  128  revised)    J.  E.  Howitt. 

Farm  Poultry  No.  151  revised)    W.  R.  Graham, 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario   Fruit  Branch. 

Bee-keep'ing   in   Ontario    Fruit  Branch, 

Agricultural    Co-operation    S.  B.  Todd. 

Tuberculosis   of   Fowls    S.  F.  Edwards, 

Apple  Orcharding Fruit  Branch, 

,  ^        ...       ,,,      ^-.         ,      ,.  I  R.  Harcourt, 
Insecticides  and  Fungicides  (No.  lo4  revised)  |  jj^  j^  Fulmer, 

Tomatoes    A.  G.  Turney. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario   Morley  Pettit, 

Lime-iSulphur    Wash     L,  Caesar. 

Onions     A.  McMeans. 

Fruit   Juices    L-  Meunier. 

(  Peach  Growing  in  Ontario  F.  M.  Clement, 

I  Peach    Diseases    L-  Cae.sar. 

Grape  Growing  in  Niagara  Peninsula T.  B.  Revett. 

Cabbage  and  Cauliflower   A.  McMeans. 

Decay  of  the  Teeth    Ont.   Dental   Society. 

Dairy  School  Bulletin   (No.  172  revised)    -j 

I.  Cheese-Making  and  Butter  Making     f  g,.^g  ^^  j^^j       q^^^^^ 

Dairy  School  Bulletin   (No.  172  revised)    f 

II.  Dairying  on  the  Farm  ) 

Ice-Cold  Stora.ge  on  the  Farm   R.  R.  Graham, 

Farm  Poultry  and  Egg  Marketing  Conditions  f  J.  H,  Hare. 

in  Ontario  County    IT.  A.  Benson, 

Farm  Forestry  (No.  155  revised) E,  J,  Zavitz, 

Strawberry  Culture  and  The  Red  Raspberry.,     F,  M.  Clement. 
Fruits    Recommended    for    Ontario    Planters 

No.  179  revised)    Fruit  Branch. 

Orchard    Surveys    in    Dundas,    Stormont    and 

Glengarry     F,  S.  Reeves. 

Bee  Diseases  in  Ontario   Morley  Pettit. 

Sheep  Raising  in  Ontario:    Does  it  Pay?  ....     Live  Stock  Branch. 
Demonstration  Lectures  in  Domestic  Science, 

Sewing  and  Nursing  Institutes  Branch. 

Box  Packing  of  Apples   E    F.  Palnier. 

f  W.  R.  Graham. 
Farm  Poultry   (No.  189  revised)    ^^   q   McCulloch. 

Birds  of  Ontario  (No.  173  revised)    C.  W.  Nash. 

The  San  Jose  and  OysternShell  Scales L.  Caesar. 

Lightning  Rods    ^'- }^-  ^^^\ 

Food  Value  of  Millet  and  its  Products R-  Harcourt. 

Currants  and  Gooseberries  ,^-  F'  P^^"\^^- 

(  R.  Harcourt. 

Fertilizers    \  A.  L.  Gibson. 

Greenhouse  Construction  S.  C.  Johnston. 

Swine   ^-  ^-  ^^y- 

Plum  Culture  in  Ontario P.  M.  Clement. 


218 

Dec. 

1913 

219 

Jan. 

1914 

220 

Mar. 

1914 

221 

April 

1914 

222 

April 

1914 

223 

May 

1914 

224 

Sept. 

1914 

225 

Dec. 

1914 

226 

Dec. 

1914 

New  York  Botanical   Garden  Libra 


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