««u s^. -|«K-f 4 n-"'*' .v>v- t^r.. - i "V ^ >'- "f* .. '^•-. .> '■':'-Nr ^iw..'-=^. _^ X6 .U/fll2y U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN No. 28. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. BY G. N. COLLINS, Assistant Botanist in Tropical Agkiculture, BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. Issued* Januaby 17, 1903. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 19 03. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Frederick A". C'kville, Botanist. V. K. Chesnut, Assistant Botanist in Charge of Investigations of Poisonous Plants. O. F. Cook, Botanist in Charge of Tropical Agricvlfvre. Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge of Seed Laboratory. Lyster H. Dewey, Botanist in Charge of Investigations of Fiber Plants. Rodney H. True, Physiologist, Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations. Carl S. Scofield, Ex'pert on Cereals. F. H. Hillman, Assistant Botanist, Seed Herbarium. Joseph W. T. Duvel, AssTstant in Seed Laboratory. G. N. Collins, Assistant Botanist, Tropical Agriculture. William E. S.Ifford, Assistant Curator, Tropical AgrimUure. W. R. Beattie, Assistant, Testing Garden. W. W. Tracy, Jr., Assistant, Variety TVials. W. F.- Wight, Assistant, Geographic Botany. W. 0. Richtmann, Pharmacognostical Expert. ¥-■ U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN No. 28. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO, BY LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN G. N. COLLINS, Assistant Botanist in Tropical Agriculture, BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. Issued Janlary 17, 1908. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. LIHTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DErART:MENT OF AGRICULTURE, Bi'REAU OF Plant Industry, Office of tme Chief, ^Ya.shimJfo)u D. r., Septemher '27 , 1902. Sir: I have the honor to transmit lierewith a paper on The Mango in Porto Rico, by G. N. Collins, Assistant Botanist in Tropical Agricul- ture, and respectfully recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 28 of the series of this Bureau. The paper has been submitted for publication by the Acting Botanist in Charge of Botanical Investiga- tions and Experiments. Respectfullv. B. T. Galloway, Ch ief of Burea u. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. P R 1: F A C 1: Th(^ miuigo is a fruit liiglily esteeinod throughout the Tropics, in most places outranking In popuhirity l)<)th th«» banana and the orange. Euroi)ean residents in the Tropics almost universally ac<|uire a fond- ness for th(^ mango, and in England the demand for it is steadily increasing, it having been found possil)le to make im])ortations from India, notwithstanding the innnense distance. The mango is as yet little known in the United States, having >)een represented in our mai'kets only by fruit of inferior varieties. These give no suggestion of the (jualities of th(^ tx'tter sorts and tend rather to discourage than to increase the demand. If an effort similar to that M'hich brought the banana into favor in the United States could place an adequate supply of good mangoes })efore the public, there is no apparent reason why this new tropical fruit should not repeat the histoiy of its now popular })redecessor. Porto Kico is favorably- located for the growth of the mango, the south side of the island especially possessing the right climatic condi- tions. The trees are ver}^ prolific and remarkaV^ly free from diseases. High-grade varieties are alread}^ growing in different parts of the West Indies, Florida, Central America, and Mexico, and their intro- duction into Porto Kico should be attended with little difficulty. This bulletin, written by Mr. G. X. Collins, under the direction of Mr. O. F. Cook, botanist in charge of investigations in tropical agri- culture, and based largely upon observations made by the author while engaged in a botanical exploration in Porto Rico in cooperation with the recently established Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station, discusses the possibilities and requirements of the mango there, and it is hoped that it will help to establish the growing of mangoes as one of the profitable industries of the island. Lyster H. Dewey, Acting Botanist. Office of Botanical Investigations and Experiments, ^Yas^dngton, D. C, September 18, 1902. 5 CONTENTS. I'age. , . 9 Introciuction Desi-ription Orijrin ^o Culture jq Requirements Methods of propagation Seed ■ J* Inarchinp , . 16 Layering Patch budding Cultivation _ Diseases - „. Uses 21 The canning of the green or ripe fruit ;Marnialade and jelly Chutney „' Alcohol 2Q :Medicinal properties Dye, tan, and pigment Gum 25 Minor uses in India The mango in Porto Rico Present status Best localities Porto Rican forms Mango de Mayaguez ^^ Mangotina ^_ Melocoton " ;Mango de rosa " Mango piiia 2q :Mango largo 28 Mango mango Mango jobos 2g Mango redondo Varieties to be introduced Mulgoba 29 Alphonse, Aphoos, or Alfoos No. 11 ;;: 30 Manila oi Mango china „, Gordon - ^.^ Peters 02 Julie - 09 Best method ot introducing new varieties ^^ Packmg and shipping ^^ Market 3q Summary ^j Description of plates * " ' ILLUSTRATIONS Page. Plate I. Grove of mango trees between Cabo Rojo and Joyua, P. R. 38 II. Mango tree in fruit, Tapachula, Mexico 38 III. Branch of mango tree, with fruit, Tapachula, Mexico 38 IV. Fig. 1. — Mango tree growing in dry region near San Jose, Guate- mala. Fig. 2. — Section of " Redondo " mango fruit. Ponce, P. R. . 38 Y. Mango seeds>: 1, "Cocha;" 2, "Largo;" 3, "China." Guatemala City 38 YI. Fig. 1.— Mango fruit, showing method of peeling. Fig. 2. — ^lango fruit, showing method of packing. Fig. 3. — Mango fork 38 YII. " Mayaguez " mango fruit, San Juan, P. R 38 VIII. Mango fruits, Porto Rico: Fig. 1. — " Melocoton." Fig. 2.—" Rosa." Fig. 3.— "Largo." Fig. 4.— " Mangotina" 38 IX. "Pina" mango fruits, San Juan, P. R 38 X. " Largo " mango fruits. Ponce, P. R 38 XL ' ' Mango ' ' mango fruits, San Juan, P. R 38 XII. "Jobos" mango fruits," San Juan, P. R 38 XIII. " Redondo " mango fruits, Ponce, P. R 38 XIV. " Manila " mango fruits. City of Mexico 38 XV. " China " mango fruits, Guatemala City 38 8 B. IM.— 36. B.I. A?:.— 49. THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. INTRODUCTION. The manj^o is considered )>y maii}^ to be the finest of tropical fruits, though on this point there is much diversity of opinion, occasioned to a great extent by difference in taste, but still more by the great diver- sity in the fruit itself , which varies enormously in different localities, there beino- laro-e areas where the mango is common and where not a single good variety is to be had. Persons forming their opinion of the fruit in such localities usually indorse the proverbial statement that the mango is '"a mass of tow saturated with turpentine.'' On the other hand, those acquainted with the fruit at its best are almost unanimously^ enthusiastic in their praise. Elphinstone, the historian of India, says: The mango is the best fruit of India, at once rich and delicate, and all other fruits are comparatively insipid beside its intensity of taste. There is something in it that is nothing less than vi)luptiious. A taste for mangoes, at least for the varieties existing in Porto Rico, has in most people to be cultivated; ])ut once acquired, it is like a taste for olives, and becomes almost a craving. The milder flavored varieties, in which no taste of turpentine is to be detected, are usually enjoyed even by the novice, but after one becomes familiar with the fruit a slight taste of turpentine ceases to be disagreeable. The fiber, however, that exists in the poorer varieties is an unmitigated evil, and renders the eating of a mango a serious operation, to which one must devote his entire attention and may need to conclude with a bath. In the varieties where the fiber is the worst, one can not even have recourse to sli(;ing the meat from the seed, as in that case the cut ends of the fibers are stiff' enough to irritate the tongue. Good mangoes are produced m America, but as yet in such small quantity that few persons have had an opportunity to taste any but inferior fruit. Sample lots of the more common and poorer varieties are frequently shipped to northern markets, and have doubtless done much to hinder the growth of the trade. A first impression is very lasting, and first impressions of the mango based on such fruit are likely to be anything but favorable. As an example, mangoes are frequently 10 THE MANGO IN POKTO KICO. to be found in the Washinofton market, but we have never seen one that could be called good, even in comparison with the Porto Rican fruit. This impression formed in the minds of the novelty' -loving public will doubtless be difficult to dispel; but if reall}^ good mangoes could be placed in the markets their increase in popular favor would be certain and the growing of mangoes might become a profitable pursuit. In spite of the fact that in all mango-producing countries the natives consider the fruit wholesome and perfectly safe, prejudice against it exists among some military officials and others, who condemn the fruit as positively dangerous. During the Spanish war this prejudice was so strong that the soldiers in Porto Rico were prohibited from eating the mango, and many beautiful trees were cut down. This unjust prejudice probably arose from- eating the fruit when unripe, in which state, like most other fruits, it is unwholesome. Soldiers, hungry for fresh fruit and quite unfamiliar with the mango, might easily mistake the green ' for the ripe, especially as in Porto Rico some of the varieties when ripe still remain green in color. All varieties become mellow when ripe, however, and if eaten in that condition can not but be wholesome. It is commonly believed in Porto Rico that the mango and rum should never l)e partaken at the same time. This again probably applies to the green fruit. In some parts of India the natives at one season of the year live almost exclusively on mangoes, apparently without harm; and among the writers consulted all commend it as extremely wholesome except Sir George Birdwood, who states that the fruit is apt to act injuriously on the kidneys. On the other hand, the mango is considered by most authorities to have medicinal properties decidedly beneficial. An extract from the Pharmacographia Indica, in Watt's Dictionary, describes the fruit as "invigorating and refreshing, fattening, and slightly laxative and diuretic." DESCRIPTION. The mango tree {Mangifera indica) varies in height, according to the variety, from little more than a bush to a tree 50 to 70 feet high, with a trunk 6 to 10 feet high and 2 feet or more in diameter. The leaves are lanceolate, about 1 foot in length, tapering gradually to a narrow point, with a smooth, shining surface. The young leaves are first pink, then red lief ore turning green. The top is rounded and very dense. (See Pis. I, II, III.) The bark is gray and smooth. The flowers are small, reddish-white, or yellowish, borne in large upright racemes. The fruit varies greatly, according to the variety. In some kinds it is not more than 2 or 3 inches in greatest diameter, while others are three or four times that size, some weighing as much as 4 pounds. In form they vary from nearly spherical to long and ORIGIN. 1 1 narrow like a cucumber, straight or crooked. The most common varie- ties are usuall}' from 2 to 4 inches in length, more or less kidney-shaped, with the " nak," or stigmatic point, more or less produced. In color thev may be green, yellow, or red. In composition the diti'erence is no less pronounced. In some the seed is large (see PI. IV, lig 2), and the thin flesh between it and the skin consists almost entire!}' of liber attached to the seed, while in others the seed is small, and in some so nearly aborted that it is easily cut with a knife. In the best varieties the tiber is almost entirelv wanting and the entire fruit consists of a mass of juicy, usually orange-colored pulp. This in some varieties is so firm that it may be sliced with a knife: in others it is soft enough to be eaten with a spoon. The characters usually utilized in distinguishing varieties of the fruit are the size, color, and form; the extent of the depression at the stem; the location and prominence of the ''nak'' or stigmatic point; the color and thickness of the flesh and the amount of fiber contained; the presence or absence of a turpentine flavor. The seeds of diflerent varieties are also very distinct. A glance at PI. V will give some idea of the diversity, and although these characters are quite as constant as those more commonly used, they seem never to have been utilized in the description of varieties. The Anacardiaceae, to which the mango belongs, include also the turpentine tree {Pistdcia terehinthus), the original source of turpen- tine, and it seems not at all unlikely that the characteristic odor of the mango is in reality due to the presence of turpentine or some closely allied substance. Exudations of a transparent resinous substance sim- ilar to that of the turpentine tree are frequently to be noticed in the mango. ORIGIN. The mango {Mangifera indica) is said by De Candolle to be native in South Asia or the Malay Archipelago, and recent authors report it as wild in the forests of Ceylon and the regions at the base of the Himalayas, especially toward the east, at an altitude of from 1,000 to 2,000 feet. The species has been so long under cultivation that it would be extremely difficult to locate definitely the place or places where it was actually domesticated. The general region is, how- ever, without doubt that given above. Of the 37 species of Mangi- fera enumerated in Index Kewensis, all are from the Indo-Malayan region except two— one, described by Oliver, from West Africa, and one, by M. Dessousseaux, from the island of Mauritius. Engler and Prantl describe the genus as containing 27 species from the East Indies and the Malay Archipelago. Its culture is very ancient, as shown by references in Sanskrit mythology and ancient Hindu folklore. For so old and so useful a plant, its distribution was comparatively 12 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. limited until historic times. To the west, it had not passed the Red Sea, being unknown in Egypt, while to the east it had apparently not reached the islands of the Pacific. According to Rumphiiis (1750) it was introduced into some of the islands of the Malay Archipelago within the memory of living men, though the variety of native names would argue an earlier introduction. The species is not well adapted for distribution by natural agencies, and man has probabh^ been chiefly responsitjle for its dissemination. In the New World it seems to have been first introduced into Bra- zil, although it is not known at what date. The earliest record of its introduction into the West Indies appears in Hughes's Natural Historj^ of Barbados, 17.50. where it states: ''This tree or its seed was recently brought from Rio Janiero and grows only at the Guiney plantation." The date of this importation is more definitely placed at about 1742 or 1743 bv letters published in Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, etc., 1786, page 217. In 1782 Captain Mar- shall, of Lord Rodnej^'s squadron, captured a French vessel, bound from the island of Reunion or Mauritius to Santo Domingo, that had on board manv valuable plants, among which was the mango, said to have been in the form of grafted stock. These were planted in the botanic gardens of Mr. Hinton East at Gordon Town, Jamaica. Two kinds — one labeled No. 11 and the other No. 32 — have since been known by these designations, No. 11 being one of the most popular varieties in Jamaica at the present time. The mango is now a common fruit throughout the Tropics of the world. It has been developed to the highest state of perfection in its home in India, where the number of well-marked varieties is enor- mous. Mr. Maries, of Durbhungah, has collected over 500 varieties, 100 of which he characterizes as good. Thirtv-four of these varieties he describes in Watt's Dictionar}^ of Economic Products of India. Ceylon is also famous for its mangoes. Both the east and the west coasts of Africa have several good varieties. In Australia the culture is fast increasing, and it bids fair to become one of the most popular fruits. One very fine variety is said to exist in the island of St. Helena. The mango is the most highly prized fruit of Guam, where there is a fine seedling variety. Its cultivation in that island is, how- ever, not a success, owing probabl}^ to the thin soil, which aflords such a shallow footing that the hurricanes uproot the trees in all exposed localities. In the Hawaiian Islands, Mr. William C. Stubbs" reports: "The mango is receiving perhaps more attention just now than any other fruit. As many as twelve, or fifteen varieties hav^e already been introduced. It is a delicious fruit, and decidedly orna- mental in an}^ ground."' In the New W^orld, Trinidad and Jamaica «Bul. No. 95, Office of Experiment Stations, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Report on the Agricultural Resources aud Capabilities of Hawaii, p. 40. CULTURE. 13 have tho largest eolleotioiis. althouuh the drier regions of Central America and Mexico may be found to offer better seedling varieties. In spite of the many discouraging frosts that have visited Florida, planters of that State are actively engaged in propagating good vari- eties by budding, grafting, and inarching, and, if visited with no fur- ther misfortune, will in a few years produce considerable quantities of high-grade fruit. CULTURE. REQUIREMENTS. The mango will grow in a variety of conditions, and it seems to have little preference as to soil, the most important requirement being a deep soil that is well drained. As to climate, it is much more exact- ing, and the fact that the tree may thrive well in a given locality and yet fail to produce fruit should i)e kept always in mind. It may be considered as proven that the mango will be prolitic only in regions subjected to a considerable dry season. On the moist north side of Porto Rico the trees grow luxuriantly. l)ut they are not nearly so prolitic nor is the fruit of such good quality as on the dry south side, and in the very dry region about Yauco and at Cabo Rojo the fruit seemed at its best, while its abundance was attested by the fact that fine fruit was selling as low as 12 for a cent. In Guatemala and Mexico the mango was found at its best only in regions where severe dry seasons prevailed. This position is amply supported by reports of the mango in other localities. The moist conditions that prevail at the Botanic Gardens of Trinidad are reported by ]\lr. Hart" to be very unfavorable to the production of mangoes, a decided improvement being noticed in particularly dry seasons. This was also found to be the case in Jamaica, reports from dillerent parts of the island* all agreeing that the mango fruits but sparingly in moist localities, and in such is much more prolific in dry seasons. Rains at the time of flowering seem to be especially injurious. It has been suggested by Mr. Hart and others that the moist weather interferes with pollination. If this is accomplished by insects the damp weather may easily afiect their operations. Information on this point seems entirely wanting and investigation might be well repaid. In cases where the trees do not flower the explanation is probably to be found in the fact that the mango, like so many other plants, needs some check to its growth to induce the formation of blossoms. Where the dry season is lacking, artificial means of checking the growth are often resorted to, and old trees that have never borne fruit are some- times made to produce enormous crops. «Bul. Royal Bot. Gardens, Trinidad, July, 1899, Vol. Ill, pp. 190-194. & Jamaica Bui., November and December, 1901, Vol. VIII, pp. 161-178. 14 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. The tree is seldom seen at hig-h altitudes, but this maj^ also be due to the fact that high altitudes are often moist. At Senahu, Alta Vera Paz, Guatemala, trees were seen growing at an altitude of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet. They looked strong and healthy but were with- out signs of fruit or flowers, and it was said that these trees had never been known to produce fruit. METHODS OF PROPAGATION. SEED. The mango grows readil}' from seed, and this is the only method of propagation practiced in Porto Rico. For transporting the seed long distances it is, of course, necessarj^ to remove the pulp, and the best results have been obtained with cleaned seeds, dried on the outside and packed so as to conserve the moisture without molding. Packed in this wa}^, several successful importations of seed have been made from the East Indies to Florida. The ease and rapidity with which mangoes can be propagated by means of seed are decided advantages, but the results are very uncer- tain, and very few of the really desirable varieties can be maintained by this method. There are a few good varieties in different parts of the w^orld the seedlings of which appear to produce fruit identical with the parent. Much could doubtless be done to improve the mango in Porto Rico b}^ the growth of seedlings from selected fruit, and reallj' good varie- ties might be originated. Cross fertilization of the flowers might pro- duce new varieties and increase the chances of producing good forms. On the other hand, if the mango follows the analogy of other fruits, it might bo worth while to try the experiment of self-pollinating some of the best varieties, with the idea that the reproductive fertility would be thus impaired and the size of the seed reduced. A more expeditious method of reducing the size of the seed might be to cross-fertilize with the pollen of some variety or perhaps species so distantly related that partially or completely sterile hybrids would be secured. Breeding experiments of all kinds require, however, so much time that for practical purposes the introduction of superior varieties existing in other countries is certainly the first step to be taken. INARCHIXG. This, and methods to be described later, provide means of propa- gating good varieties, so that the fruit of the new plant will be identi- cal, or nearly so, with that of the parent. No greater variation need be expected than that occurring on a single tree. In India and wherever the cultivation of the mango is carried on to any great extent, inarching is by far the most common method of INARCHING. 15 propag-atin^. An article in the Suoar ffoiirnal and Tioijicul Cultivator describes the process as follows: The best metliod of propajjating good varieties of mangoes is l)y means of inarch- ing, which is a very simple process. It is j)erformee made to touch accurately; the two wounded sur- faces are bound securely with tape or bast filjer, and grafting clay ai)plii'd to keep out air. The juncture of branch and seedling should extend for a length of about 3 inches, but at no i)oint should the wound in either be deep; the slices should in fact be of almost uniform thickne.«s throughout and not thick. Tenaceous clay should not be used to cover the inarch; it soon cracks and admits air. One part of fresh cattle dung, nuxed with two parts of good soil, kneaded together with a little water, serves the purpo.se excellently. Inarching can be done in Iixlia at any season, but it is most succe.ssful when the trees are in active growth. It takes some time (sev- eral months) before the inarched juncture is perfectlj' joined by the new wood and bark cells. Meantime the seedlings in the pots must be carefully and regularly watered. When the juncture is complete the leading shoot of the seedling should be removed immediately above the inarch juncture and some days after\var outside of the })!irk, and do not appear to injure the tree in any way. In introducing new varieties great care should be exercised not to introduce any of the almost innumerable parasites, botli animal and vegetable, that prey upon the mango in other countries. All grafted stock and cuttings should be carefully inspected and disinfected before being planted. USES. The principal use of the mango is as a fresh fruit, and as such it deserves to become as common as the orange or the banana. A justi- fication of this rather sweeping assertion is to be found in the degree of popularity which the mango enjoys in comparison with these ])ettcr- known tropical friuts in countries where all are well established. Experience has shown that such comparisons are a better criterion of the ultimate i)opulai-ity of an introduced fruit than the judgment of otherwise competent persons with whom the fruit is more or less, of a novelt3\ The intense tiavor of some of the most fibrous mangoes is by many preferred to the milder and less fibrous varieties. The eating of the former is, however, such a difficult and untidy performance that the taste is much less frecjuently acquired than would be the case could some better method of conducting the operation be devised. Where the fruit is plentiful the method of peeling shown in PI. VT enables one to secure the greater part of the tlesh of a stringy mango without soiling the hands. A cut is made around either end of the fruit and these are then connected along one side, the central strip being peeled ofi' in one piece. The skin remaining on the ends of the fruit affords a means of holding it Avithout the fingers coming in contact with the juicy flesh. If in addition a sharp-pointed fork is at hand, this can be firmly fixed in the seed and the skin at the ends removed, thus saving the sweetest part of the fruit. PI. VI, fig. 3, shows a special mango fork secured in Mexico by Dr. J. N. Kose. The long, slender tine in the center easily penetrates the seed and the shorter outer tines need only to touch the seed to prevent it from turning. The mango has numerous important secondary uses, among which may be mentioned the following: THE CANNING OF THE GREEN OR RIPE FRUIT. Mr. E' M. Shelton/' of the department of agriculture, Queejisland, gives the following recipe: After peeling, the fruit is separated from the stones by slicing into pieces of con- venient size; these should be stewed for a few minutes only, before pouring into cans, in sirup strong or weak in sugar to suit taste, or the fruit may be cooked in the can f Bulletin of the Botanical Department of Jamaica, July, 1894, Vol. I, p. HI. 22 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. with sirup, as before. There may be a difference of opinion as to the palatablenesa of canned mangoes. A considerable number of those persons who have tasted the results of our work have pronounced the canned fruit excellent, while others have declared their indifference to it. A like diversity of opinion, we note, holds respect- ing the raw fruit, particularly to those unaccustomed to its peculiar flavor. Mangoes stewed in the form of sauce will be found a welcome addition to any dinner table. "As good as stewed peaches," we have heard them pronounced. MARMALADE AND JELLY. The same writer also gives the following directions for making the fruit into marmalade and jell}" Marmalade. — Peel and slice the mango, cutting close to the stone, and cook, using plenty of water. Boil until the fruit is thoroughly disintegrated, when the pulp should be run through the colander with the purpose of extracting the "wool." Sugar should now be added to suit the taste (about three-fourths of a pound to the pint of pulp), and the mass boiled until clear, when it should be poured into the molds or jars in which it is to be kept. This marmalade is of a rich golden-yellow color; it retains the form of the mold perfectly, and seems in all respects to satisfy the most exacting taste. In the absence of the experience necessary to test the keeping qualities of mango marmalade, it would be the part of wisdom to seal the jars designed for future u.se while hot with wax, or better yet, with a plug of cotton wool. Jelly.- — For jelly, prepare the mangoes by slicing as for marmalade, boil the fruit with water, prolonging the boiling only to the extent of extracting the juices. Great care should be taken in boiling, as the mango rapidly "boils to pieces," in which case it is impossible to make satisfactory jelly. Pour off the juice, strain, and boil down to a jelly, an operation that occupies only a few moments, as the mango is rich in gelatinous materials; the pulp remaining after the jelly has been removed may be used to advantage in making marmalade. In the amount of sugar used in iMaking jelly, the housekeeper is safe in following old practices in this respect with other fruits. It is impossiVjle to give exact rules in all the operations connected with working up this fruit. In general, it will be well to use, in boiling, water somewhat to excess, and as the mango "cooks" readily, constant watchfulness is needed to prevent l;urning. To show something of what is possible in the way of results with this fruit, I may say that in our experiments 13 good-sized mangoes gave 1 pint of jelly and 5 quarts of marmalade. This certainly must be counted a very favorable, not to say remark- able, result. About Acapulco Dr. Edward Palmer found the foreign residents making the unripe mangoes into an excellent jelly, with the mango flavor so modified as to please even those who do not care for the fresh fruit. At the same place the experiment had been tried of making sweet pickles of the green fruit, with very satisfactory results. During the height of the season in Porto Rico, mangoes can be bought at retail at the rate of 5 to 25 cents per hundred, at which price the cost of the fruit in making jellies and marmalades is nominal, and as the cheap sugar made in Porto Rico is suitable for making pre- serves, and the transportation charges on the finished product low, it would seem that if a salable article could be produced, its manufac- ture ought to be profitable. In view of the abundant supph' and the CHUTNEY, ETC. 23 ■wonderful choapiipss of tho mango in Porto Rico, some of tlicise uses will warrant invostigation and exi)orinient. Another consideration in this regard is the fact that the commoner sorts at present growing in Porto Rico are probabl}- much better suited to the above uses than the milder-flavored varieties so highly prized for consumption in the fresh state. A very delicious dish can })e made b}- simplv peeling mangoes when unripe ])ut nearly full grown; slice, place in a dish, pile on sugar, and bake in a slow ovon. CHUTNEY. The mango forms one of the chief ingredients of chutne3^s, concern- ing which the following, copied from Bulletin No. 40, Botanical Department, Jamaica, applies equally well to Porto Rico: Large quantities of chutney are imported into America from India, althougii it could readily be supplied from Jamaica, affording employment to a number of people, and utilizing mueh material which now goes to waste. The following recipe has been kindly forwarded by a correspondent: Three pounds common mangoes (turned, but not ripe); 3 pounds tamarinds; 2 pounds raisins ■ (weighed after stoning); 8 pounds brown sugar; ^ pound chilies; 2 pounds green ginger; i pound garlic or H pounds onions; J^ ounce mace; 1 ounce mustard seed; \ ounce cloves; i ounce pimento; i pound table salt. Soak the tamarinds in 2 quarts of the best vinegar, stir them about with a wooden spoon to get the pulp off, and take out the seeds and the leathery part in which they are inclosed. Cut the raisins small. Peel the ginger and grate it. Pound the chilies, garlic, and mustard seed in a mortar, using a little of the vinegar to moisten. Mix all together thoroughly; it is then ready inr use. ALCOHOU. According to Mr. Dj^bowski," the bruised and imperfect fruit that would otherwise be lost is sometimes utilized to produce by distillation a fair grade of alcohol. MEDICINAL PROPERTIES. While not possessing any pronounced and universally recognized medicinal properties, the mango is in India credited by the natives with a great variety of virtues, and numerous medical authorities speak very highly of certain of its uses. As stated elsewhere, the fresh ripe fruit is considered slightly laxa- tive and diuretic. The rind and fiber, as well as the unripe fruit, are astringent and acid. A long list of medicinal properties is given in Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, among which the most important and best authenticated are the following: The unripe fruit, peeled, cut from the stone, and dried, is considered one of the best antiscorbutics, and is said to stamp out scurvy when lime juice and all other available remedies fail. Prepared in this way « Traite Pratique de Cultures Tropicales, Paris, 1902, p. 534. 24 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. it is known as amchur or amhckur, and is an extensive article of diet in India. The dried and powdered ls;ernel of the seed is a vakiable astringent, extensively used in eases of diarrhea and dysentery. One-half of a kernel taken in the morning and the same dose repeated in the evening are said to cure the most obstinate case inside of live days. The unripe fruit roasted and made into a sherbet is taken by the natives of India to prevent sunstroke; the pulp is also rubbed over the bodj^ for the same purpose. An extract of the bark or rind is highly recommended for its extra- ordinary action in cases of hemorrhage. DYE, TAN, AND PIGMENT. In some parts of India'* the leaves of the mango are used to produce a yellow dye, as is also the bark, which is frequently mixed with that of other trees, among which are mentioned the pomegranate and a spe- cies of Bauhinia. With the bark of some trees it yields a permanent black. The juice of the bark mixed with lime is said to produce a fleeting green d3^e, while the addition of tumeric to the above mixture gives a bright rose-pink. The dry, unripe fruit is extensively used as a mordant, especially in dyeing with safflower. The bark and even the leaves are used as a tanning material, one sample of the bark jaelding, on analysis, 16.7 per cent tannin. Piuri, or Indian 3^ellow, a coloring matter used in water colors and for painting houses in India, is indirectly the product of the mango. Before August, 1883, the source of this Indian coloring matter was unknown. At that time F. N. Mukhargi, at the request of Sir Joseph Hooker, made a trip to Monghyr, where the dye is produced, and found that it was obtained from the urine of cows fed on mango leaves. His letter is published in No. 39 of the Kew bulletins. Mr. Mukhargi states that the cows utilized for this purpose are kept exclu- sively on a diet of mango leaves and water, which increases the bile pigments and imparts to the urine a light-yellow color. The cows thus treated are made to pass urine three or four times a da}^ by hav- ing the urinar}' organ rubbed, and soon lose the ability to urinate vol- untarily. The urine is heated and the yellow precipitate is strained out andL made into balls, dried on charcoal fires and in the sun, when it is read}^ for market. The price paid by the dealers is about 40 cents per pound. About 2 ounces a day is obtained from an average cow. An exclusive diet of mango leaves is said to be injurious to the cows, and to keep up their strength the animals are now and then allowed grass or other fodder, which, however, reduces the proportion of the coloring matter. "Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, Vol. V, p. 152. PRESENT STATUS, 25 GUM. The gwn which exudes from the trunks of man^o trees, frequently in c'ousidonible quantities, is said to be a substitute for gum arabic. MINOK USES IN' INDIA. The nuiltitude of uses the mango has in India, where it is not merel}'' a hixurv but an important food staple. ha\e l)een summarized in Watt's Dictionary as follows: AVhen green, the stone is extracte) made into a pickle, \vith salt, mustard oil, chilies, and other ingre- dients; {c) made into preserves and jellies by being boiled and cooked in sirup; ((/) boiled, strained, and with milk and sugar made into a custard known as mango- fool; (<") dried and made into the native "ambchur," used for adding acidity to certain curries; (/) when very young cut into small j)iei'es, mixed with a little salt, and sliced chilies and milk added, it forms a "tasty" salad. When ripe {a) it is made into curry whii'h has a sweet, acid, not unpleasant, taste; (h) it is cut into small pieces and made into a salail with vinegar and chilies (the sour fruit is sometimes s« used); {<■) the juice is s lueezed, spread on plates, and allowed to dry; this forms the tliin cakes known as amb-sath. The kernels are eaten in times of famine, and by the poorer classes in many parts of India they are ])oiled and eaten as greens. They are also ground with meal and mixed with various other ingredients to form the relish known as am-khatai. When stuffed with coriander, turmeric, and other spices, and boiled in mustard oil, they are esteemed a great delicacy. THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. PRESENT STATUS. The mango is one of the most common fruits in Porto Rico, and during the .season when this fruit is ripe it is eaten in larger q.uantities than an}' other, with the possible exception of the banana, which lat- ter is used more as a vegetable, cooked in one form or other. That it is a popular as well as common fruit is shown by the fact that when mangoes are scarce people are willing to pay comparatively high prices for them, and this in spite of their being looked upon as luxuries rather than as staple articles of food. Porto Rico seems very well adapted to the production of mangoes and, as the plant is strictly tropical and very susceptible to cold, would seem to have a decided advantage over Florida, whe>re good varieties aie already successfully grown, but where, except in the extreme soiithern part, the danger of injury from cold is very great. A really high-grade mango is unknown in Porto Rico, and the first steps toward making their exportation profitable is the introduction from the other islands, or from Florida, Mexico, or the East Indies, of grafted stock of the best varieties. Even seedlings of improved forms would without doubt be a great advance, but until the quality is in some way improved the shipping of mangoes in other than small lots will scarcel}' prove profitable, as the sale of the mango in its present 26 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. form will be largely limited to those who have at some time lived in a countiT where the fruit is grown and have already acquired a liking for it. With this class even poor mangoes will alwa3's find a market, if good ones are not to be had. That mangoes of the best varieties can be grown in America has been demonstrated, although only small quantities are as j^et produced. Mr. D. G. Fairchild, who has had excellent opportunities to test mangoes in all parts of the world, says that with the possible excep- tion of the Bombay Alphonse the finest mango he ever tasted was one of the variety known as ''Mulgoba" and grown in Florida. The mango grows in all parts of Porto Rico, but is more common on the drier south side of the island, where the trees will occasionally be seen growing so thick as to suggest an orchard. (See PI. I.) It can scarceh^ be said to be cultivated at all, as few trees are planted and most of the fruit is obtained from trees that have spread spontane- ously. It seems to prefer dry hill slopes, and was seen in the greatest profusion about Cabo Rojo. Trees are seldom seen growing ahout houses. This maj^, however, be due to a superstition that the shade of the mango is dangerous, our Porto Rican driver on one occasion preferring to have his horses stand in the hot sun rather than in the shade of the deadly mango. If the tree is propagated artificially at all, it is by means of seeds. The only indication that any grafted stock exists in Porto Rico was a' statement heard in Yauco to the effect that the variety known as Melocoton is from grafted stock brought from Martinique. The importation may have been made, but even if such is the case it has been of little value, as it has since been propagated only through seedlings. The season of ripe mangoes in Porto Rico is from Ma}' to August. By selecting proper varieties this might be prolonged, since in some parts of India it extends over a period of six months. This would be a great advantage in shipping the fruit to temperate regions, as at present the season coincides with the season of temperate fruits, which places the mango at a decided disadvantage. BEST LOCALITIES. Mango plantations in Porto Rico, to be most profitable, should with- out doubt be located in the drier parts of the island, where, as has been said, the trees are not only more prolific, but the fruit is better formed and more free from blemishes. The whole south side, a nar- row strip across the western end, and the northwest corner would seem to be well adapted. The southwestern part of the island is at present producing the best mangoes. In this region there are many more or less extensive tracts of low-priced land unsuited to the growing of other crops, but apparently adapted to the mango. PORTO RICAN FORMS. 27 !Manfjotreos are ooinmon about Sail Juan, ])ut this rooion is so moist that the trees are not prolitic aiul the fruit is freciuently det'ornied and spotted. PORTO KICAN FORMS. There are a great many forms of the mano-o in Porto Rico, but at present their classitieation is litth? more than a list of names. The same name is applied in different parts of the island to distinct fruits, and, again, what appears to be the same form will receive distinct names in different localities. In any given market, however, consid- erable agreement will be found as to the terminology of forms, though the fruit is evidently picked in bulk and sorted before being ottered for sale. In some markets this is carried nuich farther than in others. The fruit of the same tree seems always to be very nearly uniform, but as the mango comes true to seed only to a limited extent and the fruit in Porto Rico is all from seedlings, an almost endless variety is naturally to be expected. True varieties— that is, varieties propagated by asexual methods — do not exist in Porto Rico, and the following descriptions are intended to assist in fixing the vague terminology of the market forms and if possible to stinudate further observation as to whether these come true to seed. These forms should not be confused either with true horti- cultural varieties or, until further investigation, with races that are known to come true to seed. The forms described below are those that fell under immediate notice, the name most commonh' in use being appended. Mango de Mayaguez (PI. VII). — A small vellow form, with compara- tively large seed, but with good flavor, soft flesh, and few fibers. This form, for sale in the San Juan markets, is considered one of the finest. It has very little of the turpentine taste, but its flavor did not appear to be an}" better than that of several others, while its small size and thin flesh make it seem on the whole inferior. In shape it is as3nnmetrical, with depressed stem. The color in the early part of the season is a uniform yellow; later many specimens were seen with one side red. Mangotina (PI. VIII, fig. 4). — A ver}" small yellow form, with one side red. Similar to the Mango de Mayaguez seen at San Juan but longer, with rounder base and the stigmatic point nearer the apex. Melocoton ''^ peach'''' mango (PI. VIII, fig. 1). — A small yellow and red form seen at Yauco, said to have come from grafted stock brought from Martinique. Base yqyy square, stem slightl}" depressed, skin thin, meat with very few fibers, mild in flavor. Mango de rom (PI. VIII, fig. 2). — A nearly spherical form seen at Yauco, 3'ellow in color, with one side a beautiful red. The skin is very thin, the meat comparatively free from fiber, very mild and pleasant, without a trace of the turpentine flavor. 28 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. Mango pina (PI. IX). — A short, thick form found in the San Juan market before the middle of June, green, .slightly asynnnetrioal, with rather oblique base, stem depressed. The meat is thick, of good tex- ture and flavor. Jlfoigo largo (Pis. VIII and X). — A form common on the south side of the island and at ]\Iayaguez. Long, nearly straight, stem not depressed, green in color. The flesh is verj- firm, moderately thick, and with very few fibers. At Yauco slightly shorter specimens were called "Mangotina,'" a name used very loosely in all markets, this form selling there at 10 for 1 cent. The flavor is fine, though the taste of turpentine is pronounced, and to those who do not object to this feature it will appeal as one of the best Porto Rican forms. Mmgo mango (PI. XI.)— A large, rather straight form, with a very square base, somewhat resembling ''largo,'' but slightly more sym- metrical and thicker. Large quantities were seen in the San Juan market on June 22; a month later none were to be found. The flesh was fairly thick and of good quality. This name may possibly be a contraction of mangon^ which would be not at all inapplicable, as this is one of the largest Porto Rican forms. Stahl gives mango as the common name of Mangifera indica in Porto Rico. Mango johos (PI. XII). — A common form in the San Juan market in the early part of the season. A very poor kind, considered to be the wild or unimproved form. It is green in color, with a large seed and very stringy meat, frequently ripening unevenly and having a strong- turpentine flavor. In form it is slightly asymmetrical, stem not depressed. Mango redondo (PI. XIII and PI. lY, fig. 2).— A large, thick-meated form, couuuon in the Ponce market. In form it is quite symmetrical, with a decidedly depressed stem. In color it varies from green to red, the difference being in some instances so marked as to suggest a distinct type. The color seemed the only difference, however, and the market people insisted that the green and red might come from the same tree. The flesh is verv iuicv. moderatelv free from fibers, and of a very good flavor. VARIETIES TO BE INTRODUCED. There are probably hundreds of excellent varieties and forms grown in India and elsewhere that might profitably be introduced into this country, but it would perhaps lie better to introduce a very few of the best sorts and get them thoroughly established than to dissipate energy on a great number. As early as 1869 some seventeen varieties of Indian mangoes were successfully introduced into Jamaica. These have since been propa- gated and new importations made until there exists in Jamaica a con- VAKIETIE'^ TO BK INTRODUCED. 29 sidonihle miml)or of Iiuliiin iiuingoes. The best vaiieties are, however, continod to gardens, and very few of the choicer kinds are exported. There are also a few Indian varieties in Trinidad and Florida. Among the varieties of mangoes that should 1)c introduced into Porto Rico, the following may be mentioned: Mii/(/of)a.—"Yovm roundish, oblique, reniform; si/e lari^e. weigh- ino- from thr(>e-fourths ])ound to 1 pound; surface smooth and undu- ladng; color yellow, beautifully blushed with red and faintly dotted with numerous brown dots; skin thin, tough, tenacious; seed reniform, oval, rather large; tiber scanty, tine, and tender; flesh rich, apricot yellow, very tender, melting and juicy, sweet, rich, fragrant; qviality very good. '•The Mulgoba surpasses in flavor and quality the seedlings pre- viously grown, l)ut its most distinctly marked finitures of superiority are the tenderness of the flesh and al)sence of the objectionable tiber and strong turpentine flavor couuuon to most of the seedlings grown in this country. ••The tree is a strong, symmetrical grower, and appears to be abundantly productive."" Grafted stock of this variety was secured by the Division of Pomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, in 1889 and placed Avith fruit growers in southern Florida. After a narrow escape from the freeze of 1895 the surviving tree has done well, and the variety has been successfully propagated. This variety should be at once intro- duced into Porto Rico. Alj^home, Aphoo>i, or Al/ho-^. is perhaps the most noted of mangoes. Wood row sa3's: It is universally admitted to be the finest of all mangoes. In tiavor its fruit is indescribable; it seems to be a subtle blending of all agreeable flavors. In weight the fruit averages 8 ounces, and in color green, enriched by a crimson glow on the exposed side, and in shape oblong, slightly thickened at the upper end, and without any prominent stigmatic point or beak. • i, -i The leaves varv much in size and shape, and with difficulty can l)e di.stinguished from common varieties; but among the choice varieties the leaves of the Alphonse may be known by the bright red midrib apparent until the leaves are nearly npe. The branches of the inflorescence are of a rich rosy color. In manner of growth or habit this variety is rather stunted and irregular, rarely forming a graceful tree. It is also very delicate and apt to give way beK.re insect attac-ks more than ..ther varieties; but as its fruit is valuable it should be kept free from insects and otherwise protected in proportion to the price the frmt brings, o This is a verv early varietv and so highly prized in India that as much as $19 a hundred is sometimes paid by dealers for selected truit. In June, 1902, several inarched plants of this variety, all from a sinole tree known to produce superior fruit, were sent from Bombay by « W. A. Taylor, Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1901, p. 390. b Gardening in India, pp. 226, 227. 30 THE MANGO IN POETO "RICO. Mr. D. (t. Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer of the U. S. Department of Ag-riculture. Some of these were sent out at once through the Divi- sion of Pomolog}' to experienced growers in Florida, where the}^ were budded on health}^ stock and are now doing well. Budding was also successfully accomplished from the remaining plants held in the green- houses at Washington, and the variety seems now safely esta])lished. A letter from Col. J. G. E. Griffith, « Hodges, Black River, Jamaica, states that after three attempts he imported in 1901 six Alphonse and six Paeree plants, eight of which are now doing well. Five of these are believed to be Alphonse. Every effort should be made to preserve this valuable variety, and budded or inarched stock should be introduced into Porto Rico as soon as possible. It might also be desirable to secure one or two of the late fruiting forms. Several varieties, grouped in Watt's Dictionary under the name of Budayas, are said to fruit as late as September or October, whereas the Alphonse fruits in May. No. 11. — This variet}'', the original stock of which was among the first mangoes introduced into Jamaica b}' Captain Marshall, in 1782, is still the most popular variet^y in the island. It is a fine fruit, though somewhat string v, and is said to come true to seed. Mr. Hart iden- tifies this varietv with the Reine Amelie of Martinique. As Martin- . ique received a large part of its earl}' introduced plants from Mauritius, the source of this variety in Jamaica, this identification doubtless means identity of origin, and the fact that these distinct strains are still identifiable would argue great constancy for this variety. Budded stock of this variety is also growing in Florida. Manila (PI. XIV). — A Mexican race, almost entirely free from fiber, and of a mild, pleasant flavor. The skin is uniformly light yel- low and thin; the flesh is also light colored and firm. The seed is very thin and small in proportion to the amount of flesh. This is a really high-grade mango, not unlike the Mulgoba in flavor. Its shipping qualities have not been tested, but perfectly ripe fruit purchased in Mexican markets kept in good condition for several days. This mango was very popular in the City of Mexico about the end of June. It was sold in all the markets and hawked on the streets, the price being usually i cents apiece Mexican. The uniformity of the fruit as it appeared in the different markets, taken with the absence of asexual methods of propagation in Mexico, would argue that it is a form that comes true to seed. If this is the case, it would certainly be one of the most desirable mangoes for Porto Rico, and seed should be secured at an early date. The name of this race suggests that it came from the Philippine aBul. Bot. Dept. Jamaica, Vol. VIII, ])t.s. 11 and 12. VARIKTIES TO BE INTRODUCED. 31 Islands, and indeed it i.s not impossible that it was brought to Mexico from those islands l)y one of the SyKinish galleons that during the seventeenth century plied regularly between the Philippines and Mexico. A form resem])ling this in Guam is tnere commonly supposed to have come from the Philippines. I)ut as ships oidy touched at (luam on the return vovage from Mexico the fruit nuist have reached Ciuam b}' way of America, and would naturally have become established in both countries. Possiblv a further contirmation is to be found in the occurrence of the same or a very similar form in Cuba, known as the l*hili})})in(' mango. Mango china. — A ver}^ fine seedling race, common in the markets of Guatemala City, and considered the finest mango of that region. The form of the fruit is characteristic, being very thin and almost cir- cular in outline, with a prominent blunt '"nak," located some distance fi'om the apex. The tlesh is thick and remarkably free from fiber for a seedling, mild and aromatic, without suggesting turpentine. This variety difi'ers from others examined in having pronounced longitudinal ridges on the seed, which is thin and very broad. (See PI. V, fig. 1.) Like the Manila of Mexico, this form apparently comes true to seed. It could easily be secured and would certainly be an improvement on anything at present in the island. By some this form is called Mcuujo de hi'ea. This name is, however, more appropriate!}^ applied to another form m which the fruit is more or less coated with a pitch-like exudation, hren meaning pitch. There are a numl)er of excellent varieties and forms already grow- ing in other islands of the West Indies, which it might be desirable to introduce. The fact, ho'wever, that Indian fruit is outselling the West Indian in the London market would indicate that the best Indian vari- eties should receive the most attention. It is possible that the best kinds are not exported from the British West Indies where mangoes as good as Indian varieties maj' be growing, but where under the unfavorable conditions they do not bear sufiicient fruit to permit of being exported. These same mangoes, if transplanted to the south side of Porto Rico, might become much more prolific, and on account of the ease with which they could be introduced the subject should receive careful attention. In Bulletin No. 20 of the Botanical Department of Trinidad, July, 1889, Mr. J. H. Hart describes the Trinidad varieties, some of which would appear to be very excellent. Among the most desirable kinds may be mentioned the following: Gordon. — A fine large fruit. The seedlings are said to produce fruit almost identical with those of the grafted stock, and are thought to bear better. 32 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. PetsTH. — One of the finest flavored of all Trinidad mang'oes, said to bear regular crops. In Trinidad this variety is very subject to sour- ing in the center of the fruit. This would probably be much less troublesome in Porto Rico. Julie. — A fine, large mango, with thin, long seed; commences to bear when ver}^ young. On the west coast of Africa and in some other localities the mango has two seasons of bearing ripe fruit, about six months apart. At Esquintla, Guatemala, where the mango grows luxurianth' and is very prolific, this appears to be the case, as many trees were seen bearing- flowers and nearly ripe fruit at the same time, April 16. If this is a difference in kind and not due to climatic conditions these forms should be imported, as the placing of a new fruit on the market would be greatly facilitated could it be done in the winter, when competition with native fruits would be less. BEST METHOD OF INTRODUCING NEW VARIETIES. The introduction of new varieties from the East Indies has been attended with much difficulty. Seeds can, of course, be secured at com- parativeh^ small expense, but in most of the cases on record only a small percentage have germinated, and these, after the trouble and delay of bringing them to bearing, are likely to produce fruit with only a slight resemblance to the variety desired. Hitherto the most successful importations have been in the form of inarched stock in Wardian cases. This, though a very satisfactory method, is very expensive, and a less costly plan would greatly encour- age importations. Experiments in packing cuttings, suitable for budding, so that they ma}^ be sent through the mails, have been made b}' Mr. D. G. Fair- child. He recommends the following method: Have a cylindrical tin case made, 10 inches long, 2 inches in diameter, with a well- fitting cap 2 inches long, in which to send the cuttings through the post. This case should be fitted in a cloth sack before dispatching. Cut scions about 10 inches long, making sure that they have good buds on them. Dij^ the cut ends in collodion or melted beeswax, wrap each scion in a strip of light tin foil, and wrap these again in oiled paper. Pack not more than four or five in each case, with slightly moist- ened sawdust. Be careful to put the address on the tag. The first shipment of mango cuttings packed in this manner arrived in rather poor condition, the sawdust in which thej^ w' ere packed being apparently too moist. Buds, which were inmiediately placed in the healthy stock, showed signs of life, but it is still too early to report the success or failure of the experiment. The sending of a second shipment, packed in drier sawdust, was so delayed that the severe heat encountered on the voj^age resulted in an entire loss. Experiments PACKING AND SHIPPING. 33 with this method of packiiij^ are beiii^ continued ]>y Messrs. Taylor and Fairchild, as the system has not as yet received a fair ti-ial. Experiments made by Mr. H. Knight, in Queensland, on the' keep- ing quality of mango cuttings proved that cuttings carefully packed in cocoanut fiber would remain alive and in good condition for at least three and one-half months. Cuttings were tried in ))oth moist sand and cocoanut fiber that had been boiled, washed, and sijueezed dry. The cuttings were packed in tight tins. At the end of two months, of 14 cuttings packed in moist sand, all were dead but one, while after three and one-half months all the cuttings in the coeoaiuit fiber were alive and had shoots from 2 to 4 inches long. This length of time is ample for the introduction of new varieties from India to this country, but the cuttings thus experimented w^th were doul)tless kept at a reasonably luiiform temperature, and it must not be inferred that they would have sui-vived a voyage to the West Indies where, owing to the changes to which they would be subjected, they would probably have deteriorated nuich more rapidly. The fact that the cuttings made sprouts, M-hile indicating the success of this method of preserving the life of the cuttings, would not be desirable if the cuttings were to be used for l)udding. This could, however, doubth^ss be prevented by drier packing. The introduction of new varieties by means of cuttings that can be sent throup-h the mails would be such a simple and economical method that it is well worthy of experiment, })ut in view of the difficulties which many have experienced in budding the mangoes it may be well not to place too much dependence on this method until budding has been successfully accomplished from cuttings thus treated. The propagation and dissemination of the finer varieties of the mango might well be one of the lines of activity of the experiment stations recently established in the tropical possessions of the United States. PACKING AND SHIPPING. The packing and shipping of mangoes is a question of great impor- tance, as the success or failure of their production on a commercial scale is to a large extent dependent on its proper solution. With the poorer varieties, it is a comparatively simple matter, and the fruit wrapped in paper and packed in cases comes through in very good shape. With the finer varieties the question is, however, much more difficult. Sample lots of the best varieties grown in the West Indies have been shipped long distances, as from Jamaica to London, and have arrived in good condition. In larger lots it would doubtless be much more difficult, but with proper care it would seem that the loss need not be serious. The 8992— No. 28—02 3 34 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. aclvisabilit}' of shipping in cold storage has never been properly' tested, but the general opinion seems to be that low temperatures injure the Havorof the fruit. Mr. J. II. Hart, Superintendent of the Royal Botanical Gardens of Trinidad, recommends" a temperature some 8° or 1(»- below that in which the fruit was ripened. '• Pick the fruit," he says, " when fully formed or " full.' handle without bruising, or, as I wrote many years ago of oranges, ' handle as you would eggs,' choose well-formed and uninjured fruit, pack so that fruit receives no undue weight or pressure, place for transit in a well-ventilated part of the ship, and nearly every kind of fruit can be carried successfully for voyages of from six to fourteen days or more, mangoes of the best kind among the number;" while experiments in shipping mangoes from Australia would indicate that a temperature of about 35-^ was the most satisfactory-. There can ))e no doubt that questions of ventilation and of packing so that the fruit is not subjected to undue pressure are of more importance than the exact temperature, and the instructions of Mr. Hart will, if followed, allow good fruit to reach the northern markets in prime condition. The United States consul at Bombay, William Thomas Fee, in his report for October, 1901, states that in the large shipments of man- goes now being sent from India to London the fruit is packed in the cast-off boxes used for shipping oil to India, and that it arrives in good condition. M. Nollet, director of the garden at Martinique, has succeeded in making small shipments from that island to Paris with a loss not exceeding 10 per cent. The fruit was wrapped in soft paper and packed one dozen in a box, the interstices tilled with sawdust and the whole placed in cold storage. The fruit is usually picked when of full size, but l)efore it has com- pletely ripened, and is placed in shade to complete the process. In some parts of India it is buried in the ground to ripen, as this is sup- posed to make it sweeter. To establish a market for Porto Rican mangoes, it will be necessary for some individual or company to undertake to grade, pack, and ship the fruit on a scale sufficiently large to enable commission merchants to receive regular consignments and feel confidence in the uniform quality and condition of the shipments. Growers may hesitate to embark in the production of mangoes on a large scale before a market is assured, but a market will not be assured until the supply can meet the above conditions. A large and well-organized plantation could probably best meet these requirements, but, in the absence of such, the neighboring planters of mangoes might very advantageously cooperate aBul. Royal Bot. Gardens, Trinidad, 1897-99, Vol. Ill, p. 192. MARKET. 35 b}^ eoinhiiiini,^ their crops and placinjf the gradinjr, packing, and ship- ping of the fruit in the hands of one person. The industry misrht thus 1)6 successfully launched without serious risk to individual planters. MARKET. Although a local market already exists in Porto Rico, the only out- look for making the growing of mangoes protital)le is in a trade with the temperate regions. Such a trade can hardly l)e said to exist in this country, for. although small lots are frequently sent North and are disposed of at from 5 to It) cents apiec<>, they have been sold merely as novelties; for the few larger shipments that have been made there was no sufficient demand, and to avoid total loss prices had to be lowered so that Porto Kican mangoes ha\e been sold in Washington at the rate of 2 for 5 cents. ^^'hat can be done with mangoes of the best quality in this country is still a matter of conjecture; but in view of the unanimously favor- able opinion of those who have tasted good varieties, it w'ould seem that it is merely a ([uestion of Ix'ing able to })roduce good fruit and to ship it in good condition. The history of. the mango in Florida atiords some very encouraging data regarding profits to be derived from mango culture. The follow- ing, quoted from Bulletin No. I, Division of Pomology, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, refers to trees growing in the neigh})orhood of Tampa Bay: One grower on the point sold, fntin eleven trees in the fourth year from the seed, fruit whii;h brout;ht him $219. In their sixth year he shipped bushels to various places, realizing at Chicago 60 cents per dozen, and the fruit shipping well. Another dealer received from the produce of one of his bearing trees $66 in its sixth year. These mangoes were probably of inferior varieties, as Mr. William A. Taylor states " that prior to 1889 none but seedling mango trees were grown in Florida. On the other hand, the quantities were so small that the fruit was probablv sold as a novelty and the profits realized give little idea of how larger and continued shipments would fare. In England the trade is much farther advanced. There has been a small trade between Jamaica and England for a number of years. The following, copied from the Bulletin of the Botanical Department of Jamaica, No. 39, January, 1893, page 23, is a statement of the number and value of mangoes exported during the years 1887 to 1892, to which is added the approximate price per 100. « Yearbook, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1901, p. 390. 36 THE MANGO IN PORTO RICO. Number and value of mangoes exported from Jumnica, 1887 to 1892. Year exported. Nnmber. Value. Approxi- mate value per 100. 189-7 258,060 222,020 18,388 170, 988 299, 584 93,470 £. .V. 203 2 158 12 19 19 100 19 258 9 116 6 <\. 6 6 0 6 0 0 80.38 1891 .35 .53 1 a«Q .29 IHgS .42 1887 - .60 The following statement is also made: This export will never be of any great value unless the fruit is picked by hand and packed with care, for the least bruise is fatal. Good mangoes would doubtless fetch a good price in New York. Large shipments of fine East Indian mangoes are now being received in London and not only arrive in good condition, but are bringing fancy prices, quite outselling the West Indian fruit, to which they are much superior. This is decidedly encouraging, for if there is a demand for good mangoes in England, why not in the United States \ And if it is possi- ble to successfully ship tine varieties from India to London, there ought surely to be no difficulty in shipping from Porto Rico to New York. SUMMARY. The essentials for making the cultivation of mangoes in Porto Rico a profitable indijstry may be summarized as follows: (1) The introduction and propagation of good varieties, meaning {a) fair-sized fruit, moderately free from fiber and with little of the tur- pentine flavor; (^) fruit that will stand shipping; (c) early and late fruiting varieties, and if possible varieties bearing two crops a year. (2) Care in picking, packing, and shipping, that the fruit may reach the market in good condition. (3) A general supervision of the shipping by some responsible per- son or firm, insuring uniformity and regularity of supply. (4) The placing of good fruit before the public in such quantities that the price need not be excessive, and that the supply can be regU: lar and continuous during the fruiting season. If these conditions can be met, an increasing demand may be expected, and there seems no j-eason why the commercial production of mangoes should not be added to the agricultural industries of Porto Rico. PLATES. 37 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES, Plate I. Grove of mango trees between Cabo Rojo and Joyua, Porto Rico. These trees "were injured by the hurricane of 1899, and have not regained their typical form. II. Mango tree in fruit, Tapachula, Mexico; estimated to be bearing about 5,000 mangoes. III. Branch of mango tree, with fruit, Tapachula, Mexico. IV. Fig. 1. — Mango tree, growing in dry region near San Jose, Guatemala. Fig. 2. — Section of "Redondo" mango fruit, Ponce, Porto Rico. (Xatu- ral size. ) V. Mango seeds: Fig. 1.— "Cocha." Fig. 2.— ' = Largo." Fig. .S.— "China." Guatemala City, Guatemala. ( Natural size. ) VI. Fig. 1. — Mango fruit, showing method of peeling. (Natural size. ) Fig. 2. — Crate of mangoes shipped from Florida to Washington, D. C, showing a successful method of packing. (Photograph loaned by W. A. Taylor. ) Fig. 3. — Mango fork. (Natural size.) VII. "Mango de Mayaguez" fruit, San Juan, Porto Rico. (Natural size.) VIII. Mango fruits: Fig. 1.— "Melocoton." Fig. 2.— "Rosa." Fig. .3.— "Largo." Fig. 4. — "Mangotina." Yauco, Porto Rico. ( Natural size. ) IX. "Mango pina" fruit. San Juan, Porto Rico. (Natural size.) X. "Mango largo" fruit, Ponce, Porto Rico. (Natural size.) XI. "Mango mango" fruit, San Juan, Porto Rico. ( Natural size. ) XII. "Mango jobos" fruit, San Juan, Porto Rico. ( Natural size. ) XIII. "Mango redondo" fruit, Ponce, Porto Rico. (Natural size.) XIV. "Manila" mango fruit. City of Mexico. (Natural size.) XV. "Mango china" fruit, Guatemala City, Guatemala. (Natural size.] 38 o Bui 28. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept, of Agriculture. Plate I. Bui 28, Bureau of Plant Industry. U. b Dept of Agriculture. Plate II. Mango Tree in Fruit, Tapachula, Mexico. Bui. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Plate III. Branch of Mango Tree with Fruit, Tapaghula, Mexico. Bui. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. 31 > z o o H m m O c o > H Z m (7) > z r- > O -< 73 m D o z z m > 3) > z o en m Jb i^?T'»?! ■k ll ■ ^ ^ sass^d 1' ■ f i 1 b ri 1 1 i 9fi ■ •***"'"'^Clf * • rX ^"^ ; • i ^^BSf' <••»"» 1 1 fc/i. 1 f @ ^^R| «^ ^P W^ ii H> i ^3Mi£* -^ f 1 ' i p^'^^l^ to a> m o H O z 7^ ■<^ m > o H O c Z N m > -J z CD O c O z o m T) Bui. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Plate V. "— ^=^^(^j^>^ Mango Seeds, Guatemala City (Natural Sizei. 1, ••Cofha; " 2, "Largo;" 3, ■•China." Bui 28, Bureau of Plant Industty, U S Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. Fig. 1.— Mango Fruit, Showing Method of Peeling Natural Size). V5 Fig. 2.— iVlANGO Fruit, Showing Method of Packing. Fig. 3.— Mango Fork I Full Size). Bill- 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VII. Mayaguez" Mango Fruit, San Juan, P. R. (Natural Size). Bui. 28. Bureau of Plan-t Industry, U. S. Dtpt. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. Fig. 1. — " Melocoton. Fig. 2. — " Rosa. Fig. 3.— "Largo." F"^- 4.— " Mangotina. Mango Fruits, Porto Rico (Natural Size). Bui. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Oept of Agriculture. Plate IX. PiNA" Mango Fruits, San Juan, P. R. (Natural Sizej. Bui 28, Bureau of Pli'-» ln,(u<.tfv U ?i D. ot of Agnculture Plate X. LARGO" Mango Fruits, Ponce, P. R. (Natural Size). Bui 28, Bu'eau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XI. Mango" Mango Fruits, San Juan, P. R. (Natural Size). Bui 28 Bureau of Plant Imlusiiv U S Dept of Agriculture. Plate XII. "JoBos" Mango Fruits, San Juan, P. R, Bui. 28, Bureau of PUnt Industry, U. S. Oept of Aifriculture Plate XIII. Redondo" Mango Fruits, Ponce, P. R. (Natural Size), Bui. 28 Buffiu nf Plant Inilustrv U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XIV. Manila" Mango Fruits, City of Mexico (.Natural Sizej. Bui. 28, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Oept. o( Agriculture. Plate XV. China" Mango Fruits Guatemala City (Natural Size). U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 29. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chirf of Bureau. . THE EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS: A SERIES OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS, ACCOMPANIED BY •AN EXPLANATORY TEXT. BY ERWIN ¥. SMITH. Pathologist, Laboratory of Plant Pathology, VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued ' January 17, 1903. WASHINGTON: government printing office. 1903. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. B. T. Galloway, CJnef. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Albert F. AVoods. Patliologist and Physiologist.^ Erwix F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge of L.:iboratory of Plant Pathology. George T. ]*Ioore, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Physiology. Herbert J. ^yEBBE^, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding. Newton B. Fierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratory. Hermann von Schrenk, Pathologist in Charge of Mississippi Valley Laboratory. P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Sub-Tropical Laboratory. M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of Investigations of Diseases of Orchard Fniits. 3Iark a. Carleton, Cerealist. Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Life Histpry Investigations. C. 0. TowNSEND, Pathologist. Rodney H. T-rve,(i Physiologist. T. H. Kearney, Physiologist. P. H. DoRSETT, Physiologic. Cornelius L. Shear, Assistant Pathologist. • William A. Orton, Assistant Pathologist. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist. Joseph S. Chamberlain, Expert in Pliysiological Cheniislry. R. E. B. McKenney, E.rpert. , Charles P. Hartley, Assistant in Physiology. Dean B. Swingle, Assistant in Pathology. James B. Rorer, Assistant in Pathology. Lloy'd S. Tenny, Assistant in Pathology. Jesse B. Norton, Assistant in Physiology. Karl F. Kellerman, Assistant in Physiology. George G. Hedgcock, Assistaiit m Pathology A. W. Edso>", Scientific Assistant. - ^ •" o Detailed to Botanical Investigations and Experiments. Bui. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Frontispiece z UJ < H u cr UJ CO z o H O UJ CO I o I o ir O o I I- 05 CO I- X CC < Q. UJ I I- Q Z UJ — X Q t- 5 '^ < O CO ^ UJ > < UJ Z O CO z o 3 o o C3 z o I CO z < _1 Q. a. z U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BDREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY- BULLETIN NO. 29. B T. GALLOWAY, Chief i if llureau. THE EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS: A SERIES OF PHOTOMICROGRAPHS, ACCOMPANIED BY AN EXPLANATORY TEXT. BY LIBRARY Nf/vV YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN ERWIX F. S:SIITH, Pathologist, Laboratory of Plant Pathology, vegetable pathological and physiological investigations. Issued Janvary 17, 1903. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. LETFI-R OF TRAXSMriTAL U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washlngto7), I). C, Octoler /, 1902. Sir: I have the honor to tninsinit herewith a technical paper on "The Effect of .Black Rot on Turnips: A Series of Photomicrographs, Accompanied \y\ an Explanatory Text," and respectfully recommend that it be published as No. 29 of the series of bulletins of this Bureau. The paper was prepared b}' Dr. Erwin F. Smith, in charge of the Laborator}^ of Plant Pathology, Vegetable Pathological and Physio- logical Investigations, and was submitted b}" the Pathologist and Physiologist. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureait. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 V R 1: F A c 1-: Dr. Smith's studies of the bacterial organism eausintj the black or brown rot of turnips dealt with in this paper were begun in September, 1890. In other papers he has discussed the morphology and cultural peculiarities of the parasite and has pointed out methods for limiting the spread of the disease. In this paper he contines his attention to the action of the parasite on the host plant, demonstrating l)y means of the microscope and camei'a the a))ility of the organism to destro}'^ cell walls, and illustrating \arious stages in. the progress of the disease. The paper is timely in that the tibilit}- of bacteria to destroy cell walls in living plants is still disputed in many quarters and is a subject left untreated in most of the text-books. The paper is technical and is designed for the use of investigators in plant pathology. Albert F. Woods, Pathologid and Physiologist. Office of the Pathologist and Physiologist, Washington.^ D. C, October 6., 190°2. CONTENTS. Page. 9 Introductory General consideratiuiiH Plant furnishing the cultures The method of inoculation, etc Symptoms which resulted Technique employed in study of diseased plant - Special account of tlie diseased plant Results of synchronous inoculations into other plants Description of plates 7 12 13 13 15 19 20 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Diagrammatic representation of inoculated turnip plant Frontispiece. Plate I. Fig. 1.— Bacterial cavity in turnip root. Fig. 2.— Bacteria in vessel of turnip root, highly magnified 20 II. Cross section of lower part of rootof turnip plant shown in frontispiece. 20 III. Cross section of turnip root higher up than PL II 20 IV. Fig. 1.— Cross section of turnip root just under the leaves. sFig. 2.— Shows bacterial occupation of vessels of root at same level as fig. 1. 20 V. Fig. 1.— Vertical section of turnip root, showing bacteria in vessels. Fig. 2.— Vertical section of turnip root, showing bacteria in vessels. 20 VI. Fig. 1.— Cross section of turnip root, showing bacteria confined to a single vessel. Fig. 2.— Cross section of turnip root, showing bac- terial occupation of several vessels. Fig. 3.— Cross section of turnip root, showing several vessels and many parenchyma cells occupied by bacteria. Fig. 4.— Bacteria wedging apart parenchyma cells. Fig. 5.— Bacteria wedging apart parenchyma cells. Fig. 6.— Bac- teria of the black rot magnified 1,000 times; cover glass prepara- tion \ 20 VII. Figs. 1 and 2.— Cross sections of turnip root, showing occiipation of vessels -" VIII. Fig. 1. — Bacteria occupying intercellular spaces in the parenchyma of the turnip root. Fig. 2.— Bacteria escaping from a small bundle into the surroundi^ng tissues 20 IX. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate early stages in the formation of bacterial cavities in the turnip root - - - - -^ X. Figs. 1 and 2 illustrate later stages in the formation of bacterial cavities in the turnip root -" XI. Margins of liacterial cavities, showing progressive destruction of the cell walls; more highly magnified than in PI. XI 20 XII. Fig. 1.— Longitudinal section through turnip root near the cambium, showing bacterial cavities. Fig. 2.— Small portion of the larger cavity of fig. 1, highly magnified 20 XIII Figs. 1 and 2.— Additional details from the larger cavity in PI. XII, « 1 20 fig 1 B. P. I.-37. V. V. V. I.-9.S. THE EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS." INTRODUCTORY Very few persons would now huvc the hardihood to deny the exist- ence of phmt diseases due to bacteria, l)ut great ignorance still exists respecting this class of diseases, and particularly respecting the capac- ity' of these })acteria for destroying cell walls and making their way, unaided by other organisms, from one part of the phmt to another. Even so good a phyNiologist as H. ^Marshall Ward, in so recent a hook as Disease in Plants (IHOO). knows nothing ul)out the destruction of cel- lulose by l)acteria, and is inclined to think that, in most cases of " ))acte- rmV disease, fungi act as carriers of the bacteria or forerunners. The writer has found so much of interest attached to the study of his slides that he is prepared to believe that photographs of them will be of more or less general scientific interest. The behavior of Pseudo- monas campedris when inoculated into cruciferous plants is not unique,, and this particular organism has been selected accidentally, rather than for any special reason, to illustrate what I have to say at this time. The writer possesses alcoholic material of equal interest from many kinds of plants inoculated with various bacteria and a single turnip plant attacked by one organism has been selected for these illustrations, principally because the material proved excellent and appeared to be sufficient for the purpose in hand. The figures will also serve to illus- trate how much ma}' be learned from the careful examination of a single specimen. The following study is purely morphological, and it, of course, raises various questions which can be settled only by the isolation of a cytase. Judging by the time required for cruciferous plants to get into the condition shown in inoculated plant No. 53,* the enzymic action on the cell walls must be rather slow, and experimental evidence with the precipitated substances containing the enz3'me would probably be less readily obtained than in case of those bacteria which act on the tissues ver}' rapidl}'. The isolation of the enzyme, and the study of its action were tempting subjects, but the writer's time was very fully occupied with other matters, and the requisite leisure could not be found. This « This disease is also called brown rot. &The plant from which sections were cut for nearly all of these illustrations. 9 10 EFFECT OF BLACK EOT ON TURNIPS. is the less to be regretted, however, since we may confident!}' expect this phase of the subject to be treated very fully and satisfactorily'^ iu the forthcoming papers of Jones and Potter/' GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. So far as I can determine from sections, Ps. camjyestris is capalile not only of destroving the middle lauiella. but also of dissolving the cell wall proper. This it does slowly. At fi.rst I thought that I detected a swelling of the walls prior to their disappearance, but sub- sequent comparatiA'e measurements of the walls supposed to be swollen w4th normal walls left me in doubt. Fresh material, which has not been examined to this end, might give a ver}^ difi^erent result. That the solution of the cell walls is progressive is shown b}'^ the fact that many of the walls still remaining in the bacterial masses are only one- third to one-fourth as thick as the walls of adjacent uninjured cells. In certain cases where the bacterial mass lies up against the wall of a cell on one side and not on the other, there has been a distinct thinning of the wall on the side next to the bacteria. The difficulty of makii g exact determinations is increased by the considerable variability in thickness of the walls in the normal parts of the plant. Kussow's cellulose test gave ver}^ distinct pictures of the gradual solution and final disappearance of the cell wall. The uninjured cell walls gave a blue reaction, those in process of solution stained feeblj^ or not at all. Sections were also stained in carbol fuchsin, picro- nigrosin, iron htiematoxj'lin, and Fleming's triple stain. The vessels of the root are distinguished very readil}- from the other parts of the root by the safranin of the triple stain, which picks out the lignified reticulations. The bacteria are stained well by carbol fuchsin, by iron ha^matoxylin, and by nigrosin. The closed bacterial cavities in this root vary in size from openings involving onl}^ two or three adjacent cells to spaces formed by the destruction of hundreds, even thousands, of cells. They are full of bacteria when not so exposed that the latter have difl'used out into the alcohol. In many cases parenchyma cells are squeezed together from without and the bacteria do not enter them until they are crushed out of all « Since this was written Mr. Potter's paper has been published. He finds that individual bacteria of Pa. destructans hore small holes through membranes previously softened by an enzyme, and in this way enter the cells. Such observations are of course enormously complicated by the minuteness and abundance of the bacteria, and one must be on guard against appearances, which are often deceptive, particu- larly with dry lenses. Potter's statements, however, are positive, and are based on a number of observations with l)oth fresh and fixed stained material, so that for the present, and so far at least as regards the species in ciuestion, we may accept his statements as substantially correct. They will probably soon be verified or contra- dicted by other observers. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 11 seml)Uince to cells, but in other cases cells which seem to belonj^ to the parenchviiia are tilled relatively early without beiujj;- crushed. These are generally nonlionitied wood cells bordering on or lying in the vicinity of the vascular t)UTidles. Probably the organisms l)ore their way through the cell wall in the manner described by Potter, but the writer has never been able to make out clearly any such penetration. The writer will be pleased at any time to show the slides from wiiich these photographs were made to anyone who is interested, and in exceptional cases will mail slides, or material from which sections may be cut, to those who are particularly interested, this especially because all reproductive processes are imperfect, the gelatin prints being inferior to the negatives and the latter to the microscopic image of the sections. Most of the sections were cut and the photographs made early in 1901, but other work got in the way and delayed the comple- tion of the paper. Most of the negatives were, however, exhibited in the form of lantern slides at several ])laces early in 1901. e. g.. University of Michigan, Michigan Agricultural College, The Botanical Seminar of Washington, and the sul)stance of the paper was presented before the Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology at its tifth annual meeting in 'New York, December 30, 1901, where the lantern slides were again exhibited. The following statements will be made plainer by a brief account of the structure of the turnip root. As may be seen from Pis. II and 111, the basal and swollen part of the turnip root consists of a small pith, a large cylinder of xylem, a narrow cambium cylinder, and a phloem cylinder, beyond which is a cylinder of cortical parenchyma surrounded by cork. In other words, the structure is that of many dicotyledonous stems. The upper part of the root has a larger pith and better differentiated medullary rays. The xylem part of the root contains much wood parenchyma, which is not always easily distin- guishable from the medullary rays. The only lignified parts are the reticulations in the vessels. These stain a bright pink with safranin and come out quite distinct from the surrounding wood parenchyma in man}" of the photographs. PLANT FURNISHING THE CULTURES. On PI. I, fig. 1, is shown the cross section of a turnip root, the interior of which has been destroyed by the bacterium of the brown rot, PKeudomonas campestris (Pammel) Smith. This root was collected in September, 1896, from a field near Baltimore. Turnips attacked by brown rot often live for a long time, but the diseased root does not enlarge much radially. This one, like many others observed by the writer, had the form of a carrot root rather than that of a turnip root, although it was several months old. The walls of the cavities in such roots are usually black or brown, and hence the 12 EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS. common name. Frequently there is no external indication of tlie cavity. For a painting- in perspective of such a root see Centralblatt fiir Bakteriologic, 2 Abt., Ill Bd., PI. VI, tig. 1. THE METHOD OF INOCULiATION, ETC. On the frontispiece will be found a diagrannnatic representation of a turnip plant inoculated with a pure culture of Pseudomonaii cain- pestris. This figure is intended to represent plant No. 53, which was inoculated on the blades of two leaves by means of delicate needle punctures. The plant, was then some weeks old and about 9 or 10 or possibly 12 inches high. The material used for inoculation con- sisted of a well clouded, moderately turbid bouillon culture (eleven days old), which had been used for control in thermal-death point experiments, and which was just beginning to throw down a small amount of yellow precipitate. In other words, the culture was still in active growth and in excellent condition for purposes of inoculation. The original source of the organism was the interior of a turnip such as that which furnished the cross section shown on PI. I, fig. 1. The inoculations were made in the following manner: Selecting two leaves five or six removes from the lowest 'leaf, some of the germ- laden fluid was first removed from the tube on the end of a sterile platinum loop and placed on the clean surface of the leaf blades, and then from 75 to 100 delicate pricks were made through this fluid into the leaf, by means of a fine-pointed steel needle, which was passed through the'flame before and after use on each plant. Finally, a fresh loop of the bacterial liquid was lifted out of the tube and spread over these punctures. The punctures of themselves did not do the plant any serious injury. The inoculated leaves were covered for an hour or two after the punctures by means of clean white paper — i. e., until sunset. This was done partly to avoid insolation and partly to prevent a too rapid evaporation of the fluid from the surface of the leaf. The leaf surfaces were not sterilized before inoculation for three reasons: (1) Because it was desired to have the inoculations made under condi- tions simulating as nearly as possible those occurring naturally; (2) because numerous experiments had already shown that with a proper selection of plants such as those used for this series of inoculations, needle punctures unaccompanied by bacteria did not lead to disease; (3) because exposure of the delicate leaves to mercuric chloride or other strong germicides for a time suflicient to destroy all surface spores would, probably, in spite of subsequent washings, have left enough poison on the leaves to inhibit the growth of the parasite, if not to seriously injure the plant. The pricked area on each leaf included perhaps 2 to 3 square centimeters. SYMPTOMS^ WHICH RKSULTKD. 13 SYMPTOMS WHICH RESULTED. The history of this phint. which wtis t'xaniiiuHl noarly every day, is as follows: December 19, 189ii. — Plant inoculated. December 28. — A slight yellowing of part of the pricked areas. December 30. — Yellowing and wilt over the whole of the pricked area on one leaf and over one-fourth of the pricked area on the other leaf. Jainuir!/ J, 1897.— A marked progress of the disease on each leaf. The wilt now involves from 5 to 8 square centimeters on each leaf, and has run out to the margin of each leaf near the apex. Jaiimin/ 4. — The wilt now involves from 10 to lo .^^ijuare centimeters on each leaf. Jamumj 5.— The wilt is still confined to the two inoculated leaves, about 30 square centimeters on each leaf blade being involved. The advancing part of the diseased area is dull green and flabby. The brown veining on these leaves is not nearly so conspicuous as in the cabbage and kale plants which were inoculated at the same time and from the same cultures. January IG {£8th'day).—\Jp to this time there have been no constitutional symp- toms— that is, no leaves have shown symptoms except those which were inoculated. Februari/ 9 {52d day) .—T\\\s plant is now badly dwarfed and the top is dying. The four large outer leaves which remain have shriveled nearly to their base, and the bundles in the base of the petioles are plainly blackened. One small leaf is now wilting and shows a distinct blackening of its veins. One other small upper leaf is still green and normal in appearance. This leaf is but slightly developed. The plant was now pulled up and e.xaniined. The rootlets were sound. The main root axis, which was about 3 inches long and one- half inch in diameter in the largest part, was smooth, white, and .sound externally. The root was now washed and inspected critically. A most careful examination of the surface of the root gave no indication as to the cause of the disease. The root was then cut open cross- wise in three places, namely, at the top. in the middle swollen part, and at the base of the swollen part. Tn the upper cut, which was made about one-eighth inch under the crown of leaves, the bundles were decidedly black, and many were occupied by the bacteria; there were various small bacterial cavities but no large cavity. In both of the other sections of the root there were small cavities here and there, the affected xylem was pale brown, and in the middle part the whole inner tissue seemed to be softening. The bark part of the root was perfectly sound, TECHNiaUE EMPLOYED IN STUDY OF DISEASED PLANT. When examined microscopically, the vessels of some of the bundles were found to be full of bacteria. The vessels of other bundles were free, or tilled in part. No fungus threads were present. The root had a turnipy smell when cut. Before putting the specimen into alcohol two tubes of potato were inoculated from the interior. Both 14 EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TURNIPS. ^ jdelded a prompt and very abundant growth of the same organism with which the plant had been inoculated fifty-two days before, and no other organism appeared in the tubes. The root remained in strong alcohol for more than four years — i. e., until an opportunity was found for making sections. Portions of it were then placed successively in absolute alcohol, alcohol and chloroform, pure chloroform, cold chloro- form containing paraffin, warm chloroform with more paraffin, and tinallv pure melted paraffin. When thoroughly infiltrated with par- affin they were suitably embedded and cut on the Reinhold-Giltay microtome with a very sharp knife. The sections were floated out and cemented to clean glass slides by means of sterile, distilled water containing one-half per cent of gelatin, freshly prepared. Mild heat was used in straio-htenino- out the wrinkles in the sections and the excess of water was removed by setting the slides on end. When dry, the slides were gently warmed until the paraffin was melted, and were then placed in turpentine or xjdene until the paraffin had been removed. They were then passed in succession, gently, into Coplin staining jars containing a mixture of turpentine or xylene and absolute alcohol, pure alcohol, graded mixtures of alcohol and water, and finall}" Ziehl's car- bol fuchsin, in which they were allowed to remain from three to five minutes. The excess of stain was removed by leaving the slides in a mixture of equal parts of alcohol and water until the proper differen- tiation in color had been secured. They were then passed rapidly through graded alcohols into absolute alcohol, and from that into a mix- ture of alcohol and xylene, into pure xylene, and finally into Canada balsam or Dammar balsam dissolved in xvlene. In a verv few of the sections here shown, viz, PI. I, fig. 2, and Pis. II and IV, nigrosin was substituted for carbol fuchsin. A series of sections (cross and longi- tudinal) from this root were prepared, stained, and studied, and the results obtained are illustrated by means of the accompanying photo- micrographs. The fixing of the root in strong alcohol was considered necessary in order to prevent the bacteria from diffusing out into the fluid. Even 95 per cent alcohol does not entirely prevent diffusion in case the bac- terial cavities are large, but does so quite satisfactorilj^ in case of single vessels or small cavities. The knife used for making the sections was •very sharp, and did not shove or tear them to any extent, but the strong alcohol in which the material was fixed did, of course, cause more or less twisting and shrinking of the delicate parenchymatous tissues. During the process of hydrating, staining, bleaching, deh}^- drating, and mounting the cell walls were also occasionallv broken and displaced. Observations on the fresh root left no doubt that the vessels were the primary seat of the disease, but the exact limits of the bacterial occupation remained to be determined from properh' infiltrated material. This has now been accomplished. The manner of fixing, of infiltrating, TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED. 15 and of outtinji:. aiul tho subsoquoiit t'astoiiino- to tho slido and caivful inaiiii)ulatioii duriiiu- t\\v removal of the i)aratlin. the iiydratiiig-, stain- ing, ditfeivntial l)loachinii\ dehydrating, and mounlini;- proeesses leaves no douht whatever that the location of the bacteria in the tissues, as shown in the photoniicrographs, is the same as in the fresh root. There has been no tearing of these bacterial masses or shoving oi- crowding of them into parts of the root where they were not originally present, such as Avould naturally occur in making sections of living or unintil- trated material. In some cases tlie more delicate parts of the root have V)een broken a little in places, as already mentioned, but only to a slight extent, which in no way interferes with one's judgment as to the effect of the bacteria upon the root. Indeed the process of fixing renders the l)acterial layer tougher and less liable to shoving or rupture l)y the knife than any other part of the root, as may be readily seen from an inspection of my sections. The bacteria in the sections have ttiken a deep purple stain, and, there being very little ground stain, the individual rods stand out clearly under the oil- inuuersion lens, nuich more clearly than in the photomii-rographs. The sections are remarkaldy good, but owing to their thickness (»'. /< to 10 /i) a number of lavers of bacteria lie one behind the other and seriously interfere with the photographic image. Ver}' likely also a more expert photomicrographer would be able to make more out of the sections than the writer. Attempts were made to cut thinner sections, but the material did not seem well adapted to very thin sections. In those 2-4 // thick there was so much shoving together and tearing that the}' could not be used. SPECIAL. ACCOUNT OF THE DISEASED PLANT. On PI. II ma}' be seen a cross section of the lower part of the root, magnified 50 times. The section was taken from the point marked "3" on the frontispiece. The bleaching process subsequent to the staining has been carried so far that the root is only slightly stained, except where there is bacterial occupation of the vessels and wood parenchyma. The actual size of this section is indicated by a circle at the bottom of the plate. The extent of bacterial occupation and disorganization in the inte- rior of the root is very interesting. In one of the cross sections of this root, made higher up than that shown on PI. II and involving- less than one-half the circumference, the writer counted 93 distinct centers of bacterial infection and 15 bacterial cavities, involving in cross section from 50 to 300 cells each. In a cross section from nearly the same level as PI. II, 146 distinct groups of bacteria were counted in the vessels. In the photograph here reproduced it will be observed that the bacteria are confined to the inner portions of the root, princi- pally to the vessels and the surrounding nonlignified wood parenchyma. 16 EFFECT OF BLACK ROT ON TUENIPS. There are no bacterial pockets in the bark part of the root (phloem and cortical parenchyma), forming the outer 30 to 60 rows of cells. The bacterial foci, of which there are about 130 in this section, are also for the most part at a considerable distance from the center of the root — i. e. . in the outer part of the xylem. which, consequently, we may assume either to have been the lirst portion of the root to become infected or else to have been that part most readil}- attacked by the organism. The cavities are all or nearly all on the rim of the xylem. There are many infected bundles farther inward in the xylem, but cavities are wanting in that part of the root and are still very small in the outer xylem at this level, and are not clearl}' visible with this magnification. Farther up the root (PI. Ill) the cavities are larger, and onh" the smaller and medium-sized ones have retained their bacte- rial contents intact. The sections agree, however, in that the outer part of the xylem has suffered most, and in that all parts external to the cambium are free from infection. Fig. 2 of PI. I shows a single small vessel magnified 2,000 times. It is from the inner part of the root and is filled with the bacteria. It corresponds to one of the vessels of PI. 11. PI. Ill is from a cross section in the middle swollen part of the root. (Frontispiece, at point marked "2.") In comparing it with PI. II, it should be remembered that the magnification is not the same. The actual size of the section is shown on the lower left-hand side of the plate. From the largest cavities the bacteria have diffused out into the alcohol, and only the borders of these cavities are still occupied by the organ- ism. That these open places are also true bacterial cavities and not due to anything else is shown by an inspection of the serial sections, an open cavity in one giving place to a bacterially filled cavity in another, and all being free from fungi and insect injuries. Two of the largest of these full cavities may be seen in the upper part of the picture. On the lower left-hand side of this section is an irregular oblong cavity, which was made b}" a platinum loop thrust into the tissue to remove some of the organism for cultural purposes. PI. IV, fig. 1, represents a cross section taken from the top of the root (frontispiece, point marked "1"), showing transition into stem. The magnification is too small and makes evident much less than the section, but suflBces for orientation, and shows that there is no surface wound or large cavity. The pith and the cortical parenchyma are entirely free from the bacteria. Most of the phloem is also free, but bacteria are present in it at the point marked " Y."' Fig. 2 is a detail from the same slide, more highly magnified. A study of Pis. II, III, and IV, and of corresponding longitudinal sections not here represented, shows that while the vascular system of the plant is very badly infested, the bulk of the tissue is still free from the bacteria; i. e., at least nine-tenths of it, including all of the SPECIAL A( rol'NT. 17 outer ])ortioii of tho root whicli luis come into direct loiituct with the fimjii and Imi-teriu of the soil, and whicli would Ih' more or less rotted if tli«' or«;anisni had entered the plant from the earth. If the infeetion had l>«'en from tlu' soil, the root would al.M) have contained a mixture of thing's anil not one species in pure culture, and certainly not I'x, ciini- jit'stris, since the soil was not ol>tained from calihuiie fields, and all the numerous uninoculated turnip plants o;rown in it ivmained entirely free from this disease. The foUowine- photomicrocrniphs ar(> all made frotu sections of this root at level No. •-^ (See frontispiece and 1*1. III.) PI. V. ti"-. 1, lepresents a lonji-itudinal section through ;i small Itun- dle fully occui)ied 1)V the bacteria and deeply stained. The maenitica- tion is not sufficient to show the individual oruanisms. hut it can no made out (juite clearly that tlie surroundinu" parenchyma i> not occu- pied and that there is as yet no disorifunization of the tissues. The second lijrure on this phite is :i lonjjitudinal section throuifh two small vascular bundles. The knife i)assed throu*i-h the middle of the lower ])imdle and the extreme margin of the ujjper one. The tissue around -the u})per bundle is just becomini'' h()lU)wed out into a cavity, that around the lower one is still intact and unoccupied by the ])acteria. The vessels themst^lves are crowded full of the ore;anism. Three of the reproductions on PI. VI are from cross sections of small bundles, i. e.. bundles similar to those illustrated in PI. \'. In the lower riuht-hand corner is a cross section showing a single vessel occupied by the l)acteria, the rest of the tissue being entirely free. In the lower left-hand corner are several vessels so occupiml: tho larger one, however, contains only a narrow film of ])acteria (around the walls), which may have entered from a))ove or l»elow. or at this level, through the side of the vessel next to the more fully occupied part of the bundle. The surrounding tissue here is also entirely free from these organisms. The iipper figure on this plate corresponds more nearly to the lower figure on PI. V. Here several ve.ssels are occupied, together with their connective tissue and the surrounding parenchyma, and we have the first stage in the formation of a l)acterial cavity. The left-hand side of this figure is shown more highly magni- fied on PI. IX, fig. I. The middle figures at the left show the manner in which the bacteria crowd apart parenchymatous cells, multiplying first in the intercellular spaces and either dissolving or splitting apart the middle lamella, probably both. The middle figure at the right is a cover glass (smear) of Ps. eampestrls stained Avith carliol f uchsin and mao-nified 1,000. It was made directlv from the vessels of a cabbage plant and is the only figure not taken from the turnip. On PI. VII are two additional figures showing early stages in the occupation of small bundles. Nonlignified wood-parenchyma cells are also occupied, at least in fig. 2. The surrounding tissues are 9228— No. 29-02 2 18 EFFECT OF BLACK EOT OT TURNIPS. entirely free from bacteria. In both figures the bacterial contents of vessels have fused. This I take to have occurred through natural openings rather than through openings made by the bacteria, because occasional h' in cross sections of unoccupied bundles I find reticula- tions thinning out and disappearing in the same way. In the lower figure a few of the cell walls have been In-oken and displaced slightly in mounting. The upper figure on PL VIII shows an early stage in the destruc- tion of the parenchyma, the intercellular spaces are occupied by the bacteria, but the cells themselves are still free and have not been wedged apart, as in figs, -i and 5, PI. VI. The granular matter in the center of the cells is protoplasmic material. The lower figure shows in cross section a very small vascular bundle. The two reticulated vessels are filled and the bacteria have found their way outside of these into the intercellular spaces which are filled and greatly enlarged, the cells being crowded apart and, in case of one of the lower ones, crushed in. Two or three nonlignified cells are also filled. PI. IX shows two stages in the formation of bacterial cavities. In the upper figure there is more or less vagueness in the cell walls, one of which, on the right-hand side, has almost entirely disappeared. This figure shows a single vessel in the center (comparable to fig. 1, PI. V). The surrounding cells which are so fully occupied by the bacteria are nonlignified wood cells of the fleshy root. In the lower figure there has been a greater softening of tissue and a considerable cavity is in process of formation. Here in the center (from right to left) are at least four vessels, and there is probably a fifth vessel just above the cell marked X. The reader's attention is called particularly to the vagueness of the cell walls and to the open cavity which is shown in the lower middle part and the left-hand part. The whole forms a very instructive and typical picture of the way in which cavities are brought about by the mechanical and solvent action of this organism. The tissue for a long distance around both of these foci is sound and entirely free from bacteria, and, as in the other cases, the bacteria could have entered these bundles only as a result of the leaf inoculations already described. On PI. Xare shown two figures illustrating a further advance in the destruction of the parenchyma of the root and the formation of bac- terial pockets. The cells are separated from each other by masses of bacteria, are crushed in, and are slowly dissolving, their walls becominp- vaguer and vaguer until at the middle of the cavity they can not be seen at all. Fme examples of this gradual destruction of the cell walls are to be seen in both of these tigures. The reader's attention is called in particular to the right-hand side of the upper figure, showing bacterial occupation of the intercellular spaces which usually precedes the formation of an open cavity. In the upper part of the upper figure, in the last one of the second row of cells at the SPECIAL ACCOUNT. 19 left, is a fine example of the way the cells are crushed together and loosened from their surroundino-s. Similar examples may ))e seen at the i)()ttom of this tigure, and in lig. 2. In tig. 2 observe i)arti('ularl3^ the condition of the cells next above the unoccupied cells marked X, Y, and Z. The two figures shown in PI. XI are from the margin of bacterial cavities similar to those shown on PI. X, l)ut more hiohlv maciiitied. Here also the cell walls are in all stages of separation and decomposi- tion. In the middle of fig. 1, and at the left side of fig. 2, cell walls may be seen in all stages of solution. In none of these serial sections is there to be found any trace of fungus threads or of insect or other animal devastation, the entire injury boing due to an enormous nudti- plication of the organism which was inoculated into the leaves of the plant, and Avhich found its wa}' into the root through the vascular bun- dles of the petioles. Part of the injury is plainly mechanical, due to crowding, and part is chemical, due undoubtedly to the solvent action of a C3"tase. Had the plant been allowed to remain in the soil a few weeks longer, the result must have been the fusing of these various small cavities into one or more large cavities. Wc shoidd then have had a phenomenon like that shown on PI. I. fig. 1. PI. XII, fig. 1, is fi'om a radial longitudinal section showing cam- bium and phloem' at the right (top) and xylem (wood parenchyma) at the left with cavities close to the caml)ium. Fig. 2 is a detail from the larger of these cavities taken at the point marked X. PL XIII is a continuation of XII, showing details from the larger cavity taken at the points marked Y and Z. Here again cell walls are crushed and undergoing solutions, and the bacteria arc present in incalculable numliers and no other organisms are present. In the upper part of fig. 1. at the right, the l)a('teria ma}' be seen wedging' apart two parenchyma cells. Similar phenomena may be seen in the upper right- hand corner of fig. 2. RESULTS OF SYNCHRONOUS INOCULATIONS INTO OTHER PLANTS. At the same time and from the same culture as turnip No. 53 twenty- eight other plants were inoculated as follows: Four rape, 6 radish, 6 cabbage, 5 kale, 3 turnip, and four Roman hyacinth. Twenty-three of the 28 plants contracted the disease, as follows: Four rape— 1 plant became diseased constitutionall}", 3 showed only local symptoms; 5 radish — 3 developed constitutional symptoms, 2 local symptoms only; 6 ca}>bage — all (! developed constitutional symptons, and No. 42 was illustrated in 1897 in 2te Abt., Centralblatt f . Bakt. (Ill Bd., Taf. VI, fig. 5), and in the same journal in 1001 (VII Bd., Taf. VIII and IX); 5 kale — 3 developed constitutional symptoms, 2 only local symptoms; 3 turnips — 1 developed only local s^^mptoms, the others showed also constitutional symptoms. The hyacinths did not become diseased. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Fkontispiece. — Turnip plant Xo. 53, showing place of inoculation (on leaves) and indicating by tigures the part oi root from which sections were taken for the photomicrographs. Diagrammatic. The illustrations were all made from the root of plant No. 53, except fig. 1, PI. I, from another turnip, and fig. 0, PI. VI. which was made from a cabbage plant attacked by the same disea.se. Plate I. Fig. 1. — Cross section of turniji plant, showing bacterial cavity. Natural infection. From a fiel ^|fe?C'*)> -^ ■'■.''■? ■yi f #^^' ^^^ ^1^ / ' ■11 /'^ .'^'fi :V8 ^-:& X y- o Nat. Size. BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bui. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. Plate III. \y- V;\?-^r ^V, r^ .X Nat. Size. BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bui. 29. Bureiu of Plant Industry. U. S. Dept of Agriculture. Plate IV. f- -1^. # ( # A^\l '^^ ■^ ^. .f <* '■■»■■ -^ i^'^ .4 o~. it. size. ^ :> .'•? . 'L ■.^ - '♦'■'.>*• S2r . sj'tf"^. -^ ^.■■- ^•yr . -•^:'-^^. ■^-■>.^.:- V'^rQ.-- ^ l^- '7'^^ . ■.-'-,•'--: Tv^ rt<- .^-.J/<'^ V T •, • ^ ', #*^ ..i& ^' -^^ 2^^ 'iM^^ ,^;.«* .. ^'^M.u ■^'^ V ^ ,, 't-J- >^> V^y^^ BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bui. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. Plate V BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (FAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bol. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture Plate VI. I'.' V ^^M^ BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bui. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Plate VII. i: \ / ■■-\ \ ' \J BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bui. 29. Bureau of P'ant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VIII. 2 BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bui. 29. Bu'eau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IX. BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. Bui. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Plate X. A.UMM '^^JhX-^-k;^9^'"^^^ BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL) SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO.. BOSTON. Bui. 29, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. Plate XI. BROWN ROT OF THE TURNIP. PSEUDOMONAS CAMPESTRIS (PAMMEL^ SMITH. HELIOTYPE CO., BOSTON. < Z IT I 05 UJ < a. UJ I m I- 5 u. I- h- Q- O S cr < o z o «3 < Z o o o UJ 05 a CM CM L •/> -f - tm z a. z> y- UJ I h H O cc z o X to UJ < a. H co uJ a. S < o < z o o o UJ CO a. / < Q ■6 «L ; ^^' Pi iJ. S. DEPARTMKNT t^F AGRlCrLTURK BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY - BULLETIN NO. 30. B. T. GALU)\\\\'. Chirfoj- ISiirenu. BUDDilS^G THE PECAN :n GEORGE \V. OLIN'EH. Expkkt. SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. IsSLKD I)KtKMBEK H, litOL'. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PR,INTINC4 OFFICE, 1902. BIREAU^F.PLANT INDUSTRY. BEVERtf-T. .Galloway, Chief of Bureau. SEED AXD PLANT IXTRODUCTION AND DLSTPJBCTION. SCIEXTIFIO STAFF. A. J. PiETERS, Botanist in Charge. David G. FAiRCRiho, Agriculfnrnl Erplorer. John E.W> Tracy, Hxpevt. George W. Oliver, Expert. Bui. 30, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Frontispiece. U. S. DEPARTMKXT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY- BULLETIN NO. 30. B. T. GALLOWAY, C/nV/«//fMmiu. buddlxg tile pec ax. BY LIBRAFJY NEW YORK BOfANICAL GARDEN GEORGE W. OLIVER. Expert. i\> SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Issued December 9, 1902. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washington, J). ('., OctoJxr 15, 1902. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper by Mr. George W. Oliver, Expert in the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, on "Budding the Pecan." Owing to the increased interest in nut culture in this country Mr. Oliver's method of rapidly propagating the pecan by budding is worthy of careful attention, and I respectfully recommend that the paper be published as a bulletin of the regular series of this Bureau. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wilson, Secreta')^ of Agriculture. C 0 X T 1: X T S Page. Difficulties encountered in pecan budding 9 'W hy the pecan should be budded 10 Raising seedling stocks 10 Selection of dormant buds 11 Location of the buds 12 Experiments with buds of the current season I'i An improved method of budding 13 Other methods of budding 14 Starting buds into growth 15 Transplanting budded trees 16 Description of plates 20 5 ILI.rSTKATloXS. Page. Seedling pecans budded 1 >y new method Frontispiece. Plate I. Fig. 1.— Pecan branch, summer condition. Fi<:. L*. — Pecan ]>raii(li. winter condition 20 II. Fig. 1. — Pecan branch, fruiting condition. Fig. 2. — Seven-year-old branch of Hicorin laciniom 20 III. Fig. 1. — Patch budding; method of removing section of bark from stock; bud prepared ready for inserting. Fig. 2. — Seedling pecan stock; preliminary incisions in bark; bud ready for inserting. Fig. 8. — Seedling jiecan stock; bark rai.«ee covered with a considerable thick- ness of straw, mats, or old sacking until the nuts show signs of germinating, which will usually occur toward the end of April. To give facilities for inserting the buds on the north side of the seedling stocks, the nuts are then planted in rows running east and west. The rows should be 3 feet apart and the nuts placed 5 inches apart in the .row. It is not possible the first season to raise seedlings which are large enough to be used as stocks, but in order to secure a good, stout errowth, so as to have them large enough for working the second season, the soil should be deeply worked with a plow, rolled and, wdien necessary, harrowed several times until it is well pulverized. The remaining part of the work must be done by hand. The position to be occupied by the seedlings is marked by the aid of a stick with a notch cut in one end. This is run along the line, leaving a well-delined mark in the soil. With a spade a trench is dug about 5 inches deep. In the bottom of the trench about 2 inches of equal parts of leaf soil and sand are placed. The nuts are carefully laid on this. In planting those which have the root developed to a length of more than 1 inch, a hole is made in the soil with the fingers and the root placed in it. If the soil be dry, water is given. Fine soil is then raked level over the nuts and slightly firmed with the end of the rake. The operation is finished by a mulch of 1 inch half-rotted leaves, cut cornstalks, or other material. This prevents baking of the soil after rains and supplies a surface which is easily pierced by the sprouts. The nuts thus treated should germinate very evenly, and at the close of the first season should show a stem above ground of about 12 inches in leno-th. Manv of the seedlings will attain a thickness of three-eighths of an inch close to the ground. The taproot will average fully 2i feet in length and will be supplied with quite a number of very small fibrous roots. By the middle of the following June the seed.ings will average over half an inch in diameter near the ground, making excellent stocks for budding. SELECTION OF DORMANT BUDS. After a series of trials with buds of the current season's growth and those of the preceding season, none but those which were formed 12 BUDDING THE PECAN. during the season preceding the operation of budding are recommended for use. The dormant buds (PL I, fig. 1, A) during the month of June are ready to burst into active growth when given the slightest en- couragement. Moreover, they can be very easily removed from the bud stick, together with a section of thick, solid bark. The bark on the old wood can be handled without being injured in any way, and it is in every particular splendidly adapted for successful work. After the union has taken place and the stocks are cut back, the bud will give a stronger growth and attain a greater length than growths from the current season's buds. In using buds from the current season's wood (PL I, fig. 1. B) many difliculties will be encountered, and the results will be found disappointing. Until the season is pretty well advanced the current year's bark is very thin and more or less succu- lent, and it can not be removed from the wood without being bruised. Sometimes, even when the greatest care is exercised by the operator, it will split lengthwise and be rendered useless. Again, especially up to the latter part of July, the cuticle is very apt to peel, and where it does stay on it is almost certain to be bruised in the operation of tying. Another serious objection is the presence of the leaf stalk. This, shortly after the bud is inserted, will shrivel up and fall, or it can easily be detached; but the scar left, which in most cases is a large one, is, it is thought, the channel through which a large part of the sap of the bark is lost before it has had an opportunity to unite with the cambium of the stock. LOCATION OF THE BUDS. It is important that the position which the dormant buds occupy on the branches be accurately understood, so that the proper ones may be selected for the work of budding. They are to be found on the branches made the year preceding that in which it is desired to insert the buds. The pecan trees which have been examined in the vicinity of Washington show exceedingly few growths from terminal buds. The growth of a season starts from one of the large axillary ))uds near the apex of the preceding year's growth (PL 1, fig. 2, A). Two or more of these buds may produce growths, but commonl}^ only one. In fruiting branches the nut cluster takes the place of the terminal bud on the young wood, as seen in PL II, fig. 1. The strong shoots from these axillary buds when 1 year old are the ones which give good material for budding. Each bud will be found immediately above a leaf scar of the preceding season (PL I, fig. 1, A). Those buds which are nearest the base of the shoot are the smallest and firmest; consequently they are the best fitted for the work. Regard- ing the period during which buds retain their power of bursting into active growth, PI. II, fig. 2, shows a 7-year-old branch of an allied species of hickory {'Hicoria laciniosa) with three small growths from KXl'EHl.MKMTS — IMI'ROVKD MKTHOD. 18 donntiiit l)iids iiiado dmino- tlu' present season, toi^ether with ii Imd quite dormant and evidently al)le to persist for some time. In tiie selec- tion of hud wood it is preferable to cut the ])ranches from the tree to be propai»-ated in the early part of the day, choosing,' shoots us hui^-e in diameter as possible and those which show the ufreatest numbiT of short, plump buds. Innnediately on severintf the branches from the tree the jrrowtii of tli(> current season is se\-ered and disearded. and the 1-year-old l)ud sticks are wrapped in tlampened newspapers. If necessary, they can in this manner l)e kept for s(>v(Mal days without danger of dryino- out. EXPERIMENTS WITH BUDS OF THE CURRENT SEASON. Ill a recent series of buddino- experiments with the current season's buds the work ])eoan dune (5. The l)uds selected were principally the small, plump ones found at the base of the soft wood (1*1. I. Htr. 1, R). At that date the buds were sliirhtly inunaturc; conseciuently, when a large section of bark w'as removed from the wood it showed signs of injury. The cuticle peehnl easily, and even with gretit care in removing buds with sections of bark attached and in i)lacing and tvinir them in position, the percentage of unions was small. I'p to the end of -lulv separate lots of the current year's buds were worked at intervals of one week, the percentage of unions increasing slightly with each week. Patch budding (PI. Ill, tig. 1), which is merely a moditication of annular budding, was the method used. Taking everything into consideration, the results ol)tained could by no means be considered satisfactory. AN IMPROVED METHOD OF BUDDING. An improved method, which has been demonstrated to be a perfect way in which to bud the pecan and one by the use of which there are very few failures, is as follows: For the reception of the bud make two transverse cuts in the bark of the seedling stock (PI. Ill, tig, 2) a few inches above the ground line, these two cuts, about 1 inch apart, tc be connected b}- a longitudinal incision. The bark at each side of the longitudinal cut is then raised far enough (PI. Ill, fig. 3) to admit of the insertion of the section of bark on wdiich the bud is situated (PI. Ill, tig. 2, A). The rectangular section of bark when prepared for insertion must be of exactly the same length as the cut in the stock. It is taken from the stick of buds by making two transverse cuts through the bark at equal distances from the bud. Two longitudinal cuts are then made through the bark, leaving the bud in the center of the patch, which should be a little over 1 inch long and five-eighths of an inch wide. The patch must be raised carefully from the bud stick to guard against breaking and with as little bending during the operation as possible. When the operator finds that he does not 14 BUDDING THE PECAN. succeed at the first trial, it will be advisable to practice for a time on wood which is of no value. The stick of buds should be grasped firmly in the left hand, with the knife held by the fingers of the right, the thumb resting on the bud stick. Insert the point of the knife at one end of one of the longitudinal cuts, pressing the blade toward the thumb; this pressure will start the bark. Next insert the end of the handle of the knife, gradually removing the section. The patch is prepared for insertion by first cutting the two ends as straight as pos- sible, using a very sharp knife. The outer bark at the sides (PI. Ill, fig. 2, A) is then shaved off, so that the edges will make a perfect fit when under the bark of the stock (PI. IV, fig. 1). When the bud is securely in place, the two wings of bark on the stock are bound firmly over the bud section with raffia (PI. IV, fig. 2), and, as a preventive against the admission of water during the process of uniting, a little soft grafting wax may be smeared across the upper transverse cut and the whole wrapped with a narrow strip of waxed cloth (PI. IV, fig- 3)- The wrapping should be started at the bottom, each wrap being half covered by the succeeding one; this will effectually keep out moisture during wet weather. As a protection against the heat of the sun, strips of paper, 8 inches long by 6 inches wide, should be tied around the stem of the stock an inch or two above the bud, but covering it (PI. V, fig. 1), allowing the bottom part to remain open. After the sixth day the paper covering should be removed, and after the tenth day the waxed cloth may be taken off. By the fifteenth day the buds will have united sufficiently to allow of the removal of the raffia. This method of budding will be found to give an exceedingly satisfactory union. Experience has shown that with carefully selected buds from 1-year-old wood and healthy, vigorous growing seedling stocks, every section of bark will unite. OTHER METHODS OF BUDDING. Sometimes, when the .seedling stocks are small and the size of the section of bark necessary for the union will more than cover half of the circumference of the stem of the stock, a quick growth on the part of the stock will produce a swelling immediately above the upper transverse cut in the bark. This can be averted by the use of a tri- angular patch bud (PI. V, fig. 2), with one of the angles pointing upward. In using this method care must be taken that the three sides of the bud section should exactly fit the sides of the space pre- pared for them. It will be found advisable to smear a small quantity of soft grafting wax over the cut parts after the bud is in position and before tying with raffia. This makes an exceedingly neat union and is best used with small buds. Large ones need a larger section of bark attached. In patch budding (PI. Ill, fig. 1) a rectangular piece of bark, similar in size to that given in PI. Ill, fig. 2, is taken from the bud stick. A STARTING BUDS INTO GROWTH. 15 corresponding- piece is removed from the stock and the section from the ])iul stick carefully fitted in its place. It is then tied with a strand of dampened ratha. l)ut this is used only to keej) the l)ud tirmly in place; the top and bottom of the section are left uncovered, ))ecause there is a danger of the raffia injuring the cut ends, which are held tightly in place b}' narrow strips of waxed cloth covering all ))ut the bud. A wrapping of paper is then given, as already described. The principal objection to this method of budding is that the sides of the bark are apt to rise somewhat during the growth of the stock. This, while in no way injuring or retarding the growth of the bud. does not have a ver}^ neat appearance for some time after the union is effected and may have a tendency to weaken the point of union, l)esides giving opportunities for hart)()ring noxious insects. STARTING BUDS INTO GROWTH. It is desirable that the buds be started into growth as .soon as possible after it has been ascertained that the union has taken place. Buds which are united to stocks having a large section of bark attached are liable to have more or less of the bark decav during the winter months. This occurs principally with young buds, especially when they are worked on 1-year-old wood. This would seem to be common to all the species of the hickory family, but where 1-year-old buds are used the danger is lessened consideral)lv. However, in the latter case they lose their vigor in proportion to the time the}' remain on the stock without being encouraged to break. In order to force the bud into growth it is necessarv that the top of the seedling stock be removed, leaving onl}' one or two healthy leaves at the base of the present season's growth. In a few days the buds in the axils of these leaves will push out. and they should be Removed as soon as the}' can be handled, and on down the stem the small dormant buds formed in the axils of the leaves of the preceding season will burst into active growth and must be rubbed off at once. By this time the scion bud will have swollen considerably, and in a month's time it will have developed several full-sized leaves. With buds inserted up to the end of June there is abundant time for the devel- opment of a good-sized shoot. The terminal buds of these shoots reach maturity in the majority of cases, but this is of Httle consequence, as one of the lateral buds will push out strongly the following spring. The practice of tying the growth of the scion to the top of the stock is a good one; it not only saves the soft growth from being whipped about by the wind, but it also secures a close, upright growth. At the beginning of the second season all of that part of the stock which is above the union should be carefully removed, not with a pair of pruning shears, but with a sharp knife, so as to leave a cleanly cut surface, with the bark uninjured. The cut surface should be covered with melted grafting wax to prevent decay. 16 BUDDING THE PECAN. TRANSPliANTING BUDDED TREES. The pecan is usually regarded as a difficult subject to deal with in transplanting. A large percentage of the trees die back after being placed in their permanent positions from nursery rows. However, if certain precautions be observed it will be found that there is no ground for the supposed difficulty, as the pecan will withstand the ordeal of transplanting in a young state quite as well as any other forest tree. In transplanting the pecan its requirements must be carefully con- sidered. In a young state it is a very deep-rooting subject, and any attempt to change its nature by coaxing the roots to grow near the surface of the soil will end disastrously. PI. VII shows part of a row of 3-year-old budded trees, which were planted during the spring of 1902, after being out of the ground for several weeks. In this row there are about 10 plants, and only one of them shows signs of poor health. The work of removing these trees from nursery rows was evidently carried out with no more care than is ordinaril}" bestowed on young forest trees, except that a fairly successful attempt was made to save as many roots as possible. A few of the large roots were mutilated, and during a journey of a week or more from the nurseries the roots became dry. The mutilated roots were pruned and the cut surfaces covered with melted grafting wax to prevent deca3^ They have been treated since coming to the nursery of the U. S. Department of Agriculture as described below, and the result is a lot of young trees with new growths in every way satisfactory. To insure the growth of the trees after transplanting, it is very necessary to avoid excessive trimming of the branches and roots. There must be at least one healthy undisturbed shoot of the previous season left on the plant untouched, because the large, plump axillary buds near the tip of the shoot will come into leaf with greater cer- tainty and more quickly than will older buds on cut-back growths. Especially is this the case after the tree has undergone removal, involv- ing the tremendous disturbance of the root system, which almost com- pletely robs the plant for the time being of its water supply. Seedlings in nursery rows with undisturbed roots, when trimmed down to the small lateral buds on 1 or 2-year-old wood, will start as readily, if not as strongly, as the buds near the end of the most recent growth. It must be remembered that the terminal buds of the pecan ver}^ seldom grow. They sometimes do so in seedlings, but very seldom after a cer- tain age. This is shown in PI. I, lig. 2, PI. II, tig. 1, and PL VI, which represent the growths made during three seasons. In PI. I, fig. 2, the large, plump bud near the terminal contains the flowering branch. The branch shown in PI. II, fig. 1, is developed from this bud. PI. VI shows a still further development. The small, dead stump between the two living shoots represents the position occupied TRANSPLANTING BUDDED TREES. 17 ])y the nuts tlu' prci'rdinu- year, while the two slioots are fi'oni two of the hirg-e l)U(l.s near the nut. (PI. II, flu-, 1.) In transplantin*^- yoiinj^- trees, especially those Avhich are to a certain extent weakened ))v the operation of budding, it is impossible to save all of the lateral roots during the o})eration of digging from the seed rows. It is, however, verv desiral)le that as few as possible be sacri- ficed. Ver}' careful lifting will pay for the extra labor. In seedling trees the taproot is usually severed much too near the collar and at too earlv.a stage. It must be allowed to grow the first and second seasons if the seedlings are to be budded, ]>ecause when removed at the end of the first season or the beginning of the second the weak growth will render it impossible to perform any l)udding operations during that 3^ear. Therefore, it is not till the third year that the tap- root can be interfered with, ])ut it is well not to risk touching it until the growth of that season is completed, for the reason that although the shoot made from the inserted bud makes considerable growth the same season it is put on, it will make very large growth the season following. The budded seedlings will then bear removal. They may have a small part of the taproot removed and be either planted permanently or in nursery rows. The budded seedlings of the present da}', if the variety be a good one, are retailed at about $2.50 apiece. When the tree brings that amount — and the supply is understood to ])e far short of the demand — it should be furnished with good roots. If it is worth that sum to the purchaser, it is cer- tainly entitled to a little further expenditure of time and care in the preparation of suital)le conditions under which to grow. The reten- tion of roots at least 2^ feet below the surface of the soil is desirable. If the ground in which the young trees are to be placed is not com- posed of good soil to that depth, it should be supplied. A good start the first vear after planting means ever3'thing to the future tree; a bad start will, in the majority' of cases, mean a sickl}- tree for a long time and an unprofitable investment in the end. With the roots deep in good, light, loamy soil the tree is to a certain extent independent of moisture from the surface. When growth begins in earnest, the roots will grow in the direction of the food supply. The severance of a large portion of the taproot saves a good deal of labor in dig- ging and planting, but it means a complete defeat of nature's method in supplying the wants of the tree. An^^one who tries the two methods and compares the results will be convinced in one season in favor of large roots. As a further precaution, the roots should be plunged in liquid nmd the moment they are free from the soil and never be exposed for a minute longer than is necessary, as they too often are, to the drying influence of the air. After taking from the mud, the roots should be 9496— No 30—02- 2 18 BUDDING THE PECAN. wrapped in damp sacking, moss, or any other material which will hold moisture, and kept in this condition until thej' are about to be planted. The}' should then l)e again plunged in liquid mud, and while this is hanging to the roots they should be planted. When the soil has been well firmed about the roots of the tree and the hole is about two-thirds filled with soil, the remaining space should be filled with water. When this has disappeared, fill in the rest of the soil. A mulch of short grass, stable litter, or half-decayed leaves left on during the summer will supply favorable conditions. If these little details are faithfully attended to there is little danger that unsuccessful results will follow. A little extra expense is involved at first, but careless handling will be far more costlv in the end. X i^ j\^ 1 Jli lb . 19 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Frontispiece. Part of row of seedlings l)udded by new method on June 26, 1902; photographed August 15, 1902. Plate I. Fig. 1. — Branch of pecan, showing growth of two seasons, with old and new buds. A, 1 -year-old dormant buds; B, current season's buds; C, small plump buds at base of growth, from which the leaves fall early. Fig. 2. — Twig of pecan; top part of season's growth, showing buds during winter; A, flower bud; B, terminal bud. II. Fig. 1.— Fruiting branch of pecan, developed from bud shown in Plate I, fig. 2, A. A, buds from which the growth of the following season is developed, the buds, B, remaining dormant. Fig. 2.— Seven-year-old branch of Hicoria laciniosa. A, growth made from buds which stayed dormant during seven years; B, dormant bud in good condition. III. Fig. 1.— Patch budding. Two-year-old seedling pecan with piece of bark removed. A, bud with section of bark attached, ready to be fitted on stock. Fig. 2. — Seedling pecan stock, showing incisions made in the bark with a knife previous to lifting the bark; A, bud with section of bark which has the sides shaved down, ready to be inserted under the bark of the stock. Fig. 3.— Seedling pecan stock, with bark raised and ready for bud to be inserted. IV. Fig. 1. — Seedling pecan stock, showing bud in position ready to be tied. Fig. 2.— Budded seedling pecan, the wings of bark on the stock almost covering the bud section. Both are held securely in position while the union is being accomplished. Fig. 3.— Budded seedling pecan, showing the method by which the narrow strip of waxed cloth should be applied. V. Fig. 1.— Seedling pecan budded, showing how the paper covering should be fastened for protection from sun. Fig. 2.— Triangular bud- ding. Seedling pecan, with triangular section of bark removed; A, bud of variety to be propagated ready to insert in stock. VI. Branch of pecan, showing shoots made from buds near the base of the nut cluster, as seen in Plate II, lig. 1, A; A, position occupied by nut cluster during preceding year. VII. Three-year-old budded trees transplanted during March, 1902; photo- graphed August 15, 1902. 20 . O fiul. 30, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate I. B ^t ' . 0 Fig. 1.— Pecan Branch— Summer Condition. Fig. 2.— Pecan Branch— Winter Condition. Bui. 30, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Plate II. Fig. 1.— Pecan Branch— Fruiting Condition. Fig. 2.— Seven-year-old Branch of Hicoria laciniosa. 8ul. 30, Bureau of Plant Industry, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate III Fig. 1— Patch Budding. Bud Ready for Fig. 2.-Seedlinq Pecan Fig. 3.-Seedling Pecan Insertion. Stock. Preliminary In- Stock. Bark Raised cisiONS IN Bark. Ready for Bud. Bui. 30, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Oept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. ^^\ i\- M\ '\a\ iW "•'il J: :i" I, % m\:'i ^.m > I i-\ .i! % f^f "t-v r m li m m Ml i-my^ i-m {■M^ 'wJi Fig. 1.— Seedling Pecan Stock. Bud Inserted Ready to be Tied. Fig. 2.— Budded Seedling Pecan. Bud Inserted and Tied. Fig. 3.— Budded Seedling Pecan. Bud Wrapped WITH Waxed Cloth. Bui 30, Bureau of Plant Industiy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate V, Fig. 1.— Budded Seedling Pecan, Covered WITH Paper Fig. 2,— Triangular Budding. Bud Ready for Insertion. Bui. 30, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. Branch of Pecan, Showing Shoots from Buds near Nut Cluster of Previous Season. Bui. 30, Buteau of Plant Industry, U. S. Oept. of Agriculture. Plate VII. I X m m U.S. DKPARTMHXT Ol Ac .KlcL L 1 URK BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 3L B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Kuronn. CULTIYATEI) FORAGE CR0F8 OK TIIK XUllTH\\i;sTEI{X STATKS. »Y A. S. IHTCIICOCK. ASSL^TANT AgKOSTOI^OGIST, IN ClIAK(iK OF CoOPKlJATrV'K KXI'KUIMEXTS, GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. Jxsl iil) IJEf.EMlJKh lo, 1>JU2. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Beverly T. Galloway, Cliief of Bureau. GRASS A^p FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. Scientific Staff, W. J. Spillman, Agrostologist. A. S. KiTcncoCK, Asmtant A(p'ostologi$t, in Charge of Cooperative Experiments. C. R. Ball, Assistant Agrostologist. David Griffiths, Expert in Charge of Field Management. U.S. DEPARTIMKNT ()!• AC.RlCCI/rURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 31. B. T. (iALLOW.W. Chit-f of Burt'iiu. CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OV TlIK NOI!THWI'STi:itN STATICS. BY NEW YORK BOTANICAL A. S. HITCHCOCK, OAROt-N Assistant Agrostologist, in CHAR(iE of Coopkhative Experiments. GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. Issued December 13, 1902. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIC] 1902. l.ETTHR OF TRAXSMITTAL U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, WasJuui/ton, T). r., Octoher 17, 1902. Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith a paper on "Cultivated Forage Crops of the Northwestern States," and respectfully recom- mend that it l)e published as Bulletin No. 31 of the series of this Bureau. This paper was prepared by Mr. A. S. Hitchcock, Assistant Agros- tologist, in Charge of Cooperative Experiments, (xrass and Forage Plant Investigations, and has been submitted with a view^ to publica- tion b}' the Agrostologist. Respectfulh', B. T. Calloway, Chief of Hureaa. Hon. .James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. I'RT. TACI- Durini^- the surniiior of liMJi Professor llitchcock. uiukw instruc- tions from the then Agrostologist, Prof. F. Jviunson-Scribner. visited the States of Kansas, Nebraska. Colorado, "\V3^oniini?. Utah, Nevada. California, Oregon, Wasliintrton, and Idaho for the purpose of study- ing conditions with reference to cultivated forage crops. In the course of his investigations he visited the experiment stations of the above States and interviewed many farmers and ranclnucii. fi'om some of whom he received nmch valual)le information. C'onsi(l('ral)le informa- tion was also obtained from seedsmen and from deaU'rs in grain and hay and farm machinery. The accompanying paper is a resume of the information thus obtained. It is recognized that in a large section of country rather sparsely settled, and particularly one in which agri- culture is a recent develo})ment, many farmers and others have learned much that would be valuable to others in the same section of country. The principal ol)ject of this paper is to make common property of the individual knowledge of various farmers, ranchmen, and others, so that each may benefit by the experience of others. This is particularly important in a new country such as the region described herein. The paragraph relating to the "Inland Empire" and the last para- graph of the section devoted to velvet grass were written by the Agrostologist; otherwise the paper is entirely the work of Professor Hitchcock. W. J. Spillman, Agrostologist. Office of the Agrostologist, Washington, 1). 6'., October 1.^, 1902. 5 CO XT i:\TS. Page. Deacription of the regions 9 Great Plains 10 Rocky Mountain region II Great Basin 12 Interior valley of (.'alifornia I'.i Upper Paeific coast region 13 The "Inland Empire" 14 Forage crops 15 Alfalfa 15 General conditions 15 Feeding value 18 Seeding 18 Making hay 19 Turkestan alfalfa 21 Timothy 21 (Jrain hay 22 Redtop .". 22 Awnless brome grass 22 Velvet grass 23 Clovers 23 Forage crops of minor importance 24 Kentucky l)luegrass 24 Orchard grass 24 Cheat 25 Perennial rye grass 25 Rape 25 Field jieas 25 Vetches 26 Baling hay 26 Description of plates 28 7 ILLUSTRATIONS Page. Plate I. Ficr. 1. — Mast and boom stacker, with Jark^on fork. Fig. 2. — fable derrick, with grapple fork 28 II. Fig. 1.— Derrick stacker, with Jackson fork. Fig. 2. — Derrick stacker, showing details 28 III. Fig. 1. — Derrick mounted on wheels. Fig. 2. — Derrick with revolv- ing pole 28 IV. Fig. 1 — A common type of hayrack. Fig. 2. — Pole stacker, with Jackson fork 28 V. Fig. 1. — Lattice rack for feetling alfalfa to cattle. Fig. 2. — Box rack for feeding alfalfa to cattle 28 YI. Fig. 1. — Lattice rack for feeding alfalfa to sheep. Fig. 2.— Box rack for feeding alfalfa to sheep 28 YII. Fig. 1. — Baling grain hay, San Jose, Cal. Fig. 2. — Brome grass at the Kansas Experiment Station 28 8 K. 1'. I.— :W. (!. F. 1". I —•.•7. CLi;ri\ ATKI) roilACH CHOI'S of thk noiith WESTERN STATES. DESCRIPTION OF THE REGIONS. The piv.>^(_'nt Itullctiii cli.sc'U.^^.scs hrn'Hy the t'oni^c rcsouici'.-^ of that portion of the rnited States extend in*;- from Colorado and central California north to Montana and Wa.shinyfton. The whole area ina\ be divided into several well-marked regions, each of which will he discussed separately. Kach region has its characteristic climate, topoi;rai)hy. and ])hysi()i>-nomy. The climate depends chiefly upon the latitude, altitude, and the amount and distrilmtion of the rainfall. The latter factor is i>-reatly influenced hy the presence and trend of the mountain chains anil the direction of the prevailinj,'' winds. In gen- eral the winters are longer and moiv severe as the latitude increases. The climate is cooler at higher altitudes. The Coast Range. Sierra Nevada, and Cascade Mountains rob tht' winds of their moisture as they blow from the Pacific Ocean eastward, thus producing an arid region in the interior. The physiognomy, or general appearance, depends very largely upon the character of the vegetation, which in turn varies according to the climate and soil. The low and scattered vegetation of the sagebrush plains of the Great Basin region, the forests of the Pacific slope, and the butlalo-grass sod of the Great Plains are examples of the characteristic physiognomy. It is not the intention to discuss minutely the physical geograph}' of the region, but these preliminarv remarks will call attention to the basis of the regional classification. The relation of these pln'sical factors to the agriculture of the individual regions will be referred to later. The soil conditions are more local in their efi'ect than the above-men- tioned factors, but in some cases may profoundly modify the growth of plants. The soil factors may be physical, such as its ability to hold or transport water, the size of the particles, and character of the sub- soil; or chemical, depending upon the chemical constituents, such as the presence of excessive amounts of carbonate of soda, salt, or other substances, producing alkali soils. One other factor should be men- tioned, which, though not included among those determining the clas- sification into areas, is nevertheless of vast importance in its relation to agriculture. This is artificial water supply or irrigation. 9 10 cultivated forage crops of the northwest. Great Plains. This region extends from about the ninetN'-eighth meridian to the Rocky Mountains and from Texas far north into Canada. The altitude increases from about 1.500 feet, at the eastern limit, to the base of the mountains, where it may be 6,000 or 7,000 feet. The western portion of this area extends into the group of States considered in this bulletin. The topographical features of this region are discussed by the late Thomas A. Williams in Bulletin No. 12 of the Division of Agrostology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, entitled "'A Report upon the Grasses and Forage Plants and Forage Conditions of the Eastern Rocky Mountain Region." The annual rainfall is usually from 10 to 12 inches, in consequence of which the cultivation of crops is dependent upon irrigation. The native grasses are well adapted to grazing, and hence stock raising is the paramount industry throughout this portion of the Great Plains, which includes the eastern part of the States of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. The stock raised is chie% cattle and sheep, vast herds of which roam over the plains during the summer, and, in most local- ities, for the greater part of the winter, subsisting upon the short grasses, the most important of which are buffalo grass {Bnlhilis dacty- loidex) and blue grama {BouteloKo oligostachya). Along the draws or in the valleys of the streams taller grasses occur, such as blue-stem {Andrrjjxxjon furcatuH) and alkali saccaton {Sjxyrohohis avroide-s), the common bunch grass of the Arkansas Valley. The upland or " short" grasses seldom grow sufficiently tall for hay, but in favoralile seasons hay is cut in those situations where the tall grasses abound. The foliage of the short grasses usually cures on the ground and furnishes food through the winter; but in order to provide food during the stormy periods of the winter and to increase the carrying capacity of the ranges by supplementing the natural food supply, hay is put up for winter use. This practice is increasing as competition enforces more economical methods of agriculture. Almost all the forage stored for winter is produced by the aid of irrigation. Near the base of the mountains there is an al)undant supph" of water in the mountain streams, and this is distributed along the valWs b}" means of canals. In many places storage reservoirs supply water in the canals during a portion of the period of low vfater. The most important forage plant raised b}" cultivation is alfalfa. This can be grown up to an elevation of 5,000 or 6,000 feet. On account of the altitude the nights are too cold for the successful culti- vation of corn and many other of the coarse forage grasses grown in the prairie regions to the east. Sorghum and Katir corn are grown to some extent in Colorado for forage. Timothy is grown, especially in the mountain region; it is used for both pasture and hav. Red clover is i-aised in Montana and to some extent in the two States to ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION. 11 the south. The n^ccntlv iiitrotluei'd jiw iilcss hroinc wi-.iss hu.> sliown that it Clin bo .sucvossfully i,rit)\vii without ini^'-atiou. For ti tuith(>i- discussion of the fonii^o fonditions of tliis area the reader is refeired to Bulletin No. 12 mentioned above. HocKv MoiNTAiN Region. This includes a wide area passin^j- throuoh Colorado, Wyoming, western Montana, and a part of eastern Idaho. This area also received attention in Bulletin No. 12. As in the precedintif area, the most important ai^ricultural in(histry is stock raisini^. Sheep raisinjjf is relatively more important here. The sheep are pastured during- the sununer in. the valleys, or at least where thev have acces.s to water, hut durintjf the wintei- they mav ))e driven to the more arid districts, depending- upon the snowfall for theii- water supply. The forai,re conditions of one of these arid regions is discussed by Prof. Aven Nelson in Bulletin No. 13 of the Division of A«>rostolo"v, U. S. Department of Agriculture, entitled •■The Red Desert of Wyo- ming and its Forage Rt'sources." Alfalfa is raised l)y irrigation at the lower altitudes throughout the area, but, as before stated, is not successful at an altitude exceeding 6,0U0 or 7,000 feet, depending upon the latitude, and somewhat n\nm the local conditions. Above this altitude the common foratre L'rasses of the East may be grown. Timothy is raised in Colorado in favor- able locations up to an elevation of l>,Oi>0 or even Iti.ooo feet. On the plateau from Laramie westward the ranchmen depend largely upon wild hay for winter food. This is irrigated to increase the crop; but, owing to the injudicious or excessive application of water, the more desirable grasses are driven out by ''wire grass" (Juncm haltivxs), a kind of rush. It is a common practice to flood the land in the spring and allow it to remain partly under water until time for cutting the hay, when the water is turned otf. A species of spike rush {Eleocharis)^ also known as wire grass, is conuiion in the moist spots. This wire grass is onlv moderately nutritious, but yields larger crops of hay than w^hen grow^n on unirrigated land, and it is less trouble to turn on the water once than to supply the water oftener. allowing it to drain otf each time. There is an impression among farmers in southern Wyoming that wild hay is more valuable for feed than alfalfa, ton for ton, for all kinds of stock. This is reflected in the price of hay at Saratoga, where wild hay or timothy sold at $15 and alfalfa at ^5 to |6 per ton. At Laramie baled native hay was worth $8 to $10, and alfalfa in the stack $5 to Wl per ton. Throughout the West, grass hay is considered better than alfalfa for horses. There are several other kinds of forage plants that have been grown in isolated localities with success, and 12 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST. whose cultivation should be extended. Among these may be men- tioned the Canada field pea, rape, and awnless brome grass. Great Basin. This reo-ion extends from the Sierra Nevada Mountains to the Rockv Mountains, and from Arizona north into southeastern Oregon and southern Idaho. It is an arid region, having an annual rainfall of less than 15 inches over the greater part, and in central Nevada of less than o inches. The altitude of this great plateau is about 5,000 or 6,000 feet, with numerous mountain chains rising :2,000 or 3,000 feet higher. There are several lakes or depressions having no outlet, the largest of which is the Great Salt Lake of Utah. In such localities there is usually an excessive accumulation of min- eral salts, known as alkali. The water of the streams flowing into these depressions holds these salts in solution. l)ut deposits them upon the surface of the soil when the water evaporates. These alkali soils modify the vegetation. Each species of plant is able to withstand a certain amount of alkali in the soil upon which it grows. If the amount is in excess of this limit, the plant can not exist. Consequently, the native vegetation gives a fair index of the alkaline condition of the soil. The presence of saltbushes {Atriplex spp.), salt grass {Distlchlls Kpicata)^ and grease wood {Sa/'cohatus vermiculatus) indicates a strongly alkaline soil. A still larger amount of soluble mineral matter prevents the growth of even the salt plants, and in such cases the soil is devoid of vegetation. The prevailing vegetation over the whole region, except in the mountains and upon the abov'e-mentioned alkali soils, is the sagebrush {Artemisia tridentata). Hence such localities are called sagebrush plains. As in the case of the two preceding areas the chief agricul- tural industrv is the raising of stock — cattle, sheep, and horses. The latter class of stock is of importance in certain localities, but is rela- tively unimportant over the whole area. The sheep are herded in the mountains in summer, where there is water, and upon the deserts in winter, where there is snow. There are vast areas where stock can not graze on account of the insufficiency of food or water, or both. Alfalfa is grown in large quantities under irrigation in the valleys and is practically the only supplemental forage for all kinds of stock. In some of the larger valleys other crops are raised, such as grain and sugar beets. As an example, the highly cultivated Cache Valley, in northern Utah, mav be mentioned. In a few favored localities drj- farming may be carried on successfully. This, however, is where there is seepage and conservation of water from the winter snow on the mountains. In the Cache Valley there are numerous instances of grain and alfalfa fields on the hillsides above the canals. CALIFORNIA AND COAST REGION. 18 IXTEUIOU \ Al.l.KY OF C'AI.IFOKXIA. Between the Coast liiiiio*' and the Sierru Nevada Mountains Hes a vaUev extending; throiijjfli central California from Kern Coiintv on the south to ShasUi County on the north. This is formed hy the union of two valleys, the Sacramento Kiver tlowino- from the north and the San Joaquin from the south. The reunion is chai-actei-ized by hit>h tomperatui-t' and scant rainfall in the summer. The Coast Kang-e Mountains forminti' the western limit of the valley cut oti' the moisture-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean, except at San Francisco Bay, where there is a break in the chain throujifh which the above- mentioned rivers reach the ocean. At this point in the valley and also opposite a few other minor breaks, the climate is nioditied in propor- tion to the amount of moisture that tilters throu(;;h. When the winter rainfall is sufficient there may be an abundance of native pasture during- the >])rinu-. but the main dependence* is placed on two crops — alfalfa and o*rain hay. Exi-eptino- in a few favored local- ities, crops are raised l)v the aid of irrigation. The alfalfa is mostly consumed upon the farm, while the grain hay supplies the city mar- kets. Alfalfa grows to the greatest perfection, especially in the San Joaquin Valley, where it is customary to o})tain about 8 tons of hay at five cuttings from each acre, and about five months' pasture*. (Jrain hay is produced from wheat, barley, and, to, a less extent, from oats. In some districts, wild-oat hay is common. Uppf.h Pacifu- Coast Rkoion. This includes the area l^'ing along the coast west of the Cascade Mountains, from Puget Sound south to San Francisco. It is charac- terized by cool summers, mild winters, and a large rainfall. Fogs are frequent and droughts ver}^ rare. The conditions are very favorable for the growth of pasture grasses, and the section is preeminentl}' a dair}^ region. Through most of this region cattle can be pastured through the winter. Some ha}' is preserved, especialh' in western Washington, but on account of the dampness the qualit}' is inferior. The Willamette \"alley of western Oregon may be considered as a part of this general area, though, since it is shut off from the coast by a low range of mountains (the Coast Kange), the rainfall is much less, and the climate is correspondingh' modified. The annual rainfall here is 40 to 60 inches, mostly in the winter. Along the coast the rainfall is 60 inches, increasing northward in the region of Puget Sound, and it is distributed throughout most of the year. In this region the grasses and clovers that are commonlv used in the Eastern States grow in great luxuriance. 14 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST. The "Inland Empire." This region, sometimes known as the Palouse countrv, comprises eastern Washington, northeastern Oregon, and northern Idaho. It is characterized by a dark, tine-grained basaltic soil of great fertility and of very uniform character over a wide area. The limiting factors of agriculture here are rainfall and altitude. With Pasco, Wash., as a center, where the annual rainfall is about 6 inches, the rainfall increases in all directions, attaining a maximum of about 30 inches at the base of the Blue and Rocky mountains on the east, and the Cascade Mountains on the west. A considerable portion of this area in Washington and a smaller section in Oregon have a rainfall of less than 10 inches. In this portion irrigation is practiced. In Washington, about 150,000 acres are under irrigation within this area, alfalfa being the staple ha}^ crop, with a yield of 3 to 8 tons of hay per acre, at three cuttings. The principal irrigated areas are situated in Yakima, Kittitas, Walla Walla, and Chelan counties, Wash. Smaller areas, especially in narrow canyons along the smaller streams, are located in various parts of Oregon and Washington. The Kittitas Valley in Washington, which lies at a higher altitude (about 1,600 feet) than any other considerable irrigated area in the region in question, grows alfalfa, timothy, and clover, producing hay of excellent quality. Like all other regions between the Cascades and the Rockies, the haying season is free from rain, which fact accounts for the excellent quality of hay produced. Those portions of the "Inland Empire" having more than 10 inches of rainfall have heretofore been devoted almost exclusively to wheat growing. In recent years considerable attention has been given to hay and pasture grasses. Brome grass {Bromus Inermis L.) has proven to be an excellent pasture grass in this region. It also yields profitable crops of hay the second and third years after sowing. A superior quality of brome grass seed is produced here. Of the hay grasses, timothy and red clover are preferred for lowlands and alfalfa, red clover, and orchard grass for uplands. On these wheat lands, which lie at an altitude of 1,500 to 3,000 feet, alfalfa produces one or two crops a year, and is rapidly becoming an important hay crop. Irrigation is not practiced in this region where the rainfall exceeds 10 or 1-2 inches a year. Heretofore, and even at the present time, the principal hay of the wheat-growing area has been a mixture of wheat and wild oats {Arena fatua). Where the rainfall exceeds 18 inches wild oats are trouble- some in the wheat fields, particularly on north hillsides, where snow banks protect them against freezing. Hay is cut from those patches in the wheat fields where wild oats predominate. When cut green this hay is of good quality, but many careless farmers cut it so late that the seeds are mature, and the hay is not only of poor (juality but FORAGE CROPS. 15 serves to st-attei- the seed of the pest. The common system of farm- incr consists of takinjj^ a cro]) of wheat ev(>rv alternate year. Icavinjr the hmd idle every other year. During the idle year the land is sum- mer fallowed: that is. plowed up in spring and left bare during sum- mer. These fallow fields often furnish excellent wild-oat pastures, which are generally utilized. At the present time alfalfa, clover, and brome hay are hcginning to take the place of grain hav in this wheat-growing section. It has been learned that an exhausted ))rome-grass tield can l)e restored to its earl}' vigor by plowing in winter and harrowing to good tilth. After this plowing, a crop of spring grain may be taken without serious injur}' to the brome grass. FORAGE CROPS. Ai.FALFA" {MfHlicago mtlvu). (5ENEKAL CONDITIONS. This well-known forage plant is extensively gi'own throughout the West in all localities wliere the conditions are suitable. It rctjuircs a well-drained soil and a fairly good supply of water, l»ut will not endure an excess of water (standing water) near the surface. It thrives best where the summers are hot and dry and the winters not too cold. It will withstand a moderate amount of alkali in the soil. In the North it suffers in some localities from the effects of too cold w inters, and is not usually successful above an altitude of 5,000 or 0,000 feet. It can be grown without irrigation in l)ut comparatively few localities in the Northwest; but under irrigation it is extensively grown in all the States of this region, and reaches its greatest perfect ion in the hot, dry valleys of California, where the summer season is long, the water sup- ply abundant, and the soil well drained. Alfalfa will not succeed on acid soils, but these are of rare occurrence in the western part of the United States. Alfalfa is a perennial leguminous plant, a native of western Asia, but cultivated in the Old World for ages. Jt was brought to Mexico by the Spaniards and from there spread into South America and north along the Pacific coast, and then throughout the interior arid and semi- arid regions. The name alfalfa, of Arabic origin, was given by the Spaniards and is in common use throughout western America. In Europe the same plant is known as lucern, a name which is common in the eastern United States, and also in Utah and the adjacent parts of Idaho and Wyoming. In the latter region the name is commonly pro- nounced with the accent on the first syllable. «For further description see Farmers' Bulletin No. 31. 16 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST. Being a legunie. it gathers nitrogen from the air by means of its root nodules, and hence acts as a soil renovator. Although alfalfa is a perennial, a field usually deteriorates after a few years from various causes. Fields in California as much as 27 and in Nevada from 85 to 40 years old are reported, but in most cases they require renewing much earlier. Often the alfalfa fields become infested with weeds. The squirrel-tail grass {Fordeum jiihatum) — also called foxtail in Wyoming, barley grass in Utah, and tickle grass in Nevada — is com- mon in alfalfa fields of the Great Basin and W^'oming plateau region, and wild barley {Tlordeum murinum) — also called barle}' grass and fox- tail— on the Pacific slope. These two grasses are especially troublesome on account of the long bristles attached to the chafl'. When mature the^' cause serious irrita- tion in the mouths of animals eating hay containing the weed. In the Cache Valley and in western Wyoming the common dandelion is verj^ troublesome. It thrives along irrigation ditches and invades the alfalfa fields to such an extent that usually the fields are plowed up in from five to eight 3^ears and renewed. This is done in the fall and oats are sown the following spring, after which the fields are again seeded down to alfalfa. Many express the opinion that under favorable conditions an alfalfa field will last indefinitely and continue to yield profitable crops if properly handled; but the alfalfa ma}- be killed in spots due to the trampling of stock if a field is overpastured, or, during irrigation, certain portions of the field being lower, may remain saturated with water for too long a period. Alfalfa wnll scarcely survive standing water longer than forty-eight hours. When alfalfa dies, its place is likely to be taken b}- the before-mentioned pernicious weeds. Some growers renew their fields by disking the bare spots in the spring and sowing seed thereon, or even disking the whole field. Disk- ing is to be recommended, as it cuts the crowns vertically and causes them to send out new stems. FEEDING VALUE. In the great alfalfa districts of the West t\\\s forage plant furnishes the chief and often the onlv food for stock besides the native pasture. It is fed to growing stock and to fattening stock; to cattle, sheep, horses, and hogs; even the work horses upon the ranches may receive no grain in addition to the allowance of alfalfa. Horses that are worked hard upon the road, such as livery teams, usually receive a small quantity of barley, and this grain maj' form a part of the ration for the work horses upon the ranches. Rolled ])arley is the form in which it is usually fed. as in this condition there is said to be less waste than when whole or ground. For this purpose the grain is passed through heavy rollers, which crush it without grinding it. Ff:EDINC} VALUE OF ALFALFA. 17 TIu'Ic is much dittVreiu-o of opinion Jiniono- farnuMs as to the value of alfalfa for horses. Sonic prefer tiniothv or wild hav. tou'cther with grain; some feed alfalfa and (>l. Laml)s wei usually lacking, and this method seems to be satisfactory. At Lovelocks, which lies in one of the great alfalfa districts of central Nevada, the price for cattle was T to 8 cents per head and for sheep 1 cent per head per day. In Nevada, and also in some other districts of the Northwest, the stock cattle are kept upon the range during the winter, though the ranchmen try to provide a suppl v of alfalfa or wild ha}^ for use during snowstorms. A selection is made from the herd, however, of those that are to receive winter feed with more regularity. These are the weaklings, the heifers with calf, and the cows w^ith calves by their sides. It is also customary to feed only the old or weak sheep during the winter, the remainder being turned upon the deserts for their winter range. Some common forms of racks for feeding alfalfa to cattle and sheep are shown in Pis. V and VI. Though some maintain that grain hay is better for feeding cattle, ton for ton, than alfalfa, the majority of feeders state that the reverse has been their experience. Mr. G. F. Chapman, of Evanston, Wjo., states " Agricola Aridus, published by the Colorado Agricultural College, I, p. .24. 9495— No. 31—02 2 18 CULTIVATED FORAGE CEOPS OF THE NORTHWEST. that he has many times tried to raise cows with calves upon wild hay, but that the calves often die of starvation, while when fed upon alfalfa both cow and calf remain in g-ood condition. SEEDING. The soil should be well prepared and finely pulverized, as the young alfalfa is a tender plant. In those localities where the rainfall is depended upon for the water supply, the seed should not be sown until a rain has moistened the soil thoroughly and thus placed it in a condition to favor germination. In California the rains come with such regularity that the seed may often be sown in advance of a rain and thus get the full benefit of the favorable conditions. The seed is sown in the spring, except in central California, where it mav be sown in either fall or spring. In California a common method is to irrigate, if necessary, in September or October, prepare the soil, and then to sow the seed broadcast with barley, or sometimes wheat. There is some danger from frost, and the grain is thought to protect the alfalfa. It is best not to pasture the alfalfa the first season, but to allow it to obtain a good start for the second season. If sown in the spring, the grain is usualh^ omitted. In other parts of the Northwest, alfalfa, though sown in the spring, is sown either alone or with grain — barley, wheat, or oats. Mr. W. P. Noble, of Golconda, Nev., states that alfalfa is sometimes sown with timothy in central Nevada. Sowing with grain has the advantage that there is a return from the land the first season, while the alfalfa is getting started. When sown with grain it is best not to pasture the alfalfa or cut it for hay the first season. After harvesting the grain, the alfalfa should be irrigated, and for this reason the grain should be removed from the field as soon as possible. On the other hand, many prefer to sow the alfalfa alone, as in this way a better stand is obtained. Under favorable conditions one cut- ting may be obtained the first season, but it is not best to draw too heavily upon the field the first year either by cutting or pasturing the crop. Where the ground is weedy, it may be necessary to cut the weeds in the summer; but a still better plan is to previously free the soil from weeds b}" proper methods of cultivation. When alfalfa is sown with grain, the two may be sown at the same time by means of combination machines which drill the grain and alfalfa throup-h the same holes or scatter the alfalfa broadcast in front of the grain drill, or the alfalfa may be drilled one way and the grain cross-drilled, or the two may be sown broadcast and harrowed in separately. The amount of seed recommended by alfalfa growers varies from 12 to 30 pounds per acre. When the seed is drilled in, the amount required is less than when sown broadcast. The larger quantities of seed tend to produce smaller stems and the hay contains MAKING ALFALFA HAY, 19 less watste. rnder averaj^e conditions i*(> pounds per acre sown broad- cast should be sufficient, if it is evenly distri))uted nnd covered to a uniform depth; ])ut u few pounds more per acre may be sown to insure a i-ood stand. Where alfalfa is orown for a crop of seed, a less quantity should be sown than where a permanent meadow is desired. MAKING HAY. As stated, it is best not to cut a crop of alfalfa hay the first season, but to allow the field to get well started for the next year. However, under favorable conditions, especially in California, one or even two or three crops of hav may l)e obtained the first year. The oTower must use his judo-mcnt as to whether a crop can be taken from the field to advantage. In California it is customary to make two cuttings if the seed was sown in the fall with grain; the first cutting consists mostly of grain, and the second of alfalfa. After the first year the number of cuttings depends upon the length of the season and the alti- tude. At the higher altitudes or latitudes not more than two cuttings may })e possible, while in the upi)er San Joaquin Valley in California five or six cuttings are usually obtained, and as high as ten cuttings are reported. The fields are usually irrigated once for each cutting, either before or after. If the irrigation is made after the cutting, sufficient time should elapse to allow the growth to commence, or there is danger of scalding. At Newman, which is in the center of the alfalfa district of the San Joaquin Valley, the first cutting is made about May 1, and others at intervals of four to eight weeks, six weeks being about the average. The last cutting is made in September, after which, for about four months, the fields are pastured. The yield of hay here for the season is about 8 tons per acre, though some farmers state that only three or four cuttings were made, yielding 5 tons. The opinion was expressed that the fields were often pastured too much. On the high plains of southern Wyoming only two cuttings are usually made, yielding about 5 tons of hay per acre. In the Love- lock Valley, Nev., where large quantities of alfalfa are grown, three cuttings are made, with a yield of 5 to 7 tons. Alfalfa hay is prepared in the manner usual for hay crops, but the operations are modified somewhat by the climatic conditions prevailing in the dry regions of the Northwest. One man with a team can mow about 1.5 acres per day. The alfalfa is usually raked within a few hours after mowing, thrown into bunches by hand, and stacked as soon as convenient. If the hay is allowed to remain too long in the swath or windrow, too much loss of foliage occurs in stacking on account of the dryness of the air. The stacks may be put up in the field or near the corrals, according to convenience. If the fields are pastured during the latter part of the year, the stacks are inclosed by a fence. In some 20 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OB^ THE NORTHWEST. sections, especially in California, where there are winter rains, the hay is often stored in barns or sheds. The hay is usually stacked by machinery. If the stack is made in the tield, sweeps or bull rakes are occasionally used for hauling the bunches to the stacks, but these implements have the serious objection of shattering- the leaves, causing corresponding loss of valuable fodder. For this reason the bunches are usually loaded by hand on wagons provided with hay racks (PI. IV, fig. 1). At the stack the hay is unloaded from the wagons b}^ horsepower, the machine used for this purpose being called a stacker or hay derrick. The most common type of stacker throughout the Northwest is some modification of the pole, or mast and boom, stacker. This is essen- tially a derrick, with pulleys and a hay fork, b3' which several hun- dred pounds of hay can be lifted from a wagon and deposited upon the stack. PI. II, PL III, and PI. IV, fig. 2, show some of these forms. The stackers are generally homemade. The derrick may be sup- ported by a heavy framework or may consist of poles held in place by guy I'opes. The hay is usualh" lifted by means of a fork, but nets are in common use in some localities. The most common style of fork is that known as the Jackson fork, or, outside of California, as the Cali- fornia fork. For alfalfa the fork usuall}^ has four tines, but for grass hay five or six tines. By means of a small rope the operator upon the wagon can dump the fork load of hay upon the stack at any desired point. (See PI. I, fig. 1.) One or two horses attached to the lift- ing rope or cable furnish the power to lift the load. The load on the fork is swung over the stack by slightly leaning the derrick toward the stack. The fork then swings by its own weight. The empty fork is drawn back to the wagon by means of the dump rope. Sometimes the load is swung over the stack by hand. Another form of fork occa- sionally seen is the harpoon fork. Instead of the fork there is some- times used a net, also called a sling or hammock. Three or four of these are placed at intervals in the hay as it is being loaded. At the stacks, the nets full of hay are lifted from the wagon to the stack by means of derricks. Another form of stacker which has proven very satisfactory is the cable derrick. PI. I, fig. 2, illustrates this form. Forks or nets may be used with this style. In eastern Colorado and parts of Wyo- ming an improved stacker was in common use. The bunches may be brought to the stacker with horse sweeps, but the distance must not be great or there will be too much loss of leaves. Hence the stacks are smaller than when the bunches are brought by wagon. The stacks of alfalfa are commonly made about 25 feet wide and high, and as long as convenient, often 100 or more feet. Throughout most of the alfalfa region the hay is put up during the dry season, and the process can therefore go on without fear of TFKKKSTAN ALFALFA AND TIMoTHY. 21 iiitorruptioM troiii showers, llt'iuc no piiiiis aic taken to to}) oil' tlic 8t:u'k in order to slied rain until the stark is linislicHl. TiRKKSTAN Alfalfa. Turkestan alfalfa, a \ ariety recently introduced from Russian liii- kestan by the U. 8. Di'partnient of Aoriculture, has l)een tried in many parts of the Northwest, t)ut over most of this reijioM it appears to hav'e no superiority ov«>r the kind already grown. Kxperiments seem to show, however, that it is somewhat moie resistant to cold than the common variety; hence it is likely to he l)ett(>r ada])ted to th(^ colder portions of the area, such as Washiuiiton. ()re;^on. and Idaho. Ti^iOTHY [Phleuiii jn'atensi'). This standard oi-ass is extensively grown in many parts of the Xorth- w^est, particularly where the climate is too moist and cool for alfalfa, such as the mountain districts and the Pacitic coast plain west of the Coast Range. It is the most commonly cultivated grass in the Rock}' Mountain region, thriving in the higher altitudes where alfalfa is not successful. Except in favoi'ed locations, the tields must be irrigat(>d, Timothy will not usually succeed in the hot, dry valleys of California and the southern portion of the(ireat Basin region, even when irrigated. In the irrigated regionsof central Washington, timothy is an imi)ortant crop, being grown chieflv above 1,200 feet altitude. The Ellensburg district of the Yakima Valley is famous for the excellent cpiality and large (juantity of timothy grown for shipment. On account of the dry- ness of the air the hay retains its fresh green color, while that grown in the very moist regions around Puget Sound and along the coast to the southward is usually darkei- colored. For this reason there is a strong demand for timothy grown in the irrigated districts around P'dlens- burg, Wash., and elsewhere in northeastern Washington and in north- ern Idaho, for export. As stated in another chapter, this timothy is baled in large quantities for the Alaskan and Philippine markets In' the process of double compression. Where grown for home consump- tion, timothy is often mixed with red clover. The timothy ma}' be sown in the fall and the clover in the spring, with oats; or the oats may be sown in the spring and the other two mixed and sown broad- cast later. Sometimes the clover and timothy are sown together by means of combination drills. These machines have a separate feed box for the clover, which may drop the seed in the same holes w ith the timothy or sow it broadcast in front of the drill. On moister land and certain kinds of gravelly soil, alsike replaces the red clover in combination with timothy. Timothy, either alone or in combination with clover, is frequently used for pasture. The method of establishing pasture employed hy Mr. Wheeler, who owns a ranch near Reno, Nev., illustrates the pos- sibilities in this direction, where water is available. Upon ordinary 22 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST. sagebrush land, and without previous preparation, a mixture of alfalfa, timothy, red clover, and orchard grass were sown. Beyond irrigation, nothing further was done. The pasture, now 3 3"ears old, is in excellent condition and consists chiefl}" of alfalfa and timothy. Under this treatment the sagebrush has gradually disappeared, though the dead stems may be found on the ground beneath the growth of grass. A meadow can be established in the same manner, hut it is then necessar}' to level the land by some means, such as dragging the surface with heavy railroad iron drawn by several horses. Gbain Hay. In central California and parts of the interior region, hay made from cereals is an important product. Grain hay is made from wheat, which is considered the best; from barle}", and, to a less extent, from oats, though in many localities wild oat hay is commonlv preserved. As previously stated, alfalfa is generalh^ consumed on the farm, while grain hay supplies the city markets. For convenience it is usually baled. It is often the case that the price of the grain determines whether the crop shall be converted into hay or the grain be allowed to mature. For ha}", the grain is cut when between the milk and the dough stages. It is preserved the same as other hay, but is allowed to cure in the bunch. It may then be stacked or, if possible, baled from the bunch. As there is little or no rain in the grain-ha}" region of California, there is little danger of injury from this cause by leaving the hay in the bunches. On a large ranch near Lovelocks, Nev., an example was presented of the use of wheat to supplement the alfalfa crop. The latter had been seriously injured by the ravages of a variety of field mouse. Wheat was sown in the spring to fill up the places left bare from this cause and the mixed crop was converted into hay in the usual manner. Redtop {Agrostis alba). Redtop is frequently grown on wet meadows in the northern Rocky Mountain region and to some extent in other localities. It is not con sidered as valuable a grass as timothy, but from the fact that it thrives in moist land and can be sown upon native meadow, Avhere under irri gation it resists fairl}" well the encroachments of rushes (wire grass), it is utilized both for hay and pasture. It is riot usually grown alone, but with other grasses or clovers. AwNLKSs Brome Grass {Bromus inermis). Awnless brome grass" has been grown for man}" years in Europe, «For further information concerning this grass, see Circular No. 18, Division of Agrostology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, "Smooth Brome Grass." VELVET GRASS AND CLOVERS. 28 where it is native. In recent 3'ears it has been tried in many parts of the United States with varyinjr degrees of success. It has proven most successful in the semiarid regions of the Northwest from Kansas and North Dalvota to Washington. It is especially adapted for those regions where the rainfall is insufficient to grow forage crops without irrigation and yet the conditions do not approach the aridity of the desert. Such regions are found in the eastern part of the (ireat Plains, plateaus in the Rocky Mountains, and the Palouse region of eastern Washington. The seed may be sown broadcast in the spring, at the rate of about 20 pounds to the acre. The stand is usually thin the first year, l)ut the second year it thickens up and forms a sod. In localities Avhere winter wheat can be grown, brome grass can be sown in the fall. It is valuable for hay, ))ut more especially for i)asture. During mid- summer the foliage dries up more or less, but gives good pasture in early spring and late fall. The second year it yields large crops of palatable hav, ))ut thereafter it is better adai)ted for psisture than for ■hay. (See PI. VII, tig. 2.) Velvet Grass {HoIchs lanatus). This grass is common in the Pacific coast region along roadsides, in abandoned fields and other waste places, and also is found encroaching upon pasture land. It is a native of Europe, but has been introduced into many parts of the United States. Opinions differ as to its useful- ness, some stigmatizing it as a vile weed, others referring to it as a valuable forage grass. It is not a very large yielder, but will thrive on poor soil where more valuable grasses fail. Hence in localities where the usual meadow and pasture grasses flourish the advent of velvet grass should be looked upon with disfavor, but on more sterile soil it furnishes a fair crop of forage where other grasses fail. It has been said that '"" velvet grass is a good grass for poor land, and a poor grass for good land." Velvet grass goes under the name of mesquite in many parts of the Northwest, but this name is more frequently applied to certain native grasses of the Southwest. On sandy soils along the coast and on peaty soils that dry out in summer, velvet grass is perhaps the most profitable hay and pasture grass, because the better grasses do not succeed. Stock usually refuse to eat it at first until driven to do so by hunger, but the}^ will soon acquire a taste for it. and it is exceedingl}" nutritious. Its worst faults are its low yield and lack of palatability. Clovers. Red clover {Trifolium. pratense) is in common cultivation through- out the northern portion of the Rocky Mountain and upper Pacific coast regions and is rapidly coming into cultivation in the more moist 24 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST. parts of eastern Washington and northern Idaho. Two crops of hay ma}' be obtained, although in western Washington the approach of the rainy season may interfere with the second crop. The seed is usually sown in the spring, but on sandy land in western Washington it may be sown in the fall. As mentioned under the head of timothy, red clover is usually sown in combination with that plant. Alsike clover {T. hyhrfdmn) is occasionally grown in the same local- ities where red clover thrives, but it is adapted to more moist land. White clover (7! Tepens) is sometimes cultivated in combination with bluegrass in those localities where the latter thrives. Such pastures are frequently found in the mountain districts and along the upper coast region. Forage Crops of Minor Importance. The following forage plants are cultivated in sufficient abundance to receive attention. Some are already of importance in certain locali- ties, and most of them should be cultivated over a wider area and given greater attention than is now the case: Kentucky bluegrass {Poa pratensis). — In the mountain districts and the upper coast region bluegrass is used for pasture, usually in combination with white clover. Unless supplied with water during the summer months this grass gives little pasture during that season, but when the water supply is sufficient and properly distributed it yields abundantly. Upon the ranch of Mr. Wheeler, at Reno, Nev., there are several pastures of bluegrass and white clover which by means of irrigation are kept in good condition through the season. In some localities it is considered a pest on account of its tendency to drive out other grasses where the conditions are favorable for the growth of bluegrass. Mr. G. F. Chapman, of Evanston, Wyo., a prominent ranchman, states that it forms a thin, low mat which can not be utilized for hay, and is not as valuable for J^asture as other grasses. This is usually true when the land is not irrigated, as it tends to dry up during dry periods to a greater degree than native grasses, but it starts early in the spring and remains green well into the fall. Orchard grass {Dactyl Is glomerata.) — This well-known grass should be grown much more extensively than it is. It resists drought better than most of the tame grasses grown in the East, and can be used for pasture or hay. On account of the tendency to grow in bunches when sown alone, it is best, especially for meadow, to sow with some other grass. For this purpose meadow fescue is well adapted. The latter occupies the spaces between the bunches of orchard grass and thus forms a more even and continuous surface for the mower. Both bloom at about the same time, and both are capable of resisting drought to about the same extent. CROPS OF MINOK IMPORTANCE. 25 Chkat {Bi-omus seva1inuf<). — In the oastern Tnitod States this o-vass is known us a bad weed in grain Holds. l)ut in the Wilhiniette \^illey of western Oregon it is used (juite extensively for hay. It is eonnnon to see cheat sown along the draws or other low portions of grain fields. Mr. T. H. Cooper, a farmer near Corvallis who utilizes cheat in this way, sows the seed broadcast in the fall at the rate of 1 to li l)ushel8 per acre. He cuts the hay when it is in the dough state, which is altout the last of June. The yield of seed is about 40 })ushels per acre, a bushel weighing 85 to 40 pounds. It is quite probable that cheat could be used for forage in other localities. Perenmal rye grass {LoJ'nun j^tmitn). — This is commonly grown in the ^^'ilhunette Valley and in some other parts of Oregon and Washington and proves to be a good grass for pasture and hay. Although not considered as a grass for dry regions, the trials at the experiment stations of Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming indicate that it stands well as a drought-resisting grass. The variety known as Italian rye grass scarcely ditiers from this, except in usually having the chaff or flowering glume provided with a l)ristle at the ti]), and in growing somewhat taller. Rape (/i/v/.v.svVv/ fxfjfx.s). — A plant to be reconnncnded for pasture in the cooler parts of the Northwest is rape. It is now used to a lim- ited extent in several localities, especially in the Rocky Mountain region. As a forage plant for sheep and as succulent forage for sum- mer and fall, rape is to be, highly recommended. It is not easily injured by frost and hence is available as fall feed. The seed should be sown in June or July, and rape may consequently be grown as a catch crop after grain or other early maturing crops. Where there is sufficient moisture the seed may l)e sown luoadcast, but in the drier regions much better results are obtained by sowing in drills far enough apart to permit of cultivation. In eight to ten weeks from sowing it is ready for use, and sheep can be turned into the tield to pasture off the succulent growth. It is also an excellent feed for cattle, but they are likely to waste more by trampling than smaller stock. Field peas {Pisum arvense). — This leguminous plant is adapted for use as a forage plant in the northern portion of the Northwest and farther south in the mountains. At present it seems to be grown to a comparatively limited extent, but it is worthy of culture to a much greater degree. Canada field peas can scarcely compete with alfalfa in the regions where the latter can be grown; but where alfalfa is not successful on account of the cooler climate the peas are an excellent substitute, in that they are rich in protein, and hence have a high feeding value. It is best to sow them with grain — oats, wheat, or barley being used for the combination — at the rate of 1 to li bushels of peas to an equal quantity of grain. The crop can be cut for hay or used for pasture. 26 CULTIVATED FORAGE CROPS OF THE NORTHWEST. Vetches. — In the Willamette Valley, Oregon, spring vetch {Vicia sativa) is commonh^ grown for hay and annual pasture. Mr. T. H. Cooper, of Corvallis, uses vetch for his silo, after which he uses green corn. He sows the seed in the fall with w4ieat or oats, 2 bushels of the mixture containing about a peck of grain. The crop is cut in June. Spring vetch is cultivated here and there in the cooler parts of the Northwest, but the crop as a whole is very insignificant when compared with the staple forage crops of the region. The plant is a legume, and can gather nitrogen from the air in a manner similar to clover and alfalfa. Hence it furnishes forage rich in protein and at the same time acts as a soil renovator. While spring vetch can not be successfullj^ grown over much of the area under consideration on account of the heat and drought, yet it is to be highl}' reconnnended for those localities having a cool, moist growing season. In the upper coast region it can be sown in the fall. In the mountain regions it should be sown in spring. It is best to sow with grain, as the latter tends to hold the vetch upright, and it can thus be handled for hay more easily, and also because the grain mixture produces a more evenly balanced feed. After the mixture of grain and vetch is cut, a second crop of vetch will usually appear, which can be saved for seed. Hair}^ or sand vetch ^^ ( Vicia villosa) has been tried to a limited extent, but the results over most of the region described are not promising. It thrives, however, in the Palouse region and tends to become a weed in wheat fields. BALING HAY. As in other parts of the United States, it is customary to bale hay for convenience in transportation. Most of the hay consumed in the larger cities is of this kind. The baled ha}-^ upon the markets of the Northwest is for the most part restricted to alfalfa, clover, timoth}', grain, and wild or native hay. In San Francisco and other cities of California, grain hay takes the lead, while at Seattle and the cities of the Sound, timothy is most used, the kind depending in part on the availability and in part on the demand of the market. Alfalfa is, in many cases, as available as timothy, or more so; but the latter is used in the cities in preference because it is believed to be more suitable for horses. In fact, timothy hay is taken as the standard upon the citv markets. The type of press used at San Jose, Cal., is shown in PI.' VIL fig. 1. The item of freight often enters greatly into the market price of baled hay. For example, during the summer of 1901, grain hay was worth $8 per ton at Raymond, a town upon the railroad, while at Yosemite the freight charges brought it up to $10 per ton, and at the same time the «For further information upon the vetches, see Circular No. 6, Division of Agros- tology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, "The Cultivated Vetches." BALING HAY. 27 pi'ifo of hay at Nomo. in Alaska, was 7 coiits por pouiid. oven when doubh> compressed. Baled hay for export to Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, and other trans-oceanic points is compressed h}' the process known as "double compression." By means of powerful machines operated b}- electricity or hydraulic power, the hay, obtained by looseninu- ordi- nary l)aled hay, is compressed into square or cylindrical packages smaller and more compact than the ordinary bale. The hydraulic presses used for making- the so-called round bales are similar to those used for making the cylindrical bales of cotton. The measurements of the different types of double-compressed bales an^iboutas follows: Ordinary square bale, 15 l)y 18 by 38 inches; weight, 16U pounds. Square bale for Alaskan trade, 14 by 18 by 26 inches; w^eight, 100 pounds. Round bale, 2 feet in diameter, 24 inches long: weight, 145 pounds, or 36 inches long, weight, 26(» pounds. The saving of space in transit may best be understood by comjjaring the weight and cubic contents of baled and compressed hay. The ordinary baled hay occupies 140 to 160 cubic feet pei- ton; the square doul)le-compressed, 85 feet per ton; the round l)ales. 55 feet per ton. The hay used for this process is almost exclusiveh' timothy. The firm of Lilly, Bogardus & Company, Seattle, Wash., from whom much of the information concerning double-compressed bales was obtained, states that the timothy from the Ellensburg district. Wash., is much preferred on account of the fresh green color. A good quality is also obtained from the Spokane and Canir d'Alene districts. On account of the damp weather, timothy from west Washington is not so satisfac- tory^ in appearance. There is some demand for clover hay in Alaska, and much grain hay is shipped to Honolulu. There is also a small but increasing demand for alfalfa hay for export. DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I. Fig. 1. — Mast and boom stacker, with six-tined Jackpoii fork. The mast is held in place by guy ropes from *the top. Leading to the right may be seen the rope to which is attached a team of horses. The base of the derrick is in the form of sled runners, so that the whole may be drawn along the stack ])y attaching a team. Fig. 2. — A cable derrick, provided with a grapple fork. The cable is supported by poles at the ends, and these in turn by guy ropes. Plate II. Fig. 1. — A derrick stacker, with six-tined Jackson or California fork. The derrick is substantial, and guy ropes are not necessary. Stakes driven into the ground around the base hold the derrick in place. Fig. 2. — The same derrick, show- ing details. It will be observed that from the peculiar attachment of the ropes, the hay is swung over the stack Avhile it is being lifted from the wagon. Plate III. Types of derrick stackers. Fig. 1. — Derrick built on wheels and sym- metrically braced. Fig. 2. — Derrick with revolving pole. In both forms the central pole rotates in sockets. The ropes are not attached to this derrick. Plate IV. Fig. 1. — A common type of hayrack. Fig. 2. — A pole stacker, with four- tined Jackson fork. The angle of the pole is regulated by a short beam. This is often replaced by a chain or rope. The derrick leans toward the stack sufficiently to swing the fork load of hay into position, when it is elevated. Plate V. — Types of racks in common use for feeding alfalfa to cattle. Fig. 1. — Lattice rack. Fig. 2.— Box rack. Plate VI.— Types of racks 'for feeding alfalfa to sheep. These racks are longer than those intended for cattle. Fig. 1. — Lattice rack. Fig. 2. —Box rack. Plate VII. Fig. 1. — Hay press, for baling grain hay, San Jose, Cal. Five men and three horses are employed; one man and horse drag the hay from the stack to the baler, with a four-tined Jackson fork; one man drives a team attached to the horse- power; two men pitch the hay into the baler; one man works the press and weighs the bales. Average time, three minutes to the bale. Weight of bales, about 210 pounds. Bales tied with rope. Fig. 2. — Field of brome grass at the Kansas Experi- ment Station, Manhattan, Kans. A seven-year-old boy stands in the grass. 28 o Bui. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. 5. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate I. Fig. 1.— Mast and Boom Stacker, with Jackson Fork. Fig. 2.— Cable Derrick, with Grapple Fork. Bui. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Agriculture. Plate II. Fig. 1.— Derrick Stacker, with Jackson Fork. Fig. 2.— Derrick Stacker, Showing Details. Bui. 31, Burpau of Plant Industry, (J. S Oept. of Agriculture. Plate III. o m 3) o o c z H m o I rri m "^ ^P^'fl^^^Ktt^i'^ ^ ' 3tfc: ■• iri .^U vBB^Ik^^' •; -9P i B^SrS. { 1 ■^-^ ' % '. iL y^ t ' Ti '< \i w " wLmMS^ X ;; E^jUk i WP^ w ,4 ^^^^u, nnET^K^ '^ * _^^B ■| o m ■33 o H I m < o < z ■D O m Bui. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S. Dept of Agriculture. Plate IV. Fig. 1 .— a Common Type of Hayrack. Fig. 2.— Pole Stacker, with Jackson Fork. Bui. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate V. Fig. 1.— Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle. flHi k 1 ^I^M i ^^^H |p 1 [^.mLhAJ ''in^ mII HI 1^ Kljwy 'J^^BE^WB^B&Fl b^ ■a ^^^^^^^^^^^H «"- ^Ib^^^^^Bk P^ •■- ' ^^^^1 iWn-V ■-?"•" • ■ ~~*. J J - -^ nj^jfl I^HH} ^^H ^ ^^JS^^ !^ ^M^^^^H ;.— ^_. ' — """''^ ^r^^j ^m ' Fig. 2.— Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Cattle. Bui. 31, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI, ~i3f-- ""irf^f^-' i I Fig. 1 .—Lattice Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep. .^i^^ V-.* ■ Fig. 2.— Box Rack for Feeding Alfalfa to Sheep. Bui. 31, Bureau of Plant industry. U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VII. Fig. 1. -Baling Grain Hay, San Jose, Cal. Fig. 2.— Brome Grass at the Kansas Experiment Station. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY -BULLETIN No. 32. B. T. GALLOWAY, f/iiV/»/^urr.iii. A DISEASE OF THE WHITE ASH CAUSED BY POLVPdIil'S FRAXINUPHILUS. BY HKRMANX ^'()^ SCHKENK. Special Agent in ('hak(ie of the Mississiimm Valley Lahoratorv. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued Fehkiary 2.S. 190.3. WASHINGTON: government printing office. 1903. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. B. T. Galloway, Chief. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL IXVESTIGATIO^S. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Albert F. Woods, Pathologist find Physiologist. Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plead Pathology. George T. :Moore, Pki/ftiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Physiology. Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Breeding. Newton B. Pierce, Pathologist in Clwrge of Pacific Coast Lahoraiory. Hermann yon Schrenk, Special Agent in Charge of ^fissis.si2)JJi Valley Laboratory. P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Sub-Tropical Laboratory. M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of Investigations of Diseases of Orchard Frtiits. Mark A. Carleton, Cerealist. , Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Life History Investigations. C. O. Townsexd, Pathologist. Rodney H. True,« Physiologist. T. H. Kearney, Physiologist. Cornelius L. Shear, AssistaM Pathologist. William A. Orton, Assistant Pathologist. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist. Joseph S. Chamberlain, Expert in Physiological Chemistru. R. E. B. McKenney, Expert. . C. P. Hartley, Assistant in Physiology. Dean B. Swingle, Assistant in Pathology. James B. Rorer, Assistant in Pathology. Lloyd S. Tenny, Assistant in Pathology. Jesse B. Norton, Assistant in Physiology. Karl F. Kellerman, Assistant in Physiology. George G. HEDCijihlhis, concerning- which a nuniher of in<]uiries have hitely been made. It has been carefully studied ))y Dr. Hermann von Schrenk, who has charoe of the Mississippi \'allev Lal)orator\ of Vegetable Pathological and Physioloo-ical Investioations, located at St. Louis. This disease is pievalent in the ^Mississippi Valley, which is the western limit of the white ash, and is particularly severe in Missouri. Nebraska, and eastern Kansas, fully 5^»0 per cent of the trees in some localities beino- affected. The ash is extensively o-rown in parks and grounds, where the white rot does considerable damage. Its mode of growth and entrance into the tree may be taken as a type for many wound parasites destroying ornamental and shade trees, and it is believed that a knowledge of its life history and the methods to be used for comliating it will prove of considerable benefit at this time both to foresters and others interested in the preservation of trees. Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and PI ly biologist. Office of the Pathologist and Physiologist, Washington, D. C, Octoh,r 17,1902. COM H NTS, Page. Introduction 9 White rot 9 Geograi)hical distrilmtion 10 Susceptibility to thi.^ disease 11 Method of attack 11 Description of diseased wood 11 The sporophore 12 Microscopic changes in the wood 14 Growth of the fungus in dead wood 17 Remedies 18 Description of plates 20 ■ 7 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES. Page. Pl.\te I. Sections of living wliite ash trees attacked by PolypornH fraxinophilns. Fig. 1 . — Early stage of disease. Fig. 2. — Later stage f )f decay . Frontispiece. II. Fruiting bodies oi Pol i/porns fraxinophilus on white ash. Fig. 1. — Fruiting body of Fohjpornx fraxinnpliUuit. Fig. 2. — Two young sporophores on living asli. Fig. :>. — An nld sjiorophore on living ash : 20 III. Fig. 1. — Transection of healthy ash wood, stained with iodine. Fig. 2. — Transection of diseased ash wood, not stained 20 IV. Disease caused by Folijporni^ fraxinophlluH. 1. Transection of ash wood, showing change in wood cells caused Ijy fungus hyphse. 2. Transection of medullary ray from 1)rown wood layer, showing how the cells become tilled with a l)rown humus compound. 3. A medullary ra}% showing later stagL'. of fungus attack. 4, 5. Tran- section of wood cells, showing various stages of change of wood into a ))rown humus compound. 0. Starch grains from medullary ray cell. ~. Starch grains from diseased Avood. 8. Transection of rotted wood 20 V. Cross section of diseased trunk of white ash kei:)t in a moist place for several weeks 20 TEXT FIGl'KE. Fig. 1. Map shcjwing distribution of Fraxhms americana 10 8 B- ''■ I-'l- V. !•. ,.. I.-,,,. A DISEASE OF THE AVIIITE ASH CAUSED IIV POLY- POKUS FIIAXIXOIMIILUS. INTRODUCTION. The white ash is uttac-ked hv a iiuinl)or of fuiious parasites, which g-roAv on the living leaves and do more or less injury. ArctfUinii fra.r- ini Sell., the orange rust, is perhaps the one licst known, as it otuws . on almost all speeies of ash. even the introduced forms. It occurs with varying frequency in successive years, and. so far as known, has appeared in epidcMuic form l)ut once (iss.j). Among the funo-i whicli grow as parasites on leaves are several species of (Thirosporium. and SjiJuhi-npsis, as Avell as Sej^tora/ fra.r!/n' and l*h>jlh,f;ro\vs out over the older jx^rtioiis. wliicli niiikes old spoiophores look soniewhjit suk-atf. riic main hody »>!' the mature sporophore is very hard and woody. It is obscundy zoned and ])ale blown or rust color. The jjores arc \ cry rcy'ularly stratosc. They are short and of regndar cross section. The yountifcst ones are white, the older ones red l)rown. They extend from the point whei'c ti\e sporo[)hore touches the l)ark almost to the edtic of the sporo})hon\ There is some ([uestion as to what name ou«^"ht to be oi\'(Mi to this fungus. Two species of Polyporufi ofrowing on the ash have been described — PoIijjHirnx frdxttn^tix (Hull.) Fr. and Pnh/j>nrn-^ fr<(,i'!n- ophilus Pk. The European fungus is described 1)V RuUiard" and Fries* as sessile, corky-woody, azonate. at first sujooth, then concen- trically Hulcate, at tirst white, then red brown or brown, pale inside, pores minute, short, at lirst white, then red brown or rust coloi-. This description accords fairly well with the specimens distributed in Thiimen's Myc. Univ., No. Sor>, except that these specimens <'an hardh^ be called "woody." In ISSl Professor Peck describ(>d a fungus, PolyjxiriiK yr(/.rhii)j)/u7t/.'<, growing on ash trees in AU>any County, N. Y.. as follows:'' Pileus sessile, thiclc, ci»rky, subtriquetrous, narrow, somewhat Recurrent behind, the first year whitish, with a minute whitish tomentum or hairiness, then gray, finally blackish, in (iliapii of an unstained section taken from the region of brown wood at the outermost edi>e. It is rather diflicult to determine the origin of this decomposition ])roduet. It is possil)ly the hist product of a change in the starch grains, possibly also a substance derived from wood cells farther inward, which infiltrates into the nu^dullary ray cells and wood paivn- chyma in advance of the fungus hy})hie. The latter is the })robable explanation, for one finds the hunuis compound in the suumier wood cells, which had very little starch originally. The hunuis compound appears to form in many of the wood cells, however, as ji product of the walls. Figs, -i and 5 of PI. IV show various stages of this change. The cells tt are sound wood cells, which have very thick walls and a ver}'^ small Imuen. The walls of cells marked // are ver}' much thinner, and at these points they are coated with the humus com})ound. Such walls when stained with })hloroglucin show no \"ery sharp dividing line between the yellow hunuis compound and the a})parently sound ligni- lied wall. Cell c is completely tilled with the hunuis mass. This evi- dence that th«; wall actually changes into the yellow mass is not very conclusive. The humus compound does not seem to be formed from the walls of the medullary ray cells, where it is found ultimately, for no signs of change are evident in the walls of these cells. Tlu' local- ized distribution of the hunuis substance is very striking. It is always absent from the wood cells of the spring wood (PI. Ill, tig. 2) and from the large vessels. In the cells it appears to be as a solid mass, sometimes completely tilling the lumen (PI. IV, figs. 2 and 5), or in globules or plates adhering to the walls (PI. IV, fig. 2). It is this su]> stance which gives the brown color to the earlv stage of diseased wood. The next stage in the dissolution of the wood cells takes place abruptly, and is rapid after it has once set in. The liypha of the fungus first evident in the medullary ra3's spread through the wood of both the spring and summer bands, branching in all directions. They give off an enzyme which attacks the inner parts of the wood cells, extracting the lignin. A transverse section of wood in this stage (PI, IV, tig. 1) stained with phloroglucin presents a most striking picture. Here and there, in irregular groups and in all stages, one finds wood cells from which the hadromal has been removed; the extracted parts remain white and stand out in sharp contrast to the unaffected parts of the walls. In the figure the unaffected parts are shaded. The white parts represent delignified walls. The middle lamella is dissolved last and then the individual cells fall apart. When this takes place throughout larger areas, for instance, one or more wood rings become separated from one another, and this gives rise to the plates spoken of above. The white areas which are evident in the figures on PI. I represent wood thus destroj^ed. The individual fibers Ifi A DISEASE OF THE WHITE ASH. remain intact for some time, and are then gradually dissolved. In the oldest parts of diseased wood they are no longer present. Wood partially destroyed in the manner just mentioned was stained with potassium permanganate, HCl and NH^OH, according to the method recently described by Maule." A dilute solution of the permanganate is allowed to act on the wood for a minute. The wood is then treated with strong HCl until no color is visible. A drop of ammonia is then added. The lignitied walls stain a deep red, which in many respects defines the various parts of the walls more sharply than the phloroglucin reaction. The parts (PI. IV, iig. 1), which do not stain with phloroglucin do not stain Avith the permanganate. The contrasting color between the lignitied and delignified parts is even sharper. Maule claims that the permanganate reacted with an ether compound in the walls even after the removal of Czapek's hadromal. In the "delignified" wood cells of the ash even this compound (if there be a separate compound which reacts with the permanganate) is therefore absent. In the ash wood the white fibers are not pure cellulose. The same is true of many similar fibers from oak wood destroyed by species of Hydniim, or Polyporus igniarncs^ and probably of other white fibers resulting from fungus action on wood. With chloriodide of zinc, the best cellulose reagent we have, these fibers stain a yellow brown, not blue. This would indicate that the change in the wall is not the same as in many of the conifers, where the so-called lignin is destro3^ed, leaving a comparatively pure cellulose, as determined by staining reaction and macrochemical analysis. This subject is simply referred to in this connection, as it will form the subject of a separate paper. The change to an impure cellulose takes place locally, and generally very early in the course of the destructive action of the fungus. The mass of Avood destroyed changes somewhat differently. The first changes noticeable are in the medullary rays and immediately adjoin- ing cells. Very fine fungus hypha3 invade these cells, and shortly after the middle lamella disappear. Small cavities occur in thicker parts of this layer, i. e., where several cells touch (PI. IV. fig. 3, o)^ and these increase in size (/•), spreading laterally, until two or more join. Ultimately the individual cells become entirely isolated, The wood cells proper are gradually destroyed from within outward, the middle lamella? remaining longest. The change from perfectly sound wood to wood entirely dissolved is a very abrupt one (PI. IV, fig. 8). The hyphas invade a cell and dissolve the wall. So rapid is this that no intermediate changes can be found. A piece of completely rotted wood, such as occurs in the center of a diseased trunk (Pi. I), is repre- sented in PI. IV, fig. 8. A more resistant piece of summer wood is "Maule, C. Das Verhalten verholzter Zellinenihranen gegen Kalium permanganat, eine Holzreaction neuer Art. (Beitnige zur wissenschaftlichen Botanik, Vol. IV. Stuttgart, 1901.) (Reviewed in Bot. Cent., 89. 328, 1902.) GROWTH OF THE FUNGUS. 17 shown at one side. It is surrounded by an intricate mass of hyplu^, in which pieces of undissolved wood are held in much the relative position which they occupied in the sound wood. It will he seen that the wood is practicallv destroved entirelv. The mass of fundus hvv)hie o'ives a soft, leatherv, vieldiiio- consistencv to the rotted material. The young hypha^ i\re exceedingly line, so much so that it requires a strong immersion lens to detect them. They are perfectly colorless, and remain so when older. Clamp connection occurs frequently. GROWTH OF THE FUNGUS IX BEAD WOOD. The mycelium of the fungus grows only in living trunks, so far as could be ascertained. It will grow out from infected wood when the latter is kept in a moist place, but oitlv to a very small extent. A number of pieces of diseased ash trunks, each about a foot long, were placed in the nnishroom cellar of the Missouri Botanical Garden, some with the cut surface in contact with the soil, others exposed to the moist air. In order to test whether dead wood could be infected, several healthy pieces of ash trunks, recently cut and of about the same diameter as the diseased pieces, were placed in contact with the smoothed end surfaces of the diseased pieces. After two or three days the hyphi\? in nearly all the pieces began to grow out from the diseased areas (PI. V), both from the brown areas and from the parts entirely decayed. This indicates that the fungus is equally active all through the diseased parts. In the pieces wherp the cut surfaces were exposed to the moist soil or air the hyphsB grew for some weeks, making a thick, tough felt. They gradually ceased growing after about three weeks. The sound ash trunks were firmly united to the diseased ones after three davs, and after a week the funo-us had ^o thoroughly united the two pieces that they could not be pulled apart, using a moderate amount of force. After three months the healthy pieces were examined. The hyphfe of the fungus had grown into the wood for a very short distance only. They had effected practically no change. A hard cushion of mycelium had formed between the two pieces, and this was turning brown and had evidently ceased growing. These tests show that under the conditions of temperature and moisture which permit of vigorous growth of several of the wood-destroying fungi growing on dead wood the mycelium of the ash fungus will not grow for any length of time. The sound wood placed in contact with the diseased wood was full of starch at the time, so it could not have been lack of food which prevented the growth of the hyphas. A piece was removed from a sporophore immediately after it was brought in from the woods. The sporo- phore remained attached to a section of the trunk about a foot long. For several weeks hyphfe grew out from the injured surface, making a new rounded edge, doing so almost as rapidly as in the natural state. 12163— No. 32—03 2 18 A DISEASE OF THE WHITE ASH. REMEDIES. The white ash is becoming more valuable as a lumber tree, and it is being grown extensively as an ornamental tree in parks and grounds. In limited areas it will pay to adopt measures which will tend to pre- vent the disease described in the foregoing pages, or at least to recog- nize diseased trees and use them for lumber, so as to save the parts still sound. A disease such as the white rot of the ash is a difficult one to combat after a tree is once badly diseased, for the fungus grows in the interior of the trunk, where it can not be reached. Trees which grow in forest tracts should be cut down when badly diseased, so as to prevent the spread of fungus spores. That a persistent cut- ting out of diseased trees will in a comparatively short period reduce the number of newly infected trees has been demonstrated repeatedly in European forests, where it is now often impossible to find many well-known forms of disease which were formerly comparatively common. In parks and grounds diseased trees, when they appear healthy otherwise, need not necessarily be cut down, for the trees may remain alive and vigorous even when the heartwood is partially decayed. The only danger is that trees weakened in that way are liable to be broken off by windstorms. A diseased tree can be recognized as soon as the white punks or sporophores appear at a knot hole. As soon as a punk appears it can be cut out, and some of the diseased wood with it. The hole should then be tilled with tar oil and left open for a time. Tar oil should be added from time to time, as a good deal will soak into the decayed wood, and thereby arrest the further growth of the fungus to some extent. If the hole made by removing the punk is a large one it should be covered with tar paper, so that no opening is left for water or dust to enter. A sure method of combating this disease is by a careful system of pruning and the coating of all wounds with an antiseptic substance. Vigorously growing ash trees heal wounds rapidly, and after three or four years any ordinary-sized wound will be completely occluded. In treating trees planted in parks or gardens the pruning had best be done in the winter. Care should be taken to cut all branches as close to the trunk as possible, and after trimming the ragged edges of a cut the whole surface should be coated. Ordinary gas tar is the best sub- stance for this purpose. If too hard it should be heated so as to be fairly liquid and then applied with a brush. The gas tar, especially when warm, penetrates for a considerable distance into the wood and prevents the development of the ash fungus. It forms an air-tight and water-tight cover which is not destroyed by weathering, and which at the same time is objectionable to insects. Where the coating of wounds is carried on with care it will be entirely practicable and possible to prex^ent this ash disease. PLATES. ]9 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I. (Frontispiece.) Sections of living white asli trees {Fraxinus americana) attacked by PoJyporus fraxinophilus Pk. The upper figure shows an early stage; the lower, a later stage of the decaying process. Plate II. Fig. 1.— Fruiting body of Polyporus fraxinophilus Pk. growing out from a dead branch. This is a rather exceptional form of sporophore, which is found only on branches. Fig. 2.— Two young sporophores of Pol t/jwr us fraxinophilus Pk. growing on living ash. Fig. 3. — An old sporophore of Polyporus fraxinophilus Pk. growing on living ash. Plate III. Fig. 1.— Transection of healthy ash wood, stained with iodine so as to show the distribution of starch in the medullary ray cells and in the wood paren- chyma surrounding the large ducts. This section is made just outside the dark line dividing sound from diseased wood (see PI. I). Fig. 2.— Transection of diseased ash wood, not stained, showing the distribution of a humus compound in the medul- lary ray cells and in the wood parenchyma surrounding the large ducts. This sec- tion is made just inside the dark line dividing sound from diseased wood (see PL I). Plate IV. 1.— Transection of ash wood, showing one form of change in the wood cells caused by the fungus hyphpe. The darkly shaded parts are sound wood cells. The white parts are wood parts which do not stain witli phloroglucin. (Magnifica- tion same as for fig. 2.) 2.— Transection of medullary ray from the brown wood layer, showing how the cells become filled with a brown humus compound, here shown by the dotted areas. In two cells the dry compound has cracked. 3.— A medullary ray, showing a later stage of fungus attack. The middle lamellte are dis- solved out, separating the individual cells from one another. Note the absence of the humus compound. (Magnification same as for fig. 2. ) 4 and 5.— Transection of wood cells (highly magnified), showing various stages of change of wood into a brown humus compound. Note the great thickness of walls of neighboring sound cells. The humus compound is shown by the shaded parts. 6.— Starch grains from medullary ray cell. Normal grains and several grains showing how grains are now and then dissolved. The short line equals 10/i. 7.— Starch grains from diseased wood, showing how the large grains are broken up into smaller ones. (Magnifica- tion same as for fig. 6.) 8.— Transection from entirely rotted wood. The sound wood cells at one side belong to a small piece of more resistant wood. (Magnifica- tion game as for fig. 2. ) Plate V. Cross section of diseased trunk of the white ash kept in a moist place for several weeks. The fungus hyphte have grown out from the diseased wood, forming a white felt. 20 O Bui. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate II. Fig. 1. Fruiting Body of Polyporus fraxinophilus. Fig. 2. — Two Young Sporophores on Living Ash. Fig. 3. — An Old Sporophore on Living Ash. Fruiting Bodies of Polyforus fraxinophilus on White Ash. Bui 32, Bufftiu 0* Plant Industry. U. S Oept of AKriculture Plate III. I tn > r- -i X < > en I « O O o CO I o z o (n H > 73 o I H X m 3 m o c > < 3) > -< Ti o g CO m > CO m o > CO I $ O O o CO I o 2 C5 I C s c CO o o S •D o c z o Bui 32, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Plate IV. Disease Caused by Polyporus fraxinophilus. 1, Transection of ash wood; 2, transection of medullary ray; 3, medullary ray, showing later stage of fungus attack; 4, 5, transection of wood cells; 6, starch grains from medullary ray cell; 7, starch grains from diseased wood; 8, transection from entirely rotted wood. Bui. 32. Bureau of Plint Industry. U. S Oept of Agncultura Plate V. CROSS SECTION OF DISEASED TRUNK OF WHITE ASH KEPT IN A MOIST PLACE FOR SEVERAL WEEKS (SHOWING GROWTH OF MYCELIUM FROM THE ROTTED PART.) U.S. ni<:rARrMKxi- ov A(;Ricin;ruRH BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 33. h. T. <;.\l.l.(i\VAV, flii.f ..I Hmviin. NORTH mwm SPECIES (IE LEPTOCHLOi, BY A. S. IIITCIKOCK. Assistant Aorostoi.ocist, i\ ('iiARAoy A. S. IIITC^IICOCK, Assistant Agrostolooist, in Charge of Cooperative p^xperiments, GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. Issued February 10, 1903. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE., 1903. LETFl^.R OF TRAXSMriTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washington, D. C, October JS, 1002. Sir : I have the honor to transmit herewith a technical paper entitled "North American Species of Leptoehloa," and respectfully rec(mimend that it be published as Bulletin No. 33 of the series of this Bureau. This paper was prepared by Mr. A. S. Hitchcock, Assistant Agros- toloo-ist, in Charge of Cooperative Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, and has been submitted by the Agrostologist with a view to pnl)licatiou. Respectfully, ^ B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 3 PR H FACE, There is iiuich confusion in the names applied to our North Ameri- can jrnisses. This is partly due to llie fact that much new material has been collected since the revision of some of the imiiortant genei-a. The practice, formerly more prevalent than at present, of erecting' new species on the basis of a single specimen or of a very few speci- mens at most, has added to this confusion. The economic importance which the grasses have assumed in the last two decades 1ms made this confusion all the more embarrassing. It therefoi'e seems desirable that the bibliography, synonymy, and systematic relationships of American grasses be woi'ked out as rapidly as possible. The pi'csent paper by Professor Hitchcock is an attempt to do this for the genus Leptocldoa. It is based chiefly upon the material in the herljai'ium of the U. S. National Museum and that of the U. 8. Department of Agri- culture, but all the important public herbaria in this country were consulted during its preparation. The descriptions of the species are diagnostic rather than complete, but it is hoped that these will serve the purpose of students of systematic botany. Much time has been spent in working out the pi'oper relationship of the species and it is hoped that the short descriptions, the text figures illustrating the spikelets of each species, the plates taken from herbarium si)ecimens of several species, and the key to oui- United States si)ecies will take the place of more complete descriptions and render this papei- \'alua- ble to students of this genus. The species of Lepiochloa are iidiabitants of the warmer regions, only one or two of our species extending as far nortli as New York and Illinois. One of the si^ecies, Lepiochloa duhia, called sprangle, is an imijortant range grass in the Southwest, and recent experiments indicate that it will prove a desirable grass for cultivating in semiarid regions. W. J. Spillman, Agrosiolofjist. Office of the Agrostologist, Washington, D. C, October U, 1902. 5 COXTl-NTS I'age. <» Introduction Key to species of the United States ' History of seniis North American species - - Species exchided ... ~ Description of plates ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page. Plate I. Yig. l.—Leptochloa mucronata. Fig. 2.— Leptochloa viscida,.^ M IT. Fig. 1. — Lejjtochloa domiugensis, from Florida. Fig. 2.—Lepto- cJi loa domingensis, from Texas . _ _ 24 III. Fig.\.—Leptochloascabra. Fig. 2.—Leptochloa nealleyi 24 IV. Fig. 1. — Leptochloa fascicularis (Diplachne jirociimbens "Nash). Fig. 2.—Leptochloa fascicularis {Diplachne iraciji Vasey) 24 V. Fig. l.—Lejitochloa fascicularis (ordinary form). Fig.2.—Lep- tocliloa imhricata 24 VI. Leptochloa florihunda 24 TEXT FIGURES. [All five times natural size.] Fig. 1. Spikelet of Leptochloa attenuata 11 2. Spikelet of Leptochloa vmcronata .. 11 3. Spikelet of Leptochloa virgata 12 4. Spikelet of Leptochloa domingensis. from Texas 13 5. Spikelet of Leptochloa domitigensis, from Florida 13 6. Spikelet of Leptochloa domingensis, from Central America 13 7. Spikelet of Leptochloa nealleyi 14 8. Spikelet of Leptochloa scabra 14 9. Spikelet of Leptocliloa viscida . . 15 10. Spikelet of Leptochloa dubia 15 11. Spikelet of Leptochloa floribunda 16 12. Spikelet of Leptochloa aquatica .' 17 13. Spikelet of Leptochloa fascicularis 17 14. Spikelet of Leptochloa imbricata 19 15. Spikelet of Leptochloa spicata ... 19 16. Spikelet of Gouinia brandegei 21 8 B.P.I -42. «. P.P. 1.-98 \ORTH AMERICAN' SPECIES OE LI:PT()CHL()A. INTRODUCTION. In presenting the following review of the genus Leptochloa I have been able to bring together oih- knowledge of tiiis group of grasses without describing any new species. In i-egard to the latter, botanists will probably be thankful. l>ut, on the other hand, I have been con- strained in several cases to unite species kept sepai-ate by others. All will not agree with nie in the course I have taken in this i-espect. It is always difficult to decide where specific lines shall be drawn, but I have been governe/ ttie hranrhes <»/ thi' piinicli'. LEPTOCHLOA MUCRONATA Kuntli. Rev. Griiui. 1: '.U. is:r>. Transfers Eleiisrne mitcroiiata Mic-hx. (PI. I. fiK- 1: text fig. 2.) Eli'iiKiiiemiicroiiatd Mivhx. Fl. 1: G.'). ISO;}. •' Hah. in tnltis Illinoensibns.- Festiini tinformisUxm. 111. 1 : l!tl. n. 1044. ITiM. •• Ex Amer. Meritl. Comm. D. Ruhard. ■ Elensi ne Jil i form is Fers. Syn. 1: MT. IHOr,. • Hab. in Americ. merulion." Eleusiiie sparsa Mnhl. Descr. Gram. 13."). 1817. '• Habitat in Carolina ct (Teorgia."' Ox!/(h „ id (ittrini((t(i 'iintt. Gen. 1: TO. 1H1><. •• ( )n the banks of the Mis.si.ssii.i)i near New ( )rleans."" Mr. Nuttall says: " To this genus belongs the Elnisine filifortiiix of Persoon. growing in the tropical regions of America, nearly allied to the present species." ami is often (luoted as the author of o.ri/drnia filiforuiis. Vmt he does not make this combination. LejJtochlixi Jilifonii is Beanv. Agros. 71 and 166.1812. Transfers Eleusiiw fili- formis Pers. Roemer and Schtiltes (2: .ISO. 1817). also transfer Elriisinrjili- formis Pers. Presl.Rel. Haenk. 1: 2SS, 18:50. gives as the locality --Hab. in Mexico, ad Sorzogon Lnzoniac" In the herbarium of the U. S. Department of Agriculture are several specimens from India. I am unable to disting\iish these from the American plant. Hooker includes the.se under L. Jiliformis R. & S. (Flora Br. India. 22: t-Mts. 1S%.) I have examined the Asiatic material in European herbaria and feel satisfied that L. miicroitata occ-urs in southern Asia. It can be distinguished from the allied L. chinensis by the papillose sheaths. Flu.L— /-. o tin, 11,1 til. Fig. 2.— L.mnrronat,!. Eleusine elongata Willd. ex. Steud. Nom. ed. 2, 1: 549. 1840. Labelled '• Habitat in America meridionalis Humboldt. "" Types of this and the next examined in herbarium Willdenow. EleuHine stricta Willd. 1. c. Labelled " Habitat in San Domingo." Lepiochloct (itfrniiafd Steud. Syn. 20'.i. 18.-).*). Transfers O.rydenia attcnuata Nutt. This is kept separate by Mr. Nash in Britton's manual, but the char- acters do not seem to me to be sufiBciently constant for separation. This foi-m is represented by Bush. Nos. rm. 40:',. 792. 798. and Eggert, 219a. from Mis- souri, and Palmer, 892. 401, from Indian Territory. Leptochloa pdlncidnla Steud. 1. c. " Duchaissing legit in Panama." LeptocMoa pilosa Scribn. U. S. D. A., Div. Agros. Cir. 32: 9. 1901. -'Tyve specimen collected in sandy soil, Dappan. Travis County. Tex., 294, J. E. Bodin, September, 1891. " Prof essor Scribner states that •■ This species is closely related to Leptochloa mncronata. but it is at once distinguished by its rigid leaves and papillate-pilose sheaths." The leaves are somewhat more rigid than is usual in this species, but the papillate-pillose sheaths are found com- monly in L. mucronata. Stems tufted 6 to 10 dm. high, erect or occasionally more or less decumbent at base and rooting at the nodes. Leaves numerous, flat and rather soft, vary- ing from 1 to 3 or more dm. in length and as much as \ cm. wide. Sheaths more or less pilose from a papillate base. Panicle often 3 dm. or more in length, consisting of numerous slender spikes, arranged along a central axis; 12 KORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF LEPTOCHLOA. spikes usually 8 to 15 cm. long. Spikelets 3 to 4 flowered. 1 to 2 mm. long, rather distant on the axis, that is, scarcely overlapping. Empty glumes about equal, lanceolate, acute or acuminate, nearly as long as the spikelet. or some- times longer, lower slightly narrower. Flowering glumes thin, awnless, smooth or somewhat pilose on the nerves. The form separated as L. attenuata has large panicles, with acuminate empty glumes and flowering glumes pilose on nerves. Distribution.— F/rguuo toFlorida and west to California: Hall. TT7. 778; Wright; 765: Bush, 468. 590; Curtiss, 5998; Coulter, 785; Lindheimer. 212. Mexico: Palmer, 248. 22, 694. 749, 1364, 117. 50 (in part); Rose, 1542; Schott, 739, 590. Yucatan: Gaumer. 853. Cuba: Wright. 740 (in part), 741 (in part). Porto Rico: Sintenis, 3550. Var. PUIiCHELLA Scribn. Bull. Torr. Bot. Chib. 9: 147. 1882. " Santa Cruz Valley, near Tiicson."" Distribution.— rea^a.s to Arizona: Heller. 1884: Hall, 777, 778; Coues & Palmer, 511; Jones, 4176. 3Iexico: Palmer. 50 (in part). oOi, 694.8: Wright. 1316. Differs from the type in the short branches of the panicle, 2-3 cm. long, and the short narrow leaves. LEPTOCHLOA VIRGATA Beauv. Agrost.. 166; Atlas, p. 10. 1812. Refers Eleusine virgata to his new genus Leptochloa (I.e. p. 71 ). (Fig. 3.) Fig. 3.— 7.. virr/ata, from St. Croix. CynosvruH virgatns L. Syst. Nat., Ed. X: 1759. No locality is given, but he refers to Sloan jam., t. 70., f. 2, which is probably this species. In Spec. PI., Ed. 2. the locality is "Habitat in Jamaica." See Munro. "The Grasses of Linnteuss Herbarium."' Proc. Linn. Soc. Bot. 6: 33-35. 1862. Linnaeus mentions that the lower flowers are subaristate. Festuca virgata 'Lam. 111.1:189. 1791. " Ex ins. Domingi." States that the spikslets are aristate and " floscul. ultimis submuticis. " ' Eleusine virgata Pers. Syn. 1: 87. 1805. Description taken from Lamarck, I.e. Oxydenia virgata Nutt. Gen. 1 : 76. 1818. This is the citation often given, but is an error, asNuttall merely says. " To this genus belongs Eleusine filiformis of Persoon . . . and we may probably add the Eleusine virgata of Jamaica." Chloris pohjstachya Lag. Nov. Gen. 4. 1816. The short description scarcely suffices to determine this plant. " Spicis pluribus. patentibus: calycibus flos- culisque glabris. muticis: ciilmo compresso. H. in N. H. unde semina missit D. Sesse." Chloris pofeformis H. B. K. 1 : 169. 1815. " Crescit in calidissimis humidis fl.u- minis Magdalene prope Mompox: item prope Guayaquil et San Eowndon Quitensium." As synonyms are given Cynosurus virgatusL.. Eleusine vir- gata Willd.. and Leptochloa rt/-gato Beauv.. but a new specific name is applied because there is already a Chlorin virgata Sw. In the description it is stated that the awn is very short. Leptochloa procera Nees in Syll. Ratisb. 1: 2. 1828. Type examined at Berlin. Leptochloa digitaria Willd., ex Steiul. Nom. Ed. 2. 1: 549. 1840. Types of this and the next examined in herbarium Willdenow. Both specimens labelled " Habitat in America Meridionalis, Humboldt." Leptochloa unioloides Willd., 1. c. NORTH AMKKICAN SPECIES OF LKPT< »('HL(»A, 13 Leptochloa muticu Steiid. S\ni. 1: 'JOS. 1854. ••Siirinain Am. Austr." Type exainiin^d. DisTKiBLTio.N: Rnatan Mund: Gaiimer. Mc.victi: Liebmanii i.'.")!, 2.")J; Nelson 2768.2483. Cuba: Rugel 19:3; Wright 3436. 740 (in part), 741 (in part); Comlis 2r)(). Porto Rico: Heller 4o3r)- Sintenis 844. MoHitiiqiie: Bourgean 237.1; Hahn 163. St. Vincent: Smith 577. ,S7. Croix: Ricksecker 2.")S. St. Thontds: Eggers 68. Galapogos: Anderson 44. Brozil: Riedel. Traill l',>74. Paraguay: Morong 970. LEPTOCHLOA DOMINGENSIS Trin. Fnnd. Agrost.. 133. 1820. Transfers i'jjiiosnrits (loniingotsis Jactj. (PI. II, figs. 1, 2; text figs. 4. 5. 6. ) Cynosin-Kfi (torn iugensis Jacq. Misc. 2: 363. 1781. •• Faeie infra niedinni jnlosa dorsa glabra." Bromus capillaris Moench. Meth. 194. 1794. " Sub nomine Poae cajjillaris semina accepi." no locality given. Knnth refers this to L. dominginsis (Ennni. 1; 269) and the description applies, especially. "Folia lata infra glabra, supra deorsum scabra, basin versus pilosa," but Moench also says, • vaginie glabne."" However, the pubescence is confined to the margin of the .sheath. Eletisiiie domingensi.s IPeTH. 1: 87. 180r). " Hab. in Jamaica. St. Domingo." Rahdochloa doiii i )ige)isis Beanv. Agrost. 176. 1S12. Transfers ^ 7///o.\/(/;/.s- (/(/»<- ingensis, p. 84. He also refers Poa domingensis Pars. Syn. 1 : 88 to his genus Rahdochloa, and in this is followed by Kunth (1. c). Pig. 4. — L.d(>ininipliuhn)\ LEPTOCHLOA VISCIDA Beul. Grasses N. A. 2: 4:?4. IsjXi. Tiatisf.rs Diphtchne viscidtt Scribn. (Fl. I. fig. 2: text fiK- '•'• > DiphichiK- risciild Scrilm. B\ill. Torr. Bot. Club. 10: .!ti. 1SH;{. " Sautu Cruz Valley, near Tneson. Arizona." Colleeted by Pringle. Growing? in tufts in moist places, 1 to 3 dm. high. Leaves a few cm. long. 2 to 3 mm. wide. Panicle short, 1 to 4 cm. long, more or less enclosed in the sheaths. Spikelets 3 to 4 mm. long. 5 t<^ T-flo\vered. First glume ab )ut one-half llie second, j mm. long. Flowering glumes short awned, somewhat viscid on the back. Fifi. 9. — L. visrifla. DlSTRiBl-TioN: ArizoiKi: Pringle: Meanis T<.»3, H33; Griffiths 19S8. Xcir Mc.vico: Wright 2041. 2044. Me.vivo: Pringle 814: Palmer T4H. 74Mi. 092, 1TS!»: Brandegee o; "Wright 1086. LEPTOCHLOA DUBIA Nees in Syll. Ratisb. 1 : 4. isi4. In an article entitled •• Xovif plantarum species in horto botanico Bonnensi cultie." Nees al) Esen- beck. who .signs the portion relating to Lvptoddoa. describes L. jirocera. and .states that it differs from •■ Leptochhxt gnicile, Humb. et Kunth n. gen. et sp. I. p. 108 (sub chlori).vaginisglabris,valvuliscorollinisnudis,necciliati3, apice integris. nmcronatis, nee aristatis, flosculoruni nuniero niinore . . . A Leptochloa (Chlori) dubia Hunil). et Kunth 1. c. p. 101); panicula aequali. nsc subfastigiata, flosculorimi numero minore, valvulis nudis,nec ciliatis . . ." He thus incidentally transfers these two species of Chloris to Leptochloa. (Fig. 10.) Fig. 10. — L. dubia. Chloris duhia H. B. K. Nov. Gen. 1 : 169. 1815. '• Crescit in apricis subhumidis prope rupem porphyriticam el Penon, in convalle Mexicana, alt. 1168 hexap." Lejitostachys dubia Mey. Fl. Esseq. 74. 1818. Refers Chloris dvbia donhttnlly to Lepiostachys. Festuca ohtusiflora Willd. in Spreng. Syst. 1: 356. 1835. "Mexico." Type seen. Uralepishrevispicata 'QwcWey. Proc. Acad. Phil. 1862:93. 1863. "Northern Texas." I have examined Buckley's specimen in the herbarium of the Philadelphia Academy. 16 NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF LEPTOCHLOA. Diplachne dubia Scribn. Bull. Torr. Bot. Club. 10: 30. 1883. Transferred to tlie genus Diplachne. Leptochloa pjri nglei. Beal Grasses N. A. 2: 436. 1896. •■ D. pringlei Vasey ined. Arizona, Pringle. 1884."' In the Department herbarium is a specimen collected by Pringle in 1884 in Tucson (No. 13), which answers to the description given in BeaVs Grasses, but seems to me to be a small form of L. dnhia. This is figured in U. S. D. A. Div. Agrost. Bull. 7: 224, fig. 218. Diplachne dubia Pringleana O. K. Rev. Gen. PI. 3^: 348. 1898, transferred to Leptochloa by Scribner and Merrill, U. S. D. A. Div. Agrost. Bull. 24: 27, 1901, is a robust variety from Chihuahua, Mexico (Pringle 422). Stems 3 to 10 dm. high from a perennial root. Leaves long and narrow, tapering to a slender point as in L. fascicnlaris Gray, usually not over one-half cm. wide. Panicle, consisting of several or many more or less spreading spikes. .") to 15 cm. long. Spikelets. 5 to 10 mm. long. 5 to 8 flowered, or in the smaller forms only 2-fiowered. Empty glumes acute, upper 4 mm. long, lower a little shorter and narrower; flowering glumes broad and obtuse or emarginate at apex, the midrib sometimes extending into a short point. This species is readily distinguished by the broad, scarious emarginate apex of the flowering glumes. This is a valuable forage plant in the Southwest, where it is called "sprangle." Experiments indicate that it may prove valuable under culti- vation in the arid regions of our "Western States. Distribution: .4?-/zo??a; Lemmon 368. Neic Mexico: Wooiew -ilS. JV.ro.s; Jones 4210; Wright 767. Florida: Garber33; Curtiss 3450: Simpson 302: Tracy 6453. Mexico: Palmer 270. 273, 530. 381, 482. 468: Bourgeau 533: Brandegee 6; Schaffner671, 1079. 933: Pringle 422: Xantus 119; Botteri 690. C.— Diplachne. Spikelets several flowered, arranged more distantly on the branches of the panicle and not fonspiciiously one-sided. LEPTOCHLOA FLORIBUNDA Doell in Mart. Fl. Bras. 2=*: 89. 1878. Type locality: " ad ripas fluminis Amazonum inter Manaos et Santarem (Spruce).*' (PI. vi. fig. 1; text fig. 11.) Diplachne halei Nash. Bull. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 1: 292. 1899. Tj^e collected in Louisiana by Hale. Co-type in herbarium U. S. D. A. Fig. 11. — L. floribunda. Leiitochloa halei Scribn. & Merr. U. S. D. A. Div. Agrost. Bull. 24: 27. 1901. Transfers Diplachne halei. The relation of L. halei to L. floribunda is dis- cussed in the article last cited. Going over the same evidence I believe that we are safe in making the present disposition. Plant with the aspect of L. fascicularis Gray. Panicle oblong, rather compact, with numerous branches 4 to 6 cm. long. Spikelets 4 to 5 mm. long. 5 to 7 flowered. Empty glumes slightly unequal, upper about 2 mm., lower shorter. Flowering glumes with a very short point. Probably introduced in the LTnited States from farther south. Distribution: Texas to Brazil. Key West: Blodgett: 3Iississippi: Tracy 7451; Louisiana: Hale; Te^as: Drummond 322: Brazil: Spruce 1118. NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF LEPTOCHLOA. 17 LEPTOCHLOA AftUATICA Scribn. & Merrill. U. S. D. A. Div. Agi'ost. Bull. 24: 26. 1901. "Type specimen collected in shallow water near Cnernavaca, State of Morelos, altittide 17(»0 m., C. G. Prinijle. mU August 22. ISJi:." Resembles L. floribunda, but ditfers in having more unequal outer glumes, longer spikelets, with more distant flowers and obtuse flowering glumes. In L. floribunda the flowering glumes are distinctly short-awned. (Fig. 12.) Pig. 12.— L. nqnatica. LEPTOCHLOA FASCICULARIS Gray. Man. Ed. 1. 588. 1848. Festuca fascicidaris Lam. Tabl. Enc. 1: 189. 1891. " Ex. Amer. merid. Comm. D. Richard." (PI. IV. figs. 1. 2; PI. V. fig. 1: text fig. 18.) BroiiiKs jioa'formis fipreng. Nach. Bot. Gart. Halle 15. 1801. Dr. Dammer. of the Royal Botanical Museum of Berlin, has kindly sent me a transcript of SprengeVs description. '• Bromiis poceforniis mihi Pyrenaeen."' \\'ith refer- ence to a footnote which says ''Poa dkjitaia Michaux. Sed est certissime Bromiis. utut repugnet habitus: nam(iue aristae manifesto infra apicem glumte oriuntur. Br. panicula erecta stricta composita, spicatis sex floris sub secun- dis, foi. longissimis involutis." Fig. V^. — L.faxcicnlaris. Festuca polystaclnja Michx. Fl. 1: 66. 1803. '• In arvis Hlinoensibus.- Type seen. Diplachne fascicidaris Beauv. Agrost. 80 and 160. Atlas, p. 11, pi. xvi, fig. 9. 1812. Made type of new genus without description of species. Festuca procumbens Muhl. Gram. 160. 1817. A prostrate form ^\^th longer awns, but the characters are not constant, and it does not seem best to sepa- rate this as a species, as is done by Mr. Nash. Diplachne procumbens Nash in Britton Man. 128. 1901. Transfers Festuca pro- cumbens Muhl. There is a South American species by this name, Diplachne procumbens Arech. Gram. Urug. 354. 1894. 11068— No. 33—03 ^ 18 NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF LEPTOCHLOA. LeiJtochloa polystachya Knnth. Rev. Gram. 1: 91. 1835 (or earlier?). Transfers Michaux"s Fesfiica polystachya. Under the riile once a synonym always a synonym the Australian species should receive another name {LeptocMoa polystachya Benth. Fl. Austr. 7: 617. 1878). Bentham says (p. 618), "I have been able to retain Brown's specific name, as the American Diplachne panicularis [fascicularis] named Leptochloa polystachya by Knnth is gener- ally retained under the former genus. Syn. Cynoclon xwlystachya R. Br. Prod. 187. C. virgatiis Nees in Steud. Syn. 1 : 313. C. Neesii Thw. Enum. PI. Ceyl. 371." Diplachne acuminata Nash in Britton Man. 128. 1901. Represented from Nebraska. Rydberg 1713; Arkansas. Coville 87: Colorado, Clements 263. Uralejisis compositaBnc'kley. Proc. Acad. Phil. 1862: 94. 1863. "New Mexico. Dr. Woodhouse." I have examined this specimen in the herbarium of the the Academy. Diplachne tracyi Vasey. Bull. Torr. Bot. Chib. 15: 40. 1888. "In clumps growing in ditches at Reno. Nevada." Tracy No. 216. Dr. Vasey remarks that this is -'Near D. fascicularis.'' In the type specimen which is in the herbarium of the Department of Agriculture the lateral nerves are more con- spicuously excurrent than is usual in D. fascicularis. but there seem to be no constant characters by which this form can be separated. It is a large form, with more exserted panicles, found from Nevada to Mexico, Pringle 813; Palmer 691. Lejitochloa tracyi Beal. Grasses N. A. 2: 436. 1896. Transfers Diplachne tracyi. Festuca multiflora Walt. Fl. Car. 81. 1788. " Repens, paniculis erectis ovatis. spiculis 8 ad 40-floris acutis, floris angustis, acutis. fauce siibplimiosis."" This may refer to L. fascicularis. but the description is scarcely sufiacient. This plant is not represented in Walter's herbarium, which is at the British Museum. Stems tufted, smooth. 3 to 12 dm. high, erect or procumbent. Leaves narrow, usually involute. 1 to 3 dm. long. 3 to 5 mm. wide: sheaths smooth or slightly scabrous. Panicles from a few cm. to 2 dm. long, more or less included in the upper sheath; branches of panicle few or several and of variable length, in the larger forms as much as 1 dm., appressed or ascending, or at maturity spreading. Spikelets usually somewhat overlapping, 7 to 12 mm. long. 6 to 12 flowered. Empty glumes narrow, acute, lower 2 to 3 mm. long, about one-half the upper; flowering glumes 4 to 5 mm. long, with an awn of variable length, sometimes, especially in the procumbent form, as long as the glume; lateral nerves piibescent below. Distribution: Maryland to Florida and west to South Dakota and New Mexico. TeiTos; Jones 4203; Drummond 387, Kansas: Hitchcock 920. Florida: Nash 2306. St. Croi.v : Ricksecker 306. Cuba : Wright 3822, 3812. Mexico : Pringle 818: Palmer 254, 691; SchafEner 683 {D. procumbens). LEPTOCHLOA IMBRIC ATA Thurb. Bot. Calif . 2 : 293. 1880. " Larkins Station, San Diego County (Palmer No. 404); Fort Yuma (Major Thomas); and through the Gila VaHey to the Rio Grande."' (PI. V, fig. 2; text fig. 14. ) Diplacline inibricata Scribn. inTasey 111. N. A. Grasses 1^ : No. 42. 1891. Trans- fers Leptochloa imbricata and gives a plate. Dijilachne verticillata l^iees&Mey. Nov. Act. Nat. Cur. 19. Suppl. 1 : 158. 1843. (Not Leptochloa verticillata Kunth, 1835. ) '"Ad Copiapo in republica Chilensi. Martiol831.et ad Aricam Peruviae." The authors remark that this species differs from Diplachne virens of Brazil (presumably Tridens virens Nees) and D. fascicularis in having the glumes not awned from the apex but very shortly mucronate and from the first in its larger spikelets. I have examined T. virens Nees and think it is not identical with L. imbricata Thurb. NORTH AMERICAN Sl'KCIES OF LEl^OCHLOA. 19 San Lxiis de Potosi" (Virl., 1891. Transfers Leptochloa Lept ochhui virh'tii Fonrn. P\. Mex. 2: 147, IHSC). n. 1404). Type specimen examined at Paris. RalMlochloa imbric(ff(( Knntze. Rev. Gen. 3: 788, iinbnvata Thurb. Resembles in habit L. fiiscintldris Gray. The panicle is more oblong in outline, being more compact and with shorter branches, and often dark colored and more exserted. Spikelets also resemliling L. f^. ('(iniicii hUtnd, Mexico: Palmer, mi. Leptochloa rigida 'M\\r\.ro= Eragrostis sessilispica Buckley. Leptochloa palmeri Vasey ined. = Goiiinia viryata Scribn. Leptochloa mexicana Scribn. = 6'o(n'?n'o mexicana Scribn. PLATES. 23 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I. Fig. 1. — Lepfochloa mucronata Knnth. Athens, 111. The visual form. Fig. 2. — Leptochloa viscida Beal. Mexican Botindary Sur^^ey, Mearns No. 793. II. Fig. 1. — Leptochloa domingensis Trin. Florida, Simpson. Fig. 2. — Leptochloa domingensifi Trin. Hidalgo, Tex.. Nealley. III. Fig. 1. — Leptochloa scabra Nees. Louisiana. Langlois. This is the specimen upon which was based Leptochloa Langloisii Vasey. Fig. 2. — Leptochloa nealley i Vasey. Texas, Nealley. Type specimen. IV. Fig. 1. — Leptochloa fascicular is. The prostrate form that has been named Diplachne procmnbens Nash. Denver, Colo., Letterman. Fig. 2. — Leptochloa fascicidaris. The western form which has been \VA\ne(\. Diplachne tracyiYdiBeY. Reno. Nev.. Tracy, 216. Type speci- men of D. tracyi Vasey. V. Fig. 1. — Leptochloa fascicidaris Gray. Sheffield, Mo. Bush No. 804. The ordinary form. Fig. 2. — Leptochloa imbricata Thurb. Culti- vated in Grass Garden, U. S. Department of Agriculture. VI. Lepjtochloa floribunda Doell. The cotype of Diplachne halei Nash. Louisiana, Hale. A fragmentary specimen, but interesting because of its history. 24 o Bui 33, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate I. Bui. 33, Bureau of Plant Indust'y, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate II. 21 m "0 -i o o I r o > o o 2 Q ri 2 CO J" 11 33 O S r O X o > TI NO r m TI -I o o I r o > o o s 2 o m 2 CO 33 o m X > CO Bui, 33, Bureau of Plant Industry. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate III. 31 D m "D H O o I n O > o > CD > Tl P ■| r m "D H O o I r o > z m > m < Bui, 3?, Bur.-au of Plant Industry, U S Dent cW Agriculture. Plate IV. Bui. 33, Bureau of Plant Industry, U S Dept. of Agricultur Plate V. 03 X o > -i > Bui. 33, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. Fig. 1.— Leptochloa floribunda. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN No. 34. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. SILKWORM FOOD PLANTS: CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION. HY GEORGE W. OLIVER, Expert, ' SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Issued January 15, 1903. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Beverly T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. * A. J. PiETERs, Bofanist in Charge. David G. Fairchild, Agricultural Explorer. John E. W. Tracy, Kvpert. George W. Oliver, Expert. Bui. 34, Burpau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Frontispiece. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN No. 34. B. T. GALLOWAY. Chi, J of Bureau. SILKWORM FOOD PLANTS: CULTIVATION AND PROPAGATION. BY NEW YORic GEORGE W. OLIVEK, Expert, SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Issued January 15, 1903. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. LETTI'R OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, W(i.s/i;,i(/fo,i, I). (\, (Moher 27, 1002. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entith'd '"Silk- worm Food Plants: Cultivation and Propagation," hy George W. Oliver, Expert, Seed and Plant Introduction and Distril)ution, and respectful! V recommend its pu))lication as a ])ulletin of this Bureau. The paper has been prepared at the request of Dr. L. O. Howard, under whose direction the funds appropriated at the last session of Congress for an investigation into the sul)ject of silk culture in this country are expended. Dr. Howard has made a number of sug- gestions in regard to the scope and character of the paper, and has furnished the illustration used as a frontispiece, selected from a large number of photographs taken by him during the past sunmier while investigating the silk-cultural industry in Italy and other countries. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. ^ Contents. Page. Introduction 7 Methods of reproduction 8 Propagation by cuttings 9 Summer cuttings •' Winter cuttings 10 The cutting 10 Preparations for jjlanting cuttings 10 Indoor spring cuttings Jl Propagation l)y seeds 11 Grafting and budding 13 Koot grafting ."l 13 Scion or sprig budding 14 Shield budding 15 Raising stocks for grafting and budding 16 Soil 16 Planting 16 Pruning 17 Description of plates 20 5 * ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Mulberry trees and leaf gatherers, Lombardy, Italy Frontispiece. Plate I. Branch of the white mulberry, Morus alba, with large undivided leaves 20 II. Branch of the white mulberry, Morus alba, with divided leaves 20 III. An ornamental variety of mulberry, iforus alba,' yariety renosa 20 IV. Leaves of seedling Russian mulberry, Morus alba, variety tatarica.. 20 V. The native red mulberry, Morus rubra 20 VI. Paper mulberry, Broussoneiia papyrifera. A. — Leaf from old tree. B. — Leaf from 2-year-old seedling. C. — Twig with female flowers. 20 VII. The Persian or black mulberry, Morus nigra 20 VIII. Osage orange, Toxylon porniferum. Leaves, fruit, and bark 20 IX. Summer cuttings of the white mulberry, with leaves shortened 20 X. Winter cuttings of 1-year-old shoots of the white mulberry, ready for planting 20 XL Root grafting the mulberry. A and B. — Scions fitted on stocks, ready to be tied. C. — Stock and scion wrapped and ready to be planted 20 XII. Scion or sprig budding. A aiid B. — Scions prepared for inserting. C. — Stock with bark raised, ready for sciqn. D. — Scion in posi- tion, ready to be wrapped. E. — Stock with scion held in place by wrapping. F. — Stock waxed to exclude air and moisture 20 6 c; V>. I. n.— 30 B. P. I.— its. .. I . 1. ■ .— ^" SILKWOint FOOD PLANTS: CULTIVATION AND I'ROl'ACJATION. INTRODUCTION. There is a small family of plants closely allied to each other, a few of which supply the silkworm with food. This family is called Horaces. There are three o-enera of trees in the oroup— J/"(>?v6s% the mulberry (Pis. I, II, III, IV, V, and VII); To,'i/Ion, the Osac,re oran^^e (PI. VIII), and Broussonetm, the paper mulhorry (PI. VI). The last named, bein^^ unsuitable for silkworm food, will not aj^ain be referred to here. The Osage orang-e provides palatal)le food for the silkworm, and if the worms were free to select the leaves for themselves the tree would be satisfactory; but the leaves are selected for them often with bad results, for the young and immature leaves have a tendency to sicken the worms. Ignorance of this fact renders the use of the Osage orange dangerous. Of the mulberry there are many so-called species and a great many varieties, but there are only one or two species and a few varieties which are of importance in silkworm propagation. Chief among these for producing silkworm food is the white mulberry, Ilorus alia (PI. I). This is thought by some to be a native of China. It has long been known that the white mulberry and its varieties are hardy over a large area of the United States. The uninitiated should not be left to their own devices in growing mulberrv trees, especially if the enterprise is to be an extensive one, for if failure results, silkworm propagation in the particular section of the country where the experiment is conducted will receive a seri- ous setback. It is not the purpose of this paper to discuss the question of the most suitable varieties of the white mulberry, as this could only be done from a European point of view. Bureau, in his monograph, describes 27 varieties of the white mulberry alone. In Italy, silk- worm growers favor Iforus alba, variety moretti, and forms raised from it. France and Spain have each its favorite kinds. Japan has 7 O SILKWORM FOOD PLANTS. close upon 100 forms, one or two of which would probably answer all purposes, while most of the silkworms reared in China are said to be fed upon Jlorus multicaiolis. This mulberr^^ was larg-ely planted in the United States many years ago. Few, if any, of the original trees remain, but specimens which are thought to be wild seedlings of these are very plentiful in the Southern States. These trees are thoroughly acclimated and free from disease. It is therefore probable that there is now in the United States an abundant supply of material for propa- gating purposes, at least. It is intended to show in these pages how the mulberry may be prop- agated and grown so as to provide the maximum amount of leaves for the food supply of the worms. The white mulberry, under good cultivation, is a low-growing tree, seldom attaining a greater height than 25 or 30 feet. It will reach this height in a comparatively few years after planting. Although it will live to a good old age, its growth, like that of most other trees, is most rapid when young. As the trees attain their full height they become stocky and make a mul- titude of small growths, from which flowers and fruit are produced. The fruit, which is usually abundant, is not a favorite in this country, being generally considered too sweet and insipid. In shape it may be said to resemble more or less that of an elongated blackberry. In the vicinity of Washington the trees flower about the middle of May and ripen their fruit during June. METHODS OF REPRODUCTION. The usual methods of propagation in use for fruit trees are employed with varying degrees of success in the case of the mulberry. These methods consist of budding, grafting, layering, cuttings, and seeds. Grafting and budding are by far the most expensive methods, and it is doubtful if the results justify their use, so far as raising muDierry trees is concerned. Part of the work connected with budding and grafting consists in raising stocks, which are seldom large enough for use until they are two years old. At this age, the buds or grafts are inserted, and then troubles previously undreamed of present themselves to the inexperienced cultivator. Were the mulberry tree as easily managed so far as budding or grafting is concerned as is the peach, the use of these methods would be feasible, but unfortunately the mulberry is far from being an easy subject in this respect, and a few failures are apt to produce disappointment and disgust. It will frequently happen that old trees must either be removed or desirable varieties worked on them; budding or grafting may be resorted to in such cases. Layering consists in bending down a portion of a branch so that its stem after being notched may take root in the ground while still attached to the parent tree. It is a cumbersome method, however. MP:TH0DS of Rf:PRODUCTI0N. 9 Althouofh arood-sized plants can he raised in a short time by its use, it is seldom employed when any other method will produce the same results. Raisino- young trees from cuttings of the 1 -year-old ripened wood is a method which requires but little skill. As with budding and grafting, this method is instrumental in perpetuating varieties, as e\ery rooted cutting will eventually be a reproduction of the tree from which it was taken. This is not the case with plants raised from seeds, which always vary considerably from the parent. For this reason some mulljerr}' growers in Europe object to the seed method. Some of the seedlings, even from a single parent tree, will vary greath' in the value of the leaves for feeding purposes. Some will be thin in texture and lacking in the necessary chemical constituents; some, very hair}'; others thick, smooth, and m every way desirable. However, experi- enced mulberrv growers can readilv tell the value of a seedling tree for feeding purposes, and it is therefore possible to make a selection in this respect without nuich loss. PROPAGATION' BY CUTTINGS. SIMMER CITTINGS. In any group of seedlings there will always be found individuals the leaves of Avhich possess great adapta))ilitv for feeding purposes. These should certainly be propagated to perpetuate this desirable character- istic. Propagation should ])e started after the seedlings have made considerable growth in order to insure a good supply of wood. These plants should be increased by cuttings during the sunnuer months. At this season it is advisable to retain some of the leaves on the cutting and give treatment which will prevent shriveling during the process of rooting. The cuttings should be made from wood as ripe as possible; the leaves, besides being well matured, should be healthy and free from noxious insects. During July the lower parts of the current season's shoots will be found in good condition for propagating. Trim the cuttings similarly to those shown in PI. IX. At least two leaves shortened to one-half their length should be allowed to remain on the cutting. When placed in the propagating bed, the slips should be inserted in the sand in a direction sloping from the operator. Good results will follow if a cool propagating house is used, with clean sand as the rooting medium. When a propagating house is not avail- able, a wide frame provided with sash will answer the purpose. The frame should face north, and if in the shade of trees, so much the bet- ter. The sash should be kept closed, so that a humid atmosphere may be maintained until the cuttings take root. After they have made a considerable quantity of roots in the sand .they should be transferred 10 SILKWOKM FOOD PLANTS. to beds in the open. The beds should be 5 feet wide. Place the rooted cuttings about 6 inches apart each way and water copiously until established, when they must be freely exposed to air and sunshine. WINTER CUTTINGS. The eiLtting. — The principal supply of plants may be secured by propagating from cuttings, which should be made from dormant wood taken from the trees just after the leaves have fallen. In no case should the cutting wood be less in diameter than a quarter of an inch. The cuttings (PI. X) should be about 10 inches in length, mak- ing the upper cut about one-half inch above a bud. The position of the lower cut is immaterial. The cuttings should now be tied in Imndles of fift}^ and either stored for the winter or be inunediately put out where they are to root. Where the winters are not too severe, or in the Eastern States south of the thirty- ninth parallel, they should be put in the ground during autumn. North of this it will be found best to keep them under cover until the ground is in a condition to be worked in early spring. If the}^ are kept even for a short time in a dry place, they will lose their sap and become shriveled. Therefore they should be buried in moderately moist sand or sand and ashes. Under such conditions a good callus will have formed around the lower cut surface before the time arrives when they are to be put in the open. If sphagnum moss be easily procurable, it can be used very successfully as a substitute for sand or ashes; but in this case the bundles of cuttings should be smaller and they should be placed with the buds pointing upward, the moss to be packed tightly around them, with the top part uncovered. This is an excellent method for induc- ing the formation of a good callus. Prejxiratlons for planting cuttings. — Previous to putting the cut- tings in the open the soil should be plowed deeply, then harrowed and rolled until well pulverized. A furi-ow is made with a spade to a sufficient depth, a little sand placed in the bottom, and the lower ends of the cuttings placed on top. Fill in the soil to half the depth of the furrow, firm well with the feet, then fill in the remainder of the soil, leaving only enough of the cutting exposed to view to keep the top bud from being covered. Where there is danger of hard freezing weather after fall planting, cover the surface with rough stable litter or dead leaves, this covering to be removed before the buds begin to swell during the latter part of March. The rows of cuttings can be arranged in beds of any convenient width, leaving spaces between the beds; this arrangement will facili- tate covering, watering, and hand-weeding. If plent}^ of good ground is available, enough space should be left between the rows to permit of horse cultivation. During the summer the plants should be gone over several times and all superfluous shoots removed, leaving only CUTTINGS AND SEEDS. ' 11 one shoot to each phmt. It" lurj^o onoutjfh, the rooted cuttings should be removed to nursery rows the followinj^ fall. In no case should the plants be removed from the cuttin*^ beds to permaniMit locations. If the plants make sufficient jjfrowth the first season, they should be severely cut back; otherwise the o])eration should be deferred initil the foUowintr season. The lenjith of stem to remain as the future trunk must be regulated according to whether a dwarf or tall specinuMi is wanted. It must be taken into consideratit)n that the leaves are much more easily gathered from dwarf trees than from tall ones; in fact, they are more easily managed, not oidy so far as leaf gathering is concerned, but also in pruning and in keeping noxious insects and fungus diseases under control. The leaves on a tall tree are not all developed alike; those oiv the side fully exposed to the sun will naturally be in perfect condition, while on the opposite side they are softer and pr()bal)ly not so well adapted to the purpose for which they are intended. Medium-sized trees are therefore preferable for all purposes. INIX^OK SPKINi; < ITTINCS. Another method of propagation from cuttings, and a very success- ful one, consists in selecting medium-sized shoots al)out the ])eginning of November. These, ])efore being made into cuttings, are .sorted into bundles of ditierent lengths, tied, and heeled in ashes or sand, or in a mixture of both, and protected In' a frame having a northern exposure. During the winter they are taken out and cut into lengths of about 5 inches. These are tied in bundles and buried in moist sand or moss. In early spring they are unti(>d and put (juite thickly in a propagating bed having a mild l)ottom heat, where the}' will root rapidly. When such .a bed is lacking, wooden flats about 4 inches deep may be used for the reception of the cuttings; but they must have the protection of a frame covered with sash. If a little loamy soil is placed in the bottom of the flats the cuttings will remain in good condition for a considerable time after rooting and until a favorable opportunity arrives for planting them out in nursery rows. If those rooted indoors are given plenty of air after being rooted in the bed, they can be transferred to the open ground with safety during dull weather. PROPAGATION BY SEEDS. The most convenient and rapid method of propagation is undoubtedly from seeds, as they are quick to germinate and the seedlings make growth about as rapidly as plants raised from cuttings. Seeds sown shortly after being harvested will germinate in a few days. If kept over winter and sown in earW spring, the seedlings will appear within fourteen days. When the seed is spring sown, the seedlings will, if the weather be propitious, attain a height of from 12 to 18 inches in 12 SILKWORM FOOD PLANTS. one year: but during dry seasons thej will onh' grow from 6 to 12 inches. Seedlings from se^ds sown immediatel}' after the fruit ripens are alwa\^s small at the end of the season, but they produce strong plants the season following. Seed is usually produced in great abundance b}' nearly all of the species and their varieties. The mulberry, like the strawberry, black- berry, and raspberr}', does not ripen all of its fruit at one time; con- sequently several gatherings are necessary before a crop is harvested from any one tree. The earliest fruits can be gathered immediate!}' after they are ripe and the seed sown if desired. It should be remem- bered that seedlings thus raised have comparatively little time to make their growth; therefore, ever}' day counts. In gathering the fruit, it will be found easiest to shake the tree and pick the fruits from the ground. To remove the seeds from the sur- rounding pulp, put the fruit into a large bucket or tub and squeeze with the hands until it becomes a jelly-like mass. Add water and stir well until the contents are thinned sufficientl} to allow the seeds to sink to the bottom. The remaining material can be poured off. The seeds should be exposed to the air until dry. If it is desired to sprout them the same summer, they should be sown in beds in the open, the soil of which should previously be well worked by deep plowing and gone over several times with a harrow and a roller. -When the soil is sufficiently pulverized the ground should l)e marked off' into beds 5 feet wide and of any convenient length , leaving a space of 2 feet between the beds. To prevent washing of the soil and also to mini- mize the evil effects of drying winds, drive some stout stakes into the ground along the sides and ends of the beds, and to these nail eight or twelve-inch boards. The surface of the bed should be leveled and all stones and roots of plants removed with a hand rake. Sow the seeds broadcast, taking care not to sow them too thick, as there is a danger of the seedlings crowding each other. Crowding produces weak plants, because even the best soil is capable of sup- porting only a certain number of plants to the square foot. Press the seeds into the soil with the back part of a spade and cover lightly with soil screened through a quarter-inch sieve. In order to have the best results, the seed beds should not be exposed to the sun until a considerable time has elapsed after germination. This condition may be arranged as follows: Procure some pieces of 2 by 3-inch scantling; place two of the pieces parallel to each other 5i feet apart. Nail laths from one to the other, using the 2-inch surface in which to drive the nails. Leave 1-inch spaces between the laths. The slats are put lengthwise over the beds, and can be used with or without the side boards. Over the slats spread archangel mats, or can- vas, until germination takes place; these coverings should be fre- quently dampened. After the seedlings show above the ground, the GRAFTING AND BUDDING. 13 cloth coverings are to be kei)t on durintr the hottest part of the day only, and when the first true leaf appears they may be removed alto- gether and the shade necessaiy thereafter supi)lied by the lath slats. Water must be sup[)lied if the soil needs it. With spring-sown seed, the coverings over tiie lath shits may be disi)ensed with, but the sur- face of the bed should not be allowed to become dry until the s(>edlinos are large enough to take care of themselves. CRAFTINC; AM) RrDDlNO. In Italy and other silk-raising countries it is claimed that the leaves of trees raised from cuttings and seeds are superior for silk produc- tion, but that the quantity of leaves produced by trees so propagated is oidy about one-half the bulk of those from grafted or budded trees. Therefore, to produce a large (juantity. grafting and ])udding methods of propagation are practiced to a great extent. B(>fore the beginner undertakes these expensive methods of propagation in the United States, however, he should consider that land rentals are high in Europe and that land is cheap in the United States; therefore the American can afford to grow more trees ])y the methods which are instrumental in giving the best grades of silk. This is an important point to consider, and the writer is inclined to the belief that in the propagation of plants giving the highest grades of silk there will be little danger of a scarcity of material, as the mulberry thrives as well, if not better, in most parts of the United States as anywhere in Europe. For those who decide to try propagating by grafting and ))udding two of the most successful methods of performing the operation are here described. ROOT GRAFTING. This is performed in February and March. The stocks, which are two-year-old seedlings of the Russian mulberry (J/orus alha, variety tatarica), should show a diameter of at least three-eighths of an inch to give a satisfactory union. The stocks should be lifted in the fall and " heeled in " out of the reach of frost. The scions should be cut while in a dormant state and buried in damp sand in a protected place. In the latter part of February the work of root grafting (PI. XI) may be started. The preparatorv work consists in securing a quantity of strong tidy cotton, and of grafting wax made of beeswax tw^o parts, of resin two parts, and of mutton tallow one part. Put the ingredi- ents in a small tin bucket, place on a hot stove, and when melted drop in one or more balls of the cotton, allowing them to remain in the melted wax for live minutes; remove with a pointed stick. When cool they are ready for use. Procure a deep box in which place the stocks, keeping them covered with a dampened sack; another box 14 SILKWOKM FOOD PLANTS. should be provided for the scions similarly protected, and a third one for the grafted roots. These precautions are necessary, as a little exposure to dry air is always detrimental. In beginning work with the stocks sever the top from the root at the collar; this can be done best with a pair of pruning shears. Take a scion at least 8 inches long and attach by the tongue method, as shown in PI. XL Select stocks and scions of as nearly the same diameter as possible; make a slanting cut at the bottom of the scion and a similar cut at the top of the stock. In the case of the scion, make an upward incision at a point about one-third of the length of the cut surface from the base; this will form a tongue. Next make a corresponding incision downward near the top of the slanting cut on the stock. The idea is to have the tongue of the scion take the place which the knife blade occupies when making the incision in the stock. When the two parts are neatly fitted so that the bark of stock and of scion come neatly together at one side, or at both if possible, bind firml}' with the waxed cotton. This material should be used in preference to raffia, because when the grafted stock is buried in the ground, raffia would be certain to rot before the union took place, while cotton will remain in good condition for a long time. After the fitting and tying have been done, the grafted stocks should be tied in bundles of twent3^-five, the first tie to be made rather firmly near the upper part of the scions; secure them again near the base of the scions, but not as firmly as before. Care must be taken so as not to displace the fitted parts. The bundles should now be buried in sand in a frame or other protected place until planting time arrives. The grafted stocks should be planted out just as soon as the condition of the soil will permit. Plant them deep enough so that only the top bud is exposed to the light. The subsequent treatment is in all respects similar to that given for cuttings. Mark the kinds, with the dates of grafting and planting, on large labels which will not be easily displaced. SCION OR SPRIG BUDDING. Scion or sprig budding, as shown in PI. XII, is perhaps the most successful and easiest to accomplish of all methods. It is practiced on stocks which have not been transplanted for at least one year previous to the time when it is desired to bud. The stocks should be larger than those used for root grafting. The most desirable time for the operation is in spring, when the bark lifts easily; this will necessarily be after the stocks come into leaf. The scions must be selected from shoots of the previous season's growth, short and stocky, with two buds present (PI. XII, A and B). They should be cut from the parent plants in the fall and kept dormant until the opportune moment arrives when the stock plants are in a receptive condition. SCION AND SHIELD BUDDING. 15 111 preparing the stock for the scion the preliminary work is similar to that in shield budding the peach, cherry, or rose. At a point a little above the collar of the stock a transverse cut is made through the bark for a distance of half an inch or more around the stem (PI. XII, C.) This is followed by a longitudinal cut, beginning in the middle of the first cut and extending downward for about an inch. Prize up the bark at each side of the long cut (PI. XII, C) and it is ready for the scion, which is prepared for insertion by making an oblique cut through the base, so as to leave a cut surface about an inch long (PI. XII, A and B). The scion is then fitted in place so that its cut surface is neatly placed against the wood of the stock (PI. XII, D) laid bare by the raising of the bark. The next operation is shown in PI. XII, E, and consists in tying the parts together so that they will be held firmly while the union is taking place. In order to exclude air and moisture, grafting wax or clay should be applied, as shown in PI. XII, F. Within two weeks from the time of budding, the union will be effected, if everything has gone well. The ligature should not be removed, however, until there is danger of its cutting into the bark. The most essential part of the subsequent treatment consists in head- ing back the stock, so that the future head of the tree will be formed by the growth of the scion, and to do this successfully good judgment must l>e exercised. Cut off only a part at first, leaving some foliage on the stock until the Inids on the scion begin to push, when that part of the stock above the union should l)e removed with a sharp knife. Cover the wound thus made with grafting wax. SHIELD BUDDING. The shield system of budding may be used, but only in the spring, as the mulberry does not take kindly to shield buds inserted during the season suitable for most of our fruit trees. Shield budding consists in selecting a stock, either a branch or stem, from which the bark slips readily. In raising the bark of the stock for the reception of the bud, the work is similar to that described for scion or sprig budding. The bud is usually selected from dormant wood kept over winter in ashes or sand; but for this there exists no necessity, because there is always present an abundance of dormant buds on a growing plant, and these answer the purpose much better than budsl'rom dormant wood. To remove them, with a sharp knife make an incision in the stem about five-eighths of an inch ])elow the bud; bring the blade up under the Inid, severing a section of bark three- eighths of an inch in width, with the bud in the center; bring the blade out a little above the bud. If this operation is neatly performed the bud will require no further trimming before being inserted under the bark of the stock. The bark of the stock is then firmly bound over that of the bud and the parts kept in position with raffia. No 16 stlkwor:m food plants, waxing is necessary. Thie union should take place within fifteen days, after which the ligature should be loosened or removed as proves necessar}'. RAISING STOCKS FOR GRAFTING AND BIDDING. In grafting and budding from any particular variety which it is desired to perpetuate, the Russian mulberry, Jlojnis alba, variety tatarica, is the one used as stocks. It is of a robust-growing nature and has been found well adapted to the soils and climates of all the agricultural belts of the United States. It is this variet}' that is so much used in the West and Northwest for hedges, as it is the hardiest of all the mulberries. Stocks are best raised from seeds, and a suppl}^ for this purpose should be obtained from a reliable source, to avoid unnecessar}^ delay and disappointment. The sowing and the subsequent management of the seedlings are the same with stocks as with seedlings for general planting, except that when planted in nursery rows they should be placed about a foot apart, so as to give an abundance of space for the operator to work. SOIL. So far as has been ascertained, the mulberry is not particular as to the character of the soil. It seemingly grows equally well in a great variety of well-drained soils. Even in sandy and gravelly situations it holds its own. In shallow soils over hardpan the mulberry thrives after most of our fruit and ornamental trees have given up the struggle. Under the same conditions the Persian mulberry has been found to fruit abundantly. Notwithstanding its behavior under what would be supposed adverse conditions, there are few plants which respond more vigorously to applications of manure. In Japan it has recently been shown that by liming alone the percentage of liber in the leaves decreased very per- ceptibly. Again, by liming and also manuring with sodium nitrate and calcium sulphate a still further reduction in the fiber was appar- ent. The trees operated on were \\ meters (5 feet) high. Each tree was treated with 5<)0 grams (l.llbs.) of lime, -100 grams (.9 lb.) of sodium nitrate, and 200 grams (.-M lb.) of calcium sulphate. How the cater- pillars fared as a result of this change in the composition of the leaves is not stated. PLANTING. This all-important operation may be performed either in the fall or spring. After the leaves have fallen or are matured, no delay should occur in transplanting to permanent positions. When this period is selected, it gives good opportunities for the formation of new roots. PLANTIN(4 AND PRININCJ. l7 In sprinij' the trees may be tiuiisplanted any time after the around is in a \V()rkal>le coiulition and up to tlu> period when the t)uds are about to l)urst into orowtii. Spaees intended to l)e planted should he deeply worked beforehand l)y i)lo\vinij and harrowin^-, and after plantinjr the weeds should be kept down. The distance between the trees should not be less than 10 feet in the rows, and the rows should be the same distance apart. If the field devoted to the trees is more than 2 or 3 acres in extent, wider spaces should be left at intervals for waj^ons, etc. It is certain that trees planted l«l feet a])art will eviMitually occupy all the space; but when there is danoci- of their becoming- too nuich crowded, enough of the plants may l)e rooted out and burned to allow the remainder abundant space to develop. If this is done, those which are to remain permanently should be trained accordingly. The above arranjjement is the best for trees nearly all the branches of which can l)c reached from the ground, not only for pruning, but also for leaf gathering. In planting trees similar precautions should be taken to those in the case of ordinary forest trees; that is, not to allow the roots to become in the least dry from the time they are lifted from the nursery rows until planted in the field. As soon as they are lifted the roots should be dipped in a mixture of soil and water and kept covered until planted, so that they wdll not become dry. If the ground is naturally hard and the soil is poor, dig large holes, even for very young trees, as they grow rapidly and should be encouraged to make good, stout growths from the beginning. Put some good soil in the hole, spread out the roots on this, and cover with several inches of tine soil before firming with the feet. Allow the roots to be about the same depth in the hole as they were in the nursery rows. Prune back the growth of young trees one-half in the fall, and if necessary cut back to strong buds in early spring. PRUNING. The pruning of the trees presents no special difficulties so long as it is done early enough in the season to avoid late growth, which, if caught by cold weather before ripening, will perish during the winter. The principal pruning should be done in winter and should consist of shortening back strong growths so as to form a low, spreading tree. Keep the central part of the tree as free of growth as possible, to admit light and air. After the first cutting back, select three or more of the strong shoots to form the principal branches. If they are strong and show a disposition to grow upright, they may be kept apart by using three sticks tied in the shape of a triangle; place these in the center of the tree and tie the branches to them until they grow in the desired 11805— No. 34—02 2 18 SILKWORM FOOD PLANTS. direction. By careful attention to cutting^ out the undesirable growths the tree can be made to assume an}^ desired shape. In gathering* the leaves always allow enough to remain on the tree to insure its perfect health. If some of the trees show signs of fail- ing vigor as a result of excessive leaf gathering, it is advisable to allow them to grow for a season without picking, and by early prun- ing out of unnecessary growth permit those growths which are desir- able to become ripened. P L A T E S 19 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Fkoxtispiece. — Old mulberry trees, showing Italian method of pruning, with a group of embryo silk culturists (leaf gatherers) in the foreground, Lombardy, Italy. By this method of pruning, tall trunks from 8 to 10 feet from the ground are produced, necessitating the use of ladders for leaf gath- ering. From a photograph taken August 26, 1902, by Dr. L. 0. Howard. Plate I. Branch of the white mulberry. Morns alba, with large undivided leaves, of thick texture and smooth surface. The leaves of this variety are pre- eminently adapted for silkworm food. From photograph of a tree in the grounds of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. II. Branch of seedling white mulberry, Morns alba, with divided leaves. Seed- lings from the same parent will sometimes have leaves of the di\-ided form, others a^ssuming the undivided shape shown in Plate I, while some may have both forms on the same tree. III. An ornamental variety of mulberry, Moms alia, variety venosn. Of no value as food for silkworms. IV. Leaves of seedling Eussian mulberry, Morus alba, variety tatarica. This mulberry, owing to its extreme hardiness, is used for stocks on which to graft or bud the most valuable varieties in order to perpetuate their characteristics, propagation from seed being altogether unreliable for perpetuating varieties. V. The native red mulberry, Morus rubra. From a specimen in the Herbarium of the U. S. National Museum. The varieties of this species are usually prized for their fruits, being of little yalue as food for silkworms. VI. Paper mulberry, Broussonetki papyrifera. Valueless in silk culture. A. — Leaf from old tree. B.— Leaf from 2-year-old seedling. C— Twig with female flowers. VII. The Persian or black mulberry, Morus nigra. This species is cultivated in Europe and Asia for its fruit. From photograph of a tree in the grounds of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. VIII. Osai^j ora^e, Toxylon j)omiferu,n. Leaves, fruit, and bark. The mature leaves of this native tree provide excellent food for silkworms. IX. Summer cuttings of the white mulberry, with leaves shortened to prevent excessive evaporation. X. "Winter cuttings of 1-year old shoots of white mulberry, ready for planting. XI. Root grafting the mulberry. A and B.— Scions fitted on stocks, ready to lie t\ed. C— Stock and scion wrapped and ready to be planted. XII. Scion or sprig budding. This method of propagation can be used on strong seedling stocks or on branches of trees. A and B.— Scions pre- pared for inserting. C— Stock with bark raised, ready for scion. D.— Scion in position, ready to be wrapped. E.— Stock with .scion held in place by wrapping. F.— Stock waxed to exclude air and moisture. 20 () Bui. 34. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depl. of Agriculture. Plate I. Branch of White Mulberry (Morus albaj, with Large Undivided Leaves. Bui. 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculturs. Plate II. Branch of White Mulberry (Morus albai, with Divided Leaves. Bui. 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate III. Branch of White Mulberry i Morus albai, Variety venosa. Bui 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. Leaves of Seedling Russian Mulberry (Morus alba), Variety tatarica. Bvil (4 Biir.'aii o( Pl.int In.lust.v U' S P.'Pt ><> A.v,, ultii Plate V. Branch of the Native Red Mulberry (Morus rubra). Bui. 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. •1 T) o > o ■V m cc x S c; — . r ^* CD ■=• 3J •- 3) .-* -< n — 03 .ii O -t c_ Q en (n >->i O w 7 m H > Tq tl > P ■0 < ,_^ 3J TT m 31 < > r+ £3* n> B P (t> Cb O ^ Bui. 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI Branch of the Persian or Black Mulberry (Morus nigra). Bui. 34. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VIM Bui. 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IX. Summer Cuttings of White Mulberry, with Leaves Shortened. Bui. 34. Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate X. Winter Cuttings of One-year-old Shoots of White Mulberry, Ready for Planting. Bui 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XI. Root Grafting the Mulberry. A and B, .seion.s fitted on .stocks, ready to be tied; C, stock and scion wrapped and ready to be planted. Bui. 34, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XII U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 35. B. T. GALLOWAY, iMcf <>/ Jiiinau. RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS, AS BEARING U.\ iilE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. BY S. A. KNAPP. Spk( lAi. A(4EKT, SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. IssiEi) February, 14, 1908. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 19 0 3. BUREAU OF PliAlS^T IJfDUSTRY. Beverly T. Galloway, Cfiief of Bureau. SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. A. J. PiETERS, Botanist in Charge. David G. Fairchild, AgrintUural Explorer, John E. W. Tracy, Expert. George W. Oliver, E.vpert. S. A. Knapp, Special Agent. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 35. B. T. GALLOWAY, ChifJ of Rurmu. RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS, AS BEARING ON THE AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. BY LIBfMRY NEW YORK BO; '.N/CAL 0 -.ROEN S. A. KNAPP. Special Agent. SKED AND PLA>fT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. Issued February, 14, 1903. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. \ LETT1:R of TRAXSMriTAL U. S. Department of AciRicuLTURE, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washington, D. C, September 18, 1902. Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith a report on ''Recent Foreign Explorations, as Bearing on the Agricultural Dev^elopraent of the Southern States." ))v Dr. S. A. Knapp, Special Agent, Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, and recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 35 of the series of this Bnreau. This n^port has been submitted by the Botanist in Charge of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution with a view to publication. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James AVilson, Secretary of Acjrlculture. 3 PREFACE, The introduction of Kiushu rice by the Section of Seed and Plant Introduction of the United States Department of Agriculture in 1899 was the tirst step taken toward improving the conditions of rice grow- ing in southern Louisiana and Texas, and the marked development of the rice industry since that time is' in a large measure due to the value of this variety. There were still other problems connected with the rice industry, however, as well as those which concerned the improve- ment of extensive tracts of pine lands occurring in manv of the Southern States, which remained unsolved. These problems could be best approached by first securing all the information available in foreign lands, and Dr. S. A. Knapp was connnissioned to go to Asia to make a careful study of the rice industry and to secure such seeds as he might decide were valuable. Dr. Knapp's report deals with the life of the peoples among whom he traveled, as well as with the methods and cost of rice production and the cultivation and production of certain other crops, and alto- gether it constitutes a unique contribution to our knowledge of the agriculture and the condition of the farming communities of these countries. The report is submitted for publication as Bulletin No. 35 of the Bureau of Plant Industry. A. J. PlETERS, Botcmht in Cltarge. Office of Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, Wmhington^ D. 6"'., Stjjtemher 12, 1902. 5 CONTEXTS. Page. 9 Introduction Japan _^ Agricultural situation " Acreage and yield of food crops Methods of rice culture Field work Cutting rice Manure Farm wages Cost of raising rice 19 Farm life General remarks Ceylon „ Agriculture 22 Imports 22 Farmhouses India 22 Timber " Extent of arable land Fertility of the soil Green manures Commercial fertilizers Crop rotation - Public roads _,, 24 Conveyances Dress 24 Country houses Villages 25 Plows and scrapers ' Seeding and harvesting Rice farming Treatment of the seed bed and manurmg ^o Plowing and fertilizing Methods of cultivation . Product per acre Harvesting Thrashing 29 Wages 29 Cost of cultivation Northern limit of culture - Consumption of rice as food Acreage under cultivation Acreage under irrigation 7 8 CONTENTS. India— Continued. p Live stock and farm implements 33 Wells 33 Rice produced 34 Agriculture in the Punjab 34 Cost of living 35 Rice farming in Lower Burma 35 Rice milling 35 Rice for foreign markets 35 Selection of seeds 37 China 37 Agricultural conditions 37 Tillage of the soil _ 3g Irrigation 39 Cultivating, harvesting, and thrashing rice 39 Hulling rice 39 Production and cost of milling rice 40 Cost of building, etc .• 49 Exportation of agricultural products 40 The Philippine Islands 40 Rainf al 1 4][ Temperature 4X Range of products 42 Stock and pasture lands 42 Fodder plants 42 Sugar cane 42 Rice farming 43 Fruits 43 Timber 43 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Plate I. Fig. L — Rice mill among the mountains, Japan. Fig. 2. — Planting rice, Japan 44 II. Fig. 1.— Cleaning rice, Japan. Fig. 2.— Pounding rice, Japan 44 III. Fig. 1.— Tamil girls picking tea, Ceylon. Fig. 2.— Carts with bam- boo covers, Ceylon 44 IV. Fig. 1.— Plowing in India. Fig. 2.— English plow and Indian plow. 44 V. Fig. 1. — Wooden scrapers used in preparing for irrigation, India Fig. 2. — Well used for irrigation, India 44 VI. Fig.' 1.— Washing rice, China. Fig. 2.— Sugar boiling house, Luzon. 44 TEXT FIGURES. Fig. 1. Tract of land at Masuda, Japan, showing 409 irregular fields 15 2. The same land divided into 138 regular fields 15 B. P. T.— 14. S. 1>. T. n.— 31. RKCENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS, AS BEARING ON THE AGRI- CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. INTRODUCTION. The rice belt of Louisiana and Texas comprises a section of prairie land bordering- on the Gulf of Mexico and extending- westward from the parish of St. Mary, along the coast of Louisiana, 140 miles to the Sa])ine Kiver, and thence al)out 4(K) miles along- the Texas coast to Brownsville, on the Rio Grande, with an avei-age width of 60 miles and a mean elevation above the sea level of (] to 40 feet. Throughout the entire belt the surface has such a slight variation that for the pur])oses of irrigation it ma}- be considered practically level. The soil is a rich, sandy loam, in some sections, underlaid with a tenacious clay at the depth of 2 to 3 feet. In the other sections the soil is a strong clay or clay loam, with subsoil conditions similar to that of sandy loam. Between these extremes the sand and the clay form many grades of loams, but all easily tilled and fertile. At a depth of 8 to 16 feet from the sui-face a stratum of water-bearing sand is generally struck, the water answering for house purposes. At a depth vai-ying from 60 to 250 feet, veins of water providing a flow sufficiently strong- for purposes of irrigation have been uniformly found. This rice belt contains more acres of ara])le land than an}' one of a majority of the States in the Union. It is intersected by a large number of navigable rivers and minor streams, and has one of the most salubrious climates on this continent. Until within a comparatively recent date (1884), however, it was regarded as almost valueless for agricultural purposes, due to its inac- cessibility, its generally level surface, and its retentive soil. From an earl}' period an occasional small field has been successfully planted in rice, but this was invariably handled by primitive methods. In 1884 the adaptation of wheat machinery to rice culture began, and with it the rapid expansion of this industry. For nearly ten years thereafter the rice crops mainl}- depended for success on rainfall, and the rice farmers met with man}^ reverses, though irrigation by the construc- tion of surface canals was undertaken as early as 1890. 9 10 RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. By 1898 the canal and the deep-well system of irrig-ation had been satisfactorih' tested and the rice industry was rapidh' extending along- safe lines. At this point it was found that too large a per cent of the machine-handled rice was liable to breakage in milling. The attention of the U. S. Department of Agriculture was called to this fact, and measures were immediately taken to remed\^ the defect and to over- come the difficulty by the introduction of new varieties. The Depart- ment work resulted in the introduction of a variety from Japan, known as Kiushu, which has given very satisfactory results. In the evolution of this industry further difficulties became appar- ent. While rice could be successfully planted during- a period of nearly four months — March, April, May, and June — it all ripened at nearly the same time, giving onlv about one month for harvest against four months for planting; that is, it was demonstrated that the har- vest could not be prolonged in proportion to the period of planting, where only one variet}^ of rice seed was used. The varieties planted developed this peculiar characteristic, that whether planted in March or June the crop would mature at about the same time, that planted later developing in every instance with increased rapidity. The har- vest is the season of high wages, and the limited harvest period increased the expenses and prevented using the care necessary to prop- erly cure, thrash, and store the crop, thus greatly augmenting the cost and reducing the quality of the rice. If the period of harvest could be materially lengthened, ever}- grower could produce from 50 to 100 per cent more rice than at present. One farmer with a single helper and good teams can prepare the land and plant 200 to 300 acres of rice. It would be difficult to cut more than 100 to 150 acres with the same help, but if the harvest could be extended over three months' time, then the laborers who planted the crop could in the main harvest it. It became evident that this result could be attained only by plant- ing early, medium, and late maturing varieties, and that these varie- ties must be rices of fixed characteristics and habits of growth. Such, with few exceptions, can be found only in Asiatic countries, where centuries of uniform conditions of climate and culture have established fixed habits of growth in certain varieties of rice. A second and almost equalh' important reason for visiting foreign rice-producing countries was to observe methods of cultivation, har- vesting, and storing, in so far as these affect the quality of the grain, and, if decidedlv beneficial, then to suggest some wa}' by which the same result could be obtained by the use of machinery. It had already been observed bj- American rice growers using imported Japanese seed rice that it had several points of superiority over the home-grown rice and it was desirable to find the reason for this superiority. (1) It had generally been noted that the vitality and germinating power of the imported seed were nearly 40 per cent greater than that of domestic JAPAN. 11 seed. (2) That imported seed averaged better in color and was freer from rust than much of the domestic. (3) That it was less lial)le to be chalk}" and break under the milling- process. Now, were these conditions due to soil, climate, and selection, or to more careful methods of harvesting- and storing^ If upon investiga- tion it was decided that they resulted from the latter causes, then it was believed that the machinery used could be modified or added to till the rice grown upon the prairies of Louisiana and Texas would possess every excellence of the foreign article. It should not be inferred that the rice lands of the United States are limited to the coast prairies of Louisiana and Texas; but in that section rice farming is carried on entirelv with machinerv, and the peculiar difficulties are more pronounced. The alluvial lands of the Lower Mississippi and of other rivers flowing into the (rulf of Mexico, as well as many trat-ts in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, are adniirably adapted to the cultivation of rice, and growers in these districts are deeply interested in anything that relates to improvements in rice pro- duction. Except where the density of population demands the use of all land to meet the food supply, there will be found many unfilled tracts in the river bottoms of nearly all of the Southern States which can be profitably utilized for rice. Hence the best methods of pro- ducing rice are of general interest. Other questions receiving the earnest attentioji of the U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture relate to the vast tracts of land in the Gulf and South Atlantic States which are rapidly being denuded of their pine timber or on which the work of devastation has been completed. Except for some small value they possess as grazing lands they have been held in slight esteem from an agricultural standpoint. As a whole these lands possess a soil almost destitute of humus, with a stifle subsoil and a mechanical condition most unfavorable to the growth of plants. If valuable plants could be found that readily adapt them- selves to such conditions, then the pine-land problem would largely be solved. The Department therefore decided to collect from Asiatic countries the most valuable of such plants and to conduct a series of experiments on the pine lands of the South to determine the best methods of making them profitable to agriculture. JAPAN. Such marked benefits had been secured by the importation of Kiushu rice that it w^as considered worth while to find other rices in the Flow- ery Empire that would ripen at difl'erent periods, suited to the require- ments of our harvest. Two days spent at the Royal Agricultural College at Kamaba, Tokyo, and one day at Nishigahara Experiment Station gave a comprehensive view of the valuable work along prac- tical and scientific lines for the advancement of agriculture going on 12 RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. in Japan. Many tests had been made at these stations to determine the varieties of rice most profitable for general use among the farmers of Japan, and samples were exhibited of each variety tested. Fifteen of the best for general planting, including early, medium, and late varieties, were selected. In addition to the samples of seed exhibited, small plats of each variet}' were shown in the trial fields, from which, in connection with the notes that had been taken, the relative vigor and habit of growth of each variety were determined. Some deduc- tions which the Japanese experimenters have made may be profital^ly noted here: (1) The great importance of selecting pure-bred seed of even qualit}' and size of grain. (2) The removal of an}' light or imper- fect grains. This is done in Japan by soaking the seed rice in water several days till it is about ready to sprout, when it is thrown into salt water of 1.3 specific gravity and allowed to remain two minutes, being gently stirred meanwhile. The light grains will float; the others are removed, washed in cold water, and planted. When a seed drill is to be used the damp seed is first dried by being rolled in the ashes of rice straw. (3) Even sprouting of the grains is very essential to even ripening of the crop. This is accomplished by previously soaking the seed as above stated. The agricultural station experimenters found it profitable to use about 200 pounds of superphosphate per acre on rice. They also used with good effect soy-bean cake, horse manure, human excreta, and straw ashes. Too much straw plowed under caused fermentation and injured the roots of the plants. For their conditions the fertilizer should contain nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the ratio of 2, 1..5, and 1.2. It is the observation of scientific and practical men in Japan and China that the best rice can not be produced on low, marshy ground. Such rice is relativeh' dark in color and inferior in quality. The best rice is produced on well-drained land. It is claimed that one advan- tage of planting a rice field to a winter wheat or barley crop is that the soil is dried and pulverized. By the time the fields of growing rice had been carefulh" examined and the subject fully discussed with Japanese farmers, the 15 varieties originally selected were reduced to 10 b}^ elimination of the less valua- ble ones. At Kobe some additions were made to the list on the advice of E. H. Hunter, the well-known rice miller, and the final number of varieties selected for importation was 15. This seed arrived in the United States in good condition and has been planted for trial. If it meets expectations the Department will be prepared to distribute seed which has been full}' tested. AGRICULTURAL SITUATION. The following account of agriculture and rural life in Japan ma}^ be of interest: Rice forms the principal article of food of the Japanese, FOOD CROPS, JAPAN. 13 and its cultivation presents many interestintr prol)loms. First, about 45,000,000 people must be sustained largely by the product of 7,0()(>,<»00 acres of rice. This allows nearly (5^ persons to the acre and on the basis of the crop of 181)0 furnishes 4 bushels of hulled rice, or about 240 pounds of milled rice, for each person. This indicates that Japan has attained a density of population which allows only a narrow mar- gin between home consumption and possible production. ACREAGE AND YIELD OF FOOD CROPS. It must not, however, be inferred that rice is the sole food of the people. The dailv ration includes a variety of foods of a highly nitrogenous character, which, with vegetables, supplement the rice. The following official report of the number of acres of food crops pro- duced annually in Japan will correct to some extent the impression that the Japanese subsist almost solely on rice: Food crops of Japan, as reported for 1896.n Food crops. Acres. Total product. Rice l> Wheat Rye Barley Peas and beans Millet. l)uckwheat, and rape. Irish potatoes Sweet potatoes 6,967,461 1,104,200 1,681.267 1,626,260 1,343,191 2,077,982 57,790 195, 25i Bn! bunches to the yard. On poor lands double that numl)er might be set. They are so set that the soil covers the root. Thereafter the flow of water is not continuous. After a few days it is drawn ofl', and if the farmer is al)le to make the investment an application of rape-seed oil cake or tish scraps is made to the surface. As soon as the fertilizer has had time to become incorporated with the soil, water is again applied and withdrawn to allow the crop to be hoed. Every weed is cut out, and in .some cases the roots are slightly pruned. Each field is given the minute attention of a garden. "When the growing period is well advanced the water is allowed to remain permanently upon the field, care being taken to renew it by gentle inflow and escape, till a slight change in color indicates that the period of ripening is approaching. It is then withdrawn. While the slight change of color is given as the guide, the time when the milk in the seed has become dough is more correct, for the Japanese cut their rice when the straw is scarcely turned. Both the straw and the rice are better when the harvest occurs before the grain is dead ripe. CUTTING RICE. The grain is cut close to the earth, with a small sickle-like knife set in a handle. Four hills or bunches are bound too-ether with two straws, making a bundle 3 or 4 inches in diameter. These are gen- erally laid crosswise in small piles, and are allowed to dry during the da3\ At evening they are hung with heads down on bamboo poles, which, by means of cross sticks, are made into a structure like a fence. The lower pole is high enough to allow a space of about a foot between the suspended bundles and the ground. The upper pole is 18 to 20 inches above this, the rice bundles on the upper pole overlapping the bundles below. After the bundles hang upon the poles long enough to become dry they are taken down by women and the grain removed b}' drawing the heads through a hatchel. The grain is then placed upon mats and exposed to the sun till thor- oughly dry. Before it is sent to market the hulls are removed b}^ 11084— No. 35—03 2 18 EECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. passing the grain through a pair of burrs made of cement and bamboo and worked by hand. Winnowing is done b}^ the open-air process, or by a simple fanning mill. (PI. II, tigs. 1, 2.) After winnowing the milled product is placed in sacks deftly made of rice straw, each sack holding about 133i pounds. In these the rice is transported to market and the sacks are afterwards sold for paper material. MANURE. The extent to which night soil is used for fertilizing is scarcely conceivable. Whether in city or country, it is practically all saved in earthen receptacles and removed once or twice daily, according to the weather. The night soil is carried in wooden buckets, balanced on a pole across the shoulder. In cities the collectors sell to fertilizer com- panies what a man can carry (about 8 gallons) for 10 cents in silver. The companies transport it on flatboats to the rural districts, where it is applied in liquid form. In one corner of almost every garden and field may be found a cistern for storing liquid manure. FARM WAGES. Common laborers on the farm in Japan receive on an average 6 cents (gold) per day for women and 10 cents for men, with board, except in harvest time, when they are paid about double these amounts. Harvesting is expensive, considering the price of labor. On one occa- sion while in Japan a field was passed where two men were cutting rice. They stated they were paid 2 yen (|1 gold) for cutting, bind- ing, and hanging on poles the rice in a small field by the roadside. On measuring it there was found to be two-elevenths of an acre, the cost being at the rate of |5.50 (gold) per acre. Still, it is difficult to see how there could be any change in the methods of managing the riceindustry in Japan. The present system of transplanting insures the best results and allows time to take off the winter crop. By the hand process the straw, which is quite valuable, is preserved, the grain is cut at the right time, even where there is a variation of matu- rity in the same field, and there is no loss from the cracking of kernels by the hatchel. COST OF RAISING RICE. A farmer near Tokyo furnished the following data in regard to the profits of rice farming, the estimate being for 1 acre of land: Case 1. — Where the owner of the land hires the work done: Cost of seed, 16 sho, or nearly 36 pound.s $0. 62 Cost of manure 10. 00 Cost of labor, 120 days' work 18-00 Cost of repairing tools 1-20 Taxes, Government and local 8. 00 Profits 16- IQ Total - 54.00 COST OF RAISING KICK FARM LIFE IN JAl'AN. li) INCOME. Fliilled rice, 8 kokn, or about 2,520 pountl3, equivalent to 3,272 pounds of paddy or 20! barrels $48. 00 Straw, 480 kwan, or about 2 tons 4. 80 Chaff and l^roken rice 1 . 20 54. 00 Case 2. — Where the land is rented to a tenant, supposing the crops to be the same, the account would stand as. follows: Seed for 1 acre $0. f52 Manure 10. 00 Labor, 120 days, at 15 cents per day 18. 00 Repairing tools 1. 20 Rent, one-half the crop, or 1,260 pounds 24. 00 Total expenses of tenant 53. 82 Total i)roht : 18 54. 00 Total income, $54, as above. The foregoing statement, taken from tlie account book of a practical Japanese farmer, is full of interest and tlirows some side lights on their agricultural S3stem. The small amount of seed used is due to transplanting. Consider- able expense is incurred for manure, but a crop of 20| barrels per acre is large for old land. One is chiefly impressed b}^ the number of days' work, one hundred and twenty, expended on 1 acre, and the amount of the Govermnent taxes, §8. Eight hundred dollars taxes on a hundred acres of rice would stagger the American farmer. Where the tenant does the farming it will be noted that one-half of the grain produced is allowed for the use of the land and that there is no real profit. He simply receives pay for his labor. FARM LIFE. How the Japanese farmers live can best be understood by giving a description of some particular farmhouse. While visiting the distin- guished statesman, K. Mochizuki, at his country estate, a visit to the dwellings of some of his tenants was made. The following is a description of an average farmhouse on this estate: In the rear of the house was a garden of about half an acre, planted to field crops, beans, barley, etc., and in front was a garden of aljout one-fourth of an acre, artistically laid out and planted to vegetables, with occasional flowers. The main building was one story high, about 24 by 48 feet in size, wath the kitchen, 14 by 24 feet, across one end. Here was the usual clay stove, similar to those of Mexico, and a dirt floor, which by some process had been made as hard as cement. The remainder of the house was floored with mats. The family stores were packed in tubs, of which there were a dozen or more stacked at one side of the kitchen, all scoured to appear as if just brought from 20 RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. the shop. The farmer's wife was cooking at the stove. On the left of the kitchen, in front of the house, was a room 10 by 12 feet, covered with the customary mats and used for a sitting room. Each mat was 3 by 6 feet in size and 2 inches thick. Back of the sitting room and opposite the stove was a room, 10 by 12 feet, used for a dining room. Beyond the sitting room, in the front of the house, was a private room, 12 by 16 feet, for lodging. From the dining room a hallway extended to and along the end of the house. The partitions of the rooms, which are generally removed during the day to give more venti- lation, were made of light sash, with strong white paper instead of glass. On the right of the kitchen was an addition, 20 by 24 feet, for the serv- ants' quarters and general storage. Each servant had a small sitting room and a lodging room, with mats on the floor. There was no fur- niture, as we use the term, in the house; no chairs, tables, bedsteads, or mirrors. The members of the household sit, eat, and sleep on the matted floor. How everything can be kept so perfectly clean, without soil or stains, belongs to the mysteries of Japanese housekeeping. In front of the servants' quarters a servant was cleaning grain and spreading it on the mats to dry in the sun. The tub and pounder for cleaning rice was in front of her. She did not like to be photo- graphed in her ordinary garb, but was satisfied when told to turn her back and appear to be at work. Adjoining the house on the left was a beautiful Japanese garden or tiny park, possibly 40 feet square, containing the usual landscape, trees, and statuary. In the center of this park and about 20 feet from the farm dwelling stood an artistic little one-storj-^ house, about 14 by 16 feet in size. It looked like a large playhouse for children, but we were informed that this was a special house for receiving guests and serving tea. The Japanese paper windows were slid l)ack, revealing a beautiful little parlor about 10 feet square, with the usual seat or bench of honor on one side, and a tiny waiting room. The house was a frame building, cross lathed and plastered, with posts exposed, boarded up and down on the outside, and ceiled overhead. In the rear of the house was a barn, 18 b}^ 20 feet. The house here described is a typical Japanese farmhouse, one story, with thatched roof. The laborers' cottages are built upon the same plan, but are smaller. The residences of wealthy country gentlemen are somewhat larger and with more elaborate grounds. Imt they retain the same simple arrangements and general style of living. There is no arrogant caste in Japan. The rich and the poor, the landlord and the tenant, the employer and the employed, live on the most intimate and friendly terms. Among the farmers of Japan, rice is considered quite a luxury and many can not afiord to eat it regularly. Among the poorer farmers barley, millet, and sweet potatoes are substituted for rice. Among the AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IN JAPAN AND CEYLON. 2l better nourishedJiipanese the following constitutes the otdintiry bill of fare- Boiled rice, boiled rape and daikon (half radish and half turnip), bean soup, and barlev tea for breakfast and dinner. Lnm-h at noon is the same without the V)ean soup. A little salt tish is added oc-ca- sionallv. GENERAL REMARKS. Japan has an area of 147,655 square miles, exclusive of Formosa, about one-tenth of which, or 15,(K)0 scpiare miles, is tillable. Hie population is now not far from -t5,00(».()nO, which gives a ratio ot 3 000 persons to the square mile of arable land. At this ratio the State of Iowa could sustain 15(1,000,000 people and Texas more than HOO 000 000. This statement is sutiicient to refute the claim that JapaneJe agricultural products may at some future time compete with America in our home markets. Japan is rapidly becoming a great manufacturing and commercial nation, for which she is, by virtue of the genius of her people, exceedingly well adapted. The trend ot events indicates that when that time arrives Japan will be a large con- sumer of American food and tibiM- products. CEYLON. The island of Cevlon, a British dependency, in latitude 6^ north, contains •25.365 square miles and has a population of 8,31)1,-143, com- posed of about two-thirds Cingalese and one-third Tamils, with a few Moormen and Malays. The Cingalese are the primitive inha))itants and occupv mainlv the southwestern portion of the island. 1 hey ai-c medium sized, well formed, rather light colored, intelligent, and digni- tied Thev are inclined to play the gentleman even in the roughest work, but are honest and make good clerks. The Tamils have been imported from the mainland, presidency of Madras, and bear a strik- ing resemblance to the American negro. They do a large part of the farm work and furnish most of the servants. There is not, however, much general farming done in the island, the central portion of which is occupied bv mountain ranges, though the valleys are fertile. Only about 4 400 square miles are under cultivation of any kind. The thin sandy soil of the coast does not appear to be adapted to any crops except the cocoanut palm, which grows with amazing luxuriance, and the nuts constituting an important article of export. In the higjier lands and on the mountain sides are large plantations of tea and cotlee, with occasional groves of cinnamon and other spices. AGRICULTURE. Rice is the main crop, but not enough of this is produced for home consumption, large quantities being imported from Fenang, Singapore India, and Burma. When preparing the ground for rice, a kind ot 22 RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. wooden drill, shod with iron and drawn by oxen or water buffaloes, is used. Two crops are produced, of which the principal or maha crop is sown in July, just in time to catch the late summer rains, and is harvested in December or January. The small or yala crop is planted in February and harvested in June. About 15 bushels per acre is considered a fair crop on the west coast, but in Anuradapura Province 30 to 50 bushels per acre are frequently obtained, depending on con- ditions. The Cej'lon rice is rather inferior in qualit3\ IMPORTS. The imports of cleaned rice at Colombo, Ceylon, from January 1 to November 10, 1900, were 486,652,390 pounds; from January 1 to November 1, 1901, 459,229,540 pounds. This shows that Ceylon, with a population of about 3,500,000, imports more rice than the entire product and annual imports of the United States. FARMHOUSES. The farmhouses are one story generally, with about three rooms, and are commonly built of brick or sun-dried clay, with mud-plastered walls. Some houses are built of poles, lathed with bamboo or bamboo matting, and are plastered with clay outside and inside. The floors are of tile or clav, and the roof is covered with grass, palm leaf, or tile. The usual cost of a house is 850 gold. Farm laborers receive about 8 cents (gold) per daj-*, without board, but generally prefer to work for a share of the crop. One-half is given to the laborer. (PI. m, figs. 1. 2.) INDIA. India (including Burma) has an area of 1,800,258 square miles and a population a little short of 300,000,000. This population is not uni- formly distributed. It is very dense in the valleys of the Gauges, the Brahmaputra, and the Indus and its tributaries. Bengal, with an area of 151,543 square miles (less than three-fifths of Texas), has a popula- tion of about 75,000,000. TIMBER. The absence of timber in India strongly impresses the traveler. No fences, rarely woodlands, and no barns in a country almost exclusively devoted to agriculture indicate a peculiar people. In the government reports considerable forest lands are mentioned. The\' are, however, in remote sections and quite inaccessible as a source of supply of wood and timber for the centers of a dense population. The price of wood for fuel is from ^16 to $40 per cord and not very good wood at that; hence the masses must live without fire, except the little that is used for cooking. AGRICULTURAL CONDITIONS IN INDIA. 23 EXTENT OF ARARI.E LAND. The hii-uo proportion of the whole country that is jiral>lo i.s one of the tir-st and most noteworthy observations of the traveler in India. In Jai)an one-tenth of the entire area ean be tilled, and in China a lari,^e part of the country can never be sul)j(H'ted to the plow, althouoh China as a whole ranks high in fertile lands; l)ut in India, out of the 544,993,122 acres of surveyed land in 1899, seven-eh-venths were available for cultivation and 190,487.058 acres were actually sown with crops. FERTILITY OF THE SOIL. One of the most suggestive items to be noted is the fertility of the soil, after a tillage of so many thousand years, with little manure of anv kind. With few exceptions all the dung of animals is used for fuel, and as far as observed those exceptions were limited to the gov- ernment farms. Many good farmers are said to use some cattle excreta on the land, but in all the small villages visited dung, made into patties and dried in the sun, was almost the only fuel. In the vicinity of cities the preparation and sale of cattle dung for fuel is quite an industry, and as far as observed it is all used in this way, GREEN MANURES. Inquiry at all the government agricultural stations visited and observations throughout India failed to develop a single case where green manures had been used to fertilize the soil. A further evidence that it is not used is found in the fact that the plows used simply stir the soil, but can not turn anything under. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. It is difficult to use commercial fertilizers among Hindu farmers, for they suspect that all such preparations contain bone, blood, or some refuse of dead or slaughtered animals, and they declare it will defile them to handle it. An English gentleman in Calcutta told me that he had purchased some commercial fertilizer for his garden and his Hindu gardener refused to put it on the land. He employed a low-caste man to apply it to the vegetables, and after it was applied the o-ardener made no objection to working the soil on which it had been scattered. CROP ROTATION. Rotation of crops is well understood and practiced. This gives a partial relief in case of continuous cropping. To some extent sum- mer fallowing has been employed as a renovating method. On the whole the present fertility of the soil is marvelous. 24 EECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. PUBLIC ROADS. The main highways are models of excellence, broad, well graded, and bordered with loveh' shade trees, such as the ban^^an, the tamarind, and the sacred neem. At suitable distances wells have been made, and near them are located rest houses for weary travelers. Generally the rest houses are unfurnished and without any resident care-takers, but all day and all night they are occupied by weary travelers for a shorter or longer rest, as the case may be. Here and there may be seen a single man or woman; but general!}^ the people travel in fami- lies or small groups, carrying their more cumbersome bundles upon their heads and their wealth upon the ankles of their women in the form of silver bangles. Mingled with the countr}- people are numerous pack oxen and don. keys, with immense loads of all kinds of products. The oxen are noted for their docility and the donkeys for their diminutive size, being not more than 30 inches tall ; but they are sturdy little animals and for their size the}" carry enormous loads. CONVEYANCES. In addition to the native families and village groups traversing the principal highways, there may be seen numerous carts drawn by oxen with a peculiar hump on their shoulders, the straight yoke resting on their necks and tied tirmly to their horns. The carts are crude affairs. In some cases the wheels are merely two thicknesses of 2-inch plank, crossing each other at right angles, while in other cases the wheel con- sists of a large hub through which spokes are mortised to support a wooden felly 5 or 0 inches deep and 5 inches wide. The carts invariably have large wooden axles, which soon wear the hubs and allow the wheels to stand at considerable angles. Occa- sionally a native official or the family of some village headman rides in an ekka or a tonga drawn by a trotting ox. DRESS. The clothing of the country people is exceedingly simple. In warm weather the men wear a turban and a single loin cloth so wrapped as to form a sort of breeches, extending to the knee; generalh' they have neither shoes nor sandals. In cold weather the cotton loin cloth is sui^plemented by a thick cotton bedquiltworn like an Indian's blanket. The women wear short skirts and a thin cotton waist without sleeves, and in addition a long shawl or wrap of thin cotton stuff is thrown over the head and twined about the shoulders or allowed to hang loose. COUNTRY HOUSES. There are no countrj^ houses, in an English sense, in India. The ryots (farmers) live in a collection of dwellings called a village for INDIAN VILLAGES PLOWS AND SCRAPERS. 25 want of a better term. These houses are of one story, ha\intr a slnol(> room, or occasionally two. In the mountain ret,^ions the walls are of stone, while on the plains they are made of brick or dried mud. There is usually a small yard in the rear of the house. There are openings, but no windows, and the doorway, if closed at all. simply has a ])amboo- niat curtain. The roofs are made of tile and the floors of cla^- hardened by repeated washings with cow duntv. VILLAGES. Between the houses in the small villages are narrow, tortuous allej'^s, but i-arely regular streets. The village is surrounded by a high wall of stone, brick, or adobe, which answers for a fence against depreda- tors, the cattle being brought within this inclosure at night. Each village has its customs and unwritten laws, and it and not the indi- vidual is the political and social unit. It has its blacksmith and car- penter, its doctor, and its headman or chief, and generally its l)anker. The government taxes for the village are paid b}^ the headman, who assesses them among the inhal)itants in proportion to their property or income. Local matters are settled by the village, though in impor- tant cases there lies an appeal to the British courts. The village doc- tor, the carpenter, and the blacksmith are paid in rice at the harvest, not for specific work done, but as a sort of annual salary. PLOWS AND SCRAPERS. The plows used in different provinces vary somewhat, but have a general resemblance in that there is no moldboard and the instrument is simply one for stirring the soil. It consists of three pieces- -the standard, the tongue, and the steel drill at the tip of a wood support or shoe. (PI, lY, fig. 2.) The standard is usually 3 by 4 inches and about 5 feet long, into which, about 12 inches from the lower end, the tongue is mortised at an angle. The standard stands a little less inclined than ordinary plow handles. Near the upper end is a single pin used for a handle. A steel bar about 1 inch square at one end and brought to a point at the other passes through the lower end of the standard and is supported by a V-shaped shoe. This steel bar stands at such an angle that the sharp point penetrates the soil 3 or 4 inches or more, as may be required. It amounts to nothing more than a sharp-tooth drill, and costs 60 cents complete. This plow is drawn by two oxen. (PI. IV, tig. 1.) In use, the steel tooth cuts from the land a cloddy strip from 4 to 6 inches wide, and this is then broken up by the wedge- shaped wooden shoe. Afterwards men and women pass over the fields and smash the lumps with their mauls. Some ryots use a crude clod crusher made of wood and drawn by oxen. The harrow is much like ours, but crude. After the harrow has been used the routine of labor depends upon the crop to be planted. 26 RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. In some cases where the farmers were planting wheat they used a wood scraper to prepare wide, flat furrows for the seed. This scraper consists of a board 1 by 6 inches and 3 feet long, with a handle 4 feet long attached to one edge at the center. The lower edge of the board is sharpened. It requires two men to operate it— one holding it on the ground by means of the handle and the second standing about 8 feet in front and pulling it from the holder by means of a rope. In this slow way a shallow furrow is formed for the water of irrigation. (Pl.y, tig. 1.) It must not be inferred from the inferior implements used that Indian lands are not well tilled; the farmers make up for the defects of tools by additional labor. SEEDING AND HARVESTING. Seeding is done in a variety of ways, one method being for the dropper to follow the plow and drop the seed into the drill-like fur- row through a tube behind the plow, the next furrow covering it. Or the seed may be sown broadcast and harrowed. Or, in case of rice, the plants may be set into the flooded field from a seed bed pre- viously prepared. The grain is all hand cut, and when dry, thrashed by tramping with oxen. RICE FARMING. The experience of the practical and scientific farmers of India has shown that rice does best on a deep clay or clay-loam soil, but the sub- soil should not be so stiff as to prevent all natural drainage and cause stagnation of water, since rice is more luxuriant where fresh water is constantly added. Sandy -loam soils, if manured, produce an excellent quality of rice; the more manure the better the rice. More seed per acre should be used on sandy -loam soils than on clay loams. Rice sown late in the spring when the weather is hot requires more seed than if sown in the early spring. If sown in a seed bed and transplanted the least seed is required— about 35 pounds per acre. Drilled rice requires about double this quantity, and if broadcasted 15 to 20 pounds more per acre are needed than when drilled. While there are many hundred varieties of rice, for practical pur- poses only three general classes need be recognized, i. e., early, medium, and late ripening. TREATMENT OF THE SEED BED AND MANURING. The site for the seed bed is usually selected on land more or less ele- vated to insure drainage. If water is allowed to stand on the field between crops it produces a ferment which is unfavorable to the future production of the plants. The use of green stable manure on rice fields just before planting is not recommended. It is of little value, due to the fact that where ordi- nary manure is kept very wet it undergoes no chemical changes by RICE CULTIVATION IN INDIA. 27 which useful phmt food is libonitod. Therefoiv inanuro should be well rotted and applied long enough liefore planting to have some effect; better still, in case of a winter crop on the same field the manure should be applied to the winter crops. It is a common prac- tice after plowing to burn trash on all seed beds from which rice plants are to be transplanted. Coarse grass, dead leaves, brush, rice husks, straw tramped under the feet of the oxen, dust piles, and occa- sionally some cattle dung are piled on the plowed land, and on top of this a thin layer of soil is spread to prevent rapid burning. The trash is then fired. The effect of this on the seed bed is the production of an ash for the support of the young plants and the destruction of weed seeds and injurious roots near the surface. The action of the heat on the surface soil also tends to liberate potash and phosphoric acid and to make the soil more po-rous. PLOWING AND FERTILIZING. Plowino- and other heavy field work are generally done })y bullocks, water buffaloes, or camels. Great emphasis is placed on repeated plowing. In India most of the rice lands receive no manure and have not received any for centuries, yet they continue productive, and when well tilled yield fair crops. One writer states: "All that is necessary to produce a ])umper crop is timely and a])undant rain." Some writers seem to think that the fertility of the rice lands of Ben- gal is due to the overflowing of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. But these streams do not overflow and deposit silt to the same extent that this is done by the Nile. Moreover, this would not explain the fertility of the terraced rice land. The continuous fertility can not be due to the use of manure, for practically no commercial fertilizers are used, and almost all the droppings of cattle are used for fuel. It is mainly due to great natural strength of soil, good tillage, and rotation of crops. METHODS OF CULTIVATION. In December the old straw and trash are raked into pil md burned on the land. The field is then plowed, and at intei-vals it is given two more plowings, after which it is left until the latter part of March or early part of April, when the clods are crushed, and advantage is taken of the first rains to plow it twice more. The field is harrowed after each of the later plowings. Harrowing is done with a ladder having pins on the under side. The cultivator rides on t>he ladder, which also serves in a measure to break the clods. When the rice is up a few inches it is raked. This stirs the soil and to some extent thins the plants. The average product of a field sown and cultivated in this way is 6^ barrels per acre. Where rice is sown in a bed or nursery and transplanted into the field, the field is first plowed three or four times in water, thoroughly 28 RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. mixing the soil into thin mud. After the mud has settled the ground remains covered by about 2 inches of water. Where the fields depend on rainfall for moisture the plants are transplanted during a shower. The plants are set in hills 6 inches apart each way, two or three plants being set in each hill. In this way about 28,000 plants are set per acre. Transplanting for the main or aman crop is done in Ma3% and for the spring or boro crop in December and January. It is possible in some parts of India to raise five crops of rice in one year. The first crop is called aus and is the summer harvest from July to August; the second crop, or kaida, from September to October; the third, chatan aman, from October to November; the fourth, called boran aman, from December to Januar3\ and the fifth or l)oro crop from April to May. In the sub-Himalayan districts labor is verj^ cheap, and it is cus- tomary to dig over the fields for rice with the mattock to the depth of 6 inches. This costs 80 cents per acre. PRODl'CT PER ACRE. It is difiicult to arrive at anj^ correct estimate of the yield per acre from direct statements by native farmers. By dividing the total product in a given season bv the total number of acres planted it has been ascer- tained that the average yield of rice per acre for all India is 823 pounds for the principal crop and .558 pounds for the spring or boro crop, making 1,.381 pounds, or about 8^ barrels, for the year, as only two crops in one year are generally raised. This is not a large showing for two crops, and it is quite evident that if one crop should be raised and the land devoted to green-manuring crops the remainder of the season, the one rice crop for the j-ear would exceed the amount at present secured from two crops. HARVESTING. Rice is cut with a small sickle or hook knife and bound at first in bundles about 3 inches in diameter. After it has cured a while, the small bundles are made into larger ones and drawn to the thrashing place, where they are placed in hollow stacks, one tier of straw deep, with the heads on the inside. Twenty women can on an average har- vest 1 acre in a day. One binder, four horses, and two men in the United States daily do the work of two hundred women in India. THRASHIXCi. The usual mode of thrashing is to clear and level a small space of ground, wash it with cow dung until hard, and to pile on this circular form the rice to be thrashed. Five bullocks are tied to a rope tandem, and driven around on this pile of unthrashed grain. Sometimes, to expedite the work, a second line of bullocks is used. Two men drive the two lines of bullocks and two men sift the straw with forks. In this way four men and ten bullocks will thrash the grain from an acre RICE CULTIVATION IN INDIA. 29 in six hours. When the straw is to be kept whole the rico is thrashed 1)V beatiiiji- the heads over the edge of a ])lank. Duriiiii- the liarvest and thrashing time the farmer has to We eon- stantly on the wateh to see that the paddy is not stolen by dishonest lal)ort'rs. He frequently builds a straw hut close to the thrashing floor in whieh he can sit and sleep. It is a regular custom to surround the pile of paddy with a ring of ashes so that it can not be approached without evidence. WAC.KS. Money wages are not usually paid. In some cases the reaper gets 1 load out of every 21 he cuts. In other cases he gets !(► or 12 pounds of paddy for a day's work. Usually he receives 6 pounds of paddy and half a pound of cleaned rice. Laborers are generally employed ])y the year, and the wages paid are much less than the above, averag- ing about 2 cents per day. The ordinary plan upon which crops are raised is to form a farmers'' club. For this purpose five to ten farmers, each the owner of a pair of bullocks and a plow, form a club to help each other plow their lands. COST OF Cl'LTIVATIOX. The ryot never keeps any account of his expenses, and hence it is difficult to estimate the cost of cultivating an acre of rice; but allow- ing customary wages and estimating the time required for the work performed, the following is an approximation of the cost on an acre of land where rice is sown broadcast: Plowing 4 times, 12 clays' work for 1 man and a pair of Inillocks, at 3 cents per day ?0. 36 Carrying and spreading manure, 4 men 1 day - 08 82S pounds seed paddy 32 One plowing and harrowing after seeding, 3 teams 1 day 08^ One weeding, 20 women 1 day, at 2 cents 40 Repairing levees, 16 men 1 day, at 2 cents 32 Reaping, 16 women 1 day 32 Carrying the bundles of paddy to the thrashing place or floor 04 Thrashing, 4 men and 10 bullocks 1 day, at 2 cents for each man and 1 cent for each bullock ^^ Cleaning and winnowing, 3 men 1 day 06 Rent of iirst-class land per acre 96 Additional charges per acre 12 3.24^ Yield of first-class land, 1,010 pounds of paddy, valued at 3. 84 Profit per acre 'J^J The foregoing estimate, obtained from the most reliable authority, is impressive because it shows the low condition of agriculture in this Himalayan district. The wages of a man one da}- — 2 cents— and the charges for the use of an ox one day — 1 cent — are prices below our conception of values of labor. 30 RECENT FOREI&N EXPLORATIONS. It is noted that no account is made of manure and straw. Very little manure is generality used, and in many districts none. In the interior, where the above estimates were received, the straw and manure have no commercial value. While wages are low the price of rice is also low only 32 cents for 82f pounds of paddy, or 61i cents per bar- rel of 162 pounds. When the rice crop is handled in the usual way — the plants grown in a seed bed and transplanted to the field — there is an additional cost of 6i cents for preparing the seed bed; and the cost of pulling plants find transplanting into the field, which requires five men and twenty-eight women one day, is ^6 cents. There is, how- ever, a saving of 40 cents for weeding and also a saving in spreading manure and other small items, which reduces the total cost of an acre of transplanted rice to 30 cents more than that of broadcast, leaving a net profit of 29i cents per acre on the crop. In the above estimates no account is made of the Government assess- ments on rice, which are considerable. These are sufficient at least to wipe out all profits in this class of farming. The following estimates of the cost of raising rice under high-class conditions are furnished by Hon. James Mollison, inspector-general of agriculture for India: Preparing and tilling seed bed $0. 64 Manure used on seed bed, 6 loads; on an acre, 20 loads -1.16 Cost of seed, 80 pounds ^0 Plowing, puddling, and leveling 1-52 Transplanting ^^ Weeding seed bed '^° Top dressing with castor cake, 200 pounds per acre 96 Cutting, thrashing, and winnowing 1-44 Tying and stacking bundles of straw 24 Cost of irrigation ^-28 12.32 Add Government tax per acre 4. 80 Total cost per acre -*- - - 17. 12 Probable crop, 3,000 pounds, valued at $24. 00 Value of straw 4- ^^ „^ ^^ 25. 60 Net profits per acre 8. 48 The above estimates are based on wages in the Surat district, which are higher than in the Himalayan, but still very low. Under good cultivation the cost per acre is equal to that in the United States. NORTHERN LIMIT OF CULTURE. The question is frequently asked how far north rice can be produced profitably. Hon. C. L. Dundas, director of agriculture for the Punjab, stated that he could not tell, but assuredly as far north as his adminis- tration extended, 34° 15' north latitude. PRINCIPAL CROPS OF INDIA. 31 CONSUMPTION OF RICE AS FOOD. The people in India do not keep account. of farm products, except as they are compelled to bj' law; hence it is impossible to arrive at any exact data except through Government sources. In some provinces of India rice is the principal food; in others, less rice is produced and it constitutes onlv a portion of the food supply. In RtMig-al the 75,000,000 people on an average consume 1 pound of rice per capita each day, or 365 pounds per year, as determined by the Government reports. This would appear to be large, but in the wa}' this amount is obtained it covers all losses, wastage, etc. The following table gives a comprehensive statement of the food crops produced in India and the relative proportion of rice to other grains: Table 1. — Area {in acres) under crop of principal products in each province of British , India, 1897-1900. [Native States not included.] Province. Rice. Wheat. Upper Burma Lower Burma Assam i 3, 653, 5.S3 Bengal 39, 656, 800 Northwest Provinces 4, 592, 603 Oudh Ajmer-Merwara ParganA Miinpur Punjab Sind Bombay Central Provinces Ber^r Madras i 6, 429, 045 Coorg 94. 523 1,818,962 6, 277, 678 2, 899, 792 2% 167 482, 795 898, 853 1,251,143 4,708,624 44,138 Total a72, 808, 952 15,813 14 223 1,541,400 4,601,392 1.619,583 1,838 1,292 5,488,598 347,445 811,. 590 1,633,777 21,192 20, 636 Barley. 120 59 1,448,200 3, 1.54, 323 1,020,830 27,214 898,443 8,910 44, 328 6,005 234 3,318 Millet. 804,950 748 183, .500 3, 395, 313 547, 575 91, 109 2,504 1, 243, 605 1,014,678 11,035,141 80, 887 60, 102 4,155,425 18,219 616,104,793 6,611,984 i 22,633,756 Corn. Peas, beans, i pulses, etc. 76,300 11,492 2, 823 1,802,200 1,143,430 462, 575 62, 438 1,101 1,239,723 1,400 184, 8.54 104, 201 7,701 95,234 195,523 45,010 86, 283 .5,141,200 3,943,905 2,224,635 14, 240 509 1 , 047, 568 165,678 1,861,980 2,921,603 236, 661 5, 4.53, 883 80 5, 195, 472 23, 338, 758 Province. Upper Burma Low er Burma Assam Bengal Northwest Provinces. Oudh Ajmer-Merwara Pargana MAnpur Punjab Sind Bombay Central Provinces BerSr Madras Coorg Total Sugar cane. 2,236 9,330 28, 315 873, 000 1,023,851 235, 320 199 16 360, 978 ;2,615 70, .515 25, 533 2,471 58, 638 2, 693, 023 Cotton. 153, 734 9,068 3,399 144, 000 968, 302 28, 780 35, 453 4 735, 125 91,091 2, 0.50, 251 712, 836 2,061,082 1, 382, 716' <■ 8, 375, 841 Jute. Total acres in crops. 100,168 i 1.970,500 2, 070, 673 2, 976, 850 6, 335, 406 3, 743, 608 .51,733,900 24,144,439 10, 176, 896 199, 478 6, 165 11,074,831 2, 488, 277 15, 964, 210 12, 129, 278 3, 097, 782 20, 694, 679 112, 981 164, 878, 789 Total population. 3,167,791 4, 603, 103 5, 433, 668 70, 414, 425 33,801,894 12, 650, 831 .543, 258 20,861,061 2,871,774 15, 135, 827 10, 784, 294 2,897,040 35, 630, 440 a Total yield, 618,966,312 barrels of 162 pounds each. (•Total yield, 2,110,562 bales of h Total yield, 266,2.50,560 bushels. 400 pounds each. 32 RECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. In the more populous provinces the area planted to food crops is so small in proportion to the population that even the slightest failure results in disaster. Nearly all the tilling" of the soil is done with the plow, and oxen, buffaloes, and sometimes cows furnish the motive power. The small number of carts (wagons are not used on the farms) is explained by the fact that a large part of the transportation of produce is done on the backs of oxen or donkeys. Table 2. — Area (in acres) irrigated in British India, 1899-1900. Irrigated from — Province. Govern- ment canals. Upper Burma 252, 161 Lower Burma 310 Assam Bengal 754, 557 Korthwest Prov- inces j 1,981,373 Oudh r Ajmer-Merwara ParganS, MAnpur Punjab 4,243,524 Sind 2, 352, 433 Bombay i 99,829 Central Provinces .1 Beriir Madras 2, 648, 160 Coorg 1,370 Private canals. Tanks. Wells. 307, 198 129, 864 1,325 5,692 1,215,683 976, 394 7, 228 823, 729 20, 049 140, 595 5,013 30,413 810, 176, 187 72 26,289 1,832,527 Total 12, 333, 717 1, 310, 723 4, 388, 345 7,211 4, 478, 507 1,643,178 43, 776 324 4,154,598 41,005 667, 789 64, 118 66, 838, 1, 129, 8041 Other sources. Total irrigated. 102, .587 3, 434' 799, 021 5,069 754, 557 553,595[ 8,234,850 80,4.53' 2,700,025 116 51,120 324 9, 375, 983 110,414| 2,644,447 78, 149: 871, 223 14,079 2.55,264 107 67,017 134,083 Net area cropped during year. 146, 986 12,297,148! 1,224,003 5, 783, 766 1,370 3, 695, 206 6, 857, 898 4,552,210 53, 2.53, 600 24, 402, 658 8,624,2.54 230, 773 6,786 23, 275, 728 2,781,014 19,278,203 14, 762, 603 5,403,7.58 23, 122, 215 200, 117 31,544,036190,447,023 Area cropped more than once. 260, 036 846 565, 146 10,618,100 4,461.342 2, 427, 975 17, 400 136 2,017,570 215, 474 320, 293 164, 340 1,495 2, 674, 229 701 23, 745, 083 Table 2 shows the number of acres irrigated as in Table 1, native states not being included. Of course lands subjected to natural over- flow or on which there is a heavy rainfall are not included in this table. The irrigated lands are principally planted to wheat and food crops other than rice, although in some provinces the rice crop depends entirely on artificial irrigation. In the best rice districts, however, the rainfall is very heavy, amounting to over 200 inches in a 3^ear in Lower Burma, which with the annual deposits from the overflow of the Irawadi River makes it ideal rice land. Table 3 shows the number of head of live stock and number of farm implements in the same area as that covered b}^ Table 1. LIVE STUCK, ETC., IN INDIA. 33 Tabi.k :^.—Lhe stock ami farm hnplfiiHiitx in lirHinli Iioim. Province. Upper Burmii Lower Biirniii Assam Bengal Northwest Provinces . Oudh Ajmer-Mcrwarn PargnnA Manpur Punjab Sind Bombay Central Provinces . . . BerAr Madras Coorg Total Province. Upper Burma Lower Burma Assam Bengal Northwest Provinces . Oudh Ajmcr-Merwaru Parganil MAnpur Punjab Sind Bombay Central Provinces — Beriir Madras Coorg Total Bulls and bullocks. BulTaloes. Cows. 687,823 .5-S, 821 1,102,938 1,19.=).73C. 7, (M.i, 630 3, 148, 812 64,390 1,996 4,(ai,729 528, 744 2,295,836 2,831,655 697-, 791 4,411,350 34, 629 29,257,910 697,939 397,338 l,006,3a5 880, 7.54 4,567,777 2, 065, .569 60,233 2,009 2,566,047 515,559 1, 139, 843 2, 524, 616 623, 370 3, 853, 408 26, 674 Bulls. I Cows. 109,953 276, 620 91,136 Ifti, 597 .565,835 219, 357 2, 731 27 592, 137 5,502 197, 780 354,. 531 37,909 846,679 11,931 98, 5H1 231 , .V<.s 122. .54S 326,042 2,413,369 S66, 232 21,142 727 1,903,070 190,093 669, 469 511,467 211,774 1,560,104 7.690 Sheep. .5,113 2,374 137, 903 l,819,4f.7 ,5.54,948 161,305 (ioat.s. 4, 759, 122 320, 378 1,439,216 279, 998 217, ,502 8, 234, 262 629 25,013 12,374 11,497 47.*<..V)1 3.123,899 1.495,322 118,906 994 5.112.771 831,937 1,670,436 CM, 091 283. \M 5,181,639 1.755 20,927,441 3,417,726 9,133,896 I 17,932,237 19,059.649 Horses and ponies. 23, 197 12, 112 9,908 &5, 913 434, 426 181,084 2,436 83 312, 746 76, 799 90,367 94, 542 29,627 40, 239 401 Mules and donkeys. 2,692 133 12,722 262, 777 50,213 .5,029 23 612, 387 84,442 ,51,207 17,628 20,488 120, 086 274 Plows. 415, 630 478,388 821, 570 458,211 3, 162, 668 1,464,406 33,069 865 2,229,768 243,042 891,451 1,295,9.53 136, 041 2, 749, 701 26, 979 Carts. Youiij; stock and bulTalo calves. 239, 101 199, 181 11,883 60,337 486, 136 100, 7tr2 9,407 315 242, 648 &5, 125 468, 9.58 417, ,521 129, 779 .524,041 715 638, 724 ,594,034 1, 390, 361 216,257 6, 408, 351 2, 427, 824 21,040 1,411 3,712,614 352, 797 l.,\50,194 1,886,2.50 249, .549 4, 383, 639 19,096 1,343,880 1, 240, 101 14,407,742 2,925,849 23.8.><2,U1 WELLS. The wells are open, 5 to 7 feet in diameter, and 3() to 00 feet deep. On one side of the well an embankment is made about 5 feet high. This .slopes at an angle of 20° from the well and frequently terminates in a pit a few feet deep. This embankment forms a de,scending road for the oxen to travel when hoisting the water. A bullock's hide is used for a bucket; the corners are attached to a rope, which passes over a single pulley at the top of the well and is tied to the yoke of the oxen. Each hoist carries about one barrel. (Pl.V, fig. 2.) Two yoke of oxen a^e required, as one yoke can be used only six hours consecutivelv, and there must be one man to drive the oxen, one to 11084— No. 3.5—08- -3 84 KECETSIT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. manipulate the hueket, and one in the field to distribute the water. Three men and four oxen will water ID acres of wheat during the cropping- season. KICE PRODUCED. In 1900 there were in the provinces of Bengal, Burma, and Madras 49,915,918 acres in rice, which produced 43.5,822,000 barrels. If we place the product of the remaining 22.893.039 acres in rice at 183.144,312 barrels, the total for India would be 618,966,312 barrels of rough rice, or about 177 times more than the entire rice product of the United States. AGRICULTURE IN THE PUNJAB. Hon. C. L. Dundas. director of land records and agriculture for the Punjab, stated. -in reply to inquiries, that — Unirrigated rice can only be grown in the puliinontane tracts, where there is heavy rainfall. The average yield i.< about 550 pounds per acre. On irrigated lands the average yield is about 900 pounds. A good crop would be 1,200 pounds, and 1,500 can be obtained by careful cultivation. In the Punjab this is produced almost invariably by owners with small holdings. If the holding is large, part is culti- vated by the tenant on the share plan, the tenant paying one-fourth to one-half the gross product. Hired labor is employed sometimes in transplanting and generally in harvesting. This is paid for in kind. Throughout the Punjab, women of the agricultural class are employed in the lighter kinds of outdoor field laV)or, such as harvesting, picking cotton, etc. The women of certain tribes of high so"ial or religious character never work in the field, but generally women work on the lands of their male relatives. Compensa- tion consists in their food and a small present in kind at the close of the harvest, practically subsistence and nothing more, but differing from the starvation wages of civilized countries by the patriarchal customs of India, which forbid a man from tilling his own stomach while leaving his employee hungry. Hence harvest wages depend entirely on the harvest. If this is good, the laborer, male or female, may get enough grain to keep him or her two or three months. Unless forced by famine, women will not work in. the field except for their male relatives. In the Himalayas the women do all the farm work, including plowing. Windmills being unknown and water mills impossible on the plains, all the grain used as food in India is gromid on handmills (small stone burrs) by women. Spin- ning is universal, and much of the coarse cloth used for clothing is manufactured at home. The cost of labor necessary to produce a crop of rice is about 45 per cent of the total product grown, including the straw. To give a definite cash estimate of cost is practically impossible. A landlord would, in a typical case, pay some 8 per cent customary dues and divide the Ijalance with his tenant, paying one-half his own share in water rates and land revenue to the Government. The revenue or tax to the Government varies from $1.50 to $3 per acre. As a rule, the landlord works his own farm. The highly flavored rices are regarded as choice, but the people prefer to plant the coarser varieties, as giving less trouble. There is apparently great obscurity in the scientific names of rices, and it is difficult to distinguish varieties. Wheats, millets, and gram (peas) form the staple crops, wheat being the chief article of export. Considerable cotton is produced. About 110 pounds of lint cotton is an average crop for an acre. It sells at about 5 cents per pound. LIVING AND KICK FARMING IN INDIA. o5 Tlu' practiceof iilowin-.' under renovating cropH I l)elieve is unknown in the Punjab. Cattle for plowing or lifting irrigating water range in value from ^il'i to !?2o per liead. Buffaloes are worth ironi ?20 to $35 per head and canielH about $15 each. The i>riee of cattle for work varies with tlie provinces. At Poona a good buffalo for field work is worth $(>.,50; an ox $1(5 to $17. At Delhi a buffalo is worth $8 to $10; an ox §16 to $20, according to size. Native plows generally sell for (iO cents each. COST OF LIVIN(;, Amono- the rvots no c-ash ostiniate of the cost of livino- could he obtained. The following statement made by an educated Hindu may be assumed to be correct as regards cost of living in the city: A laborer needs 1 pound of rice, worth 2 cents; one-half pound of dahl (split peas), 0.75 cent; one-half pound of barley, 0.875 cent; condi- ments, 0.17 cent; fuel, 0.5 cent; making a total of 4 cents for a day's living. Better living fpr laborers earning higher wages costs about 6 cents per day, divided as follows: Rice, 1 pound; nmtton, one-half pound; barley, one-half pound; vegetables, condiments, oil or butter, and fuel. The retail price of rice, low grade, is here given at 2 cents per i)ound. Th«^ wholesale ijrice in India for this grade is about 1 cent per pound and in Burma 90 cents per hundred. RICE FARMING IX LOWER BURMA. Rice farming in Lower Burma varies somewhat from that in Bengal. The lands are richer, and the rains are more abundant. The cultivator commences to plow about the 1st of June and continues to work the soil till he secures an even surface of mud, which is kept soft by the heavy rains. In Juh' women transplant the rice from the seed bed and receive for this work at the harvest a certain number of bundles per hundred plants set. The harvest commences in November, and cutting, curing, thrashing, and winnowing are done in much the same manner as in Bengal. Rice cultivation in Lower Burma comes nearer being on a commercial basis than in India. Wages are regulated by each village and are frequently paid in money. Laborers who are imported from Madras in harvest time usually receive 23 cents per barrel of product for cutting and binding. A large portion of the crop is cultivated on the tenant system, the landlord furnishing land and seed every other year and receiving one-third to one-half the product. He furnishes no house nor other buildings and does not fence the land. A yoke of cattle will work about 10 acres of land. RICE MILLING. Very little rice milling, as the term is commonly understood, is done in India proper, except for resident Europeans. In the rural districts, where the rice is wanted for local consumption or for export, the hulls are removed by pounding, using a pounder worked by the foot. Pounding and winnowing in the open air or by a fanning mill 36 RECENT FOEEIGN EXPLORATIONS. complete the milling- process. There is no charge for milling", the hulls and bran being considered by the natives full compensation. As late as 181>1 there were only two modern power mills in India. Most of the rice exported to Europe from Bengal is cargo rice, four- fifths husked and one-fifth padd3\ It is claimed by shippers that cargo rice is not as liable to heat on shipboard as that completely milled. In Burma the grower markets all his rice in the paddj" and in bulk, except such as goes b}' rail, which must be sacked. The larger part is delivered by boat, and is carried to the mills in baskets by coolies. It is weighed and delivery actually takes place in the mills. At first the mills were merely husking mills to prepare the large crop of paddj^ for export, but gradually other processes were added until complete modern milling plants were equipped. The hulling stones in the best mills are made of emery. Some of the machines are cruder than simihir machines in the United States, but they appear to do the work satisfactorily. Permission was freel}' granted to inspect the Kemen- dine mill in Rangoon, which has a daily milling capacit}^ of 500 tons of rice for native use or 300 tons for Europeans. A larger mill has just been completed for the same company. The Kemendine does no custom milling. The paddy is bought and the milled product sold on the market. There are over fifty mills in Rangoon, and many of them do custom work. The usual price for custom milling ranges from 2i to 3f cents per bushel, or an average of 11 cents per barrel, giving the farmers all the by-product. The breakage in milling for native use amounts to 6i pounds per hundred. For European use or for export rice milling the charges are 18 cents per barrel. The laborers employed are mostlv Tamils from Madras, who are paid from 2-1 to 32 cents per day. Women employed in the rice mills are paid 12 to 16 cents per day. Most of the mills use the hulls for fuel. Over 21,000,000 barrels of paddy rice were milled last season at Rangoon for foreign account. This furnished a large amount of l)ran and pol- ish, which the thrifty Chinese in Burma and the Straits Settlements bu}^ and feed to pigs and cattle. Many mills are owned by Chinese. Last 3"ear Burma furnished about 2,000,000 tons of cleaned rice for exj^ort. RICE FOR FOREIGN :\IARKETS. India and Burma rice is not generally raised on a commercial basis. Each farmer or tenant produces enough for home consumption, and the surplus is sold for whatever it will bring. If the j^rice falls ever so low just the same amounts are produced and placed on the market. It is true that if rice is abundant and cheap in India home consump- tion is increased. Rice is raised in those countries commercially very much as eggs are generally produced in the United States. No account is kept of the expenses, and it is sold regardless of cost. Where no cash wages are paid it is impossible to determine the cost of production. SEED SELECTION CONDITIONS IN CHINA. 37 American supremac}' in the rice indu.strv deiXMuls upon more eco- nomical production. This may bo accomplished by divor.sitied farm- ino- iind by an increased etticiency in machin(>ry . Improved machinery in the rice field is of recent introduction, and it Avill undout)t(Hlly be made more efficient and the rice farmers Avill handle it with p-reater economy. sp:lection of seeds. No rices were seen in India that appeared to be an improvement on those grown in the United States, except possildy some very early varieties. In Bengal there are varieties that mature in sixty days. While it nuist not be expected that the}' will mature as quickly in America, thev are nevertheless worthy of trial on account of their ra[)i(l maturing- (|ualities. India produces some good wheats and shows a large and profitable yield in the latitudes corresponding to our Southern States. Out of 150 varieties 5 were selected as worthy of trial. A few yood soil- renovating plants were found. The sunn hemp {Crotalariajuncea) is highly recommended by the Poona State Farm for its luxuriant and rapid growth. If planted inunediately after the rice harvest, it will make a growth of 2 feet before frost. Some valualile sorghums and vetches for the semiarid portions of the United States were found. CHINA. In scholarship, energy, and business qualities the Chinese take very high rank among the nations of the earth. They are bright, apt, of indefatigable perseverance, and instinctively grasp the financial bear- ings of business transactions. They soon become the merchants and bankers of every country in which they settle. Thev have such marvelous tact along business lines that Europeans doing business in China uniformly employ Chinese agents or compradors in all dealings with the Chinese. A(iRICULTURAL CONDITIONS. It is difficult to deal with the agricultural conditions in China in a comprehensive way, because there are no reliable statistics published, and the traveler is limited to his observations and the very meas-er information to be obtained from Chinese farmers. The farmer, too, is not disposed to give information to a stranger, thinking that some advantage will betaken of it. In traveling through the rural districts of China the large areas of unused lands were observed with surprise. Along the Yangtze in particular the cultivation of the highlands has been largely abandoned and tillage has been limited to the fertile alluvial lands. Even in the vicihit}- of Nankin, the old capital of the Ming Dynasty, there are thousands of acres of land, evidently fertile if properly tilled, which lie neglected as commons. The rainfall is 38 EECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. somewhat uncertain on the highlands and it is necessary to resort to irrigation, but apparentl}^ an abundance of water for most food crops can be oljtained from wells. These highlands bear evidence of having been cropped in former ages. Few nations are in advance of the Chinese in economic production and in crop results along well-established lines of agriculture, but they seem to be entirel}^ ignorant of modern methods of renovating worn-out soils. Thousands of acres of land in the vicinity of large cities, it was said, could be obtained of the Government either free or at a nominal cost for renovation and cultivation. The almost entire absence of timber or woodlands in eastern China was noted with surprise. The highlands and the mountains are com- pletely denuded, with the usual result of alternate periods of great drought and excessive rainfall. Grass and reeds are used for fuel. During September thousands of men and women were cutting grass from the sides of the mountains, coarse grasses in the untilled places in the valleys, and the tall reeds on the Yangtze bottoms. These were bound into bundles and sold for fuel. In cooking with this trashy material one person is needed to feed the lire. In cities a common fuel is coal dust, mixed with equal quantities of clay, made into balls about 8 inches in diameter and dried. The Government does not appear to be making any effort to restore the forests. An impressive feature of Chinese rural life is the apparent insecurity of person and property. Every farmer has a compound, or high-walled inclosure, into which stock is driven at night and in which are stored the farm crops. Farmhouses of the better class are about 42 feet square, and without windows in the outside walls. In the center of each house is an open court, generally about 14 feet square, called the "heavenly well," which admits air and light to the rooms. The houses of the coolies or peasants are rarely more than 16 by 24 feet in size and contain one room only, having no compound. Pigs and chickens are driven into this room at night. The houses are one-story struc- tures with adobe, brick, or stone walls, according to the cost of material, with thatched or tiled roofs and clay or tile floors. There are no fences; consequently the farm animals are herded. TILLAGE OF THE SOIL. In some provinces there is considerable hand tillage after the manner of the Japanese, but generally oxen, cows, or buffaloes are used for plowing. The plows are much like those used in India. They operate like a single-tooth harrow slightly depressed from the horizontal, and simply stir up the ground. No inversion of the soil is possible. On the alkivial lands water buffaloes are generally used for plowing rice fields, because they are plowed with water standing on them and worked until a field of mud is secured. After the first plowing, high TILLACJK AND KICE CULTIVATION IN THINA. 81) lands, especially such as are used for pardons, arc worked over with a claw hoe, the tines of which are 8 to lit inches lontj. This is forced into the ground by a (juick, smart stroke, and the tool is then pulled toward the cultivator. Steel-toothed harrows are also used to i)ulver- ize the soil. Plowino- for rice is done in May. Seed J)eds uie prepared and planted in April, and about the 1st of June the youni,^ rice plaivts are transplanted from the seed bed to the tield. To prevent breakino- the roots a spade is i uii under the plants some 2 inches below the surface before pullinor commences. The plants are set in rows which are 8 inches apart, the space between the plants in the rows beint,'- about the same distance. After the plants are set out the tield is kept flooded with water about 2 inches deep till the heads beo-in to till. Further irrigation is then left to the lainfall uid(>ss it is unusually div. IRRIGATION. One of the common ways of irrio-ating oiiixlens is from open wells, using the balance pole and bucket to raise the water. For raising water only a few feet a narrow vertical wheel is used and operated l)y the weight of one or two men opposite the water to ])e elevated and sufficient to balance it. For higher lifts a large wheel is commonly used, with wooden or earthen buckets on the rim. Oxen turn a hori- zontal wheel, which imparts power to the vertical wheel by means of cogs in the rim. CULTIVATING. HARVESTING, AND THRASHING RICE. The Chinese are good cultivators. They go through the rice fields pulling all the weeds and stirring the soil with their lingers or with a small rake. When the rice is ripe it is cut with a small reap hook, ))ound into bundles, and set up in small shocks. Thrashing is done bv whipping the heads over the edge of a box some 6 feet square. The rice is then spread on mats in the sun to diy. HULLING RICE. Before the rice is sent to the market it is generally hulled by pound- ing, using the foot-power pounder so universal in the Orient. If complete milling is required, the pounding is continued longer. Occa- sionally the hulls are removed by placing the grain in a small circular stone trench, in which a broad-rimmed wheel is rolled bj^ ox power. A long axle passes thi-ough the wheel, one end of which is attached to a pivot in the center of the space surrounded l)y the stone trench, and the other extends some 6 feet beyond the wheel and trench; to this end the oxen are attached and are driven around till the rice is hulled. 40 BECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIONS. PRODUCTION AND COST OF MILLING RICE. The average yield of i4ce is from twenty to thirty fold. This prob- ably denotes a crop of 1,200 to 2,000 pounds of paddy. The cost of milling is 7i cents (gold) per barrel (162 pounds), of which 6 cents is paid for pounding and li cents for winnowing. The entire cost of milling is met by the value of the bran and hulls. The red rice and lower grades are all consumed locally. The local price of rice is from 1 to 2 cents per pound, according to quality. It is difficult to secure accurate data, because in the different provinces weights of the same name vary materially in the amount they represent and coins of the same denomination differ in value. COST OF BUILDING, ETC. Hard brick sell for $2.10 per thousand and it costs about $1.50 per thousand to lay them in a wall. The wall is the principal expense incurred in building in the country. Lumber for building is generally imported from the United States and is expensive, costing on the coast from $40 to $80 per thousand. Country carpenters and masons usually receive 10 cents per day and board. Farm laborers are paid $5 per year and board. Board for a day consists of li pounds of rice, cost- ing 2 cents, and pork and vegetables costing 1 cent. Allowing 10 cents per month for the labor of cooking the food, the total cost of board is about $1 per month. EXPORTATION OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS. There is no probability of the overproduction of staple foods in China and their large exportation for the following reasons: (1) At present China produces only about sufficient food for her own consumption; any large increase of the area planted would involve a system of levees to protect river bottoms, and deep wells to irrigate the highlands. (2) Before rice and other grains can be produced in large quantities for export, the Chinese must feel that they are safe in the enjoyment of their property, and the duties between different provinces and the petty exactions imposed on internal commerce must be abolished. The conservative type of Chinese character prevents radical and sudden changes. The increasing consumption will keep pace with the increase of production. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. A visit to the Philippine Islands in October, 1901, confirmed the opinion formed during a visit in 1898, that from an agricultural stand- point these islands are among the most valuable territories of all Asia. RAINFALL, ETC., IN THE i'lIILl 1'1'INE ISLANDS. 41 This does not mean that the soil is richer than portions of Japan, China, India, or Siam, l)ut richness of soil is not the only elenu-nt that determines productive capacity; rainfall and temperatnr(^ with c^ood drainau-e, are even more essential conditions than natural ruhne.ss ot soil In possessino- a uniform temperature suited to the best condi- tions of tropical plant growth, the Philippines enjoy a great advan- tao-e The distance of the islands from Cldna and Siam is sufhcient to alfow the intervening water to neutralize any chill wmds from the northwest, while the great warm current of the Pacilic touches them upon their eastern shores, producing a most enjoyable chmate. Ihe rainfall from 80 to 1<»0 inches per annum, is sufficient to meet the requirements of tropical plants; but what is still more important, it falls during the months-May to December- best suited to tlu^ growth of plants. This is followed by a comparatively dry period-December to :Mav 15— in which the plants mature and are harvested. The^-eport of the oljservatory at Manila shows the following aver- aoe number of days in each month on which rain fell: RainfoR in the Philippine Islands. Month. January . . February . March . . . April May June July Number | of days )n which rain fell. Month. August September. October . . . November December . Total. Number of days on which rain fell. Rain- fall.« Inches. 10.8 13.08 20.7 15.02 14.4 7.47 11.3 4.92 H.4 3.09 j 125.7 75.56 1 « The rainfall is the average from 1865 to 1896, inclusive. The following table, compiled from the report of the observatory at Manila, shows the mean temperature of each month for seventeen years ended 1897: Temperature of the Philippine Islands. Month. January . . February March . . . April May June July Temper- ature. ° F. 77.0 77.9 80.6 82.9 83.8 82.4 80.9 Month. August September. October November . December . Temper- ature. o j^ 80.9 80.6 80.4 79.0 77.3 Average . . .3 11084— No. 35—03- 42 EECENT FOREIGN EXPLORATIOiSrS. The valleys are broad and well drained, while the mountains are approached b}' a g-radual elevation and frequently bj^ table-lands, and are generally fertile to the top. Neither on the coast nor in the lowest valleys of the interior is the heat at any time oppressive, and within a short distance from an}^ point on the islands it is possible to reach an altitude where the climate is perfectly delightful, even in the warmest season of the year. RANGE OF PRODUCTS. Takirio- all the islands and the fertile mountains into consideration, there is possible a very wide range of products, from the most delicate spices to the hardy cereals. The chief commercial products have been rice, sugar, tobacco, coffee, and fiber plants, but the islands can pro- duce cattle, wheat, corn, oats, the legumes, and the grasses. STOCK AND PASTURE LANDS. Like Porto Rico, the Philippines furnish admirable conditions for stock raising. The mountain sides have frequent streams of pure water and produce an abundance of grasses, somewhat coarse and lack- ing in flavor, but which if cropped closely are relished bj^ domestic animals. Softer and sweeter grasses can readily be introduced. Ber- muda grass and several of the Paspala and some clovers do well. Stock raising has been profitably carried on for many years by natives, often on quite a large scale. The native horses are small, but are hardy and of immense energy, showing their descent from Andalusian stock. There is a good demand for dairy products, and few lines of husbandry would be found more profitable. FODDER PLANTS. The soil and climate of the Philippines are especially adapted to the production of a great variety of fodder plants. Among the many may be mentioned alfalfa, esparcet, serradella, vetch, lupme, pea, soy bean, Lespedeza l)icoloi\ Pueraria thunhergiana^ Astragalus latoides^ cow peas, Panicurn. colonum^ guinea grass, and Panicum maximwH. Dur- ing the rainy season it would be necessar}^ to use these plants for soiling, as the almost daily .showers prevent curing. From December 1 to May hay could be made in most parts of the islands. SUGAR CANE. Conditions are very favorable for raising sugar cane. The heavy rainfall during the growing period, followed by the dr}' nionths of December, January, February, ]\Iarch, and April, are ideal conditions, so far as climate is concerned. This gives a full year for growth and five months for manufacturing the sugar. The sugar mills are very RICE FARMING, ETC., IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 43 crude, except soiiic in Negros, Panay, and CVbii. In Luzon tlic sugar factories are mainly of the open-kettle sort, and witli machinery cruder tlian is g-enerally us(>d in farm sorghum manufacture in America. Some stone rollers for crushing- the cane are used, and many factories have only large wooden tubs with iron bottoms for boiling the cane juice. In Panay and ('ebu the mills are of a higher type, although crude as compared with American up-to-date milling plants. (PI. YI %. 2.) RICE FARMING. The method of raising rice in the Philippines is practically the same as in India, except that the plowing is almost exclusively done with water buffaloes, and a larger proportion of the land is sown broadcast. Rice planting is usuaHv done in June, and harvestincr in November and Decem))er. Only one crop is raised each year. With artificial irrigation two crops could be produced annually, one in the sunnuer and one in the winter and early spring. The area devoted to rice could be considerably enlarged, but it is doubtful whether in the evo- lution of the islands under American conditions such will be the result, •as a number of other farm products are more profital)lc and are culti- vated with less labor. The natives much prefer to plant and work man i la hemp {Mnsa text His), as when once planted it produces a crop for several years with slight attention. Coffee and some of the spices are favorite products in certain sections. Plowing the land and setting rice plants in the mud is a disagreeable task, even to Filipinos; conse- quently the general trend of agricultural industries in case of expansion will be away from rice and toward crops more easily handled and more profitable. FRUITS. Nearly every known variety of fruit can be produced on these islands, from such as require extreme tropical conditions to the hardv fruits of the temperate zone, like the apple and the cherry, for the islands possess a great range of climate. There are valleys where the temperature never falls below 70° and there are table-lands where it drops nearly to the frost line in the winter. These extremes are found on the same island. At Manila 65° F. above zero would be extraordi- nary weather. A hundred and thirty miles north, in the province of Benguet, the grains and fruits of northern New York can be pro- duced. TIMBER. It is estimated that only about one-fifteenth of the land has been brought under cultivation. A large portion of the remainder is timber land, and nearly all of it belongs to the Government. Many very 44 RECENT FOREIGTSr EXPLORATIONS. valuable varieties are found, among which is mahogany. Except the teak forests of Upper Burma, now under complete Government con- trol, these are the most valuable timber lands in eastern Asia, and if cutting is properly regulated they will remain a source of profit for many years. At present the only method of obtaining this wood is to cut and hew it into square timbers, which are then dragged down the mountains by oxen. By this method fully one-third is wasted and many valuable young trees are destroyed. O Bui. 35, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate I. FiQ. 1.— Rice Mill Among the Mountains, Japan. Fig. 2.— Planting Rice, Japan. Bui. 35, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate II. FiQ. 1.— Cleaning Rice, Japan. FiQ. 2.— Pounding Rice, Japan. Bui. 35, Bureau of Plant Industry, U S Dept. of Agricultur Plate III. Fig. 1.— Tamil Girls Picking Tea, Ceylon. Fig. 2.— Carts with Bamboo Covers, Ceylon. Bui. 35, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. i'--* Fig. 1.— Plowing in India. Fig. 2.— English Plow and Indian Plow. Bui. 35, Bureau of Plant Industiy. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Plate V. Fig. 1.— Wooden Scrapers Used in Preparing for Irrigation, India, Fig. 2.— Well Used for Irrigation, India. Bu'. 35, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI Fig. 1.— Washing Rice, China. FiQ. 2.— Sugar-Boiling House, Luzon. U. S. DEPARTMEN 1 OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 36. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. THE '-BLUING" AND THE "RED HOT" OF THE WESTERN YELLOW PINE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BLACK HILLS FOREST RESERVE. BY HERMANN VON SCHRENK, Special Agent ix Charge of the Mississippi Valley Laboratory, vegetable pathological and physiological i n^estigations. IssLEi) May •^. ^90^. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 19 0 3. BlREAl or PLANT INDUSTKV. B. T. GAr,LOWAYj Chkf. \e(tEtablk pathological and physiolcxtIOal Investigations. S( lENTIFIC .STAFF. A LBEKT- P. Wqods, Eeftholoffid and Phyiflologixf . Erwin X Smith, PothologlM in Charge of lAifforatofy of Plant Pathol og;/. George T. Moore, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Physiologi/. Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of I'lant Breeding. Nea\-tox B. Fierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratory. -;„ Hermaxn vox Schkenk, Special Agent in Charge of Mississippi Valley jMboralcny. P. H. EoLFS, Pathologist in Charge of Sub- Tropical Laboratory. yi. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of Inve^gatioris of Diseases of (Jrchard Fwit^i. Mark A. Carletox, CereoZis*. , ^ Walter T. Swixgle, Physiologist m Qhnrge of Life History Investigation.-'. C. O. ^TowxsexDj Pathologist. P. H. Dorsett, T'a//iM?o^i.s/. ..-/ T. H. Kearxey, Physiologist,' Pkmt Breeding. CoRXELius L. SnEAS.{ Assistant Pathologist. William A. Ortos, Assistant Pathologl-^t. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist. Joseph S. Chamberi.aix, E.vpert in Physiokigical Cliernistry. R. E. B. McKexney. JKip<^r/. Charles P. Hartley, Assistant in Physiology, Plant Breeding. Deaxe B. Swixgle, Assistant in Pathology. James B. Rorer, Assistant in Pathology. Lloyd S-Teshy, Assistani in Pathology. Jes^e B. NortoX; Assistant in Physiology, Plant Breeding. A. W. Edsox, Scientific Assistant^ Plant Breeding. Karl F. Kellermax, As.^istant in Physiology. ^ George G. Hedgcock, Assistant m Pathology. y ( Bui. 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U S. Dept. of Agriculture . Plate I. y Cross Section ofa DyingTree ofthe Bull Pine, showing Blue Color. JULIUS BlflN a. CO LfTH.N.Y U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 36. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. THE '' BLUING" AND THE -'RED ROT" OF THE WESTERN YELLOAV PINE,. WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BLACK HILLS FOREST RESERVE. BY HERMANN VON SCHRENK, Special, Agent in Charge of the Mississippi Valley Laboratory. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued May 5, 1903. NEW YORK B0TAN5CAL GARDEN WASHINGTON: goyernment printing office. 1903. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washin(jt07i, D. C, December U, 1902. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a technical paper on The ''Bluing" and the "Red Rot" of the Western Yellow Pine, with Special Refe'i-ence to the Black Hills Forest Reserve, and respectfully recommend that it be published as Bulletin No. 36 of the series of this Bureau. This paper was prepared by Dr. Hermann von Schrenk, Special Agent of this Bureau in Charge of Timber Rot Investigations, a line of^work being conducted jointly by this Bureau and the Bureau of Forestry, and it was submitted by the Pathologist and Physiologist with a view to publication. The illustrations, which comprise 14: full-page plates, several of which are colored, are considered necessary to a full understanding of the text. Respectfully, t, n. r. ,B. T. Galloway. Chief of Bureci u. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of AgAculture. PREFACE The report submitted herewith, entitled The "Bluing" and the "Red Rot" of the Western Yellow Pine, with Special Reference to the Black Hills Forest Reserve, covers in part an investigation under- taken by the Bureau of Plant Industry in cooperation with the Bureau of Forestry in the broad field of the diseases of forest trees and the means of controlling- them, as well as the causes of and methods of preventing the decaj- of all kinds of timber, especially that valuable for construction purposes. At the present time an immense quantit}' of dead and d3'ing timber of the bull pine is standing in the Black Hills Forest Reser^'e, South Dakota. The amount has been variouslj- estimated, but will probably approach 600,000,000 feet. The death of the trees was caused by the pine-destroying beetle of the Black Hills, as shown by investigations conducted by the Division of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture.'* Following attack by the beetles the wood of the tree is invaded by various fungi, one of which causes the blue coloration of the wood. Dr. von Schrenk has demonstrated, however, that the fungus which causes the bluing does not injure the strength of the wood. The rapid decay or "red rot" of the timber is caused by another fungus, and its ravages can be forestalled by a proper use of the wood. A series of recommendations is made, which, if followed, will result in the saving of a very large part of. the dead wood. Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist, Office of the Pathologist and Physiologist, Washington^ D. C., December 23, 1902. «Bull. 32, n. s., Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902. 5 CONTENTS. Paga Introduction ^ Death of the trees - " When are the trees dead 1^ The " blue ' ' wood *. 1 1 Rate of growth of the blue color 11 Nature of the "blue" wood 12 Strength of the "blue " timber 13 Lasting ])Ower of the ' ' blue ' ' wood 14 The "blue" fungus 15 Effect of ' ' blue ' ' fungus on the toughness of the ' ' blue ' ' wood 20 Relation of the ' ' blue ' ' fungus infection to the beetle holes 20 Fruiting organs of the "1)lue" fungus 22 Growth in artificial media 23 Dissemination of the spores 24 The blue color 24 Summary 26 Decay of the "blue" wood 26 The "red rot" of the western yellow pine 27 Cause of the " red rot" 27 Conditions favoring the development of the "red-rot" fungus 28 Final stages and fruiting organs 28 Rate of growth of "red rot " 30 Amount of diseased timber 31 Possible disposal of the dead wood 32 In the Black Hills 32 In the remaining parts of South Dakota 33 Value of the dead w'ood 33 Inspection 33 Recommendations 34 Description of plates 38 7 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. Cross section of the trunk of a dying tree of the western yellow or bull pine, showing blue color Frontispiece. II. Dying trees of the bull jjine. Fig. 1. — Green, " sorrel -top, " and ' ' red-top ' ' trees. Fig. 2. — Green and ' ' sorrel-top ' ' trees 40 III. Color change in leaves of the bull pine. 1. Leaves from healthy tree. 2. Leaves from "sorrel-top" tree. 3 and 4. Leaves from trees turning to the ' ' red-top ' ' stage 40 IV. Fig. 1. — "Red-top" tree in a group of healthy trees near Elmore, S.Dak. Fig. 2.— "Black-top" trees 40 V. Figs. 1 and 2. — Sections of trunks of the bull pine, showing early stages of ' ' blue disease " 40 YI. "Blue" sections from dead trees. Fig. 1. — Sections from tree dead five months. Fig. 2. — Sections from tree dead eighteen months . . 40 VII. Mycelium and fruiting bodies of the "blue" and "red-rot" fungi. 1. Tangential section of "blue" wood. 2. Cross section of " blue" wood. 3. Cross section of a medullary ray. 4. Young perithecium of the ' ' blue ' ' fungus. 5. Mature perithecia of the ' ' blue ' ' fungus. 6. Two i^erithecia of the "blue" fungus. 7. Two asci with spores of the "blue" fungus. 8. Spores of the "blue" fungus. 9. Top of beak of perithecium of Ceratostomella pilifera just after the dis- charge of the spore mass. 10 and 11. Median sections of sporo- phores of the ' ' red -rot ' ' fungus 40 VIII. Sections of "blue" wood. Fig. 1. — Eadial section. Fig. 2. — Tan- gential section IX. Pieces of wood from the bull pine, showing blue fungus starting from holes made by a wood-boring beetle 40 X. Sections showing early stages of the "red rot." Fig. 1. — Section taken 35 feet from the ground from a dead tree. Fig. 2. — Section showing more advanced stage of decay. Fig. 3. — Section from tree shown in fig. 2, made 15 feet higher up 40 XI. Sections from "black-top" bull pines, showing advanced stages of decay. Figs. 1 and 2. — Sections from the top of a fallen tree. Fig. 3. — Section from a standing pine 4 feet from the ground 40 XII. Group of broken ' ' black-top ' ' trees 40 XIII. Fig. 1. — Top of "black top" broken off. Fig. 2. — Polyporus pon- derosus growing on dead pine stump 40 XIY. Sections of rejected cross-ties. Fig. 1. — Wood affected with "red rot. ' ' Fig. 2. — Diseased wood from living tree 40 8 B. r, I.-IG. V. 1-, !■- I.-IOO. THE "BLUING" AND THE "RED ROT" OF THE WEST- ERN YELLOW PINE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE BLACK HILLS FOREST RESERVE. INTRODUCTION. The present investig-ation was undertaken to determine — (1) The cause of the bkie color of the dead wood of the western yellow pine, commonly known as the bull pine {Pimis ponderosa), and the effect of the coloring on the value of the wood. (2) The reason for the subsequent decay of the wood, the rate of decay, and whether the decay could be prevented. (8) Whether it would be possible to use the dead wood before it decayed; first, to reduce the fire danger; second, to prevent the decay and thereby save an immense quantity of timber. DEATH OF THE TREES. The physiological changes which take place in the bull pine {Pinus fonderosa) as a result of the attack of the pine-bark beetle {Dendroe- tonus ponderom Hopk.^') are intimately connected with the fungus diseases under consideration, and may therefore be referred to briefly. According to Hopkins, the beetles enter the bark of the living trees in July, August, and September. The primary longitudinal burrows or galleries are excavated by the adult beetles, and the transverse, broad, or larval mines (Bull. 32, n. s., Division of Entomology, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Pis. I and III and fig. 1) through the inner liark and cambium of the main trunk have the effect of completely girdling the tree, and by September the cambium and the bark on the lower portion of the trunk are dead. The foliage of the trees thus attacked, however, shows no change from the normal healthy green until the followmg spring, when the leaves begin to fade. The first signs of disease noticeable in an affected tree are visible in the spring of the year following that of the attack by the beetle. Here « Hopkins, A. D. Insect Enemies of the Pine in the Black Hills Forest Reserve. Bull. 32, n. s.. Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 9, 10. 9 " »T.TTx mTTTii "x>TrT^ T>r»m" 10 THE "BLUIKG and THE "RED ROT OF THE PINE. and there one will find the needles of affected trees turning j-ellowish. The bright green fades almost imperceptibly, starting near the tip of the needle. The needles first affected are those on the lowest branches (PI, II), and on these branches the discolored leaves will be more or less scattered. B}^ the end of Ma}' most of the leaves on an affected tree will be pale green or yellowish. (PL II; PI. Ill, 2.) This yellow color increases in intensity during the summer and makes the affected trees a conspicuous mark among the healthy green trees. Trees in this stage are locally known as ''sorrel tops" or 'S'ellow tops." When standing on a hillside, groups of "sorrel tops" can be easily detected at a distance of several miles. It is rather a difficult matter to show the contrast in a photograph. The middle tree on PI. II, fig. 1, shows the contrast with the green trees on the left to some extent. The yellow needles are drier than the green ones and show a marked disintegration of the chlorophyll. As the}- continue to dry the color changes gradually through various intermediate stages (PI. Ill, 3) to a reddish brown. This color (PL III, 4) becomes very marked after the trees have passed through the second winter. The needles are then dry and thev begin to fall off'. Such trees are known as "red tops." \See PL 11, fig. 1; PL IV, fig, 1.) The leaves finally fall off completely, leaving the branches bare. Such trees without any leaves are known as '"black tops." (PL IV, fig. 2.) The group of trees on PL II, fig. 1, shows the green trees and the "sorrel tops" and "red tops" (rapidly becoming •'black") side by side. To summarize the foregoing: One finds the living trees attacked in July and August; the following spring the leaves turn yellow ("sorrel tops") and gradually red ("red tops"), and the third year they drop off' altogether ("• black tops"). It is a difficult matter to say at what point the trees are dead. Girdled trees die with different degrees of rapidity, depending upon the species. The black gum {M/ssa sylvatica) will live — i. e., will have green leaves — for two years after being gir- dled; so also several species of oak. Pines and spruces rareh' live more than a year, and generall}- not so long. The reason for the different behavior of these trees is probably to be found in the different power to conduct Avater through the inner sapwood. The subject is one about which little is known as yet. In the case of the bull pine, after the girdling by the beetles certain changes take place in the cambium and the newer sapwood which leave no doubt as to the death of those parts. By September, as described below, the cambium and bark are actualh' dead and par- tially decayed for 30 feet or more from the ground. The leaves are still green and full of water the following spring. The only way in which this can be accounted for is by assuming that sufficient water passes through the inner sapwood to keep the crown of the tree supplied THE "blue''' wood. H WHEN akp: thk trees dead? The question as to when a tree is dead is one of considerable prac- tieal importance in determining which trees in the forest should be cut. For this purpose it is safe to assume that a tree may be pro- nounced dead when the bark is loose at the base of the tree for con- siderable distances up the trunk. A tree with its bark in this condi- tion can not possibly recover. The wood under this loose bark will always be found to be dark in color and will appear covered with shreds of bark when the bark is pulled off. It must l)e remembered that such trees will have green leaves. The criterion of green or yel- low leaves is not a safe one to follow, and ought not to l)e considered in making specifications for cutting dead tim])er. Attention is here callod to the recommendation (4) made on page 35. THE "BLUE" WOOD. Very soon after the attack of the l)ark l)eetles {Dendroctomis j^ond- eraser) the wood of the pine turns l)lue. The color at first is very faint. V)ut it soon becomes deeper. A cross section of a trunk several months after the beetle attack will appear much as shown on PI. V, fig. 1. Lines of color extend in from the bark toward the center of the tree, and increase rapidly in intensity until the colored areas stand in sharp contrast to the unaflfected parts. The colol* appears in small patches at one or more points on the circumference of the wood ring. At first it is a mere speck, l)ut this gradually spreads laterally and inward, eventually forming triangular patches on cross section. The color likewise spreads up and down the trunk from the central spot. As the time passes after the first attack of the beetles, several color patches may fuse. Their progress laterally and upward toward the cen- ter of the trunk may be equally rapid on all sides of the tree, or more rapid on one side than on another (Pl.V, fig. 2). The intensity of the color mav vary considerably on the two sides of one and the same trunk. After a certain period of time the whole sapwood will have a beautiful light blue-gray color, as show^n on PL I. The wood which adjoins the inner line of the "blue'' wood is of a bi-illiant yellow color, which con- trasts sharply with the blue outside and the straw yellow of the heart- wood. This yellow area is in the form of a ring of more or less irregular shape. Sometimes it is formed of one annual ring very sharply defined; then, again, it may include all or only parts of several annual rings. As the wood grows older, the blue color becomes deeper and the yellow ring more sharply defined. RATE OF GROWTH OF THE BLUE COLOR. The first signs of the blue color are usually found several weeks after the attack by the beetles at points on the trunk in the immediate 12 THE "bluing" and THE "RED ROT " OF THE PINE. vicinity of the attack. Tlie first signs of the blue color are found in the base of the trunk. On PI. VI, fig-. 1, three sections of a tree which was attacked the latter part of Juh^, 1901, ai'e shown. The sections were cut in November, 1901, at points 5 feet, 16 feet, and 36 feet from the ground. The sapwood of the first section, 5 feet up, is entirely blued; the second section, 16 feet up, is blue here and there; while the section made in the top, 36 feet up, is without a particle of blue color. Note in this connection that the sections with blue color show the cross sections of the galleries of the bark beetles {Dendrocto7iu8 ponderosse) in the laj^er formed by the cambium layer, the outer wood, and the inner bark. The sections on PI. VI, fig. 1, show some of these galleries filled with sawdust. A more advanced stage is shown on PI. VI, fig. 2. In this tree the sapwood is blue from the ground up into the extreme top. The smallest section, cut from the tree in the upper part of the crown, is blue with the exception of the innermost rings, i. e., the beginning of the heartwood. The blue color dev^elops ver}^ rapidl}" when once the tree is attacked. Standing trees attacked by the beetles in Jul}', 1902, showed signs of blue color in three weeks. T'hree months after the attack the sapwood of the lower part of the trunk is usually entirely blue, as shown on PI. I. The year following the attack, i. e., when the trees have reached the "sorrel-top'' stage, the bluing has reached the top, and late that 3'ear, when the "red-top" stage is reached, the entire sapwood is blue (PI. VI, fig. 2). An experiment was made during the past sunmier to see whether the blue color would appear in trees felled Ijefore being attacked by the pine-bark beetle. It may be said at this point that they did "blue" just as the standing ones did. naturp: of the "blue" wood. Some weeks after the attack by the liark beetles, changes take place in the bark and the newer wood which ultimately result in the bark becoming loose and separating from the tree. When the first flow of resin into the galleries has stopped, the air enters into the galleries, and channels of communication with the outside are established through which the water in the cambium and newer wood can escape. The result of this is that a moist atmosphere prevails in the air chambers, very favorable to the growth of fungi. As the cambium and bark cells lose water they shrivel and break from one another, so that after a few months the bark breaks away from the wood proper. On the south and southwest sides of the trees the bark dies most rapidly, and here, contrary to the general occurrence, it frequently adheres firmly to the tree. On the shaded sides of the trunk the bark becomes loosened, as described, before six months have elapsed. The surface of the wood is moist, very dark in color, and feels somewhat clamm\% THE "blue" wood. 13 Numerous white strands of fungus mj'celiuni make their appearance after six months or more. As the wood of the trunk dries, the barli, loose at first, tightens, so that in the '"black-top" stage it adheres quite tirmly to the trunk. When cut into, it peels off in large sheets ver}' readily, however. The •• blue '' wood differs very little from the sound wood in general appearance, except its color. It is full of moisture at tirst, but loses this rapidly, so that in two years after the beetle attacks. the wood it may be almost perfectly seasoned, even when completely covered with its bark. The "blue" wood is said to be very much tougher than the green wood, so much so that the tie makers in the Black Hills can be induced to cut wholly blued wood only with diificulty. This toughness and a possible reason therefor are discussed hereafter. STRENGTH OF THE *'bLUe" TIMBER. Ever since its first appearance there has been considerable discussion as to the strength and durability of the ''blue" timber when com- pared with sound timber. It was universally believed that it would prove very nnich inferior in both respects. A test was made in the testing laboratory of the department of civil engineering of Washing- ton University, St. Louis,'^ to determine the comparative strength of the "blue" and the health}^ timber. Sections of tree trunks 5 feet long were cut from trees at points 10 to 15 feet from the ground, and were shipped to St. Louis, where they w^ere sawed into blocks of sev- eral sizes. For the compression tests, blocks 2 by 2 by 4 inches and 3 by 8 b}^ 6 inches were cut and planed to the exact dimensions, or as nearly so as possible. For the cross-breaking strength, sticks 2 by 2 inches hy 4 feet, and 3 b V 3 inches by 4 feet were prepared. The blocks for these tests were kiln-dried at a temperature of 172° F. until an approximately constant weight was reached. It was found that completel}^ dried blocks would not shear at all. The moisture content of the green blocks was slightly higher than that of the "blue" blocks. Three kinds of timber were used: A — Green timber; B— "Blue" tim- ber taken from "sorrel-top" trees, i. e., trees dead about one year; C— "Blue" timber taken from "red tops" and "black tops" (mostly the latter), i. e., trees dead about two years. The tests were made with the machinery described by Johnson in early reports^ of the Division of Forestry. Every block was carefully measured. The results, reduced to the average crushing strength and the average cross-breaking strength per square inch, are « The machinery Avas put at the writer's disposal through the courtesy of Prof. J . L. Van Ornum. b Timber Physics, Bulls. Nos. 6 and 8, Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 14 THE ' ' BLUING " AND THE "red rot" OF THE PTISTE. given in the following table. The number of pieces used for each test is given in a separate column. It will be noted that the heart- wood pieces were kept distinct from the pieces cut from the sap wood. Compression strength in pounds j>er square inch. Kind of timber. A. Green timber B. "Blue" timber, 1 year old . C. "Blue" timber, 2 years old Heartwood. Sap wood. t^flT strength. 210 190 131 Pounds. 3, 919. 74 3, 876. 44 4, 017. 48 Number Average of nieces average Pounds. 1, 575 5, 089. 98 649 j 5,130.95 770 ! 5,308.32 Cross-breaking strength in pounds per square inch. Kind of timber * Heartwood. Sap wood. Number of pieces tested. A. Green timber 338 B. "Blue" timber, 1 year old 317 C. " Blue " timber, 2 years old •. 322 ^^erage ^^^^.^ Average strength. °teE strength. Pounds. 5, 375. 26 5, 361. 17 5,665 Pounds. 553 I 5,832.66 242 ' 5,818.84 272 ] 6,843.31 The figures given in this table show that the ' " blue "' timber is slightl}' stronger, both when compressed endwise and when broken crosswise. This result is probabh' due to the fact that the "blue" wood was slightly drier than the green wood when the tests were made. It is scarceh" probable that the presence of fungus threads in the cells of the wood in any way strengthens the fiber. However that ma}" be, these tests show beyond doubt that for all practical pur- poses the ''blue " wood is as strong as the green wood. Under the con- ditions now existing in the Black Hills Forest, the "blue" wood is cer- tainly very much stronger than the green wood. It is in effect sea- soned timber. The trees have stood in the most favorable position possible for drying, with thousands of holes in the bark made by the beetles through which the water could escape, assisted b}" the winds which constantly sweep by the trunks. Where wood is used, as it unfortunately is in these days, almost immediately after it is cut from the forest, the "blue" wood is certainl}- as good so far as its strength is concerned as the green wood, and ought not to be discriminated against because of supposed weakness. LASTING POWER OF THE "bLUE" WOOD. The wood of the bull pine is one which is not very resistant to decay-producing fungi. Under ordinary conditions, such as are found THE "blue" fungus. 15 in the State of Nebraska outside of the arid belts and in the Black Hills, the wood will last from four to six years when placed in the ground in the form of a cross-tie, for instance. Dead trees may stand in the forest for many years without decaying, especially when killed by lire, but ordinarily when the bark remains on the trees they begin to deca}' after the third year. From observations made on the "'black-top"' trees now standing in the forest it would seem that the lasting power of the "blue" wood would be very small. It is perhaps not fair to compare these trees with sound ones, for their bark is full of holes, giving fungus spores every opportunity to enter, as described below. When placed in the ground this wood rots very fast, if one can draw conclusions from the dead tops lying around in the forest. There is every reason why it should rot rapidly. The hyphw of the "• blue " fungus have opened pas- sao-ewavs for the rapid entrance of water and for other fungi in almost 1 1 • 1 every medullary ray. Dried wood will probably last a long while, especially if properly piled, so as to allow the air to circulate between the separate pieces. When sawed and split for cord- wood, the ' ' blue " wood should keep just as long as the green wood. The tendency to rapid decay can be largely done away with by treating the wood with some preservative. Ties were cut during the past spring from green timljer and from dead trees. These were shipped to Somerville, Tex., where they were impregnated with zinc- chloride. These ties were laid in the tracks of the Santa Fe Railroad and are now under observation. A second lot of ties has been cut during the past summer from green trees and from "sorrel tops," "red tops," and "black tops." These will be treated within a short time and laid in the track of a Mexican railway so as to determine the relative resistance of the various grades of "blue" timber in a tropical climate as compared with the green tim- ber. On the particular road chosen for this experiment the life of very resistant timbers is short. THE "BLUE" FUNGUS. The blue color of- the wood is due to the growth of a fungus in the wood cells. The staining of wood due to fungi has been known for many years, especially the form known as "green wood" (J6>^s verdi). In Europe this green coloration attracted the attention of foresters and investigators as early as the middle of the last century, and a number of descriptions and discussions appeared from time to time (particularly in France), in which an attempt was made to account for this phenomenon. A green dye was extracted from this wood, which at one time was thought to be valuable because of its absolute permanency. Various dicotyledonous woods showed the green color; among others, beech, oak, and horse-chestnut. 16 THE "bluing and THE "RED ROT OF THE PINE. In spite of numerous investigations, the causes of the green color and its relation to the wood remained comparative] 3^ obscure until recenth', when Vuillemin published an extended account" showing that one form of the green color was due to the growth in the wood of one of the Discom3'cetes, Ilelothnn xruginosum. Vuillemin men- tions a number of other fungi which have been described as causing the green color, among others, PropoUdium atrocyaneum Rehm, on wood of the poplar; JVxvla ceraginosa Rehm, on the tans}^; and Fusarium peruginoHuni Delacroix, on potato tubers. Without going into details, Vuillemin established the fact that the green coloring matter, called xylindeine, is formed by the hyphse of Helotium sdruginosum, and that the presence of these green-colored hyphfe gives the green color to the wood. The wood fiber itself remains colorless. The xylindeine is soluble in alkalis and can readily be extracted. The wood fiber is not destroj^ed, but remains intact. The name "green deca)^" is therefore incorrectlv applied, for the green wood is in no sense decayed. This is an interesting fact, for it will be remembered that the same has been said of the "blue'' wood. A more detailed comparison of the relation of this green coloring mat- ter and the fungus forming it to the coloring matter in the ''blue" wood will be published in another paper. The blue stain of coniferous woods is a familiar defect in the United States, particular!}^ in the South, where freshly sawed lumber, especially shingles and lath, is affected during the moist warm weather of April, May, and June. The blued lumber is considered as a low- grade material, and many precautions are taken by Southern manufac- turers to prevent loss. A full account of this trouble and a discussion as to its cause and methods for its prevention are now in preparation. In Europe the blue color of pine wood was first noted b}^ Hartig,* who refers brieflj^ to the fact that a fungus ( Ceratostoma piliferuTn (Fr.) Fuckel), is the cause of bluing in coniferous wood, especially of pine trees which have been weakened by caterpillars, and of firewood. He states that the hyphee of this fungus, which are brown, grow rap- idly inward into the trunk through the medullary raj^s and that they avoid the heartwood, probabl}" because of its small water content. The blue color of coniferous wood in this country is probably caused by the same fungus referred to by Hartig, although it seems necessary to refer to it under a different name {Ceratostomella pilifera (Fr.) Winter). « Vuillemin, Paul. Le Bois Verdi. (Bull, de la Soc. d. Sciences de Nancy, Ser. II, 16: 90-145; 1898. Ipl. ) References to earlier works on the green color are given in this paper. 6 Hartig, Robert. Lehrbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten, 1900, pp. 75 and 106. (See also earlier editions of the Lehrbuch fiir Baumkrankheiten; see also Frank, A. B., Krankheiten der Pflanzen, 1: 107, 1895.) THE ''blue" fungus. 17 CERATO.t. 1: 406; fig. 2o{l. The ■• blue" fuiio-us was tirst described by Fries, who phiced it in the genus Sjtha'rta. Later it was phiced in a new genus {CWatodoina) by Fuckel, and remained in this genu.s until recently, when Winter in his revision of the famil}- Cet'citostomeiv, put the fung-us in the genus Oeratostomella.-^ This genus is characterized as "perithecia more or less superficial, or inmiersed (sometimes only for a short time), gener- ally tough, leathery, or carbonaceous, with marked, generally well- developed beak. Spores variable, t3'picany unicellular, hyaline. Species mostly on wood." The genus Ceratostoiud ditt'ers from Cmt- todomelhi only in having the spores brown instead of hyaline. This seems a very weak character upon which to separate two genera, and Winter realizes this, as indicated in a note (p. 253), where he says: "I hesitate to accept the genus Ceratostomella^ for the different color of the spores does not seem to be sufficient basis for a genus. I do it only to satisfy general!}' accepted demands." As the present investigation is not materially concerned in the valid- ity of any particular name, the writer accepts Winter's name, leaving the question of whether it ought to be Ct-ratoatoma or CeratostouieUa to others. CeratostomeJla pilifera occurs, according to Winter, on coniferous woods, mostly on pine timber. Winter remarks that in spite of the ver}' common occurrence of this species, he was able to find the mature asci but once, and gives a figure of the two asci he saw. This is borne out by the findings mentioned hereafter. Four forms of C. pilifera are described, which are probably forms modified by the substratum on which they grew, and of less interest in this connection. The fruiting bodies of the "'blue " fungus occur in thousands on blued logs and boards in favorable seasons; the long necks of the perithecia when looked at sidewa^^s form veritable forests on a board. In the pine forests of the Black Hills the perithecia are to be found on decay- ing sticks, in the cracks formed when trees or branches break off', and sometimes under the loosened bark of dead trees. It is a strange fact, however, for which no very plausible reason can as yet be assigned, that with the thousands of dead and "blue" trees now in that forest the asci of the fungus should be comparatively so rare. «Saccardo, P. A. Michelia, 1: 370. leeiJr— No. 36— OH 2 18 THE "BLUING AND THE "RED ROT OF THE PINE. The growth and development of the fungus may be briefly noted as follows/' The spores of the "blue'' fungus (PL VII. 8) are probably blown about by the wind in countless thousands, and at the time of the beetle attack in July and August some of these spores lodge in the holes made in the l)ark of the living pine tree by the bark and wood- boring })eetles. The atmosphere of these holes is constantly kept moist l)y the water evaporating from the trunk. In these holes the spores can germinate within a day after falling there. In drop cultures of pure water the spores germinate readily over- nioht. The hyphw grow into the bark tissues and into the cambium, and from there they enter the cells of the medullary rays. The readi- ness and rapidity with which the hyphfe grow into the medullary rays lead one to suspect that the food substances, stored in the medullary rays at this period of the year in considerable quantities, exert a chemotropic stimulus. In the early stages of development one finds the hypha? of the "blue '" fungus only in the medullary ray cells. After a hypha has entered one medullary ray cell it branches and spreads to the neighboring cells (PI. VII, 1 and 2: PI. VIII, figs. 1 and 2), so that in a very short time the entire ray is filled with the hypha?, most of which grow in the ray toward the center of the trunk. Numerous starch grains are usually .found in the ray cells during the early part of August; these are rapidly dissolved by the fungus and serve as a source of food supply for a considerable period of time. The hyphfe are at first colorless, very thin-walled, and full of vacuoles and oil globules. They branch rapidly, forming numerous septa. If the starch supply is abundant, hyphsB several microns in diameter may be formed (PI. VII, 2). These are constricted at the septa and show signs of rapid development. The older hyphfe turn brown, and with the first signs of the brown color in the hypha? the bhiish coloration of the wood begins. One of the first efiects seen after the hyphae have entered the medullary ray cells is the gradual solution of the walls separating the medullary ray cells from one another (PL VII, 1, 2, and 3). The walls which separate the ray cells from the neighbor- ing wood cells may become very thin, as shown in the middle ray (PL VII, 1), but they are rarely dissolved entirely. The intermediate walls, on the other hand, entirely disappear. This leaves a tube with a cross section having the shape of the cross section of the ray, extend- ing into the trunk from the bark. This tube is sometimes filled entirely with a mass of brown hypha?, the larger number of which extend in the direction of the ray (PL VIII, figs. 1 and 2). From the ray cells some hyphfe make their way into adjacent wood cells (PL VII, 2; PL VIII. figs. 1 and 2). They grow along these, both up and down « A fuller discussion of its cultural characteristics, spore germination, and the blue color will be printed at a later date. THK ''BLUE FUNGUS. 19 (PI. VII. 1). giving- oil Itrunches to other wood cells." In this manner the whole wood body becomes penetrated by the In-own hyphte in a very short time after the iirst infection. The number of hyphie in the wood cells proper, i. e., excluding- the medullary ray cells and the cells of the wood parenchyma, is very small indeed. This is proba- bly due to the fact that thc^ fungus finds scant material upon which to live in the wood cells. The hyplue are apparently al)le to puncture the unlignitied walls here and there, but they stop at that point. The writer was not a])le to demonstrate that the hyph<\3 could attack the lignitied walls. In other words, the '* blue *" f ung-us is one which confines its attack to the food substances contained in the storing cells of the trunk and to the slightly lignitied walls of these storing- cells. The best instance of the resistance which the lignified walls offer to the dissolving action of the hypha? is found in the outer walls of the medul- lary rays, which are composed in part of the more heavily incrusted walls of the adjacent wood liber. The resin ducts are attacked in much the same manner as the medul- lary rays. (PI. VII, 3; PI. VIII, iig. 2.) The walls of the component cells are dissolved, leaving a tube filled with brown hyphte. When looked at with a low-power magnifying glass, a cross section of the wood shows the resin ducts as black spots in the wood ring. The rate at which the hyphte advance in the medallary rays keeps them considerablv in advance of the hvpha? in the wood cells and also of the blue color which follows the appearance of the hypha? in the rays. When the hyphtv have reached the heartwood they cease grow- ing inward. One reason for this ma}^ be the absence of food materials in the rays of the heartwood, and another may be the greater lignifica- tion of the heartwood cells. It is very certain that the hyphse do not flourish in the heartwood, neither in the medullar}- rays and resin ducts nor in the wood cells proper. Hartig ascribes the restriction of the fungus to the sapwood to the smaller amount of water in the heart- wood, but it would seem to the writer that there would hardly be so very sharp a line between the points where growth does take place and where it does not, if it were a matter of water supply alone. The readiness with which the fungus can enter heartwood and sapwood cells and the presence or absence of food substances would seem to be factors of more importance in determining the regions where the fungus could or would not grow. The growth in the medullary rays comes to a stop within six months after the first infection, and perhaps earlier. This applies to such wood as is infected in July or August. By December or January the whole sapwood will be filled with hyph^. In the top of the tree the "The hyphw growing out from the metlullary rays, as shown in PI. VIII, fig. 2, make the wood cells appear septate. This, of course, is not the case. 20 THE "bluing" and THE "RED ROT " OF THE PINE. development is probably veiy similar, althouo-h it was not possible to make an accurate determination of this fact because of the great irreo-ularity in the rate with which infection takes place after the beetle attack. The rate of growth in the trunk varies considerably. Some trunks are invaded on all sides with equal rapidity; some, on the other hand, seem to be more resistant on one side or another. A good idea as to the presence or absence of the fungus can usually be obtained by observing the extent of the blue coloration, to which reference is made below. EFFECT OF "BLUe"' FUNGUS ON THE TOUGHNESS OF THE " BLUE '' AVOOD. On page 13 it was stated that the -'blue" wood was considered very much tougher than the healthy wood. The tie cutters in the Black Hills lind that it is very much harder work to cut cross-ties from the •• black-top"' wood than from green trees — so much so that they demand additional pay for cutting these ties. When split with an ax, the two halves of a block seem to hang together more firmly, and it requires more strength to wedge them apart. Chips do not fly ofi' as easily. The only explanation which can be suggested for this peculiar behavior of the diseased wood is that in the '' blue" wood we have an enormous number of filaments, all extendino- radiallv through the wood. These filaments occur in bunches, much interwoven, scattered at regular intervals through the wood. It is estimated that at a point about 1 foot in from the bark there are about 39,(J0(>,0(JU medullary rays per square meter of tangen- tial surface, or about 3,700,0U0 per square foot. Even if the tensile strength of one hypha is not very great, when it comes to ■1:,000,000 bundles these may have some effect in holding masses of wood fiber together (see Plate VIII). This view is strengthened by the fact that it seems easier to split the "blue'' wood along radial lines than on tangential lines. In making ties the tangential cut is used almost entirely, and it is possible that these hyphal bundles are responsible for the toughness. When split tangentially and viewed edgewise, one can see some of these hyphal bundles projecting from the medullary rays, as if they had been pulled out and stretched before being torn. RELATION OF THE -"BLUE"' FUNGUS INFECTION TO THE BEETLE HOLES. As Has been previously stated, the first evidences of the presence of the. "blue" fungus are seen some weeks after the beetles have bored into the cambium layer. The first signs of blue color in the wood might be expected just under a hole in the bark or near such a hole, or under the tube excavated in the bark extending from such a hole. This, however, is not always the case: in fact, is rarely the case. The small triangular patches of color may appear anywhere within the area THE "blue'' fungus. 21 uttiicked by the beetles. Wh}^ this should l)e so it is difficult to explain satisfactorily. The spores must enter the region between the wood and the bark through the beetle holes and l^urrows, for there is no other way for them to get through the V)aik. Cracks in the bark are practically entirely wanting in the living trees. The only explanation possil)le is that the hyphiv start their growth in the bark and camljium layer, the parts richest in food materials, and then grow inward at one or more points independent of the beetle holes. As soon as the living bark and wood die, a wood-boring beetle enters the wood and makes numerous small holes all through the sap wood (see PI. IX). It enters felled trees within a few days after the tree is cut. The lioles which it makes extend radially into the trunk, some- times with great directness, then again ol)liquely. The beetles bore with great rapidity, so that they may ha\e reached the heartwood in the cour.se of a few months. Tliesc holes form very convenient chan- nels for the entrance of the hyphie of the "blue" fungus, and they take advantage of their opportunities. Before they appear in the wood cells surrounding the holes made by the wood-boring beetle, one linds great masses of another fungus in the open ends of the wood cells bordering the hole. This is the so-called '"ambrosia" fungus,*' which the V^eetles carrv into the holes with them, and upon the spores of which they feed. The hj'phas of this fungus are colorless and thick walled. They extend into the wood cells away from the holes only a short distance, but near the holes they grow into dense mats, which practically plug the lumen of the wood fibers toward the beetle hole. The launches of sporophores with the round pores project into the beetle hole from these mats. The hj'phae of Ceratostomella can be distinguished readity from those of the "ambrosia" fungus. They are thin walled, full of vacuoles, and turn brown verj^ soon. There seems to be no relation between the two, although such a relation is not impossible. The development of the '"ambrosia"" fungus is now being investigated, and it is hoped that this stud}^ will throw more light on any possible relation. This class of beetle probably carries the spores of Ceratostomella with it into the holes it makes, much as it carries the '"ambrosia " spores. This seems probable from the fact that the '" blue "' fungus seems to start at various points along a beetle hole; in other words, it does not grow down into the hole from the outside. Sections made at right angles to the hole show that the fungus starts to grow on all sides of the hole, and that it makes most rapid headway' in a direction parallel to the long- axes of the wood fibers (PI. IX). When once the hypha? have reached the medullary rays from the wood fibers, progress in all directions « Hubbard, H. G. The Ambrosia Beetles of the United States. Bull. 7, n. s., Division of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1897, pp. 9-30. 22 THE ^'bluing" and the "red rot" of the pine. becomes equally rapid. The blue color appears around the beetle holes soon after the entrance of the ' ' blue "' fungus. Usually it f oitqs two rings extending from the hole along the wood fibers. Various stages of this first appearance of the color are shown on PL IX. The spread of the "blue"" fungus within the wood, through the agency of wood-boring beetles, is an occurrence frequently found in man}" conif- erous woods. The central figure at the bottom of PL IX is from a photograph of a log of western hemlock found in the Olympic Forest Reserve, in Washington, which shows an even more striking case of the spread of Ceratostomella from holes made by Gnathotricus occi- dentalis Hopkins MS. This particular piece of wood was cut from a fallen trunk, about 6 inches in from the bark. FRUITING ORGANS OF THE •"BLUE*' FUNGUS. The "blue"' fungus forms its fruiting bodies on the surface of the wood in which it is growing. Air seems to be necessary for the for- mation of the fruiting bodies. A good deal of moisture in the sur- rounding air is necessary likewise. No fruiting organs are formed in dry air. In the forest they occur in the cracks formed when a blued trunk is broken ofi', on broken branches, and at such other points as are exposed to the air. So far the writer has been unable to find the perithecia of CeratostomeUa on the surface of standing trunks under the bark, although a diligent search has been made for them at all seasons for two 3'ears. When, several months after the beetle attack, the bark becomes loose, so that it separates from the wood, a space is left between the bark and wood. In this space numerous fungi develop in quantities, among others a species of Alternaria which lines the pupal chambers of the DendroctonuH^ and a species of YerticiUiiun. The whole atmosphere of this region is surcharged with moisture, and yet the •"blue" fungus does not fructifv here, for there is probably not enough air. The black perithecia of the "blue" fungus, Ceratodomella inlifera (Fr.) Winter, are familiar objects on blued boards or shingles, where the}' occur in thousands side by side. The perithecia are formed within a few hours when the conditions are favorable. At various points on the surface of the wood, in some instances out of every medullaiy ray, masses of h3'pha? grow out forming a dense mass which gradually develops into an egg-shaped bod}- (PL VII, 4). The surface of the young perithecium shows irregular polygonal markings, which gradually become indistinct as the perithecium turns jet black almost to its tip. At the tip of the young perithecium a number of hyphte grow out parallel with one another (PL VII, 4) in a direction perpen- dicular to the substi'atum. They remain colorless at the tip. These hyphfe grow in length with remarkable rapidity and form a long THE blue" fungus. 23 bristlo-lilvo nock several times us long- as the diameter of the perithc- eium (PI. VII. tl). This neek becomes very brittle as soon as the peri- thecium is mature, and breaks oti" at the slightest jar or touch. The tips of the hyphfe composing the neck remain joined at the top until the spores are discharged; they then separate and form a sort of cup- shaped support for the spore mass (PI. VII, 9). The body of the peri- thecium when mature is about 18»»/< in diameter and lOO/f high, and is covered with scattering Ijrown hyph.v. The neck averages about 1,050/^ in length and 20/< in thickness. The spores of Ceratostomella are elongated and somewhat curved (PI. VII, S). They are very small, and the asci in which they are borne are almost round or egg-shaped (PI. VII, 7) and exceedingly evanescent, so much so that it is very difficult to find them. Hun- dreds of perithecia \\\ all stages may be examined without showing a sign of asci. When the spores are mature, they arc discharged through the neck, either in the form of a large drop (PI. VII, 5, .s), or in a long, worm-like mass. The spores are held together ])V a mucilaginous material, which will not mix with water. It is suggested that this serves admirably to spread the spores through the agency of crawling insects and worms, both common on w^ood where the peri- thecia are likely to be found. The spores germinate in water afttu- a few hours, sending out a short hyaline germ tube, which In-anches very soon after its appearance. The discharge of the spores takes place when a certain amount of moisture has accumulated within the perithecium. A rain storm often brings about a worm-like discharge from ripening perithecia. In cultures a globular discharge takes place, probabl}^ because of the more equitable distribution of water. The spores measure 5. 5/< by 2.5yw, average. GROWTH IN ARTIFICIAL, MEDIA." The ''blue" fungus grows quite readily in artilicial media. In pine agar the mycelium develops rapidly; less so in ordinar}^ agar or gela- tin. Cultures are most readily obtainable in pure condition by inoc- ulating pine agar tubes with pieces of blued wood removed (with care so as keep them sterile) from the inner portion of a blued log. The hyphi« grow out from the blued pieces and soon grow through the agar to the surface. On nearly all cultures of this character peri- thecia developed on the surface of the agar within a week. The asco- spores germinate in a few hours, and at the end of thirt3"-six to forty- eight hours a colorless mycelium bearing large numbers of conidiahas developed. At first these conidia were regarded as contaminations, but their repeated appearance in cultures made from pure cultures of the « The cultural work was carried on in conjunction with Mr. George G. Hedgcock, assistant in pathology. 24 THE "BLUma" AND THE "RED EOT " OF THE PINE. ascospores leaves no doubt as to their being- a stage of the "blue" fungus. Cultures made from these conidia developed a mycelimn on which both conidia and perithecia appeared. Work with these conidia is still in progress and a report upon the results accomplished is to be published in full at a later date. In four to five da^'s in good growing cultures on rich pine agar or on sterile pine blocks the older threads of the colorless mycelium beo-in to turn brown, and at the end of seven to nine days young perithecia begin to form. These are at first hyaline and change rapidly from brown to black. They mature quickly, and at the end of from twelve to eighteen days some will be found ejecting the ascospores. In twentv- one days nearly all perithecia in a culture will be mature. DISSEMINATION OF THE SPORES. The sudden appearance of the "blue" fungus on lumber piles and over large areas at once, and its simultaneous appearance within the trunks of the pine trees seem to point to the distribution of the spores of the fungus hy the wind. It was thought that the l)ark ])eetles might be instrumental in carrying the spores into their holes. This they might do by having the spores adhering to their bodies or by feeding on the spores and depositing these in their holes. To test these hypoth- eses, beetles were placed in tubes of melted pine agar, thoroughly shaken, and then plated. Quite a number of beetles were dissected and cultures were made, using their alimentary canals, as well as some of their feces, as infecting material. In none of these cultures did any " blue " fungus appear. A very characteristic bacterium was obtained from the alimentary tracts, but no CemtostoineUa. A number of live beetles {Denflwetonus) were allowed to walk about on pine agar plates but no "blue" fungus developed. These trials are by no means to be regarded as conclusive, for they were not exhaustive. They are to be repeated on a larger scale this winter and in the summer when the l)eetles emerge. The number of perithecia developing on dead sticks and in cracks is suflicient to account for any infection which takes place in the Black Hills forest. This applies with equal force to all i-egions where the "blue" fungus occurs. The months of May, June, July, and August are the ones during which the most rapid development of this fungus takes place. THE BLUE COLOR. Wood in which the mycelium of IleJotiuin mniginosum (and prob- ably of other "green" fungi) grows turns green very soon after the fungus gets into the wood. As shown hy Yaillemin and others, the green color is due to a substance formed as a product of metabolism of the fungus, which is deposited in the form of regular oranules in THE "blue" fungus. 25 the hyphiv and fruitiii*:- bodies of the fungus. The green matter, xylindeine, is confined to the fungus threads and in no way stains the wood til)ers. Vuilleniin states expressly (p. 144) tliat "there is no green decay or green staining of the wood. The wood appears green when the colored thallus of UAothnn xrmjinosum or of analogous fungi is found in its elements." With the highest powers of the microscope he was unable to tind any coloration of the walls of the wood. The green color is therefore due to the presence en masse of green -colored threads. Similar instances of color due to the presence of colored mycelium are found on pine and spruce wood, where brown and black lines are formed by masses of dark hypha' bunched at particular points in the wood cells. The familiar zigzag and fantastic lines often found in wood of the tulip tree and in birch and maple are due to similar fungus threads. In none of these cases are the wood fibers themselves colored. So far as known to the writer, no attempt has ever been made to explain the nature of the blue color of coniferous woods. The color is a difficult one to define. A number of the writer's artist friends who were called into consultation pronounced it a blue gray, approach- ing Payne's gray. Freshly cut wood looks decidedly blue, but as the wood dries the color fades somewhat and dry wood is mouse gray. The color is by no means regular; here and there some of the yellow of the healthy wood shines through. The drawing shown on PI. I is perhaps a little too blue. PI. V is closer to the real color. Certain portions of the blued wood look greenish when viewed obliquely. There are two possible explanations as to the cause of the so-called blue color: (1) The wood may appear colored because of the pres- ence of the colored fungus threads in the wood. The mass efiect of such colored threads might make the wood appear colored. (2) The wood might be colored by a pigment or stain formed either })y the fungus or as a result of the fungus growth in the wood, and this pigment might stain the walls of the wood fibers. The first explanation holds good for the "green" wood. Here a pigment is formed in the hyphae and fruiting Iwdies of the fungus, and it is because of the presence of the green-colored bodies in the fungus threads, according to Vuillemin, that the entire wood looks green. Careful examinations made of the "blue" wood by persons trained to observe colors, called into consultation by the writer, have led to some- what conflicting results, and it is therefore thought inadvisable in the present stage of the investigation to enter on a lengthy discussion of the color subject. A number of facts may be stated, however. Exam- inations of the wood fibers of sound and "blue" wood showed that it was possible in most instances to distinguish between the sound and the "blue" wood. The walls of the sound wood look somewhat darker (with a suggestion of purple) than the blued fiber. This method 26 THE "bluing'' and the "red rot" of the t^ine. of examination, with hi^h mag'nitication, is a ratiier uncertain one, however, for the refraction caused by the containing liquids, which are purplish, and of light falling- from a blue sky, is apt to show very faint traces of color which do not belong to the wood. It may be stated definitely that the libers of the " blue" wood show no indication whatever of any color element seen in the wood en masse. The hyphffi constitute the onlj^ color element present in the "blue" wood which could not be detected in the sound wood. These are present in the medullary ra3\s and adjacent cells, as described above. These hypha? are pale reddish-brown, a color which may be obtained by taking a pale tinge of warm sepia. This color is ver}" distinct and stands out in sharp contrast to the surrounding yellow wood libers. (See PL VIII, showing the contrast.) How these brown hyphfe could make a blue gray or mouse gray it is difficult to understand, for no density of such a brown, even in combination with straw yellow (of the wood fiber), could possibh" produce blue gray. It would there- fore seem probable, or at least possible, that there is some pigment with a blue element in the "blue" wood which is so faint that its detection in thin microscopic sections becomes almost impossible. All efforts to extract an}- color of a blue nature from the wood have so far failed. Extracts of blued wood with ether, alcohol, benzol, chloroform, alkalis, and acids gave evidence that changes of some sort had taken place in the wood fiber, for the extracts of sound and " blue" wood differed materially in nearly ever}' instance. No signs of any blue or blue-gray color were obtained. It seems necessary, therefore, to leave this matter for further inves- tigations, which are now in progress. SUMMARY. In the foregoing chapters a peculiar disease of the dying wood of the bull pine has been described. The wood turns blue in August and September, after the trees are attacked by the beetles. The blue color starts near the base of the tree and gradually spreads upward until the entire sapwood is blue. The ' ' blue " wood is somewhat tougher than the healthy wood and has been shown to be practically as strong as the healthy wood. DECAY OF THE "BLUE" WOOD. The changes which the "blue" fungus brings about in the wood of the western yellow pine can hardly be called deca\'. It is true that the medullar}' rays are destroyed in part and that the walls of many wood fibers are punctured, but as a whole the wood is sound in the ordinary acceptance of that term. It is not rotten, or doty, or decayed. The "blue" fungus attacks cell contents and not the cell walls. DECAY OF THE "BLUE" Wool). 27 After the wood Im.s l)oen deiid for some time eertuin chim.«;('s Ix'^m, which in the end result in the entire decay of the wood. 'Die deud wood may or may not be l)lue, for the processes by which the wood chanoes to decayed wood arc the same for wood which is entirely healthy and for the •• blue" wood. THE "KKD KOT"' OF THE WESTERN YEEEOW I'TNK. The " red rot " of the western yellow pine usually starts in the tops of the •• black-top" trees, i. e., trees which have l)een dead for two or more years. At one or more points, usually on the north or east side of a tree, one will find that the wood immediately under the bark starts to rot. This rot starts at the bark and gradually extends inward (PI. X, tig. 1). The wood when it shoAys the tirst signs of this decay is wet and soggy and rapidly becomes brittle, so that it crum])les into small piec^eswhen rubbed. A plane will no longer make a smooth .^surface (Fl. X, tigs. I and :>), for the knife tears out small pieces of the wood fiber. The color of the wood changes from blue to red yellow. When the decay has gone on for some time, bands and sheets of a white felty substance are found tilling certain cracks which result 1)ecause of shrinkage in the wood mass (PI. X, fig. 2). Th^^^e white sheets consist of masses of fungus threads densely interwoven. The destruction of the wood con- tinues until the heartwood is reached, and as this is exceedingly small in the tops of these trees one will find that after some time almost the entire wood mass has changed to a brown, In-ittle, resistless mass (PI. XT). The completely rotted wood crumbles into a fine powder when crushed between the fingers. When wet it is of a cheesy con- sistency. When the water has evaporated from such wood it is like so much brown charcoal. CAUSE OF THE "KED ROT." The ''red rot" of the dead timl)er is caused by one of the higher fungi which grows in the wood, and by so doing brings about the decay of the wood. The spores of this fungus fly about in the forest and some of them lodge in bark crevices of the dying trees. The numerous beetle holes afford every opportunity for entrance to the wood, and it is therefore not surprising to find that the majority of the ''black-top" trees become infected sooner or later with the spores of this fungus. The spores germinate and hyphie grow into the dead cambium and the wood, where they attack such organic matter as has been left by the "blue" funo-us. They go farther, however, and attack the cell walls of the wood fibers, from which they extract the cellulose. As a result of this, the wood fibers shrink in volume and crack in regular lines extending obliquely across the cell walls. As the solution of the 28 THE "bluing" and the "ri:d hot" of the pine. cellulose goes on. large numbers of fibers separate in a body from the adjoining- ones, often along the lines of medullary rays, and the spaces so formed are rapidly filled with fungus threads, giving rise to the white sheets already spoken of. (See PL X. fig. '2.) CONDITIONS FAVORIXG THK DEVELOPMENT OF THE '" RED-ROT " FUNGUS. One of the most important factors which influences the development of the ''red-rot*' funo-us. and one which holds for all fungi, is water. O . CD If the trees in the Black Hills were dry, the red rot would make but slight progress. At the time when the attack takes place the trees are full of water, especially the tops, for these have lived longer than the butts of the trees, and water was pumped into them long after the lower parts of the trees were dead. Tlie top. therefore, is the most favorable point for the ''red-rot*- fungus, and it is there that it is found developing most rapidly. From the top the fungus may grow down, so as to afiect the lower part of the trunk, but as this has been drying continuously since the beetle attack one will find that it is veiy rare for those parts of the trunk situated at points 5 to 3< ' feet from the ground to be seriously injured by this fungus in the first years after the death of the trees. This is an exceedingly important considera- tion when the practical phase of this subject is taken into account. The relation of the water supply to the " red rot" is illustrated veiy well in the large number of trees where the bark has died and peeled off from one side of the tree. On PI. X, fig. '2. a photograph of such a case is reproduced. The bark has fallen off' on the south and south- west sides of the tree, but it still is attached to the opposite side. The result of this peeling becomes evident very soon, for on that side the wood dried ver}' rapidly, while on the other side the bark prevented such evaporation. The wood remained moist, and here the '"red-rot" fungus found a footing and conditions favorable for its growth. The result was that in the course of some months the north and northeast sides of that trunk were completeh' decaj'ed, while the opposite side remained sound. A similar instance is shown in the largest section on PI. VI, fig. 2: in this case at the base of the tree. Where the bull pine grows on hillsides not exposed to the sun or wind, or where there is much undergrowth, one will frequently find the '"red-rot" fungus entering the trees at the base before it attacks the top. . This is likewise due to the fact that the water has not left the trunk with suflicient rapidity to prevent the attack. FINAL STAGES AND FRUITING ORGANS. When the tops become rotted almost to the heart they become so weak that thev are broken off' bv the first wind. In those sections of DECAY OF THE "BLUE" \Vnngs about the decav of the larger roots underground, and also of the sap- wood of the trunk close to the ground (PI. VI, tig. 2, large section and PI XI rio- 3) After a time the roots ])ecome weakened to sucli an extend that^thev are no longer able to keep the trunk in an upright position, and the result is that the tree is blown over. Such a fallen free is then attacked rapidly at all points by the "red-rot fungus, and in a few vears nothing is left of it but a pile of rotted wood. When the wood has been completely destroyed the fruiting organs of the " red-rot" fungus begin to form. Some of the hyplne grow out through the bark and form a tiesh-colored knob (PI. XI, hg. 1) which rapidlv increases in size and turns reddish in color. This knob grad- uallv widens horizontallv, forming a shelf, and on the lower side ot thi^ shelf numerous pores appear. One of these bodies is seen grow- ing out from the fallen top shown on PI. XIII, rig. 1, a little below and to the rio-ht of the small branch extending out toward the front of the picture: (See also PI. XI, fig. 2, and PL XIII fig. 2 ) After a year a mature fruiting body or sporophore (commonly called a punk, mushroom, or toadstool) has developed, from which yores are dis- charo-ed at intervals. These spores are formed in the small tubes found on the lower side of the sporophore, and on a quiet night one can see them coming from the sporophore in white clouds as they are beino- discharged in countless thousands. The spores are so hght that they'are carried many miles by the winds and lodge on every stick and tree in the vicinity. The sporophores of this fungus may grow for many years. At dif- ferent periods, the length of which is not yet definitely known they add a ring on the outside and thereby increase in size. The one shown attached to the section on PI. XI, fig. 2, is probably 2 years ok, while the one at the base of the tree on PI. XIII is probably several years old The sporophores may occur singly or in groups of two or three together. When a top falls so as to lie close to the ground where it is likelv to be kept wet, the sporophores will develop every few inches, so that there may be as many as 20 or 30 on a log 10 feet in length. On 30 THE "bluing" and THE ''RED ROT'' OF THE PINE. standing- trees thej^ occur onl}' at the base of the trees (PL XllI). Here thev g-row close to the ground and oftentimes their lower surfaces are actuall}' in the ground. Grass, pine needles, and stones almost hide the entire sporophore. Older punks are- rough on top and appear to be covered with some waxy substance which has hardened and cracked. This substance, when scraped, resembles a hard resin. It is brittle, and is readily soluble in alcohol and xylol. It has a sticky appearance, and when f reshh' formed on the younger parts its bright red color forms a distin- guishing character not readily overlooked. The younger parts are sometimes flesh color, then again reddish yellow in color, and as they grow older the}^ turn more decidedly red. The surface is at first smooth and wax}-, and as the sporophore grows older it becomes very much wrinkled. The outer waxy covering cracks (PI. XIII, fig. 2), and the whole surface then seems to be coated with a dull gray, lime- like substance, which is exceedingly characteristic. The red-rot fungus belongs to the Hymenomycetes, genus Polyporus {Fomes), and differs decidedlv from other species of this genus. The species most closely related to it are PoJyporim pinicola viiW^ Polyporus marginatus. Its whole appearance, its color, hard resinous covering, and very rough surface distinguish it from these species. It has been decided to consider it as a new species — -PoJyjJorus p)07iderosus, u. sp. — which may be described as follows: A large Polyporus of the Fomes type usually growing singly (PI. XI, fig. 2), some- times two or three together (PI. XIII, fig. 2), broadly applanate; about as thick in the back as it is wide (PI. YII, figs. 10 and 11) ; top, when young, fliesh-colored to yellow red, becoming darker red with age; smooth when young, rapidly becoming rough and covered with irregular nodules. Older specimens show numerous ridges, formed by regular additions (annual) on the edge and below. Top covered after the first year with a hard, brittle, dull, resinous substance, which cracks as it grows old, and looks sandy or crystalline. Lower surface smooth, pores very regular, almost round, extending out to a line which is about one-fourth inch in width. ( See PI. YII, figs. 10 and 11.) Common on dead trees and fallen logs of the western yellow or bull pine {Pinus ponderosa) in South Dakota. RATE OF GROWTH OF " RED ROT." The question as to the rate of growth of the "red rot " is one of great practical significance. The "red rot"" fungus is the principal cause which prevents the dead wood from lasting indefinitely.' It usually attacks the trees when they have reached the "black-top'' stage; i. e., toward the end of the second year after the beetle attack, and there- after. The larger number of trees are probabh' free from this rot until the third year. To make this clearer, one may make a schedule of the stages through which the trees go, about as follows: AMOUNT OF DISEASED TIMBER. 31 1899, July. — Live treei^ attacked by the bark-ljoring beetles. 1899, September. — Wood of the lower part of the trunk starting to blue. 1899, December. — "Wood l)lue to the lieart l>eIow, and wood of the top ]iartially l)lue. 1900, ^lay. — "Sorrel-top" stage; leaves turning yellow ; wood wholly blued. 1900, October. — "Ked-top" stage; leaves red and lower ones starting ti> fall off; wood blue, but sound. 1901, May. — "Black-top" stage: leave.^ falling off and fallen wood starting to decay; "red rot" in the tops. 1901, October. — "Black-top" stage; leaves all fallen; top badly decayed and in many instances broken off. This calendiir nm.st be considered a tentative one, based upon obser- vations of two years, although in the main it is pro])ably correct. The '■ red-rot" part is extremely variable, and can not be assioned to any definite period. Thel:ime when the tops will ])cg-in to decay is depend- ent upon the weather at any particular season, the amount of rain, the vioor of the tree and the length of time it takes the tree to die com- pletely after the beetles have attacked it, the position of the tree in the forest, the prevailing" winds, and probal)ly other factors more or less related to those mentioned. It is exceedingly important that this variabilitj' be recognized, for its bearing on the cutting and utilization of the dead timber is of the greatest importance. There ma}' be "black-top"' trees which will he sound from the ground to the very top, and these trees ma}' have stood in the forest for years in this condition. Not far away one will find others which have barely reached the ''black-top" stage which may show signs of decay to within a few feet of the ground. It is there- fore entirely impossible to lay down a hard and fast rule, and to state that the "black tops" after a year are all of no value as timl>er. The average conditions in the Black Hills are certainlv verv favor- able for the development of "red rot," and one will probably not l^e very far from the truth when he assumes that after the trees have reached the "black-top" stage they are liable to decay and deteriorate within a comparatively short time: that time probably will not exceed two years. AMOUNT OF DISEASED TIMBER. In the foregoing, but brief reference has been made to the actual condition of the forests in South Dakota at this time and to the extent of the injury following the attack of the bark beetles. The amount of dead wood, both standing and fallen, is very large, and as the beetles are still at work, it is steadily increasing. It is, of course, rather dif- ficult to make estimates of the exact amount without an actual survey of the whole region. A trip through the worst region — i. e., north of Spearfish River and west of the Burlington Railroad tracks — was made during the past summer, in company with several expert timbermeu, 32 THE "blui^^g" axd the "eed rot" of the pine. for the purpose of determining about how much dead and dying- tim- ber one could safely count on removing this winter. Estimates were individual, and these estimates "■ agreed fairly well as to the relative amounts of the various grades of timber present. Taking these estimates as a basis, it appears that about half of the timber in this particular region is now dead. This refers to the standing timber, and leaves the fallen timber entirel}" out of consideration. This immense amount of timber is drying out rapidly and forms a tremendous fire danger. Should fire start in these woods, it would sweep the dead as well as the living- trees from the hillsides. The great danger of leaving the trees with the beetles in them, which will be ''sorrel tops" next summer, has been jDointed out by Hopkins. Besides these two dangers, there is still another point worthy of attention, and that is the loss, under present conditions, of the value of this wood. The following considerations are made, keeping in mind both the protection of the living timber against further insect and fire loss and the possible utilization of the vast amount of dead timber. POSSIBLE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD WOOD. IX THE BLACK HILLS. Timber from the Black Hills Forest Reserve is now being used by tne mining interests in the Hills, and to a verj^ small extent by the rail- roads on their lines in South Dakota. The mining interests use the wood for mine props, lagging, and fuel. They are absolutely depend- ent on the timber in the Reserve for the lumber necessary for use in mining, for their fuel, and for their water, which is conserved because of the forests on the hillsides. The I'ailroads use the wood for cross- ties on the lines which extend from Lead Cit}' and Deadwood south to the State line. The timber used for mine props, lagging, etc.. by all the mines in the Black Hills is stated to be about 75,000.000 feet at the maximum. The amount of timber used for ties is practicalh' inap- preciable, and at this writing most of the tie cutting has practically stopped. It appears from this that the amount of dead timber which could possibly be used in the Black Hills is not more than 75,000,000 feet. «The exact estimates were a:^ follow;?: Kind iif timber. I. II. III. Green timber Percent. 40 25 20 Per cent. 40 25 Per cent. 50 "Sorrel tops " 26 "Red tops" 15 "Black tops ' l.T •'>n 10 The third estimate was made by Dr. Hopkins and the writer. VALUE OF THE DEAD WOOD INSPECTION. 33 IX THE REMAIXINO PARTS OF SOUTH DAKOTA. The Black Hills uro situated in the extreme southwest corner of South Dakota, and the only railroad connection which they have with the surroundinii' territory is southward into Nebraska. It is there- fore entirely inipractical)le to consider a possible use of any of the dead timber in parts of South Dakota outside of the Black Hills. It appears from the foregoino- that only a very small amount of the dead timber can be used in the Black Hills, and that y> idiotically none can be taken to other parts of South Dakota. The only practical)le method of disposing- of this surplus amount would be to ship it out of the State, l)ut this is not permissible under the present forest-reserve law, as will be pointed out hereafter. VALUE OF THE DEAD WOOD. The dead wood which ought to be removed from the Black Hills Forest Reserve is of all grades and values, and for practical purposes it is impossible to draw any lines grading the same which will hold good. It nuist be taken for granted that the onl}" wood which can be considered as worth anything at all is wood which shows no sign of deca}' or rot. Most of the timber, in fact nearly all, will be blue. The blue color, as has been previously shown, ought not to make much difference as regards its strength, and if properly treated with pre- servatives it is probable that the "blue'' wood will be serviceable for ties and lagging. The wood which is dead in the forest now rots rapidly, as has been pointed out, and ever}- day that it is left makes large amounts of it less valuable than it was before. At best one may expect that timber which is killed by the beetles one year will begin to decay after two years. In fixing the price of this dead timber it should be remembered that in order to get it out, lines of railroad would have to ])e constructed at a very considerable cost. Even with such lines the cost of bringing the dead timber from the forest to points where it could be utilized would be great. The expense of bringing timber from Montana and Wyoming to Nebraska (such cost including the first cost of the timber plus the transportation) will about equal the cost of bringing the tim- ber from the Black Hills to Nebraska. That the wood must have some value to be worth going for at all is obvious, but, as has been pointed out, its value will depend upon the rapidity with which it is removed. INSPECTION. One of the greatest difficulties which will be encountered in the utilization of the dead timber will be in connection with the inspec- tion of the material used. There will be vast quantities of the timber 16614— No. 36—03 3 34 THE "bluing" and the "red rot" of the pine. which will be hard and sound, but badl}^ blued. Then again, if the recommendations as to the cutting of live trees which are infested with beetles are followed there will be timber which will in all respects be like the green timber. A tie cut from the top of a tree in September, after the beetle attack in August, will usuall}' be perfectly healthy, i. e., it will show no traces of blue color or onlj^ yer^^ slight ones. All timber which is entirely sound, i, e., not decaj'ed, is fit for the uses to which it can ))e put in the Northwest, either for mine timbers, lagging, ties, etc. The blue color is not to be considered as a sign of decay. Timber which shows rotten spots of any size in the sap wood should not be used. An idea of what such decayed spots look like can be gained by studying the photographs reproduced on PI. X, figs. 1 to 3, and PI. XIV, fig. 1. Besides the defect caused by the " red rot," one will sometimes find logs which show decay in the center. This is a disease of the living tree, and when more than one or two rings are afiected by the disease, such logs should likewise be rejected. The tie section shown on PI. XIV, fig. 2, is an example of this form of rot. A careful and intelligent inspector who familiarizes himself with the causes of the decay in the Black Hills Forest Reserve ought to have no difliculty in determining after some practice which timber is fit for use and which ought to be rejected. No amount of chemical treatment will, so far as we now know, make a practically decayed log serviceable. RECOMMENDATIONS. Bearing in mind the considerations just referred to, the following recommendations are made : (1) Removal of vwod from the forest. — The dead timber should be removed from the Black Hills Forest Reserve at once. It forms a standing fire menace. The standing beetle-infested trees serve to spread the insect trouble. This dead timber should be removed at once, or at the earliest possible moment, and the living infested trees should be felled and peeled as recommended by Dr. Hopkins, for with every da}- the situation becomes more and more difiicult to handle. (2) Sale of vxK>d.—l\\ order to rid the forest of danger from fire, from further insect and fungus spread— in other words, in order to protect the remaining living trees from further destruction— the dead wood should be removed. The cost of operation in removing the dead timber is very considerable: (1) Because of the distance from lines of transportation; (2) because of the greater difliculty in cutting this wood; (3) because of the scattered localities in which it is found; (4) because of the constant care and selection necessary to get good sound wood. Therefore, because of this increased cost, it is recom- mended that the dead and beetle-infested timber be sold at a nominal RECOMMENDATIONS. ^5 prioc to such a., nuiv applv therefor, this to l>e done in order to induce persons to assist in clearing the forest with all possihle speed. (3) Removal from South Dakota.-lt has hecn point.>d out that the great mass of dead timber now in the Black Hills Forest Reserve can not be used in South Dakota. It is therefore rec-nmiended (agaui as a measure of protection for the living forest) that the forest-reserve law be so amended as to permit the shipment of the dead and beetle- infested timber from the State of South Dakota. In makincr such a change, it ought to be understood that shipv)mg timber fron'i the State should in no way interfere with the mdustries dependent upon such timber in the State where the timl)er is situated. The case under consideration is an example in point. The mining interests of the Black Hills are absolutely dependent for their timber supplv on the wood in.the Black Hills, and if any timber is removed from^he region of the Black Hills, i. e., from the State of South Dakota, it should be taken from regions ii the Black Hills which are not tributiiry to the important mining interests in the Hills. In other words if any timber is removed from the Black Hills, it should come from the region south and west of the Little Speartish River. (4) Thaler which >lue timber," and much of it is now decayed. Contractors should be required to cut and remove only such timber as is perfectly sound, without any signs of decay. PLATES. 37 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I. — Frontispiece. Cross section of the trunk of a dying tree of the western yellow or 1)ull pine (Pinus ponderosa) from the Black Hills, South Dakota. This tree was attacked by the beetles in August, 1901. The section was cut at a point 6 feet from the ground during the early part of November, 1901. Note the beetle holes in the bark; also the yellow ring between heartwood and sapwood. Plate II. — Dying trees of the bull pine. Fig. 1 shows several trees; at the left two live, green trees, a "sorrel-top" tree in the center, and a "red-top" tree at the right. Photographed August 5, 1902. Fig. 2 shows several live, green trees at the left and a "sorrel-top" tree toward the right. Note that this tree is still green at the top. Photographed August o, 1902. Plate III. — Various stages showing the gradual color change of leaves of the bull pine {Pinus ponderosa) after they have been attacked by the bark beetles {Den- droctonus ponderosie). 1. Leaves from a healthy tree. 2. Leaves from a " sorrel- top" tree. 3 and 4. Leaves from trees changing to the " red-top " stage. When the leaves have reached the stage of 4 they fall off and are completely dead. Plate IV. — Fig. 1. Group of bull pines {Pinus ponderosa) near Elmore, S. Dak., showing a "red-top " tree in the center and healthy trees on both sides. Fig. 2 shows a group of "black-top" trees from which all leaves have fallen. This photograph was made in November, 1901, and it is probable that these trees were attacked by the beetles in August, 1899. Plate V. — Sections of trunks of the bull pine {Pinus ponderosa), showing the "blue" disease. Fig. 1 shows an early stage. This section was cut in Novem- ber, 45 feet up in the trunk, from a tree attacked by the beetles in August of the same year. The tree is still alive at this point. The blue color has started at two separate points. Fig. 2. A later stage, showing the blue color spread out over one-half of the section. Note the yellow ring at the border of heartwood and sapwood. Plate VI. — Fig. 1. Three sections from a bull pine made in November, 1901. This tree was probably attacked by the beetles the latter part of July, 1901. The sections were made at points 5 feet, 16 feet, and 36 feet, respectively, from the ground, i. e.. the largest section was cut from the butt, the second one about half way up, and the third in the top. The healthy wood photographs white, and all darker shades represent blued wood. Note the beetle holes in the bark. Fig. 2. Three sections from a bull pine made in November, 1901. This tree was prob- ably attacked by the beetles in July, 1900. It is a "black-top" tree. The sec- tions were made at points 4 feet, 26 feet, and 40 feet from the ground. All are blue. The section near the ground shows " red rot." This happens frequently where the bases of the trees are shaded by long grasses and bushes. In most trees the base will be found sound. The whole tree was dead. Plate VII. — Mycelium and fruiting bodies of the "blue" and "red-rot" fungi. 1. Tangential section of "blue" wood; w, cross sections of hyphse of the blue fungus {Ceratostornella pilifera (Fr. ) AVinter), growing in the medullary rays; h, hyphse growing longitudinally in the wood fibers. These hyph* are brown. 2. Cross section of "blue" wood, showing longitudinal section of medullary ray with hyphte of the "blue" fungus {h) growing in the ray and into adjoining cells; the 38 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 3y ray cells have been destroye z o J3 m o H o -D H XI m Wm^--.i^.'M^j^w^^fm^ CO c: 31 P M XI m m > z o CO o XI m o XI m m C/) Bui. 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U S Dept of AgtScultui^. Plate III JULIUS BIEN & CO.LITH.N Y. Color changes in Leaves of the BullPine 1. Leaves rram healthy tree. 2. Leaves from "SorreL-top " tree. 3 CLTLcL 4. ZecLves fy-om trees turrting of the "Red-top" sta,ge. Bui. 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U S Dept, of Agriculture. Plate IV. a 3J m D I H O ■0 X m m rn r S i g> ^ O c D -D ^? I m > |- H I < 33 m m en Z m > X r > a I H O H X m m CO Bui 36. Bureau of Planr Industry, U S. Dept. of Agriculture . Plaie V Fig. / Fig. n. Sections ofTrunks oftheBullPine, showing Early Stages of"Blue Disease" JULIUS BIE.N &CO.LITH N.Y- Bu. 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. Fig. 1.— Sections from Tree Dead Five Months. Fig. 2.— Sections from Tree Dead Eighteen Months. •BLUE" SECTIONS FROM DEAD TREES. Bui. 36, Bureau of Plant Industiy, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VII. Mycelium and Fruiting Bodies of ■Blue" and "Red-rot" Fungi. 1, Tangential section of "bine" wood; 2, cross section of "bine" wood; 3, cro.ss section of a medullary ray; 4, vonng perithecinm of the " blue " fungus ( CeratostomeUa piUfera); 5, mature perithecia of the " blue' fungus; 6, two perithecia of the "blue" fungus; 7, two asci with spores of the "blue" fungus; 8, spores of the "blue" fungus; 9, top of beak of perithecinm of Cinitostniiit'Ua pUifcra just after the discharge of the spore mass; 10 and 11. median sections of .sporophores of the "red-rot" iungux Pulypdriis jxmder- (i,mii, n. sp.). Bui 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VIII. ■'■IHilWllr. I }''■ '" Fig. 1 .—Radial Section. Fig. 2.— Tangential Section. SECTIONS OF BLUE" WOOD. Bui. 36. Bureau of Plant Industry, U S. Depi of Agriculture. Ptaie IX % 9 JULIUS BIEN & ^ Pieces of Wood from the Bull Pine, showing Blue Fungus Starting from Holes made by a Wood-boring Beetle. Bui. 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate X. .: .>^. Fig. 1 .—Section Taken 35 Feet from the Ground from a Dead Tree. Fig. 2.— Section Showing More Advanced Stage OF Decay. Fig. 3.— Section from Tree Shown in Fig. 2, Made 15 Feet Higher Up. EARLY STAGES OF "RED ROT.' Bui. 36, Buceau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XI. Figs. 1, 2.— Sections from the Top of a Fallen Tree. Fig. 3.— Section from a Standing Pine, 4 Feet from the Ground. SECTIONS FROM "BLACK-TOP" WESTERN YELLOW PINE TREES, SHOWING ADVANCED STAGES OF DECAY. Bui. 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XII. Group OF Broken " Black-top " Trees. Bui. 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XIII. Fig. 1 .— Top of Black Top" Broken Off. Fig. 2.— Polyporus ponderosus Growing on Dead Pine Stump. Bui. 36, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XIV. ^■^ \. *#^ r^ V k Wv Fig. 1.— Wood Affected with Red kot.' f { ;.K * \. \. y Fig. 2.— Diseased Wood from Living Tree. SECTIONS OF REJECTED CROSS-TIES. $u •^^'^^^jZ^ U. S. DEPARTMENi^F AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN No. 37. B. T. Galloway, CVkV/-'' ^'""i". FORMATION OF THE SPORES IN THE SPORANGIA OF RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS AND OF PHYCOilYCES NITENS. iV DEANE B. SWINGLE, Assistant in Pathology, Laboratory of Plant Pathology. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. ISSCED Jl-NK 27, 190.3. WASHINGTON: government PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. BULIiETINS OF THE BTJREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege- table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations and Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly separate Divisions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, the Arlington Experimental Farm, Tea Culture Investigations and Domestic Sugar Investigations. Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of bulle- tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one series of the Bureau. ' A list of the bulletins issued in the present series follows. Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific and technical pubUca- tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution. All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell' them at cost." All applications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Union Building, Washington, D. C. No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. I. Liming of Soils from a Physiological Standpoint. II. Experimental Study of tlie Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents. No. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents. No. 3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. No. 4. Range Improvement in Arizona. (Cooperative Experiments with__ 4he Arizona- Experiment Station.) 1902.. Price, 10 cents. ' '- No. 5. Seeds and Plants Imported Through the Section of Seed and Plant Intro- duction for Distribution in Cooperation with the Agricultural Experiment Stations. Inventory No. 9, Numljers 4351-5500. 1902. Price, 10 cents. No. 6. "A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents. No. 7. The Algerian Durum Wheats: A Classified List, with Descriptions. 1902. Price, 15 cents. No. 8. A Collection of Economic and Other Fungi Preparer! for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents. No. 9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. No. 10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents. No. 11. Johnson Grass: Report of Investigations Made During the Season of 1901. 1902. Price, 10 cents. No. 12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. Notes on the Grasses and Forage Plants and Range Conditions. 1902. Price, 15 cents. No. 13. Experiments in Range Improvements in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 No. 14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents. No. 15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin, Being a Report upon Investigations Made During July and August, 1901, in the Region Between Winnemucca, Nevada, and Ontario, Oregon. 1902. Price, 15 cents. No. 16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campes- tris and Other Basidiomvcetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 c^nts. No. 17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea: I. The Wilt Disease of the Cowpea and Its Control. II. A Cowpea Resistant to Root Knot (Heterodera radicicola). 1902. Price, 10 cents. No. 18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents. No. 19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed: Harvesting, Curing, and Cleaning. 1902. Price, 10 cents. No. 20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents. No. 21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables for the Years 1901 and 1902. 1903. Price, 35 cents. [Continued on page 3 of cover.] U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN No. 37. B. T. (lAl.l.owAY, Vliiij iij linnau. FORIIATIOX OF THE SPORES IX THE SPORANI^IA OF . NIGRICANS AND OF FHYCOJIYCES NITENS. BY DEANE B. SWINDLE, Assistant in 1*athology, Laboratory of Plant rATiioLOGY. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. LFBRARY Issued .Iink 27, W08. NEW YORK BOTANfCAL Garden WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1903. BIREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. B. T. Galloway, Vhief. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. SCIEXTIFIC STAFF. Albekt F. Woods, Fntliolor/ixl mid F}iijxioIo< jVltefis," and respectfully recommend that it be pub- lished as Bulletin No. 37 of the series of this Bureau. This paper was prepared bv Mr. Deane B. Swingle, of the Pathological Laboratory of Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations, and was sub- mitted with a view to publication l)y the Pathologist and Physiologist. Respectfully. B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wilson, Secretan/ of Ar/riculture. PREFACK. The following- pupor hy ^\v. Dciino li. Swing-le, ontitled "Fonna- tion of the Spores in tht^ Sporangia of Rhizoj/ii-s jri(/ricaH>< and of Phycmnyces Nltens^^ throws a new light on certain intricate processes in two important genera of fungi. The ([uestion of spore formation is one of vital interest to the study ot" the rej)r()duction and distribu- tion of fungi, both parasitic and nonparasitic. Mr. Swingle's paper corrects an erroneous idea that has received wide acceptance- both in this countrj^ and abroad. The inherent properties and ))ehavior of protoplasm must be the basis of work in pathology and ])hysiol()gv. This paper is a contril)ution to our knowledge, especially in regard to the mechanics of this type of cell-division, and to the nature and functions of the vacuole and the relation of the activities of the luicleus to those of the rest of the protoplasm. The results of this study are in a large measure applicable to many of the other fungi, including a number that are parasitic. The paper is technical and is intended for the use of investigators in pathology and physiology. Aleekt F. Woods, Pathologist awl Physiologist. Office of the Pathologist and Physiologist, Washington, I>. ('.. Fehniary 7, 1003. COXTKXTS, Page. Historical 9 Methocls 14 Rhizopus nigricans Elirbg 15 Phyromj/ref^ ntlerh'; Kiiii/e 23 General eoiiHiderationp 28 Summary 36 Index to literature 38 Description (jf plates 39 7 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. Rhizopus nigricans. Fig. 1. — Group of sporangiophores with sporangia. Fig. 2. — Longitudinal section of young stolon. Fig. 3. — Longitudi- nal section of old stolon. Fig. 4.— Disintegrating nuclei from old stolon. Fig. 5. — Longitudinal section of young sporangium. Fig. 6.— Longitudinal section of nearly full-sized sporangium 40 II. Rhizopus nigricans. Fig. 7.— Longitudinal section of full-sized spor- angium before the columella is formed. Fig. 8.— Longitudinal sec- tion of sporangium in which the columella is l)eing formed. Fig. 9.. -Section of small part of sporangium showing cleavage furrows. . 40 III. Rhizopus nigricans. Fig. 10.— Longitudinal section of sporangium showing spore formation. Fig. 11.— Nuclei from columella that ha.s just been formed. Fig. 12. — Sporangium in which the spores are completely formed. Fig. 13.— Xuclei from columella of old spor- angium. Fig. 14. — Ripe spores in their liviBg condition 40 lY. Phycomyces nitens. Fig. 1.^.— Longitudinal section of young sporan- gium. Fig. 16. — Small part of young sporangium very highly mag- nified. Fig. 17.— Formation of zones in sporangium. Fig. \S.— Layer of vacuoles in sporangium Y. Phycomyces nitens. Fig. 19.— Formation of columella. Fig. 20. — Structure of vacuoles an\ cell plates analogous to those formed in cell division in the higher plants. This account is, how- ever, very brief and incomplete. Shortly afterwards, Biisgen (1882) studied the formation of the spores in Mucor. His conclusion is that the protoplasmic mass is cut up into blocks by cell plates,' and that these blocks are subdivided until the final spores are reached. In this he adds little to Stras- burger's account, Leger (1806) published a paper intended to till the gaps in our knowledge of the spore formation in the Mucorinea?. This paper is quite comprehensive, dealing with nearly all the principal genera. Leger studied the spore formation parth' bj' means of sections of material embedded in collodion, but largeh' b}" examining' the sporan- gia in toto or by crushing them under a cover glass. His results agree entirely with those of Van Tieghem. He finds that all the forms investigated agree in having the protoplasm divided at once into gran- ular portions separated b}" nongranular plates. Later, the granular masses are surrounded bv walls and become the spores, while the nongranular plates form the intersporal protoplasm. In the case of Rhhojnis nigrleaiu^ Leger finds that when the spores are first formed they arc separated by thin membranes onh'. How these membranes originate he does not make clear. The intersporal substance appears a little later after the spore walls are formed. In this respect RMzojms differs from all the other forms investigated. In his description of the formation of the columella, Leger states that the contents of the sporangium are easil}' seen to be differentiated into a lighter and a denser portion. These are then separated by a columella wall, the lighter part being included in the columella and all the denser part remaining outside. Just how the protoplasm is divided and the wall formed he does not tell us. He states that the nuclei in the spores are oval, while those in the columella are spherical. As the spores ripen the cytoplasm disappears from the columella and the nuclei, reduced to nucleoli [sic], remain adhering to the inner sur- face of the columella wall. The nucleus is essentially^ the same in all the forms which Leger describes. It consists of a nucleolus surrounded b}' a clear zone which does not stain, and outside of this by a distinct nuclear membrane. The nucleoli are described as so many times larger relatively than I have found them that 1 am entireh^ unable to credit his results. The nuclei, also, as he figures them, are much too large and contain no chromatin. Thaxter (1897) has done the most to clear up our knowledge of the spore formation in the Syncephalidw. He states that he was earlier HISTORICAL. 1 1 inclined to accept the view of Fischer (1892), which is that in .such forms as Si/iteejf/ia/is the spores borne in a sinole row an* formed exoo-enouslv by constriction like conidia. the wall of the fruitino- body forming part of the spore wall, and that this body can not, therefore,, be considered as a sporangium homologous with that of Jfiteof. After a thorough stud}' of Syneephaliutruni and Si/ncej?/talls, however, he accepted the "sporangial" theory, and brings very con- clusive evidence to support his results. In Sytivejfhalastruni race- mosum he iinds that the contents of the CA'lindrical cells that are to form the chains of spores are divided into spores, not b}' gradual con- striction from the surface inward. l)ut sinudtaneously b}' a hyaline intersporal sul)stance. Walls art* then formed ai'ound the individual spores entirely within and distinct from the wall of the mother cell. By crushing these spore rows under a cover glass he was able to force the spores out in a perfect condition, leaving the walls of the sporangia empty and intact except for their ruptured tips. This is conclusive evidence of the* endogenous formation of these spores. Furthermore, in many cases he tinds that the spores are borne, not in single rows, but more or less irregularly, the diameter of the sporangium being somewhat great»M- than that of a single spore. In such cases the planes of separation are obli([ue, or even parallel, to the long- axis of the sporangium. In such a form as this Thaxter tinds an inter- mediate stage between the spherical sporangium of Mucor and the cylindrical one of Syncejyhalis^ the supposed ab.sence of which was used by Fi.scher as evidence against the homology of the two. • In S'l/ncejjhalis, Thaxter tinds that the separation of the protoplasm into spores is quite different from that in Si/nee/jhalastnwi. He investigated an undescribed species from Li})eria, and also S^yncepludh 'pycnoHperma^ and tinds that in both cases the protoplasm is cut pro- gressively from the .surface inward V)y '"intermediary zones," each of which is made up of an inner nonstainal)le part, and an outer one that takes stains readily. The spore wall in both species is distinct from the sporangium wall and forms close around the protoplasm, exclud- ing the intermediary zones. In the undescribed species the.se zones remain until the spores are ripe and then deliquesce, while in Syn- cejyJtdl is pyenos2>erma the stainable portion breaks up into a refractive oily substance and the nonstainable part forms a thick permanent layer around the spore Avail and gives to the spores their peculiar shape. Harper (1899) has described the spore formation in PUoholus and Sporodinia of the Mucorinese, and also in Synchltrium of the Chytri- diaceffi. The processes in these widely separated forms show many interesting points of similarity. In Synchitriuin, Harper finds that the " initial cell" contains at first one comparatively large nucleus, which, as the cell reaches nearly its 12 FORMATION OF SPOKES OF RHIZOPUS AND PHYCOMYCES. full size, divides rapidly to form a vast number of smaller daughter nuclei. This multinucleated mass of protoplasm is then divided into comparatively large blocks by narrow furrows, cutting progressively inward from the periphery. These furrows cut inward at nearly right angles to the periphery, but, as seen in surface sections, they intersect each other at almost every angle. They are so narrow that they appear in section as single lines which push aside the vacuoles, arrang- ing them in a row on either side. In case the sporangium is .slightly shrunken in tixing, however, they appear as slightly separated sur- faces. As these cleavage furrows grow deeper they branch, curve, and intersect each other until the whole mass is divided into multi- nucleated pieces. These are then divided into uninucleated pieces by furrows cutting inward from their surfaces. The nuclei then divide until there are usually from 8 to 12 in each piece. Without further cleavage these multinucleated protoplasmic masses then enlarge somewhat, secrete a protective wall, and become the spores. They then go into a resting condition until germination. In PHohohix, Harper traces the entire development of the sporan- gium. He iinds that when it has reached a considerable size its con- tents are divided into three parts — a central vesicle of cell sap, which, from the absence of a smooth, rounded surface, can not be consid- ered as a central vacuole; outside this, a thin layer of spongy proto- plasm with numerous nuclei; and outside this layer, extending to the sporangium wall, a nuich denser mass of protoplasm, also containing many nuclei and a few rounded vacuoles. In the spongy protoplasm, and running parallel to the sporangium wall except at the lower side where it extends to the periphery, a dome-shaped layer of vacuoles then appears. These vacuoles are at first round, but later they be- come flattened parallel to the surface of the sporangium until they are disk-shaped. They finally fuse, edge to edge, to form a cleft, which, with the aid of a circular furrow cutting upward through the spongy protoplasm until it meets the lowest vacuoles in the series, cuts out the columella. This columella is bounded at first by only a plasma- membrane, outside of which is a more or less open cleft. Later the columella wall is formed in this cleft. It has its dome-shaped outline from the first, and does not begin as a cross wall at the base of the sporangium, being rounded upward later by pressure of turgor from below, as is described for Mucor in most standard text-books. (See Bessey's text-book, p. 236.) The spore plasm is then invaded by surface furrows cutting pro- gressively inward. These are much like those in Synchitrium^ but wider, owing to the more shrunken condition of the protoplasm dur- ing the process. While this is going on, the vacuoles in the spore plasm become sharply angular, and these angles, continuing outward as furrows, cut into each other and into the furrows from the surface, HISTORICAL. 13 thus aidiiiir in the oleavagfc. The wht)U> mass is thorebv roducod to blocks of varying sizes which are, as in Synehltrluvi^ progrcssivel}'^ cut down to uninudoatod pieces. As in Synchitrhnn also, these pro- tospores ar(> pressed tiu-htly tog-ether In' turgor. The nuclei then divide until there is a considerat)l(' number in each piece of protoplasm. This division is followed by successive con- strictions of the nature of bipartitions until a binucleated stage is reached. Each piece then surrounds itself Mith a wall and is a mature spore. The later phases of the process — i. e., from the protospore to the matui-e spore — Harper regards as an enil)ryonic development. In the subdivisions of the protospores. Harper notes that the pro- toplasm in advance of the cleavage furrows becomes clear and non- stainal)le. forming a hyaline zone in the plane of constriction, as though the denser part of the protoplasm drew away from this region toward the nuclei, leaving only a clear liquid substance behind. In the earlier stages of cleavage, however, both in PUoholus and in Synchitrium^ such a dirt'erentiation of protoplasm in advance of the cleavage furrows does not take place. Here, as in Synchitrlidn, the entire protoplasm is included in the spore, there being no intersporal protoplasm. There is a slime excreted to fill the spaces between the spores, but it is not protoplasm. In SjKH-odliiia the process is in many respects nu;ch like that in F'doboJax^ but there are some striking differences. The sporangia here are much smaller and are composed of two parts, the outer and upper part being filled with dense protoplasm, while the central and lower portion is occupied by a foamy protoplasm, there being no large opening filled with cell sap as in PiloJjolus. The vacuoles that cut out the columella are much larger than in PUoholus^ and are arranged on the line, as it appears in section, between the two kinds of proto- plasm. They fuse laterally to form a curved cleft, but no surface furrow cutting in to meet them has been observed. The spore plasm is then di\ided into blocks ^^\ furrows cutting from the columella cleft outward and from the surface inward, but here the cleavage process ceases. No uninucleated stage is ever reached. These protoplasmic blocks contain numerous nuclei, and round off and are covered with a cell wall. They are then the mature spores. This is a considerable abbreviation of the process in PUoholus, and there is a corresponding shortening in the time required for developing the spores in SpoTodlnla. The nuclei in all three forms are made up of the same parts as those in the higher plants. There is a nucleolus surrounded by a zone filled with nuclear sap and chromatin, the whole being enveloped in a nuclear membrane. A point well worthy of consideration is that the nuclei are in a resting condition during cleavage. Hans Bachmann (1899) has described the entire structure and 11 FOEMATION OF SPOKES OF RHIZOPUS AND PHYCOMYCES. development of a new species of MortiercUa. Thougli the paper was published very recently, little improvement over the older writers is shown in the matter of technique. He has not. so far as he states, made any sections of the sporangia. ]^\ a study of entire sporangia he linds that the surface comes to be marked out into polygons separated by rather broad bands of an even width. These markings he interprets as representing a surface view of pohdiedric masses of protoplasm which are destined to become spores, separated by layers of intersporal protoplasm. Plasmolyzing agents in some cases cause the sporangium to contract as a unit and not as individual polygons, showing that each is not 3'et entirely surrounded ])y an osmotic membrane. Gentian violet stains the material between the polyhedrons: the formation of the violet lines is progressive, as is shown by the fact that in some cases they are short and do not extend over the entire sporangium, but radiate from various points. In this. Bachmann makes a decided advance over Leger, liut still he apparently fails to grasp the most important point — that these blue-staining lines represent cleavage furrows lilled with the stain. METHODS. The mold B/uzopux was tirst obtained in uiixed cultures by exposing moistened bread for a few minutes to the air of the laboratory. To ol)tain pure cultures, a few sporangia were carefully transferred from the original cultures to slightly moistened bread, which had been exposed an hour or so on two or more successive daj's to a temperature of from 60- to 65^ C. in a steam sterilizer. In from one to two days after inoculation the stolons began to appear on the surface of the bread, and in another day there were a considerable number of sporangia formed. The cultures of Phycomyces were obtained from Ann Arl^or, Mich. , through the kindness of Dr. J. B. Pollock. This mold was grown either upon sterilized bread or nutrient agar. From these cidtures small bits of m3'celium were cut out (below the surface of the sub- stratum in the case of PJiycomyces) and instantly immersed in the hxing fluid. After remaining in this about twenty-fovir hours, they were washed for a few hours in running water, dehydrated by run- ning through grades of alcohol, cleared in xylol or chloroform, and embedded in paraffin. The sections were cut on a Jung, or a lieinhold-Giltav microtome, usually 4 /< thick, but sometimes 2 //, and were fastened to slides with albumen and glycerine. They were then stained with Flemming's triple stain (safranin, gentian violet, and orange G), then dehydrated, cleared with clove oil or bergamot oil, and mounted in Canada bal- sam. If the right exposures are given to these stains, the cytoplasm KHIZOPUS NIGRICANS. 15 11 )p(>{U's oraiiij;o. the cln'oiiititin blue, the luiclcolus and ])f()t(Md crvstal- loitls red, ami the cell wall either blue or oranoe. For tixing" liuids the mixtures of Flennning, llerinanu, and ]\IerkeI were used with verv g-ood results. Eisen's fluid u-avo some very tine results, ])ut was little used. An exposure of one hour to Flemmino-'.s fluid, followed by twelve to twenty-four hours in ^lerkeFs fluid or chrom-acetic aeid, o-ave especially iine preparations, not being so nuuh l)laekened as when exposed longer to the osmic acid. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Robert A. Harper of the I'niversity of AVisconsin. and to Dr. Erwin F. Smith, Dr. Rodney II. True, and ]Mr. Karl F. Ki'llerman of the United States Department of Agriculture for many valuable suggestions and criticisms given during the prog- res ; of the work. t RHIZOPTJS NIGRICANS I.hrbg. The general morphology of Ii/ilsojms has been Acry well described by the earlier authors. The spore in germinating sends out a tube which branches until a tangled mycelium is formed in the substratum. This mycelium sends up from various points ar>rial hypha?, which are erect at flrst and form a delicate white grpwth in the cultures. After these h^'ph* reach the lieight of one or two centimeters thev bend over and o-row horizon- t:illy along the surface of the substratum. When one of these stolons has grown in this direction for a short distance, it forms a swelling at the apex two to four times the diame- ter of the stolon, and out of this grow from two to six branches, one of which is in reality a continuation of the stolon, while the others grow into sporangiophores. (PI. I, flg. 1.) If this swollen portion of the stolon comes in contact with the substratum or the sides of the cul- ture dish, a few rhizoids are sent out which tirral}' anchor it, and, in case the}' penetrate any nutritive substance, these doubtless aid in nourishing the sporangiophores. The stolon continues gTowing- out and forming these grouj^s of sporangiophores at intervals, and linally ends with such a group at the apex. Each sporangiophore bears a single spherical sporangium. In healthy stolons, especially if they are growing rapidly, the pro- toplasm is almost continuall}' streaming in one direction or the other. This has been fully described by Arthur (ISUT), who considers that it is principally due to evaporation of moisture from the surface of exposed parts, together with the constant taking in of water b_v the hyphte that are in the substratum. In his conclusion he expresses the opinion that ''the movement is an incidental feature in the life of the plant." Further mention of this paper will be made in connection with the distribution of the protoplasm in the sporangium. 16 FORMATION OF SPORES OF RHIZOPUS AND PHYCOMYCES. The growing ends of the stolon.s are densely crowded with proto- pUisni containing many nuclei. This condition prevails for sonic dis- tance back in the stolons (PL I, fig. 2), but as we follow back toward the older part the protoplasm is more and more permeated with cell sap, and at last we find a region where there is nothing Imt a wall filled with cell sap, so far as we can distinguish from a surface view of liv- ing material. In stained sections, however, as shown in PI. I, fig. 3, it can be seen that there is still a thin layer of protoplasm lining the wall, and strands or even small masses of it in the center. In parts as old as that shown in the figure, the nuclei have begun to disinte- grate somewhat, and appear as tin}' red-staining masses of various shapes. (PI. I, fig. 4.) . The young sporangiophores, like the ends of the stolons, are densely crowded with protoplasm and nuclei, and even the lower part of the older ones is never entirely devoid of protoplasmic contents, as is stated b}^ Leger, but retains a structure very nmch like that in the stolons. As the sporangiophore reaches its full length it ])egins to swell out at the tip into a tiny round body, the future sporangium. The con- tents of this are at first evenl}^ distributed, being equall}^ dense in the center and at the periphery, but before it has reached half its final size the protoplasm begins to be decidedly dense toward the sporan- gium wall, while in the center it is of a nuich looser structure. PL I, fig. 5, shows the distribution of the cytoplasm and nuclei at this stage. There are also present a few crystalloids. They seem often to be in tiny clear vesicles, but whether or not these are ordinary vacuoles I can not be certain. These crystal-like bodies vayj nmch in size, and as a rule increase in number as the sporangium gets older. It is quite noticeable, however, that the}^ are entirely confined to the central part of the sporangium. The nuclei are so small that they appear only as dots in a drawing of the size of PL I, fig. 5. Their structure can, however, be clearly made out with higher magnification, and it is to all appearances pre- cisely like that of those shown in PL II, fig. 0, which will be described later. The cytoplasm in young sporangia, it will be observed, is quite dense next the sporangium wall, but gradually becomes less dense toward the center, where it is of a very loose spongj' structure, con- taining many vacuoles of considerable size. There is at this stage no sharply defined boundar}' l)etween the denser and the less dense parts of the cytoplasm, but a gradual transition from center to periphery. The denser la} er does not, however, extend quite to the sporangio- phore at the base of the sporangium. (PL I, figs. 5 and 6.) At this time also there is a very marked streaming of the protoplasm up the sporangiophore into the sporangium. These currents appear RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS. 17 as a bundle of ytnuicLs, which in optical section spread fan-like as they enter the sporangium and extend toward the periphery. Many of these streams, particularly at the sides, extend nearly to the sporan- giunj wall, as seen in PI. I, tig. 5. Harper (lSiM») has described each individual current in Plloholm as having ''marked a path for itself through the protoplasmic structure. It is marked by continuous deli- cate films, (piite distinct from the spongy structure of the adjacent plasma." These surrounding tilms, as the writer has seen them in Bhisopm, are of a more hyaline and homogeneous appearance than either the currents or the surrounding cytoplasm. The nuclei in these currents are much elongati^d in the direction in which the currents run and I have not been able to differentiate the parts, tJie nucleolus and chromatin l)oth staining red. As the streaming contiiuies the protoplasm at the periphery becomes denser, and there appear clearly differentiated layers within the spo- rangium. The beginning of this differentiation is not simultaneous throughout the protoplasm. It appears at certain points approxi- mately equidistant from the periphery, between which and the periphery the thickening of the protoplasm forms a dense zone lining the sporan- gium except at the base, where its inner boundary line gradually extends to the periphery. In the stage shown in PI. I, tig. 0, this boundary line is not perfect, but somewhat l)roken, admittijig thin streams of loose protoplasm from the interior of the sporangium. Inside this zone and of about one-third its thickness is a semitransparent layer consist- ing of loose protoplasm like that which tills the interior of the sporan- gium, but clearer and less granular, and taking the orange stain less strongly than the latter. In structure it resembles the thin tilms about the streams previously mentioned. The cytoplasm inside this semi- transparent zone and occupying the central and lower part of the sporangium is of a loose, spongy, much-vacuolated structure, contain- ing scattering nuclei and a considerable number of proteid bodies. There are no marked protoplasmic strands indicating currents in the center of the sporangium, though the writer has often found them in later stages; but radiating from the central part of the sporangium and passing from it through the clear zone to the denser plasm are many very slender strands marking the paths of currents. These currents bear nuclei and seem to represent a very late stage of the migration of cytoplasm and nuclei toward the periphery. Some of these streams enter the openings in the denser plasm, while others run against its inner surface. This streaming goes on until the inner boundary of the denser plasm is at all points sharply detined. This boundary does not consist of a membrane or of any differentiated layer. The denser plasm at this time contains only a very few vacuoles of any considerable size, but under very high magnification it can be seen 20844— No. 37—03 2 18 FOKMATlOISr OF SPOEES OF EHIZOFUS AND PHYCOMYCES. that there are A'ery manj- exceeding-ly small ones, with detinitely rounded outlines. Most of these are scarcely larger than the nuclei, and some are much smaller. They can not, therefore, be shown in a drawing on so small a scale as PI. 1, tig. (>. They are, however, essen- tially the same in size, number, and distribution as those shown in PI. il, tig. 9. Thus far, except for the arrangement of the cytoplasm and nuclei, we have had no phenomena in the sporangium that even suggest cell divi- sion, unless possibly it be the clear zone. The greater part of the more solid portion of the cytoplasm has formed itself into a layer at the periphery. Nearly all of the nuclei also have migrated into this por- tion of the sporangium, and are distributed irregularly throughout the dense cytoplasm. They are not even approximately' equidistant from each other, nor are the}' often, if ever, in actual contact, though Leger states that such is very frequently the case. How he could determine the normal distribution of the nuclei from crushed sporan- gia is difficult to comprehend. As soon as the protoplasm is distributed as has been described, the separation of that which is to be included within the columella from that which is to form the spores begins. The columella is not at first a flat cross wall at the base of the sporangium which is later pushed up by turgor to its characteristic dome shape, as it is currently described as doing, but is laid down in essentiallv the same fashion as described by Harper (1899) for Piloholus. There first appears in the denser plasm a single layer of spherical vacuoles (PI. H, fig. 7) running par- allel to its inner surface. The layer of the denser plasm inside the system of vacuoles is usually from one-fifteenth to one-twentieth as thick as the layer outside. Apparently these vacuoles are formed by the enlaro-ement Of the very minute ones already mentioned that lie in this region, rather than by the migration of previously enlarged vacuoles. In sporangia in which this layer of vacuoles is only partly formed there are usually a few large vacuoles arranged in the layer, and between them are smaller ones, varying in size down to the small- est in the sporangium (PI. II, fig. 7). This leads one to believe that the vacuoles in this layer are essentially like the others in the sporan- gium and in the mycelium. These vacuoles and all others in the spo- rangium agree with those of Piloholus and Sjwrodinia in being devoid of all stainable contents (PI. II, fig. 7), in which respect they difier strikingly from those of Phyeomyces^ described later. The vacuoles are at first spherical, or nearly so, but soon begin to flatten, their long axes being parallel to the inner surface of the denser plasm. Bv this flattening the}' become disk-shaped, as in PL II, fig. 8, and the edges of adjacent ones come in contact and fuse, forming a narrow curved cleft in the protoplasm. At the same time a circular furrow begins to cut upward from the surface of the protoplasm at RHIZOrUS NIGRICANS. 19 the ba.se of the sporiiiigiuni thvouoh the denser phifsiii (PI. 11. tig. 8). This furrow increases in depth until it reaches and fuses with the lowest vacuoles in the hiyer. Thus the protoplasm of the sporangium is divided into two distinct portions destined to perform radically different parts in the further life of the plant. That outside the cleft is to be entirely cut up into spores, while that inside is later to be surrounded by the columella wall and plays no direct part in repro- duction. The former I sliall distinguish as the spore-plasm and the latter as the columella-plasm. It will be noted from what has been alread}' said and from PI, II, tigs. T and 8, and PI. Ill, tigs. !<» and 12, that the columella-plasm includes all the looser plasm in the sporan- gium and also a thin layer of the denser plasm. Orve might have expected from PI. 1, tig. (!, that the columella wall would l)e laid down in the clear zone shown in that tigure, but that such is not the case there is no room for doul)t. The writer has preparations in which this zone is still almost as marked as in the tigure mentioned, while the columella cleft is forming in the denser plasm. PI. 11, tig. 8, and PI. Ill, tig. 1(>, show that the outer part of the looser plasm is still souunvhat clearer than that in the center, though the paths of the currents have become almost o))literated. The time for the disappearance of the currents varies greatly in ditierent sporangia. There is no visi))le ditl'erence while cleavage is going, on between the denser plasm inside the layer of vacuoles and that outside, nor is there any diti'erentiation of the c3'toplasm between the vacuoles or in advance of the surface furrow, such as Harper found in the late sub- divisions of the protoplasm of Piloholus and in the last stages of cleav- age of FuUgo (lOOo). While the cutting out of the columella is going on, the sporangium gives every appearance of having only slight turgidity. The cleft in the protoplasm is always quite wide — at least in certain places. When, however, the cleavage is complete, the protoplasmic masses increase in volume and become strongly turgid again, causing the two proto- plasmic surfaces lately separated to become pressed together so tightly that onl}^ 1)}' the closest study can one follow the cleft throughout its entire extent. In case the spore cleavage, which will be described later, begins before the columella cleft is completed, as often occurs, this period of turgidity is postponed until after the spores are entirely cut out. It will be noted that when tirst formed the cleft around the colu- mella is bounded by two protoplasmic surfaces. When these surfaces become tightly pressed together b}' the turgor in the sporangium, one might expect them to fuse into a continuous mass of protoplasm again, there being no wall between them at this time. Indeed, such a phe- nomenon was described by Biisgen (1882) in the formation of the 20 FORMATIOI^ OF SPORES OF RHIZOPUS AND PHYCOMYCES. spores of the Saprolegniete. It is not, however, surprising that with the technique used in those da^^s he should fail to see that there was still a distinct boundary between the closel}' packed spores. When the period of turgor relaxes a little the two surfaces generally separate slightly, but at irregular intervals points are often found where they still adhere, forming tiny conical projections, whose apices are for a short time in contact. In the behavior of these two protoplasmic surfaces we have consid- erable additional evidence for the existence of a definite plasma-mem- brane. Even before the cutting out of the columella takes place the nuclei of the looser protoplasm begin to disintegrate. In very young spo- rangia all the nuclei have the same normal structure, but in the one shown in PL I, fig. 6, for example, they are clearly sufl^ering disinte- gration in the center of what is to become the columella-plasm, though out near the denser plasm they retain their characteristic structure, often until the spores are nearly ripe. (PI. Ill, fig. 13, a.) It might be suggested that the nuclei in the center of the sporangium are not well fixed, but these sporangia are so small and thin-walled that I can not believe, with all the c3^toplasm and the greater part of the nuciei having a perfectl}^ normal strvicture, that the difference in appearance of these nuclei is to be attributed to poor fixation, espe- cially as it is essentially the same for all the best fixing fluids used. The first sign of disintegration is the appearance of a red-staining mass on one side. As the process goes on, the whole nucleus comes to appear as a slightly shrunken, homogeneous mass, often irregular in shape, and staining the same shade of red as the cr3\stalloids. It might be argued that these red-staining bodies are cr3^stalloids whose substance is being dissolved, but 1 have found very good evidence that such is not the case. As shown in PI. Ill, figs. 11 and 13, there are all stages of disintegration between the almost perfect nuclei and the most shrunken and angular ones. On the other hand, all the crystalloids in these sporangia, so far as could be observed, are perfect in shape, none showing notches or marks of corrosion, such as we should expect to find if they were being dissolved. Furthermore, the crystalloids seem to be forming rather than dissolving, judging from their greater number and size in the older sporangia. In PI. Ill, figs. 11 and 13, a represents a nucleus with normal structure lying just inward from the denser plasm, while 5, t\ and d lie nearer the center and are breaking down. In no sporangia as old as that shown in PI. I, fig. 6, have I found nuclei in or near the center of the looser plasm in which nuclear membrane, chromatin, and nucle- olus could be distinguished. These nuclei do not entirel}"^ disappear during the life of the plant, nor would it be at all accurate to say, as Leger has done, that the}^ are ''reduced to a nucleole." RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS. 21 The formation of the spores usually Itoofins aft(M- the columella cleft is complete, althoujrh in some instances (as in PI, II, fig. S) somewhat previous to that, hut always hefore the layintr down of the columella wall. Spore foi-mation does not take place in the manner described by Van Tieghem and Leg-er— by the sinuiltaneous differentiation of plates of hyaline nong-raiudar protoplasm cutting- the spore-plasm into polyhedric l)locks — nor by the progressive differentiation of such plates from lines on the surface of the protoplasm, as described by Bachmann (1900). In the scores of sporangia sectioned in all stages ot development the writer has not found at any time even the slightest indication of sucii a differentiation of the protoplasm into granular polyhedric masses with nongranular plasm between. The first indica- tion of the division of the spore-plasm is the formation of furrows at the surface, M'hich cut progressively inward. (PI. II, tigs. 8 and 9.) These furrows are not broad, as in Plloholm, nor are their sides closely pressed together, as in Synchitrium. They cut in at very different angles to the surface of the sporangium, and pass between, and often very close to, nuclei and vacuoles. (PI. II. tig. 9.) They usually branch or curve at a short distance inward from the surface, and by cutting into and fusing with neighboring furrows cut out small pieces of the surface layer of the protoplasm of the sporangium. These pieces are almost always the detinitive spores, lacking only the walls. Only a few of the larger ones are further divided up. There is no uninucleated stage in the spore formation of Rhizojms, as in Pilohohis, it being like Sporodinia and Phy corny ces in this respect. These sj^ores are at tirst somewhat angular in shape and contain exactly the same number of nuclei (2 to 6) as when ripe, there being no nuclear division at any stage of their existence previous to germination. The nuclei of the spore-plasm during all stages of cleavage are in a resting condition. (PI. II, fig. 9.) Each consists of a nucleolus, or occasionalh' two nucleoli, which in my preparations is stained a deep red, surrounded by a zone of evenlv granular, blue-staining chromatin, the whole being liounded by a definite nuclear membrane. Both in the spore-plasm and in the columella the nuclei are spherical or very slightly ovoid until they begin to disintegrate. They are relatively more numerous in some sporangia than in others, which may possibl}^ be due to differences in the moisture supply, w^et cultures making looser and more bulky cytoplasm than drier ones. The vacuoles of the spore-plasm, which are for the most part exceedingly minute, as can be seen by a comparison with the nuclei in PI, II, fig. 9, do not become angular and assist in dividing the pro- toplasm here as in Piloholus and Phycomyces. They retain their rounded form throughout the entire process of cleavage, even when furrows cut very close to them. As previously stated, the^^ contain nothing but ordinary cell sap. 22 FORMATION OF SPORES OF RHIZOPUS AND PHYCOMYCES. After the surface furrows have cut inward for a considerable dis- tance, a few similar furrows begin to cut outward from the columella cleft, which as yet contains no wall. (PI. Ill, fig. 10.) With the meeting of these two systems of furrows the cleavage is practicall}'^ complete. During the process of spore cleavage the protoplasm is slightlN' shrunken, apparently because of the giving off of water. Th(^ furrow's are more or less open and filled with clear cell sap only. (PL II, fig. 9.) As soon, however, as the cleavage is complete, the spore mass becomes strongly turgid again, and each spore so increases in volume that all are pressed tightly together • and the furrows are entirel}^ closed, so that with the Zeiss 2 mm. immersion objective, 1.30 aperture, and No. 18 compensating ocular, they appear in optical section as single lines and are ver}" hard to trace through the dense spongy cytoplasm. The spores are thus made sharply angular, but later the}'' round oft', leaving little spaces between them. The formation of the columella wall usually begins before the spores are entirely cut out, but it does not reach its definitive thickness until the}^ are nearly ripe. As seen in PI. Ill, fig. 12, these spores have no regular system of arrangement whatsoever, and the writer can not find the slightest ground for Corda's view that they are in i-adial rows. As already stated, the spaces between the spores contain at first absolutely nothing except cell sap. There is no trace of any inter- sporal protoplasm, such as has been described by the earlier authors and considered as homologous with the epiplasm of the ascus. The spores of B.}uz(>pu>< are at first angular and covered l)y only a plasma-membrane, but soon round off and a firm wall is formed about them. During this process of ripening a homogeneous slime is excreted by the spores, w^hich fills up the spaces betw^een them. In such exposures to the triple stain as best bring out the cytoplasmic and nuclear structures this intersporal slime does not stain at all, and for this reason the writer has left it an empty space in PI. Ill, fig. 12. By a longer exposure to the violet it is readily brought out as a smooth bluish mass filling up the spaces between the rounded spores. There is no special mechanism for the discharge of the spores in Bhizo2?us 2iii in PlJohAm. There is, however, an inner layer of the sporangiuDi wall that can not readily be differentiated from the rest of the wall in specimens fixed in the killing fluids of Flemming and Merkel; while in those fixed in Eisen's fluid and stained in the triple stain it is verj^ readily distinguishable from the outer layer b}^ its lighter blue color, the boundary between the two being sharply defined. PI. II, fig. 7, is therefore the only one in the writer's series in which he could show the separate layers of the sporangium wall. PHYCOMYCES NITENS. 23 The inner hiyer is sonit'whtit tiiickor than the outer, hotli boinj>- of an even thickness except for a little space around the sporang-iopjiore where the inner one thins out and disappears. Whether or not tliis is honioloo-ous witii the "collar" of Piloholus, the writer can not be certain. The spores are set free bv the ))urstino' of the sporanoiuni wall, witiiout its being- thrown off. ^Vhether or not the inner layer ot" the wall swells bv the absorption of water and bm-sts the outer layer the writer has not determined. The writer has never found this inner layer on sporano-ia as voung- as that shown in PI. I. tio-. 5. nor in the walls of the mycelium. The ripe spores as they escape from the ruptured sporangia are mostly ovoid in sliapt' and of varying sizes. Their walls are marked with longitudinal ridges, as may be seen in PI. Ill, tig. 14. PHYCOMYCES NITENS Kunze. Unlike Rhizojym^ the sporangiophores of Phycomijces are "borne singly, springing directly from the mycelium. When the sporangio- phore is yet only a few millimeters long, the apex b(>gins to swell out into a sporangium in the same manner as that described for Rluzopns nigricans. As the sporangium enlarges the sporangiophore elongates, pushing up the former farther and farther from the surface of the substratum. The spores are formed when the sporangiophore is about 2 cm. long, and it is then that the sporangium has its maximum diameter. As shown in PL IV, fig. 15, there is the same streaming of cytoplasm and nuclei up the sporangiophore and out toward the periphery of the sporangium as in Bhhojym nigricanx. As can be seen by a comparison of PI. IV, tig. 15, with PI. I, tig. 5, the cytoplasm in the young sporangium of Phycomyces is more coarsely granular than that of RJdzopus and takes the stain much more deeply. The most noticeable difference between the young sporangium of Fhycomyces and that of Ehizopusis that in Phycoinyccs there are many more large round vacuoles which, as they move outward toward the periphery of the sporangium, become filled with a visible content. (PI. IV, fig. 15.) This content appears in sections stained with the triple stain as a 1)luish homogeneous body of the same shape as the vacuole but somewhat smaller in diameter, lying in the middle of the vacuole, with a clear zone between it and the vacuolar membrane. (Pis. IV and V, figs. 15 to 22. ) This content begins, not as a very minute, sharply-staining body which grows larger and larger in diameter, but as a faintly-staining mass which, as it grows older, becomes more dense and takes the stain more strongly. In the youngest stage it appears quite as large in proportion to the size of the vacuole in which it lies as when it becomes older. (PI. IV, fig. 16.) It forms in 24 FORMATION OF SPORES OF RHIZOPUS AND PHYCOMYCES. the vacuoles after they have entered the sporangium — never, so far as I have observed, appearing in those of the mycelium or sporangio- phore, and rarely in those of that part of the sporangium which lies close to the mouth of the sporangiophore. The younger stages of their formation are shown in PI. IV, tigs. 15 and 16, while in Pis. IV and V, iigs. 18, 19, and 20, they have reached their maximum density. As the protoplasm streams up into the sporangium and out toward the periphery, there is at first a gradual transition in density from the center outward, precisely as in MMzoj^us at the same stage. (PI. IV, fig. 15.) A little later, however, as in PI. IV, fig. 17, it is divided into three regions, differing in density. The outer region or layer is very dense and takes the stain strongly. Inside this is a second layer, which is considerablj^ less dense and stains less strongly. Inside this second layer and occup^'ing the central part of the sporangium is a region of very loose and much vacuolated protoplasm which takes the stain scarcely at all. Between the interior region and the second layer the the differentiation becomes very sharp, but, as in Hhizojnis^ there is no wall or membrane of an}" kind between them. Between the second and the outer layers, however, the transition is at first very gradual (PI. IV, fig. IT), but becomes more and more sharp as the sporangium grows older, I have never found in Phyeomyces a stage such as is shown in PI. I, fig. 6, which occurs regularly in Uhlzopus. It is pos- sible that this second layer is homologous with the semitransparent zone that has the same relative position in the sporangium of Rhizoinis. I have not regarded it as such, however, as it is of so much greater relative density and contains no delicate strands representing currents. It is interesting in this connection to compare PI. I, fig. 6, with PI. IV, figs. 17 and 18. The nuclei are at first about evenly distriliuted in the outer and second la^^ers, but in the interior there are very few, or for a shoil period in the development of the sporangium none. (PI. IV, figs. 17 and 18.) None of the vacuoles in the interior region of very loose protoplasm or in the inner part of the second layer has the stainable content men- tioned above. Practically all of the larger ones in the outer dense layer contain this substance, however, as also do most of those in the outer part of the second layer. (PI. IV, fig. 17.) Between these larger vacuoles are very small ones which contain nothing that takes the stain. (Pis. IV and V, figs. 15-24.) The difference in the destinies of these two kinds of vacuoles will be seen later. As may be seen from PI. IV, figs. 15, 17, and 18, and PI. V, fig. 19, the vacuoles that contain the stainable substance are very numer- ous, taking up a considerable portion of the space in the sporangium and lying very close together, often two or more being in actual con- tact, their clear zones being separated b}- onlj' the vacuolar mem- branes. (Pis. IV and V, figs. 15, 17, 18, 19, and 20.) In such cases PHYCOMYCES NITENS. 25 the vacuolar incmhiaiu' is isolated from the remainder of the proto- plasm for a little space, and may readily ])e seen and studied by itself. (PI. V. tio-. 20.) It is very thin and homogeneous, taking the violet stain very sliuhtly, wliich gives it a faint blu-", color. When two vacuoles are thus in contact they are usually flattened against each other, so that the membrane l)etween appears in optical section as a thin, straight line. In such cases the contents are often flattened on that side to conform to the shape of the vacuole. (PI. V, flg. 20.) A considerable number of the nuclei that are in the second layer when it is flrst formed migrate into the denser plasm, and the difler- entiation between the two layers becomes more distinct. Then a layer of vacuoles, practically all having stainable contents, becomes arranged in a dome shape in the denser plasm and running parallel to its inner surface. (PI. IV, fig. 18.) These vacuoles flatten out, become disk-shaped, and fuse edge to edge to form a dome-shaped cleft in the denser plasm, as in Rhizopm and Plloholus. (PI. V, fig. 19.) It is interesting to note that as the vacuoles flatten, the content flattens also, so that its surface remains always more or less parallel to the vacuolar membrane. (PI. V, fig. 19.) So far as I have been able to observe, there is never a surface fur- row that cuts inward to meet the lowest of the layer of vacuoles, as is the case in FUoholux and Rhizopm. In this respect Phycomyces appears more like Sjxyrodlnia. The layer of vacuoles begins so very near the surface of the protoplasm (PI. V, fig. 19) that if there is such a surface furrow it nnist l)e very shallow indeed. I have never found any evidence of its existence. When the vacuoles of this layer have entirely fused, edge to edge, the separation of the columella is complete. There is at first no wall — simply a cleft bounded l>y plasma-membranes. The contents of all the vacuoles that make this cleft have now fused, forming a layer of slightly uneven thickness separating the outer surface of the columella plasm from the inner surface of the spore-plasm. All the very loose interior protoplasm, the second layer, and a small part of the denser plasm are included within the columella, while the greater part of the denser plasm goes to form the spores. As soon as the difl'erentiation of the columella is complete, or in exceptional cases a little before, the formation of the spores begins. Here we get a most striking diflerence between Phycomyces and Rhizopm. The large round vacuoles in the spore plasm begin to lose their rounded form and become angular. (PI. V, figs. 21 and 22.) These angles become sharper and sharper, and appear to cut through the cytoplasm between the nuclei, and when they encounter each other fuse to form irregular clefts. The cytoplasm in advance of these vacu- olar furrows shows no visible difl'erentiation, but remains of an even density throughout the entire spore-plasm during the whole process of 26 FORMATION OF SPORES OF RHIZOPUS AND PHYCOMYCES. cleav^age. (PI. V, figs. 21 and 22.) So far as the writer has been able to observe after a most diligent search in a ver}- large number of spo- rangia in all stages of spore formation, there are never surface furrows cutting into the spore-plasm at any point. The angles from the vacu- oles may often be seen cutting out to the surface of the spore-plasm. (PL V, figs. 21 and 23.) Furrows also cut into the spore-plasm from the columella cleft and fuse with the vacuolar furrows in tlie spore- plasm, and thus aid in dividing the protoplasm into spores. (PI. V, fig. 22.) During the whole process of spore formation the nuclei are in a resting condition. They are spherical, or nearly so, and are made up of one or two nucleoli and finely granular chromatin within the nuclear membrane. (PI. V, figs. 20-24.) They are a little larger than those of RMzojms. The furrows often cut very close to them, but they give no visible sign of being in any way afi'ected by the cleav- age of the cytoplasm in which they lie. (PL V, figs. 21-23.) I have never observed a single case of nuclear division in the sporangium of Phycomyces. The very small vacuoles described above that have no stainable con- tents do not take any part in the cleavage. They remain round through- out the process, even when the furrows from the larger vacuoles cut very close to them. (PL V, fig. 22.) As the vacuoles that take part in the cleavage become angular the content becomes angular also, taking approximately the shape of the vacuoles, so that its surface is parallel to the vacuolar membrane, but seldom in contact with it, there being still the clear nonstainable zone between. (PL V, figs. 21 and 22.) As the angles of adjacent vacuoles fuse, the contents are brought in contact and fuse also, thus forming a mass filling up the spaces between the spores. (PL V, fig. 21.) It will clearly be seen that this mass is not protoplasm, as it originates as a secretion from the vacuolar membrane deposited inside the vacuole. It is homogeneous at the time the spores are formed, staining bluish- brown in Flemming's triple stain and containing no nuclei or other inclusions. All the cytoplasm and nuclei of the spore-plasm are included within the spores themselves. (PL V, fig. 21.) There appears to be a considerable shrinkage of the protoplasm while the cutting out of the columella and the spore formation are going on, and this is followed by an increased turgidity of the protoplasmic masses, but this is not so marked as in Bhlzopus and. Filoholus and the spores do not become sharply angular. This increase in turgidity of the protoplasmic masses is followed by a very marked enlargement of the small vacuoles, which did not take part in spore formation. They still, however, contain only ordinary cell sap and no stainable contents. The columella wall begins to form while spore cleavage is going on, and continues to thicken until the spores are nearly ripe. PHYCOMYCES NITENS. "2 < I"p to this tiiii(> tho spores are surrounded by only a plasma-mem- brane, the spore wall not yet having- been formed. They now l)ei>in to round otf and eontraet, the vacuoles become very nmch smaller, and the whole spore is thereby much reduced in size and surrounds itself with a Avail of considerable thickness. At the time the spore wall is formed the plasma-membranes of the adjacent spores are not in contact, but are separated by the intersporal slime from the vacuo- lar contents. The plasma-membranes of the spores, except in the pcnnpheral layer, orio-inate entirelv from the vacuolar membranes, without visil)le change except in form. Only a part of the plasma-meml)rane of the spores in this layer is made up of the original plasma-membrane of the sporangium. In this respect there is a marked diflference between Pliycomycts and Rhizopux. The spores vary greath* in size and in the number of nuclei. Every spore has at least one nucleus, and some have as many as twelve or per- haps more. As a rule, there are about six or eight. In PI. V, tig. 25, a and e show the extreme sizes of the spores and 1) the usual size and shape. Uidike Rh'izopux, the walls of these spores are smooth. Occasionally the cleavage is interrupted before it is complete, and walls are built around partially divided masses of protoplasm before they have rounded otf sufficiently to obliterate the furrows. This results in peculiar-shaped spores, such as are shown in PI. V, fig. 26, it no essential differences in the manner of formation of the columella and spores. The difference is simply in the location of the cytoplasmic contractions. The explanation offered for the mechanics of the cleavage in the si^orangia of the Mucorineae seems equally applicable to other cases of surface cleavage, e. g., Synchitrium^ Fulkjo^ and some animal eggs. To illustrate this extended application of the theory the writer has made diagrams of Synelutriuiu^ Fuligo^ and the egg of the squid, indi- cating, by means of arrows, as in PI. VI, figs. 28-31, the location, direc- tion, and duration of the cytoplasmic contractions that would produce such furrows as have been observed in these forms. PI. VI, fiors. 32 7 o and 33, are based on Harper's (1899 and 1900) figures, and PL VI, fig. 31, on Watase-s (1890) figure. If this view of the mechanics of cleav- age be the correct one, we must regard the vacuoles as passive rather than active agents in cutting the protoplasm." They have, however, a very definite and important mission to perform. In all four genera under discussion they form the greater part of the plasma-membrane for the columella and for the surface of the spore-plasm next to the columella, and in PlloboJuii and Phycomyces they form the greater part of the plasma-membrane for the spores. As I have alreadv stated, this is done by the vacuolar membrane becoming directly a " See note at the bottom of page 28. 32 FORMATION OF SPORES OF RHIZOPUS AND PHYCOMYCES. part of the plasma-membrane withovit any visible change except in form. The protoplasmic surface that abutted against the vacuole is the same that is later in contact with the cell sap in the clefts. The boundary of the vacuole has become directly the boundary of a part of the cleft. We have good reason, therefore, to believe that the vacuolar membrane is identical with, or at least very similar to, the plasma-membrane, and may serve the same purpose if opportunity is offered. This homology is further substantiated by the fact that the columella wall is laid down in the dome-shaped vacuolar cleft by the plasma-membranes, formed for the most part by the vacuolar membranes, and, in the case of Fhycomyce^ and Piloholns, the walls of most of the spores are formed by what was once a number of vacuolar membranes. If, with Strasburger (1898), we regard the plasma-membrane as kinoplasmic, we find here very strong reasons for believing that the vacuolar membrane is of a kinoplasmic nature also. The vacuoles are, then, openings in the protoplasmic mass, less resistant to the contraction of the cytoplasm, and from which clefts may originate. In the higher plants and in the ascus of the Ascomy- cetes we have the new plasma-membrane of the daughter cells formed by the kinoplasmic libers. In most animal cells and in many of the alga?, as Cladophora^ and in the formation of conidia in fungi, the new plasma-membrane originates from the old by following the con- striction furrow from the surface inward. In FJnjcomyces there are neither spindle libers nor surface furrows present during spore forma- tion, and the kinoplasm which forms the plasma-membranes for the spores seems to be located entirely in the vacuolar membrane. The behavior of the vacuoles in the sporangia of FilaJjoJus, Sj^oro- dinia., Rluzopus^ and Phycoinyces is of considerable interest in its bearing on the question of whether or not the vacuole can be consid- ered as a permanent organ of the cell. Though, as already suggested, the vacuoles are probably not active agents in the division of the pro- toplasm, yet there can be no doubt that they do have a part to play in the process by offering places of slight resistance to the contractions of the cytoclasm, and by supplying material for the formation of new plasma-membranes around the spores and the columella. In the cut- ting out of the columella it is evident that the vacuoles are arranged in Their definite dome-shaped system for the distinct purpose of being where they can best do their part in the process. In Phycoinyces the early formation of the stainable substance in some vacuoles, while others remain empty, and the fact that the former go to form plasma- membranes for the spores and the columella, while the latter do not, indicate that certain vacuoles are predestined from a very young condition of the sporangium to take part in columella and spore formation. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 33 The idea that the vacuolar membvaiio has special properties not possessed by the general })ody of the cytoplasm is l)y no means a new one. De Vries (1885) has shown, >)y treating- living- cells with plasmo- lyzing- agents containing coloring matter, that the vacuole wall is an osmotic meml)rane like the hautschicht. He has also been al)le to isolate the vacuoles from the cj'toplasm without breaking them, show- ing the wall to have some strength and elasticit}^, and that it retains its identity even when not surrounded b}- a viscid cytoplasm. The vacuoles of Spirogt/m were often seen to divide b}^ constriction when treated with a saltpeter solution. By long innuersion in a saltpeter solution followed b}^ eosin the vacuole wall was hardened, so that it would be broken by pressure without collapsing. De Vries concludes that, there is a very strong similarity between vacuole wall and hautschicht. Went (1888) holds that all living- plant cells, with the possible exception of bacteria, Cyanophycea?, and spermatozoids, contain vacuoles, which by division furnish all the vacuoles for the succeed- ing generations of cells. In Ai FORMATION OFTHESPORES IN RHIZOPUS NIGRICANS AND PHYCOMYCES NITENS Bui. 37, Hure|)t.or Agriculiure I'LATl': M. ms. B-^&. c^PoO '■?,^:J '■'■■ '.■'' "/.-.'-.-/.•/ift te-^ '■:';^- -^■•' 'Si'^S;. o 34 JJLIUS HlfcN S CO.N.V. FORMATION OFTHESPORES IN RHIZOPUS NIGRICANSAND PHYCOMYCES NITENS BULLETINS OF THE BTJREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, ineludee Vege- table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, T'otanieal Investigations and Kxi)erinients, (ira.'^.s and Forage Plant Investigations, Poniological Investigations, and Gardens and (Grounds, all of which were formerly separate Dinsions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, The Arlington Experimental Farm, and Tea Investigations and Experiments. Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the independent serie.-< of bulletins of the several Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published As one series of the Bureau. The bulletins issued in the present series are: Xi). 1. The Relation of Lirae and Magnesia to Plant (.rrowth. 1901. '2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901.' 'A. Maciironi Wheats. 1901. '^ 4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1901. r>. Seeds and Plants Imported through the vSection of See. ^•-^ Vv^/- ^< f «'^ ,^4 !.-l.* ^^^^' r ■'m \ « <* 4-: • •■'<»■ A''*^ V ^ r V