r'-«.l Jim, •->.<, T> ' < • ■*", ^ - ^: »..<<■ . -^ .j^^' r* ^--.j -/- ^ v^-si^v^ <•>>♦ ^ *»4.. \.:^^ f*^2 '4m'':^" X6 -mi^^ U. S. DKl'ARTMKXT Ol' AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 58. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chit/ <./ liitrmu. THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. BY J. W. T. DUVEL, Assistant in the Sked Labokatort. BOTANICAL. INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. Issued May 28, 1904. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1904. BULLETINS OF THE BTJREATJ OF PLANT INDUSTRY. The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege- table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations and Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were form^rly separate Divisions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, the Arlington Experituental Farm, Tea Culture Investigations, and Domestic Sugar Investigations. Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of bulle- tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one series of the Bureau. A list of the bulletins issued in the present series follows. Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica- tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution. All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All apj)lications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. IDOl. Price, 10 cents- 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents. > 3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. , 4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. 'Price, 10 cents. 6. A List of American Varieties of I'epi^ers. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 7. The Algerian Durum AVheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experimentsl\vith Crrasses and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California: Notes on the Grasses and Forage Plants and Range Conditions. 1902. Price, 15 cents. -^ , / ;, 13. Experiments in Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1'902' ' l*rice, 10 cents. 14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents. 15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of tlie Spores of Agaricus Oampes- tris and other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price^ 10 cents. 18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed: Harvesting, Curing, and Cleaning. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents. 22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 23. Berseem: 1902. Price, 15 cents. 24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents. [Continued ou page 3 of cover.] U. S. DEPARTMENT OF ACRICI LTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY^BULLETIN NO. 58. B. T. (iAl.l.iiWAV, Chiij- „f JSuirau. T II K NFW YORK BOTANICAL t^ARDEN, LIBRARY, C*v«n by MRS. N. L. BRITTON. VITALITY AND GERMLNATlOX OF SEEDS. BV . J. W. T. DITVEL, Assistant in the Seed LAnoiiATOKY. BOTANICAL INVKSTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. Issued May 28, 1904. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 190-1. Mo4 BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Beveria' T. Galloway, (J]iuf. J. E. Rockwell, Editor. BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. SCIENTIFIC .STAFF. FREnERiCK V. CoviLLE, Bolanist. O. F. Cook, Botanist in Charge of Investigations in Tropical Agriculture. RonxEY H. Trce, Physiologist, Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations. Lyster II. Dewey, Botanist in Otarge of Investigations of Filter Plants. Edgar Brown, Botanist in Charge of Seed Laboratory. Carl S. Scofield, Botanist in Charge of Grain Grade Investigations. G. N. Collins, Assistant Botanist, Tropical Agrindtvre. A. C. Crawford, Pharmacologist, Poisonous Plant Investigations. William E. Safford, Assistant Curator, Tropical Agriculture. F. H. HiLLMAN, Asshtant Botanist, Seed Herbarium. J. W. T. Duvel, Assistant, Seed Laboratory. W. W. Tracy, Jr., Assistant, Variety Trials. W. F. Wight, Assistant, Geographic Botany. W. O. RiCHTMANN, Pharmacognosiical Expert. Alice Henkel, Assistant, Drug and Medicirud Plant Ltvestigatinn.f. AV. W. Stockberger, Expert, Drug and Medicinal Plant Investigations. lEVmi OF TRANSMriTAL U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Was/ihi(/ton, D. a, Marches, 190]^. Sir: 1 have the honor to transmit herewith and to recommend for pii])lication as Bulletin No. 58 of the .series of this Bureau the aecom- panying technical paper entitled ''The Vitality and Germination of Seeds." This paper was prepared l)y J. W. T. I)uvel, Assistant in the Seed Laboratory, and has been submitted by the Botanist w^ith a view to publication. Respectfully, ' B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. »Tames Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. V R 1^ PACE Because of variation in the amount and quality of each year's crop it is frequently necessary for seedsmen to carry ovim- larj^i^ (juantities of seeds from one year to another. Such seeds often lose their al)ility to terminate, and eith(>r are a loss to the seedsman or, if they are ■ marketed, cause still more serious losses to those who plant them. Since 1899 Mr. Duvel has been engao-pd in a j;eneral investi«,aition of the causes affectino- the vitality of seeds, with special reference to the conditions under which they are stored connnercially. This investiga- tion was beoun in 1S99 under the Dexter M. Ferrv Botanical Fellow- ship at the University of •Michioan, and since September 1, 1902, it has been continued by the United States Department of Agriculture. An account of the whole study is presented herewith. The general method pursued has been to store seeds experimentally under all sorts of conditions, and afterward to ascertain the exact per- centage of germination. It is now possil)le to speak with precision of the extent of damage caused by careless methods of storage, to express in actual tioures the g-reater lial)ilitv of seeds to loss of vitality under the warm humid conditions existing in the South Atlantic and Gulf States tlnin under colder and drier conditions, and to demonstrate the utility of storing seeds, when they must be kept in a humid climate, in moisture-proof packages. A further investigation, i. e., of the extent to which A-itality may be preserved by means of connnercial cold stor- age, is now in progress. Frederick V. Coville, I^otanist. Office of Botanical Investigations and Experiments, Washinyton^ D. 6'., December 5^ 1903. 5 CONTENTS. Page. Introduction 9 Materials and methods 10 Seeds 10 Germination tests and apparatus 11 Effect of climatic conditions on the vitality of seeds 13 Causes of tlie losses in viUility in different climates 22 Effect of moisture and tem|)erature upon vitality 24 Seeds packed in ice 26 Effect of moisture on vitality ut higher temperaturi's 29 Summary 35 Effect of definite quantities of moisture on the vitality of seeds when they are kept within certain known limits of temperature 36 A comparison of methods of storing anil shipping seeds in order to protect them from moisture, and consequently to insure a better preservation of vitality -i-l Suggestions of earlier investigators 44 The necessity for thoroughly curing and drying seeds 45 Character of the seed warehouse or storage room 46 The value of good seed to the market gardener 46 Shipping seeds in charcoal, moss, etc 47 Nature of the experiments 47 Disposition of the samples 48 Results of the germination tests - 50 Experiments in keeping and shipping .seeds in special packages 65 Eespiration of seeds "■! Summary 81 Enzymes in seeds and the part they play in the preservation of vitality 82 Summary ^' Literature cited - 90 7 I L L U S T R A T I 0 N S . TEXT FIGURES. Page. Fig. 1. Apparatus used to determine the effect of moisture and temperature ou the vitality of seeds in communication witli free air .'JO 2. Api^aratus used to determine the effect of moisture and temperature on the vitality of seeds vot in communication with free air 30 B. P. I.-94. B- I- E— '■'6. THE \ ITALITY AND fxEKMlNATlON OF SEEDS. INTRODUCTION. It has lonjr been known that tho conditions under which plants are grown and the degree of maturity at the time of harvesting are fac- tors which phiy an important part in the life of seeds. But, granting that seeds are of strong vitality at the time of harvesting, there remain to ho considered the methods of gathering and curing, the water content of the sec^l at the time of storing, the methods of stor- age, the humidity and temi)erature of the surrounding atmosphere, the composition of the seed, the nature of the seed coats, activities within the cells, and numerous other factors which phw important parts in the life of the seed. The conditions necessary for the successful germination of a seed of good vitalit}' and the chemical transformations accompanying these earl}' stages of development have received considerable attention from numerous investigators. These changes and conditions are fairlj^ well understood for many of our common seeds. However, several impor- tant facts still remain unexplained, and our knowledge will not be complete until each and every species has been carefully studied. On the other hand, the conditions influencing the vitality of seeds as commercially handled are but little understood and have been almost wholl}' neglected in research work. Likewise, but little attention has been given to the complex chemical and physical changes wdiich take place in mature seed during the slow process of devitalization. It was in order to determine some of these factors that the work descril)ed in these pages was begun, and the results are thus of considerable practi- cal value as well as of scientitic importance. The present paper treats chie% of the conditions influencing the vitality and germination of seeds when sul)jected to such methods of treatment as are generallj^ met with in the ordinary handling of seed. Particular attention has been given to the effect of climate, moisture, and temperature on vitality, supplemented with a discussion of the changes taking place in mature seeds, especially the respiratory activities and the part plaj'ed by enzymes. 9 10 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Tlio results of the above experiments have suggested improved methods of storing and shipping seeds so as to prolong their vitality and also to secure the production of more vigorous seedlings. The work for the present i)aper was begun in 189*J at the University of Michigan and was continued for three consecutive years while the writer held the Dexter M. Ferry Botanical Fellowship in that institu- tion. During this time the investigation was under the direction of Prof. V. M. Spalding, Ph.D., and Dr. F. C. Newcombe, who showed great interest in it and gave valuable suggestions as the work pro- gressed, at the same time phunng the facilities of the laboratory and of the librarj^ at the disposal of the writer. Since September 1, 1902, the work has been continued in the Seed Laborator}^ of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Valuable assistance in storing seeds was rendered by Prof. C. W. Burkett, at Durham, N. H. ; Mr. E. E. Smith, Wagoner, Ind. T. ; Prof. W. R. Dodson, Baton Rouge, La. ; Prof. F. S. Earle, Auburn, Ala.; Zimmer Brothers, Mobile, Ala.; Prof. H. H. Hume, Lake City, Fla., and Prof. Charles B. Scott, San Juan, Porto Rico. MATERIAI.S AND METHODS. SEEDS. For these experiments thirteen different samples of seeds were used, being so selected as to include representatives of ten different families and twelve genera and species, as follows: Poacese — Zea mays, sweet corn (two samples). Liliaceai — Allium cepa L., onion. Brassicaeeae — Br arnica oleracea L., cal)bage; Rafplianus sativum L., radish. Apiacese — Daucus carota L., carrot. Fahacepe, — Pisum sativum, L., pea; Phaseolus vulgaris L., bean. Yiolacese — Viola tricolor L. , pansy. Poleinoniacese — Phlox drmnmondii Hook, phlox. Solanacex — Lycopersicon lycopersicuvi (L.) Karst., tomato, CucurUtacece—Citrullus citruUus (L.) Karst., watermelon. Asteracese — Laxituca sativa L. , lettuce. It will thus be seen that the seeds used cover a wide range as to family characteristics, as well as size, structure, and composition of seed. Likewise they are all from plants of the garden or held that have undergone a high degree of cultivation, thus enabling the seeds to withstand more or less variation as to conditions of vitality and growth. AU seeds used throughout these experiments were provided by D. M. Ferry & Co., of Detroit, Mich., and the seed furnished was of strong vitality and of known age and origin. The corn "A" (Minne- sota Sweet), onion (Yellow Danvers), pea (D. M. Ferry Extra Early), bean (Yellow Kidney, Six Weeks), tomato (Dwarf Champion), and the MATERIALS AND METHODS. 11 watermolon (Sweet Mountain) were grown in Miehigan. The corn "H" (Minnesota Sweet), was orown in Nebraska, the cahhage (AVin- ningstedt), in AN'ashington, and tiie h'ttuee (Bhick-Seeded Simpson), in California, while the radish (Early Scarlet Turnip-Kooted), carrot (Chantenay), pansy (mixed), and Pldox driunmondll (mixed) were o-rown in France. The seed was all of the harvest of 1899 and was received at the botanical laboratory of the University of Michigan on January 27, 1900. On January 30, 1900, germination tests were made, showing the vitality of the seeds to be as follows: Vitality of seeds tested January 30, 1900. Kind of seed. Percent- age of germina- tion. Bean Cabbage Carrot Corn, sweet, "A". Corn, sweet, "B" Lettuce Onion 100 93 83.5 94 88 87.5 98 Kind of seed. Pansy Pea . . . Percent- age of germina- tion. Phlox Radish Tomato Watermelon . 69.6 97 78 81 98 99 GERMINATION TESTS AND APPARATUS. Ill the preliminary work several methods of testing were tried, but as none proved as serviceable as the ''Geneva tester," this apparatus was adopted for all subsequent tests as recorded in the following pages. The detailed construction of this tester need not be described, for it is simple and quite familiar to all. However, some modifications were made in the preparation of the apparatus, and some precautions taken in the manipulation, which have proved to be of nnich value. The brass wires originally and ordinaril}" used to support the folds of cloth were replaced by glass rods of 6 to 7 imn. diameter. Rods of this size are much heavier than is necessary to support the folds of cloth, but the chief advantage in having rods of large diameter is that in case of the germination of large seeds the folds can be drawn near together at the'top and still have sufficient space within the fold for the seeds. On the other hand, in the germination of small seeds that require considerable quantities of air, the folds can ])e closed at the top \)Y bringing the rods together, thus insuring more uniform condi- tions throughout the fold and at the same time leaving sufficient space above the seeds for an abundant supply of air. The chief advantage in substituting glass rods for brass wires is in removing the possible source of injury resulting frorn the poisonous action of the dissolved copper. Another error frequently, if not always, made in using such a tester is in allowing the ends of the cloths, or sometimes the bottoms of the 12 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. folds, to dip into water in the pan. This should never be permitted, for in that way seeds are kept too moist, especially near the ends of the folds. Likewise such methods give an opportunit}' for the trans- mission of dissolved copper and a resulting- injury to the seeds. For this same reason the strips of cloth should be made sufficiently narrow not to come into contact with the sides of the pan. Much better results are obtained if the seeds, before being placed in the germinator, are soaked in water for several hours, the length of time depending on the power of absorption of the seeds. In these experiments the seeds were always soaked in distilled water for twelve or fifteen hours before transferring them to the germinator. This preliminar}' soaking gives a more speedy germination, which is always advantageous, especially in making comparative germination tests. In order to supply the requisite amount of moisture for subsequent growth, the cloths were first uniforml}^ and completely" wet with dis- tilled water; moreover much care was taken to see that there was only a very small quantity of water in the bottom of the pan. In case of seeds that germinate readih% such as cabbage, lettuce, and onion, it is necessary that all surface water be removed from the bottom of the germinator if good results are desired. The pan then being covered with a glass plate, it is seldom necessary" to increase the amount of moisture, for seeds when once soaked need only to be kept slightly moist and not wet, as must necessarily be true if the ends of the cloths or bottoms of the folds dip into the water. After soaking, the water in the seeds and cloths is ample for the completion of most germina- tion tests. However, in an occasional test the seeds may become slightly dry, which happens when the cover is kept off the pan for a considerable time while counting germinated seeds. In such cases the remedy is to pour a small quantit}" of water in the bottom of the pan, or in extreme cases to moisten the folds with a fine spray. If the above modifications be adopted and the necessary precautions taken, many of the objections frequently made to the Geneva tester will be removed and the difficulties will be overcome; at least it is a most excellent method of testing seeds where comparative results are especially desired. It must also be borne in mind that the Canton flan- nel (which is generally used in making the pockets) should alwa3^s be of the best grade and should never be used a second time without being thoroughly cleaned and sterilized. In selecting samples for germination the impurities and the imma- ture seeds were first removed. The samples for test were then made up of the remaining large and small seed. For the most part 200 seeds were taken for a test, but with the larger seeds — corn, pea, bean, and watermelon — 100 seeds were usually used. In all cases where any irregularity was apparent, tests were repeated. The controls are based on the results of several duplicate tests. EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 13 All gcrniinatioii tests were made in a dark room where the temper- ature could be comparativel}^ well rej^ulated and was maintained noarh' constant throuohout most tests. (Terminated seeds were removed daily during early stages of the tests and a complete record of the number germinating each day was kept. This is of value in seed testing, because the germinative energy of a seed tells nmch as to its vitality. If seeds have a high vitality, the germinative energy will be very strong, i. e., germination will take place rapidh', giving rise to strong and vigorous seedlings; but if the seeds are of very low vitality, there will be a corresponding retardation in germination, giving rise to weak seedlings, i. e., showing a low germinative energ}-. In most cases throughout this work only the final percentages of germination are tabulated. EFFECT OF CL.IMATIC CONDITIONS ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS. It has long since been known that seeds under ordmar}'^ conditions lose their power of germination after the lapse of a few years, or in some cases within a few weeks or months. Many investigators have also learned that the rapidity with which seeds lose their vitality, when stored under ordinary conditions, varies greatly with the section of the country in which such seeds are kept. This loss in vitality is espe- ciall}^ marked in the case of seeds stored in places of relati\'ely high humidity. The rapid deterioration of seeds in localities having a humid atmosphere has become a source of much embarrassment to seedsmen, for they have experienced many difficulties in shipping seed to such places. This is especially marked in the case of seeds sent to growers or dealers in the vicinity of the Gulf of Mexico. Gardeners and planters in that part of the United States are continuall}" com- plaining about the nonviable seeds sent out b}^ seedsmen. Some grow- ers have learned how to guard against this difiicult}" to a certain extent. Zimmer Brothers, of Mobile, Ala. , wrote, on February 28, 1900, con- cerning this matter, as follows: During thirty years' experience in market gardening, we have learned that seeds of many hardy plants will not keep in our climate, and when ordering we so time our order that we can plant the seeds as soon as received. If such be impossible, we are very careful to keep the original package unopened until conditions are favorable for planting. If we find it necessary to keep seeds of hardy plants for some months, we put them up on arrival in dry bottles, put on top a bit of cotton saturated with chloroform and cork tightly. We have kept, in that way, cauliflower seed satisfac- torily for twelve months. At the shore seeds keep very badly; one-half mile back they do much better. As a rule seeds of tender plants give but little trouble. As far as has been ascertained, no definite experiments have been made with these points in view, and especially with the idea of deter- mining the cause or causes of this deterioration of vital energ}". In order to obtain reliable data on these points, a series of experiments was undertaken in February, 1900, to determine how seeds are affected 14 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. when distributed to different parts of the United States and submitted to the free influence of A-arious climates. Likewise at the various points where tests were made the seeds were subjected to dift'erent treatments. The places selected for these tests were San Juan, P. R., Lake City, Fla. , Mobile, Ala. , Auburn, Ala. , Baton Rouge, La. , Wagoner, Ind. T. , Durham, N. H., and Ann Arbor, Mich. A sample of each species of seed was put up separate!}' in double manila coin envelopes and in closel}' corked bottles. Duplicate sets of each series were then subjected at each of the above-named places to the following conditions: Trade condltkms. — Conditions similar to those in which seeds are kept when offered for sale by retail dealers, the seed being more or less exposed to meteorological changes and subjected to natural varia- tions in temperature and humidity. For the most part the seeds were in rooms that were never heated. D)'y rooms. — Rooms in the interior of l>uildings which were artifi- cially heated during cold weather, and where the (juantity of moisture was relatively small and the temperature comparatively constant. Basements. — Rooms where the temperature was comparatively low and uniform, and the relative humidity of the surrounding air was much higher than in "trade conditions" and "dry rooms." These conditions varied in the different places at which tests were made, and a more detailed description will lie given when the results of the germination tests are discussed. For the first part of this paper, treating of the influence of climate on vitality, none of the seeds need to be considered save those pre- pared in paper packages and kept under trade conditions, these coming more nearly under the direct action of the surrounding atmosphere, A sample of each kind of seed was put up in a manila (No. 2) coin envelope, and each of these packages was then inserted in a second (No. 3) coin envelope. Duplicate samples of every kind of seed were sent to the various testing places, where they were subjected to trade conditions. At San Juan the packages of seeds were kept in an open room, being sulijected to the full action of the atmosphere but pro- tected from the direct rays of the sun and from rain. At Lake City the packages were kept in a one-story frame building which was not artificially heated and the doors of which were open the greater portion of the time. At Mobile the packages of seeds were stored in a comparatively open attic of a private dwelling. At Auburn the seeds were stored in a greenhouse office, with the doors frequently standing open. At Baton Rouge the packages were kept on a shelf in a grocery store, the doors of which were closed only during the night. At Wagoner the conditions were very similar to those of Baton Rouge, save that the packages of seeds were kept in a drug store. At Dur- ham the seeds were kept over a door at the entrance of one of the EFFKf'T OK CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 15 collou'''' Itiiildiiij^s. 'V\n> door oi)ciis into :i hall which coiniuuiiiciites with the ottices, choiuical I:iborat()ry, and the hasoniont. At Ann Arhoi- the seeds were stored in the 1)otanieal hd)oratory, with sliohtlr var3nng conditions, they being near a window which was frecjuently open durinj^ the summer, and at irreoular intervals durino- the early part of the suuuuer the i)acka«res were i)laced in the window so as to receive the direct rays of the sun. The seeds stored at Ann Arbor served partially as controls for those sent to the various other places, and, in addition to the last-named series, seeds from the ori«;inal packaj^es, as received from D. M. Ferry & Co., were kept in a dry and comparatively cool closet on the fourth floor of the botanical lab- oratory. These seeds served as checks for the complete set of exper- iments, and are desionated throughout this paper as "Control." The samples were sent out to the al)Ove-named places in February, 1!H)0. The tirst comi)lete set was returned in June, or early July, of that year. The second complete set was allowed to remain throughout the entire summer, and was returned in Octol)er and early November of the same year. The average time of treatment for the two series of experiments was 128 and 251 days respectively. When the seeds were returned, germination tests were made as soon as possible. The length of time that the seeds were in the various places and the vitality as shoAvn by the germination tests are given in Tables I and IT. In both tables the columns from left to right, beginning with Mobile, Ala., are in the order of the degree to which the seeds were injured. Table I.— Effect of climate on dtalitij, (ts shown by licrcentage of germination— first test. Kind of seed. Con- trol. Mobile, Ala., Feb. 17 to July 7. 140 days. San Juan, P. R., Feb. 9 to June20. 129 days. Baton Rouge, La., Feb. 17 to Junel8. 121 days. Wagon- er, Ind.T., Feb. 17 to June23. 126 days. Lake City, Fla., Feb. 9 to June 18. 129 days. Dur- ham, N.H., Feb. 17 to July 14. 147 days. Au- burn, Ala., Feb. 17 to May 30. 102 days. Ann Arbor, Mich. Corn, sweet, "A " 95.9 89.3 95.8 92.7 83.6 83.3 95.3 9H.7 63.0 69.0 95.5 98.3 81.6 80.0 48.0 7.0 64.5 58. 5 59.0 69.2 58.0 3.0 0.5 90.0 98.0 63.0 90.0 72.0 84.5 82.0 64.0 71.5 94.0 100.0 20.0 23.5 94.0 96.0 79.0 96.0 80.0 90.0 88.5 77.5 74.3 94.0 9(i.O 28.5 47.5 91.5 100.0 82.5 96.0 70.0 93.5 83.5 77.5 81.5 98.0 96.0 48.5 50.5 96.5 98.0 78.0 94.0 86.0 95.0 89.5 79.0 76.5 96.0 98.0 44.5 41.5 94.0 98.0 87.0 100.0 89.3 96.5 93.0 80.6 78.0 98.0 100.0 55.5 67.0 94.5 98.0 82.0 96. 0 88.0 %.o 91.0 75. 5 84.5 93.3 98.0 57.5 61.5 95.0 94.0 86.5 100.0 92.0 Onion 95.0 , 96.0 Radish 82.5 Carrot 76.0 Pea .' 90.0 Bean 98.0 Pansy 53.5 Phlox drummondii Tomato - 67.0 89.0 Watermelon 100.0 Lettuce 82.0 Average of all seeds . 87.79 53. 59 75.12 80.48 82.12 83.00 85. 57 85. 70 , 86.23 From Table I it will be seen that the loss of vitality in the case of seeds stored at Mobile was much greater than in those stored at any of the other places. The greatest loss in the samples tested was in the 16 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. phlox, where the germination was only (1.5 per cent, or a loss in vitality of 99.3 per cent as compared with the control. These results were closely followed by a loss in vitality of 95.9 and 92.7 per cent for the pans}'^ and onion seed, respectively. The percentages of germination in the other cases, except the ''B" sweet corn, pea, and bean, were sufficient to have produced a fair stand, i. e. , if we consider that far too many seeds are usually sown. But a decrease in the percentage of germination means seeds of a low germinative energy. Even though the final percentage of germination be up to standard, the retardation may be of vital importance. A very good example of the retardation in germination is shown in the tests of the watermelon seeds. In the control sample 94 per cent of the seed germinated in 47i hours, while the seed returned from Mobile showed, during the same time, a germination of only 13 per cent; yet the difference in the final germination was only 0.3 per cent in favor of the control. Like- wise the seed returned from San Juan germinated only 20 per cent in 47^ hours, the final germination being 96 per cent or only 2.3 per cent lower than the control. Many similar cases might be mentioned in which the final per- centages of germination, as shown b\^ the first set of tests given in Table I, represent a loss such as might be justly considered well within the limits of normal variation. However, that all of the samples of seed were injured as a result of the unfavorable climatic conditions is shown in the second set of tests set forth in Tal)le II. In the latter case the seeds remained in the various places nearly twice as long as those used for the first test. Table II. — Effect of climate on vitality as shown by percentage of germination — second test. Kind of seed. Corn, sweet, "A" Com, sweet, " B " Onion Cabbage Radish Carrot Pea Bean Pansy Phlox dnimmondii Tomato Watermelon Lettuce Average of all seeds Con- trol. Mobile, Ala., Feb. 17 to Nov. 6. 2C2 days. 94.5 88.5 97.0 92.4 78.8 82.0 95.7 98.7 53.0 53.9 97.5 99.0 92.3 86.77 20.0 12.0 0.0 17.0 51.0 8.5 44.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 79.5 64.0 20.0 Baton Rouge, La., Feb. 17 to Oct. 22. 247 days. 88.0 .W.2 0.5 25.5 .55.5 25.0 80.0 60.0 0.0 0.0 96.0 92.0 84.5 Dur- ham, N. H., Feb. 17 to Oct. 26. 251 days. 96.0 82.0 0.0 12.0 59.5 2.0 W.O 78.0 0.0 0.5 87.0 82.0 88.5 Au- burn, Ala., Feb. 17 to Nov. 19. 275 days. 88.0 62.0 12.0 61.5 63.0 36.0 97.9 56.0 2.0 LO 94.0 86.0 86.0 Lake Citv, Fla., Feb. 9 to Oct. 1. 234 days. 92.0 77.0 16.5 63.5 58.5 43.5 86.5 84.0 1.5 2.5 94.0 92.0 85.0 24.31 50.86 52.42 57.34 61.27 Wag- oner, Ind. T., Feb. 17 to Oct. 13. 238 days. San Juan, P.R., Feb. 9 to June 20. 129 days. Ann Arbor, Mich. 90.0 78.0 24.5 70.5 60.5 49.0 80.0 82.0 7.5 5.5 94.0 94.0 82.0 92.0 78.0 50.0 76.2 62.0 48.5 98.0 96.0 6.5 11.5 96.5 88.0 83.5 98.0 80.0 97.5 91.0 77.5 86.0 98.0 100.0 46.5 40.0 98.0 96.0 92.5 62.11 68.21 8-1.58 EFFKCT OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 17 K\i'\\ tliouuli llic columns in hotli T;il)los I mid II arc arran^'cd in tlio order of the loss in vitality as shown l)y the aveni»^os of the various places, it will at once be seen that the relative deoroeof injury did not remain the same throuofhout the experiment. This is prol)al)ly best explained by a variation in the climatic influences. It is evident that in some of the places ^vherc seeds were stoi-ed the effects were moi-e deleterious during- the time between the first and second tests than they were durin«^- the first period of storaj^e of 12S days. The results given in Table II are of the greater value in showing the relative merits of the different localities as places for storing seeds, extending as they do over a longer period of time. As a result of the second series of tests it was found that the average percentage of germination of all of the samples of seed that were, stored in trade conditions at Mobile for 202 days Avas onl}' 24.81 per cent. This is equivalent to a loss in vitality of 71.98 per cent as compared with the average percentage of germination of the control samples, the average germination of the controls ])eing 86.77 per cent. The pansy, phlox, onion, and beans stored at Mobile wholly lost their power of o-ermination. The tomato seed, which proved to be the most resistant to unfavorable conditions, gave a germination of 75). 5 per cent, or a loss in vitalit}^ of 18.1:6 per cent, as compared with the control sample, which germinated 97.5 per cent. The degree of deterioration in the seeds stored at the other places was much less marked than for those stored at Mobile. The loss in vitality was only 41.89 per cent in the seeds returned from Baton Rouge. The results from the seeds which were stored at Durham. AulKirn, Lake City, Wagoner, and San Juan differed l)ut little from ihose from Baton Rouge. The relative losses in vitality are in the order given. The seeds kept in the packages which were stored under trade conditions in the laboratory at the [Jniversity of Michigan showed a loss in vitality of only 2.52 per cent as compared with the control, the seeds of which were stored in a cool, dry closet on the fourth floor of the botanical lal3orator3\ Ordinarily a loss of 2.52 per cent would be considered as a normal variation due to sampling and testing, and such was probal)ly true in these two sets, with the exception of the greater deterioration of the phlox, pansy, and "B" sweet corn, which were undoubtedly injured by the unfa- vorable trade conditions, as repeated tests have shown. From Table II it will also be seen that the "A" sweet corn, peas, tomato, and watermelon, with the exception of those returned from Mobile, sliow a fair percentage of germination. In some cases the final percentages of germination were even higher than the controls; ])ut, as previously stated, the final germination is not alwaj'S a good criterion for the determination of vitality, it being necessary to consider the germinative energy as a basis for comparison. In order to show this more fully some of the detailed results are herewith given in Tal)le III. These results show to a good advantage the degree to which germina- tion has been retarded. 25037— No. 58—04 2 18 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Table III. — Retardation in germination due to injury caused tnj unfavorable climatic conditions. Corn "A." Peas. Watermelon. Tomato. Place where seeds were kept. Germi- nation at end of 64 hours. Final germi- nation. Germi- nation at end of 40 hours. Final germi- nation. Germi- nation at end of 84 hours. Final germi- nation. Germi- nation at end of 83 hours. Germi- nation at end of 107 hours. Final germi- nation. Control Per cent. 81.3 4.0 64.0 50.0 64.0 68.0 86.0 80.0 82.0 Per cent. 94.5 20.0 92.0 88.0 90.0 92.0 96.0 88.0 98.0 Per cent. 79.6 a 24.0 60.0 36.0 36.0 50.0 54.0 "93.7 82.0 Per cent. 95.7 44.0 98.0 80.0 80.0 86.0 94.0 97.9 98.0 Per cent. 98.0 0.0 12.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 22.0 94.0 Per cent. 99.0 64.0 88.0 92.0 94.0 92.0 82.0 86.0 96.0 Per cent. 78.0 1.5 38.5 9.0 40.0 16.5 0.5 59.0 75.5 Per cent. 92.7 12.5 78.0 56.0 81.5 65.0 5.5 75.5 91.0 Per cent. 97.5 Mobile, Ala San Juan, P. R.... Baton Rouse, La . . Wagoner, Ind. T . . Lake City, Fla Durham, X. H Auburn, Ala Ann -Arbor, Mich.. 79.5 96.5 96.0 94.0 94.0 87.0 94.0 98.5 "After 62 hours. In order that the results of Tables I and II may be more readily and fully comprehended, it has been deemed advisable to summarize them in another table. For this purpose the average percentages of germi- nation of all of the different samples of seed have been determined for each of the different places. From these average percentages of ger- mination the deterioration in vitality, as shown l)y both the first and second tests as given in Tables I and II, have been calculated, the ger- mination of the controls serving as a basis for comparison. These results furnish more trustworthv data as to the relative merits of the different localities as places for storing seeds. Likewise the per- centages of deterioration between the time of the first and the second tests are shown in Table IV. Table IV. — Average percentages of germination of all seeds kept at the various jilaces, their deviations from the controls, and the increased jiercetdages of loss in the second series of tests. Place of storage. Average germina- tion of all seeds used in experi- ments. First test. I Per cent. Control 87. 79 Mobile, Ala 53. 59 San Juan, P. R 75. 12i Baton Rouge, La 80. 48 Durham, X. H 85. 57 Auburn, Ala 85. 70 Lake City, Fla 83. 00 Wagoner, lud. T 82. 12 Ann Arbor, Mich .- 86. 23 \ I a Calculated results. Second test. Per cent. 86.77 24.31 68.21 n 45. 18 50.86 52.42 57. 34 61. 27 62. 11 84.58 Deterioration in \-itality a.s com- pared with con- trols. First test. Per cent. 38.95 14. 31 I 8.32 2.52 2.38 5. 45 6.45 1.77 Second test. Deterio- ration in vitality between first and second tests. Per cent. 7L98 21.39 a 47. 93 41.39 39.58 33.91 29.38 28.41 2.52 Per cent. 1.16 54.64 9.20 a 39. 86 36.81 38.74 33.10 26.18 24.37 1.91 EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 19 III 'ru))lc IV the results iire airanged in the order of the loss in vital- it}' as shown by the second tests. However, a few words of explana- tion will be necessar}', especially concerninj^ the loss at San Juan. In the first place, the seeds were kept at San Juan only 131 days" during the early part of the summer, while during the most critical period, June 20 to Novem>)er 0, they were in the ])otanical lal)oratory of the University of Michigan. Those marked Mobile, Ala., were, during the entire time, '2(t2 days, under the influence of the warm, moist cli- mate of the Gulf of Mexico. The seeds kept at other places can well be compared with those from Mobile, the time being approximately the same. The average loss as shown by the second tests was 3.35 times greater than the loss in the first test, which bv calculation would bring San Juan next below Mobile, with a loss of vital energy in the seeds equal to 47.93 per cent. But more data are necessary l)efore such a gradation of injurious climatic influences can be established. Table IV, however, brings out another interesting point, as shown bv comparing the results of the first and second tests at San Juan and Mobile. In the first test the loss in vitality of the seeds from Mobile was 38.95 per cent, while the seeds returned from San Juan showed a loss of only 14.31 per cent as compared with 71.98 and 21.39 per cent, respectively, as shown in Table II. The degree to which the seeds were injured while they were stored in San Juan was such that they continued to deteriorate much more rapidly than the control sample. This deterioration was most marked in the case of the pansy seed, the germination of the first test being 20 per cent and that of the second test onl}' 6.5 per cent, showing a loss in vitality of 68.2 per cent and 87.7 per cent, respectiveh'. Thus when seeds are once placed in con- ditions unfavorable for the preservation of their vitality for a sufficient length of time to cause some injur}-, this injury will always be mani- fest and cause a premature death of the seeds even though the}^ after- wards be removed to more favorable conditions. Seeds of strong vitality can withstand greater changes in conditions than seeds of low vitality without any marked deterioration. Through- out these experiments a wide difierence has been o])served between the "A" sweet corn and the ''B" sweet corn. The original tests made January 30, 1900, at the time the seeds were received, showed a germination of 94 per cent for the '""A" sample and 88 per cent for the ""B" sample of corn. The control tests, made in November, 1900, showed a germination 0.5 per cent higher in each case; but the average loss in vitality of the two samples of seed kept at the various places was 12.17 per cent for the "A" sample and 26.10 per cent for the " B" sample. As with the pansy and the phlox these samples showed that " The number of days here given for San Juan is not absolutely correct. The time was reckoned from the date the seeds were sent from the laboratory until they were received in return. 20 THE ^aTALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. the .stronger the vitality of the original sample of seed the more harsh treatment can be undergone without being injured. Strong vitality implies long life as well as vigorous seedlings. Another very important factor to be considered in the handling of seeds is the relative resistance of seeds of various species to adverse conditions. Certain seeds under one set of conditions may retain their vitality exceedingly well, while seeds of other species of plants under identical conditions may be killed in a comparatively short time. For this reason no general rule can be laid down for the preservation of seeds. Table V shows the varying degrees of deterioration of the different species of seeds used in the experiments. Table Y. — Different degrees of deterioration of various kinds of seeds. Kind of seed. Tomato Pea Corn, sMeet, "A" .. Watermelon Lettuce Radish Corn, sweet, "B" . Bean Cabbage Carrot Onion Pansy Phlox drummondii Germi- nation of control. Per cent. 95.5 95.3 95.9 98.3 81.6 83.6 89.3 98.7 92.7 83.3 95.8 63.0 69.0 First test. Average germi- nation from the various places. Deterio- ration in vitality as com- pared with the control samples. Per cent. Per cent. ^ 93.06 2.55 91.56 3.92 94.75 1.20 97.75 .57 80.00 1.96 74.38 11.02 78.16 12.47 93.00 5.76 86.00 7.22 75.16 9.77 ■ 82.18 15. 26 38.87 38.33 44.87 34.97 Second test. Germi- nation of control. Average germi- nation from the various places. Per cent. 97.5 95.7 94.5 99.0 92.3 78.8 88.5 98.7 92.4 82.0 97.0 53.0 53.9 Per cent. 92. 43 84.80 83.00 86.62 77.75 60.93 65.40 69.50 52.15 37.81 25.12 8.00 7.62 Deterio- ration in vitality as com- pared with the control samples. Per cent. 5.20 11.39 12.17 12. .51 15. 77 22. 67 26.10 29.58 43.56 53.89 74.10 84.90 a5.85 In the above table the list of seeds is arranged in the order of their power to withstand the action of diverse climatic conditions, as shown by the results of the second test, given in Table II. Tomato seeds were found to be the most resistant, the control sample germinating 97. 5 per cent. The average germination of the samples of tomato seed kept at the various places was 92.43 per cent, or a loss in vitality of only 5.20 per cent. The seed showing the next least injury was the peas, with a deterioration of 11.39 per cent. The phlox, which was the most affected by the unfavorable conditions, germinated only 7.62 per cent, thus showing a loss in vitality of 85.85 per cent. It is also interesting to note that the order, as show n by the second series of tests, is quite different from that of the first. This lack of uniformity increases the difficulties that must be overcome before the causes of the loss of vitality in seeds can be fully comprehended. Were all seeds affected in the same way when subjected to identical con- EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 21 ditions, the order should have remained the .same throughout, hut the w'uh vaiiation in atmospheric changes ati'ects ditierent seetls so very diti'erentiy that no uniformity of results can he secured. For example, the conditions prevailing from Fe])ruary until June were nuich more disastrous to the vitality of the tomato and pea than to the "A" sweet corn, watermelon, and lettuce, while the conditions existing from June to November were more injurious to the "A" sweet corn, watermelon, and lettuce. An examination of the table will show other results of a similar nature. During the earlier stages of devitalization seeds undergo a gradual deterioration in vitality, but after reaching a cer- tain stage in their decline there is a comparatively sudden falling otf, and seeds, except perhaps a few of the most persistent, soon cease to show any power of germination. Such factors as these mu3t be taken into account in determining the relative length of time that dift'erent kinds of seed will retain their vitality. But as yet sufficient informa- tion is lacking in order to make any trustworthy attempt to classify seeds in respect to their viable periods when subjected to different con- ditions. Numerous experiments are now under way, with the hope of furnishine- a basis for such a classitication. In order to obtain more data as to the influence of climate upon vitality additional samples of seed were sent to Mobile and Baton Rouge, where the}^ were stored under the same trade conditions as f or the former experiment. For these tests only cabbage, lettuce, and onion seeds, put up in envelopes, as for the previous tests, were used. The different packages of seed, placed in paper boxes from which they were not removed, were sent from the laboratory on May 20, 1901, and were returned November 26, 1901, the total time of storage being 190 days. The results of these tests are shown in Table VI, and are even more striking than those of the former tests shown in Tables 1 and II. Table YI.— Relative merits of Mohile, Ala., Baton Rouge, La., and Ann Arbor, Mich., as places for storing seeds. [Period, 190 days.] Cabbage. Lettuce. Onion. Seeds subjected to "Trade condi- tions." Percentage of seeds germinated at the end of— Percentage of seeds germinated at the end of — Percentage of seeds germinated at the end of— 36 hour.s. 60 hour.s. 14 days. 30- hours. 60 hours. U days. 60 hours. 84 hours. 108 hours. 14 days. Mobile, Ala Baton Rouge, La . . Ann Arbor, Mich . . 0.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 64. ,5 8.5 •22. 5 80. 5 0.0 2.5 07.0 14.0 3;"). 5 82.5 64.0 74.0 90.5 0.0 0.0 3.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 43.0 0.0 0.0 93.0 Table VI shows quite clearly the deleterious action of the warm, moist climate of the Gulf of Mexico on the life of seeds. The onion seed which was stored at Mobile and Baton Rouge did not germinate, 22 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OK SEEDS. while weed from the .same lot stored at Ann Arbor germinated !>?> per cent. The cabbagv seed was injured nearly as much as the onion, the sample from Mobile germinating- onl}- 8.5 per cent. The conditions at Baton Rouge were slightl}^ more favorable to the preservation of vitality. The cabbage seed stored at the latter place germinated 22.5 per cent, while a like sample of seed stored at Ann Arbor germinated 86.5 per cent. The lettuce was much more resistant than either the cabbage or the onion seed, but here, too, the injury was quite marked, especially as shown by the retardation in germination. The conditions at Mobile were also the most disastrous for the lettuce seed. During the first 30 hours that the tests were in the germinating chamber none of the lettuce seed from Mobile germinated, while the seed from the corresponding sample from Ann Arbor germinated 67 per cent. The finalpercentages of germination were CA and 96.5 per cent, respectively, for the seed from Mobile and Ann Arbor, showing a loss in vitality of 33.68 per cent in the seed stored at Mobile. Here it will be seen, as in Table V, that the onion seed was most sensitive and the lettuce seed most resistant to the unfavorable conditions. In the first tests shown in Table V the average loss in vitality of the lettuce, cabbage, and onion was 15. T7, 43.56, and 74.10 per cent, respectively, while for the last tests, as shown in the foregoing table, the losses in vitality of similar samples of seed kept at Mobile were 33.68, 91.29, and 100 per cent, respectively. The ratio is practically the same in both cases, the loss in the cabbage seed being 2.7 times greater than that of the lettuce. The foregoing data are sufficient to indicate that climatic influences play a very important part in the life of seeds, and that the degree of injury varies greatly in ditferent places and likewise in different seeds. Some seeds were practically worthless after an exposure of four or five months in such places as Mobile, Baton Rouge, or San Juan, as shown in Table I. After longer exposures, six or nine months, similar results were obtained from all of the places to which seeds were sent. Many of the seeds were killed, as shown in Table 11. The conditions at Mobile were fatal to all of the seeds; that is, the seeds were worthless so far as the gardener is concerned. CAUSES OF THE LOSSES IN VITALITY IN DIFFERENT CLIMATES. Havino- shown that seeds lose their vitalitv much sooner in some localities than in others, the question naturall}" arises, ''Why this loss in vitalit}^?" Unfortunatel}^ only two of the places where seeds were stored. Mobile and San Juan, have Weather Bureau stations which are equipped for making complete observations of the meteorological conditions. It has been observed, however, that there is a very close relationship between the precipitation and the loss in vitality in seeds; that is to say, in a measure the loss in vitality is directly proportional to the amount of rainfall. This deterioration is more apparent as the CAITSES OF LOSSES TN VITALITY. 23 tomporatui'e iiicroiises, hut the injury due to the increuse in tempera- ture is (U'lXMuleut on the amount of moisture present. The followin»>- tal)l(> has l)een compiled in order to show the ratio l)etween the loss in vitality and the precipitation and temperature. The loss in vitality, its j>-iven in the second column of Tahh? VII, rep- resents the averaoe losses in percentages, calculated from the results of the oermination tests of the 13 different samples of seeds, as shown inTal)leII.'' The third column shows the annual precipitation in inches. The annual precipitation lias l)een taken, ])ecause in some instances heavj'' rainfalls occurred just previous to the time that the seeds were put into storage. Then, too, the annual precipitation furnishes more accu- rate data for a basis of comparison. The mean temperatures, as given in column -i, are not the mean annual temperatures, but the averages covering the time during which the seeds were stored. The mean annual temperatures were not taken, chiefly for the reason that the critical period, in so far as temperature is concerned, is during the summer months. Table VII. — R((tio hetimen vitality, jwecipitation, and temperature. & Place where seeds were stored. Mobile, Ala Baton Rouge, La. Durham, N. H ... Auburn, Ala Lake City, Fla . . . Wagoner, Ind. T . Ann Arbor, Mich Average loss in vi- tality of thelSdif- I ferent sam- ples of I seeds. Annual precipita- tion. Mean Fahr. Prr cent. 71.98 41.39 39. .58 33. 91 29.38 28.41 2. .52 Inches. 91.18 66. 37 48.20 62.61 49.76 42.40 28.58 Temperature. Degrees. 71.4 72.2 52.3 64.4 73.3 07. 1 49.12 Maximum Fahr. Degrees. 96.0 98.0 98.0 98.0 103.0 107.0 98.0 a These seeds were sent out in February, 1900, and were returned to the botanical laboratory and te.stcd in October and November, 1900. The average time that the .seeds were kept at the various places was 252 days. '' The results of the San Juan tests have been omitted from this table because, as has been previously stated, all of the seeds were returned from San Jnan on June 20, 1900, when the first tests were made. The second scries of tests was made in Octolter, 1900. During the time intervening between the first and second tests the San Juan samples were kept in the botanical laboratory at the University of Michigan. According to the table the seeds kept at Mobile suffered the greatest loss in vitality. However, it is quite probable that the greatest loss would have been from the seeds stored at San Jnan had the time of storage been the same for the two places, so that the results of the San Juan tests could have been included in the table. This conclusion is based on tlie following facts: Normally, tlie number of rainy days at San Juan far exceeds those at Mobile. In 1900 there were 211 days on which rain fell in oan Juan, while the records for Mobile show only 146. Likewise the average temperature of the dew-point Tor San Juan was 71° F. and only .59° F. for Mobile, which, when expressed in terms of absolute moisture, gives 8.240 and 5. .555 grains of water per cubic foot at the time of saturation. On the other hand, the relative humidity of San Juan was 78. 5 per cent, or slightly lower than that of Mobile, the latter having a relative humidity of 80.5 per cent. However, the mean annual temperatures were 77.6° and 71.4° F., respectively, hence a mean absolute humidity of 7.099 grains of aqueous vapor for San Juan and only 0.718 grains per cubic foot for Mobile. 24 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. From the foregoing- table it will be seen that precipitation is a factor of much greater importance than temperature. In order to .show the real value which the amount of precipitation furnishes as a basis for judging- the length of time that seeds will retain their vitality when stored in localities having a marked difference in the amount of rain- fall, the results set forth in the above table are represented diagram- matically as follows: Effect of precipitation on vitality. Place. Percentage of loss in vitality. Inches of precipitation. Mobile 71.98 91. IS Baton Rouge 41.39 1)1;. 37 Durham , 39. 58 48. 20 Auburn k:;. 91 62.61 Lake City 2'.'. :-;^ 49.76 Wagoner •is. 41 42.40 Ann Arbor 2.52 28. -58 A discrepanc}^ is verj'" marked for Durham, N. H., which may be partially explained by considering again the conditions under which the seeds were stored. It will be remembered that these samples of seeds were stored in a hall which opened directh" into a chemical labora- tory. It is quite probable that the low percentages of germination were due to the injurious action of gases emanating from the labora- tory. Of these gases, ammonia probably pla^-ed a very important part, as it is well known that seeds are very readil}- injured when subjected to the action of ammonia. It is to l)e understood that the above comparisons are somewhat indefinite. If the amount of rainfall were equally distributed through- out the year a definite ratio could, in all probabilit3% be established; but in the majority of places there are alternating wet and dry seasons, which make such a comparison ver\^ difficult and unsatisfactory. Yet for ordinary considerations it is sufficient to say that seeds will retain their vitality much better in places having a small amount of rainfall. For more exact comparison other factors must be taken into account, especially the relative humidity-, mean temperature, and temperature of the dew-point, which ultimatel}' resolves itself into the absolute amount of moisture present in the atmosphere. EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE UPON VITALITY. From the foregoing experiments it is quite evident that moisture plays an important part in ]>ringing about the premature death of seeds and that the detrimental action of moisture is more marked as EFFECT OF MOISTTTRE AND TEMPERATURE. 25 tho t(>inpor!itiiiv iin-n'ascs. ForiiK'ily tlu> »;eiK'r:il comsimisus of ()[)iiiiuM liiis Ix'iMi to iiiiiko this stjiteiiiont in tho ivver.se order that i.s, that temperature exerts ti very harmful action on seeds if nuich moisture be present. For comparatively hijrh temperatures the latter statement would i)rohably suffice— at least it is not misleadino-, and in a certain measure it is true; hut at the lowest known temp(>ratures, as well as at ordinary temperatures, moisture is the controUin*;- factor, and in order to be consistent it should likewise l)e so considered for hioher temperatures — that is, within reasonable limits. That temperature is only of secondary importance is brouoht out in the results ol)tained by a number of investigators. It has Ijeen well established by Sachs," Haberlandt/' Just,'' Krasau,'' Isidore-Pierre,* Jodin,-^, Dixon, ^ and others that most seeds, if dry, are capable of germination after being subjected to relative!}' high temperatures for periods of short duration. The maximum for most seeds is a tempera- ture of loo" C. for one hour; but if the seeds contain comparatively large (luantities of moisture they are killed at nuich lower tempera- tures. It has been reported that lettuce seed will lose its vitality in two weeks in some of the tropical climates where moisture is abundant. Dixon has shown that if lettuce seed be dry it will not all be killed until the temperature has been raised to 11-1^ C. In case of low temperatures the factor of moisture is of less impor- tance, 3'et even under such conditions the moisture must not be exces- sive or the injur}" will be cpiite apparent. But if seeds are well dried it can safely be said that they will not be killed as a result of short exposures to the lowest temperatures which have thus far been produced. Our knowledge of the resistance of seeds to extremely low temperatures is based on the experiments of Edwards and Colin,'* Wartmann,' C. De Candolle and Pictet,' Dewar and McKendrick,^' Pictet,^ C. De Candolle,'" Brown and Escombe," Selby," and Thiselton- «Handbuch d. Exp. Phys. d. Pflanzen, Leipzig, 1865, p. 66. spflanzenbau I, 1875, pp. 109-117; Abs. in Bot. Jahresbr., 1875, p. 777. cBot. Zeit., .3.3, Jahrg. 1875, p. 52; Cohn's Beithlge zur Biol, der Pflanzen, 1877, 2: 311-348. ^ '/ Sitzungsbr. d. Wiener Akad. d. Wiss., 1873, 48: 195-208. I. Abth. 'Ann. Agron., 1876, 2: 177-181; Abs. in Bot. Jahresbr., 1876, II. Abth., 4: 880. /Compt. Rend., 1899, 129: 89.3-894. f/ Nature, 1901, 64: 256-257; notes from the Botanical School of Trinity College, DuV)lin, August, 1902, pp. 176-186. /'Ann. sci. nat. bot., ser. 2, 1834, 1: 257-270. i Arch. d. sci. phys. et nat., Geneve, 1860, 8: 277-279; ibid., ser. 3, 1881, 5: 340-344. JIbid., ser. 3, 1879, 2: 629-6.32;' ibid., ser. 8, 1884, 11: 325-327. ^Proc. Roy. Inst, 1892, 12: 699. ^Arch. d. sci. phys. etnat., Geneve, ser. 4, 1893, 30: 29.3-314. »abid., ser. 4, 1895, 33: 497-512. r'Troc. Roy. Soc, 1897-8, 62: 160-165. "Bui. Torr. Bot. Club., 1901, 28: 675-679. 26 THE VITALITY ATSTD GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Dyer." In the experiiiients of the last-named investigator seeds were subjected to the temperature of liquid hydrogen (—2.50-' to — 252^C.) for six hours, and when tested for vitality the germination was perfect and complete. * Much more might be said on the effect of high and low temperatures on vitality. But for the commercial handling of seeds the extremes of temperature are of secondary importance and need not be further discussed at this time. In the present work the purpose has been to show the effect of moisture on the vitalit}^ of seeds when subjected to such temperatures as are usually met with in the storing of seeds. SEEDS PACKED IN ICE. On February 6, 1900, samples of each of thirteen kinds of seed were put up in duplicate, both in manila coin envelopes and in small bottles. The bottles were closed with carefully selected cork stoppers. These two sets of duplicate samples were then divided into two lots. Each lot contained one of each of the packages and one of each of the bottles of seeds. The samples thus prepared were carefully packed with excelsior in wooden boxes, the boxes being then wrapped with heav}' manila paper. In one of the boxes was also placed a Sixes' self -registering thermometer, so that the minimum temperature could be ascertained. These boxes were stored in a large ice house near Ann Arbor, being securely packed in with the ice at the time the house was being filled. The first box was taken out with the ice on June 12, 1900, after a lapse of 126 days. The thermometer in this box registered a minimum of —3.6° C. It is safe to assmiie that this temperature was uniform, at least up to within a few days of the time when the seeds were taken out. Unfortunatel}^ absence from the university at this particular time delayed an examination of the seeds until June 20. During the eight intervening days the box of seeds was kept in the laboratory and there many of the seeds in the packages molded, so that they were unfit for germination tests. In fact, the results of the tests from the packages are of little value within themselves; but in comparison with the \'itality tests of the seeds kept in the bottles some important facts are brought out, and it has been deemed advisable to tabulate these results with those of the second series. The second box of seeds was packed approximately in the center of a large ice house (100 by 60 by 20 feet) and was taken out with the ice on July 21, 1900, after haying been 167 days in cold storage. The «Proc. Roy. Soc, 1899, 65: 361-368. b Bra ssica alba (oily), Pisum sativum (nitrogenous), Cucurhita^pepo (oily)', Tritlcum sativum (farinaceous), and Hordeum imlgare (farinaceous). EFFECT OF MOrSTURE AND TEMrERATURE. 27 l)()\ was hrouiiht diroctlv to tlic hiltoiatorv and tlu- scrds weiv exam iiu'il at once. Those contained in the paper paekai,a's liad a})sorhtHl a eonsideral)le (|uantity of moisture and were much softened. In all of the packages except those containing the onion and watermelon seeds some mold had developed; l)ut in the seeds used for the germination tests care was taken to avoid using those that showed any trace of a mycelium, thereby reducing the injury due to fungous growth to a minimum, even though subsetpient experiments have shown that such injury is practically negligil)le. An interesting i)oint concerning the germination of some of the seeds at this low temperature may be stated in this connection. Eight of the peas, or 4 per cent, had already germinated, the radicles vary- ing in length from 1 to 2.5 cm., thus corroborating Ulotirs results in germinating peas at or slightly below the temperature of melting ice.« T.\.BLE VIII. — The vitality of neeiU kept in ottle!<, ami like- wise the vitality/ of the controls. First test after 126 days. Second test, after 167 days. Germination. Differ- ence be- tween envel- ope and control sam- ples. Differ- encebe- tween envel- ope and bottled sam- ples. Germination. Differ- ence be- tween envel- ope and control sam- ples. Differ- ence be- tween envel- ope and bottled sam- ples. Kind of seed. Con- trol. Envel- ope, BotUe. Con- trol. Envel- ope. Bottle. Corn "A" Per ct. 96.0 90.0 95.0 93.5 88.6 79.5 92.0 100.0 52. 5 74.0 •r.r-, l.S. 0 80.0 Per ct. 36.0 60.0 92.5 89.0 5.0 73.0 90.0 Per ct. 94.0 %.o 96.5 94.0 81.5 80.0 88.0 100.0 65.5 a 16. 5 93.5 100.0 66.0 Perct. 60.0 30.0 2.5 4.5 Per ct. .58.0 36.0 4.0 .5.0 Perct. 92.0 92.0 95.0 92.0 80.5 73.5 94.7 100.0 52.0 54.0 96.5 100.0 81.5 Perct. 86.0 74.0 94.5 90.0 74.0 52.0 90.0 0.0 2.5 11.0 51.5 96.0 66.0 Per ct. 96.0 94.0 95. 0 94.0 89.0 75. 5 96.0 98.0 65.5 68.5 96.0 100.0 71.0 Per ct. 6.0 18.0 0.5 2.0 6.5 21.5 4.7 100.0 49.5 43.0 45.0 4.0 15.5 Per ct. 10.0 Corn "B" 20.0 Onion 0.5 Cabbage 4.0 Radish 15.0 23.6 Pea 6.0 98.0 Pan.sy 47.5 60.5 63.0 Phlox 57.5 Tomato 22.5 8.0 20.5 10.0 44.5 Watermelon 4.0 ' 5.0 Average 87.3 63.6 87.9 25. 0 27.7 84.9 62.1 87.6 24.3 27.0 'iln making up the averages the result of the germination of the phlox was omitted because a .sub- sequent examination showed that the bottle containing this sample of seed was broken at the bottom, thus admitting sufficient moisture to destroy vitality, as is borne out by the second test. The above table shows, as previously stated, that the results of the first tests are incomplete and not very satisfactory, owing to the fact that the germination tests were unavoidably delayed for eight days after the seeds were taken from the ice house; but with the second set « Flora, 1875, pp. 266-268. 28 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS, of sainples the coiint.s for the vitality tests were be^uu within an hour from the time the seeds were remo^'ed from the ice house. Thus, the conclusions for these experiments must be drawn chiefly from the sec- ond series of tests. However, comparisons will be made with the first where such seem justifiable. It will at once be seen that the seeds which were in paper packages gave a much lower percentage of germination than either the control samples or those kept in bottles. The average germination of the controls was Si. 9 per cent, and the average germination of the seeds kept in bottles was 87. B per cent, while onlj- 62.1 percent of the seeds kept in paper packages germinated. This is equivalent to a loss in vitalit}" of 24.3 and 27 per cent, respectiveh', as compared with the vitalit}^ of the control samples and the samples from the bottles. The results of the first tests are practicalh' the same, save that the difi;er- ences between the control and the bottle samples are less marked. In the second case the average vitality of the seeds kept in envelopes was much reduced b}' the complete failure to germinate in the case of the beans, which are most suscepti ble to the deleterious action of moisture at the given low temperature. One of the most important points brought out by these experiments is the result obtained with onion, cabbage, and watermelon seeds. In both the first and the second tests the germination varied but little throughout. However, in all cases the seeds in the paper packages were slightly injured by the action of the moisture. This factor is of much importance, especially in the case of the onion seed, which, when kept in a moist atmosphere at normal temperatures, soon loses its vitalit}^ but when maintained at temperatures slightly below freezing it l)ecomes ver^v resistant to the action of moisture. The beans, on the other hand, were all killed, although they are ordinarily much more hard}- than onion seed. It is quite probal)le, howcA^er, that the death of the beans may be attributed to the reduction in tem- perature. Containing as the}" do large quantities of starch, the}^ absorb more water than less starch}'- or more oily seeds. This factor, together with the large embryo, renders them much more susceptible to the injurious action of freezing temperatures. Another im]:)ortant feature brought out by these experiments was the better germination of the seeds which had been stored in bottles in the ice house. The average germination of these samples was 2.7 per cent higher than that of the control. In a measure this ma}' be included within the limits of variation; but when it is considered that all of the bottle samples except the beans, tomato, and lettuce showed a vitality equal to or greater than the control, it can hardly be considered as a normal variation, especially since only the lettuce gave any marked variation in favor of the control. Likewise, the average percentages EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND TEMr?:RATURE. 29 of the Hist siM-ios of tests show a slio-ht iiu'retiso in favor of the seeds kept iti the l)ottles. though the inerease is not so \v(>ll marked and is less uniform than in those of the second series. Aside from the final germination there is still another factor that must be taken into consideration as })earintr evidence of the advantage of keeping seeds at low temperatures, provided that they are kept dry. All of the samples that were stored in the ice house in bottles showed a marked accelenition in germination. It is t[uite evident that the res- piratory activities and accompanying chemical transformations were much reduced ])y the reduction in teni])erature, and the vital energy was thus conserved; but Avhen the conditions were favoral)lc for germination the greater amount of reserve energy in these seeds gave rise to a more vigorous activity within the cells and a corresponding acceleration in germination. Numerous other experiments showing the effect of moisture on ttie vitality of seeds were made. In contrast to those just given, the injurious action of moisture at higher temperatures, yet temperatures well within the limits of those ordinarily met with in the handling of seeds, will be next considered. EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON VITALITY AT IIIGHEK TEMl'EKATUUES. This set of experiments was undertaken particularly to furnish con- ditions somewhat similar to those existing in the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico, or. in fact, all places having a relatively high degree of humidity and a temperature ranging from SO^ to 37^ C. (86^ to 98.6^ F.) during the summer months. In order to secure the desired degrees of temperature two incubators were utilized, one being maintained at a temperature varying from 30^ to 32^ C, the other from 36^^ to 37^ C. The thermo-regulators were so adjusted as to admit of a possible variation of nearly two degrees in each case. Beans, cabbage, carrot, lettuce, and onion were used for these tests. In each of the incubators the seeds were subjected to four different methods of treatment: 1. In a moist atmosphere, in free communica- tion with the outside air. 2. In a moist atmosphere, but not in con- tact with fresh air, the seeds being in sealed bottles of 250 cc. capacity. 3. In a dry atmosphere, in free communication with the outside air. 4. Air-dried seeds in sealed bottles. In order to obtain the conditions requisite for the first method of treatment, an apparatus was used as shown in figure 1. The seeds were put up in small packages and then placed in a 250 cc. bottle. The bottle containing the packages of seeds was placed withi^i a specimen jar which was partially filled with water. This jar was then closed with a large cork stopper which carried two glass tubes, each of 1 cm. bore. These tubes extended 25 cm. above the top of the jar and out through 30 THE VITALITY AND GEKMINATION OF SEEDS. 9 the opening in the top of the incubator. The priniavv object of the tubes was to prevent an}' water vapor from escaping within the incu- bator and thereby doing damage to the seeds that were to be kept dry in the same incubator. For the same reason tlie corli in the jar was well coated with paraf- fin. Approximate!}' the same volume of water was maintained in the jar throughout the ex- periment, more water being added through tube rt, as occasion demanded, to replace the loss by evaporation. The chief advantage in having two tubes was the comj^arative ease with which the air within could be displaced b}' a fresh suppl}' by forcing a current of fresh air through one or the other of the tubes. Two such preparations were made, one being left in the oven maintained at a temperature varying from 30^ to 32^ C. , the other in the oven maintained at a tempera ture varying from 36° to 37^ C. In both cases the bottles contained five packages of each of the five samples of seed, thus making provisions for testing at different intervals. In order to suppl}' the conditions for the second method of treatment, similar packages from the same samples of seeds were put into 8-ounce bottles, which were then kept for five days in a moist chamber. The in- crease in weight due to the absorption of water within the five days was as follows: Beans, 3.03 per cent; cabbage, 8.09 per cent; carrot, 8.26 per cent: lettuce, 7.45 per cent, and onion 8.43 per cent. This increase, with the water already present in the air-dried seeds, gave a water con- tent of 13.23 per cent for the beans, 13.9i> per cent for the cabbage, 13.60 per cent for the carrot, 12.45 per cent for the lettuce, and 14.84 per cent for the onion. The bottles were then corked and sealed with paraflUn, but were so Fig. 1. — Apparatus used to de- termine the effect of moisture and temperature on the vitality of seeds in communication with free air. Fig. 2. — Apparatus u.sed to determine the effect of mois- ture and temperature on the vitality of seeds not in com- munication with free air. EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE. 81 ooustnictcd that tlu> ivhitivc huinidity of tlio iiit-loscd air toiild hv iiK-roasod without tlio admission of more freo air. The dotaiU'd con- struction of tliis apparatus is shown in W^. 2." The seeds continued to absorl) moisture to a limited extent. In order that the inclosed air niioht he maintained at approximately the same degree of saturation, a crude h ygroscope was attached on the inside of each bottle. These liygroscoi)es were made from awns of Sfqxi capUlatd L., the tip of the awns being removed and a short piece of fine copper wire used as an indicator. These lu'groscopes w'ere suspended from the under side of the cork, as shown at //, and by the sid(M)f each was suspended a tine fiber of silk, which, l)eing carried around by the indicator, recorded the number of turns made by the awn. Five such preparations were made for each of the two sets, so as to furnish seeds for a series of tests. One set was kept at a temperature of 30^ to 32'^ C, the other at 36^ to 37^ C. The seed from one of the bottles, at each of the temperatures, was weighed after eighty -one days, at the time the germination tests were made. These weighings showed that at the lower temperatures the average increase in weight for all the seeds was S.(5 per cent, and at the higher temperatures, (5.3 per cent. The increase in the case of the beans was (juite marked at this time, being 13.3 per cent for those maintained at a temperature ranging from 30^ to 32^ C, and 9.8 per cent for those maintained at 36- to 37- C. The third set of conditions consisted simph' of packages of the air- dried seeds kept in open boxes in each of the incubators. This series of tests was made especially for the purpose of determining the effect of dry heat on the vitality of seeds when maintained at the tempera- tures above p'iven for some consideraljle time. For the fourth series small packages of the seeds were put into 2-ounce bottles, which were then corked and sealed with paraffin. Five of these bottles were kept in each of the ovens and germination tests were made at irregular intervals. The results of these tests furnish a « The wide-mouth bottle (J>) contains the packages of seed (.s). Through an open- ing in the cork is inserted a short piece of soft glass tubing, being first fused at the lower end and having a slight constriction drawn at c. At a distance of 1 cm. above the constriction is blown a small opening, as shown at o. A short piece of heavy rubber tubing {t) , cemented on a piece of heavy brass wire («•), serves as a stopper. This stopper, which must tit closely within the glass tube, is operated by means of the heavy wire. "When drawn up, the water in the tul)e may give off aqueous vapor, which can escape through the small opening (o) into the bottle. When sufficient moisture is present the supply is shut off by pushing the stopper down firmly against the constriction. The stopper must be well coated with vas- eline to prevent its sticking to the sides of the glass tube. To make the apparatus more secure against the entrance of fresli air, a second piece of rubber tubing (r) is placed in the upper part of the glass tube, the top of which is then filled with oil. 32 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. ])asi,s for comparinjr the relative mci'it.s of keeping seeds in open vessels and in sealed bottles. Table IX will show the effect of the various methods of treatment on the vitality of the seeds. Table IX. — Vitality of seeds when subjected to the action of a drij and a moist atinosj)herc, both when exposed to free air and irJien confined in rjlass bottles, at relatively Jilyh, temperatures, c Vitality of seeds when liept in a dry atmos- phere. Kind of seed. Begin- ning of experi- ment. Bean Mar. 4 Do ' .do.... Do I... do.... Do do.... End of experi- ment and date of germina- tion tests. Cabbage Do .. Do .. Do .. Carrot. Do Do Do Lettuce . Do .. Do .. Do .. Onion . Do Do Do .do. -do. -do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. ..do. ..do. ..do. ..do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Apr. 4 May 12 May 24 July 22 Apr. 4 May 12 May 24 July 22 Apr. 4 May 12 May 24 July 22 Apr. 4 May 12 May 24 July 22 Apr. 4 May 12 May 24 July 22 Dura- tion of ex- peri- ment. Days. 31 m 81 140 31 69 81 140 31 69 81 140 31 69 81 140 31 69 81 140 Vitality of seeds when kept in a moist at- mosphere. In open bot-| In sealed ties, at tern-; bottles, at peratures I tempera- varying tures vary- from — ing from — 30° to 32° P.ct. 100.0 97.5 94.0 2.3 87.8 71.6 80.0 0.0 83.6 69. B 48.0 0.5 92.5 38.0 55.5 0.0 95.5 68.0 59.5 0.0 36° to 37°. 30° to , 32°. P.ct. P.ct. 100.0 78.0 0.0 76.0 0.0 0.0 90.6 73.0 0.0 30.0 1.0 0.0 77.5 54.5 0.0 22.5 2.5 0.5 90.6 78.0 0.0 44.5 1.0 1.5 89.0 64.6 0.0 2.5 0.0 0.0 36° to 37°. 30° to 36° to 30° to 36° to OOO O'TO OOO 0-70 P.ct. 44.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 72.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 29.5 0.5 0.0 0.0 58.0 2.0 0.0 0.0 45.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 In open boxes, at tempera- tures vary- ing from — 32°. P. ct. m. 0 100.0 98.0 100.0 86.5 67.5 89.0 84.0 84.5 82.0 44.6 81.0 91.0 42.0 6.5.0 82.0 96.5 97.0 95.5 90.0 37°. In scaled bottles, at tempera- tures vary Ger- mina- tion of con- trol ing from — sam- ples. 32°. P. ct. 84.0 90.0 90.0 94.0 84.0 87.9 92.0 83.0 88.0 85.0 50.0 81.2 86.6 38.6 68. 5 87.0 93.0 96.0 94.0 92.0 P.ct. 98.0 92.5 98.0 98.0 83.5 79.0 92.5 88.5 89.5 83.5 50.0 7.S.5 91.5 38.6 62. 5 81.5 96.0 97.5 99.0 97.5 87°. I P. ct. 98.0 95.0 100.0 96.0 86.9 78.5 92.0 86.7 89.0 82.5 48.0 83.1 90.0 hi. 5 67.0 88.0 97.6 93.0 95.0 94.7 P.ct. 94.0 98.7 98.0 99.4 91.0 83.0 92.6 93.1 92. 6 78.0 64. 5 83.1 90.0 31.6 53. 6 79.9 96.0 98.5 96.5 95.4 fiA study of the table will show that the lettuce and carrot seed germinated very poorly at the end of 69 and 81 days. This, liowever, was not due to any inherent ijuality of the seed, liui to an excess- ive temperature at the time the tests were made. Both of these seeds require a comparatively low temperature for their successful germination, lettuce germinating best at 20° C, and carrot at an alternating temperature of from 20° to 30° C. The amount of moisture absorbed or expelled under the different methods of treatment has an important l)earing- on the duration of vitality and will be considered briefly at this time. Only the general results will be disc ssed in this connection, inasmuch as later experi- ments, carried out in a similar manner, show the detailed results to much better advantage. Nevertheless, it requires only a glance at the above table to show the marked difference in the germinative power of seeds which have been stored in moist and in dry conditions. The seeds which were exposed in a moist atmosphere to the higher EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE. 83 tonipeiatuiTs (30° to 37" C.) were killed much earlier than those subjected to the moist atmosphere at the lower temperatures — 30"^ to 32° C. — in both the open and the closed bottles. A weighino- at the end of 31 days showed that the average increase in weight of the seeds kept in the open, moist chand)er, due to the absorption of moisture, was G per cent at a temperature of 30"^ to 32° C, and 5 per cent at a temperature of 30" to 37° C. For the seeds kept in the oven, maintained at the temperature of 30° to 32"^ C, another weighing was made at the end of 134 days, at which time the average increase in the water content had risen to 8.07 per cent. Unfortunately the seeds from the second oven, maintained at the higher temperature, had l)ecome badl}' molded in O'J days, so that only the one weighing was made. Vitalit}" tests made at this tmie, 00 days, showed that all of the seeds from the open, moist chamber, at the higher temperatures, had been previously killed as a result of the drastic treatment; coiise- cjuently no future germination tests were made. Those maintained at the lower temperatures were almost entirely free from mold at the expiration of the experiment, only an occasional seed showing any trace of fmigous growth. Nevertheless, germination tests showed that the vitality had been destroyed in the cabbage, lettuce, and onion. Beans and carrot were most resistant, the former having germinated 2.3 ])er cent and the latter 0.5 per cent. All of the seeds had become very nuich softened. The beans and the lettuce had changed very materially in color, the beans (Early Kidney Wax Six Weeks) having Ijecome much darker and the lettuce (Black-Seeded Simi)son) almost a lemon color. AVitli the seeds constituting the second series, i. e. , in a moist atnios- phei'ti hut hi scaled hottles^ the injury was much more severe. Here, as with the open chambers, the seeds subjected to the higher temperatures were killed tirst, even though the amount of moisture actually absorbed was less, as was also true with the other series. A weighing made at the end of 81 days gave an increase of 8.0 per .cent for those from the oven maintained at a temperature of 30° to 32" C , and 0.3 per cent at'the higher temperature. Likewise, in this series, the seeds had become very much softened and a very disagreeable odor had developed as a result of the putrefaction of their nitrogenous constituents. A close examination made at the end of 81 days revealed slight traces of fun- gous growth, but there is no reason to believe that these plaj^ed any part in the destruction of vitality. However, in making counts for germination tests all molded seeds were carefully discarded. The results of the germination tests showed that the vitality of the seeds kept at the lower temperatures had been practically destroyed at this time. The beans and onions failed to germinate, while the 25037— No. 58—04 3 34 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. cabbage, carrot, and lettuce germinated only 1, 2,5, and 1 per cent, respective!}". During the succeeding 00 days nuich mold had developed, and at the expiration of the experiment, 140 days, onh' the carrot and the lettuce gave any indications of vitality. It is especially interesting to note with what rapidity the deterioration took place between the sixty- ninth and the eighty-first da^^s, shoAving that when vitality reaches a certain point in its decline there follows a comparatively sudden death. This same fact is also shown in the case of those seeds in this same series kept at the higher temperature. After 31 days' treatment they all failed to germinate, except 0.5 per cent in carrot and 2 per cent in lettuce seeds. Jn the two series of experiments just considered there was an increase in water content as a result of the humidity of the air in which the seeds were kept. But the third series, <)j:)en and dry^ presents quite another factor. A weighing made at the end of 30 days showed that there had been an average loss of 2.5 per cent for the lower tempera- tures and 3.5 per cent for higher temperatures. After this time the weight remained nearly constant. Subsequent experiments, which will be considered later, also show that the water capable of being expelled at any given atmospheric temperature is driven ofl' in a com- parativel}^ short time. In case of seeds this condition is pi'actically comijleted in eight or ten days when maintained at temperatures as above given. This extra drying of the seed causes a greater contrac- tion of the seed coats, and in a number of cases a corresponding- retardation in the rapidity with which germination takes place. The retardation in the germinative activit}' is dependent on the increased difficulty with which the seeds absorb water, and in many cases has an important bearing on the vitality tests. ■ The fourth and last series, in which the air-dried seeds were sealed in bottles and subjected to the temperatures at which the two o\ens were maintained, gave still another very different set of conditions. Here there was also an increase in weight, due probably to some process of oxidation, but the increase was very slight. The average increase from those kept at either of the temperatures was less than one-half of one per cent. Seeds, if well matured and thoroughly air-dried, arc not injured when kept at temperatures below 37'-' C, whether they be kept in free communication with fresh air, or in sealed bottles, or tubes. In the experiments under discussion the average percentage of germination was slightly higher in the case of the seeds which had been stored in the sealed bottles. The mean percentage of germination for the seeds which had been exposed to the open air at a temperature of 30° to 32° C. was 83.05 per cent. Those from the sealed bottles kept at the same temperature germinated 84.82 per cent. At the higher temper- atures— 36° to 37° C. — the mean germination of the seeds from the open EFFECT OF MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE. 35 and the closed bottles was 82.08 and 85.02 percent, respectively. The control sample oerniinated 85.45 per cent. That 37^^ C. is a])Oiit the maximum temperature at which air-dried seeds can be stored without injury is shown l)y the followino- experiments. Preparations similar to those above mentioned were used, and after beino- subjected to a temperature of 87^ C. for 219 days, there was no appreciable loss in vitality, except the deterioration of 4 per cent in the case of the cabbage seed that was kept in an open bottle, and 6.3 per cent in the seed from a closed bottle." But by increasino- tlie tem- perature, during an additional period of 6S days, from 37^ C. to a maxinuun of 44'^ C, the injury was much more marked, especially in the closed bottles. In the open ])ottles the vitality of the cabbage was lowered from 91.3 per cent to 77 per cent, representing a loss in vital- ity of 15.()(3 per cent. The onion seed fell from 1)5.7 per cent to 87 per cent when kept in an open bottle, and to 01 per cent when kept in a closed bottle. The beans showed no apparent injury in either case, except that they became very dry; consecpiently there was a retarda- tion in germination as a result of the slow absorption of water. The greater loss in vitality of the seeds kept in the ])ottles was the direct result of the higher humidity of the air immediately surrounding the seed, and not because there was a deticiency in the supply of fresh air, as might be readily assumed. In the open receptacles the additional amount of free water expelled, as a result of the increase in tempera- ture, was allowed to escape, while in the sealed bottles it oidy gave rise to a relatively moist atmosphere, and consequently to a premature death of some of the seeds. If seeds are to be so confined, they should be previously dried at a temperature at which they are to be stored. All of these seeds had ])ecome very dry and brittle. The odor of the air confined within the sealed bottles had become very unpleasant; likewise there was a marked change in the color of the seed coats of the inclosed seeds. SUMMARY. Most seeds if kept dry are not injured by prolonged exposures to temperatures below 37° C. (98. 0'^ F.), it being immaterial whether they are in open or in sealed bottles. If the temperature be increased above 37^^ C, vitality is seriously reduced. If seeds are kept in a moist atmosphere, a temperature even as high as 30° C. (86° F.) works much injury in a comparatively short period. The degree of injury rapidly increases as the temperature rises. Provided the degree of saturation is the same, the deleterious efi'ect of moisture is fully as great in open as in closed bottles. «Only cabbage, onion, and beans were used for this experiment, the carrot and the lettuce seed being omitted. 36 THE VITALITY AND GERMLNATION OF SEEDS. THE EFFECT OF DEFINITE aUANTITIES OF MOISTURE ON THE VITALITY OF SEEDS WHEN THEY ARE KEPT WITHIN CERTAIN KNOWN LIMITS OF TEMPERATURE. The results of the experiments just discussed furnish a fair criterion by which to judge the vitality of seeds when influenced by tempera- ture and moisture. It was still necessary to determine the efl^^ect of definite quantities of moisture on the vitality of seeds when they are submitted to temperatures well within the limits of that which may be encountered in commercial transactions. On December 19, 1900, preparations were made to determine these factors. Seeds of cabbage, lettuce, onion, tomato, and peas were used for these experiments, which continued for 70 or 72 days. All of this seed was of the harvest of 18*J9 and had been in the laboratory during the eleven months immediately preceding the setting up of the experi- ments, being thus thoroughly air-dried. The amount of moisture present in the seeds at this time, as indicated by drying at 100"^ C, was as follows: Cabbage, 5.90 per cent; lettuce, 5 per cent; onion, 6.4:1 per cent; tomato, 1.71 per cent, and peas, 8.41 per cent. The preparations were made as follows: {a) Air-dried seeds were placed in bottles of 125 cc. capacity. The bottles were closed with cotton plugs in order to protect the seeds from dust while permitting a free circulation of air. This set served largelj^ as a check. {h) Air-dried seedb were carefully weighed and then put into 125 cc. bottles, closed with firm corks, and sealed with paraffin. (c, d, e, and /") These samples were also carefully weighed and sealed in bottles as J, but in the difl'erent series of bottles there was first introduced 0.5, 1, 2, and 3 cc. of water which had been previously absorbed l)y small strips of filter paper. {(/) The seeds constituting this series were first dried for 30 daj^s at a temperature of from 30^ to 32° C. and then put up in bottles which were sealed with paraflin. The loss in weight as a result of the dry- ing was as follows: Cabbage, 2.11 per cent; lettuce, 2.59 per cent; tomato, 2.71 per cent, and onion, 3.17 per cent, leaving a water con- tent of onl}^ 3.19 per cent, 2.11 per cent, 2 per cent, and 2.91 per cent, respectively. (Peas were not included in this series.) One of each of the above preparations was then subjected to difl'erent degrees of temperature as follows: (1) Outdoor conditions, protected from rain and snow, but freely subject to all changes in temperature and humidity. The temperature during the time of the experiment, December 19, 1900, to February 28, 1901, varied from a minimum of —21.6" C. to a maximum of 8.9" C. (2) In a fruit cellar having u comparatively low and uniform temperature ranging from 10" to 13"^ C. Eb'FECT OF DEFINITK QUANTITIES OF MOISTURE. 37 (3) In the "dark room" of tho botanical laboratory, which was quite dry and maintained at a tomporaturo of L>n to 22 C. (-t) In tlu^ horl)ariiim room on the fourth floor of tho botanical labo- ratory. I'hc air hero was very dry and the mean temperature about the same as for No. 3, but with a much wider variation, reaching at times a maximum of 30° and a minunuim of 10° C. (5) In an incubator luaintained at 30° to 32° C. (6) In an incubator maintained at 37° to 40° C. It will be observed that all of the preparations, except Nos. 1 and 4, were kept at temperatures which were quite uniform. The increase or decrease in the weight was determined at the expiration of 7»» or 72 days l)y again carefully weighing the seed, after which germination tests were made. The results of the germination tests and the gain or loss in weight are given in Table X. 38 THE VITALITY AND ap:RMINATION OP' SEEDS. si a, s 1 be •pnt^ OOOOi-HOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO be C'lCCCC'MOi^O-M'yD-fOO'MO-rC^'XJOO'^O'X-T^'.C'XOOOCC-riO •sjnoq 00 1^ P^i'"» ^Ml ^V OOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Oi OOOGCt^^O'^O'X'^OCOOO-t'OCC'rJTjiCOtO'^'t'OOOOOOC-l'lCO ■SOlUOq Ut pOSOIOUI 8J8AV spaasanHAvm^iOAV niasisaia ■ap JO asL'ajaiit jo -aAiUwajarl •OOOOOOi-liHr-lrHr-li-IC^eOCOCOCOCOOt^-O" : I I I I I I "OtCOOOiCiCiCiOi^ ^OOlOOOOOlCOOtCOlCO^ClO •IHUT^ OiOvddOO»OOOiOiO»COiC»OiCiOOOOOOiCOOO»OiO •sinot] oi JO piio aqj iy ■saiuoq ui pasopui ajaAv spaas a[U( AV iq^iaAV ut asBajo -ap JO asuajouijo aS-BUiao-i'iJ •i-HC-lO'Mi-H pHi-H^CTi^COOOrH-^fM iSjprr t^ CO T <0 • c5oooo5c-ii-'>-Hi--ir-;rHcococ<5c-^ : 12; Ml oi C>« 0) o a o n t~> a» a Ph o "Iisnid; GCOif^OOiOiCiCOOii^iCOiCOOi^'OOiCOOOOOiOOO T-- 1^ -1- :d cc t-^ ic X ic cri lO CO --£ t--* -jd oc oi co i-h :d -c' t^ -r CO o" r^ i-^ 'O ■sjnoq Or.l JO puo aqi ^y ■sinoq ii JO piia aqj 5V iCOOOiCidCiCvOUt'OOidOOOlOiO»it>OiOiCOiOO»000 i^OiCOiCOiCOiOOOiCiOOiCOiOiOOOiClCiOOOOOiO ■sa^ijoq ut pasoiaui ajaAV spaas ain{Av itj^SiaAv ut asBajDui JO aSujuaojaj O O O O O O CO Cl CO 71 Cl "1 uC iC rj- T CO CO t^ 1^ O Ol l-J <1) C bn o 0! 4-* , 03 ^ 0 a t-i q 0; ^ CD be "I'BnM OOOii^OiCiOiCiCOii^vCOOOOOiCOiOiCiCiCiOOtCOO c>i c^i -r c^i CO o c-i i-H CO -1^ o f-i r-H c-i 1-H CO CO* t^ ic -r CO cij oi to ic cc o o Oi0^as3^cr>c^c75criC5C5a5 3'-aiC-c^cr-aia:Gco^o>aixxicaiCia5 ■sjnoq 98 jo pua aqj i v l>iOiOiCiOOO"OOiOii30iOOOiCOiCOOOO>COOU50iO •sai}}oq ut pasoput ajBAv spaas anqAV iqSiaAV ni asBajoui jb aSBjuaojaj O X 'w --O CO r^ C~- -f --^ -t' -r O -I* CO >C as rj* CO -f C-l i-H pi-iCMrHi-ii-HCC-f-TO-rC^COOt^COC-lCOCOOll^ ^ O O O O O T-H r-^ rH T-H rH rH CO CO C^ Ci C-i Oi »C' iC -^ 00 »CiO lO O iC O O O O uO lO O O lO lO lO »C liT O iC lO O iC C3 O O lO c4 rH o^ oi -T CO 3^ aJ o rH o rH X o oi o -f -o c-i ic cc rH oi rH rH CO c-i o osoiX'XO'. c^xxos3sd3iX'a>asa5a5XXC5xa>OiXrHaicsoi 0; bo c5 03 be O Ph bo ■I«"!jI •sjnoq 9g jo pna aqj jy COOiOOOOOXiOOOOOOOOiOiOOOiOmOiOOOiOiO 30CO rHOu l^ >0 lO ^ ■saiuoq ut pasotoui ajaAV spaas ajiqAV jq^StoAV ut asBajotii JO aSvjtiaojar[ • o X rH o t^ ic r — i^ CO CI CO '-c -r Oi c-i rH '-0 lO X X OS ■OOrHrHrHO-riOCOO'^'MOl^Xi^OCOOOrH lO urj lo •OOOOOOrHrHrHrHrHrHCOC^C^C^Moi •aijioq qoBa ojtit ind jojuav jo junotuy lOiOiCiCiClOOOOOOOOOO - j:) S^^ S^.C OOOOCSOrHrHrHrHrHT-JoicitN •4H a> o t< _ a> • S O) > CO OJ ■^ d o oJ't; ^ CO -M O Ol O X CO CI O Ol O X CO C^ O Cl O X CO Ol O C>l O X CO c^ i-HOJCOCO-J^ rHClCOCO-f rHfMCOCO"^ rHOICOCO-f rHC^ I I I I I I I J I I I t I I I I I I I I I I I I I I ; zo '£ '■z> o iOOOOt^rHOOOOt^rnOOOOl-^rHOOOOt^rHOO IrHfMrHCOCOC^IrHtMrHCOCOC-IrHMrHCOCOnrHC^JrHCOCOClT-IC^ cn ■O oq'C C O o S3 o c3 rH • ^ _< rH • • • SH ^ 'S 2 WO ^■3 §-5 :H tH sh ji; rt H >,a< o t-^ 03- ^4 G"f'CyDl^: lO lO lO >^ >c lO lO lC lO ic lO ic lO lO ic ic ic ic ic ic i-c tc >c ic ir: i^ lO EFFECT OK DEFINITE QUANTITIES OF MOISTURE. 39 ooooooooo o "^ o '.o o ./: "/ -r o O to O O 3C X I-* 1-* ooooooooo I I I I I I I GOOOOO'XX'OO • ' • « ' • ' O CO Ol O X X tH I>- O (M C-l CO 1^ X CI C^I ■ • • I ' t '' i-H lO OS -M I^ 00 i-l 1- I- I^I^'-Oi-IoiOf-HOO r-i r-lrHi-l.-l • •t »C O O O O ift »C O iC O O iC »C 1(7 iC X* 1-^ ■>! c-i lO -r CO -r o oi oi :£> 1^ iC ic -^ Oil— Ciovcfid'o cTi^aicso^o^Oi »CiOOiC»OiCiOOOiCOiOO»OiCO rf »C l^ l-^ C^l rH ^ C^l Cl O O OI O tO iniCTjIo^OO'^OyiiCOOOOOOr-i I I lO O O O tC UO iC O O >C lO >C O tC o o ic o o '^^ -i^ ir^ i^ o o oi oi 'O I^ lO i->^ r^ 00 O^OiCCi-l cn-Oi^vSOiClOS OOOOiOOiOOOiCiCO>OiCOO ^ooocic^odoor-Ji-Hooococdcc ?0 QOGOC-J OO^QOOOOOX lOOOOOiCiCOOOOiCOOiOO cooocoo6-roooo6'riai'Caii-4»o 'Iti-HCiX'^'XOr^iC'M (1> — "^ O'-'O rHCOiOCOiOI^aiCC(MCi-ooaiCsx:75aioCooJ^oo OOOOOiCOOOiOiCOiCOifJiC f-4-i«o>o-^oodc>ocoaioioc^Cic>i OiCO OiOXl-* CiXOJOiOODOi lOOO'CiCOiCOOOOiCiCvCiOO rNooai-r-raiooaJx'i-J-i^oaTfTjI 1^ 1-* X lO »C C^ 1> X 00 1-* t^ X iccii— (ciocotoocox f^r^ciCJ c3x CJG i-t X O X t^ Oi CM '-T' ^ O O 00 C-i ci O OS -I CO 00 O5X00I> OOOSOiOiXOOi lOOOOiCOOOOiCiCirOOOtO "yi o o '^i c-i •>» 'O o o i-^ (Ti CO o o o oC' cOi-IC-100t>05r-l05COOX'M OJ OJO OOr^^OiOiOOiOiOXCOrHi— lO pj c3'-^ iCio*ri>t^',ot-^i-^(x>oooo^Co OOOOOOOOO c^(Nc4cocococococo t. 0(MOXCOkfinitp: quantities of moisture. 41 for in that way. On the other hand, it is quite prol>al>le that a jior- tion of tiu^ increase in weij;htwas due to the results of intramolecular transformations and to the coexistent respiratory activities of the seed. The means of makino- these determinations are far from aasj. Van Tieohem and (t. Bonnier have shown" that seeds kept in sealed tubes in atmospheric air increased in weight during two years, but the increase was very small. In their experiments the peas which were in sealed tubes increased ^Ij; of their original weight. A corresponding sample kept in the open air increased ,V o^ its original weight. Nos. ir)-l:() to 1545 in Table X show an increased w«Mght in seeds when sealed in bottles for TO days. These seeds were previously dried for 80 days at a temperature of 30'^ to 32° C. Disregarding the increase in weights as above given and the factors to which such increase mav be attributed, it is quite evident that in all cases where water was added the increase in weight was due chieily to the absorp- tion of the water. The absolute increase was approximately the same as the w'eight of the water added. The amount of water absorbed by different seeds varies greatly under identical conditions, depending largely upon the nature of the seed coats and the composition of the seed. The average increase in weight of the seeds used in these experiments was as follows: Onion, 6.27 per cent; pea, 5.51 per cent; ca))bage, 4.12 percent; lettuce, 3.99 per cent; tomato, 3.99 per cent. The loss in vitality of the corre- sponding samples was 28, 12, 23.7, 18.5, and 14.7 per cent, respec- tivel3^ The relationship here is quite close, the amount of water absorbed being roughly proportional to the loss in vitality. The peas, however, afford an exception to this general statement. But it must be remembered that peas require a nuich larger percentage of moisture to start germination and are likewise capaljle of undergoing much wider variations than the other seeds in question. However, before a definite ratio can be established between the absorption of water and the loss in vitality, many other factors must be taken into consideration, such as the composition, water content, and duration of vitality of the seed under natural conditions. Another interesting factor is shown in No. 1546 of Table X. These seeds were dried for 30 daj^s at a temperature of 30^ to 32'^ C, after which they were kept in an open l)ottle in the laborator}^ for 40 days. During the 30 days' drying the cal)bage lost 2.41 percent, lettuce 2.59 per cent, tomato 2.71 per cent, and the onion 3.47 per cent of moisture. These same seeds when exposed to the free air of the laboratory for 40 days never regained their original weight, the increase being as follows: Cabbage, 0.6 per cent; lettuce, 0.58 per cent; tomato, 1.56 per cent; onion, 0,89 per cent. The average quantity of water expelled was 2.79 «But. Soc. bot. France, 29: 25-29, 149-153, 1882. 42 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. per cent in 30 dax>^, while the average increase in weight during the -iO days was only 0.91 per cent. These results show that if seeds are once carefully and thoroughly dried, the}^ will remain so; that is, if kept in a comparatively dry room. This is an important factor in the preser- vation of vitality, as is borne out in the results of the germination tests. Later experiments were made with very similar results, and an analogous method of treatment promises to be of much value as a preliminary handling of seeds. It is not definitely known to what this stronger vitalit}^ is due, whether it be simply to the effect of the dr}-- ing or to some process of chemical transformation which makes the seeds more viable. These results are now under consideration and will be reported at some future time. The table also shows in a very striking degree the decrease in the number of srerminable seeds with an increase in the moisture and temperature. The amount of moisture absorbed bj- the seeds, with a limited amount present in the bottles, was inversel}^ proportional to the temperature. At the higher temperatures the inclosed air held a larger portion as water vapor; however, there was a greater deterioration in vitalit3\ Where the seeds were kept outdoors at the low temperatures (—21.6- to 8.9^ C.) of the winter months, no injury was apparent except where 3 cc. of water was added, and then onlj" the onion seed was affected. This sample of seed had absorbed a quantitv of water equal to 10.38 per cent of the original weight, which together with the original water content (6.41 per cent of the original sample) made 17.88 per cent of moisture in the seed. Practicalh^ the same results were obtained with the seeds kept in a fruit cellar at a temperature of 10° to 13 C. The samples of this series, in the open bottles, were also injured, as has been pointed out. With the samples that were ytored in the dark room and in the herbarium room, the injury was more marked as a result of the higher temperature; but even here the seeds in the bottles which contained 0.5 cc. of free water deteriorated ver}^ little. The injury was confined to the onion seed, which showed a slight retardation in germination, ^^'here 1 cc. , 2 cc. , and 3 cc. of water were added, vitalit}^ in some instances was likewise remarkably well preserved. The lettuce, tomato, and peas gave no indications of any deterioration save in the bottles containing 3 cc. of water. Here the lettuce and peas were permanently injured, while the tomato seeds suffered only sufficiently to cause a delay in the rapidity with which they germinated. The cabbage seed was retarded with 2 cc. and a lowering of the final percentage of germination with 3 cc. of water. The onion seed, being very sensitive to these unfavorable conditions, deteriorated very greatly, being practically worthless where 3 cc. of water were added. A brief stud}^ of the table will readily show that many seeds were killed at the still higher temperatures of 30^^ to 32° C. and 37'^ to 40^ C. The onion seed was slightly injured even where KFFEC^T OK DEFINITE QUANTITIES OF MOISTURE. 48 no water wiis iiddod. Howovor, a toniperature of •40'^ C. is sufticioiit to injure man}' seeds, even thouoh the lil)erated water be permitted to escape, as is shown in the tests of the onion, No. 1530 of the tal)le. The o-reatest ininrv when air-dried seeds arc sealed in ])ottU'sand tiien subjected to a hitrher temperature is duo to the increased humidity of the confined air, as a result of the water liberated from the seeds. At Hrst [jflancc some of the conditions given in the ai)ove table ma}' seem to be extreme and far beyond an}- normal conditions that would 1)0 encountered in the ordinary handling of seeds. This may seem to be especially true with the seeds kept in the ])ottles with 8 cc. of water where the additional amount of moisture absorbed gave rise, in some of the seeds, to a water content of approximately 20 per cent. Yet this need not be thought of as an exception, for such extreme cases are often encountered in the commercial iiandling of seeds. During the process of curing even more drastic treatment is not infrequently met with. Pieters and Brow^n" have shown that the common methods employed in the harvesting and curing of 1\hi pvd- tciuh L. were such that the interior of the ricks reached a tempera- ture of 130'^ to 140^ F. {iAA- to 60" C.) in less than sixteen hours, at which temperature the vitality of the seed is greatly damaged and fro([uently entirel}' destroyed. The interior of one rick reached a temperature of 148^ F. i^WA'^ C.) in twenty hours, and the vitality had decreased from 91 per cent to 3 per cent, as showni by the ger- mination of samples taken simultaneousl}' from the top and from the inside of the same rick. On the other hand, the extreme cases need not l)e considered. Take, for example, the onion seed that was sealed in a bottle with 1 cc, of water and maintained at a temperature of 37^ to 40"^ C. The increase in weight due to the water absorbed was 3.91 per cent, thus giving a moisture content of 11.2 per cent and a complete destruction of vitality. The cabbage seed, kept in the same bottle, had absorbed a quantit}^ of water equivalent to 2.35 per cent of its original weight, which, with the 5.90 per cent contained in the original sample, gave 8.25 per cent of water. This sample of seed germinated only 11 per cent, having thus no economic value. In neither of these samples was the amountof water present in the seeds greater than that ordi- narily found in commercial samples. Moreover, the temperature was much below that frequentl}^ met with in places where seeds are offered for sale and likewise well within the limits of the maximum temperature of our summer months, especially in the Southern States. Take, by way of comparison, the maximum temperatures of some of the places at which seeds were stored to determine the effect of climate on vitalit}^, as shown in another part of this paper. During « Bulletin 19, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1902. 44 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. the summer of 1900 the maximum temperature at Wagoner, Ind. T., was 107° F. (41.1° C), while that of Lake City, Fla., was 103° F. (39.5° C). If these points are kept in mind, it is not at all surpris- ing to find that seeds lose their vitalit}^ within a few weeks or m^onths in warm, moist climates. In order to make the above facts more clear the preceding table has been summarized and is presented in the following condensed form, showing the relation of the water content of the seed to vitality: Table XI. — Marked deterioration in mtal'dij vnth an increase in the qnantiiy of the water content of seeds. ■ How preparations were made. Control sample Closed bottles, sealed with parafBn. Do Do Do Do Do Amount of water introduced into the bottles. cc. Water expelled. None. 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 Average in- erea.se in weight as a result of the greater water content. Per cent. 0.06 .08 1.75 3.24 .5.91 8.13 Average moisture in seeds at the time germi- nation tests were made. Per rent. 6.07 «2.77 6.55 8.31 9.91 12.75 15. 10 Average germina- tion. Per cent. 93.3 «93.9 94.0 91.7 83.3 67.5 58.6 a Peas not included in this set. Numerous other results of a similar character might be cited, but it hardl}' seems necessary' at this time, since there can be no doul)t that moisture is the prime factor in causing the premature destruction of vitalit}^ in seeds in the usual conditions of storage. Why they lose their vitality as a result of the unfavoral)le conditions is quite a differ- ent question, and has to do with the ver}^ complex composition of the seed. A COMPARISON OF METHODS OF STORING AND SHIPPING SEEDS IN ORDER TO PROTECT THEM FROM MOISTURE AND CONSE- QUENTLY TO INSURE A BETTER PRESERVATION OF VITALITY. SUGGESTIONS OF EARLIER INVESTIGATORS. As early as 1832, Aug. Fjr. De Candolle'' wrote a chapter on the conservation of seeds, in which he said that if seeds })e protected from moisture, heat, and oxygen, which are necessary for germination, their vitalit}^ will be mucJh prolonged; moreover, that if seeds are buried sufficiently deep in the soil, so that they are protected at all times from the ver}' great influence of oxj'gen and moisture, their vitalit}' will be pres^erved for a much longer period. «Physiologie Vegetale, Paris, 1832, Tome II, p. 618. COMPARISON OF METHODS OF STORING AND SHIPPING. 45 Gij^lioli" j^oes so fur as to say: Tliere is no reason for denying the poHsihility of the retention of vitality in seeds pre^Tved (hiring many centurie?, such aw thoMnnuny wlieat and seeds from Pompeii and llerculaneum, provided that these seeds have l)een preserved from tlie l)egin- ning in eonditions unfavorable to chemical change. * * * The original dryness of the seeds and their preservation from moisture or moist air must be the very lirst conditions for a latent secular vitality. Some of the earliest suooe.stions for storino- seeds in ([uaiitity were made l)y Clement and Fazy-Pasteur, and were reported by Auo-. l*yr, De Candolle in his Thysiolooie Veo-etale. Clement suooested the use of laroe cast-iron receptacles, made impervious to aii" and water, the well-dried seeds to be poured in through an openinj^ at the top, after whicii the openint4- should be hermetically sealed and the seeds with- drawn throuoh :in iron pipe and stopcock at the bottom of the taid<. The scheme of Faz3'-rasteur w^as to store seeds in wooden boxes well covered with tar. This method was especially applicable to small ([uantities of seeds, and was used to a limited extent at that time, but, so far as has been ascertained, it has lono- .since been discarded. The keepino- of seeds in laro-c iron tanks, as su<^o-ested by Clement, has never l)een practiced to an}^ extent. It seems (pate possible, liowever, that the present "tank" o;rain elevator, now so universally used, mioht readily be modified in such a way as to make the method suo-gcsted by Clement quite practicable. THE NECESSITY FOR THOROUGHLY CURING AND DRYING SEEDS. In addition to bein<^ well matured and carefully harvested, seeds should be thoroughly cured and dried before being put into the stor- age bins. Much better results would be obtained if such seeds were artiticially dried for several days in a current of dry air at a tempera- ture not to exceed 35° C. With this method of dr3dng, from 2 to 4 per cent of the moisture usually present in air-dried seeds is expelled. The accompanying contraction of the seed coats makes them more impervious to the action of moisture, and consequently the seeds are better prepared for storing and shipping. Experiments made with cabbage, lettuce,- onion, and tomato seeds gave results as follows: The average loss in weight of the air-dried seeds, after an additional dry- ing of 30 days at a temperature of 30° to 32° C. was 2.79 per cent. Yet these same seeds, when kept for -40 days in the laboratory, reab- sorbed only an average of 0.91 per cent of moisture. Like quantities from the original sample gave only the slight variations ordinarily met with, due to the humidity of the atmosphere. Thus seeds, when once carefully and thoroughly dried, will not regain their original weight, provided they be kept in a dry room. "Nature, 1895, 52: 544-545. 46 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. CHARACTER OF THE SEED WAREHOUSE OR STORAGE ROOM. Another important factor in the .storing of seeds is the character of the seed wareliouse or storage room. The first point to be considered is dr3mess. Such houses should be kept as dry as possible, which can be accomplished either by means of artificial heat or by the use of strong drj'ing agents, or better still, by both. True, if the seed ware- house be located in a section having a dr}^ climate, this difficult}^ is at once largch' overcome. But in many cases such a location is imprac- ticable or even impossible, and other means must be resorted to. As a matter of fact, most large seed warehouses are not heated and a great loss in vitalit}" inevitably follows; but each seedsman must determine for himself whether or not this loss is sufficiently great to justify the expense of heating such a storage room. Experiments carried on during the progress of this work have shown some ver}'^ marked differences in favor of seeds stored in rooms artificially heated. The averages of the thirteen samples of seeds from the eight places at which they were stored show a difl'erence in the loss of vitality of 9.87 per cent. Those kept in rooms that were arti- ficially heated during a greater portion of the time deteriorated 25.91 per cent, while those stored in rooms not so heated deteriorated 35.78 per cent. The loss here given for seeds stored in dry rooms is greater than such conditions warrant, owing to the very unfavorable condi- tions at Mobile, Ala., and Baton Rouge, La. At Lake Cit}^, Fla., the relative percentages of deterioration were 29.42 and 16.27 for the unheated and heated rooms, respectivelv; at Auburn, Ala., 33.90 and 10.3-1 per cent, and at Durham, N. H., 39.58 and 3.57 per cent, respec- tively. Unfortunatel}" these experiments were not made with this definite point in view, and the results are not entirely satisfactory, as no records were made of the temperatures and humidities. THE VALUE OF GOOD SEED TO THE MARKET GARDENER. This work was undertaken chiefl}" for the purpose of finding some improved methods of shipping and storing seeds in small packages, wherein their vitalit}- might be better preserved. The rapid deterio- ration in vitality causes great losses to gardeners living in districts where the climatic conditions bring about the premature destruction of vitalit}" in seeds. In many cases the seeds are practicalh" worthless or altogether fail to germinate after a few weeks' exposure. The loss in such cases is not in the greater quantity of seed reqmred, but the retardation or complete failure of the germination often means dela}', making the difference between success and failure in the desired crop. Seed of low vitality is even worse than dead seed. With the latter the difficulty is soon discovered, while with the former, although the seed will germinate, the seedlings are not sufficiently vigorous to develop COMPAKISON OF MP:TH0DS OV STORING AND SHIPPING. 47 into stroll*^- jiiid healthv i)liints. True, most entcrpri.sino; j«aiclcners usually have, vitality tests made innnodiately preparatory to plaiitiii*,^ hut this is not ahvavs convenient, and thev relv on the results of tests made at some earlier date. In such cases it quite fre([uently happens that they accept the results of tests made several weeks earlier. With many seeds this will suffice, yet there are many others that will dete- riorate very materially within a few weeks or even within a few days in such unfavorable climates as exist, for example, near the (Julf of Mexico. In a letter dated January 15, 1908, Mr. J. Steckler, of New Orleans, La., wrote as follows concerning the vitality of seeds: Some seeds are not worth })eing planted after Ijeing here three months. This is e.sjK'cially true of cauliflower seed. We have made repeated tests and this seed after remaining here UO days was worthless and had to be thrown away. SHIPPING SEEDS IN CHARCOAL, MOSS, ETC. Bornemann" made some experiments with seeds of Virforld rcf/ia and Eiiryale ferox, in which he found that when packed in powdered charcoal they soon lost their vitality, but when packed in powdered chalk slightly better results were obtained. On the other hand, Dammer"^ reconunends powdered charcoal as a method of packing- for seeds that lose their vitality during- shipment, especially the seeds of palms and a number of the conifers. Charcoal is undoubtedly nuu'li better than moist earth or moss, which are frcquentl}" used, the latter ati'ordino- abundant opportunities for the development of molds and bacteria during transit. Some such method as moist charcoal is necessary in case of seeds which lose their vitality on becoming diy . Numerous other reports have been published from time to time concerning the shipping of seeds of acjuatic plants, as well as those of low vitality, but they need not be discussed further at this time. NATURE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. Aside from some popular accounts and miscellaneous suggestions, but little has been done toward finding improved methods of shipping and storing seeds of our common plants of the garden and field. Accordingl}', in February, 1900, a series of experiments was under- taken to determine some of these factors, in which three questions were considered: (1) How may small quantities of seeds be put up so as to retain a maximum germinative energy for the greatest length of time? (2) What immediate external conditions are best suited for the longevity of seeds? (3) What part do climatic conditions play in aflecting the life of seeds? aGartenflora, 35. Jahrg., 1886, pp. 532-534. ftZtschr. trop. Landw., Bd. I, 1897, No. 2. 48 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. In order to answer the first question, dii|)licate samples of the various kinds of seeds were put up in dou])le nianila coin envelopes, as described on page 14. Likewise, duplicate samples were put up in small bottles, the bottles being closed with good cork stoppers. Some of the bottles were filled with seed, while others were only parti}" full. In some cases there was a surplus air space five times as great as the volume of the inclosed seeds. This space, however, had no bearing on the vitality of the seeds as far as could be determined. In -order to determine what immediate external conditions play an important part in the destruction of vitality, samples of seed, j^repared as above described, were stored in different places." At each place the}' were subjected to three different conditions of storage, which, for convenience, have been designated as "trade conditions," "dr}' room," and " basement," as described on page 14. In addition to these three methods of storage, numerous other conditions were tried in and near the laborator}'; such as in incubators at increased temperatures and with var3"ing degrees of moisture, in cold storage, in greenhouses, and in various gases, in vacuo, in liquids, etc. The third question, " What part do climatic conditions play in affect- ing the life of seeds?" has been answered for the most part in a dis- cussion on the effect of climate on vitality", page 13. In fact, the seeds in the envelopes kept under trade conditions were the same in both cases, being used here simpl}- as a means for comparing the vitality of seeds when stored in paper packages and in bottles, as well as to show the relative merits of trade conditions, dry rooms, and basements as storage places for seeds. DISPOSITION OF THE SAMPLES.* A more definite description of the treatment given the seeds in the various places may be summed up as follows: Smi Jiian^ P. M. — The seeds were sent to San Juan on February 9, 1900, and were returned on June 20, 1900, after a lapse of 131 days.*^ At San Juan the seeds were stored under trade conditions only, and the various packages were not removed from the original box in w^hich they were sent. While in San Juan the box containing the seeds was kept in a room well exposed to climatic influences, being protected onl}^ from the direct rays of the sun and from rain. « San Juan, P. R. ; Lake City, Fla. ; Mobile, Ala. ; Auburn, Ala. ; Baton Rouge, La. ; Wagoner, Ind. T. ; Durham, N. H., and Ann Arbor, Mich. ^ The places of storage represented by trade conditions have already been described for each of the localities, but it seems advisable to rewrite the descriptions here so that they may be more readily compared with the dry room and basement conditions. cThe exact time that the seeds remained at San Juan was much less than 131 days, the time of transportation being included, as has been done for the other ])laces. COMPARISON OK METHODS OF STOUIN(} AND SHIPPING. 49 Lake C'ittj^ Flu. — The seeds were sent to Luke City on Fehruurv 9, IJMM). The Hrst complete set was returned on June IS, after 121> days. The second complete set was returned Octoher 1, after 23-1: days. The "trade conditions" at Lake City were supplied by keei)in<,' the seeds in a small, one-story frame building, the doors of which were open the o-reater part of the time. This liuildintf was not lu'ated, and the seeds were stored approximately 5 feet from the j^round. "Dry room" conditions were those of a storaj^e room on the fourth floor of the main l)uildin*i- of the Florida Ao-ricultural CoUej^e. The third set was kept in a small t>ullctin room in the basement of the same buildino-. Mohde, Ala. — The seeds were sent to Mobile on February 17, l'.>0(). One set was received in return on July 7, after 180 days. The other set was received on November 6, after 202 days. The "trade condi- tions" in this case consisted of a comparatively open attic in a one-story frame dwelling. The set in a "dry roonr"' was kept in a kitchen on a shelf 5 feet from the floor, and not more than G feet distant from the stove. Here they were subjected to the action of artificial heat through- out the entire period." The seeds under "basement" conditions were kept in a small cellar, which during the season of 1900 was very moist. Auburn, Ala. — The seeds were sent to Auburn on February 17, 1900. The flrst complete set was received in return on Mav 30, the second on Noveml)er 19 of the same year, or after 102 and 275 days, respectively. "Trade conditions " consisted of an office room connected with a greenhouse, with the doors frequently standing open; "dry room" conditions were obtained in the culture room of the biological lal)oratory on the third floor of the main building of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute, "basement" conditions being found in the base- ment of the same building, a comparatively cool situation, yet with a relativelv hie'h degree of humiditv. Baton Rouge., La. — The seeds were sent to Baton Rouge on February 17, 1900. On June 18 the first complete set was received in return. The second set remained until October 22, making the time of absence 121 days for the first and 2-17 for the second set. "Trade conditions" at Baton Rouge were furnished by keeping the seeds throughout the entire time of the experiment on shelves in a grocery store, the doors of which w^ere not closed except at night. These conditions were thus identical with those to which seeds are subjected when placed on sale in small stores. The "dry room" was a class room on the second floor in one of the college buildings. A storeroom in the basement of a private residence, having two sides walled with brick, furnished "basement" conditions. « Presumably these were in a dry place, but further evidence showed that the pre- sumption was erroneous. The vapors arising while cooking was being done on the stove gave rise to conditions very detrimental to a prolonged life of the seeds. 25037— No. 58—04 4 50 THE VITALITY AND GEKMINATION OF SEEDS. WcKjotier, hid. T. — The seeds were sent to Wagoner on February 17, 1900. The first seiies was received in return on June 23, after 126 days; the second set was returned after 238 days, on October 18, 1000. The sets for ' ' trade conditions " were kept in a drug store, on a counter near an open door. The "dry room " was a sleeping room on the first floor of the same building, while "basement" conditions were supplied by keeping the seeds in a large depository vault in a bank. Durham, iV! II. — The two sets of seeds were sent to Durham on February 17, 1900, and were returned on July 11 and October 20, after 117 and 231 days, respectivel}^ The seeds under "trade conditions" were kept over a door at the entrance of one of the college buildings. The door opened into a hall, which led into ofiice rooms, the chemical laboratory, and the basement. An office room on the first floor of the same building supplied "dry room" conditions. The seeds were located well toward the top of the room, which was heated with steam and remained quite dry at all times. The "basement" conditions were found in a storage room in one corner of the basement of the same building. Ann Arhoi^ Mich. — The set of samples placed under "trade condi- tions" was kept in the botanical laboratory, being moved about from time to time in order to supply the necessary variations to an herbarium room, to an open window, and to an attic. From February 18, 1900, until May 12, 1900, the set of seeds under " dry room" conditions was stored in a furnace room. The seeds were only a few feet from the furnace and were always quite dry and warm: The maxinmm tem- perature recorded was 43'^ C, with a mean of 38^ during cold weather, and of 30° C. during milder weather. On May 12 this set of seeds was transferred to the herbarium room on the fourth floor of the botanical laboratory, where they remained until vitality tests were made. " Basement" conditions were found in a fruit cellar, having two outside walls and a temperature fluctuating between 10° and 13° C. These packages and bottles were all securely packed in new cedar boxes from which they were not removed until after their return to the laboratory. RESULTS OF THE GERMINATION TESTS. After receipt of the seeds, germination tests were made as rapidly as possible, the results of which are given in the tabulations which follow. Likewise, in each case is shown the vitality of the control sample. Furthermore, a summary of each table is given, showing the average percentages of germination of the seed from the various places for the first and second tests, respectively. From these results the average percentage of loss in \itality has l)een calculated, reckoning the germination of the control sanqjle as a standard. It is thus a very simple matter to compare the relative merits of the diflerent methods of storing and the role they play in proinoting the longevity of seeds. OOMPARISON OF METHODS OF STORING AND SHIITINO. 51 T.\iu,K \ll. — I 'crcentivjc of (jenniuation of hcans mbjedcd tu mriuun cuiidiliuns uj' sloratje in dijl'erait lucalities. [{Jerminatiou of control siimple: First test, 98.7 per cent; second test, 98.7 per cent.] Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Place of storage. Trade con- ditions. Dry rooms. Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake City, Fla Do First. . . . Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... 129 231 102 275 110 2(>2 121 217 131 98 84 98 50 58 0 90 00 lOO 90 91! 82 100 78 98 100 98 98 97.5 98 90 90 100 96 100 98 90 100 100 90 84 100 98 90 100 94 82 0 92 28 98 98 100 98 100 98 100 100 86 0 97. 9 00 0 0 98 UK) 97.5 Do 100 Mohili' Ala 100 Do 98 T^iltltll RoilETP \j&. 98 Do 98 ^^l\ First.... Second . First.... Second . First 120 238 147 251 98 100 98 98 100 100 100 98 96 84 91.5 •100 84 100 92 98 92 98 Do 98 Durham, N. H 100 Uo 98 Ann A rV>fir ATicli 92 Do Second . jFirst.... [Second . JFirst.... [Second . 100 Average percentage of ger- mination. 128 2.51 93 09.50 96.44 97 95. 43 09.33 97. 14 97. 30 06. 99 55.06 97.04 98.80 Average percentage of gain or loss in vitality. 128 251 5.78 29.59 2.29 1.72 3.31 29. 76 1.58 1.30 32. 13 43.61 1.06 +0.10 The beans at Mobile were seriously atfected under all conditions except when put up in bottles and thus protected from the moist atniosi^here. Those kept in bottles under ''trade conditions" deteri- orated to 90 per cent, but the result of the first test of the same series indicates that some moisture passed through the cork and that the seeds were injured in that way. At Baton Rouge the beans retained their vitality somewhat better; but even here all those from the envelopes were practically worthless after 247 days, for beans that germinate only 60 per cent are of no value for planting. The "trade conditions" at Auburn, Ala., and Durham, N. H., were also very unfavorable to the prolonged vitality of the beans. At Wagoner, Ind. T., San Juan, P. R., and Lake City, Fla., there was a marked deterioration, yet not sufficiently great during the time ^iven to render them worthless for planting. However, it is quite evident that beans subjected to such conditions of storage would not be fit for planting the second season, A summary of the table shows that the vitality of the beans when kept in bottles and subjected to either of the three conditions was not interfered with. The averages .show a variation of less than 2 per cent. With those kept in paper packages the results were quite dif- ferent, the advantage being slightly in favor of the "trade condi- tions." The loss in vitality was 29.59, 29.76, and 43.61 per cent, respectively, for "trade conditions," "dry rooms," and "basements," 52 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Table XIII. — Percentcuje of (jcniunalion of peas subjected to various conditions of storage in different localities. [Germiuation of control sample: First test, 95.3 per cent; second test, 95. 7 per cent.] Place of storage. Lake Citv.Fla Do ." Auburn, Ala Do Mobile, Ala Do Baton Rouge, La Do San Juan, P. R -Do Wagoner, Ind. T Do Durham, N. H Do Ann Arbor, Mich Do Average percentage of ger- mination. Average percentage of gain or loss iu vitality. Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. First... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second (First... [Second [First... isecond 129 234 102 275 140 262 121 247 131 126 238 147 251 128 251 128 251 Percentage of germination. Trade condi- tions. Envel- opes. 96 86 93.3 97.9 69.2 44 94 80 94 98 98 80 98 94 90 98 91.56 84.74 3.92 11. 45 Bottles. 97.9 98 94 94 92 100 92 88 100 98 90 92 94 98 94 94 94.24 95.25 1.12 0.47 Dry rooms. Envel- opes. 94 92 87.8 90 88 42 94 70 96 100 94.7 94 94 93.4 80. 45 1.99 15.94 Bottles. 94 92 97.8 % 96 % 90 98 92 96 98 96 72 92 91.41 95. 14 4.08 0.58 Basements. Envel- opes. 96 6 93.9 86 10.2 90 0 90 88 94 98 96 86 81.44 60.66 14.55 36.62 Bottles. 98 98 94 98 98 98 98 88 92 98 90 94 100 95.43 96.28 -t-0.14 -1-0.60 The peas retained their vitality much better than the beans. How- ever, the greatest loss in both peas and beans was in the envelopes at Mobile and Baton Rouge. Some of the samples from the envelopes germinated fully as well or even better than the control, but the gen- eral averages of the second tests for all of the localities show a loss of 11.45 per cent in ''trade conditions," 15.91 per cent in "diy rooms," and 3B.63 per cent in "basements." The beans under identical condi- tions lost 29.59, 29.76, and 13.61 per cent, respectivel3^ The seeds kept in bottles deviated but very little from the standard of the control. COMPAJIISON OF METHODS OF STORING AND SHIPPING. 53 Table XIV. — Percentnge of ffrrmrnniion of rahhage aiihjfrfrd to various^ rnndilions of Htornge in different localitkx. [Germination of control sample: First test, 92.7 per cent; second test, 92.4 per cent.] Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percci itage of germination. Place of storage. Trade condi- tions. Dr>' rooms. Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake Citv. Fla First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . Fir.«t Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... 129 ZU 102 275 140 262 121 247 131 126 238 147 251 89.5 (13. 5 91 61.5 64.5 17 88.5 25.5 82 76.2 83.5 70. 5 93 12 96 91 92.5 89.5 90.5 90 93.5 87.5 93 90.5 9.5.5 89 93 91.5 97.5 92.5 92 94 89.6 81.5 89.5 90 58.5 94 89.5 81 89 % 86.5 14.5 92 60 58.5 79.5 0.5 90.5 Do 94.5 Auburn, Ala 91 Do 85.5 Mobile Ala 92.5 Do 5 95 1 94 Baton Rouee. La 90.5 11.5 91 86 94 Do 90.5 Snn Tiinn 1> R Do WiifiTonor Tud. T 94 89 93 94 KS 95. 5 92. 5 90 95.5 90. 5 82 88.5 76. 5 95. 5 92. 5 89. 5 76 97.5 Do 89 Durham N. H 94.5 i~i/» 96. 5 First 94. 5 Do Second . jFirst.... [Second . (First (Second . 95. 5 Average percentage of ger- mination. 128 251 80 52. 15 93.47 90.5(1 86.43 61.5 92 89.93 84.29 53.33 93. 5 92. 21 Average percentage of gain or loss in vitality. 128 251 7.23 43.56 -1-0.83 1.94 6.77 33.44 0.86 2.67 9.07 42.29 -hO.86 0.22 Table XIV shows that the cablmge, like the peas, was injured to a less degree at Mobile and Baton Kouge than the beans, but even the cabbage seed kept in the paper packages in these cities were all but killed. The average degree of injury, however, was greater in the cabbage than in the beans. In a majority of cases there was more or less deterioration in the case of this seed kept in the envelopes. Aside from those already mentioned, the trade conditions at Durham, N. H., and the basement at Lake City, Fla., should be expressl}" noted. The seeds kept in the bottles deviated but little from the control, while those kept in paper packages germinated only 52.15, 61.50, and 53.33 per cent for the trade conditions, dry room, and basement — ■ equivalent to a loss in vitality of 43.56, 33.14, and 42.29 per cent, respectively. 54 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Table XV. — Pfrrmfaf/r nf fjermmaiion of radish siibjccird io rariottK conditions of siorage in different localities. [Germination of control sample: First test, 83.6 per cent; second test, 78.8 per cent.] Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Place of storage. Trade condi- tions. Dry rooms. Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake City Fla Fir.st.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First 129 234 102 275 140 2G2 121 247 131 126 238 147 251 79 58.5 75. 5 63 58. 5 51 77. 5 55.5 64 62 77. 5 60. 5 80.6 59.5 82.5 77.5 78.5 64 85 72.5 81 71.5 85.5 69.5 81.5 73.5 80.5 75. 5 75.5 81.5 85 80.5 84.5' 67.5 85. 5 66 56. 5 49 73.5 49.5 75 71.5 80.5 73. 5 81 70 78. 5 74.5 66 48.5 86.5 60.5 75 61.5 51. 5 83 Do 67 Auburn, Ala 85. 5 Do 76. 5 Mobile, Ala 76 Do 72 78 5 Do 75 San Juan PR Do Wagoner, Ind. T 79 76.5 74. 5 82. 5 79.5 84 77 85 85 79.5 57. 5 80.5 63 81 68 78 (;2. 5 86. 5 Do 70.5 Durham, N. H 74 Do 79 Ann Arbor, Mich 82.9 Do 78 5 First [Second . fFirst.... [Second . Average percentage of ger- mination. 128 251 74.39 60. 94 81. 56 73.56 76. 86 64. 33 80.5 72.71 75. 5 59 80. 91 74. 07 Average percentage of lo.ss in vitality. 128 251 11.02 22.67 2.44 6.65 8.07 18.37 3.71 7.73 9.67 25.13 3. 22 6 The results of the tests of the radish seed are ver}^ similar to those of the ('ahl)ag-e; the latter, however, showed a greater loss in vitality. As shown by the second tests, the average percentages of deterioration of the cal^bage seed which was kept in the envelopes were as follows: Trade conditions, 43.56 per cent; dr}'- room, 33.44 per cent; basement, 42.29 per cent, while the loss in vitality of the radish was only 22.67, 18.37, and 25.13 per cent, respectively. (H)MPAllTSON OF METHODS OF STORING AND SHIPriNG. 55 Taim.k .\' \' I . — I'ercmtage of gcrmhidtio)) of rum it nithjrrlnl to rnrloiis i-(>ii.i of stonifff in diffirt'ut lonililirK. [Germination of control sample: First test, S3.3 per cent; second test, 82 per cent.] Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Place of storage. Trade condi- tions. Dry rooms. Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake City, Fla First....* Second . First Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First 129 •234 102 •275 140 262 121 247 131 76.5 43.5 84.5 36 59 8.5 74.3 •25 71.5 48.5 81.5 49 78 2 76 86 83 80.5 82 76.5 87.5 86 82.3 7'2.6 82.5 86.5 82 81.5 8'2.5 85.5 79 78 78 67.5 83 72.5 51.5 .5 75.1 16.5 78.5 78.5 86 76.5 83.5 69 86.8 52.5 73 3 86.5 47.5 •20.6 57.3 0 77.5 Do 81.5 Auburn Ala. K(;.5 Do 8-2.5 Mol)i le, .Ma 87 Do 78 Ti'it^iti lioilt?** TjI 8-2.3 Do 39 San .Iiian, I'. R Do :;::::::::::::;::;:;:::: V20 •238 147 •251 77.5 84 87.5 83 78.5 81 SI 85. 5 85. 5 75. 5 80 77.5 45.5 83. 5 72 78 58.5 87. 5 Do Durham, N. H Do Ann Arlinr Aficli 84 82.6 87.5 83.5 Do Second . jFirst.... Second . (First.... [Second . 71 Average percentage of ger- mination. 128 251 75.16 37.31 82.6 80.87 76.01 53.83 8^2.4 74.71 68. 01 37. 75 83. 83 76.21 Average percentage of gain or loss in vitality. 128 •251 9.72 54.5 0.84 1.38 8.75 34.35 1.08 8.89 18. 32 53.96 +0.63 9.5 Ta])le XVI shows results very similar to those of Table XV, except that the carrot was affected slightly more than the cabbage. There was also a greater falling off in the case of the seeds kept in the bottles in dry rooms and basements. The reason for this is not very clear. Apparently it was due to some local conditions, inasmuch as it was confined chiefly to the bottles kept at Mobile and Baton Rouge. The average results of the germination tests of the seeds kept in packages are quite low for the carrots. Seed from trade conditions germinated .37.31 per cent, from basements 37.67 per cent, and from diy rooms .53.83 per cent, with a loss in vitalit}^ of 54.5, .54.06, and 34.36 per cent, respectively. Under similar conditions the cabbage lost in vital- ity 43.66, 42.28,- and 33.45 per cent, respectively. 56 THE VITALITY AND OERMINATlOlsr OF SEEDS. Table XVII. — Percentruie of grrminafion of " A" aveet corn subjected to various condi- tions of storage in different localities. [Germination of control sample: First test, 92.7 per cent; second test, 92.4 per cent.] Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Place of storage. Trade condi- tions. Drj' rooms. Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake Citv Fla First.... Second . First.... Second . First. . . . Second . First Second . Fir.st..-.. Second . 129 234 102 275 140 262 121 247 131 94 92 96 88 80 20 96 88 % 92 96 90 100 96 100 98 96 100 98 98 100 96 94 96 94 94 98 96 92 96 86 98 94 96 94 94 SO 26 96 88 92 90 98 90 96 100 88 96 88 54.5 100 80 94.1 86 14 98 Do 100 Auburn Ala 92 Do Mobile, Ala 100 96 Do 96 Baton Rouge, La 100 Do 100 San Juan, P. R Do Wagoner, Ind. T First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... 126 238 147 2.51 94 95.9 96 94 100 96 " 96 90 96 89 96 96 92 100 100 100 92 96 Do 94 Durham N. H 96 Do 98 Ann ArVjor, Mich 96 Do ... Second . 98 f First.... [Second . f First.... (Second . Average percentage of ger- mination. 128 251 94. 75 83 94.75 96. 75 92. 56 83.33 94.14 94.86 94.87 72.08 96.29 98 Average percentage of gain 128 251 -t-2.21 10.11 -f 2. 21 -f4.71 0.15 9.81 -1-0.01 -^2.66 -f2.34 22 -f3.87 +6.06 Table XVIII. — Percentage of germination of " B" siveet corn stihjected to various condi- tions of storage in different localities. [Germination of control sample: First test, 89.3 per cent; second test, 88.5 per cent.] Place of .storage. Lake Citv, Fla Do Auburn, Ala Do Mobile, Ala , Do Baton Rouge, La Do San Juan, P. R Do Wagoner, Ind. T Do Durham, N. H Do Ann Arbor, Mich Do Average percentage of ger- mination. Average percentage of loss in vitality. Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. First... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second Fir.st... Second First... Second First... Second First.... Second . I First... [Second 129 234 102 275 140 262 121 247 131 126 238 147 251 128 251 128 251 Percentage of germination. Trade condi- tions. Envel- opes. 86 77.1 88 62 48 12 80 54.2 72 78 70 78 89.3 82 92 80 78.16 65.41 12. 47 26. 09 Bottles. 60 2 92 56 81.2 52 82 36 72 71.7 82 76 69.5 91.8 88 92 78.31 59.70 12. 31 32.55 Dry rooms. Envel- opes. 90 64 86 82 60 16 84 66 90 84.2 84 88 86 83.17 66.33 6.87 25. 06 Bottles. 38 0 86 38 87. 64 94 46 88 88 83.6 88 48 22 75. 01 48 16 45.76 Basements. Envel- opes. 76 30 86 82 04 4.5 Bottles. 84 88 80 76 88 82 79 60.41 11. &4 31 . 74 46 0 84 89.6 86 76 88 61.2 84 76 SO 88 96 80. 55 68.40 9.80 22. 71 COMPARISON OK >IKTIIODS OF STOKING AND SHIPPING. 57 Tahics XVII and XVII I have l)Oon considerod tofrotlior, sinco both havo to do witli tho sanio variet}' of sweet corn. The diti'erence in the (luality of these two saniples was quite marked when the seed was received. Germination tests were made January 30, 1900, and showed J)4 per cent for the "A" and 88 per cent for the "B" corn. In November, 190(1, samples of seed from the same orioinal ]:»ackaj?es were tested, giving a germination of 92.4 per cent and 8S.5 per cent for the " A " and '' B" samples, respectively, as shown in the controls of the alwve tables. Thus, when two grades of corn arc subjected to favorahle conditions of storage, both are well preserved; but when subjected to unfavorable conditions, the one of poorer quality is much more susceptible to injury. The "A" sample whi<'h was stored in envelopes in trade conditions lost 10.11 per cent, as compared with 2t).9 per cent for the "B" sample. The "A" sample which was stored in dry rooms lost only 9.81 per cent, while the "B" sample lost 25.00 pel- cent. In basements, the " A " sample lost 23 per cent and the " B" sample 31.74 per cent. In both samples the corn \n the packages stored in the basement at M<)])ile was so badly molded at the time the second tests were mad<^ that they have been omitted fi'om the ta])le. The most interesting feature in comparing the results of these two samples is found in the .seed which was stored in the bottles. The average results of the "A" samples show a much higher percentage of germination for those from the bottles than the control, Avliile the averages for the ''B" sample were much lower than the correspond- ing controls. The average germination of the "•B" sample from the bottles was 59.7 per cent for the trade conditions, 4S per cent for dry rooms, and 68.4 per cent for basements, or a loss in vitality of 32.55, 45. 7«), and 22.71 per cent, respectively. This difference was due to two causes, first, a difference in the quality of the seed at the begin- ning of the experiment,- and, secondly, the larger amount of water in the second sample, "B." The greater quantity of water present in the seed gave rise to a more humid atmosphere after the seeds were put into the bottles, especially when subjected to higher temperatures than those in which the seeds had been previously stored. This is an important factor always to be borne in mind when seeds are put up in closed receptacles; the}' must be well dried if vitality is to l)e preserved. 58 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF REEDS. Table XIX. ^ — Percentage of r/ennination of leUiire Rubjerted to r(iri(,n!i conrlHions of storage in different localities. [Germination of control sample: First test, 81.6 per cent; second test, 92.3 per cent.] Place of storage. Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Trade conditions. Envel- opes. Bottles, Dry rooms. Envel- opes. Bottles, Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake City, Pla . Do .." Auburn, Ala . Do Mobile, Ala . . Do Baton-Rouge, La. Do San .Tuan, P. R. Do Wagoner, Ind. T . Do Durham, N. H . Do Ann Arbor, Mich Do Average percentage of ger- mination. Average percentage of loss in vitality. Pir,st... Second Fir.st... Second First... Second Fir-st... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second First... Second [First... [Second JFirst. . . Isecond 129 234 102 275 140 262 121 247 131 126 238 147 2.51 128 251 128 251 87 85 86.5 86 63 20 82.5 84.5 79 83.5 78 82 82.5 88.5 82 92. 5 84 92 85.5 90.5 78 88.5 81.5 93.5 87.5 89 76 92.5 80. 25 93 68. 5 90 81 92.5 88. 5 90.5 58 31 79 74.5 76. 5 90 84. 5 91 87. 5 90.5 78. 5 87.5 68 43.5 84.5 83.5 1.5 70.5 .5 80 S3. 25 92 84.5 89.5 82 94 77.5 93 81. 5 90. 5 81 87.5 80 90.5 78. 5 88 80.06 77.75 80.15 91.12 79. 18 78.33 81. 14 90.93 66. 28 65. 58 1.89 15. 76 1.77 1.29 2.97 15. 14 .56 1.49 18. 78 28. 95 77 95.5 88.5 90 83 91.5 70 92.5 76.5 89 75.2 90.5 72 91.5 78.31 90.78 4. 03 1. 65 The lettuce has shown no veiy marked deviation from the controls, save the seeds from the packages kept at Mo))ile, and those which were stored in })asements in envelopes at Baton Rouge and Lake City. The average results of the second series of tests show a similar losss in vitality of all of the seeds from the envelopes. The samples of seed from the bottles germinated practicall}" as well as the controls. The results of the first series of tests are not entirely satisfactory, none of the tests having gone to standard. The low germination of the lettuce in this series was due to inability to properly control the temperature in the germinating pans. The proper temperature for the successful germination of lettuce seed is 20° C, while in this first series the ger- mination tests were unavoidably made at 26° to 27.5° C. Neverthe- less, this seeming objection is of little consequence, since all of the results are directly comparable with the control. COMPARISON OF METHODS OF STORTNO AND SHIPPINO. 59 Taiu.k XX. — Prrreutar/r of (jrnnmnlinn of nninn subjected to rarimix comlUions of xtonujc in diffnriit localilli'if. [Germination of control sample: First test, 95.8 per cent; second test, 97 per cent.] Order of tests. Nnm- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Place of storage. Trade condi- tions. Dry rooms. Ba-sements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake Citv. Fla First.... Second . First Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First Second . First.... Second . First Second . First 129 234 102 275 140 262 121 247 131 126 23.S 147 251 95 16. 5 96 12 7 0 90 0.5 84.5 50 93. 5 24.5 96. 5 0 95 97.5 95 95.5 %.5 36 94.5 94.5 93 97.5 98 96. 5 97.5 95 96 97.5 % 97.5 95. 5 79 96 % 11.5 I) 9t I) 95 96 98. 5 98 96. 5 96. 5 93.5 (>5 80 0 97 23.5 75.5 no 35 0 97.5 Do .- 97. 0 97. 5 Do 99 Mdhilo Ala 99 Do 97.5 96.5 Do 48.5 SrtTi Tiinii P M Do \\'air*'iiiT Ind T 95. 5 94. 5 96 99.5 95 97 97.5 9C. 97 97 96. 5 96 34 93 94 93 47 94. 5 Do 97. 5 D\irham N. H 94.5 Do 98 97 98 [First.... isecond . First.... (Second . Average percentage of g(>r- mination. 128 251 82. 19 25. 12 95.81 96.25 83. 79 61 96.21 92.36 81.36 33.08 96.64 90.86 Average percentage of gain or loss in vitality. 128 251 14.20 74.11 -1-0.01 1.20 12.53 37.12 + 0.43 4.80 15.07 65.90 -t-0.87 6.33 '(This test has not been inelnded in making up the averages inasmuch as the seeds were badly molded when ])nt in test. The onion seeds which were stored in the envelopes were ver}^ seri- ously affected in many of the places. Those from the l)asement at Lake City, from all of the conditions at Mobile, and from the dry room and basement at Baton Rouge were entirely killed. The seed from trade conditions at Baton Rouge germinated only 0.5 per cent. In many other cases the samples from the envelopes had become practically worthless. In only two instances was there any loss in vitality where the seeds were stored in bottles, viz, the second tests from the dry rooms and basement at Baton Rouge. These two tests have lowered the average results quite materially. If they were not included the averages would be raised to 96.91 and 97.90 per cent, respectively, instead of 92.36 and 90.86 per cent, as given in the table. The average percentages of germination of the seeds from the envelopes were very low in the second test, and were as follows: Trade conditions, 25.12 per cent; dry rooms, 61 per cent, and basements, 33.8 per cent. This represents a loss in vitality of 74.11, 37.12, and 65.9 per cent, respec- tively. Onion seed is relatively short lived, and very easil}^ affected by unfavorable external conditions. For this reason onion seed should be handled with the greatest care if vitality is to lie preserved for a maximum period. This may be done successfully by keeping the dry seed in well-corked bottles, or in any good moisture-proof package. 60 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Table XXI. — Perrnifage of fjermimil'inn of pnmy mhjected to various conditions of storage in different localities. [Germination of control sample: First test, 63 per cent; second test, 53 per cent.] Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Place of storage. Trade conditions. Dry rooms. Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. I,ake Oitv Fla First.... Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First . . .•. Second . First.... Second . First .... Second . First.... Second . First 129 234 102 276 140 262 121 247 131 126 238 147 251 44.5 1.5 57.5 2 3 0 28.5 0 20 6.5 48.5 7.5 55.5 0 63.5 46.5 63 54 68 20.5 57.5 20.6 53 34 60.5 58.6 61.5 66 66.5 60.5 51 45 45 22.5 66.5 28 2 0 38 0 58.5 47 62 27.5 61 25.5 44 17 10.5 0 60 0 1 4.5 0 62.5 Do " 57.6 Auburn Ala 69.5 Do 33.5 59 Do 2.5 Baton Rouge, La 54 Do 2.5 Do WafiToner Jiid T 50.5 49.5 44 59.5 62 62.5 59.5 63.5 60.5 40 48.5 46 8.5 49 36.5 50 3.5 69 Do .52.5 Durham N. H 63.5 Do 60 Ann Arbor Midi 53 Do Second 60.5 JFirst.... [Second . JFirst.... [Second . Average percentage of ger- mination. 128 251 38.87 8 60.12 44.75 44.43 24.41 55. 93 40.80 31.57 8.08 5S.64 38.43 Average percentage of loss 128 251 38.3 84.91 4.57 15.60 29. 48 53. 97 11.23 23.02 49.89 84.76 6.92 27.49 Table XXII. — Percentage of germination of phlox drinnmondii snhjected to various con- ditions of storage in different localities. [Germination of control sample: First test, 69 per cent; second test, 53.9 per cent.] Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Place of storage. Trade condi- tions. Dry rooms. Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake City, Fla First Second . First Second . First Second . 129 234 102 275 140 262 121 247 131 41.5 2.5 61.5 1 0.5 0 47.5 0 23. 5 11.5 50.5 5.5 67 0.5 67 40 78 57 72.5 56.5 55 6L5 62.6 58 65 61.5 73.5 66 74 62.5 66 64 62 6 62 13.5 0.5 0 43.5 0 62 25.5 63 59 74.5 58.5 58.5 58.5 20.5 0 65.6 1 0.5 2 0 77.5 Do 63 Auburn, Ala 67.5 Do 65 Mobile, Ala 58.5 Do 48.5 Baton Rouge, La First.... Second . First Second . 70.5 Do 61.5 San Juan P R Do Waeoner Ind. T First.... Second . First.... Second . First 126 238 147 251 61 62. 5 33 75. 5 55 70 57 45.5 30.5 69.5 .58. 5 65 9.5 69. 5 45.5 64. 5 10.5 75 Do 47.6 Durham, N. H 71.5 Do 70 Ann ArVior lVfif*li 72 Do Second . 61 JFirst.... [Second . IFirst.... [second . Average percentage of ger- mination. 128 251 44.87 7.62 68.31 58.37 52. 76 17.91 63.28 49. 64 41.07 11.08 70. 35 59.5 Average percentage of gain or loss in vitality. 12S 2.'')1 34.97 85. 86 1 -f8.27 23.54 66.78 8. 29 7.91 40.49 79.46 + 2.01 -1-10.39 COMPARISON OK METHODS OF STOKING AND SHIPPING. 61 Pansy and [)lilox have been considered together, since their behav- ior was ahnost the same. Both of the controls deteriorated to a con- siderable de«;rec durin^- the 123 da3^s which elapsed between the time of the iirst and the second test, pansy losinjr 15.87 per cent and phlox 21.88 per cent. In both cases the mean loss in vitality of the seeds in the envelopes was very great. The results of the second tests show a loss of 84.91 per cent for pansy, and 85.86 per cent for phlox where stored under trade conditions. In dry rooms there was a mean loss of 53.57 per cent for pansy and (36.78 per cent for phlox, and in base- ments a loss of 81:. 76 per cent for the pansy and 7U.45 per cent for the phlox. These results are o])tiiined ])y considering,^ the second test of the control as a standard, the depreciation of the control beinjr dis- regarded. Some samples were dead and many more were of no eco- nomic value. It is especially interesting to note how cjuickly the seeds died at Mobile, Ala., there being only a few germina])le seeds at the end of 140 days. The behavior of the seeds in the bottles was more or less variable. Some of the pansy seeds showed a higher vitality than the control, l)ut the averages were somewhat lower, the mean loss ranging from 15.60 per cent under trade conditions to 27.49 per cent in basements, while with the phlox the means for trade conditions and for basements were higher than the control by 8.27 and 10.39 per cent, respectively. T.\BLE XXIII. — Percentages of germination of tomato subjected to various conditions of storage in different localities. [Germination of control sample: First test, D5.5 per cent; second test, 97.5 per cent.] Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. Percentage of germination. Place of storage. Trade condi- tions. Dry rooms. Basements. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Envel- opes. Bottles. Lake Citv. Fla First.... Second . First Second . First.... Second . First Second . First.... Second . First.... Second . First Second . First 129 234 102 275 140 262 121 247 131 126 147 147 261 94 94 95 94 90 79.6 91.5 96 94 96.6 96.5 94 94.5 87 89 98.5 94 98 94.6 98.5 94.5 97.5 95 96.5 94.6 94.5 97 98 95 98 94 98 94 94 93.5 97 91.5 87 91 93 95.5 97.6 97.5 94.5 96.5 96.5 95 98 88.6 77 96 98 64.5 19.5 83.6 39.5 94 Do 97.5 Auburn, Ala 94.5 Do 96i5 Mobile Ala 93.5 Do 98 Raton R.oii£ro Tjii 95 Do 96 Do Wagoner Ind T 98 97 97 93 98 96. 5 97.5 94 99 91.5 97.5 98.5 98.6 97.5 97.5 89 95 96 Do 93.5 Durham, N. H 96.6 Do 97 Ann Arbor, Mich 92.5 Do Second . 98 jFirst.... [Second . JFirst.... [Second . Average percentage of ger- mination. 128 261 93.06 92.44 94.81 97.31 84 94.33 95.21 97.07 88.21 84.25 94.67 97.21 Average percentage of loss in vitality. 128 251 2. 56 5.20 0.72 0.20 1.57 3.29 0.30 0.44 7.64 13. 63 0.98 0.30 62 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. The tomato seed, a« shown in Tables V and XXV, was the most resistant to the unfavorable conditions of storage. The seed in the bottles was not injured at an}^ of the places. The lowest germination was 91.5 per cent from the seed kept in a dr}^ room at Ann Arbor, Mich. The seed in the envelopes gave a much wider variation, falling quite low in some of the samples which were stored in the basements. The average losses in vitality for the entire series of the second set of seeds which were kept in envelopes were as follows: Trade conditions, 5.20 per cent; dry rooms, 3.29 per cent; basements, 13.68 per cent. The average percentage of germination of the seed which was kept in the bottles differed from the control less than one-half of 1 per cent. Table XXIV. — Percentage of germination of watermelon subjected to various conditions of storage in different localities. [Germiuatioii of*ontrol sample: First test, 95.5 per cent; second test, 99 per cent.] Place of storage. Lake City, Fla . Do Auburn, Ala . Do Mobile Ala... Do Baton Rouge, La. Do San Juan, P. R... Do Wagoner, Ind. T. Do Durham, N. H Do Ann Arbor, Mich . Do Average percentage of ger- mination. Average pecentage of loss in vitality. Order of tests. Num- ber of days in storage. First.... Second . First....! Second . First Second . First Second . First.... Second . First....! Second .! First....! Second .! First t. Second 129 234 102 275 1-10 262 121 247 131 Percentage of germination. Trade condi- tions. Envel- opes. 126 238 147 251 jFirst [Second . [First (Second . 128 251 128 251 98 92 94 86 98 64 100 92 96 88 98 94 98 82 100 96 Bottles. 97.75 86.75 96.2 94 100 98 96 98 98 100 100 98 98 98 96 100 100 98 98.02 0.56 12. 37 0.31 0.99 Dry rooms. Envel- opes. 96 86 96 98 98 68 96 86 Bottles. 98 98 98 100 96 100 100 98 100 98 94 96 100 96 98 92 94 92 96.86 88.67 98.29 96 Basements. Envel- opes. 98 70 99 94 80 0 98 20 Bottles. 100 94 100 96 100 100 98 100 96 88 98 94.1 98 100 95.29 77.70 1.47 10.44 0.01 3.03 3.06 21. 52 98 98 96 98 96 96 98.29 97. 43 0.01 1.59 What has been said of the tomato seed is practically true for the watermelon, save that there was a greater loss in vitality in the latter, when seeds were kept in envelopes. The average percentage of ger- mination of the second tests was 86.75 per cent for trade conditions; 88.67 per cent for diy rooms; and 77.7 per cent for basements, or a loss in vitalitv of 12.37, 10.44: and 21.52 percent, respectively, as com- pared with the vitality of the control sample, which germinated 99 per cent. An examination of the foregoing set of tables will show that in most cases the deterioration was comparatively slight during the first 128 days. Yet even during this short period the losses in vitalit}^ were very marked in some of the more critical localities, particularly COMPAKISON OF METHODS OK STOKING AND SHIPPING. 03 lit Mobile. However, the greatest loss, iis shown by the gerniination tests, was during the 123 days innnediatoly following. While seeds, like other living things, are capabK- of withstanding quite unfavorable conditions for a consideral)le time without showing any appreciable deterioration in vitality, still the forces destroying vitalit}' are at work. When the turning point is once reached and can be detected by germination tests, the decline is more noticeable and death soon follows. The preceding tables show that the loss in \itality was very ditter- ent in the different places. The conditions at Mo])ile, Ala.. ])roved to be the most injurious, while those at Ann Arbor, Mich., were the most conducive to longevity. These results, however, are given in another i)art of this paper dealing with the effect of climate on the vitality of seeds. The results are tabulated on pages IS and 28 and represented diagrammatical ly on page 24, so that any further discus- sion at this time is unnecessary. Likewise each table has been summarized, giving the average per- centages of germination and the average percentages of the loss in vitality of each sample of seed for both the first and second tests. These averages include those of the three conditions of storage — trade conditions, dry rooms, and l)asements— in l)oth envelopes and bottles. Naturally, the results of the second tests are of the greater impor- tance, and, in order that the results may be readily compared and more critically examined, they have been collected and tabulated herewith: T.\BLE XX\.—Arcra•* S c S '5 c S S 5 >. > "3 a C5 g O o 1-1 a en a Oi a O \ a 0) Tfl 5 Tomato 97.5 92.4 92. 44 83 5.20 10.11 97.31 96.75 0.20 +4.71 94.33 83.33 3.29 9.81 97.07 94.86 0.44 +2.66 84.25 73.08 13.63 22 97.21 98 0.30 Sweet corn, "A" .. + 6.06 I'eas 95.7 84.74 11.45 95.25 .47 80.45 15.94 95.14 .58 60.66 30. 62 9(5. 28 + .60 Watermelon 99 86.75 12.37 98.02 .99 88.67 10.44 96 3.03 77.70 21.52 97. 43 1.59 Lettuce 92.3 78.8 88.5 77.75 60.94 65.41 15.76 22. 67 26.09 91.12 73.56 59.70 1.29 0.65 32. 55 78.33 64.33 66.33 15.14 18.37 25.06 90.93 72.71 48 1.49 7.73 45.76 65.58 59 60.41 28.95 25.13 31.74 90.78 74.07 68. 40 1.65 Kadis)i 6 Sweet corn, "B" .. 22. 71 Beau 98.7 69.50 29. 59 97 1.72 09.33 29. 76 97.36 1.36 55.66 43. 61 98.86 + .10 Cabbage . . . 92.4 82 97 53 53.9 52.15 37.31 2.5.12 8 7. 62 43. 56 54.60 74.11 84.91 85. 86 90.56 80.87 96.25 44.75 58. 37 1.94 1.38 1.20 1.5. 6C +8. 27 61.50 53.83 61 24.41 17.91 33.44 34.35 37.12 53.97 66.78 89.93 74.71 92.36 40.80 49.64 2.67 8.89 4.80 23.02 7.91 53.33 37.75 38.08 8.08 11.08 42. 29 .53.96 6.5.90 84. 76 79. 45 92. 21 75. 21 90. 86 38. 43 .59. 50 .22 Carrot 9.50 Oniou 6. 33 Pansy 27. 49 Phlo.x + 10.39 Average loss in vitality . 36.63 3. 92 21.19 8. Oh 42. 28 4. 51 1 64 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. In comparing the average results shown in Table XXV, it will be seen that diU'ercnt seeds behave very differently under practically iden- tical conditions. The list of seeds has been arranged according to their loss of vitality as represented by those kept in envelopes under trade conditions, as shown in the fourth coluuni. The tomato seed gave a loss in vitality of 5.20 per cent, being the most resistant to the unfavorable climatic conditions. Phlox, on the other hand, germinated onl}^ 7.62 per cent, representing a loss in vitality of 85.86 per cent. Likewise the same seeds behave very difl'erentl}' under slightly different conditions, as will be seen by comparing the percentages of deterioration in the case of seeds kept in envelopes under trade condi- tions, in dry rooms, and in basements. In dry rooms the order, except the peas, is the same as for trade conditions. The loss of vitality in the seeds stored in the dry rooms was uniformly less than for those stored under trade conditions, excepting for the peas and beans; but in the series from the basements there was great irregularity. The loss in vitality for the most part was uniformly greater than under trade conditions or in dry rooms save in the last five — cabbage, carrot, onion, pansy, and phlox — where the loss was less in the case of those kept in the basements. This indicates that these five species of seed are less susceptible to the evil effects of a moist atmosphere when the temperature is relativel}^ low. The relative value of these three conditions for storing seeds in paper packets is best obtained by a comparison of the general averages. The average losses in vitally for the thirteen different samples of seed which were kept at the eight different stations were as follows: Trade conditions, 36.63 per cent; dry rooms, 21.19 per cent; basements, 42.28 per cent. From these results it is quite clear that seeds put up in paper packages will retain their vitality nuich better if kept in dry, artificially heated rooms than if they are subjected to trade conditions or stored in basements. But another comparison needs yet to be made, and is the most impor- tant of the series, i. e., the vitality of seeds when kept in closely corked bottles. In the majority of cases there was l)ut little deviation from the control samples, and many of the samples germinated even better where the seeds were kept in bottles. The "A" sweet corn offers the best illustration of the increased germination. At the same time the " B" sample of sweet corn was very nnich injured. Here are two samples of the same variety of corn behaving very differently when kept in bottles. This difference in vitalit}^ is directl}^ attributed to the greater quantity of water in sample " B," showing the necessity of thoroughl}^ drying seeds if the}^ are to be put up in closed vessels. A comparison of the general averages of the bottle samples and of those kept in envelopes indicates that the former is far superior to the latter as a method for preserving the vitality of seeds. Under trade conditions the loss in vitality was 36.63 per cent in envelopes and EXPKRIMKNTS IN KEEPING AND SHiri'INO. 65 3.03 por cent in liottlrs; in diy rooms, 21.19 percent in envelopes and 8.<»S per cent in l)ottles; in basements, 42. 2S per cent in envelopes and 4.r)l per cent in l)ottles. The necessary precautions to ho taken, if seeds are to he stored in hot ties, arc (1) a well-dried sample, preferahly artilicially dried seed, and (2) a cool place for storinjr, at least a place in which the tempera- ture will not he higher than the temperature at which the seeds were originally dried. If the above precautions arc taken at least two beneficial results will follow: First, protection against moisture, which is of considerable importance, as many seeds arc soon destroyed in that way when kept in pap(>r packages. Secondly, vitality will be preserved for a longer period and consecpicntly there will l>e a more vigorous germination, a better growth of seedlings, and a greater uniformity in the resulting crop. Having thus shown that seeds retain their vitalitv in warm, moist climates much better when kept in bottles thtm when kept in paper packages, the necessity of finding a more suitalde method for sending small quantities of seed to such places at once presents itself. EXPERIMENTS IN KEEPING AND SHIPPING SEEDS IN SPECIAL PACKAGES. At present the greatest disadvantages in sending out seeds in bottles are the inconvenience and expense involved by this method of putting up seeds. The increased cost of ])ottles, as compared with the paper packets now so universall}'' employed, the additional labor and expense necessary to put up the seeds, the greater cost in handling and pack- ing the bottles to insure against losses by breakage, and the increased cost of transportation, arc all matters of vital imi)ortancc. Seedsmen claim that the existing conditions of the trade will not admit of their raising the price of seeds sufficiently high to justify the increased expense of glass containers. Although to the seedsmen the preserva- tion or the prolongation of vitality is an important factor, yet the demand is for an inexpensive and at the same time a neat and service- able package. Accordingly, duplicate samples of the following-named seeds were put up in special packages, one set being sent to Mobile, Ala., and the other kept at Ann Arbor, Mich. The seeds used for these experi- ments were beans, peas, cabbage, lettuce, onion, pansy, and phlox.*^ «The lettuce, onion, pansy, and phlox were from the same bulk samples of seeds as those used in the earlier experiments; but the beans, peas, and cabbage used for these tests were from samples received at the laboratory on February 4, 1901. How- ever, the latter three were from the same general stock of seed, differing from those used in experiments already given only in that they were stored during the interval in the warehouse of D. M. Ferry & Co., Detroit, Mich., instead of in the botanical laboratory at the university. 25037— No. 58—04 5 66 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. All of these samiDles were lir.st dried for ten da3'« in an incubator main- tained at a temperature of from 30^^ to 32° C. The amount of mois- ture in the samples before and after drying, as well as the moisture expelled during- the drying process, was as follows: Moisture test of seeds in special packages. Kind of seed. Beans . . Peas Cabbage Lettuce. Onioti . . Pansy . . Phlox . . Moisture in air-dried samples. Moisture remaining. Per cent. Per cent. 10.32 4.90 9.70 6.00 4.89 3.47 5.33 3.80 6.48 4.47 4.82 3.13 5.82 4.30 Moisture liberated. Per cent. 5.42 3.70 1.42 1.53 2.01 1.69 1.52 These well-dried seeds were then put up in seven different kinds of packages : (1) Double coin envelopes, of much the same quality as those in which seeds are commonly sold. (2) Bottles of 120 cc. capacity, closed with firm cork stoppers. j (3) Bottles of 120 cc. capacity, corked and sealed with paraffin. (4) Tin cans having closely fitting lids, the whole being then care- fully dipped in paraffin. (5) Double coin envelopes, as for No. 1, the packets being then dipped in melted paraffin. (6) Double coin envelopes, the inner one paraffined, the outer envel- ope being used simply to protect the paraffin and to facilitate ease of handling. (7) Double coin envelopes, with both the inner and the outer coated with paraffin. On February 15, 1901, one of each of the above preparations was sent to Mobile, Ala., and stored in a cellar approximately 400 feet back from the bay. After the lapse of 108 days, 1. e., on June 3, these samples were received in return, at which time germination tests were made. The other complete set, retained in the botanical laboratory at Ann Arbor, was suljjected to a veiy moist atmosphere. The samples were kept in a damp cham))er made b}^ taking two battery jars of different sizes, the smaller containing the seeds being placed within the larger, which was lined with filter paper and then partially tilled with water. The whole was covered with a glass plate, and the atmosphere within was always on the verge of saturation. A third and an extreme set of conditions was established b}^ keeping some of the paraffined packages immersed in water for twenty-seven EXPERIMENTS IN KEEPLNG AND SHIPJMNU. ()7 days. At the end of that time (March 14) the soods v/oiv t<\st('d for gonnination, as wore also those from the unpr()t(M'ted eiiV(>lo]>(>s in the moist chamber. The seeds that were kept uikUm- water in the parattincd packages gerininated readily and normally, siiowing no deterioration in vitality; but the seeds from the packages not parafKned, which were kept in the moist chaml)er, had been injured to an appre- ciable extent, there being a marked retardation in the germination of all of the species of seed. The cab))age at the end of thirty-six hours had germinated only 11 per cent, as compared with 57.5 per cent for seed from the immersed paraffined package. The relative merits of the two conditions as attecting onion seed may be expressed ])y a gonnination of 13.5 per cent and 'M per cent, respectively, after sixty- one and one-half hours. Not only was there a marked retardation, but likewise a reduction in the final percentage of germination, with the single exception of the cabbage. These results can be more care- fully studied in Table XXVI. Germination tests were made of all of the other samples on June 3, 19( >1. the date when the seeds were returned from i\Iol)ile. At this time the seeds in the unprotected envelopes in the moist ciianiber were so badly molded that no germination tests were made. The samples from Mobile, which were directly comparable with the above, except that they had been stored in a basement, Avere greatly injured. The beans had deteriorated to 88 per cent, the onion to 27 per cent, the pansy to 8 per cent, while the phlox was dead. However, seed of the other species — cabbage, lettuce, and peas — gave final percentages of germi- nation varying but little from the control, but the slowing down in the rapidity of germination was sufficiently marked to show a corre- sponding loss in vitality. With the samples which were put up in bottles, tin cans, and paraffined packages the results were quite diii'erent from those given above. In no case was there any marked deviation beyond that which might be justly attributed to ordinary variation, except in the phlox from a tin can which had been stored in the moist chamber in tjie laboratory. This sample of phlox germinated only 3.5 per cent. Unfortunately, both the pansy and the phlox seeds used for these experiments were not very satisfactory. These samples were at this time nearly two years old and consequently of a low vitality. The tabulated results of the foregoing experiment follow. 68 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Tahlk XXVI. — VUaliifi of seeds preserved in different kiuds of jjackages. Tre'atmont of namples. Control Ann Arbor, Mich., moist chamber: Envelopes Bottle, corked Bottle, paraffined Tin can, paraffined Two envelopes, outer paraffined Two envelopes, inner paraffined Two envelopes, both paraffined Two envelopes, both paraffined and immersed in water Mobile, Ala., basement: Envelopes Bottle, corked Bottle, paraffined Tin can, paraffined Two envelopes, outer paraffined Two envelopes, inner paraffined Two envelopes, both paraffined Dura- tion of experi- ment. Days. 27 108 108 108 108 108 108 27 108 108 108 108 108 108 108 Percentage of germination. Beans. 94.0 80.0 98.0 97.5 %.0 98.0 98.0 96.0 100.0 88.0 98.0 98.0 96.0 94.0 96.0 100.0 Cab- bage. 90.2 91.0 91.5 93.5 87.0 91.5 94.0 90.5 88.5 86.0 91.0 90.5 88.0 90.5 92.0 92.0 Let- tuce. 89.5 76.5 91.0 90.5 90.0 91.5 89.0 86.5 88.5 88.0 90.5 92.5 95.0 89.0 88.0 89.5 On- ions. 97.5 90.0 93.5 95.5 93.0 97.0 93.0 95..5 94.5 27.0 95.5 95.5 96.0 95.5 90.0 88.5 Peas. 90.0 88.0 94.0 90.0 90.0 92.0 88.0 92.0 90.0 96.0 84.0 92.0 88.0 92.0 98.0 90.0 Pan- sy. 37.7 25.0 36.0 39.5 35.0 33.5 24.0 23.0 34.5 8.0 34.5 34.5 26.0 29.6 33.0 25.5 Phlox. 0.0 31.0 39.0 3.5 27.5 47.0 38.5 30.5 0.0 32.5 44.5 23.0 34.0 38.0 33.5 Aver- ages. 42. 5 77. 34 64.35 76.43 77.93 70.63 75.85 76.14 74.57 75.21 56.14 75.14 78.21 73.14 74.73 76.43 74.14 Subsequent experiments were made, using- envelopes of different qualities, as well as varying the treatment of the packages. Samples of cabbage, lettuce, and onion seed were put up as follows: {a) The regular seedsmen's envelope, made of a heavy grade of manila paper. (/>) Envelopes made of a medium qualit}^ of waterproof paper. (t) Envelopes made of a thin parchment paper. (d) Envelopes made of the same qualit}^ of parchment paper as for the preceding series, but paraffined previous to being filled with seed. The packages were then sealed by redipping the open ends. {e) Envelopes of parchment paper, as for the two preceding series, except that the envelopes were first filled with seed, sealed, and then the entire package was dipped in paraffin at a temperature of from 55^ to 60^ C. Samples of all of these packages were then stored under trade con- ditions and in dr}" rooms in Ann Arbor, Baton Rouge, and Mol)ile. The exact conditions of storage in the different places were the same as described on pages 49 and 50. The samples were put up on Ma}" 20, 1901. The period of storage ended on November 26, having continued 190 days. Unfortimatel}^, no special precautions were taken to drj'^ the seeds. They were simply air-dried samples; hence they contained a quantity of moisture sufl5- ciently large to give rise to an increased relative humidity of the confined air in the paraffined packages. This increased humidity was EXPERIMENTS IN KEETINO AND Snil'PING. 69 accompjinied bj' a greater activity within the cells, and con.seqiiently by 11 greater deterioration of vital force. For this reason the results are not as definite as the conditions warrant. Nevertheless, some iinportunt facts were brought out by the experiments which justify their being discus.sed and ta))ulated (in part) at this time. Table XXVTT. — Vital It 1/ of need prenervedin jtaraffined packages. Trade conditions, seeds put up in— Dry room, seeds put up in— Kind of seed. Panill'nuMl envelopcH. Parchment envelopes, then dip- ped in par- affin, at 50° to 60° C. Seeon dioxid 1-2 At the end of 4 years 7 months and 14 days an analysis of a sam- ple of air taken from the other chamber was as follows: Peas, 3.580 grams, in air, in dark: ' Percent. Oxygen 20. 8 Nitrogen 79. 1 Carlion dioxid - - • 1 The 3.452 grams of peas that were subjected to the influence of the action of light had absor])ed, in the given time, 2.4 cc. of oxygen and produced 1.8 cc. of carbon dioxid. The seed kept in the dark showed but little signs of respiratory activity. Germination tests of the former showed the peas to be dead, while five peas from the sample kept in the dark germinated perfectly. While there is no question that light exerts some influence on respi- ration, still the above results do not furnish sufficient data to establish the fact that respiration practically ceases in the absence of light. In fact, experiments have shown that respiration is also quite marked in case of seeds stored in the dark, and the difierence is very slight if the same temperature be maintained. Van Tieghem and Bonnier, in their "Recherches sur la vie latente des graines,"^ demonstrated that T.976 grams of peas, sealed, in air, «Ann. Agron., 23: 433-471, 1897. 6 Bui. Soc. bot. France, 29: 25-29, 1882. 76 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. in a tube, respired quite freeh'. After the lapse of two years an analysis of the confined air oayc the following results: I'er cent. Oxygen - - - H. 44 Nitrogen - vr 81. 74 Carbon dioxid - -• 3. 82 These same seeds germinated 45 per cent and had increased ^^-^ of their original weight. In the experiments of the writer it was found that 40.1150 grams of air-dried T)eans liV)erated 7.7 cc. of carbon dioxid in 370 dnjfi. The concentration of the carbon dioxid in the flask at the time the gas was drawn for analysis was 1.51 per cent. This sample of seed germinated 97 per cent, and there was only a very slight retardation in germina- tion, which indicated that the vitality had not been materiallv reduced. During this time there was a slight decrease in the weight of the seed — 0.19 per cent. At the same time two check bottles were set up, one containing 10.1181 grams of beans known to be dead, and the other ])ottle containing nothing except air. Analyses of the air from these two bottles gave the same results as samples of air drawn from the laboratory. These preparations were kept in subdued light through- out the experiment. That respiration ma}" take place in the dark, that it is very intense if much moisture be present, and that intensive respiration is accom- panied b}" a rapid loss in vitality is shown bj' the following experi- ments. On April 3, 1900, samples of beans, cabbage, carrot, lettuce, and onion were sealed, each in bottles of 250 cc. capacity, and were stored in a dark room which was maintained at a temperature of from 20° to 25° C. These samples were first carefully weighed and then placed in a damp chamber for 175 hours, so that an additional ([uantity of moisture could be absorbed. Control samples of air-dried seeds were also kept in sealed bottles and subjected to the same subsequent treatment. After the lapse of one year analyses of the confined gases and germination tests of the seeds were made, the results of which are given with the general details. Beans. — Of beans, 21.9991 grams absorbed 4.70 per cent of water while in the damp chamber. The respiration during the year was equivalent to 2.5 cc. of carbon dioxid. The loss in weight was onl}" 0.05 per cent, but the vitality had fallen from 100 to 86 per cent, as shown by the control. Cahhage. — Of cabbage seed, 10 grams, with an additional 9.79 per cent of water, were used for this test. During the year this sample of cabbage seed had given ofl' 21 cc. of carbon dioxid, an equivalent of 2.4 cc. of carbon dioxid per gram of seed per 3^ear. The control sample germinated 89 per cent, but this seed was dead. RESPIRATION OF SEEDS. 77 Carrot. — Of carrot seed, 10 jifranis were allowed to alisorl) during 175 hours an additional 10.25 per cent of water. In one year 27 cc. of carbon dioxid were i)roduced, giving a concentration of carbon dioxid of nearly 12 per cent. The deterioration in vit^ility was from 84 to 0 per cent, a.s compared with the control. Lettuce. — Of air-dried lettuce seed, 10 grams w^ere allowed to absorb an additional 8. 87 per cent of water. During the experiment 19.5 cc. of carbon dioxid were formed, an equivalent of approximatel}^ 10 per cent of the original volume of the inclosed air. These seeds Avcre all killed. The control sample germinated IH per cent. Oniou. — Of air-dried onion seed, 10 grams were allow^ed to absorb an additional 10.11 per cent of water. The seed gave off 2<).5 cc. of carbon dioxid during the experiment and deteriorated in vitality from 97 to 0 per cent. A bottle containing 4 cc. of water was also sealed at the same time and served as a check for the other anahses. A sample of air taken from this bottle gave the same results as the original air sample. It is a matter of nuich regret that no analyses could be made of the air from the bottles which contained the check samples. These bottles contained the same weight of air-dried seeds as was used for the experiments. Unfortunatel}' the seals on these })ottles had become dr}^ and admitted of an exchange of gases, so that the results were not reliable. Another series of experiments consisted in keeping onion seeds in sealed bottles for 1 year and 13 days, with the following results: {a) Fift}^ grams of air-dried seed were sealed, in air, in a bottle of 500 cc. capacit}. There was an increase in the weight of the seeds of 0.1091 gram — slightly more than 0.2 per cent. An analysis of the inclosed gas gave: Per cent. Oxygen 12.27 Nitrogen 85. 87 Carbon dioxid 1. 86 {]>) Fifty grams of air-dried seed were sealed, in air, in a 500 cc. bottle, with 4 cc. of water in a small test tube at the bottom of the bottle. Nearly' all of the water was absorbed by the seeds, there being an increase in weight of 3.6475 grams, or 7.3 per cent. The composition of the inclosed air was: Per cent. Oxygen None Nitrogen 86. 65 Carbon dioxid 13. 35 The oxygen had all been consumed and the seeds were all dead. (6^) Fifty grams of onion seed were sealed in a 500 cc. bottle, in a 78 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. mixture of ilhiminatint^ g-as and air. The increase in weight was only 0.04 per cent. An anah^sis of the inclosed gas was as follows: Per cent. Oxygen 3. 23 Carl)on dioxid 1. 21 Methane and nitrogen 95. 96 {(l) Another 50-gram sample of onion seed, belonging to a different series, was sealed in a bottle of 300 cc. capacity, and showed the following composition of the inclosed air: Per cent. Oxygen 8.02 Nitrogen - 85. 17 Carbon dioxid - 6. 81 In only one case was there an}^ deterioration in vitality, namely, where the large quantity' of moisture was present. The other samples germinated normally. The seed kept in the illuminating gas germi- nated even better than the control. In all of the bottles there was a marked decrease in pressure, show- ing that the volume of oxygen absorbed was much greater than the volume of the carbon dioxid given off. During respiration certain chemical changes must be taking place which exert a marked influence on the vitalitj' of seeds. What these changes are is a question 3^et to be solved. The protoplasts of the individual cells gradually but surely become disorganized. C. De Candolle" takes the view, in discussing the experiments of Van Tieg- hem and Bonnier, that during respiration life is simply subdued. But the period of subdued activity, he saj^s, is comparatively short, for respiration soon ceases and life becomes wholly latent. As a result of his own experiments in storing seeds at low temperatures he con- cludes that seeds cease to respire and become completely inert; in which case they can suffer any degree of reduction in temperature without being killed. The killing of the seeds experimented with (lobelia) he attributes to the fact that the jjrotoplasm had not l)ecome inert, but simpl}^ subdued, and the seeds were thus affected b}' the low temperature. As a result of later experiments C De Candolle,* in keeping some seeds under mercury to exclude air, concludes that " seeds can continue to subsist in a condition of complete vital inertia, from which they recover whenever the conditions of the surrounding medium permits their 'energids,' or living masses of their cells, to respire and assim- ilate." He compares the protoplasm in latent life to an explosive mixture, having the facult}" of reviving whenever the conditions are favorable. This comparison seems rather an unfortunate one; jet, within a certain measure it is probabl}' true. "Revue Scientifique, ser. 4, 4: 321-326, 1895. &Pop. Sci. Monthly, 51: 106-111, 1897. RESPIRATION OF SEEDS. 79 It is now quite oentM-ally acceptod that respiration is not absolutely necessary for t4ie maintenance of seed life, notwithstanding- i\w fact that (Jray contended that seeds would die of sutlocation if air were excluded." The expei-iuients of Gij^-lioli'' in keepinjr seeds of Jledicago sativa immersed in various liquids for approximately sixteen years, after which many responded to germination tests, has done nuich toward demonstrating the fact that seeds can live for a considerable time in conditions prohil)itino- respiration. Kochs*^ succeeded in keeping seeds for many months in the vacuum of a Geissler tube without being able to detect the presence of any carbon dioxid, and conseciuently he concluded that there was no gas o-iven off by intramolecular respiration. Romanes'' kept various seeds in vacuum in glass tubes for 16 months and the seeds were not killed. However, his vitality tests can not be considered as entirely satisfactory. In the first place, the number of seeds used (ten) was too small; secondly, the variations in the results, even in the controls, indicate that the samples were not of very good quality. In the experiments of the writer cabbage and onion seed were kept in a vacuum over sulphuric acid for 182 days. During this time all of the free water had ])een extracted from the seed. When again con- nected with a vacuum gauge the dial showed that there was not the slightest change in pressure, and that consequently no evolution of gases had taken place. The cabbage germinated 75 per cent and the onion 73 per cent as compared with 81 and 74 per cent, respectively, for the controls. The results of the various experiments above given demonstrate quite fully that the vitality of seeds, as we connuonly know them, is not interfered with if they are kept in conditions prohibiting respira- tion. Brown and Escombe* hold that all chemical action ceases at temperatures of liquid air. They accordingly conclude that " any considerable internal chemical changes in the protoplasts are rendered impossible at temperatures of —180° to —190° C, and that we must consequently regard the protoplasm in resting seeds as existing in an absolutely inert state, devoid of any trace of metabolic activity and yet conserving the potentiality of life * * * And since at such low temperatures metabolic activity is inconceivable an immortality of the individual protoplasts is conceivable providing that the low tempera- tures be maintained." «Amer. Jour, of Sci., 3d series, 24: 297, 1882. 6 Nature, 52: 544, 1895. <;Biol. Centrbl., 10: 673-686, 1890. t^Proc. Roy. Soc, 54: 335-337, 1893. «Ibid., 62: 160-165, 1897-98. 80 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. Giglioli" arrived at practically the same conclusions when he said: It is a coiuinon notion that life, or capacity for life, is always connected with con- tinuous chemical and piiysical change * * * The very existence of living matter is supposed to imply change. There is now reason for believing that living matter may exist, in a completely passive state, without any chemical change whatever, and may therefore maintain its special properties for an indeilnite time, as is the case w'ith mineral and all lifeless matter. Chemical change in living matter means active life, the wear and tear of which necessarily leads to death. Latent life, when completely passive in a chemical sense, ought to be life without death. But even though ordinary respiratory exchanges are not necessary for the maintenance of vitality, and granting that intramolecular respiratioii does not occur in the resting protoplasts, there is no exper- imental evidence pointing to the fact that all chemical action ceases, although some writers, as has already been shown, maintain the view that living matter may exist in a completely passive state. If "com- pletely passive-' meant devoid of respiratory activities none would dare dissent; but that seeds are entirel}" quiescent under any known con- ditions has not been proved. To conceive of all activity ceasing within the seed under certain conditions, and that with such cessation of activit}^ an immortality of the seed is possible, i. e., if such con- ditions continue to exist, is, from our present knowledge of the chem- istry and behavior of the living cell, impossible. In Giglioli's experi- ments respiration was undoubtedly prevented, and, according to his own conclusions, vitality should have been preserved, for he sa^-s "in the al)sence of any chemical change the special properties may be main- tained indetinitely.'" But, in his ow^n experiments, the special prop- erties were not maintained, for all of the seeds with which he experi- mented deteriorated ver}' much, and many died. Granting that those which suffered the greatest loss in vitality were injured b}' the pres- ence of the particular gas or liquid used there remain no means of accounting for the deterioration in those giving the highest percentages of germination. His experiments were made for the most part with Medicago sativa^ which, under ordinary conditions of storage, is espe- cially long lived. Samek ^' has shown that seed of Medicayo tecomes extinct. What does this signify? The gradua'l process of devitalization means chemical change, and chemical change means activity within the cells. We uuist not forget the great complexity of the composition of the protoplasmic ])odies wdiich go to make up a seed. The chemistry of the living cell is still surrounded l)y manj^ difficulties and is likewise Ulled with many sur- prises, and ])efore the question of the vitalit}' of seeds can be under- stood a more comprehensive knowledge of both the functions and composition of the cell contents is necessary. It is well known that all organic compounds are made up of a very few elementary substances, ])ut the numerous and obscure ways in which the}^ are put together furnish questions of the greatest per- plexity. Substances having the same elements may diHer widely as to their properties. Moreover, isomeric substances — i. e., those hav- ing the same elements in the same proportions, giving an equivalent molecular weight — are usually very different in their chemical reac- tions and ph^^siological functions. As j^et this intramolecular atomic rearrangement is but vaguely understood, and the writer ventures to suggest that with a more comprehensive knowledge of the chemistry of the living cell some such chemical activity will be discovered. With these discoveries will come, perhaps, an understanding of the devitalization of seeds, and with it the theory of the immortality of seeds will vanish. SUMMART. (1) Seeds, like other living organisms, respire when subjected to normal conditions of storage. (2) Respiration means a transformation of energy, and consequently a premature death of the seed. (3) Within certain limits respiration is directly proportional to the amount of water present in the seeds and to the temperature at which they^ are stored. (4) B}^ decreasing the water content of seeds respiration is reduced and vitality greatly prolonged. «Cornpt. Rend., 134: 1243-1246, 1902. 25037— No. 58—04 6 82 THE VITALITY AND (}P:RM1NATI()N <)F SKEDS. (5) 111 most seeds the (iiuiutity of oxygen absorbed o-rcatly exceeds the (|uiintity of carbon dioxid evolved. (()) Respiration is nearly as active in the dark as in the light. (7) Respiration apparently is not necessary for the maintenance of • seed life. (8) A cessation of respiration does not mean a cessation of chemical activities. ENZYMES IN SEEDS AND THE PART THEY PLAY IN THE PRESERVATION OF VITALITY. During the past decade the so-called unorganized ferments have taken an important place among the subjects of biological research. Our knowledge of their wide distribution has increased many fold. The part they play in both anal)olism and catabolism has furnished us many surprises, but with all of the work that has been done our knowl- edge of these most complex compounds is very limited. The part that enz3niies pla}^ in the processes of germination is of the utmost importance. It is now quite well understood that they are developed as germination progresses. They act on the most complex reserve food products, converting them into simpler substances that can be more readil}^ utilized by the growing seedling. However, even in this connection there is a great diversity of opinion, especially as to their distribution and enzymic action within the endo- sperm itself. Puriewitsch,'* Griiss,^^ and Ilansteen '-' are cited b}^ Brown and Escombe'^ as holding the view that the amyliferous cells of the endosperm of the grasses can digest their reserve materials independ- ently of any action of the embryo — i. e., the starch -bearing cells are living cells and secrete enzymes in the grasses as well as in the coty- ledonous cells of Lv/plmis^ Phaseolus, and liicmm. In 1S90, Brown and Morris^ did not find such to be the case; but the results of Purie- witsch, Griiss, and Hansteen led to a duplication of the experiments by Brown and Escombe in 1898. At this time they demonstrated that the am3diferous cells pla}" no part in the chemical changes which take place during the process of germination, but on the contrary that the enzymic action in the endosperm of the grasses is confined to the aleuron layer. But the purpose of the present paper is not to consider the localiza- tion of the particular enzjane, and nmch less the action of enzymes during germination. At this time quite another question is to be «Pring,sheims Jahrb., 31: 1, 1897. b Landw. Jahrbiicher, 1896, p. 385. <^ Flora, 79: 419, 1894. rfProc. Roy. Soc, 63: 3-25, 1898. «Jour. Chem. Soc, London, 57: 458-528, 1890. enzymp:s in seeds. 83 coiisidi'ivd, \ iz, lii wliat \v:i\- do i'iizn iiics ruiu-lioii in the i)ri'si'rviition of vitulit}-^ Maquciinc" points to the view that the vitulity of seeds is dependent on the stal)ility of the purtieuhir ferment present. He attri))ute,s the proh)noation of vitalit\- in seeds that are kept dr}^ to the better preser- vation of the enzN'nies. Tliis view has been hirj^el}' strengthened as a result of the investigations made by Thompson,^ Waugli/' Sharpe,'' and otliers, in which they have sliown that tlie artificial use of enzymes may greath' increase the pen-entage of germination in some old seeds. By the use of diastase the percentage of germination of 12-year-old tomato seed has been increased more than GOO per cent. If the suggestions made by Macpienne were true in ever}^ sense, then dead seeds should l)e awakened into activity l)y artificially supplying the necessar}^ enzymes; but this can not be, or never has been, accom- plished. True, many experiments have been recorded in which a greater percentage of seed has been induced to germinate b}' the judi- cious use of conmiercial enzymes than b}' the ordinary methods of germination; but this treatment is applical)U> only where the vital energy is simply at a low el)b and does not in any way affect dead seeds. The experiments of the writer with naked radicles from the embr3'os of living and dead beans have shown the presence of enzymes in both. The carefully excised radicles were ground and macerated in water for one hour. The filtrate was then added to dilute solutions of starch paste. The solutions from the living embr\'os gave rise to an energetic hj'droh'tic action. In all cases hydrolysis was sufficiently advanced to give a clear reaction with Fehling's solution. The solu- tions extracted from the radicles from the dead beans also gave reac- tions sufficiently clear to indicate that there was still some ferment present. '' However, the hydrolysis was scarcely more than begun, giving only a brown color with iodin, but not reacting with Fehling's solution. Results of a similar character were obtained from portions of the seed aAnn. Agron. 26: 321-332, 1900; Compt. Rend., 134: 1243-1246, 1902. ^Garteuflora, 45: 344, 1896. cAnn. Report, Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1896-97, and Science, N. S., 6: 950-952, 1897. f^ Thirteenth Annual Report, Mass. Hatch Exp. Sta., Jan., 1901, pp. 74-83. «Thi.s was a sample of "Valentine" beans grown in 1897. The same year tliey tested 97.3 per cent. In March, 1898, the same sample tested 87 per cent. At this time they were sent to Orlando, Fla., where they remained until May 8, 1899, approximately fourteen months. Tlie beans were tlien returned and numerous germination tests were made at irregular intervals, but in no case was there any indi- cation of vitality. Several samples were also treated witli "Taka" diastase (solu- tions varying in strength from 2 to 10 per cent), but none was stimulated into germination. The radicles were tested for enzymes in the spring of 1902, nearly three years after the beans first failed to germinate, at which time they were nearly 6 years old. 84 THE VITALITY AND GEEMINATION OF SEEDS. taken from the point of union of the axis and the cotyledons. These possessed stronger h3"drol3'tic powers, the preparations from the living and dead beans each giving clear reactions with Fehling's solution. A third series of tests was made b}' stopping the germination of beans when the radicles were from 1 to 1.5 cm. long. These were then kept quite dr}' for nearl}^ seven months, after which the dessicated radicles were broken off and macerated like the above. This solution was then allowed to act on starch paste, and the transformations were almost as rapid and complete as when a 1 per cent solution of commercial " Taka" diastase was used. These results lead one to believe that the loss of vitality in seeds is not due to the disorganization of the enzymes present. There is some- thing more fundamental and probably more complex to which we must look for this life-giving principle. True, as Maquenne has suggested, there is a close relationship between the loss of vitalit}^ in seeds and the decomposition of enzymes. In order to determine what such a relationship might signify, the following series of experiments were made: Beans, peas, cabbage, lettuce, onion, phlox, and pans}^ seed, with definite quantities of good commercial '"'"Taka" diastase, were put up in bottles of 120 cc. capacity, as follows: (1) In bottle closed with cork stopper. (2) In bottle closed with cork stopper and paraffined. (3) 0.5 cc. of water in the bottle with the seeds and the diastase, the bottle sealed with pai'atfin. (4) 1 cc. of water in the bottle with the seeds and the diastase, the bottle sealed with paraffin. (5) 2 cc. of water in the bottle with the seeds and the diastase, the bottle sealed with paraffin. (6) 3 cc. of water in the bottle with the seeds and the diastase, the bottle sealed with paraffin. (7) 1 cc. of water in the bottle with the seeds and the diastase, the bottle sealed with paraffin. The water in each case was carefully added on small strips of filter paper and never were the seeds or the diastase wet, only becoming gradually moist as the water was absorbed. These different preparations, each containing one of each of the sam- ples of seeds and a definite cpiantity of the dry powdered diastase, were then maintained at the temperature of the laborator}^ for a period of 85 days. At the end of that time the vitality of the seeds was deter- mined and simultaneously the hydrolj^tic power of the diastase was ascertained. The results of the germination tests are given in Table XXIX. The effect of the increased quantity of moisture on the diastase is given in the discussion following the table. ENZYMES IN SEEDS. 85 Table XXIX. — Lohs hi vitality of seeds with varying degrees of moisture when kept at ordinary room temperature. [Duration of experiment, 85 days.] Labor- I'rcpa ration of sainiilf. ,\mount of water added. Percentage of germination. atory num- ber. Beans. Peas. Cabbage. Onion. Phlox. Pansy. Average of all samples. Control '1 ... cr. None... 90.0 90.0 91.5 95.0 41.25 46.0 7G.6 ir>i7 Corkod None... 98.0 96. 0 91.0 92.5 52.0 32.0 70.9 1548 I'araflined . . None . . . 96.0 92.0 91.5 9S.0 39. 5 31.0 73.8 154y do 0.5 %.0 92.0 89.0 88.8 28.5 25. 5 69.9 1550 do 1.0 9C.0 HS.O 89.0 64.0 12.5 18.0 61.2 1551 do 2.0 96.0 86.0 78.0 13.0 .6 2.5 46.0 1652 do 3.0 94.0 94.0 6.5.0 2.6 .5 .5 16.1 1553 do 4.0 90.0 81.6 54.5 .0 .0 .0 37.6 e percentao-e of jrorniination had decreased to 37.6 per cent, as compared with 7(5.6 per cent for the control samples. Moreover, in the latter case, the onion, phlox, and pansy seeds were killed. These r(\sults show that there is a remarkable uniformity l)ctween the loss in vitality of seeds and the loss in the enzymic action of the "Taka" diastase under similar conditions, but it does not furnish con- clusive e^•idence that the loss in vitality of the seeds is in any way governed by the particular enzymes present. In fact, the evidence at hand better substantiates the opposite view. In the first place dead seeds may still contain active ferments. Secondl}^ the prolonged sub- jection of seeds to the action of ether and chloroform is generally accompanied by a premature death, and if the seeds are moist the loss in vitality is nuich more marked. On the other hand, it is generally accepted that either of these gases exerts no injurious effect on the h3Hlrol vtic action of the various ferments. Townsend " has shown that the action of diastase on starch paste is even more energetic in the presence than in the absence of ether, ])ut in germination ether usuall}" has a retarding influence. In some cases, however, growth is stimu- lated b}^ the use of ether. In the third place enzjnnes can not be the chief factors controlling the vitality of a seed, because the more sensitive growing point of the radicle suffers injury much in advance of the other portions of the seed. Not infreciuentl}- in making germination tests do we tind that the gi-owing tip of the embrj^o is dead, while other portions of the seed may still be living and capable of carrying on all normal met- abolic processes. The l)ean is one of the best examples for demon- strating this fact. Here the radicle may be entirely dead, yet the cotyledons may still be able to make some growth; but in all seeds where the growing tip is dead the remaining portion of the radicle may be living, in which case adventitious roots ma}- be formed and growth wvAj continue for a considerable time, though very i-arely will a health}' seedling be developed. It thus seems quite clear that the real vital elements are closely associated with the growing point, and when this portion of the embrj'o is once dead the vital energy in the other parts of the seed is not of such a nature as to enable growth to con- tinue for any length of time. Even though the reserve food products are digested they can not be assimilated by the growing radicle, which should be the case were enzymes the chief elements to which the preservation of vitality is attributed. Enzymes play an imj)ortant part in the vitalitj' of seeds, and are undou))tedly necessar}' for the normal development of a seedling, but the points above given show that the life of a seed is not entirely «Bot. Gaz., 1890, 27: 458-4fifi. SUMMARY. 87 dopcndciil oil the sbil)ility of the particular ferment or feriuents present. There is sonictliiiii;' more remote, possibly of a simpler but probably of a more com[)lex composition, to which we nuist attribute the awakenint;- of the metabolic processes. Reference is not made here to the zymoj^enic substances which develop into the particular ferment, for what has been said of the latter a])[)Iies equally well to the former. If the zymogens were perfectly preserved the resulting ferments would l)e developed normally and germination would continue in the usual maimer. In conclusion, it may well be emphasized that no single element or compound can be isolated as the sole source of vitality in seeds. There must be a combination of factors, each of which plays an important role in the preservation of vitality. The destruction of an}' one of these factors ma}' upset the principles governing the life of a seed, and consequently cause a premature death. It is quite probable that the nucleus is one of the most important organs gov^erning vitality, for unless it continues to function no other growth can take i)lace. Other parts of the cell, however, may be of equal importance. At all events all hope of future gain must come from more critical studies of the cell contents to know their chemical composition and p()ssil)le reactions, A correct solution of these perplex- ing ([uestions is nothing less than a determination of the fundamental principles of life. What will l)e the ultimate results no one is prepared to sqj. SUMMARY. (1) A seed is a living organism, and must be dealt with as such if good results are expected when put under favorable conditions for germination. (2) The first factoi-s determining the vitality of a seed are maturity, weather conditions at the time of harvesting, and methods of harvest- ing and curing, (3) Immature seeds sown soon after gathering usually gemiinate readily, Init if stored they soon lose their vitality. On the other hand, well-matured seeds, harvested under favorable conditions, are com- paratively long lived when properly handled, (4:) Seed harvested in damp, rainy weather is much weaker in vital- ity than seed harvested under more favorable conditions. Likewise, seed once injured will never regain its full vigor. (5) The curing of the various seeds is of the utmost importance, and great care should be taken to prevent excessive heating, otherwise the vitality will be greatly lowered. (6) The life period of any species of seed, granting that it has beeii thoroughly matured and properly harvested and cured, is largely dependent on environment. 88 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. (7) The average life of seeds, as of plants, A'avies greatly with differ- ent families, oenera, or species, l)ut there is no relation between the longevity of plants and the A'iahle period of the seeds they bear. The seeds of some plants lose their vitalit}^ in a few weeks or months, while others remain viable for a nmiiber of years. (8) With special precautions and treatment there is no question that the life of seeds may be greatly prolonged bej^ond that which we know at present, though never for centuries, as is frequently stated. Cases so reported can not be taken as evidence of the longevity of seeds. (9) It is known that seeds retain their vitality much l)etter in some sections of the country than in others. The part which climatic influ- ences play in the vitality of seeds is of much more importance than is generally supposed. (10) Experiments have shown that moistmx' is the chief factor in determining the longevity of seeds as they are commerciall}' handled. Seeds stored in dry climates retain their vitality much })etter than when stored in places having a humid atmosphere. (11) The deleterious action of moisture is greatl}^ augmented if the temperature be increased. Not infrequent!}^ is vitality destro3^ed within a few weeks or months when the seeds arc stored in warm, moist climates. If stored in a dry climate, the question of temper- ature within the normal range is of little moment. (12) The storage room for seeds as they are ordinaril}^ handled should always be (h^y. If seeds could be kept dry and at the same time cool, the conditions would be almost ideal for the preservation of vitality; but the difficulties to be overcome in order to secure a dry and cool storage room render this method impracticable. (13) The most feasible method for keeping seeds dry and thus insur- ing strong vitality is to store them in well ventilated rooms kept dry by artifii-ial heat. This method of treatment requires that the seeds be well cured and well dried before storing. (14) If seeds are not well dried vitalit}' is best preserved at tempera- tures just above f reezing^ provided that the temperature is maintained uniformh^ (15) In no case must the temperature of the storage house be increased unless the seed is amply ventilated so that the moisture lib- erated from the seed can be carried off readily by the currents of warm air. If this precaution is not taken the increased humidity of the air confined ))etween the seeds will cause a marked injur}-. For this same reason seeds kept at low temperatures during the winter will deterior- ate in the warm weather of spring, especially if they contain much moisture. (16) Most seeds, if first carefully dried, can withstand long expos- ures to a temperature of 37° C. (98.6'^ F.) without injury, but long exposures to a temperature of from 39'^ to iC^ C. (102.2^ to 104'^ F.) SUMMARY. 89 will ciiiiso preniatiiro doath. If the seeds are kept in a moist atmos- phere a temperature of even 30^ C. {Sd'^' F.) will soon cause a marked injury. (IT) Seeds can endure an}' degree of dr3'ini>- without injury; that is, by di'yiii<»' in a vafuum over sulphuric acid. It is believed that such a reduction in the water content is necessar}' if vitalit}' is to be pre- served for a lonof period of years. However, with such treatment the seed coats become very firm, and there usualh' follows a retardation in germination as a I'esult of the inability of the seeds to absorb water rapidly enough to bring about the necessary physical and chemical transformations for the earlier stages of germination. (is) Seeds that ai'e to be sent to countries having moist climates should be put up in air-tight packages. Experiments have shown that I)}' the judicious use of bottles and paraffined packag(\s seeds can be preserved practically as well in one climate as in another. (19) It is of the utmost importance that the seeds be dry before being sealed in bottles or parallined packages. A drying of ten days at a temperature of from 30^ to 35^^ C. (86° to 95' F.) will usually be sufficient. However, a better method to follow is to dr}' until no more moisture is given off at a temperature equivalent to the maxi- nunn of the region in which the seeds are to be distributed. If this is not done, the subse([uent increase in temperature will liberate an additional (piantity of moisture, wdiich being confined in the package will leave the seeds in a humid atmosphere and a rapid deterioration in vitality will follow. (20) Experiments in storing seeds in open and sealed bottles and in packages with definite quantities of moisture and at various known temperatures have shown a ver}^ close relationship lietween the loss in vitality and the increase in water content, the deterioration likewise increasing with the temperature. (21) Of a series of experiments the average loss in vitality of seeds kept in envelopes in a " drj- room" was 21.19 per cent, "trade condi- tions" 36.63 per cent, "basement" 42.28 percent, while the loss in the case of seeds stored in bottles was only 8.08, 3.92, and 4.5i per cent, respectively. (See Table XXV.) (22) Seeds under ordinar}^ conditions of storage respire quite f reel}^, and respiration is nuich more rapid if much moisture is present. Within certain limits respiration is directly proportional to the amount of moisture present in the seed and inversely proportional to the duration of vitality. (23) Respiration is not necessary to the life of seeds, as they can be kept in conditions unfavorable for respiratory activity and still retain their vitality even better than under normal conditions of storage. Even though respiration })e entirely prevented seeds will continue to deteriorate, and sooner or later lose their vitality. 90 THE VITALITY AND GERMINATION OF SEEDS. (24) The continued deterioration in the vitality of a seed after res- piration has ceased indicates a chemical activity within the cells, giving rise to a transformation of energy which sooner or later leads to the death of the seed. (25) Respiration is almost as active in the dark as in the light, pro- vided that the temperature and humidity- remain the same. (26) Ferments and seeds lose all power of activity under similar conditions of moisture, and the former are undoubtedl}^ of the utmost importance in metabolic activity, but the evidence at hand goes to show that the life of a seed is not dependent on the preservation of the particular ferment involved or on the zymogenic substances giving rise to the enzyme. (27) The life of a seed is undoubtedly dependent on many factors, but the one important factor governing the longevity of good seed is dryness. LITERATURE CITED. Bonnier, G., et Mangin, Louis. La fonction respiratoire chez les v^g^taux. Ann. sc. nat. bot., s6r. 7, 2: 365-380, 1885. BoRNEMANN, G. Vcrsuche iiber Erhaltung der Keimfilhigkeit bei importirten Samen von Wasserpflanzen -wiihrend des Transportes. Gartenflora, 35: 532-534, 1886. Also abstract in Bot. Jahresber., Jahrg. XIV, Abt. I, p. 132, 1886. Brown, Horace T., and Escombe, F. Note on the influence of very low tempera- tures on the germinative power of seeds. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 62: 160-165, 1897-98. On the depletion of the endosperm of Hordeum vulgnre during germination. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, 63: 3-25, 1898. and Morris, M. Germination of some of the Graminese. Jour. Chem. Soc. London, 57: 458-528, 1890. Dammer, U. Verpacknng und Versandt von Samen, welehe ihre Keimkraft schnell verlieren. Zeitschr. f. trop. Landw., Bd. 1, No. 2, 1897. Abstract in Bot. Centralbl., 70: 196-197, 1897. De Candolle, Aug. Pyr. Physiologic v6g6tale (Conservation des graines), v. 2, p. 618, Paris, 1832. De Candolle, C. Sur la vie latente des graines. Arch, des sci. phys. et nat., ser. 4, 33: 497-512, 1895. Abstract in Amer. Gard., 18: 339, 1897. I^a vie latente des graines. Revue scientifique, ser. 4, 4: 321-326, 1895. Tlie latent vitality of seeds. Pop. Sci. Monthly, 51: 106-111, 1897. et Pictet, R. Recherches concernant Taction des basses temperatures sur la facult<5 germinative des graines. Arch, des sci. phys. et nat., s6r. 3, 2: 629-632, 1879. Abstract in Just's Botan. Jahresl)er., Jahrg. VII, Abt. 1, p. 253, 1879. Action d'un grand froid prolong^ sur des graines. Arch, des sci. phys. et nat., ser. 3, 11: 325-327, 1884. Abstract in Just's Bot. Jahresber., Jahrg. XII, Abt. 1, p. 26, 1884. Detmer, W. Vergleichende Physiologic des Keimungsprocesses der Samen, Jena, 1880. Dewar and McKendrick. On liquid aiiv Proc. Roy. Inst., 12: 699, 1892. Dixon, H. H. Vitality of seeds. Nature, 64: 256-257, 1901. LITERATURE CITED. 91 Dixox, II. II. On tho fjorinination of soo/ liurcau. PASTURE, IIEADOW, AND F01{A(;E CROPS IN NEBRASKA. BY T. r.. LYON, Agricultukist, Nebraska E.m'kuimknt Station,' AND A. s. iirrc'iicocK, Assistant Agkostologist, in Charge of CoorERATivE Experiments, U. S. Department of Agriculture. GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. Issued Apkil 29, 1904. WASHINGTON: GOYERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1904. BIREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Beverly T. Galloway, <1iief. J. E. Rockwell, Editor. GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. Scientific Staff. \V. J. Spillmax, Ai/r<)slolo(/id. A. S. Hitchcock, Assistaitt ^l(jrostolo(ji>n, J), r.. March Z^, i-W//-. Sir: 1 have tho honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled "'Pas- ture, ]\Iea(l()w. and Fora^(> Crops in Nebraska," and respectfully recom- mend that it be published as P>ulletin No. 5<) of the series of this Bureau. This paper was prepared by Mr. T. L. Lyon, Aoriculturist of the Ncl)raska Experiment Station, and Mr. A. S. Hitchcock, Assistant Agrostologist, in Charge of Cooperative Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investicrations, and has been submitted ])y the AgTOS- tohigist with a view to publication. The illustrations, consisting of six half-tone plates and eight text figures, are necessarv to a full understanding of the text. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. 3' PREFACE During the past few 3'ears 11 largo number of tests of grasses and forage plants have been made by the Nebraska Agricultural Experi- ment Station in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture. The Department has furnished a part of the seeds for these tests, and has from time to time, at the rociuost of the director of the station, made suggestions regarding the nature and plans of the work to be done. At the request of Prof. T. L. Lyon. Associate Director of the Station, Prof. A. S. llitchcock, of this Otiic(>. visited the station during the past winter and prepared the following ))ulletin from notes made by the officers of the station. It is a matter of gratification that these notes were in such form as to render the task comparatively easy. The present paper contains the results of the cooperative experi- ments and also some general information upon the forage conditions of Nebraska, in the preparation of which Professor Hitchcock has been in constant consultation with Professor Lyon. The results of these experiments are of interest to many of the surroundinof States having: similar climatic conditions and in which many of the same forage plants are grown. W. J. SriLLMAN, Agrostologist. Office of the Agrostologist, Wdnh'mgton, D. C, February 27, 1904-. 5 C () X [ ]l \ T S Page. Introrlnction 9 Climatic and soil conditions of Nel)rasl^a 13 Rainfall 13 Temperature 14 Physiogi-aphv 15 Soil ..:....." 16 Crops 16 Classification of foraj^e plants 18 Duration 18 Perennials 18 Annuals 18 Natural groups 19 Legumes 19 Grasses 19 Miscellaneous 20 Methods of utilizing the crops 20 Pastures 20 Meadows 21 Soiling crops 21 Silage - - 22 Results of experiments with grasses and forage plants at the Nebraska Experi- ment Station 23 Grasses and forage plants which have given successful results 23 Brome-grass 23 Results of cooperative experiments 24 Alfalfa - - 25 Cooperative experiments with alfalfa 26 Alfalfa seed from different sources 27 Turkestan alfalfa 27 Peruvian alfalfa 28 Samarkand alfalfa 28 Seed from different States 28 Other experiments with alfalfa 28 Meadow fescue ^1- Orchard grass ^-' Timothy ^^ Clovers ^ Kentucky bluegrass ^^ Redtop ^^ Side-oats grama Wheat-grasses Grasses and legumes of less importance 38 7 8 CONTENTS. Page. Pastures and meadows 42 Native grasses - - 42 Care of native pastures and meadows - 43 Tame pastures at the Nebraska Experiment Station 44 The seed bed for grasses and clovers ,45 Annual forage crops - 45 Sorghum - - 45 Millet -- - 46 Co\Vpea. - 47 Small grains 48 Corn 48 Soy bean 49 Rape - 50 Canada field pea - - 50 Vetch - 50 Plants which can not be recommended 51 Index of grasses and forage plants : - 57 Description of plates 64 ILLUSTRATIONS. PLATES. Page. Plate I. Grass garden, Nebraska Experiment Station Frontispiece. II. Alfalfa showing nitrogen-gathering tubercules 64 III. Fig. 1 . — Brome-grass, sown in the autumn. Fig. 2. — Alfalfa, sown in the autumn 64 IV. Fig. 1. — Brome-grass, fertilized and imfertilized. Fig. 2. — Field of orchard grass 64 V. Fig. 1. — Brome-grass. Newly turned sod. Fig. 2. — Brome-grass. A hay field ....." 64 VI. Fig. 1. — Side-oats grama, grown from seed. Fig. 2. — Elymus canadensis, grown from seed 64 TEXT FIGURES. Fig. 1. — Localities in Nebraska where prairie haj* is grown 9 2. — Localities in Nebraska where millet is grown 9 3. — Localities in Nebraska where alfalfa is grown 10 4. — Localities in Nebraska where clover is grown 11 5.— Localities in Nebraska where tame grasses are grown. 12 6. — Localities in Nebraska where coarse forage is grown 12 7. — Normal annual rainfall for Nebraska 13 8. — Normal rainfall in Nebraska during the growing season, April to September 14 T.r. I.— 95. G. F. P. I.— 103. PASTURE, MEADOW, AND FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. INTRODUCTION. The value of the hay and forage crop of the United States may best be presented by reciting a few facts taken from the agricultural statis- iiZ 1. Fig. 1.— Localities in Nebraska wlicru prairie hay is growTi. Each dot represents 2,000 acres. tics given in the Report of the Twelfth Census, where it is shown that in 1899, out of a total valuation for all crops of $2,910,13S,<;r)3, the value of the hay and forage crop was $484,256,846, or 16.6 per cent. Fig. 2.— Localities in Nebraska where millet is grown. Each dot represents 100 acres. The value of this crop is greater than that of any other, with the single exception of corn, which had a valuation that year of $828,258,326. 9 10 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. From the same source it is learned that out of a total valuption of $92,050,580 for all crops grown in Nebraska in 1899, the forage crop was worth $11,230,901, or 12.2 per cent. Table I. — Statistics for Nebraska of hay and forage crops for 1899, taken from the Report of the Twelfth Census. Total acreage devoted to hay and forage crops 2, 823, 652 Total acreage devoted to all crops 15, 153, 956 Total acreage of improved land 18, 432, 595 Per cent of acreage of forage crops to that of all crops 18. 6 Per cent of acreage of forage crops to that of improved land 15. 3 Value of all croi)s §92. 056, 580 Value of forage crops $11, 230, 901 Per cent of value of forage crops to that of all crops 12. 2 Average value per acre of all crops :. $6. 07 Average value per acre of forage crops 1 $3. 98 Tons of forage crops ( excluding cornstalks) 3, 502, 380 Average value per ton $3. 19 ms^ Fig. 3. — Localities in Nebraslia wliore alfalfa is grown. Each dot represents 100 acres. During the year mentioned Nebraska produced 2.3 per cent of the total valuation of the forage crop of the United States, ranking thir- teenth in this respect. New York was first, with 11.1 per cent. The records show that during the last three decades the average 5deld per acre in Nebraska has decreased, while that of the entire United States has increased: Year. Nebraska. United States. 1899 Tons. 1.2 1.3 1.5 Tons. 1.4 1889 1 3 1879 1.1 In 1880 Nebraska was eighteenth among the States in the per cent of the total acreage that was devoted to forage crops, the percentage being 1.7. In 1890 and 1900 it stood ninth, with a percentage of 1.6. INTRODUCTION. 11 In tonnaj^c the figures are much the same, Nebraska ranking in ISOO as the thirty-second State in the Union, with only 0.1 per cent of the totiil; in 18T<>, twenty-third, with 0.6 per cent; 1S80, fifteenth, with 2.2 per cent; 18i)0, ninth, with 4.7 per cent; 1900, ninth, with 1.1 per cent. Fig. 4. — Localities in Nebraska where clover is grown. Each dot represents 100 acres. Equally interesting arc the figures showing the acreage, tonnage, and yield of the various forage crops in 1899, as classified in the census rejDort, as follows: Crop. Prairie hay Millet Alfalfa Clover other tame grasses Coarse forage Rank of State. 1 2 6 15 27 9 Acreage. 2,248,927 191,347 115,142 42,447 92, 895 90, 828 Tonnage. 2,416,468 357, 356 275,334 72, 747 143, 109 183,097 Average yield per acre. Tons. 1.1 1.9 2.4 1.7 1.5 2.0 For comparison the following table is given of the acreage of the leading States for the above crops: Crop. state. Acreage. Millet Kansas 349, 906 Alfalfa Colorado 455,237 Clov6r . . . - Indiana 776, 810 Other tame erasses New York Kansas 4,758,523 1,041,447 In this classification the term "other tame grasses" includes in Nebraska chiefly timothy (also timothy and clover mixed) and brome- grass, and some bluegrass. Forage refers to sorghum, Kafir corn, 12 FOEAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. and corn that was cut green for forage. It does not, however, include corn that was cut and allowed to ripen in the shock, or what is usually known as corn fodder. It appears that Nebraska also produced 8,150 bushels of clover seed, valued at ^37,332, and 41,810 ])ushels of other grass seed, valued at $32,150. Fio. 5.— Localities in Nebraska where tame grasses are grown. Each dot represents 100 acres. The accompanying maps (figs. 1-6) show graphically the distrilnition of the chief forage crops of Nebraska hy counties. The distribution is based upon the tables given above. Each large dot represents 100 acres, except in the map illustrating the acreage of prairie hay, where each Fig. 6.— Ix)caliticB in Nebraska where coarse forage is grown. Each dot represents 100 acres. dot represents 2,000 acres. From 50 to.ll:9 acres would be represented by one dot; 150 to 210 acres by two dots. Each small dot represents 10 '38.8.S1. 3 3ti. 2 4y, 3'35. 1 >4. 422. 9 34. 7 19.1|22. 21. 4]20. 18.521. 19. 2 25. 20.819. 18.9,19. 16.319. 48. OJSS. 2J49. 8131.8 50. o:m.0 5o, 0 35. 5 51 5 32. 6 49, 2'31.l'49. 0131. 6 50, 18.3:18.4 .8 I 20. 7; 19, 16.9J21, 26. 9 23. 23. 3 22, J.. 32. 3 49. 31. 1 48. 5j31.2|47. 9 33. 1 46. 5 33. 2 47. 7 61.8 163.1 3 61.1 9 02. 4 l'60.9 6l62.8'71. 8 60.0 70. 0 58.2 67. 9 59. 6 69. 8'60.3f)9. 0 58.9,69. 6 60. 2 70. .0 61.7J71. 7 60. 6 69. 6 59. oas. I 6 58. 4 70. 0 62.0[71. .58. 9167. 55. 8l67. 55.8i65. 56. 4 65. 9 76.3 9 77.0 70, 71, 70.4 75.7 71. 70. 6.6 75.5 76.2 ■5.8 73.5 74.4 75. 2i73. l|73.7l70. 5 75. 3 72. 66.4 67 2 65. 8 5-J 66.5 54 64.9 52. 66. 9 54. 05.151. 62. 4 49. 04. 7 .52. 04. 0,50. 38.7 39.8 0 37. 6 I 4 38. 4 5j35.6 6'39. 0 70. 2,73. 73.4171. 73.8 71. 37.0 35. 2 3 30. 0 7134. 4 3 B a . - S £ o 29. 4 50. 29. 6 52. 27. 0 49. 1 30.0 50. 27. 0|49. 31.152. 28. 0 50. 27.1 28. 5 24.4'48. 63.0 (i4.5 t>4.8 6 63. 5 6 62. 5 74.3 76.4 73.3 73.3 71.6 72. 0 70. 8 65. 64.6 03.4 01.0 01.0 61.2 0 33.9 20.147. 6 35. o'25. 0 48. 9 30. 6 26. 7 49. 7 33.9 8 32.7 0|34.3 1134.1 9 33. 5 34.3 36.2 35.2 23.6 25.3 27.8 21.9 24.9 47 27.2 28.5 28.2 a a ^ B u SB -15.4 -18 -15.8 -16.7 -18.2 -19.0 :?!4 ACFBJ -0.2 -20. 9 -15.2! 20. 5' 22.9 21.3 24.0 -23.1 20.3 23.8! -29 35 -32 -34 -33 -35 -35 -35 -38 -35 -30 -31 26 -33 -40 -33 -33 -37 -30 -37 PHYSIOGRAPHY. Nebraska lies in the central portion of the Great Plains region, and extends from the Missouri River to the foothills of the Rockv Moun- tains, 104^ west longitude, and between the fortieth and forty-third parallels of latitude. The area is 76,794 square miles. As to general topography, the State is little diversified, consisting for the most part of undulating prairies. The extreme eastern portion of the State along the Missouri River is forested, or was covered with forest before the timber was removed. These forests extended west along the rivers, the trees becoming fewer in number and species until the}^ finally disappeared about halfway across the State. The prairies are covered with herbaceous vegetation, a large proportion of which consists of various species of nutritious grasses, which will be discussed briefly in another paragraph. The altitude varies from a little less than 1,000 feet in the south- eastern part to about 5,000 feet in the western portion of the State. For a discussion of the botanical areas of the State and their relation to climatic and soil condition, the reader is referred to various articles by Dr. C. E. Bessey, in the reports of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, and more particularly to the Phy togeography of Nebraska by Pound and Clements. 16 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. SOIL. A full discussion of the soils of Nebraska is given in the report of the geologist, E. H. Barbour, in the Annual Report of the State Board of Agriculture for 1894, page 61. It may l^e remarked that the basis of the agricultural soils of Nebraska is silt rather than cla3% such as is found in the Eastern States. The State is divided into live soil regions, two of which — the Bad Lands and the Western Region — are in the extreme western portion of the State, and do not lie in what is now a crop district. The other three are the Drift, Loess, and Sand Hill regions. From the crop standpoint the first is the most important, as it lies in the region of greatest rainfidl. The Drift is of glacial origin, and is agriculturally a rich soil. The Loess, or wind drift, is a deposit covering all the southern portion of the State, and is a}' I 'ich soil. The Sand Hills, which comprise the northern por- tioi I - the State north of the Platte and extend from Holt to Deuel counties, are less adapted to crops, but locally, where the con- ditions of moisture are favorable, results show that the agricultural possibilities are considerable. In general, it may l)e said that the soils of Nebraska are highly favorable for the production of crops and the product is limited chiefly by rainfall and to a less extent by temperature. In many parts of the State there are small areas of soil, known as gumbo, which are poorly suited to crops, being too alkaline or too poorly drained. But such areas are relatively very iusigniticaut. CROPS. East of the one hundredth meridian the rainfall is usually suflicient for the cultivation of crops without irrigation. This meridian is approximately that precipitation line for the annual rainfall of 20 inches. West of this, crops of some kinds are uncertain under the present methods of farming, although winter wheat and such drought- resistant plants as sorghum and Kafir corn are grown. The climate here is characterized by being very hot in summer and very cold in winter. The snowfall is usually slight. It is in this region that irrigation has reached its greatest development, although it is practiced occasionally in the eastern portion of the State to supplement the rainfall. CROPS. 17 Tlio follow in*,' t:il)los, taken from the Twclftli Census report, ^ive the :iv:iilal>l(' statistic-^ foi' irrirjation in Nebraska : T.MU.K IN'. — Xtimher of acres irrigated, hy ronnlies, 1899. County. 1 Acres. County. Acres. County. Acres. BiifFalo 1,393 1 21,288 4.027 Holt 2,218 12,646 4,225 , 22, .508 1,488 1,542 .^cott.s BliifT 29,244 1,433 10,083 Choveniie Keith Sioux Dawes Kimball All other counties.. Dawson 20, 097 Lincoln DeuL'l 11,794 , 4, .552 I'latte Total 148,538 Dundy Redwillow Table V. — Arreage of rropH produced on irrigated land, 1899. Crop. Acres. Crop. Acres. Crop. Acres. Com 33,078 14,143 5,090 940 7n 10 47, 890 868 ; 1 Alfalfa or lucem 22, 172 Clover 47 Sweet potatoes Onions ,>s Wheat 68 Oats Barlev Other tanu- and cul- tivated gra.s.ses Grains cut green for hav 206 892 Miscellaneous vege- tables 651 Rve Dry peas 2 Buckwheat ( I rapes 7 Prairie grasses • Forage crops 417 126 1,075 Orchard fruits Small fruits 1 ''34 Millet and Hungarian Dry beans Potatoes 64 grasses Most of tho irriiration isalon<^ the Platte River, from Dawson ('ounty to the western l)ordcr of the State, and is maintained l)y ditches from the rivers. A few acres are irrigated by windmills and wells (843 acres in 1899). It follows that in tlie western portion of the State, aside from the comparatively insignificant irrigated areas, the principal industry is stock raising. The herds are allowed to graze all summer and a con- siderable portion of the winter upon the open grassy plains or range. The wandering of the herds is usually limited principally b}^ access to water. Stock raising is also an important industry in the eastern portion of the State, but the amount of open range is ])ecoming much reduced. On the other hand, on account of the greater rainfall and other condi- tions favorable for growing forage crops, the same area will support more stock than in the western portion. The principal field crops grown in Nebraska, arranged according to their value, are corn, wheat, oats, hay and forage, potatoes, and vege- tables. 23059— No. 59—04 2 18 FOEAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. The following table gives the acreage and value of these crops for 1899: Table VI. — Acreage and value of crops for 1899. Crop. Acreage. Value. Corn 7,336,187 Wheat 2,;^38,949 Oats Hay and forage Potatoes Vegetables 1,924,827 2, 823, 652 79,901 34, (M4 851, 251, 213 11, 877, 347 11, 333, 393 11, 230, 901 1, 734, 666 1, 383, 470 Of lesser importance are rye, barley, fruit, sugar beets, and broom corn. CLASSIFICATION OF FORAGE PLANTS. Forage plants may be classitied, according to duration, into peren- nials and annuals; according to kind, into grasses, legumes, and mis- cellaneous; according to use, into pasture, meadow, soiling, and silage plants. DURATIOX. PerenniaU. — This group includes those plants which live more than one year. The forage plants under consideration are all herbs, of which most of the portion above ground dies during winter, but the roots live and throw up new shoots the following spring. For most purposes it is manifesth^ an advantage that a crop should yield returns 5^ear after 3 ear without the expense of reseeding. On the other hand, the actual yield of forage the first season is almost always less with a perennial than with an annual, and furthermore, a per- ennial may not lend itself to the most desirable rotation. The impor- tant perennial forage crops of Nebraska are alfalfa, clover, brome- grass, timothy, and bluegrass. Some of these, such as timothy and clover, are known as short-lived perennials; that is, as a crop they tend to disappear in two or three years to such an extent that they need reseeding. This is also true of such grasses as Italian rye-grass. Annuals. — These are plants which reach their maturity during the season that the}" are planted and then die. Common examples of this group are the grains, corn, sorghum, millet, cowpea, soy bean, and rape. Where land is \aluable and it is necessaiT to grow a maximum crop upon a given area, annuals are more profitalde as forage crops than perennials; or when it is desired to produce a crop at a given season of the year, such as early or late pasture of rye. a succession of succulent forage for dairy cattle, or a catch crop to utilize the land, annuals are invariablv used. CLASSIFICATION OK FORAGE CROPS. 19 Some plants, which arc normally annuals, are sown in the autinnn, and aftiM- niakinii: a growth of foiiauc that season, lie more or less dormant durin<:- tht> winter ami rcsumii growth the following spring, reaehini- maturity in tlu' earlv sunnuer. This is true of rye, some vai'ieties of wheat, and some of the orasses. The seventy of the winter determines in many cases whether plants may be used in this way. Many crops that are spring sow n in the Northern States are fall sown ill the South. Furthermore, some plants can be made to live for an abnormally long period by frecjucnt mowing, thus pre- venting the production of seed. NATURAL GROUPS. Liyuiiics. — This imi)ortant group of plants includes the clovers, alfalfa, the cowpea, soy bean, the vetches, the garden beans and peas, and all similar plants, and it derives its importance from the fact that both the seeds and the foliage arc richer in nitrogen than other forage plants. Since the proteids, or nitrogen-containing materials, are the most expensive portion of feeding rations, the growing of legumes for forage has long been recognized as an important factor in the economy of agriculture. But furthermore, as is well known, the legumes have the power, not possessed by other forage plants, of utilizing the free nitrogen of the air ])v means of the nodules on their roots. (See PI. II.) When Icirumes arc turned under as green maiuire, or even if the tops arc removed by mowing and the roots allowed to remain in the soil, the nitroo-en content of the latter is increased. Since nitrogen is a very essential plant food, and is one of the first to be exhausted in soils upon which crops are grown, and since this element is the most expensive to add in the form of fertilizer, the importance of growing legumes in rotation with other crops for the purpose of renovating the soil is quite evident. These facts emphasize the necessity of adopting a system of agriculture for a given region which shall include the growing of suitable crops of legumes in the rotation, thus utilizing the crop as for- age and at the same time keeping up the fertility of the soil. The leguminous forage crops adapted to Nebraska are alfalfa and ]-ed clover, which are perennials, the latter usually short lived, and cowpeas and soy beans, which are annuals. In addition to these, white clover and alsike clover are occasionally used. Grasses. — The great bulk of the forage plants, not included in the above group of legumes, belongs to the natural group of plants known as grasses, which includes besides the common meadow and pasture grasses, both wild and cultivated, such plants as the grains or cereals, sorghum, millet, and the sugarcane of the South. The grasses do not have the power of adding nitrogen to the soil after the manner of the legumes. Most of our native grasses are perennials, as are also our 20 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. cultivated pasture and meadow o-msses, such as ))romc-grass, orchard grass, meadow fescue, and timothy, though the latter is short lived. Miscellaneous.— A.h\([q from the two large groups mentioned above there are a few forage plants which bear no close natural relation to these and are most conveniently considered under this heading. The only important plant of this category that is adapted to Nebraska con- ditions is rape. Australian saltbush belongs here and has received some attention, but as yet it has not shown itself to be of particular value in that State. METHODS OF UTILIZING THE CROPS. Pastvres. — In general the term pasture may be applied to all cases where stock is allowed to feed directly upon the growing plants. Where the area is unfenced and consists of native vegetation it is called open range, or simply range. In some parts of the United States, especially the Southern States, the range consists of forest, but in Nebraska the range is the unfenced portion of the Great Plains region, the vegetation consisting of native grasses. The subject of the range will be considered in another part of this bulletin. In the ordinary and popular sense pasture refers to fenced areas of native or cultivated perennial forage crops upon which stock feeds at will. All the perennial forage plants are used for this purpose, although alfalfa and clover must be used with caution in order to prevent bloating. Another important class of pastures, especially where land is rela- tively valuable and a more intensive system of agriculture is employed, is that of temporary or annual pastures. In winter-wheat regions it is a common practice to pasture the grain during favorable portions of the fall and winter. In this case the pasturing is incidental. On the other hand it is a not uncommon prac- tice to sow wheat or, more frequently, rye in the fall for pasture pur- poses alone, a crop of grain, if secured at all, being secondary. Tem- porary pastures are used for two purposes. (1) To extend the pas- ture season over a greater portion of the year than can be done with ordinary permanent pasture. For this purpose wheat or rye give early and late pasture, and certain summer annuals can l)e used to supple- ment the permanent pastures during the dry summer season, w^hich usually occurs in July or August. (2) By successive sowing of the proper plants succulent feed may be provided through the season so as to yield a maximum crop from each area. This is particularly applicable to dairy districts. It is often convenient and economical in growing a succession of succulent crops to cut the green feed and supply the stock either in the permanent pasture or in the stalls or yards, as will be referred to under soiling. The proper rotation of such annual pasture for Nebraska will be discussed in a separate paragraph. METHODS OF T^TILTZINO THE CROPS. 21 Tilt* phiiits wh'u'li can 1)0 used to advaiitai^c in Nebraska For teiu porarv i)astint' are the trains as mentioned al)()ve, rape, cowpea, and soy bean. The various kinds of sor^-huin, cspeciall}" the ordinary sugar sorghum or cane, are used in Texas and northward for this pur- pose. In the southern portion of this area sorghum ean usually be used for pastin-e with impunity, l)ut in Nebraska its use in this way is attended with some risk from poisoning. An account of this sub- ject will be found in Bulletin No. 77, Nebraska Experiment Station. Meadotrs. — ^The term meadow is applied to land where the crop is cut for hay, whether fenced or unfenced. When the hay is cut from native o-rass land, the land is calbnl a wild meadow. As shown bv the statistics in the tirst part of this bulletin, the wild meadow land of Nebraska amounts to over 2,000,000 acres and i)roduces about 2,500,000 tons of hay. Nebraska leads all States in the acreage of its wild meadows. The grasses composing this wild hay will be discussed in another para- graph devoted to the native grasses. The tame meadows consist in that State of alfalfa, timothy, clover, and brome-irrass. Orchard orass and meadow fescue are used to a limited extent and their wider use is to be recommended. Some annual plants are widely used for ha}', such as millet, sorghum, Kafir corn, and corn. For this purpose the last three are sown thickly in order to produce a large number of small stalks. These coarse plants are often grown in rows and cultivated, the nearly mature stalks l)eing cut l)y hand or with a corn binder and shocked, when the dried material is called fodder rather than hay. In a oeneral sense, however, it is hav and contributes no inconsiderable amount to the sum total of dry, rough feed. The same remarks are true of the corn fodder which results after the ears have been removed, althouoh such fodder if it is fathered at the time most favorable for grain production from necessit}' is relativel}' poorer in nutrient material than that cut earlier. Ordinary corn fodder has about the same feed- ino- value as oat straw. When corn is husked in the field the remain- ing stalks are usually utilized by turning stock upon them. Aside from the waste grain recovered such stalks have very little nutriment. In the Southern States the cowpeas and soy beans are widely used for hay, l)ut in Nebraska they have not l)een used for this purpose, for which they are not so well adapted as other hay plants. Soiling (yt'ops. — The feeding of cut green forage to stock in the stall, yard, or pasture is known as soiling. The advantage of soiling is the saving of fodder when compared with pasturing upon the same field, as in the latter case there is some loss from trampling. This is especially true of the coarse fodders, such as corn and sorghum. Other ad^'an- tages of minor importance are that by soiling the rations of animals may be more definitel}' controlled, that fodder may l)e taken from fields a part of which is to be used for other purposes, and that this 22 FOKAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. method avoids the necessity in pasturing- the fields of subdividino- them b3\erectino- permanent or temporary fences. The great disadvantage of isoiling is the extra expense of the kibor necessary in cutting, haul- ing, and feeding the green forage. For this reason it is not practical>le to utilize forage in this way on an}- large scale except in intensive farm- ing, more particularly dairy farming in Nebraska. On a small scale almost every farmer cuts in earl}" summer green grain, especially oats or rj'e, to feed to hogs or cattle. Later in the summer corn is cut and fed in the same manner, supplementing the pastures, which usually develop a shortage in August. The sum total of forage used in this way in Nebraska is not inconsiderable, yet in most cases it is incidental and the crops are not sown primarily for soiling purposes; neither is the soiling usualh" a definite part of the system of agriculture. In dairy farming it may be advantageous to adopt soiling as a definite system in order to obtain a maximum yield of succulent forage from a small area. For this purpose it is best to plan a series of 1 crops which will form a succession through the growing season. The individual crops depend upon the locality and must be chosen to suit conditions. Near large cities, where land is valuable, it often pays to have such a succession which, combined with silage during the winter, will give green feed the entire j^ear. Usually, however, at least in Nebraska, soiling is resorted to only to fill in the gaps of a succulent pasture series, even in dair}* farming. For example, early and late green feed may be produced by a pasture of rye. A proper sowing of oats or rye may then furnish soiling in connection with grass pasture. If there is suflicient area of pasture this may furnish all the feed necessar}" during May and June, but such pasture usually shows a marked falling ofl' about the 1st of Julv, as is indicated by the shrinkage in the milk flow. This shrinkage should bv all means be avoided, and it is therefore desirable to furnish at this time soiling crops for the rest of the summer in connection with the pasture. Besides the small grains and corn mentioned, there are several other plants that can be used for soiling, particularlj" sorghum, Kafir corn, cowpeas, soy beans, and rape. The latter is not so well adapted to milch cows, as there is danger of tainting the milk. Alfalfa and clover can be used, but in Nebraska they haA'e no special adaptation for this purpose. Rape is an excellent soiling crop for hogs, sheep, or growing cattle during the autumn. For further information on this subject the reader is referred to the article in the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1899, page 613, entitled "Succulent forage for the farm and dairy," by Thomas A. Williams. Silage. — Forage preserved in a green state in such a manner as to prevent decomposition or drying is called silage. The pits, rooms, or tanks in which the forage is preserved are known as silos. The RESULTS OF EXPPZRIMENTS. 23 jidvantaoe of silag-o is that the ])onefits derived from feeding" succulent foruoe may be continued through the winter. As in the case of soil- ing crops, silage is used chietl\' in connection with dair}^ farming. 1^3^ far the best crop for the silo, where that crop can be raised, is green corn. As it is not the i)urpose of this bulletin to deal particularl}^ with this subject, the reader is referred for further information to Faimers' Bulletin No. 3'2 of the United States Department of Agri- culture and to other publications dealing with silos and silage. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS WITH GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS AT THE NEBRASKA EXPERIMENT STATION. GKASSKS AND FORAGE PLANTS W'lIICH HAVE GIVEN SUCCESSFLT. RESULTS OR ARE W^ORTHY OF FUHTIIEll TRIAL. Bromk-CtRAss. An extended account of brome-grass {Broiinis mermis) will be found in Bulletin Bl of the Nebraska Station and also in Circular 18 of the Division of Agrostology', United States Department of Agriculture. This valuable grass has been tested over a wide area in the United States, but it finds its best development in the region from Kansas northward in the Great Plains, and west into Montana and eastern Washington. It gives fair results east of this region, but in the Eastern States is unable to compete with timothy and ))luegrass. In the Southern States it has not given satisfactory results. Numerous trials of this grass have been made at the Nebraska Sta- tion under varying conditions, both in combination with other grasses and with alfalfa. In general the grass has given good results and has shown that it is better adapted to the conditions obtaining in Nebraska than any other of the cultivated forage grasses, with the exception of meadow fescue and possibl}- orchard g-rass, both of which have given good results.* A plot sown in the spring of 1897 (0.136 acre) yielded June 27, 1900, 580 pounds of haj^, or at the rate of 2.32 tons per acre. On April 8, 1901, as the grass was turning green, the east half of the plot was disked. During the remainder of the season there seemed to be no difference between the disked and undisked portions. In 1903, the plot yielded 1.32 tons of hay per acre on June 10. Other plots yielded at about the same rate. One plot sown in April, 1899, and giving a cutting of hay June 27, 1900, at the rate of 3.8 tons per acre (220 pounds on 16i by 76 feet) was treated October 5 with 300 pounds of well-rotted horse manure, and the following spring wdth 10 pounds of sodium nitrate (Chile salt- peter). On account of the drought no crop of hay was obtained in 1901, but this plot Avas distinctl.y better in appearance than untreated contiguous plots. June 16, 1903, the plot yielded 170 pounds of hay, 24 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. or 5,666 pounds per acre, while a check plot 3delded at the rate of 2,166 pounds per acre. One plot sown in spring of 1900 and manured in the autumn of 1901, gave June 23, 1902, 1.66 tons of hay per acre, and June 16, 1903, 1.7 tons, and in each case the aftermath was fine and would have produced an excellent pasture. The plots were all greatly affected b}- the drought in the summer of 1901, but recovered in the autumn and showed that although they had been dried up they were unhurt. A sowing at the rate of 14 pounds per acre on one plot showed that much more seed was produced than upon plots more thickly sown. This plot was thoroughly disked in the spring of 1903, with the result that the growth the following season was not improved. In order to test spring and fall sowing, one plot was sown October 5, 1900, at the rate of 25 pounds per acre, upon disked land, and another April 8, 1901, at the same rate and upon ground prepared in the same wa}^ Although there was a good stand of grass obtained from fall sowing, there was no noticeable difference the following season between the two plots. In order to test the time of seeding several plots were sown broad- cast on the following dates in 1902: March 24, April 8, April 21, May 7, May 19, August 7, August 19, September 15, October 1, and Octo- ber 21. All showed a good stand on May 1 of the following year and no injury from winter killing, except the last sowing, which had barely sprouted and was then killed by the cold. With this exception all yielded good crops of hay on June 23. (See PI. Ill, fig. 1.) If the soil is in proper condition it is probalde that brome -grass may be sown any time from April to the first of October. Brome-grass was sown in 1898 with bluegrass and with red clover. In both cases there was a good stand of brome-grass at first, but where combined with bluegrass the latter gradually increased in proportion until in 1903 it was estimated that the plot contained two-thirds bluegrass. The red clover was also able to hold its own with the brome-o-rass in those years favorable to the growth of clover, but the dry season of 1901 nearly exterminated the clover from the plot. In the paragraph upon pastures it will be noted that when ])rome- grass was sown with other grasses it was usually able to crowd out its competitors. RESULTS OF COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS. The United States Department of Agricidture has distributed seed of brome-grass through the Nebraska Experiment Station to a num})er of farmers with the understanding that reports upon the results obtained would be made. These cooperative distributions were made between 1898 and 1902. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS. 25 There wore l7o replies received from those who have orowii hroine- o-rass, of which 'My reported faihires. Of these faihires 2(5 were in the southwestern portion of the State, from McPherson to Chase and Franklin counties. The reasons for failure were mostly because the seed did not j>erminate or «>ave a very scattering stand, but 8 failures were due to the depredations of ^grasshoppers. The remaining 13-i replies have been summarized as follows: The present condition of the field of grass was reported good by 100, while 13 stated that the condition was poor. Spring sowing was recom- mended l)y S6 and fall sowing by 22. That a stand of brome-grass is easi(n- to obtain than of other grasses was stated ))y 48, while 4:2 thought that this was not the case. A few had tried sowing brome-grass with other crops but with varied results. With alfalfa, there were 5 suc- cesses and 2 failures; with clover 3 successes and 2 failures. Three reported a successful stand when sown upon prairie sod, while 5 failed in this. That this is a good hay grass w^as reported ))y 42, while 17 thought not. As a pasture grass, all except 2 reported favorably so far as this point was touched upon, while 42 stated that it was good for early and 4!> for late pasture. Twenty-four stated that it was good for winter pasture. The drought resistance was reported good by 53 and poor by only one: The reports of 14 farmers show ed that it was s-ood for sandv soil and 50 stated that it made a good sod. Alfalfa. The well-known perennial legume alfalfa {Medicago mti/m, PI. II) is the most valuable forage plant grown in Nebraska. E\'ery eti'ort should be made to extend the culture of this plant to ail parts of the State. Being a legume it is highly nutritious; ])eing a perennial it produces a permanent meadow; being palatal >le it is relished by all kinds of stock. Although it is valuable as a pasture plant it is not entirely suited to this purpose. Close pasturing is likely to kill it out in spots. The great value of alfalfa lies in the production of hay. The reader is referred to Farmers' Bulletin No. 31, United States De- partment of Agriculture, for details in regard to this plant. It may be briefly remarked here, however, that in growing alfalfa the ground should be well prepared, as free as possiljle from weeds, and the seed should be sown when the soil is in favorable condition for germination. The seed should be sown alone at the rate of about 20 pounds per acre, broadcast or, better, in drills. Where possi)>le Neln-aska-grown seed should be used, or at least seed grown under about the same conditions. 26 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. COOPERATIVE EXPERIMENTS WITH ALFALFA. Press Bulletin No. 10 of the Nel)raska Experiinent Station, entitled "Alfalfa Experiences," gives the following- s^ummar}' of results obtained hy grower.s of alfalfa in that State: Daring the winter of 1902 a list of between 600 and 700 successful alfalfa raisers in this State was collecited, and to eacli was sent a report blank calling for a definite statemeit regarding a nunilier of the processes he employed in obtaining his stand of alfalfa, and also regarding his subsequent care of the crop. More than 500 satis- factory replies were received, representing 80 counties in the State. A study of this large number of reports from successful alfalfa raisers gives some valuable informa- tion respecting alfalfa culture. There were 288 stands reported upon upland, and 27P> u])on bottom land. Even in the western portion of the State the amount of alfalfa on the upland is shown to be considerable, and very satisfactory results are evidently obtained, althorigh naturally the yields of hay are smaller than on the bottom lands of that region. In the eastern part of the State somewhat heavier yields appear to be obtained from bottom land, but loss from winter killing or other cause is greater. Twenty-three reports state that upland is more satisfactory than bottom land. These come princi- pally from the eastern portion of the State or the irrigated land of the western portion. An astonishing feature of the replies is the large amount of alfalfa that they show to be growing on land with a clay subsoil. Sandy clay, clay loam, clay and lime, etc., were not counted as clay. In spite of this limitation, 245 clay or guml)o sub- soils are reported. A clay or even a gumbo subsoil does not appear to be a barrier to successful alfalfa culture. The seed bed was prepared bj- plowing and further working in 373 cases, and by disking or cultivating in 75. Among the latter is one method that appears to l)e popular and satisfactory. This consists in thoroughly disking corn land after all trash has been removed from the field. In the western part of the State there are a number of good stands of alfalfa obtained by breaking prairie sod, disking it, and harrowing in the seed. Also by disking the unbroken sod and harrowing in the seed. The latter commends itself as an easy way of supplementing the native grasses in i)astures. The tendency to dispense with plowing on unirrigated land increases with the distance westward from the Missouri. A study of the dates of sowing alfalfa seed in the spring shows a range from early March to late June, although where advice was volunteered it was practically unani- mous in favor of early sowing. There were only 8 reports of summer or fall sowing, of which 1 was sown in July, 4 in August, and 3 in September. In 108 cases a nurse crop was used, while in 393 cases the alfalfa seed was sown with- out that of any other croj). The use of the nurse crop was largely confined to extreme eastern Nebraska and the irrigated land of the West. Many persons who used a nurse crop say that they would not do so again. It has been recommended to use a light seeding of small grain, sown earlier or with the alfalfa, to prevent damage by severe winds. When sown in this way the nurse crop is mown when 8 or 10 inches high, to prevent it smothering the alfalfa. In 55 cases the seed was put in with a drill, and in 447 cases it was sown broad- cast. This is at least an indication that if a drill is not available a satisfactory stand can be obtained by broadcasting and harrowing in, provided the other conditions are favorable. There were 138 reports of less than 20 pounds of seed per acre l>eing used, and 336 reports of 20 pounds or more being sown. The evidence seems to be in favor of the use of at least 20 pounds of seed per acre. EXPERIMENTS WITH ALFALFA. 27 Of the iiorsons ro])lyinji to the inquiries, 221 have stiinds of alfuh'a that yield more than 4 tons of eured liay per aere ea(!h season, while 157 do not get as much as 4 tons of liay per arre. Of i>ers(ins liavini^])raetice innuedi- ately before seeding or by spreading it on the field after a stand had been obtained, 110 obtained beneficial results, and 13 found it to be ineffective or injurious. Objec- tions are based on the claim that plowing in manure causes the soil to dry out, but objections to spreailing manure on alfalfa are rather indefinite in their nature, except that on low land it makes the growth too rank, and the alfalfa falls down. Many of those who advocate its use specify that the manure should be rotted and fine. One man suggests harrowing after spreading, to fine it. The reports of beneficial results from plowing under manure come largely from the eastern jiortion of the State, but the use of fine manure applie5 pounds (3,025 pounds per acre), and a second crop on July 23, weighing 500 pounds (2,500 pounds per acre), making 2.75 tons of hay per acre, besides fall pasturage. It was noted that this plot started one week earlier in the spring than the ordinary alfalfa, but did not continue growth so late in the autumn. At no time did it grow so tall as ordinary alfalfa, })ut the stand was much thicker, and there appeared to be less tendency for the crowns to become large and crowd out weaker plants, as is the case with ordinary alfalfa. As compared with the latter the leaves and espec- ially" the stems are smaller. A second plot, one-tenth acre," drilled in rows 6 inches apart May 24, 1898, gave a good stand, with no loss from winter killing the tirst year and yielded 215 pounds of hay (2,150 pounds per acre) on June 17, 1899. The third year the yields of hay from one-eighth acre were «The plots here, as in several other cases, are 66 feet by 76 feet and contiguous on the longer sides. If the marginal growth was greater than the central, 5 feet was mowed off each end, reducing the plots to 66 by 66 feet, or one-tenth of an acre, and thus eliminating the marginal factor. 28 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. as follows: June U, 515 pounds; July 20, 590 pounds; August 20, 305 pounds, or a total for the season of 5.64 tons per acre. In 1901 the jaeld on the one-eighth acre was: June 5, 645 pounds; July 19, 160 pounds; August 20, 125 pounds; a total of 3.22 tons per acre. In 1902 the yield on June 9 was -145 pounds; in 1903, June 11, 475 pounds; July 23, 365 pounds; a total of 3.34 tons per acre. The results of this test are especially satisfactory, as showing that Turkestan alfalfa is well adapted to Nebraska conditions, and that in a dry season such as 1901 it yields larger crops than the ordinary alfalfa. Peruvian aJfaJfa. — Seed was obtained from C. Bonitiez, Peru, through the Division of Agrostology of the Department of Agricul- ture, and was sown on May 11, 1900. The stand was good and the growth vigorous, but the plot was badly injured each winter, till, in 1903,- there was none remaining. Samarlcand aJfaJ/a.—Sown May 11, 1900. The stand was good and subsequent growth vigorous, with no loss from winter killing; but the growth was not so tall as common alfalfa, or as Turkestan alfalfa. In 19(>2 and 1903 crops were obtained from this plot, but the plot is too small for an accurate estimate of the yield to be determined. Owing to the small growth, it was estimated that the yields were less than from the ordinary or the Turkestan alfalfa. To offset the effect of shorter growth the stand is much thicker than that of ordinary alfalfa. It appears to be a strong drought-resisting plant, and if it is to have any value it w^ill be on the highlands of the West. Seed from different States.— AXMi^ obtained from five different States — Arizona, California, Colorado, Kansas, and Utah— was tested. The plots were sown in 1S98 by drilling the seed in rows 6 inches apart. They all grew about equally well until the winter of 1898-99, when the alfalfa from Arizona and California was almost entirely killed out. At the same time the Colorado alfalfa was injured, while the Utah and Kansas plants did not suffer so much as those just men- tioned, though more than the Turkestan alfalfa or that from Nebraska- grown seed. There was no further marked loss from winter killing until the winter of 1902-3, when the remainder of the Arizona and California plants entirely disappeared, the Colorado crop suffered further injury, and both the Utah and Kansas alfalfa were injured to some extent. The conclusions to be drawn from this experiment are that it is not desirable to bring alfalfa seed from a southern to a more northern region, or from an irrigated to a nonirrigated soil. OTHER EXPERIMENTS WITH ALFALFA. A series of experiments was carried on for the purpose of testing the effect of planting alfalfa in rows and the effect of a few kinds of fertilizers. Plot 43, drilled 24 inches apart, and plot 44, drilled 18 EXrpmiMENTS WITH ALFALFA. 29 inches a]):irt. won> cultivjitod l>y hatui, uiid plot 45, drilled (> inches apart, was cultivated by hiin-owiiio-. The results show that there is little ditierence in the yitdd unch-r the ditierent treatments, and that there is no advanta.oo in i)lantin Nel>rasUa Station, The individual plants tend to grow lar«,^er and the stems fall over, tillint,^ the space between the rows. As the larger crowns with age tend to rise above the soil, the mowing becomes more difficult and there is more loss of foliage than wdien the seed is sown thickly. It is (|uite possible that in the drier portion of the State the moisture could be conserved by cultivation and a crop produced when under ordinary methods there would be failure. On the other hand, the extra expense of such treat- ment is likely to more than oti'set any such advantage. In the Southern States alfalfa is frequently raised in nnvs and cultivated, as it can thus be more easily kept free from weeds; but such methods are used only on a small scale. The treatment of plots wnth fertilizer showed no marked advan- tageous effect. Plots 4t) to 4!) were treated respectively with fertilizer at the following rate per acre: One ton gypsum, 1 ton lime cake, 2 tons lime cake, 8 tons hog manure. In order to determine the effect of using heavy or light seed, com- mon alfalfa seed was separat(^d by a grain grader into approximately equal parts of heavy and light weight. This was sown by drilling in 1902. On June 23, 1903, a cutting was made from each plot. The light seed yielded at the rate of 2,500 pounds per acre, and the heavy . seed at the rate of 8,000 pounds per acre. The notes made at the time show that l)oth plots were weedy the first year, but the second year there was a much thinner stand in the plot from light seeds. To test the eti'ect of seeding at different tiiues plots of common and Turkestan alfalfa were sown by drilling and ))y broadcasting from spring till fall, in 1902, on the following dates: March 10, March 21, April 8, April 21, May 7, May 19, August 7, August 19, September 15, October 1, October 21. On account of lack of seed the experiment with Turkestan alfalfa was discontinued after August 19. The plots of this variety showed a good stand in almost every case and no injury during the succeeding winter. The sowings of common alfalfa during March, April, and on May 7 gave a fair to good stand, but were all seriously injured the following winter. Later sowings gave good results and not much injury from winter killing except that the sowing of October 21 was a failure, as the plants did not reach a sufficient size to withstand the winter. It was also observed that of the fall-sown plots those sown broadcast gave a much better stand than those that were drilled. (See PI. Ill, fig. 2.) These experiments, as well as the experience of alfalfa growers, 30 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. show that alfalfa may be sown at any time of the year from spring to early fall, provided the soil is in the proper condition as to tilth and moisture. In the eastern part of Nebraska summer and fall sowings may be advantageous because of the Aveeds. The soil may be freed from weeds during summer and thus the alfalfa is given a chance to get a start. To test the relative value of sowing seed alone or with a nurse crop, two one-fifth acre plots were planted with 5 pounds of seed on April S, 1901. On plot No. 1 the seed was sown alone. A good stand followed, with vigorous growth, though some plants were killed during the winter of 1902-3. The result was entirely satisfactory. The plot was disked in the same manner as No. 2. On plot No. 2 the seed was sown with 2 peck of oats. On June 28, 1901, 58 pounds of oats were gathered, followed by a fair stand of alfalfa l)y October. In the spring of 1902 the stand was very poor, but after lieing disked and harrowed (March 22) there was some recovery and a good stand resulted in the spring of 1903, though there had been some loss during the preceding winter. The results show that a good stand is more certain to follow sowing alone, the growth of alfalfa being vigorous the first season, while if sown with a nurse crop the alfalfa does not reach its maxinuun till the second season and there is some risk of a poor stand. The poor results the first season are partly ofiset by the oat crop gained. A third plot was treated in the same manner as No. 2, with the intention of mowing the oats for hay, but the dry spring ripened the oats prematurely. The results otherwise were similar to plot No. 2. A series of experiments has now been in progress for three years to test the effect of combining alfalfa with various grasses. In the spring of 1901 plots one-fifth acre in size were sown with the following mixtures: Alfalfa, 5 pounds; brome-grass, 3 pounds. Alfalfa, 4 pounds; brome-grass, 4 pounds. Alfalfa, 4 pounds; bluegrass, 3 pounds. Alfalfa, 4 pounds; meadow fescue, 5 pounds. Alfalfa, ] pound; brome-grass, h pound; red clover, J pound; white clover, \ pound; bluegrass, I pound ; meadow fescue, i pound ; orchard grass, ^ pound ; timothy, 1 pound ; perennial rye-grass, 1 pound; tall oat-grass, z pound. Alfalfa, 4 pounds; timothy, 5 pounds. In all cases there was a good stand of alfalfa the first year, and scarcely any of the grasses could be found. All of the plots were disked and harrowed in the spring of 1902. During this season there was a good growth of alfalfa and onl}^ a little grass to be seen. This result is especially noteworthy for the plot containing only 1 pound of alfalfa, with several grasses. It was not till the third year that the grasses began to assert themselves. In all the plots the grass consti- tuted a considerable portion of the plots except in the case of the EXPERIMENTS WITH ALFALFA. 31 mixturo with timotliv. wlncli appears to bo uiuil)le to compete with alfalfa. In the mixture of several j^rasses it was the orchard oruss that took the lead, the ])lot l)eiiio- estimated to consist of about one- third of this o-rass. Another plot of alfalfa and brome-gTass sown in equal parts in 1899 has had a similar development, but at the present time the l)rome- grass has succeeded in nearly crowdino- out the alfalfa. In the plots where l)rome-o-rass was sown with alfalfa — both the conunon and Turkestan — it was noted that the grass appeared mort> vigorous in those places where the alfalfa was thickest, and that the grass in these plots appeared also to be more vigorous than in adjacent plots where there was no alfalfa. It would ai)])ear that the ])rome-grass derived some advantage from the fertilizing etlect of the alfalfa. (See PI. IV, tig. 2.) It will be of interest to record here the results obtained hy two correspondents in sowing alfalfa upon native grass in the sand-hill region. William Faoan, foreman of the Robert Tavlor ranch at Abbott, Hall County, states that he disked the sandy sod three times, lapping the disk half each time, and sowed 20 pounds of seed ])er acre. This was in the spring of 1902. A good stand was obtained, and in 1908 a crop of hay was cut consisting of about one-third prairie hay and two-thirds alfalfa. The alfalfa succeeded better on the knolls where the sod was more thoroughly ])roken. Mr. H. yV. Sullivan, Broken Bow, Custer County, states: "Begin- ning in the early spring and continuing up until August, I caused light sandy soil to be broken. I disked this well, harrowed it down smoothly, put seed in with a press drill, 15 pounds to the acre, and got a splendid stand on every foot of it.'' He remarks that the best stand seemed to follow the August sowing. Meadow Fescue. Meadow fescue {Festticajyratensis) is a native of Europe and has been cultivated in this country for many years. It can not compete with timothy Avhere the latter is at its best, but being more drought resist- ant, its range is somewhat more extended in the West, as indicated in the paragraph upon orchard grass. It is more common in the Middle South, Avhere it is grown as a winter grass, being sown in the autunni. In Nebraska it is recommended that it be sown with orchard grass in the spring. It can also be sown alone or with clover, and in Nebraska is best adapted for pasture, though it can also be used for hay. For the latter purpose, however, brome-grass or alfalfa give better returns. Many seedsmen sell meadow fescue under the name of English blue- grass, but the latter name is inappropriate, as the grass is not a 32 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. bluograss, and the term' English bluegrass is sometimes appHed to a ditterent plant. A closely allied grass is tall fescue {Festuca elatlor). Botanicall}^ they are usually considered to he the same species, but agriculturally there is considerable difference, and, for Nebraska conditions, in favor of the meadow fescue. For further notes upon this grass see the paragraph upon grass mixtures. One plot, 76 by 132 feet in size, sown in the spring of 1900 and manured in the fall of 1901, gave on June 23, 1902, 7.50 pounds of hay, or 3,150 pounds per acre. The grass was injured somewhat by the drought of 1901, but recovered sufficiently to give good fall pasture. The fourth year, June 16, 1903. this plot gave a cutting of hay of 670 pounds, or at the rate of 2,836 pounds per acre. Another plot (one-eighth acrei drilled in rows on May 25, 1897, gave on June 27, 1900, a cutting o, 800 pounds of hay, or at the rate of 2,400 pounds per acre. The growth in the following years was good, but the notes show that the grass does not start to grow so early in the spring as brome-grass. Eight growers of meadow fescue have reported upon their results. All report that their fields are now in good condition, but the reports are etiually divided as to the advantages of spring and fall sowing, while five state that it is easier to obtain a stand of this than of other grass. Several have tried meadow fescue mixed with timothy, clover, or alfalfa, all of which trials were successful. Orchakd Gkass. Orchard grass {Dactylis glomeratd) is a native of Europe, ))ut has been cultivated in this country since the middle of the eighteenth century. It is a Inmch grass, and when sown alone forms tufts which in time become large tussocks, considerably raised above the general surface of the soil. This is a hindrance to the mowing machine and also a waste of land. For this reason it is recommended that orchard grass be combined with some other grass, for which purpose meadow fescue and brome-grass are best adapted to Nebraska conditions. Orchard grass is one of the most nutritious and palatable of the cultivated meadow grasses. It thrives in more shaded situations than other meadow grasses, for which reason it is often planted in orchards; hence the name. It withstands drought better than timo- thy, and consequently can be grown farther west in Nebraska than can timothy. The chief disadvantage of orchard grass is the greater expense of the seed. Orchard grass and meadow fescue, sometimes combined with red clover, are to be recommended especially for pasture in that part of Nebraska west of the timothy belt as far as about the ninety-ninth ORCHARD GRASS TIMOTHY. 33 nieiidhiii. bevoiul which the sumnior conditions become too seveie. It is true thsit tiekls of these grasses usually dry up more or less during the middle of sununer, hut the same is true of all available pasture grasses, it being necessary to supplement them during this M>ason with green feed,suchas cane orcorn. On theother hand, orchard grass and meadow fescue furnish green feed in early spring and late fall, seasons when the wild pastures arc not available. The seed should ))e sown in the spring at the rate of about '20 pounds of orchard grass and 15 pounds of meadow fescue per acre. LTidess the ground is free from weeds it will be necessar}' to mow once or twice during the lirst season to keep the weeds down until th(^ grass is well established. When grown for hay the grass should be cut in blossom, as at a later period the value of the hay rapidly decreases. Orchard grass has been grown on the Nebraska Station farm for several years and lias given \-ery satisfactor}' results. (See PI. IV, tig. I.) The reader is referred to the paragraph upon grass mixtures for further information as to this grass. Timothy Timothy {PJihuin jtratensi) is a native of Europe, and is said to have been brought to Maryland in 1720 by Timothy Hanson, for whom it was named. The history of this standaid meadow grass is somewhat obscure, however. The name herd's grass, l»y which it is known in New England, is said to have been derived from a Mr. Herd, who found it growing wild in New^ Hampshire and introduced it into cultivation. Timothy is cultivated in Europe, while in the United States it is the common meadow grass through all the Northern States as far Avest as eastern Nel>raska and south to Virginia and Tennessee, and even farther in the mountains. It is also cultivated in the Rocky Mountains at high altitudes, in the irrigated districts of the Northwest, and the moist region of western Oregon and Washington. Timothy is a less nutritious grass than most of the other cultivated grasses, but it has a great advantage from the fact that seed of good quality is easily produced for the market and hence is cheap,, and because the grass may be easily grown and handled. In Nebraska timothy can be grown successfully only in the eastern counties, although it is being gradually pushed westward, and there are many fields that give fairly good results as far west as the ninety-ninth meridian, or even farther when there is an abundant water supply near the surface. However, these are isolated cases and represent localities where the conditions are especially favorable, and it can not be said that timothy is to be depended upon much west of the line indicating 30 inches of annual rainfall. Timothy is chiefly used for meadows, but may be also used for pas- tures. When sown alone there is some danger of injury from close 23059— No. 59—04 3 34 FORAGE CEOPS IN NEBRASKA. pasturing, as stock arc likelj^ to pull up the bulblets at the base of the stems and thus destroy the crown. It is usually sown, when intended for pasture, with red clover. AVhe.i used for hay it is also frequently combined with clover, which is Acry satisfactory for home use, as the clover increases its feeding value. Upon the hay market, however, pure timothy brings a higher price than mixed; hence when grown for sale timothy is usually sown alone. It may also be remarked that the soil conditions of Nebraska are not suited to the best development of timothy, even where the rainfall is sufficient, as the soil is of a sandy tjiic rather than clay. . Timothy may be sown in th(i autumn or spring. If sown alone it is best to sow in the fall, as a full crop can then be ol)tained the following year. If sown in the spring there is not generally a full crop till the second year and hence some time is lost. It is usual in Nebraska to combine it with clover and sow with a nurse crop, the object of the latter being to obtain more from the land the first year. As the timothy and clover may not reach their full develoi)ment the first season, the grain crop is thrown in for economy. Where winter wheat is grown it is common to use this as the nurse crop, sowing the timothy and wheat in the fall and the clover the following spring. The wheat and timothy can not be sown mixed in a drill on account of the difi'erence in the size of the seed, but they may be sown at the same time by using a wheat drill having a special attachment. The timothy may be sown in the spring, but in that case should be sown early, about the time the snow is dis- appearing and while the ground is wet. If there is no snow and the ground is dry the timothy is likely to fail. The cloviM' is sown in the spring in either case and later than is suitable for timothy, usually the first part of April. The amount of seed used is from (> to 8 quarts of timothy and 8 to 10 pounds of clover. When combined with grain the timothy and clover produce a good growth after the grass is cut, and may l)e lightly pas- tured the same year. The following year one or more crops of hay may be cut or the field may be pastured, according to circumstances. When timothy is sown alone there is some danger in Ne])raska of injury to the roots after the cuttings, as they may ])e unduly exposed to the hot sunshine during dry weather. There is less danger of this when clover is used in combination. Clovers. Red clover {Trlfol/Hiii 2ymt('n.s,)^ the standard forage legume of the Northeastern States, can be grown in the eastern counties over about the same area as timothy. As clover is usually combined with timo- thy for both pasture and meadow, its cultivation lias been considered in connection with the latter plant. \n the census returns <-ite(l va the introduction to this bulletin mixed timothy and clo\er are included CLOVERS KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS. 35 uiHlcr "othor tamo j^'ra^iscs. ^ As Nebraska is croditod Avith 4*J,(»(»0 acres of clover and i>2,0<>() jicivs of other tame orasses, it is qiiit(> likidy that a hir*:fe ]H()])ortion of th(^ latter area is devoted to timotliy and cIo\"(M" mixed. Red clover has heen orown upon the Nel)raska Station farm for many yeai's with threat success. ]\Iammoth clo\'er is a \ariety of red clover of more \'igorous ji^rowth and lon«,^er lived than t\\v ordinary kind. The seed was sown at the Nel)raska Station in I'.mki. and uave a i,rii>l, which was vciv dry during- the hite summer, the grass continued in good condition in spite of the drought, and produced a crop of seed on .\ugust "21 and a second crop October 1(), after which it kept green (hiring tall. 'Piiis plot contimied to give good results during l!»0-J (see PI. VI, tig. 1), hut as it does not form a close sod it gives a chance^ for various weeds to become estaldished between the bunches. In 1 <>():-> the plot had greatly deteriorated and the orass was iinallv driven out bv weeds. Taking everything into consideration this is a very promising grass for the drier regiojis of Nebraska. It is a native of tlii> plains and furnishes excellent forage for pastui-e and also promises well for hay. An important point in its favor is the fact that the plants seed abun- dantlvand th(5 seed is easily gathered — of good (piality, and easily sown. On account of the tendency to grow in l»uiiches it may be best to sow this with some other grass, such as hronie-giass, or even with alfalfa. Much of the success in growing tins grass d«>pends upon securing good seed. Ill (he experiment noted at>ove. the seed was obtained from a plot previously grown upon the farm. Other plots of the same grass sown with seed obtained from the r)(>partm(>nt of Agriculture were failures on account of low vitality. The Kansas Kxperiment Station reports good n^sults in the cultui-e of this grass (Hulletin 102). AViikat-Grasses. Western wheat-grass {A(jr(>j>!/r(>ii oceUlentdli) is connnonly found in the western portion of the (rreat Plains, extending into the mountains. It propagates by stout creeping rootstocks, but does not form a close sod. In the west, from Colorado to Montana, it is called bluestem, Colorado Iduestem, or Colorado grass, and it forms the ])ulk of the native ha}' of this region. It grows on bench land or ])ottom land, and though the yield per acre is not large it furnishes more hay than any other common grass of this region. The foliage is stift' and harsh, but the quality of the hay is good and it is readily eaten by stock. The trials on the ph^ts at the Nebraska station Avere satisfactory. Where a good- stand was ol)tained the plant showed that it could with- stand drought and produce a good crop of hay. One plot of one-iifth of an acre, sown in lOOl, and on account of the poor stand resown the following year, produced on June 23, 1908, 457 pounds of hay, or at the rate of 2,485 pounds to the acre. Wheat-gvass is in fact one of the most promising of our native ha}' grasses. The seed is produced in aliiuidance and is easily gath- ered. Experiments at stations in the arid regions have usually given good results. The rootstocks soon till the soil and the field may require rejuvenating. This can be accomplished by disking or harrowing to cut up the rootstocks, as is often done upon the native meadows. 38 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. Although Agropyron repens^ known as quack-g-rass, quitch-grass, and couch-grass, is a pestiferous weed in the Eastern States, yet for Nebraska it shows many qualities which reconnucnd it as a hay grass. The grass is nutritious, palatable, drought resistant, and thickens up readily to form a good stand. It is true that it may tend to spread where it becomes established, Imt in the semiarid regions such a quality in an otherwise desirable grass woidd be readily overlooked. Four years' testing of this grass upon the station plots shows that it I'ccov- ered easily from the drought of 1901 and formed a good growth of hay in 1902 and 1903. Slender wheat-grass {Agi'oinjron tenerxnii) is a native of the North- western States from western Nebraska to Canada and westward. This has been recognized in the region to the north of Nebraska as a valu- able -wild grass and has already been brought into cultivation, so that the seed can ))e obtained of several seedsmen in the Northwest. It resembles A. occidentale in many respects, but differs in the important fact that it is a bunch grass, and does not s[)read by creeping root- stocks. Like the other wheat-grasses, the seed habits are good, and it gives promise of meeting the requirements of a ha}' grass for the Northwest. One plot at the Nebraska Station, sown in 189T, was apparently much injured by the drought of 1901, but the following spring it quickly recovered and produced a thick stand of excellent hay. Another plot, one-tifth acre in size, sown in 1901, had a similar his- tory, 1 ut it was resown in the spring of 1902, produced a good stand, and gave a cutting of hay on July 23 of -1.57 pounds, or at the rate of 2285 pounds to the acre. Grasses and Lrgtimes op Less Importance. Bnj hhiestem. {Andropogon fitrcafuK). — This is one of the tall grasses common over the prairie region and forms, probal)ly, the most valua- ble constituent of native hay produced in eastern Kansas, (Cistern Nebraska, and Iowa. It is usually called bluestem, or bluejoint, and is characterized by having the seed in croAvfoot clusters at the top of the stem, ])y which it may ))e distinguished from the l)luejoint of Colorado, which is a wheat-grass, and from the bluejoint of Minnesota, which is a grass of low grounds rather than prairies. The station plot gave i-ather unsatisfactory results on account of the poor stand obtained, but the Ininches that were produced grew well. Although a valuable grass, the seed haljits are such that it is not likel}" to adapt itself to cultivation. The seed is produced in small quantity, is of uncertain vitality, and the seed stalks var}' so in height that it is not readil}" harvested. The allied A. .^eojxir/ux. which is another important native hay grass, called little bluestejn, or, on the plains, '' bunch-grass," has not been LESS IMPORTANT GRASSES AND LEGUMES. 39 tested at the Nebraska Station, l)iit the above renuirks concerning the seed habits apply nearly as well to this species. Indian grufix {Aiidropixjon initani<). ~X tall grass growing- in the Eastern States and westward nearly to the mountains. It forms an important constituent of all the wild hay of the ])rairie regions except toward the north. It is of especial value on account of its numerous root leaves, The plot of this grass tested gave tinally a luxuriant growth of foliage, althougii it was injured somewhat hy the drought of 15H)1. The poor seed habits of this grass stand in the way of its cultivation. The seed is usually not verj' abundant and is often of low vitality. Tall oat-graKH {Arrheiiatherun) elatius). — One of the European meadow grasses which has been grown on a small scale in this country for many years. As it is a bunch grass and does not form a close sod it should not be used alone, ])ut doubtless it will be a valuable addition to a mixture such as orchard grass and meadow f(>scue. It is fairl}^ drought resistant, and has the ([ualit}' of producing a comparatively rank growth the lirst season, for which reason it has found favor as a whiter pasture grass in the South. In general, however, it seems to be ])etter adapted to meadows than to pastures. The station plots gave a good growth of forage which produced excellent hay. One plot, one-lifth acre in size, sown in 1!)()1 and resown in 1!>()2, produced on June 23, -tlO pounds of hay, or at the rate of 2,050 pounds to the acre. After the cuttino- a tine aftermath Avas formed. In 1908 the same plot j'ielded (June 10) only 310 pounds, or at the rate of 1,550 pounds to the acre, ))earing out the experience elsewhere that a meadow of tall oat-grass reaches its maximum development early and then deteriorates. Blue graiiut {Bouteloua ollgostachyd). — Blue grama is one of the important constituents of upland grazing regions of the Great Plains and is often called butfalo grass, but it should l)e distinguished from the true buffalo grass with which it is usuall}^ associated. Blue grama does not produce so large a quantity of seed and the seed is not so easily gathered or handled as side-oats grama, but ranchmen state that it is superior to this grass in nutritive qualities and palatability, and furthermore. that it forms a thick sod, while the other does not. The growth is short, usually about a foot high, and hence this grass is not adapted for hay except under favorable conditions, though for pasture it is exceedingly valuable. Seed was sown on one plot in 1898 and on a second plot in 1900. The grass was slow^ to start from seed and the growth in the spring was slow even when the plot was established, but the stand thickened up w^ell, and during the dry season of 1901 it was the only grass ])esides side-oats grama that gave sufficient growth for pasture during the period of extreme drought. 40 FORAGE CROPR IN NEBRASKA. Western hrome {Bromus carinatus hooJceriamis). — Three trials of this gave negative results on account of the failure of the seed to germi- nate, but one plot sown in the spring of 1902 with seed from the grass garden of the Department of Agriculture at Washington gave good results and showed that the grass is at least promising for the semiarid regions. Trials at stations in the Northwest have also shown that this species gives much promise. This grass is closelj" allied to B. iii(ir(/i iKitus. Western hrome {Bi'omvs 'inargincdns). — Four trials of this grass showed that it is well adapted to the conditions in Nebraska, giving a good growth and resisting the dr}^ weather of 1901, and that it is not injured in the winter. The foliage is rather coarse and not as leafy as would be desirable, but the grass is well worth an extended trial. Biiffdh) tjrass {BulhUi.H (lactyloidex). — Buffalo grass is the common ''short grass" of the Great Plains, and forms a close, thick sod hy means of its numerous creeping stolons. It is entirely resistant to drought, it is very nutritious, and it cures upon the ground, thus fur- nishing winter feed to the range cattle. The grass forms the seed close to the ground in little nut-like clusters that are likel}" to escape the casual observer. The staminato or male flowers are produced in little spikes or flags, which are raised a few inches above the ground and are nmch more easilj' distinguished than are the pistilhite or female flowers that produce the seed. The seed, however, is quite fertile, but is so difficult to gather that it will never be practicable to grow buffalo grass from the seed. If it is desired to produce a field of buffalo grass it should be started from the cuttings. For this pur- pose the sod should be cut into small pieces and planted upon prepared soil. The pieces can be dropped upon the surface of the soil and forced into the ground by stepping upon them. The distance apart depends upon the desirability of ol)taining a thick stand at once. If the pieces of sod are placed 2 feet apart each way, they will thicken up between fairly well in one season. In experiments at the Nel)raska Station the seed failed to germinate. Wild rye {Ehpiiiifi canadens!!^). — A common grass in many parts of the United States and extending over a large part of Nebraska, where it is found chiefly in draws and low places. It produces a large amount of hay of good quality, though rather coarse. It resists drought quite well and seems well worth an extended trial as a meadow grass. One plot on the station grounds, sown in 1901 (see PI. VI, fig. 2), was cut on July 2(1, 1902, and yielded at the rate of 5,875 pounds to the acre (1,175 pounds on one-fifth acre). The same plot yielded on July 23, 1903, at the rate of 3,700 pounds per acre. The shattered seed from the plot germinated in the autumn of 1902 and produced a good stand the following season. The cutting was made after the grass had headed out, but foi- the best hay the cutting should LESS IMPORTANT OR ASSES AND LECUTMES. 41 be mado imich hefon* tin- lioiids appoar. 'Plit' form here cultivatod is soiuotiiiu's ivforivd to as K. rohiisfiis. L7 i///ii(^ rir(/i/iici(s.— The same remarks apply (o this species as to E. conademin, but this i»rass shows the effect of drouj^iit more quickly tliaii that species. Kli/iin(s virgin!) IIS sulmiuticus. — The results with this variety are moi'c satisfactory than with tln^ species. /innjrosfi.^ trill/ is. -Vlns orass has o;iven good results in the plots, and promises well as a hay grass, although th<^ foliage is rather wiry. The grass is a native of sandy regions of tlic plains, and it may prove valuable in the Sand Hills. ]\'i/(l tiiHotliij {Mulilriihrrgiii n/rritiosa). — A native grass found in moist places through the Northern States west to the Rocky Moun- tains. In Nebraska it is a common constituent of slough-grass hay. The results upon the station plots show that this grass can be culti- vated and a fair (piality of hay produced. JapiUKs, hiiniijiti'iJ niilh't {Piniieiiiii crus-galli). — An annual grass of much nutritive value which gives a luxuriant growth of fodder suit- able for coarse hay. The station plot of this grass, one-tifth acre, sown March 2"2, yielded on July iJ(), VMyi, l.loo pounds of hay, or at the rate of r),.oO() pounds to the acre. The 3'ield should have been much iru>-h(M-, but the stand was not of the best. There is no doubt that this is a good annual hay grass for portions of Nebraska which arc not too drv, but as it has no especial advantage over millet and is inferior to sorghum it probably will not be used extensiveh'. Some seedsmen have sold this under the name of Billion Dollar Grass. Swltch-grassi {Panicuiii virgatum). — A bunch grass which is one of the important constituents of prairie ha}" in Nebraska and is well worth cultivating. The plot at the station was unsatisfactor}' on account of the poor stand, but the bunches present produced a good quality of h^siy. The grass is quite resistant to drought and produces a quantity of seed which is usually of good (piality. Reed canary grass {Phalaris arundinacea). — A native of marshes and sloughs through the northern tier of States. In the northern por- tion of the Great Plains it forms a large part of the native hav, which is generally recognized as of excellent quality. Although a native of wet soil it gives good results on comparatively dry soil. It is to be reconunended for cultivation in the States from Minnesota to Wash- ington, and south probably as far as northern Kansas, but in the south- ern portion of the range is adapted only to low meadows. The great disadvantage of this grass at present is the difficulty of obtaining good seed. Ordinarily the seed shatters easily at maturity. The results of the trial at the station were unsatisfactory from the fact that there was a very thin stand, which was probaldy due to poor seed. The com- mon ribbon grass of gardens is a variety of this species. 42 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA, Stipa rohusta. — A native of the Rocky Mountain regions and the western portion of the Great Plains, where it is a common constituent of the native ha}'. The station plot sown in 1897 withstood the drought of 1901 and gave good crops of ha}- in 1902 and 1903. This grass is worthy of an extended trial. PASTURES AND MEADOWS. NATIVE GRASSES. Since the native grasses and forage plants play such an important role in the agricultural economy of Nel^raska, it will not be out of place to discuss them brieflv. Thev have been verv thorouohlv studied b}^ Dr. C. E. Bessev and other ])otanists of the State and for detailed infonuation the reader is referred to articles by Dr. Besse}' in the reports of the Nebraska State Board of Agriculture from 1886 to 1896, to the Phytogeography of Ne))raska, ])v Pound and Clements, the Flora of the Sand Hills, l)v Rvdberg, and to various articles on the grasses of Nebraska by Webber, Smith, and others. The agricultural grasses are divided into two types, according to root formation — ))unch grasses and sod formers. The bunch grasses form a crown which increases from year to year and becomes in tiiue a raised tussock. Where bunch grasses abound there is no continuous sod but a succession of tussocks with bare soil between which sup- ports a variety of other plants scattered here and there. Some of the common ])unch grasses are l)luestem, switch-grass, and Indian grass. Sod formers have rootstocks or stolons by which they spread, forming a contiimous sod. Buffalo grass and Kentucky l)luegrass are examples of this type. The grasses mav also be divided into those which grow tall enouirh to make hay, and are sometimes called "'tall grasses,"' and the strictly grazing grasses of the western plains, called ''short grasses.'"' Hav is made from the tall grasses which are found on all unJjroken prairie of the eastern portion of the State. In the wet places or sloughs, there are various swamp grasses (chieily slough-grass, SjKir- tiiia cyiiosuroldrK)^ which, when cut voung, furnish a fair, though coarse, hay. The most important hay grasses are: Little l)luestem {Andi'opoijon scoparlus Michx.), Big bluestem (Andropogon fnrcatut< Muhl.). Indian grass {Androjxxjon nutdux L.), Switch-grass {Pan- icum rlrgatuiii L.), and Side-oats grama {BoHteloua. carflprndula Michx.). These five grasses form the great ])ulk of the prairie ha}' throughout the eastern half of the State. In the western portion these grasses are confined to the river })ottoms, draws, and other moist spots, and often are found in sufficient abundance formowins". These same grasses are also used I'oi- native pasture. But in tlic grazing PASTURES AND MEADOWS. 43 portions of the West, except the Sand Hills, the important j^rasses arc: Hullalo orass (/j//M/7/.v dactyloidt's lint'.) and blue «,''rania {liontehnia olu/oxfnchijti Torr. ). An important orass in the West, especially for hay, is the wheat- grass {Aijropiji-on orclihntdh). This spreads by extensively creepinji: underground stems. The foliai'-c is stitl' and rathei- harsh, but never- iheless it forms a very nutritious hay. This grass is more resistant to drought than any of the hay grassi>s of the West. There are many other grasses which are of more or less agricultural importance, but, compared with those mentioned, they are insigniticant, CARE OF NATIVE PASTURES AND MEADOWS. Unless proper pi-ecautions are taken to prevent it, l)oth meadows and i)astures tend to deteriorate. In pastures the stock are contin- ually eating otl the most palatal >1«' plants and avoiding the others, which are in this respect weeds. To prevent such exhaustion it is necessary to limit the number of stock to the forage-producing power of the pasture. The same is true of the open range. (Jreat harm has resulted in many instances from overstocking. Particular care nuist be exercised in this respect at what might be called critical periods, or when unfavorable conditions, such as drought, curtail the produc- tion of grass. In pastures this exhaustion can be avoided by su[)i)lc- mentino- the o-razinu" bv soilino- crops. An excellent wav to encouiage the recuperative power of the native grasses is to give the pasture a rest by providing two pastures, which may be used alternately for periods of from two to four weeks. With meadows deterioration is less marked, as the weeds are cut at the same time as the grass. However, it is advisable to allow the grasses to go to seed occasionalh^ It is a bad practice to pasture the aftermath during the autumn, as this encourages the growth of weeds. The burning otf of pastures or meadows is not to l)e reconunended, as experience has demonstrated that though a green growth can be induced earlier the final results are harmful. The crowns of the grasses are injured and the fertilizing effect of the dried leaves is lost. On the other hand, the practice of mowing the weeds in pastures in sunmier is good, as they are thus prevented from going to seed. If the num))er of stock limited to its capacity is allowed to use the pasture, the manure thus distributed tends to keep up fertility; but meadows are constantly giving up nutriment drawn from the soil, the loss of which nmst in time visibly affect the capacity. Therefore, whei-ever the value of the hay is a sufficient recompense, it is well to suppl}' barnyard manure to make up this loss. 44 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. TAME PASTURES AT THE NEBRASKA EXPERIMENT STATION. A field of 30 acres was sown in April, lSin>, with a mixture of 2 pounds each of orchard grass, timoth}-, ])luegrass, tall oat-grass perennial rye-grass, and white clovei", tt pounds of red clover, and 1 pound of alsike. Three pounds of alfalfa were added to 5 acres of this mixture. In 1900, 30 tons of hay were cut and excellent pasture was obtained through the fall. In 1901, the pasture was in excellent condition, supporting 25 to 35 head of cattle and giving 14 tons of tine hay. This pasture has been top-dressed with barnyard manure about every other winter, and during the summer the weeds have been mown two or three times. In the sprhig of 1900 the held was disked and sown Avith brome-grass and meadow fescue. These grasses have gradu- ally gained the ascendency until now the alfalfa has disappeared and there is little to be seen besides the grasses mentioned. This tendenc}" for certain grasses to predominate in a mixture is shown l)y the history of a 30-acre held of native pasture. About 1887 a portion of this pasture on the south side was sown with blue- grass and white clover. The bluegrass has gradually spread over the whole held, and at present the pasture appears to be mostly bluegrass, which is especially in evidence during earh^ spring and late fall, while during the summer, particularly if the season is dry, the native grasses are conspicuous. This is the usual tendency where bluegrass is able to thrive. It holds its own with other cultivated grasses, and may even crowd out its competitors; but when combined with native grasses, these are able to hold their own in the prairie region of the State. The ]>luegrass starts to grow much earlier than the native grasses and gives in early spring an excellent quality of pasture. In the dr}^ part of the summer the l)luegrass dries up and becomes dormant while the native grasses continue to vegetate. In the autumn as the weather becomes cooler the bluegrass again starts up and gives late pasture. The experimental pasture had been top-dressed with ))arn3 ard maimre aboiit every third winter, and during the summer the weeds were mowed two or three times. In 1898, 4 acres of the above fields were plowed and sown to brome-grass. In the spring of 1901, 3 acres of alfalfa were added from an adjoining field. This portion was disked the following spring and sown with brome-grass and meadow fescue. These grasses have driven out the alfalfa, and now none of the latter can be found in the field. During the season of 1903 this field carried 40 head of cattle all summer, and also yielded a (^rop of hay estimated at one-fourth ton per acre. Another field sown with timothy, orchard grass, bluegrass, meadow fescue, and brome-grass is now nearl}^ all brome-grass. THE SEED BED. 45 THE SEED UKI> FOR (JKASSES AND CLOVEKS. The idoiil svi'il l)('(l foi- <^rjiss(>s uiid clovers is u Hnn l)ut friable lower soil, with loose, wcll-tillecl toj) soil. To produce this condition riMiuires carefnl tillaj^'e for se\-eral yeais prccedii.u- tlie sowini^-. 'I'lie soil should contain sullicient moisture to insure (he vounu' plants a <'ood start in case there should )>e a detii-ient rainfall after sowinj^-. Seed sown on a dr\ soil niav receixe sutKcient rainfall to jjerininatc, hut not enouj^h to sui)i)ly the \ oiuiij plants with the necessary moisture^. (Jare- ful preparation of the seed l>e(l is more essential in seedin«>' j^rasses than in seedin«i- ahn to obtain a stand entails a "greater loss. Land that has been planted to a cultivated crop, for which the soil has bcM'ii well tilled and wiiicli has received clean and level cultivation, niav in most cases l)e well titted for sei^lino- orasscs by diskino- and han-owinj^- without plowinj^-, provided the trash be removed. When diskin*^ the disk should always be lapped one-half on each round, thuscoverin*^- the field twice, and oenerally it is well to go over the field a second time at ri^ht anSoR(iHUM. Sorghum {And?'opogon soi^ghum) is one of the most important annual forage grasses of the United States. It is grown throughout the South and well to the west on the Great Plains. It resists drought better 46 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. than any other succulent forao-e crop and gives large yields of excel- lent hay. Sorghum may be used for .soiling and for pasture, but its most important use is for cured fodder or hay. For this purpose it may be sown thickly and mowed with a mowing machine. The hay is succulent and requires some time for curing, but in the drier por- tions of Nebraska it can be thrown into bunches or cocks and allowed to remain until cured. Kafir corn, a yariety of nonsaccharine sorghiuu, is also quite drought resistant and is frequently grown for forage, l)ut under the same con- ditions the sorghum gives a greater yield of fodder. Sorghum can also be planted in rows and cultivated. The forage can then be gath- ered by cutting and shoi-king, preferably with a corn harvester. The ordinary sugar sorghums, such as Early Am))er, Colman, and Orange, are used for this region. Sorghum is frequently referred to as "cane." Other races of sorghum are milo maize, Jerusalem corn, and dhoura, but in Nebraska none of these is equal to sorghum for fodder. Sorghum was tested in the series of pasture tests already mentioned (Bulletin 69 of the Nebraska Experiment Station), as were also white Katir corn and milo maize. One-fifth acre of sorghum gave twenty- five days' pasturage and was, along with rye, one of the crops giving the greatest quantity of forage. Some expei-iments were also tried with sorghum for soiling, wliich indicated that the quantity of forage thus ol>tained was two to three and one-half times as nuich as when the crop Avas pastured. The possible injurious eftects of pasturing soi-ghuni have already been alluded to in another paragraph. (See also Bulletin TT of the Nebraska Experiment Station.) An acre of Early Amljer sorghum, drilled with a corn planter in doul)le rows, 6 inches between rows, 3 feet apart, June 12, was cut on September 19 with a corn binder and shocked in the field. The weight of this, taken December 1, was 8,71.5 pounds. A similar plot was treated in the same manner, except that the seed was planted with a grain drill in rows 8 inches apart. The forage was cut the same as the other plot but with a mowing machine, and was put in cocks, where it remained till December 1. The weight was then found to be 12,350 pounds, or over 6 tons per acre. In the drier portions of the State where it is necessary to conserve the moisture, it is advisable to plant the seed in rows in order to admit of cultivation. The crop is thus made more certain. Millet. Common millet {Setaria italica) is much grown in eastern Nebraska as a summer ha^' crop and frequently as a catch crop after grain. It can be cut in about two months from the time it is planted, and is an MILLET — COWPEA. 47 oxeellent hay plant. It sliould Ix* <-ut l)et\veeii the time of headinj^ out aiul that of late hh)oiu, for if cut too early the hay is too laxative in its cti'eet and if eut too late the seed has injurious effeets, especially upon hoi"ses. The hay is succulent and re(|uii"«'s more time to cure than does timothy. At)out one-half bushel of seed per acre is used. Dirt'erent varieties are caUed lluii»,airian <^ras.s, German millet, 8il)erian millet, etc. In the pasturin^i" tests (see Bulletin of the Nel)raska Hxperiment Station) millet ,i,^ave eio-hteen and a half days' pasturage for one cow and was available at the same time as sor*,dium. Katircorn, andcowi)eas. "It did not have as favorable an etlect uj)on the milk Hou or butter fat production as did any of those crops or as did tlu^ mixinl w-rasses." Hrooni-corn millet {Punicinn niHidrcuiii) is a different species, some- times called ho^- millet. This uives t^ood results in the Dakotas and other Northern States and also promises well for Nebraska. In 1!»03, a one-half acre plot of Red Orenburg- (S. P. I. 1M28) sown June VI and cut August 1") yielded at the rate of /i,2ot) pounds of hay to the acre. CoWl'EA. Cowpea {Vigna aifjatuj) is an amuial legume which has been grown in oriental countries for an indefinite period. It is now one of the standard forage plants of the South, l)eing extensively cultivated as an annual suuuuer crop for hay, pasture, and green manure. During recent years its range has been steadily pushed northward, until now it is grown with more or less sut-cess as far north as Wisconsin and New York. There are a large number of varieties, ditiering greatly in their method of growth, time necessar}' to reach maturity, hardiness, and many other characters that affect the adaptability to conditions. Although one of the standard hay plants of the South, it is not adapted for hay in Nebraska. It is difficult to cure and can not com- pete with alfalfa and clover. It is an excellent soiling plant, but under present conditions of agriculture it is not likely to be needed for this purpose in Nel)raska" in the near future, except possibly on a small scale in dairy districts. It is not well adapted for silage on account of its succulence,- but has been used in this way wdien mixed with other plants. (See Circular 24 of the Division of Agrostology, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture.) The chief field of usefulness of the cowpea in Nebraska is for pasture during the autumn. The seed must be sown when the ground is well warmed, which in Nebraska may not be until June. Although late varieties, which produce no pods in this State, can be utilized for for- age, j'Ct the plant gives best returns when the pods are forming. Hence, those varieties should be grown which mature at least a part of the seed before frost. This is especially advisable, because of the high price of seed. Where adaptability to climate is so important as in the 48 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. case of the cowpea, growers should endeavor to use home-groAvn seed, which alwaj's aids in such adaptation. For pasture the cowpea is well adapted to cattle, sheep, and, especiall}^ when the pods are ripening, to hogs. Poultry' readily eat the seeds. The pasture tests of 1900 (see Bulletin No. 69 of the Nebraska Experimental Station) showed that one-fifth acre furnished twenty da3's' pasture — July 24 to August 13. There was a highly favorable effect upon the milk flow and the butter fat produced, in which respect "the forage far surpassed all of the other crops excei)t alfalfa, and was even slightly superior to that ver}" valuable forage plant." In this test the variety used Avas the Whip-poor-will. Two plots of the above variety were sown in 1897 to test the yield of fodder. They were harvested on September 23 and gave at the rate of -l.ST tons and 1.62 tons to the acre. A plot grown in 1896 gave a yield of green fodder amounting to 22,860 pounds per acre, or some- thing over two tons of hay. Small Grains. For late fall and early spring pasture nothing excels the winter grains in palatabilit}", nutritive qualities, and in quantity of forage. It is customar}^ to utilize winter wheat incidentally for pasture at such seasons of the year in localities where this crop is grown for grain. Rye is frequenth' used for pasture, and this plant is to l>e highly recommended wherever it can be grown as a winter crop. The grains can also be used to advantage as a spring crop, but in this case the pasturage comes later in the season when the want is less keenly felt. R^'e sown in the autumn produces pasture at a season when permanent pastures are dormant or giving only meager returns. In the pasturing tests, a one-lifth-acre plot gave about twent3"-seven days' pasturage. ''It furnished the earliest pasturage of au}^ of the annual forage crops and could have been pastured in the fall." The siuall grains make an excellent qualit}^ of ha}' and in Nebraska are not infrequently used for this purpose. In California the great bulk of the hav upon the cit}" markets is grain haj^ made from wheat and oats. Oats and r^^e are also used in Nebraska as soiling crops during spring and early summer. Although the amount used by each farmer in this wa}" may be small, 3-et the aggregate must be considerable. Corn. This is by far the most valua])le plant grown in Nebraska, as it is also of the United States. It is grown chiefly for the grain, but in this bulletin we are concerned with its forage Aalue. Where corn is grown for the grain there are two common methods of utilizing tlie stalks. The corn may Ije allowed to mature in the held and the ears husked CORN SOY BEAN. 49 from the staiidiiio- stalks during- the autiiiuii. or as soon as convtMiiciit. After the cais have boon liarvested, tlie remaining stalks are utilized hy turiiiiio cattle, sheep, or horses upon them to secure what they can from the waste ^rain and the dry fodder. The nutritive value of sueh fodder is sli<;ht, especially durinj^- the winter. The second method of harvesting*' corn is to cut the. stalks a short time before the oraiti is mature and while tlie folia^je is still «»j-eeii. The stalks are placed in shocks to cure, after which the ears aiv husked out and the remaining" stalks may b(> reshocked. or })laced In stacks or barns, and constitute what is usually known as corn fodder or, more properly, corn stover. Properly cured corn stover is (piite luitritious and com- pares favorably with hay. When the fodder is shredded a j^reater proportion is utilized. There is considerable deterioration in the nutritive value of stover durinj;- storao-e in the lield or even in l)arns. The value of corn grown for lui}' should not be underestimated. When planted thickly so that the ears are reduced to one-half or one- fourth the normal size and the stalks cut earlier than when grown for grain, the fodder is large in (piantity and very excellent in cpiality. Besides its value for hay, corn is one of the best plants for silage or ensilage and for a soiling crop. The pasturing tests at the Nebraska Station show that one-tifth acre plot gave eighteen and one-half days' pasturage for one cow, ])ut though '*ltmav l)e of value to furnish feed between the periods of rye and sorghum pasturage, it is not equal to either of these." Soy Bean. Soybean {Glycine hispidd)'^ is a leguminous plant grown for forage and for grain. For forage it is much used in the Middle South, l)ut has not thus far given much promise for this purpose in Nebraska. For seed or grain it has given fairly good results in Kansas. (See Bulletin No. lOO of the Kansas Experiment Station.) In that State the Early Yellow variety has given the best returns. There is some difficulty in harvesting the crop, as a special harvester is required if the beans are raised on a large scale. Soy beans (American coffee berry) were tested in 1898 to determine their value as summer feed, but the results were not sufficiently satis- factory to warrant the continuance of the experiment. (See Bulletin 69 of the Nebraska Experiment Station.) In 1896 a plot of soy beans yielded at the rate of 15,000 pounds of green fodder per acre. Several varieties have been grown at the Nebraska Station to test their seed production, but the results were not satisfactory, as none gave a sufficiently high 3neld to be profitable for this purpose. «For a full account, see Farmers' Bulletin No. 58, United States Department of Agriculture. 23059— No. 59—04 4 50 FORAGE CROrS IN NEBRASKA. Kai'k. Uai^e {Brctssica na/xcs) h ii )^uccnlent i^laiit, reseml)lino- the turnip, which is used for pasture in the cooler parts of the United States. It has been grown upon the station farm and is to be recommended for fall pasture for hogs and sheep. It is also useful for calves and grow- ing cattle, but there is much loss from the trampling of the larger stock. The milk is likely to be tainted when rape is fed to cows, although this ma}' be avoided by feeding (soiling) just after milking. The chief value of rape in ]S'e})raska, however, is as fall pasture for hogs and sheep. It gives succulent feed until frost or even somew' hat later. A succession of pasture may be produced b}^ planting the seed at different dates. It is ready to use about ten weeks after planting. For further information as to rape see Farmers' Bulletin No. 164, United States Department of Agriculture. Canada Field Pea. Canada field pea {Ptsuni, arvense)^ a legume, resembling the garden pea, has proved very successful in Canada and the cooler parts of the United States. It is adapted to a cool, moist climate, though it can be grown with some success in the ^Middle South as a winter crop. It is usually sown with grain, especially oats, the grain serving to hold up the peas, the combination being very satisfactory for forage. The peas and oats are usually made into hay, although they may be used for pasture or soiling. Experiments were tried at the station in the pasture tests. (See Bulletin 69 of the Nebraska Experiment Station.) Onc-lifth acre plot of oats and peas gave twenty -one and one-half da3's' pasturage, which was available in June, somewhat later than rye. Although peas can be used in this wa}' in moist years, the conclusion was reached that Nebraska is too far south for the best results with this crop. Vetch. Hairy vetch ( Vlcia villosa) is an annual legume more drought resistant than the common vetch and better adapted to sandy soils, for which reason it is sometimes called sand vetch. It has proved very successful in eastern Washington and is much used as a winter crop in the Middle South. It gives the best results when comljined with grain. Although it can be grown in eastern Neljraska, experiments show that the forage produced is inferior in quantity, and that it can not compete with other legumes. Spring vetch ( Yieia satvva) is not suited to Nebraska, as it requires a cool, moist climate. Winter vetch {Lathy r'us Jch'sutus) is not to be recommended for that region. PLANTS WHICH CAN NOT BE RECOMMENDED. 51 PLANTS WHICH CAN NOT BE RECOMMENDED. The following gra.s.sos and forage i)laiit.s have l)ceii tested, but the results arc not such tluit they can be reconimcnded for Nebraska. Some of the trials were failures hccause the seed did not germinate. In such eases judgment upon the value of these plants must l)e reserved. The experiments were based upon trials extending, in many cases, over as many as six years: At/ri>jH/r<»i ernu'/n/ni. The tests with this wheat-grass were unsatis- factory on account of a njixture of seed, l)ut it showed no evidence of value. Agropynm d'iver(/em. — There was no shmd produced with this grass, but experiments at other stations in the Northw^cst, notably at Pull- nian. ^^'asll.. have shown that it can be grown successfully from the seed and is well adapted to the semiarid conditions of that region. Although with seed of good vitality it may prove successful here, it probably has no advantage over A(/r(>jn/r>>n occl dental c A'0]>yron dii'eiyciis /»6'r;/^^s• was also tried, l)ut it produced a poor stand and was not promising. A2>!/ri>n vwlaceuin.—'6G\c^i"Ji\ trials were made, l)ut the results were unsatisfactor}'. JoJmson grass {Andropoijim halepemis). — A common and valuable hay grass for the Southern States, but it has shown itself to be a diffi- cult i)lant to eradicate, and hence has T)ecome in many sections a great pest. In Nebraska it will not usually survive the winter. This grass was sown at the station in the spring of 1897 and survived the winter of 1897-9.S, but it was killed out during the next winter. Other atteiupts to raise it resulted in continual loss during the winter. Sineet vernal grass {Antlivxantlmni odoratum). — This grass has little forage value anywhere, but it is sometimes used in the Eastern States to impart a pleasing odor to the hay, for which purpose a small quantity suffices. Australian salthmh {Atriplex semiljaccata).— Thin forage plant has proved quite successful in California and in some other parts of the Southwest, especially in alkali soil. However, in States as far north as Nebraska it is unable to survive the winters, and hence must be grown as an annual, but the uncertainty of germination and the rather meager growth the first season render it unsatisfactory as an annual forage plant. The trial at the station extended over four years, but in no case were the results at all promising. The plants were killed out every winter except in 1900-1901. Even the second year's growth • was too small to be of much value. Swamp-chess {Bronms ciUatus).— The plots gave a fairly good stand, but the plants do not thicken up in the plot, and the individuals are coarse and not leafy enough for hay. Although this grass might be 52 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. grown for hay, it shows nothing- to recommend it to favor compared with other grasses better adapted to the purpose. Rescue f/rass {Bromus unioIoidcs).—A fairl}' good grass, but it will not endure the winters in Nebraska. Bluejolnt {Ckilamagrostis canadensis). — This is a common prairie grass of the Northern States, extending west into eastern Nebraska. In Minnesota and Iowa it is a valuable wild hay grass and there called bluejoint (not to be confused with the bluestem of Nebraska, Andro- 2)ogon furcatus^ nor the bluestem of the foot hills, Agrojjyroyi occlden- tale). It thrives particularly on moist prairie and swales. Attempts to grow this grass from seed have usuall}' been unsuccessful, as the seed seems to lack vitality. At the Nebraska Station the seed pro- duced a ver^^ poor stand. Bermuda grass {Cynodon. dactylon). — The best grass for summer pasture in the South, but not hardy in Nebraska. Crested dogh-tail grass {Cynosurus cristatus). — No improvement over Nebraska grasses and not to be recommended. Florida heggar-weed {Desrnodium molle). — An annual leguminous plant of Florida and the West Indies, where it is frequently used for forage. It can be grown throughout the Southern States and even as far north as Nebraska. For the latter State, however, it is not likely to be grown extensively, as it does not meet the requirements so well as other plants. On the station plots this made quite a heavy growth of wood}', unpalatable forage. Elymus glahriflm^us and Elymus glaucifolius. — A poor stand was obtained of both these grasses, but they should be tested further. Eriocoma cuspidata. — A common range grass in the Rocky Mountain region, but it does not give promise under cultivation. Eriocldoa ininctata.—K promising grass for the South, but scarcely able to endure the winters of Nebraska. Teosinte {EucMxna inexicana).—A tropical annual forage plant which is often grown in the rich bottom lands of the Southern States and is frequently advertised by seedsmen for the North. It produces under favorable conditions a large quantity of forage, but in Nebraska it is far inferior to sorghum for this purpose. It is a coarse grass, resembling corn. Eurotla lanata.— This is not a grass, but a forage plant, well known under the name of "winter fat." In the Western States, where it furnishes excellent feed upon the range, attempts to cultivate it have not been attended with much success. Seed planted at the Nebraska Station failed to germinate. II(}7^se lean {Eaha vulgaris).— The common field bean of Europe, where it is a staple forage plant; but in this country it has not given satisfactory results. Tall fescue (Festuca elatioi^). ^ResulU unsatisfactory and plot finally discarded. PLANTS WHICH CAN NOT BE RECOMMENDED. 53 R(Td frf<('ur {F('f United States. It is not suited for hay, but is of some value for pasture in mountain regions and in the cooler parts of the country, especially in mixtures for sterile soil. But it appears to be entirely unsuited to conditions in Nebraska. Several varieties or related species of this grass {Featuca Kulcatd^ Fc.staca .). — None of the lupines has given satisfactory results in America. Bur clfjver {Medicago denticulata). — An annual clover, frequently grown for winter forage in the Southern States, but not suited to Nebraska conditions. The station plot pi-oduced a thin stand and unsatisfactory growth. Melica altissima. — A fair stand was obtained, luit it soon dis- appeared. White sv^eet clover or Bokhara clover {Mdilotus alhus). — An excel- lent legume for renovating clay lands, and fairly drought resistant. The great objection to its use as a forage plant in the West has been the fact that stock will not eat the plant. However, it is not infre- quently reported that it has been fed to stock with success. The foliage contains a l)itter substance which is disagreeble to animals, and it seems necessary that the taste for the phuit l)e acquired. It is reported by some that if stock are turned into a tield early in the spi'ing such a taste is easily acquired. The plant has not been suf- ficiently tested in Nebraska. Besides its possible forage vahie it is an excellent bee plant. Velvet lean {Mucima vMlis). — An annual legume which forms long trailing vines, and is much used in Florida for a green fertilizer and as a forage plant. It has been recommended for growing much farther north; but though it produces a good growth of vine it is less valuable than the cowpea for the same purpose. This has not been tested at the Nebraska Station. Sainfoin {Onohrychis mtiva). — A legume cultivated in Europe and advertised b}^ most seedsmen in this country. The results of the trials in Nebraska are too unsatisfactory to recommend it for use in that State. In fact, there has been little success with this plant any- where in this country. Panicum hulhosurn. — A native hay grass of Texas, and quite prom- isino- for cultivation in the Southwest, but Nebraska is evidently too far north for its successful growth. PLANTS AVHIOH CAN NOT BE RECOMMENDED. 55 Pearl in Uli't or penclIarHt {Penvisetum .^jncatum). — A coarse annual forao-o plant, ivsomblino- sorj-hum. Some extravagant claims have been made for this plant, but thouoli it has nuich to recommend it in the Southern States, in Nebraska it is inferior to sorohum. At the sta- tion, in 11)03, it made a large growth of forage, l)ut it was not of great food value. For a full account of pearl millet the reader is referred to Farmers' Bulletin No. KIS, U. S. IVpartment of Agriculture. Poa Jifv'njatd. — Three years' trials show that this grass would be excellent for pasture, but does not grow tall enough for hay. It showed great drought resistance during the dry period in iltol. Sacaline {Pohjyonidi) s((c'h/t/i7iefise).—Th\s plant, which resembles a large smartweed, has been occasionally advertised by seedsmen, but it has no value as a forage plant in Nebraska. Burnet {PotetHHin xanguiKo^'ha). — A plant ])elonging to the rose family and used in Europe for pasture, for which purpose it has been reconnnended in this country. The trials at the Nebraska Station show that the i)lant gave a fair stand and is able to resist the winter, and also seems fairly drought resistant. Nevertheless, its good (jualities are not sufficiently marked to warrant its being reconnnended for Nebraska. The trials at other stations have resulted much the same. For ordinary i)asture purposes the growth is not sufficiently rank nor is the foliage as i)alatal)le to cattle as are the grasses. It may have a place as a constituent in sheep pasture upon sterile sandy or rocky soil in the Northeastern States, but in Nebraska it is not likely to ))e of much value. Shni(/h-oroh>It(y cryptandn(f<. — A grass especially adapted to sandy soils, and one of the common native grasses of the Sand Hill region. It furnishes valuable grazing when young, but becomes dry and coarse by middle summer. At the Nebraska Station the seed did not o-ermi- nate. Saccaton {Sporoholns vwighti!). — An important native forage grass of the Southwest, Init not hardy as far north as Nebraska. There was no germination on the station plot. Orhnson clover {Tri folium incarnatum). — An excellent annual clover for the middle South, but not hardy in Nebraska. 5(5 FORAGE CROPS IN NEBRASKA. The following plants were sown, ))ut gave negative results, because the seed failed to germinate or gave onh' a thin or scattering stand: Agropyron dasystachyu m. Agropyron dasystachyivm auhvillosum. Agropyron riparinm. Agropyron vaseyi. Agrostis exarata. AJopecurus occidenialis. A triplex holocarpa. Atriplex mdtalli. Atriplex pahularis. Beckmannia erucaeformis. Bouteloua polystachya. Bromus kalmi. Bromus vidgaris. Bromns richnrdsoni. Bromus richardsoni paUidus. CalamagroMis hyperhorea americana. Dadyloclenium australense. Deschampsia csesjniom. Eleusine coracana. Elymus ambiguus. Efymus rondensatus. Elymus glaucus. Elymus macouni. Elymus simplex. Muhlenhergia gracilis. Panicularia a mericana. Panicularia nervata. Pdnicum. obtusum. Phleum alpinmn. Poa fcndleriana. Poa laniculmis. Poa lucida. Poa macrantha. Poa nevadensis. Poa pratensisva,r. (Washington bluegrass. ) Poa vheeleri. Polypogon morispelien.^e. Pucfinellia airoides. Triodia nnitirn. Trifolium involucratum. INDEX OF GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Page. Apecurus ocddentalis 56 A Isi ke clover 35 Andropofjon. furcatus 38, 42 halepensiif 51 nutans 39, 42 scoparluii 38, 42 sorghum - - - 45 Anthoxantimm odoratum - 51 Arrhenatherum elatitis 39 Atriplex holocarpa 56 nuttalU 56 pabularis ,- 56 semihaccftta 51 Australian saltbush 51 Berkmamiia eru'ca'formis 56 Bermuda grass 52 Big bluestem - - 38, 42 Billion-dollar grass - 41 Bitter vetch - 53 Blue grama 39, 43 Bluegrass 35 Canadian 35 Kentucky 35 Bluejoint 52 Bluestem 38 Bokhara clover 54 57 58 INDEX. Pase. Boideloua curtipendula 36, 42 oUgostachya 39, 43 polystachya - 56 Brassica napus 50 Brome-grass - 23 Bromus carinahis hookerianus 40 ciliatus - 51 kalmi - 56 inermis 23 marg'm(itu.s 40 richardxuni 56 pallidus - 56 unioloides 52 rnlyaris 56 Broom-corn millet ■!" Buffalo grass 40, 43 Bidbilis dactyloideti 40, 43 Bur clover — 54 Burnet 55 Calamagrostis canadenah 52 hyperbored americana 56 Canada bluegrass ■>5 field pea - 50 Canadian bluegrass 35 Clovers '■^'^ Clover, alsike . - - "^5 Bokhara - - - 54 crimson 55 Japan - 53 mammoth •*5 red - "^4 sweet 54 Common millet 46 Corn '.-^ 48 Couch-grass - - - ^^ Cowpea - - - 47 Creeping bent - '^" Crested dog's-tail 52 Crimson clover "^"^ Curly mesquit - '^'^ Cynodon dactylnii 5^ CynoKurus eristatax 5- DacUjlis glomerata - - "^^ Dactylodenium ausiralense 56 Desmodium mollr — - 52 Deschampsia avspitosa - ''o Dhoura - - 46 Eleusine coracana 56 Elymus ambiguus 5o canademis 40 condensatus '^" glabriflorus - 52 glaucifuUus 52 INDEX. 59 Page. Eli/mitfi glaucux •'^ inacmmi 56 rohustn.t 41 i< 41 English bluegrasH 1^6, 53 Kr iiodofiinn '^•^ Horse bean 52 Hungarian grass 4/ In( lian grass 39, 4L Italian rye-grass ''4 Japan clover 53 Japanese barnyard millet ..---. 41 Jerusalem corn 46 Johnson grass "^1 Kafir corn - , 46 Kentucky bluegrass 35 Koderkt. (rlMaia 53 Lathijru.s Itirstitufi 50, 53 CO sativus '^'^ syhesirls wagneri 5.j LepfochJoa dubia 53 LeKpedezd striata - 5.j Little bluesteni 42 Lolium italicurn 54 perenne 53 Lupines ^'^ Mammoth clover - - - ^5 Meadow fescue ^1 60 INDEX. Page. Medicago denticulata -^'-l saliva 25 Melica altisshiia 54 MelUohis alba - - 54 Millet 46 broom-corn ^ 47 common - 40 hog -i^ Japanese barnyard 41 pearl - 55 Milo maize 46 Mucuna utilis - - 54 Muhlenbergia gracilis - - 56 racemosa - 41 Oats... 48 Onohrychis sativa 54 Orchard grass - 32 Panicularia aniericana - 56 nervata - 56 Panicum bidbosum 54 crus-galli 41 miliaceum 47 obiusum 56 virgatum 41 , 42 Pearl millet - 55 Pencilaria 5;) Pennisetum spicatmn - 55 Perennial rye-grass 53, 56 Peruvian alfalfa 28 P]t(d(tris arundinacea _. 41 Phlcwn alpinum - 56 jwatense - 33 Pisum arrense - 50 Poa compressa .- - 35 fendleriana 56 Iseviculmis - 56 hcmgata - 55 hicida, 56 macrantha - 56 nevadensis 56 pratensis 35 ivlieeleri - - 56 Polygomim sacJialinense - 55 Polypngnn monspelinise 56 Polcriuia sanguisorba 55 Pucrinellia airoides — . - 56 Quack-grass 38 Quitch-grass - 38 Eape 50 Red clover 34 Redtop - 36 Reed canary grass 41 Reed fescue 53 INDEX. 61 Page. Rescue frra^w 52 Rhode Island l^eiit 3() Rye 4S Rye-grass 53 Italian 54 perennial 53 Saraline 55 f?ac'fat(in '55 Sainfoin 54 Samarkand alfalfa 28 Salthush, Australian 51 Setaria itd/Ica 46 Sheep's fescue 53 Side-oats grama 3(5, 42 Slender wheat-grass 38 Slough-grass . 42, 55 Small grains 48 Sorghum 45 Soy 1)ean 49 Spartina ci/nosuroideH 42, 55 Spergula maxima 55 Sporobolns cri/plandrus 55 uright'd 55 Spring vetch 50 Spurry, giant 55 Stipa ri>hii!ifa 42 S\vami)-chess 51 Sweet clover 54 vernal grass 51 Switch-grass 41, 42 Tall fescue 32,52 oat-grass 39 Teosinte 52 Timothy 33 Trifolium incarnatum 55 involucratimi 56 pratense 34 Turkestan alfalfa 27 Velvet bean , 54 grass 53 Vetch 50 Vicla sativa 50 villosa 50 Vigiia catjang 47 Washington liluegrass 56 Western brome 40 wheat-grass 37 Wheat-grasses 37, 43 White sweet clover 54 Wild barley 53 rye 40 timothy 41 Winter fat 52 vetch 60, 53 PLATES. 63 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I. Frontispiece. Grass garden at tlie Nebraska Experiment Station. The forage plants are first tested on these plots, which are 3 feet square. Those which give favoral)ie results are given a further trial on larger plots, some of which are seen in the background. PLiM'K II. An alfalfa plant from seed sown August 19, 1902, and dug up April 13, 1903, showing the tubercles upon its roots by means of which nitrogen is gath- ered from the air. Plate III. Fig. 1. — Three plants of brome-grass {Bromus iitcrmis) from seed sown August 19, Septeml^er 19, and October 1, 1902, respectively. They were taken up and photographed April 13, 1903. The plant at the right from the last sow- ing had barely enough vitality to survive the winter. Fig. 2. — Three alfalfa plants from seed sown at the same date as the brome-grass, and also taken tip and photographed April 13, 1903. A later sowing, October 21, was almost entirely winter killed, as the young plants had not sufficient vitality to withstand the cold. Platk IV. Fig. 1. — Plots of Broimis inermis showing the effect of fertilizers. The 2)lot at the left is a mixture of brome-grass and alfalfa; the plot at the right is brome-grass fertilized with sodium nitrate; the plot in the center is brome-grass alone and unfertilized. The effect of an admixture of alfalfa is about the same as an application of sodium nitrate. This seems to indicate that the brome- grass is able to share with the alfalfa the nitrogen which the latter obtains from the air. The plots were sown April 21, 1899, and photographed June 12, 1903. Fig. 2. — A pasture containing orchard grass, showing the growth of this grass upon low land. The pasture was seeded in 1898 with several grasses, among which was orchard grass, but in this part of the field the latter was especially rank. The photograph was taken in June, 1901. Plate V. Fig 1. — A field of brome-grass sown in the spring of 1898 and broken in the fall of 1901. The picture was taken in January, 1902. Brome-grass forms a thick, firm sod, resembling that of native prairie. Fig. 2. — A field of l)rome- grass. The seed was sown in the spring of 1902, and the picture was taken June 15, 1903. Plate VI. Fig. 1. — A field of side-oats grama {Boutelona curtipendula) just before ripening. The seed was sown in the sprmg of 1900, and the ])hotograph taken July 17, 1902. Fig. 2.— A field oi wild rye {Elipiim cnnadensift). The seed was sown in the spring of 1901, and the photograph taken July 17, 1902. 64 Bui. 59, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate II. Alfalfa, Showing Nitrogen-gathering Tubercles. Bui. 59, Bureau of Plant Industiy, U, 5. Dcpt. of Aericulture. Plate III. Fig. 1.— Brome-Grass Planted in the Autumn. Fig 2.— Alfalfa Planted in the Autumn. Bui. 59, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. Fig. 1 .— Brome-Grass, Fertilized and Unfertilized. FiG. 2.— Field of Orchard Grass. Bui. 59, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate V. Fig. 1 .— Brome-Grass. Newly Turned Sod. Fig. 2.— Brome-Grass. A Hay Field. Bui. 59, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. Fig. 1.— Side-oats Grama, Grown from Seed. Fig. 2.— Elymus canadensis, Grown from Seed. U. S. DEPARTMENT OI' ACiRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY -BULLETIN NO. 60. B. T. liAI.I.oWAV, Oiitfiif llintaH. A SOFT R( )T OF. THE CALLA \A\.\ BY O.Q: TOWNSEND, Patiiolocist. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. IssiTKU June 30, 1904. WASHINGTON: GOVKKXMENT PRINTIX(i OFFIOK 1904. BtTLIiETINS OF THE BXTREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, int-ludes Vege- table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations and Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Poniological Investigations, and Experimental (Tardens and TTrounds, all of which were formerly separate Dinsions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, the Arlington Experimental Farm, Tea Culture Investigations, and Domestic Sugar Investigations. Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of Bulle- tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series follows. Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica- tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution. All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such iniblications should, therefore, be made to thfe Superintendent of Documents, Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant (irowtli. 1901. Price, 10 cents. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 3. ^Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 centos. 5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 6. X List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents. ^ 7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distrilmtion. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price,, 10 cents. 12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California: Notes on the (irasses and Forage Plants and Range Conditions. 1902. Price, 15 cents. l;i Experiments in Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents. 15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricns Campes- tris anil Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902, Price, 10 cents. 17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 18. 01)servations on the Mosaic Disease of ToV)acco. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed: Harvesting, Curing, and Cleaning. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 20. ^lanufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 (.ent-. 21. Listof American Varieties of Vegetables. 1908. Price, 35 cents. 22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 23. Berseem: The Great Forage and Soiling Crop of the Nile Valley. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents. [Continued on page Sx>i covei'.] Bui. 60, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate I. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU 01' PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN NO. 60. B. T. GALLOWAY, (huf of Bureau. A SOFT ROT OF THE CALLA ULY. BY C. O. TOWNSEXD, Patholocjist. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued June 30, 1904. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 10 0 4. BUREAl OF PLANT INDUSTRY. B. T. Galloway, Chief. J. E. Rockwell, Editor. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Albert F. Woods, Pathologic ami Phy-siologist. Erwin F. Smith, PathoJogiM in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Pj. Geokge T. Moore, Plnjsiologist in Charge of Labor atonj of Plant L^hysiology. Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory pf Plant Breeding. Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life Histor.y. Newton B. Pierce, Patliologi-^t in Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratory. M. B. Waite, Pathologist in Charr/e of Jnrestigations of T>iseases of Orchard Fruits. Mark A. Carleton, Cerealist in Charge of Cereal Lnvestigations. Hermann von Schrenk,« in Charge of Mississi])pi Valley Laboratory. P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Subtropical Laboratory. C. O. TowNSEND, Patlmlogist in Charge of Sugar Beet Investigations. P. II. Dorsett, Pathologist. Rodney H. True, ^ Physiologist. T. H. Kearney, I%ysioJogist, Plant Breeding. Cornelius L. Shear, Pathologist. William A. Orton, Pathologist. W. M. Scott, Pathologist. Joseph S. Chamberlain, Physiological Chemist, Cereal Inresfigations. R. E. B. McKenney, Physiologist. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist. Charles P. Hartley, Assistant in Physiology, Plant Breeding. Karl F. Kellerman, Assistant in Physiology. Deane B. Swingle, AssiMani in T\dhology. 'A. W. Edson, Scientific Assistant, Plant Breeding. Jesse B. Norton, Assi-Cant in Physiology, Plant Breeding. James B. Rorer, Assistant in Patliology. Lloyd S. Tenny, Assistant i)i Pathology. •George G. Hedgcock, Assistant in Pathology. Perley' Spaulding, Scientific A.ssistant. P. J. O'Gara, Scientijic Ass-istant. A. D. Shamel, Scientific Assifitant, Plant Breeding. T. Ralph Robinson, Scientific Assistant, Plant Physiology. Florence Hedges, Scientific Assistant, Bacteriology. Charles J. Brand, Scierdific Assistant in Physiology, Plant Life History. a Detailed to the Bureau of Forestry. b Detailed to Botanical Investigations and Experiments. LETTl-R 01- TRAXSMITTAL U. S. Dkpahtment of Agriculture, RuREAi' OF Plant Indistry, Office of the Chief, Wmhington, I>. C, March SI, 190 J^. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a technical paper submitted by the Pathologist and Physiolooist on "A Soft Hot of the CaHa Lily." by Dr. C. O. Townsend. l^lthologist, Vege- table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, and recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 6U of the series of this Bureau. The accompanying nine plates and seven tigures are necessaiT to a clear understanding of the subject-matter of the text. Respectfully. B. T. Galloway, Chief of Bu7'eau. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. PR 1: FACE. Growers of the eiilhi lily have suffered serious losses for several 3'ears from a soft rot which freijueutly destroys the ])lants just before or duriuo- the flowerino- pcM'iod. A bacillus has been separated from the decayed portion of the calla in pure cultures and by repeated inocu- lations has been shown to l)e the cause of this destructive disease. In addition to the principal morphological and physiological char- acters of the organism which are described in this l)ulletin. several preventive measures are suggested which have been found to be satisfactory in holding the disease under control. As the bacillus producing this disease is also capal)le of attacking many of our food plants, growers of vegetal)les should guard against any possible con- tamination of the soil with it. A. F. Woods, Pathologlxt and Physiologist. Office of Vegetable Pathological AND Physiological Investigations, Waskington, I>. C, March 30, 1901^. CON T E X T S Page. Introduction -, ' ' Causae of the calla rot ^2 General appearance of the disease 1-^ Effect of the organism on the calla ^^ Morphological characters of the organism ^^ Physiological characters of the organism K' Nutrient media ^^ Beef broth 17 Agar jilate cultures 1" Agar streak cultures 1^ Agar stab cultures 1^ Beef agar, with iron sulphate 1^ Gelatin stab cultures 1^ Egg albumen 1" Milk 19 Litmus milk 1^ ' Litmus milk in nitrogen 20 Uschinsky's solution ^^ Dunham's solution 21 Dunham's solution, with acid fuchsin 21 Dunham's solution, with in(hgo-carmine 21 Peptone solution, with rosulic acid 21 Dunham's solution, with methylene blue 21 Steamed potato cylinders 22 Raw p. — Colonies of the calla organism in test tubes 4.S IV. Fig. 1. — Stab cultures of the calla f)rganism in gelatin. Fig. 2. — Kaw eggplant inoculated with the calla organism. (Natural size.) 48 V. l-'ig. 1. — Raw radishes three days after inoculatii;g jjieces 2 and 3. Fig. 2. — Side view of pieces 1 and 2nine. The corms are grown either in solid beds or in pots. As a rule the best results both as regards the size and the number of flowers produced are obtained from the solid bed. The flowers are always delicate and can not be satisfactorily shipped long distances, while the corms, on the other hand, may be transported for thousands of miles without injury. There are several diseases to which the calla is susceptible, but the most serious one with which the growers have had to contend is the soft rot that forms the subject of this bulletin. This disease has recently made its appearance in the various parts of the United States where callas are cultivated and has caused enormous losses to the growers, rendering the production of this hitherto profitable plant very uncertain. The soft rot of the calla w^as brought to the attention of the writer in the autumn of 1899, and it has been under his observation and stiidv since that time. While there are some points that need further a The true botanical name corm is used in this bulletin instead of the common but incorrect term bulb. 12 A SOBT ROT OF THE CALL A LILY. investigation, it has been deemed best to place the following results before the public, with the hope that the suggestions herein contained ma}' ])e of value to the industry. CAUSE OF THE CALLA ROT. Upon examining microscopically the decayed portions of the calla corms m3'riads of bacteria were found to be present. In order to obtain cultures of the organism in the best possible condition a partly decayed corm was thoroughly washed with <"ap water, then with cor- rosive sublimate (1 part in 1,00(J), and afterwards with distilled water. A small opening was then made Avith a sterile knife through the sound part of the corm into the inner marginal part of the decayed spot. A little of the soft tissue just at the border between the decayed and healthy portions of the corm was obtained on a sterile needle and placed in sterile beef broth. Agar plates were then made from this culture, and but one kind of colon}' was obtained, indicating that the organism was present in the recentlv decayed portion of the corm in a pure culture. A few days after the colonies had formed, subcultures were made in beef broth and minute portions of these were introduced into various parts of healthy callas. The inoculations were made by placing a drop of the beef-broth culture on the part of the plant to be inoculated, and with a sterile needle punctures were made through these drops into the tissues of the plants. For control, punctures were made in similar parts of healthy plants without adding the broth culture. In a few days the inoculated spots had turned brown and decay had begun, while the controls in all cases remained healthv. Plate cultures were again made from the inoculated spots after decay had })egun, and apparently the same organism in pure culture was obtained. This process was repeated many times — i. e., until there was no doubt that this organism was the cause of the soft rot of the calla. Upon looking up the literature regarding calla diseases it was found that Halsted had discovered a soft rot of the calla corm in 1893." Although Halsted's description is very brief, he undoubtedly refers to the same disease as that which forms the subject of this bulletin. He ascribes the cause of the affection to a bacterium which is found in great abundance in the diseased portions of the corm. A disease of similar nature is also mentioned by Selbv .'' This is referred to as a root rot of the calla, and as no description is given either of the dis- ease or of the organism producing it. it is impossible to determine whether this is the disease now under consideration. The soft rot of the calla and the organism producing it have been observed by Dr. Erwin F. Smith, the pathologist in charge of the laboratory of plant pathology of the United States Department of Agriculture, and bv Mr. "Diseases of Calla. New Jei-sey Experiment Station Report for 1893, p. 399. ^Selby. Calla. In Condensed Handbook of Diseases of Plants in Ohio, 1900, p. 21. GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE DISEASE. 13 Newton 1). Pierce, the piitholotri-^t in cliaitie of tiie Pucitic coast labo- ratory of the Department, and probaMy by others, but so far as can be determined it has not hitherto received careful investiiratiou. GENERAL APPEARANCE OF THE DISEASE. Several greenhouses where the disease was reportiMl to t»e [)nsent were visited by the writer, who found the calhis rottini;- oil usually at or just below the surface of the o^round, the disease sometimes extend- ing-down into the eorm, sometimes upward into the leaves, and fre- quently in both directions. Occasionally the disease seemc'd to start in the edire of the leafstalk (tig. 1), in tlie flower stalk, or in some under- ground part of the corm, thougii as a rule it started at the lop of the corm just above but near the surface of the ground. It was also noticed that the disease was worse and spread more rapidly in those houses where the callas were grown in solid beds. ^Vhen a diseased corm was cut open it was found that there was a distinct line lietween the healthy and the diseased portion of the corm (tig. 2). The hcnilthy pm-- tion of the corm is tirm and nearly white, while the diseased part has a decidedly brown color and is soft and watery. AVhen the disease extends upward int(j the leaves it is the edge of the petiole that first })ecomes involved, the afi'ected part becoming slimy, without im- mediatelv losing its green color. As the disease proo-resses it extends inward toward the center of the petiole and interferes with the trans- ference of material between the corm and the leaf, the edges of the leaf becoming pale, then brown. Pale spots becoming brown then appear in other parts of the leaf blade, and finally the whole leaf becomes brown and dead. Frequenth' the disease develops so rap- idh" that the leaf rots off' at the base and falls over before it has time to lose its green color. When the disease has progressed far enough to attack the flower stalk, the flower turns brown and the stalk, without having lost its color and f requenth' without having decayed upward more than a fraction of an inch, eventually falls over. When the disease works downward through the corm it sooner or later reaches the roots, which become soft and slimy within, while the epider- FiG. 1.— A slightly diseased calla plant. 14 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALL A LILY. mis remains intact, thus presenting the appearance of thin-walled tubes filled with a soft substance. The roots remain attached to the corni and eventually the slimy contents dry up and only the dead skin of the roots remains. "When the disease begins its attack below the surface of the ground the lower portion of the corm frequently rots away, causing the plant to fall over Avithout having previously given an}' indication of dis- ease. An examination of the decayed corm shows that only a small part of the upper portion of the corm, with a few side roots, remains. The ^Hf > rsm^ ^ 1 i 1 ^ N» • 1 ^B< 1*- 1*" ff y » 4 i \ ^^ f \ K Ni ^ \ ) Fig. 2.— a partly decayed calla corm. latter become less and less numerous as the disease advances, until at last they are unable to support the weight of the leaves and flower stalks. If the conditions for the development of the disease are unfavorable after the corms are affected, the softened spots will dry down, sinking below the surrounding portion of the corm and ])ecoming darker col- ored. In these spots the disease will often remain dormant until the conditions for the development of the organism again become favor- a))le. In this way the disease is carried over from season to season, and it may l)e transported long distances. EFFECT ON THE CALLA. 15 EFFECT OF THE ORGANISM ON THE CALLA. As already stated, the part of the j)hiiit usually attacked first is the upper portion of the corni at or just helow tiie surface of tlic ground. A microscopic examination of the atiected part, whether root, corm, leafstalk, or flower stalk, shows that the organisms occu]\v the intercel- lular spaces and by some means dissolve the intercellular layer, causing the cells to separate easily, so that when the diseased tissue is j)laced in a litiuid each cell floats out by itself. The cell wall, however, remains intact, ))ut the cell contents are contracted. The rapidity with which the disease advances depends to a large extent upon the external con- ditions surrounding the plants, lender favorable conditions a warm Fig. 3.— Calla leaf twenty-two hours after inoculating with the ealla organism. The point of inoculation is shown bv X. Fig. 4. — Calla flower stalk twenty-two hours after inoculating with the calla organi.' clear liquid. This finally settled, forming a copious white deposit. The deposit was most abundant in No. 3, but in No. 1 it formed a layer from 2 to 5 nun. deep. J^f/f/ alhuiiwn. — Several tubes of soliditied eg-o- albumen were inocu- lated Avith a fresh culture of the organism, but oidy a feeble growth appeared and no change had ])eeii produced in the color of the albumen at the end of eight weeks. Jfill:. — Thitj medium was sterilized ])y heating for ten minutes at 100*-^ C. in a steam sterilizer on three successive da3s, the milk having been previously placed in test tubes (10 c. c. in each tube), and the tubes closed with cotton plugs. The milk was inoculated b}' placing a 1-nmi. loop of a 2-l:-houi'-old beef-))roth culture in cnch of several of the tubes. The curdling of the milk began to take place in from two to three daj^s in all parts of the inoculated tubes. Two days later the entire 10 c. c. of milk was soliditied and a lajer of whey al)out 1 nnn. deep rested upon the top of the curd. These experiments were repeated from time to time, with the same results. Whey continued to be separated for several days until from one-third to one-half the space formerly occupied b}' the milk was occupied b}' the liquid; but no abnormal coloring was produced in any of the tubes. None of the control tubes curdled in any case. Litmus milJh. — This medium was prepared in the same manner as the milk, except that a few drops of strong litmus solution were added to each tube of milk before sterilizing. Several of the tubes were inoculated with a 1-mm. loop of a 2i-hour-old beef -broth culture. Within fort^-eight hours the blue began to give waj'^ to a reddish color near the surface, which within three davs had extended throughout the inoculated tube. At the end of five daj's from the time of inocu- lation the red color had decidedlv faded throughout, so that the tubes that were litmus blue when inoculated were now only faintly pink, and the milk had curdled throughout. The curdling of the milk and the separation of the whe}' took place in the same manner as if the litnms had not been present. In nine days even the pink color had dis- appeared, with the exception of a faint rim near the surface. These discolored litmus tubes were then allowed to stand until the organism had died. The red litnms color, eventually becoming blue, gradually returned, although the milk remained curdled and the whey separated — about one-half whey and one-half curd. 20 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALLA LILY. Litmus milh hi nitrogen. — It was noticed that the litiuu.s milk tubes, whether they had ])cen inocuhited or not, contained a deposit of bhie litnuis. The calla organism that bleached the litmus in the milk failed to attack this deposit, so that it remained blue. It was suggested that the milk possibly contained an anaerobic bacterium that was not destroyed by sterilizing and that it favored the formation of the blue deposit. The two control tubes of litmus milk were placed in a bottle holding about a quart. The bottom of the bottle was covered with pyrogallic acid (powder) to a depth of about one-half inch. To this 50 c. c. of a 10 per cent solution of caustic potash were added, and the l)ottle was quickl}^ sealed with Darwin's wax. The mixture was shaken for some time to enable it to take up the oxygen without form- ing much carbon monoxid. If the deposit were due to an anaerobic bacterium, it should increase farther up in the tubes. At the expiration of twelve months the jar was opened. A lighted match thrust just below the level of the opening in the jar was immediately extinguished, showing that the jar still contained nitrogen and had not allowed oxy- gen to enter during this time. An examination of the tubes showed that the blue deposit had not changed. This indicated that the deposit was undoubtedl}'^ a mechanical one and was not due to the presence of an oroanism. The inoculated tubes that were left in the ordinarv air gradually regained their blue color after the organism died. The return of the color (first red, then blue) was apparent whether the oroanisms were left to die of their own accord or whether thev were destroyed b}^ heating ; e. g., if an inoculated litmus tube had entirely faded and was then heated for ten minutes at 100- C, the color returned within twenty-four hours. U'iicd lliilg- way's Broccoli lirown, No. 15, Plate III. It was not quite as dark as Saccardo's Uiiibrinus, No. 9, Tahle I. The inoculated pieces had (he odor of decayino- veoetables and were alkaline to litnuis. Ram Kjqplant. — A ripe fruit of the ei;-<^plant was ohtainctl from the market, the surface was washed and sterilized as described above, and it was then cut with a steriie'knife into slices of thickness suitable for placing in petri dishes. In some instances the slices were pared with a sterile knife so as to remove the outside skin, and in other cases the skin was left on. All slices were cut into four pieces, two of which were inoculated with a 2-i-hour-old culture of the g-erni in beef broth and two were left for control. Within eighteen hours at from 20-^ to 24° C. the inoculated pieces were discolored, and in forty-eioht hours the discoloration had extended entirely throuoh them. In three da3's some of the inoculated pieces were somewhat split and shrunken, as shown in Plate IV, figure 2. In color the interior — i. e., the part that was the center of the fruit — was Broccoli Brown, No. 15, Plate III, of Kidgway's tables, a little lighter than Saccardo's Umbrinus No. 9, Table I. The portion toward the margin was nearly Clove Brown, No. 2, Plate III, Ridgway's tables, or a little darker than Saccardo\s Castaneus, No. 10, Table I. There was no sharp line between these two shades of brown, but one graded into the other. The inoculated pieces at the end of three days had a decidedly soapy odor and the reaction was alkaline to litnuis. The checks remained perfectly sound. Rmo caulifloircr. — A large head of caulitlower that had been three weeks in cold storage was obtained from the market. A portion of the main stalk was thoroughly washed with corrosive sublimate, and then with sterile water. ^Vith a sterile knife the outside w^as pared off and the remaining part was then cut into slices that could be con- veniently placed in petri dishes. These were then inoculated with the calla-rot germ from a pure culture in beef broth, leaving a num- ber of pieces for control. The culture used in this case was three days old. In twenty hours at 20° to 24° C. the inoculated pieces began to show a faint discoloration, turning slightl}' brown., This continued until at the end of al)out two and a half days the whole of each piece inoculated had become discolored. At this time the inocu- lated pieces were decidedl}' alkaline in reaction, gave a very strong odor of decaying vegetable matter, and on comparing with Ridgway's plates the color was found to correspond very closely to the Ecru Drab, No. 21, Plate III, or to Saccardo's Avellaneus, No. 7, Table I. The control pieces were still healthy. In several cases the inoculations did not take. Several branches from the head were sterilized and the lower part was inoculated with the same germ. In all these cases the inoculation was successful, with the same characteristic odor, color, and reaction. 24 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALLA LILY. Bair /v/r7/.s7/.— Several red, so-called ''white tip,"; round radishes were obtained from the market. These were washed and the surfaces sterilized in the same manner as the raw potatoes. They -were then pared with a sterile knife, cut in half, and placed in petri dishes, four halves in each dish. Immediatel}' after preparing these specimens, two in each dish were inoculated with the calla-rot organism, using a 24-hour-old beef -broth culture, and in eighteen hours at 20^ to 25^^ C. all the inoculated pieces showed slight discoloration. In forty-eight hours the disease had advanced so that the whole of each inoculated piece was discolored. None of the uninoculated pieces showed any signs of disease. Some of the inoculated pieces were inoculated by contact and others by stab. The disease progressed as rapidly in the contact as in the stal) cultures. The inoculated pieces only were affected; color, Cinnamon, No. 20, Plate III, Ridgway, a little lighter than Saccardo's Umbrinus, No. 9, Table I. In reaction the discolored pieces were strongly alkaline to litnuis, and had the very disagreeable odor of decaying vegetal)les. All the inoculated pieces were involved (see PI. y, lig. 1). gradually disintegrated, and settled down upon the bottom of the petri-dishes, as shown in Plate V, figure 2. Rem cucwnljers^ sliced. — A green cucumber about .5 inches in length was thoroughly w^ashed w^ith distilled water and the surface sterilized with corrosive sublimate (1 part in 1,000). The outer rind was peeled off with a sterile knife, and the material was then cut into slices from 1\ to 2 cm. in thickness. Each slice w^as divided into two parts and placed in sterile petri dishes, four pieces in each dish. Two of these pieces in each dish were inoculated with the calla disease germ, using a 24:-hour-old beef-broth culture. All the inoculated pieces began to show slioht discoloration in eighteen hours at 20-^ to 25° C, and in forty-eight hours the disease had progressed rapidly, having discolored in some cases the whole of each inoculated piece. The color of the inoculated pieces at this time was light brown or yellowish, closely resembling Kidgway's Buff, No. 13, Plate V, or Saccardo's Ochroleucus, No. 28, Table II. The inoculated pieces had a peppery, pungent odor, and were stronglv alkaline to litmus. Raui cucuvihers, ^vhole. — The effect of the calla germ on whole cucumbers fresh from the vines was tried by taking nearly ripe cucum- bers, sterilizing a spot near the stem b}" washing with corrosive sul)ii- mate (1 part in 1,000), and then washing w^ith sterile water. Several punctures were made in the sterilized spot with a sterile needle to the depth of from one-half to 1 inch, and two 1-mm. loops of a 21:-hour- old beef-broth culture of the calla organism were applied to the sterile surface over the piuictures. For control several cucumbers were treated in exactly the same manner, except that the organism was not applied. At the end of twenty-four hours at 20- to 25 - C. a water}" spot about one-half an iiuli 'v.\ diamc^trr appc:ired around the punctures NUTRIENT mp:dia. 25 in the cuciimbors that wore inoculated. In tliree days from the time of inocuhition the ciicumhers were .soft ul)out one-half tluMr len*^th, and in rive days they were soft throut^hoiit. The skin, however, remained intact, so that the inoculated cucumljers represented closed sacks containintr a watery, pulpy mass (PI. VI). If an opening were made in the sack the contents would tiow out, leaving a semitranspar- ent hag which could be tilled with water and handled. All controls remained entirely unatiectcd. A diop of the watery substance from one of the inoculated cucumbeis placed under a low power of the micr()scoi)e showed that the cells had become se})aiated so that each individual cell rioated out In' itself. The cells themselves wei-e not collapsed, however, showing that the action of the organism had been upon the lamella connectmg the cells, causing them to dissolve. This action was apparent not only upon the cucumber but upon all the raw vegetal)les which were rotted under the intiuence of this organism. The color of the cucumbers, both upon the surface and in the interior, remained unchanged. The odor of the soft contents of the inoculated cucum})ers was strikingly like that arising from cucumbers that some- times soften when pickled in brine. The reaction was distinctly acid to litmus. To determine whether the organism that had caused the softening of thelnocidated cucumbers was the calla-rot germ, a spot was steril- ized on the surface of one of the soft cucumbers l)efore the skin was broken. With a sterile needle a puncture was then made in the ster- ilized spot in the skin and a loop of the soft interior was removed with a sterile needle and placed in 10 c. c. of beef l)roth. In the usual wa}^ eight poured plates of beef agar were at once prepared from the dilutions of this beef-broth culture. In from twent3'-four to forty-eight hours at 20^ to 25^ C. colonies appeared in all the plates. These colonies were all radiating and were alike in all respects, indi- cating that the cucumber contained a pure culture of an organism similar at least to the calla-rot germ. Twelve callas were inoculated with 24-hour-old beef-broth cultures made from these colonies, and in twent3'-four hours the characteristic calla rot appeared in all cases, as indicated in the watery discoloration around the inoculated spots and by the subsequent decaying of the parts inoculated. In twenty- four hours more the inoculated leaves had entirely rotted oft. The only part of the interior of the inoculated cucumbers not softened was the portion immediately beneath the spot sterilized for inoculation (PI. VI, A). Here the interior remained firm, sometimes to a depth of one-half inch or more, showing that the corrosive sublimate had penetrated to a considerable depth and that the organism was unable to attack this part of the cin3umber even after several days. This series of experiments was repeated many times with practi- cally the same results. Snmetinios the action was a little slower and 26 A SOFT KOT OF THE CALLA LILY. sometimes a little more rapid. It was found that the action was more rapid if the ciK-umbers were nearly ripe before inoculation and when the temperature of the air in which they were kept after inoculation was about 30^ C. Some of the experiments were carried on in the dark and some in diffused light, but there was no apparent difference in the time required for the inoculation to take, nor in the rate of procuress made in softening the cucumbers in the two cases. The rate of disintegration was the same on l)oth tlio upper and the lower sides of the cucumbers. Rdir (jreen peppers. — These peppers were obtained from the market, thoroughly washed with distilled water, and afterwards with corrosive sul)limate, and again rinsed with distilled water. With a sterile knife they were cut into slices and placed in sterile petri dishes, two pieces in each dish. One piece in each dish was inoculated immediately with the calla-disease o)-ganism. In twenty-four hours at 20'^ to 25° C. it was seen that the inoculated pieces were slightly attacked by the germ, and in forty-eight hours the disease had progressed, although not as rapidly as in the cases of the cucumber, potato, carrot, and some other vciietables. The organism attacked both the central and the outer parts of the pepper, but the change in color was not sufficient to show in a photograph even after live days. The inoculated parts were all darker than the controls (liidgway's Parrot Green, No. 7, Plate X, or Saccardo's Atro-virens, No. 34, Talile II), while the original was nearly grass green toward the outside. The interior of the pepper, originally nearly white, was changed to Cream Buft\ Ridgway's No. 11, Plate V, or Saccardo's Cremeus, No. 27, Table II. The inoculated parts Avere also soft, had the odor of decaying peppers, and were strongly alka- line to litnuis. Ratn mature onion hulhs. — The outside layers were removed and the onion was then cut into pieces of convenient thickness and placed in petri dishes, three pieces m each dish. Two of these pieces were inoc- ulated with a 21-hour-old culture of the calla germ and one was left for control. Several dishes were prepared in this manner. The organism grew on the onion, but not rapidly, and at the end of five days at a temperature of from 20° to 25° C. the decay was apparent, althouuh the layers of the onion were not broken down. The color was Cream Buff, No. 11, Plate V, Ridgway, or Saccardo's Cremeus, No. 27, Table II. The odor was that of decaying onions. In reaction the inoculated pieces were moderately alkaline to litmus. Raw yoimy ojiions. — Several onions were grown from seeds, and when the young plants were about two weeks old they had produced three leaves each and the longest of the leaves measured from 0 to 8 inches. These plants were inoculated with the calla organism by placing a drop of a 21-hour-old beef-broth culture on a leaf wiih a sterile needle and puncturing the leaf several times through the drop NUTRIENT MEDIA. 27 of bac-toriu-liulon broth. No sii;ii of disease a[)pi'urecl in any case, although the phiiits wore kept under observation for several weeks. This expininient was repeated several times with ne^^ativc results, indicating- that this org^anisni is not a producer of disease in young green onions. Jlaw j)i,e2)lant. — Stalks of raw pieplant were washed with corrosive sublimate and then in distilled water. With a sterile knife the out- side was removed and the stalks were then cut into slices about 2 cm. thick and four placed in each petri dish. Two of each foui- were inoculated with a 'J-t-hour-old beef-l)rotli culture of th(> calla germ. In two cases only was there any growth, and this was very feeble, resulting at the end of Hve days in a slight brown discoloration. The experiment was repeated several times, but in all cases the growth was very feeble and hardly perceptible. liavi r*^/Z'J«//(^— Cabbao-e heads were obtained from the market, the outer leaves were pulled oH". and inoculations were made into the stumps and leaves of several plants, using a iJ-l-hour-old beef-l)roth culture of the calla germ, several heads })eing left for control. In twenty-four hours the inoculated spots were slightly discoloi'cd. The color- deepened for nine days (temperature, 18^ to 27"^ C), at the end of which time the rot had spread over the whole surface of the stumps and entirely through them. The color was Drab, No. IS, Plate III, Ridgway, or somewhat darker than Saccardo's Avellaneus, No. 7, Table I. At the same time the decay progressed in the leaves, pro- ducing the same color and advancing from leaf to leaf until at the end of nine days the whole of (>ach inoculated head was affected. None of the control plants was aii'ected during this time. The decayed speci- mens had the odor of rotten cabbage and in reaction were strongly alkaline to litmus. In addition to these experiments with cabbage, pieces of stumps and leaves were washed with corrosive sublimate, then with sterile water, and placed in petri dishes, four pieces in each dish, two of which were inmiediately inoculated with a- 2I:-hour-old beef-broth culture of the organism and two left for control. In twentv-four hours at 20-^ to 25^ C. the inoculated pieces began to show discoloration and in five days the inoculated pieces w^ere decayed throughout. The control pieces remained sound, except in a few instances in which the exuding juice from the decayed pieces came into contact with the controls, in which cases the latter decayed. The color, odor, and reaction were the same as in the experiments with the whole heads, as previously described. Haw 2)(irsnips. — Raw parsnips were obtained from the market and treated in the same way as the raw potatoes. With a sterile knife pieces of convenient thickness were cut and placed in sterile petri dishes, four pieces in each dish. Two pieces in each dish were inocu- 28 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALLA LILY. latcd with the calUi-rot germ, using a 24- hour-old heef- broth culture. At the end of twenty-four hours after inoculation the inoculated pieces began to show discoloration at the points of infection, and at the end of three days (temperature, 18° to 25^ C.) the discoloration was very marked (PI. VII, fig. 1). The inoculated pieces had a pun- gent, sweetish odor and were plainly alkaline to litmus. The color corresponded to Ridgway's ^Vlummy Brown, No. 10, Plate III, or nearly to Saccardo's Fuligineu.s, No. 11, Table I. Rain 6'«/7y>j5.s.— Several roots of carrots were obtained from the market and prepared in the manner indicated above. Slices of suit- able thickness to be placed in petri dishes were then cut off with a sterile knife. Four pieces were placed in each petri dish, and as in the other experiments two out of each set were inoculated with the calla-rot organism and two left for control. In twenty-four hours at 20° to 22° C. the inoculated pieces began to discolor at the points of inoculation, and in three days the discoloration was very striking over the entire surface of the inoculated pieces (PI. VII, fig. 2). In the central part of the root the discoloration had extended entirely through, a distance of 2 cm., while toward the outer surface the progress w^as not so rapid, the discoloration having extended only about 1 cm. The color of the inoculated pieces three day;^ after inoc- ulation was Vandyke Brown, No. 5, Ridgway's Plate III, or nearly Saccardo's Fuligineus, No. 11, Table I. The decayed part was dis- tinctly alkaline to litmus. At the end of eight days the inoculated pieces were entirely discolored and soft, while the uninoculated pieces still retained their normal color and were sound. At this time the inoculated pieces had changed in color from Vandyke Brown or Fulig- ineus to Olive, No. 9, Ridgway's Plate III, or to Saccardo's Oliva- ceus. No. 39, Table II. Raio turnips. — A firm, white turnip was obtained from the market, prepared for the petri dishes, and inoculated in the same manner as the other vegetables. In twenty-four hours discoloration was dis- tinctly noticeable at the points of inoculation, and in three days the discoloration was very striking and had progressed downward from 2 to 3 mm., while the uninoculated pieces were still white and sound (see PI. VllI, fig. 1). The color of the inoculated pieces at this time closely resembled Ridgway's Olive, No. 9, Plate III, or Saccardo's Olivaceus, No. 39, Table II. The discolored parts were strongly alkaline to litmus and had a striking odor of decayed turnips. liav) salsify. — Several roots of salsify were obtained from the mar- ket and the same method was used in preparing and inoculating them that was employed with the other vegetables. In twenty-four hours the inoculated pieces were discolored and in three days all had discol- ored but only the inoculated pieces had decayed, and as these kept their shape it was impossible to bring out the difference in color by NUTUIKNT MEDIA. 29 nii'iiiis of ii i)li()t()*ii":ii)li. riio yrowtli of the oriraiiisin. lioucvci-, wiis u|)})iir(Mitly just as i:i[)i(l in the salsify as in the })arsuii)>, carrots, etc The inoculated pieces were alkaline to litmus aiul had an odor of decay iny salsify. Rav iiiiiKiiiKK^ ripe. — Several ripe tomatoes were inoculated with a 24-hour-old l)eef-))roth culture of the calla «>erm. Before inoculatintj, a spot about one inch in diameter on the surface of the fruit was washed with a dilute solution of corrosive sublimate and then with sterile water. A loop of the culture wa>i then placed on the sterilized spot and a sterile needle was used to puncture the skin throueef-l)roth culture. Some of the tomatoes so inoculated wen^ left in ditluscd li<4ht, some were placed in a dark room, and all were maintained at ti tempera- ture of about 18^ C. Twenty-four hours after inoculation each infected spot was surrounded by a watery area about 1^ inches in diameter. The contents of the inoculated tomatoes softened rapidly, so that at the end of four days after inoculation openings were made in the skins of some of the infected fruits and the contents were poured out. leavinj^ the skins intact. The cell contents of the inoculated tomatoes were apparently acted upon by some substance that dissolved the inter- cellular la\ers and allowed the individual cells to become entirely separated, as in the case of the cucundjers already cited. The cell contents did not seem to Ix) affected, iior did the substance act upon the skin of the tomato. Rmo tomatoes^ green. — Some tomato plants growine- in the Depart- ment greenhouse bore a number of unripe tomatoes varying from 1 to 2 inches in diameter. Six of these were inoculated on the plants in the same manner as the ripe tomatoes described al)ove. Twent^'-four hours after inoculation (temperature, about 30" C.)allth(» infected toma- toes had small watery spots at the point of inoculation. Twenty-four hours later the watery spots appeared sunken and whitish. In another twenty-four hours the spots began to turn brown, the skin cracked, and the juice began to ooze out. \\\ twelve da^'s after inoculation the contents had oozed from all the inoculated tomatoes, leaving the skins still clinging to the vines, Plate ^TI1, figure 2, shows a photograph of one of the skins (No. 2) and of an uninoculated tomato (No. 1) on a piece of one of the vines. The skins did not cling firmly to the vines, but could be easily removed. The stems to which the skins were attached had a discolored and dead appearance, ))ut were not at all soft. Green tomatoes brought into contact, either artificially or naturally, with a deca3'ed tomato did not take the disease. While the general efi'ect of the organism is the same upon the green as upon the ripe tomato, the progress is much more rapid in the case of the ripe fruits. Ravj ajyples (York Imperial). — The outside of the apple was Avashed with corrosive sublimate (1 part in 1, ()()()) and then with sterile water. 30 A SOFT KOT OF THE CALLA LILY. Several i)icces were iheii out out with a steril(> knife and placed in sterile petri disbe.s, four pieces in each di.sh. Two pieces in each dish were inoculated with a 24-hour-old culture of the calla-rot "-erm in beef broth and two pieces were left for control. After four days a slight growth was noticeable, but the rate of growth was vevy slow. Jiaw jjineajjjjlcs. — The outside was removed and several pieces were cut from the interior with a sterile knife. As in the previous case, four pieces were placed in each of several petri dishes. Two pieces in each dish were inoculated as above and two left for control. These preparations were kept for about ten daA's, but no growth appeared on any of the pieces. liavj i/t'lio'w hana7ias. — The outside of the bananas was carefully peeled off, and with a sterile knife cross sections from 1./ to 2 cm. thick were cut otl' and placed in sterile petri dishes, four in each dish. As in the preceding cases, two pieces in each were inoculated with a 24- hour-old cultui'c of the calla-rot germ in beef ])roth and two were left for control. After ten da3's no growth was noticeal)le on an}' of the pieces. GAS. To determine whether or not the calla-rot organism is a gas pro- ducer, six solutions were used, viz, peptene water +1 \)v,\- cent man- nite, peptone water -|-1 per cent maltose, peptone water +1 per cent dextrose, peptone water +1 per cent cane sugar, peptone water +1 per cent milk sugar, and peptone water +1 percent gh'cerin. A half dozen fermentation tubes were tilled with each of these solutions, and after sterilizing for fifteen minutes on three consecutive days several tubes of each set were inoculated with a 1-mm. loop of a 24-hour-old beef-broth culture of the calla-rot organism. A part of each set was left for control. In eighteen hours after inoculation of the infected tubes (temperature, 20"^ C.) the}' were clouded in the bulb, and the cloudmg extended from one-half to 1 inch into the closed ends of the tubes. In forty hours the clouding extended to the top of the closed end of each inoculated tube, but no gas had formed in any case. (Fig. 0.) The control tubes were all clear and free from gas. These tubes were kept under observation for two weeks, but no gas formed in any of the tubes, and the control tubes were still clear and free from sediment. The inoculated peptone-mannite tubes l)egan to clear at the top of the closed ends in from twenty to thirty weeks after inoculation. The deposit formed from a settling of the sediment was cream butf in color, as seen by reflected light, and corresponded very nearly to Ridgway's No. 11. Plate V. The reaction of the contents of the tube was slightly acid to litmus at the close of the experiment. The inocu- lated peptone-maltose tubes ])egan to clear in from ten to twelve weeks, and by the end of twenty weeks were entirely clear. The ACTION ON LEAD ACETATE. 81 deposit fonned was only iil)out one-half the bulk of tlio deposit in (lie pejjtone-niannite tubes. It was of a drab color, eorrespondinj;- v(>ry elosely to Ridgvvay's Ecru Drab, or a little darker than Saccai-do's AvellantHis, No. 7, Talde I, when viewed by reflected li«>ht. The reac- tion of the contents of the tubes was slightly alkaline to litmus at the close of the experiment. The peptone-dextrose tubes began to dear in from ten to twelve weeks after inocula- tion, and m twenty weeks were entirely clear. A large part of the sediment clung to the back of the upright part of the tube instead of settling completely, as in the other inoculated tubes. The color of the deposit was also drab, corresponding very closely to Kidgway's Ecru Drab, No. 21, Plate III, or a little darker than Saccardo's Avellaneus, No. 7, Table 1, when seen by reflected light. The reaction of the con- tents of the tube at the close of the experi- ment was slightly acid to litnuis. The cane sugar, milk sugar, and glycerin tubes cleared in from one to six weeks. The o-lvcerin tube cleared first, then the milk- sugar tube, and lastly the cane-sugar tu))es. The deposit was heaviest — about -i nnn. deep— in the cane-sugar tubes, about 2 mm. deep in the milk-sugar tubes, and only 1 mm. deep in the glycerin tube. The color of the deposit was the same as in the other cases, viz, Ridgway's Ecru Drab, No. 21, Plate III, or a little darker than Saccardo's Avellaneus, No. 7, Table I. Each inoculated tube gave an acid reaction with litmus at the close of the experiment. No gas formed in any of the tubes. It is therefore apparent that the calla-rot organism is not capable of splitting up mannite, maltose, dextrose, cane sugar, milk sugar, or gh^cerin so that a gas will form. Fig. 6.— Fermentation tube ten days after inoculating with the callii organism. ACTION ON LEAD ACETATE. Slant tubes of lactose agar, colored with litmus, were inoculated with the calla-rot organism, and at the same time slips of filter paper saturated with lead acetate were introduced into the tubes. These paper strips were held at one end by a cotton plug, so that they did. not come into contact with the medium. In twenty-four hours the color began to fade from the litmus-lactose agar, and in three days the agar was practicall}" colorless, except a small area near the top, which was still slightly tinged. At the same time the lead acetate paper began to blacken around the edges. Twenty -four hours later the margins of the paper strips were still darker and the discoloration 32 A SOFT EOT OF THE CALLA LILY. extended a little farther from the edge. At the end of eight days from tlu> l)oginning of the experiment the color had entirely' disap- peared from the inoculated tubes, while it remained unchanged in the controls. The lead-acetate papers Avere blackened about three-fourths of an inch from the lower end upward, the color fading out and leav- ing no sharp line of demarcation. The liquid that settled in the angb of the inoculated tubes at the end of eight da)^s had become nearly cream color, corresponding closely to Ridgwa3^'s No. 20, Plate VI, or Saccardo's Cremeus, No. 27, Table II, while in the control tubes the liquid was still litmus color. At the expiration of twenty-seven days from the beginning of the experiment the color began to return in the agar, and seven days later the original color had returned throughout the agar and also in the liquid that had previoush^ been cream color. As soon as the color began to return to the agar the discoloration of the lead-acetate slips ceased to develop. The black color in the lead- acetate papers was undoubtedly due to the formation of hydrogen sul- phid, which develops on certain media during the activity of the calla- rot organism. As soon as the organism became inactive the hydrogen sulphid ceased to form, and what had formed passed off from the agar, allowing the litmus color to return. Beef broth inoculated Avith the calla-rot organism discolored the margins of lead-acetate paper in twentj'-four hours, the discoloration extending about one-fourth of an inch from the margin. This gas forms much more rapidly in beef broth than in litmus-lactose agar, while the organism growing on potato cylinders produced no blackening of lead-acetate strips, even at the end of three weeks after inoculation. INDOL. Several tubes of peptonized Uschinsky's solution Avere inoculated Avith fresh cultures of the calla-rot organism. The inoculated tubes clouded Avithin tAventy-four hours, and tests Avere made from day to day for indol, using concentrated sulphuric acid and sodium nitrite, but even at the end of twentA^-four days no trace of indol could be detected, although the tubes Averc heated to 80° C. after the application of the acid and the nitrite. XITRATKS RKDUCKl) TO MTRITES. Four tul)es of nitrate bouillon were inoculated Avith the calla germ. These became distinctly clouded in the usual time, and at the end of tAvo days were tested for nitrites as follows: To 10 c. c. of the clouded bouillion 1 c. c. of starch solution and 1 c. c. of potassium iodid solu- tion were added. One drop of sulphuric acid was then sufficient to giA'e an intensely ))lue color, indicating that the nitrates had been chanp-ed to nitrites. The control tubes treated in the same manner gaA'e no reaction. MAXIMUM TEMPERATUKE. 33 MAXIMUM TKMl'KUATUUK. In determining the niaxinunn toniperaturo at which the calla-rot organism will grow several media were used, viz, agar, gelatin, beef })roth, and Uschinsky's solution. These media were iuoculat(>d with a 24-hour-old culture of the calla-rot organism in beef 1)roth, and several tubes of each medium were placed in an incul)ator which registered 40° C. At the expiration of forty-eight hours the temperature still •remained at 40° C, and there was no visible growth in any of the media. Growth was apparent in all the control tubes at the end of twenty-four hours after inoculation. On the third day after the tubes were placed in the oven the temperature fell to 38° C, and at the expiration of twenty-four hours thereafter there was a visible cloud- ing of the beef broth and of the Uschinsky solution, ])ut no groAvth appeared on the other media. When the incubator had again ])ecome steady at 40° C, fresh cultures were introduced, including, in addition to the above mentioned media, milk, litmus milk, and poured-agar plates. At the end of forty-eight hours there was a slight clouding of the beef broth and of the Uschinskv solution, l)ut no growth was yet apparent in the other media. Twenty-four hours later the clouding in the beef broth and in Uschinsky's solution had increased and minute colonies began to appear in the poured plates, slight growth l)eing apparent also on slant agar and stab gelatin cultures. At the end of another twenty-four hours the milk was slightly curdled and the litmus milk was beginning to redden. The temperature remained constantly at 40° C, and growth advanced slowly in all cases for several days. The colonies in the poured plates increased in size until they were from 2 to 3 mm. in diameter. It should be noted that all the colonies produced on the agar plates at this high temperature were round, none of them showing any tendency to radiate as they did ' under temperatures from 20° to 30° C. While 40° C. retards the growth of the organism it does not prevent it. The incubator Avas next ]-egulated at 41° C. and fresh cultures of the organism on the various media were placed in it. After forty-eight hours there \vas a slight growth in the Uschinsky solution and on the slant agar, but it was very slight as compared with the controls. No growth appeared in the other media. At the end of another forty-eight hours, growth in the agar and in the Uschinsky solution was not perceptibly advanced and no growth appeared in any of the other media. Upon removing all these cultures to conditions of normal temperature at the end of the fourth day, growth advanced rapidly in those cases where it had started and appeared in all the other media used w^ithin twenty-four hours after removal. When fresh cultures were kept constantly at 42° C. no growth appeared, but exposure to this temperature for twenty -four hours did not destroy the life of the organism, as evidenced 27501— No. 60—04 3 34 A SOFT EOT OF THE CALL A LILY. by the fact that when the cultures were removed from the incubator at 42^ and kept at 20° C. g-rowth began within a few hours. If fresh cultures were placed in the incubator at 43'^ C. life was not destroj^ed within fifteen hours, but cultures removed at the end of twent3^-four hours and placed under normal conditions failed to grow. If the temperature was kept constants above 41° C. no growth appeared in any of the media used. Hence after man}' repeated tests it was decided that 41° C. is the maximum temj^erature at w^hich this organism will grow. MIXIMUIM TEMPERATURE. To determine the lowest temperature at which the calla-rot organ- ism will grow, fresh cultures were placed in the ice box at different elevations, with as little variation as possible in the quantity of ice, so that the temperature remained fairly constant for each set of cul- tures, but varied for the different sets from about 3° to 9° C. Set 1 consisted of cultures of beef broth, Uschinsky's solution, gelatin stab cultures, and slant agar, and was kept at a temperature between 3° and 5° C. for twenty-four days. The control cultures at room tem- peratures of 20° C. produced growth as usual within twenty-four hours, while the cultures at the low temperature showed no signs of growth until the}' were removed from the ice box at the expiration of twenty -four days, when all produced growth within twenty-four hours. Set 2 was kept at approximately 0° C. for nine days, at the end of which time growth appeared, slightly clouding the beef broth. The temperature sometimes fell to 5° C, but did not at any time dur- ing the nine days exceed 6i° C. Set 3 was kept at approximately 9° 0. Slight growth beg-an in from two to four davs. Beef broth was the first to show the growth in the low temperatures, while in the high temperatures it was usually the Uschinsky solution that clouded first. Six and one-half degrees centigrade seems to be the lowest tempera- ture at which growth will take place. At 9° C. growth takes place slowly and the colonies in agar-plate cultures at this temperature are small and round, as was found to be the case in the high temperatures. OPTIMUM TEMPERATURE. The calla-rot organism grows readilv between 15° and 37° C. Fresh cultures of beef broth, Uschinsky's solution, and agar inoculated with a 1 mm. loop of a 24-bour-old beef-broth culture, placed in an incubator at 37.5° C, showed signs of growth within six hours. Simi- lar cultures at 35° C. showed a distinct growth in four hours. As it is sometimes difficult to compare culture solutions accurately with ref- erence to the intensity of clouding, agar-plate cultures were also used. The fresh cultures were placed at different temperatures — some at 20°, some at 30°, some at 33°, some at 35°, and some at 37.5° C. In fifteen hours the plates at 35° C. showed the colonies most distinctly. THERMAL DEATH POINT. 35 The colonics moasurod from 1 to 8 nun. in diiinu'tcr. Colonies wore also visible in the plates at 2(» and 30 and at 37.5^0., but they were smaller— scarcel}' larger than pin points. Similar tests were made of other temperatures above and below 35° C. with like results. Since all oTowth above and below 35° C. is slower than at this temperature, it appears that 35° C. is the optimum temperature for the growth of the calla-rot oraanism. In thirtv-four hours the colonies at 35° C. had the characteristic radiating- form, while those at and above 37.5° C. were round. THERMAL DEATH TOIXT. The thermal death point is the lowest temperature at which the life of the oro-anism will be destroved when a fresh culture is exposed to that tempcn-ature for ten minutes. To determine that point with the calla-rot oro-anism fresh beef-broth cultures were made from a 24-hour- old culture of l)eef broth, each culture consisting of 10 c. c. of broth inoculated with a 1-nnn. loop of the 2-i-hour-old culture. The tubes containing these fresh cultures were placed in water at constant tem- perature for ten minutes. In the first experiment three sets of tubes were used. One set was exposed to a temperature of 40°, another set was exposed to 49.20 ^ and the third set was exposed to 49.40° C. After exposing the tu])es to these temperatures they were placed at room temperature of a])out 20° C, and at the expiration of eighteen hours all control tulles were clouded and all exposed tubes were clear. Six hours later set 1 (49° C.) was clouded slightly; sets 2 and 3 were still clear. Twenty-four hours later— i. e., forty-eight hours from the time the tubes w^ere exposed to the heat— all inoculated tubes were clouded. In the second experiment three sets of tubes were again used. After inoculating in the same manner as above, one set was exposed for 10 minutes to a temperature of 49.50°, another to 50°, and a third to 50.20° C. Several inoculated tubes were left untreated for control. At the expiration of twenty-four hours all control tubes were clouded, and all exposed tubes were clear. Twenty-four hours later four tubes in set 1 (49.50- C.) were clouded and two were clear. All tubes in sets 2 and 3 (12 m all) were still clear. At the expiration of two weeks all tubes in sets 2 and 3 were still clear, and the two tubes in set 1 were also clear. Agar plates were made from the clouded tubes that were heated to 49.50- C, and in all cases pure cultures of the calla organism were obtained, as indicated by the shape of the colony and by the fact that inoculations into calla plants produced the characteristic symptoms of the disease. Several sets of cultures were subsequently exposed to a temperature of 50° C. for ten minutes, but always with the result that they all remained clear indefinitely, while a i)art, at least, of the cultures exposed below 50° C. clouded in a longer or shorter time, showing that 50° C is the thermal death point for this organism. 36 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALLA LILY. DIFFUSED LIGHT. Diffused lioht had no effect upon the development of the orj,^anism in an}- of the media used, i. e., beef broth and other liquid media, clouded or otherwise, showed the presence of the organism as readily under one condition as the other, and in the agar plates the colonies formed as quickly and grew as rapidly in difl-used light as in the dark. DIRECT SUNLIGHT. To determine the effect of direct sunlight upon the organism several tubes, each containing 10 c. c. of agar, were inoculated and poured into thin petri dishes. One-half of each dish was covered with black paper and the dishes Avere then exposed to the direct sunlight. Some of the dishes were removed from the direct sunlight at the end of live, ten, fifteen, twenty, and sixt}- minutes. In those dishes that were exposed five minutes only, colonies appeared in all points of the plate in twenty hours. The colonies appeared just as readily and grew just as rapidly in the exposed as in the unexposed part of the plate, but were a little less numerous, showing that a few of the organisms had been killed by the direct light in five minutes. In the plates that were exposed ten minutes colonies appeared in the covered part of the plate within twenty-four hours, but none appeared in the exposed part of the plate until nearly forty-eight hours after being placed in diff'used light. The colonies which finally formed in the exposed part were much less numerous than those in the shaded part. In the covered part of the plate that w-as exposed fifteen minutes colonies appeared within twenty hours, but no colonies appeared in the exposed side, even at the end of a week, except a few around the edge of the plate, Avhich were apparently protected slightly either b}'^ the shadow of the margin of the petri dish or by the organism being several deep around the margin of the plate, so that the upper layers protected those below from being destroyed by the direct rays of the sun. The same was true of the plates exposed twenty minutes. It appears, there- fore, that from five to fifteen minutes of direct sunlight are sufficient to destroy the life of the organism, but that a very slight protection only is necessaiy to prevent them from being destro3'ed. Even in the plates exposed for sixt}- minutes the organisms around the margin of the plate were likewise protected. In all cases colonies appeared close to the dividing line between the exposed and the shaded part of the plate, and growth extended in every instance from these marginal colonies into the exposed part of the plate, showing the characteristic radiation of the colonies w hen not crowded. EFFECT OF NITROGEN. Several tubes of beef broth were inoculated with the calla-rot germ and the tubes were placed iiiuuciliately in a jar from wliicli the oxygen EFFECT OF NITROGEN, ETC. 37 was removed bj' the aid of pyrogallic acid and sodium hydrate, thus leavino- practically an atmosphere of nitroo;en. The jar was i)laced in ditiused lioht at a temperature of from 18- to 25^ C. At the expira- tion of thirty-tive days it was opened and the beef broth was as clear as if it had not been inoculated, showing that no growth had taken place in the absence of oxygen. Twenty-four hours after the jar was opened the tubes were clouded as deeply as if the inoculation had been made the day the jar was opened instead of thirty-tive days prior to that time. Hence, while nitrogen will not enal)lc the organism to grow, its life is not destroyed by the action of this gas, and when inocula- tions were made from these cultures into callas the disease promptly appeared, and in forty-eight hours the inoculated leaves and llower stalks had rotted off. Agar-poured plates made from the clouded tubes and from the diseased portion of the inoculated calla showed the same characteristic pure cultures composed of radiating colonies. To deter- mine how nuich longer the organism w^ould live in the absence of oxy- gen, cotton -plugged tubes of beef broth, Uschinsky's solution, and a mixture of Dunham's and Uschinsky's solutions (half and half) were inoculated with the calla organism and were kept in an atmosphere of nitrogen two hundred and seventy-live days, in the manner described above. At the expiration of this time the tubes, all of which were clear, were exposed to the air at room temperature, i. e., IS ' to 25° C, the same temperature at whicli they had been kept in the atmosphere free from oxygen. The atmosphere in the jar would not support com- bustion at the moment it was opened, indicating that the ox3'gen had not diffused into it. In twenty -four hours after exposing the tubes to the air the Uschinsky solution and the mixture of the Uschinsky and Dunham solutions w^ere all clouded, but the beef-broth solutions were not clouded. The clouding increased for several days in those tubes in which it had begun, ))ut no growth appeared in the beef broth even after several weeks of exposure to the air. Poured plates and inocu- lations into healthy callas from the clouded tubes showed that this was the calla organism. EFFECT OF CARBON DIOXID. Freshly inoculated tubes of slant agar, Uschinsky's solution, nitrate bouillon, and common bouillon were placed in an air-tight jar into which carbon dioxid was passed. Before the gas entered the jar con- • taining the tubes it was passed through solutions of potassium per- manganate, sodium hydrate, and distilled water. After being filled and exhausted six times, to insure an atmosphere of pure carbon dioxid, the jar was tilled with the gas, sealed, and allowed to stand for fourteen days. At the expiration of this time it was opened and the tubes were examined. The slant agar showed a thin, pure white growth the whole length of the streak and a small amount of whitish precipi- tate in the fluid in the angle fon^ncd l)y the agar and the side of the 38 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALLA LILY. tube. The amount of growth was only moderate. The Uschinsky's solution showed no growth at this time. In twenty-four hours the tubes of Uschinsky's solution were still clear, but at the end of forty- eight hours after exposure to the air the solution was distinctly clouded, showing that free oxygen is necessary for the growth of the calla organism in Uschinsky's solution. In the nitrate bouillon there was only a moderate amount of growth at the time the jar was opened, but the solution was distinctly clouded. There was a white precipitate 7 mm. in breadth, but no pellicle or rim had formed. The nitrates were reduced to nitrites, as shown by the usual test. The common bouillon was distinctly and iniiforml}' clouded. Apparentl}^ the growth had been twice as rapid as in the nitrate bouil- lon, as indicated by the degree of cloudiness of the tubes and by the large amount of white precipitate, which w^as fully twice as abundant jis in the nitrate bouillon tubes. No rim or pellicle formed in any of the tabes. EFFECT OF HYDROGEN, Tubes of slant agar, Uschinskj^'s solution, ordinary bouillon, and nitrate bouillon were inoculated with the calla organism and placed in a hydrogen atmosphere. The hydrogen was generated b}^ the action of dilute sulphuric acid upon zinc. The gas thus produced was passed through solutions of silver nitrate, potassium permanganate, sodium hydrate, and distilled water into a chamber containing the inoculated tubes. The chamber was filled and exhausted six times, thus insuring practically a pure atmosphere of hj^drogen. The cham- ber was then sealed and left undisturbed for twenty days, at the end of which time the following results were noted: The organism had made a feeble growth on the slant agar, as indi- cated b}^ a very faint streak along the surface of the medium, and a small amount of whitish precipitate to the depth of 2 mm. had been deposited in the angle between the agar and the side of the tube. Uschinskv's solution was feebl}^ clouded throughout. A small amount of deposit to the breadth of 7 to 8 mm. had formed in the bottom of the tube. The ordinary bouillon was feel^ly clouded throughout and a white precipitate 8 mm. in breadth had been deposited. The nitrate bouillon was feebly clouded, with a small amount of white deposit 12 mm. broad in the bottom of the tube. No rim or pellicle had formed in an}^ of the fluids. COMPARISON OF CALLA-ROT GERM WITH SIMILAR ORGANISMS. Bacillus carotovorm Jones." — Upon comparing the calla organism with the carrot-rot germ, as described by Jones, it is found to differ in "Jonep, L. R. A Soft Rot of Carrot and Other Vegetables Caused l)y Bacillus Carotovorus, Jones. Thirteenth Annual Report of the Vermont Experiment Station, 1900, p. 299. COMPARISON WITH SIMILAR ORGANISMS. 39 several pavtic ulars— i. o., the, calla rot does not. -while the latter does produce gas. The former is not atfeeted by ditlused light, while the latter is affected, etc. The shape of colonies differs. There are, of course, numerous points in which the two organisms agree, but they differ in enough essential points to show that they are not the same. Bacillus olenu'cm Harrison."— Cultures of this organism were ob- tiiined, and repeated inoculations were made with fresh cultures into various parts of calla plants. At the same time parallel inoculations were made with similar cultures of the calla-rot germ. In twenty- four hours after inoculation nearly all the plants inoculated wibli the calla germ showed the characteristic symptoms of disease, and the decay continued to progress until the plants were practically destroyed. On the other hand Harrison's organism did not affect the plants in any way, showing that the two organisms are not identical. Heinz' s hyacinth germ {Bacillus hyacinthi septiciis).^ — In ord(>r to learn the effect of the calla organism on hyacinths, more than 100 hyacinths were inoculated with fresh qx\\- tures of the calla germ. The leava\s, ilower stalk, and flowers were inoculated. Most of the inoculations were made in plants grow- ing in the open when the weather was bright and warm. A few hyacinths were potted and placed in a greenhouse. The flowers were inoculated by dropping a single drop of a 24-hour-old beef -broth culture into the flower. The leaves and flower stalks were in- oculated by scraping a (juantity of the fresh growth of the organism from a slant-agar surface, applying it to the diseased spot, and then puncturing the plant with a sterile needle through the mass of organisms. None of the plants in the open showed any symptoms of the disease whatever, although they were watched daily for more than two weeks. The inoculated plants in the greenhouse did not show an}^ symptoms of disease until the expiration of five days, when a few of the leaves and flower stalks began to soften. The affected parts gradually decayed throughout (fig. 7). Pure cultures of the calla organism were obtained from these diseased parts of the hyacinths. The difficult}^ with which this organism « Harrison, F. C. Preliminary Note on a New Organism Producing Rot in Cauli- flower and Allied Plants. Science, n. s., Vol. XVI, .July 25, 1902, p. 152. '> Heinz, A. Zur Kenntniss der Rotzkrankheiten der Pflanzen. Centralblatt f. Bakt. u. Parasitenkunde, Bd. V, 1889, p. 535. Fig. 7.— Hothouse hyacintB inffott- lated in a flower with the calla organism. 40 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALL A LILY. affects the h^^acinths indicates that it is not the same as Heinz's hyacinth germ, which attacked the plants readily and destroyed them rapidly when inoculated by either of the methods used in these tests. Heinz's org-anism {Bacillus hyacinihi septicns) does not liquefy gelatin, while the opposite is true of the calla organism. The colonies in plate cultures are round and when grown on sterile potato they are a dirty j^ellow color. The colonies of the calla organism are usually radiating and on potato they produce a brownish color. Potter'' s Pseudomonas destructans/^ — Potter's organism, when grown in a solution containing sugar, liberates carbonic acid gas. The calla organism is not a gas producer. Colonies in plate cultures are round, and Avhen grown on vegetables the end reaction is acid. The calla organism usually produces radiating colonies, and on vegetables the end reaction is generally alkaline. Pseudomonas destructans has but one ilagellum while the calla organism has several flagella. Likewise in comparison with other forms the calla germ does not agree in all particulars with any other known organism, and the writer therefore proposes for the calla-rot germ the name Bacillus aroldede. ORIGIN AND SPREAD OF THE DISEASE. The calla rot has been reported from the Western, Central, and Eastern States, i. e., from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It therefore appears to have spread over the entire calla-growing section of the United States, but it is much more destructive in some portions of the countr}^ than in others. It causes a loss of thousands of dollars annuall}" and has become so destructive in some sections that the growers have either abandoned the calla altogether or have greatly reduced the space and time that they have heretofore devoted to this plant. It is therefore of the highest importance that the grower should know the source of this disease and the w^ays in which it may spread from place to place and from plant to plant. Calla corms that are attacked late in the season go into their resting stage in a partly decayed condition. If the attack has been slight the infected spot will dry down and may be overlooked when corms are selected the following season for growing calla plants. When callas begin to grow from such corms the organisms which have remained dormant during the resting period of the corm are revived and decay is started afresh. Since this organism may remain dormant for months without its life becoming extinct, it may be spread from one locality to another, and even from country to country, whenever dis- eased corms are transported. It is undoubtedly in this manncM- that the disease has become so widespread in this c-ountry. « Potter, M. C. Ue1)er eine Bakterienkrankheit der Ruben. Central})latt f. Bakt. u. Parasiteiikunde, Bd. VII, II. Abt., 190^ "u. 282, 353. ORIGIN AND SPREAD OF THE DISEASE. 41 The spread of the disease from plant to plant in the same house seems to be accomplished mainly throut^h the soil. One rt'achcs this conclusion from the fact that healthy calla plants jrrowino- in pots and standing- near diseased callas are less likely to become infected than when similar healthy plants are growing in a solid bed with diseased corms. Furthermore, it is almost always the case that the disease, if undisturbed, first attacks, the corm beneath or just at the surface of the ground. Usually the first season that the disease appears onl}' a few of the plants are actually destro3^ed, but the millions of organisms which are produced during the process of decay remain in the soil, and some of them reach corms that were perfectly healthy when planted. These infections, as already indicated, often produce the hold-over cases, which develop the following season. The organism may be carried from plant to plant by stirring the soil after some of the corms have become well rotted, or simply by walking about on the bed in cutting the flowers. The nature of the soil apparently has much to do with the spread of the disease in the bed. A soil that is rich in vegetable matter is a bet- ter medium for the organism to grow and spread in than a soil that is poor in such material. Furthermore, a soil filled with hunuis retains the moisture better than one that is lacking in vegetable matter, a con- dition that greatly aids the multiplication of the organism. It often happens that the roots reach from corm to corm through the soil of the solid bed. Usually the corms are placed about 12 inches apart each way, and it is not uncommon for the plants to produce roots from 6 to 12 inches in length. Plate IX shows a small plant with a root more than 6 inches long. The vvriter has frequently been able to fol- low the progress of the disease through these roots from plant to plant. The contents of a calla root afl'ected with this disease become soft, while the epidermis remains intact. The diseased roots are also some- what darker than the healthy ones, so that the}^ can be distinguished readily by sight as well as by touch. These appear to be the princi- pal methods by which this disease is spread from plant to plant in the solid bed. The only insect that has been observed by the writer in connection with the diseased plants is the so-called bulb-mite, but in no case has this insect been found on an}^ part of a healthy plant and only on the decayed part of the diseased plants. To determine whether or not those insects were at all responsible for the spread of the disease a large number of mites were placed in petri dishes containing pure cultures of the calla organism. After the mites had come into contact with the colonies of bacteria the}^ were transferred to healthy callas. Some were placed on the corms, others on the leaves, and still others on the flower stalks, but in no case did any of these plants develop the rot. 42 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALL A LILY. REMEDIES. Various methods have been used with the hope of finding some remedy by which the progress of the disease could be stopped after the phmts became infected. With this end in view the following treatments were used: The partly decayed corms were treated with the following substances, viz, air-slaked lime (two parts of the same with one part sulphur), formalin (varying from 1 to 10 per cent), corrosive sublimate, Bordeaux mixture, and copper sulphate solution. These were used on plants in different stages of decay. In some cases the soft part of the bulb was scraped away with a clean knife before the substance was applied, and in other instances the material was placed on the decayed part without in any way disturbing it. Sometimes the softened part was scraped awa}^ and nothing was applied, simply leaving the exposed surface to dr}^ down. None of the treatments, however, was entirely successful. The lime and the lime and sulphur retarded the progress of the disease, but in a few cases only did the disease seem to be entirely eradicated. The solutions used appeared to make no impression upon the disease unless they were of sufficient strength to kill the plant. A few of the plants that were scraped and left without further treatment did not suffer further deca}', but the percentage of cases of this kind was very low. The successful treatment of the diseased plants in the bed was con- sidered impractical )le, and preventive measures were then resorted to. The soil was all remov^ed from the solid bed in which practically all the callas had decayed, and this was replaced with fresh soil. At the proper time a new set of corms was obtained, but they were not planted directl^y in the bed. They were first carefully examined and all that showed suspicious dark-colored spots were discarded. The remainder were started in pots and then transplanted. This made it possible to discard all plants which showed an}' indication of the rot after growth began. As a result no disease appeared in the bed of 1,000 callas during the entire season. Tiie same soil was used the sec- ond and third years and the same precautions were taken in regard to putting into the bed oidy health}^ bulbs, «o far as possible, with the result that while a few diseased plants appeared successful crops of callas were grown. Plate I shows the third consecutive lot of callas in the same bed since the crop was entirely destro3'ed by the soft rot. Very little of the disease has appeared owing to the pre- cautions that were taken in changing the soil and in selecting healthy corms. It is safe, therefore, to state that the soft rot of the calla may be prevented or held in check sufficiently for all practical purposes by changing the soil every third or fourth year, depending upon the number of cases of rot that appear, and by exercising due caution in selecting only health}' plants for the bed. Diseased corms may often SUMMARY. 43 be detected, even in the dorniiint state, l)y examinin*;- for discolored spots, but it is safer to start the plants in pots, even after the corms having- discolored areas have been rejected, to insure getting- as few diseased phmts as possible in the l)ed, since experience shows that souic conns are so slightly afl'ected that the disease is not easily detected in the dormant state. Some growers })refer to keep their j)lant3 in pots throughout the season as a preventive measure against tiie rot, but as a rule callas grown in this manner do not produce as hirge flowers as when grown in a solid bed. Hence, if the tracU* demands a large flower, the solid bed is preferable. In conclusion, the writer wishes to express his acknowledgment to Dr. Erwiii F. Smith, pathologist in charge of the laboratory of phint pathology, for his many helpful suggestions and his assistance in carrying on this work, and also to jVIr. Alexander B. Garden, of Ana- costia, D. C, for his kindness in allowing free access to his calla house during the past four j^ears. SUMMARY. (1) The soft rot of the calla is a bacterial disease, (2) The organism that ]>r<)duces the calla rot is a short rod bearing peritrichiate tlagella. (3) The orgaiiism occupies the intercellular sj^acc^ in its host and dissolves the layers that coimect the cells, causing the afl'ected tissue to break down into a soft, slimy mass. (4) The organism is able to attack a large number of raw vegeta- bles, and is capable of producing soft rot in many of our useful plants. Care should therefore be taken not to throw any deca3'ed or partl}^ deca3^ed callas or the soil from a bed in wliich callas have decayed in any place where the vegetables mentioned in this bulletin are to be grown. (5) It does not attack tree fruits readily, and hence is not likely to produce fruit rots. (6) It grows readily on beef agar, forming at room temperature (18"^ to 25° C.) radiating colonies, while on the same medium at extreme temperatures (8-' or 37°) the colonies are usually round. (7) It liquefies gelatin. (8) It coagulates milk, and first reddens, then ))leaches blue litmus milk. (9) A 1-mm. loop of a fresh fluid culture of the organism placed in 10 c. c. of beef broth will distinctly cloud it in four hours at 35° C. (10) The organism does not produce gas when grown in a peptone solution containing 1 per cent of cane sugar, milk sugar, glycerin, maltose, dextrose, or mannite. (11) It bleaches litmus lactose agar. 44 A SOFT ROT OF THE CALLA LILY. (12) It will not grow at a temperature below 6^ C, nor at a tem- perature above 41*^ C, and grows best at 35° C. (13) The life of the organism is destroyed if it is kept for ten min- utes in tubes of beef broth at or above 50^ C. (14) Its growth is not affected by diffused light, but direct sunlight will kill the organism in from five to fifteen minutes. (15) It will not grow in an atmosphere from which the oxj^gen has been removed, but will remain alive for many months in this condition at a room temperature of 18° to 25° C. (16) It does not grow well in an atmosphere of pure hydrogen. (IT) Its growth is very slight in an atmosphere of carbon dioxid. (18) When grown on vegetables the end reaction is usually alkaline to litmus. (19) The organism may remain dormant for many months in partly decayed corms, a condition which enables the disease to be transported long distances and to be held over from year to year. (20) The soft rot of the calla may be prevented by a careful selec- tion of sound corms and by changing the soil in the calla beds at intervals of three or four years. (21) Brief description of the organism: B. aroidex n. sp. A short rod with rounded ends, generally single or in doublets or 4's, but under certain conditions growing in chains. Usual length when taken from a beef-broth culture' 2-1 hours old 2yu-3/^, breadth about 0.5/< and fairly constant. Organism motile, flagella 2 to 8, peritrichiate. Growth white or nearly so on the various solid media. Aerobic and facultative anjerobic. Not a gas producer. Liquefies gelatin; reddens litmus milk, separates the casein from the whey and solidifies the former. Grows slowly on potato cylinders, where it is white with a tinge of yellow% the potato being distinctly grayed. Growth good and vitality long in Uschinsky's solution. No indol produced. Nitrates reduced to nitrites. Methy- lene blue in Dunham's solution is changed to green on addition of grape sugar. Does not grow in nitrogen but remains alive many months. Grows feebly in hydrogen and carbon dioxid. Minimum temperature for growth about 6° C. ; optimum, 35° C. ; maximum, 41° C, thermal death point, 50° C. Surface colonies on agar, round at temperatures near the maximum and minimum, but fimbriate at optimum tempera- ture. B. aroklex was isolated from rotting calla corms and is the cause of a soft rot of the corm, petiole, and flower stalk of the calla lily. It also causes a solt, dark colored rot when inoculated into many raw vegetables, such as canot, potato, turnip, radish, cabbage, and cauliflower. It also causes a soft rot of certain green fruits, such as the tomato, eggplant, and cucumber. PLATES. 45 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I. Frontispiece. Calla bed in which all the callas, 1,000 in number, were destroyed by the soft rot four years ago. Since that time three successful crops of the i)lant have been grown in this bed under the writer's direction, this being the third crop. Plate II. Fig. 1. — The organism that produces the soft rot of the calla, showing the form of the individual, the development in chains, and the presence of flagella (X 1,000). Fig. 2. — Development of colonies of the soft-rot organism on agar plates at 18° to 25° C. The organism with which these plates were inoculated had been kept dormant for two hundred and seventy-five days by withholding oxygen. Nearly all the colonies are round. Only a few show a slight tendency to radiate. Photographed three CO uJ LJ CE h- o < O o > < < o cc UJ < I I- o CO I z < Q U. S. UErARTIMKNT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY -BULLETIN No. 61. 15. T. CiAM.OWAY, Clii'/ 1>/ Jluicau. THE AVOCADO IN FLORIDA; ITS PROl'AdATKlN, CI LriVATKlN, AM) .MAKKKTINO. BY V. 11. KOLFS, Pathologist, in Chauck of Suhtuoi'ical Labokatouy. POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued July 7, 1904. WASHINGTON: aOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1904. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Beverly T. Galloway, Chief. J. E. Rockwell, Editor. POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Scientific Staff. G. B. Brackett, Pomologist. William A. Taylor, Pomologist in Charge of Field Mvestigaiions. G. Harold Powell, Pomologist in Charge of Fruit Storage Investigations. H. P. Gould, Assistant Pomologist in Charge of Fruit District Jncestigatiow^. Sanpord H. Fulton, Assistant Pomologist in Charge of Fruit Storage Investigations. George C. Husmann, VUiculturist. Lirrnn^ of traxsmfital. U. S. Dei'Aktment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Office of the Chief, Washington, J). C, Ajn-ll 7, 190 J^. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper on "The Avocado in Florida; its rropaoation, Cultivation,, and Market in*;-," and respeet- fally reeonnnend that it he published as Bulletin No. fll of the series of the Bureau. This paper was prepared b}- Prof. P. H. Rolfs, Patholooist in Charge of the Subtropical Laboratory at Miami, Fla., under the direc- tion of Dr. A. F. Woods, Pathologist of this Bureau, })ut as the subject is pomological rather than pathological, it was submitted to the Pomologist with a view to its publication from his office. The accompanying illustrations are essential to an intelligent under- standing of the text. Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, > C% ief of B u rea 1 1. . Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. PRHFACE. The avocado {Persea gratlssima) is one of the most recent fruits to receive intellioent and systematic treatment from American fruit growers. Though k)ng held in higli regard by persons living in southern Florida, the West Indies, and most portions of tropical America, it has not until recently attracted the attention of northern consumers, and is, in fact, at this time an interesting novelty rather than a recognized staple of conunerce. This is prohahly due to the fact that it lacks those characteristics of texture and flavor which are sought for in most dessert fruits, so that a taste for it must be acquired by most persons. In recent years, however, its usefulness as a salad fruit has gradually been recognized, so that a growing appre- ciation of its value in this regard has led to an increasing demand for it in our larger cities. Until very recently the principal supply for these markets has come from the West Indies, chiefly l)ecause of cheaper transportation from those islands than from Florida. The recent extension of railroad facilities to far southern Florida has made possible the safe shipment of this fruit from that section to practicall}" all parts of the countr}^ and interest in its commercial culture there has therefore largeh^ increased. As it provides a wholesome and nutritious food, which, judging from present demand and prices, will afl'ord a profitable crop in loca- tions suitable to its production, its culture on a conunercial scale appears worthy of encouragement in Porto llico, southern Florida, Hawaii, and such locations in California as are practically free from frost during the blossoming season. 'The greatest need at present appears to be the propagation of pro- ductive varieties of desirable size, form, and quality, ripening at an opportune time — that is, late in autumn or early in winter, when the demand in northern markets at high prices appears to be best. As the bud propagation of this fruit in a commercial way has but recently commenced, it is believed that this publication, which deals largely with that subject, will be of distinct value to those who desire to engage in its production. G. B. Brackett, Powologist. Office of the Pomologist, Washington, I). C, March 29, 1901^. 5 CONTENTS, Page Introduction ^ The name avocado 1^ Literature ^1 Distribution and time of blooming 13 The avocado for wind-breaks and shade trees 15 Methods of starting an orchard 15 The seed bed 16 The nursery 1" Cultivation in the nursery 17 Budding 1 ' Grafting 1^ Transplanting to the field 19 Top-working trees 1" Cultivation 20 Fertilizers 20 Superiority of budded trees 21 Variation of fruit from seedling trees 21 Description of variations - 22 Marketing 23 Picking 23 Grading and sizing 24 Packing 25 The fruit 27 The edible portion 27 Seed and seed cavity 28 Shape of the tree 28 Forms and varieties 28 The JNIexican avocado 29 The West Indian-South American avocado -^ - 30 The ideal avocado 31 Uses of the fruit 31 Diseases 32 Leaf disease - - 32 Remedy - 32 Fruit disease 33 Remedy 33 Summary 33 Description of plates 36 7 ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES. Page. Plate I. West Indian-South American avocado tree, thirty-five years old, growing on a coral l)reccia reef Frontispiece. II. Fig. 1. — Crown-worked West Indian-South American avocado tree, eighteen months after insertion of bud. Fig. 2. — Top-worked Mexican avocado tree, eighteen months after insertion of bud ... 36 III. West Indian-South American avocado tree in nursery, transplanted from seed bed j 2 years old, 4 feet tall 36 IV. Fruiting Ijranch of West Indian-South American avocado tree, one- tenth natural diameter 36 TEXT Fit; TEES. Fig. 1. Seedling avocado in December from seed planted in September 16 2. Shield bud cut out preparatory to insertion IS 3. Seedling avbcado stock with shield bud inserted 18 4. Shield bud wrapped with waxed cloth 18 o. Bud stick. "Live" buds in various stages of development («, «, etc. ). Blind buds which sliould not be used ( b, b, etc. ) 18 6. Longitudinal sections of round avocados, West Indian-South American varieties: A, seed filling the cavity; B, fruit from another tree of better qualit}^ but seed loose in the cavity 24 7. Longitudinal sections of oblong avocados. West Indian-South Ameri- can varieties: A, small seed, loose in large cavity; B, large seed, loose in the cavity 24 8. Longitudinal sections of pear-shaped avocados, West Indian-South American varieties: A, very large seed, loose in the cavity; B, large seed, loose in the cavity 25 9. Longitudinal sections of bottle-necked avocados: A, West Indian- South American variety, with very large cavity; B, ^Mexican variety, with seed filling cavity 26 8 B. r. I.— 100. Pom. I.— 'JJ. THE AVOCADO IN FLORIDA; ITS PROPACATION. Cl'LTIVATlON, AND MARKI-TING. INTRODUCTION. The avocado (/V.sw/ r/ratixxliini (iartn.) im'olit almost be called a new fruit, for, while it has long been used as a food ])\ the American aborigines, it has never been sul)jected to cultivation and careful breeding-. Its value as a food is rapidly })ecoming known, and it is apparentl}^ onlv a question of time until it will be used extensively. Its shipping qualities permit it to be sent to all the large consuming centers of the United States, while its food value will make it a favorite with all lovers of good salad fruits. These pages have been prepared with a view to S3\stematizing our knowledge of the avocado, and to point out the directions for its improvement. South Florida seems to be the only region in which the propagation of the avocado has been undertaken in a systematic wa}' and on an extensive scale. Nurseries in that section have thousands of seedlings growing and hundreds of budded trees to put on the market. In addition to this, it seems to be the onl}^ region where budded trees have fruited. The Pollock avocado, grown in South Florida, was exhibited at the meeting of the American Pomological Society in September, 1903. The original tree bears fruit of large size, the largest having approxi- mated 3 pounds in weight. The Trapp avocado, also grown in South Florida, is noteworth}^ in that it matures late, holding some of its fruit until January. The essential work of selecting and breeding varieties that are espe- cially adapted to certain sections and that are w^anted by the most desirable markets can now be pushed forward, T'he fact that it can now be definitely stated that seedlings do not come true to seed and that proi)agation by budding is possible niark^ a distinct epoch in the progress of growing this fruit. Another dis- tinct advance in the development of this salad fruit is that seedless fruit has been grown by the writer. The selling price of avocados varies considerably, the latest ripening ones bringing much the best prices in American markets. Extremely 9 s 10 THE AVOCADO ly FLORIDA. late ones have brought as high as $3 a dozen when shipped in lots of several crates at a time. This price gives the grower ^O to $8 net per crate at the shipping station. The price for good fruit in sound condi- tion has never fallen so low as to make it unprofitable to ship it to markets that use it. In man}- large cities in the United States the avocado can not be found at all, and as the dealers in Boston, New York, Washington, and New^ Orleans have been able to handle all the good fruit that has been sent to them, it is not probalile that the avocado will be introduced into other centers until these markets have been fully supplied. THE NAME AVOCADO. This fruit has been called by various names — avocado, avocado pear, avocate, aguacate, alligator pear,. midshipman's butter, etc. As early as ir>96 Hans Sloane" speaks of the "avocado or allegator pear-tree" and cataloo'ues about a dozen other names bv which it is known in literature. Previous to this date the avocado was known from "Nica- raguae and other portions of the American continent." Murray's New English Dictionary prefers the name avocado and gives the following I'eference: Taylor Anahuae IX, 227 (1861). This is a well-known West Indian fruit which we call an avocado or alligator pear, and which the French call "avocat" and the Spanish " aguacate." All these names are the corruption of the Aztec name of the fruit "ahuacatl." Meissner^ gives the following names as being used in various parts of America: In Peru, Palto and Aguacate; in Central America, Aguacate de Anis; in Mexico, Aguacate; in Brazil, Avocate; in Antigua and British Guiana, Avocado Pear and Alligator Pear; in French Guiana, Laurier Avocat. The Florida State Horticultural Society'^ prefers the name avocado, while the American Pomological Society"^ gives preference to aguacate and uses avocado as second choice. When the Catalogue of Fruits shall be again revised, avocado will doubtless be given preference. According to the Century Dictionary, avocado is a corruption from the Mexican. The addition of the w^ord pear, while describing the shape of the fruit in some varieties, is otherwise inappropriate, since the avocado lielongs to the laurel family, while the pear belongs to the rose family. How such a barbarism as "alligator pear" could have been perpetrated upon this salad fruit it is difficult to imagine. The name avocado is short, concise, and has the advantage of being largely used by the American growers of this fruit. « Catalogus Plantarum quae in Insula Jamaica Sponte Proveniunt, Pars Prima, London, 1696, p. 185. '':\Iartius, Flora Brasiliensis, Vol. V, pt. 2, fasc.41, p. 159. '■Transactions, 1902, }>. 20. t/Proc, Am. Pom. Soc, 1901, Part IL p. 59. LITERATURE. 11 ]\Ir. C. 1'. Taft" says of the avocado in California: The avocado, or alligator pear, is dostined to receive more and more attentiou as it becomes better known. It is fairly hardy, and a good grower and bearer. Importa- tions from Mexico are frequent in the Los Angeles markets, where they sell for fancy prices. Mr. A. A. Boggs* saj^s: The avocado or alligator pear {Persea gratimmn) is already growing rapidly in favor in a few of the larger cities where people are beginning to learn its snjierior excellence as a salad fruit, and it bids fair to l)ecome an important market crop. It has, however, been grown entirely frorn seed, and as it varies widely in size and quality, there is urgent need of improvement in method of propagation. All efforts to bud or gi-aft have hitherto proved abortive. The Department of Agriculture made an importation of seed of a ^Mexican variety about three years ago. Some trees from these have already come into bearing, and proved a disappointment. Th(> fruit is entirely too small and tlic flavor certainly not superior to the average of the old type. Mr. Byron O. Clark'' sa3'.s of this fruit in Hawaii: The avocado or alligator pear is the one fruit which captures the palate of the vis- itor to the Tropics more lirndy than any otiier, provided he accpiires a liking for this fruit. With the richness and consistency of butter, and a flavor of nuts, it is undoubtedly one of the most popular fruits, if not the mo.st popular with residents, and acquires such popularity with persons who visit the islands that a good market for shipment to the coast is open at any time the fruit can be had. Like almost all other kinds of fruit here, the home market is not nearly supplietl, and the prices are so high that none but the wealthy can use them, except as a luxury. LITERATURE. Ver}' little has been written about the propagation of the avocado. It was introduced into Europe as early as the seventeenth century, l)ut has not 3'et been generally disseminated. Simmonds's "Tropical Agri- culture" does not mention it at all. Woodrow''s "Gardenino- in India," published in ISOO, does not refer to it. Dr. F. Frauceschi'^ speaks of its having fruited in southern Califor- nia. He also points out that the demand for it in the larger cities of the United States is greater than the supph^ In 1S99 Capt. John J. Haden'' exhibited fruit of the avocado in Philadelphia. - The Botanical Register of 1829 published a colored plate of this fruit (No. 125S), and referred to it as having been introduced from the con- tinent [America], and as one of the rarest species cultivated in the greenhouses. Curtis's Botanical Magazine for Ma}^ 1, 1851, published a colored plate of an avocado presenting rather an unusual combination. The «Proc., Am. Pom. Soc, 1901, p. 92. &Proc., Am. Pom. Soc, 1901, p. 88. cProc, Am. Pom. Soc, 1897, p. 100. tJProc, Am. Pom. Soc, 1899, p. 88. 12 THE AVOCADO IN FLORIDA. figures of the branches, inckiding the leaves and inflorescence, are undoubtedly the AYest Indian-South American form. The size of the fruit is that of the West Indian-South American form, while the color of the skin is exactly that of the Mexican avocado. This publication also sugo-ests that "it is increased by cuttings, treated in the usual manner." So far as the write r'.s experience goes, the cuttings are diffi- cult to strike without bottom heat. In the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1901, page 354, Mr. O. F. Cook refers to the avocado as one of the important fruits of Porto Rico, and says: The alligator peai-, also called butter pear, aguacate, and avocate, is a tropical fruit now relatively little known, but with every prospect of a gradually increasing popularity. It is a pear only in shape, and might l)etter be rnmpared to the olive, because it serves as a salad or a relish rather than a fruit in the ordinary sense, and frequently becomes a favorite, even with those who do not like it at first. The flesh has a delicate buttery consistency, and is eaten with vinegar, salt, and other condi- ments, or is used as an ingredient of other salad compounds. Tlie promise of agri- cultural and commei-cial importance for this fruit lies in the fact that it already has a distinct, if limited, place in the markets of our larger cities at from 30 to 60 cents apiece, prices which might be halved or quartered and still leave good profits for both grower and dealer. Moreover, even at these large prices the supply of first- class fruit seems to be unequal to the demand. The alligator pear is perhaps the one fruit which Torto Rico is ready to send to market in considerable quantity and of prime quality. The tree is easily propa- gated from seed, is a vigorous grower, and a free bearer, and there is no a])parent reason why the alligator pear may not become almost as cheap and nearly as popu- lar as the orange. In the Report of the Florida State Horticultural Society for 1902, Mr. Boggs says: Of equal promise and of greater present market importance is the avocado pear, which is to-day the most costly fruit on the American market, and is making more friends every season. The importance of l;)udding and grafting as applied to this fruit is greater than the securing of better varieties from abroad, for Florida now produces the best in the world, but in eliminating the inferior sorts which form a large proportion of seedling orchards and in regulating by selection the season of fruitage. There are now trees in Dade County whicli ripen fruit as early as July 15 and others as late as January 15. The significance of this fact needs no comment. Choice avocados retailed last season at from 35 cents to 75 cents each in the cities, and the demand seems to outgrow the supply. It is urged that this society, in its catalogue, should encourage the use of tlie name avocado, both on the score of cor- rectness and of euphony, in place of the absurd misnomer "alligator pear," which leads to many mistakes. Mr. W. A. ]Mar.sh also makes reference to this fruit in the Report of the Florida State Horticultural Society for 1896, as follows: The alligator or avocado pear {Persea gratissima) is one of the most highly prized of all tropical fruits. It belongs to the order of Lauraceae. The fruit is sometimes round, also pear-shaped, containing one large seed about the size and shape of a hulled walnut. The fruit when mature varies in color from a bright green to a deep rich brown, sometimes mottled with both colors. Its flesh is a vegetable marrow, DISTRIBUTION AND TIME OF BLOOMING. 13 sotnotiiiies rolled niidshipiiiairs hiittiT, and held in various dcjrivi'S of aiiprccialion l)y difffit-nt ijersonhi. It is also used as a salad, iicMU>i diissed with pepin'r, salt, ami vinej,'ar, in whieh style it is relished by most jteojde. The tree is of stately j^'rowth, often reaching' tlic hciy-lit of 40 or ")0 feet in Florida. It is an Aiiiciican fruit; it was introdii{-e(l into the j^anU-ns of Spain in KiOl, and into the Sunda Isit-s al)out the middle of the eighteenth century. At tlie hegiiuiing of the eighteenth eentnry thin tree did not exist in the gardens of British India. In America its actual area in a wild state is of uncommon extent. It has been found in the forests, on the hanks of rivers, and on the seashore from ^lexico and the West Indies to the Amazon. At the time of the discovery of America it was found both wild and cultivati-d in Mexico. According to Hernandez it was cultivated liy the people of IVru under the name of "palto," but there is no proof that it was wild in that country. Mr. W. Harris refers to it in liaiW's Cyclopedia of American Hor- ticulture as follows: The avocado or alligator pear i.s a native of the AVest Indies, Mexico to Peru, and Brazil. It is very common in Jamaica, l)eing found in every settlement or i>lanta- tion. The tree grows to a height of 2o to '.iO feet. It has elliptical or elliptical- oblong leaves, 4 to 7 inclu's long, glabrate and pale beneatli. The fruits are large, more or less pear-shaped, and covered with a green or deep i)urple skin and con- taining a large quantity of a lirm yeilowish-green pulp, inclosing a single large seed. This fruit is highly esteemed by all classes in the West Indies. The i)nlp is marrow- like, and is eaten as a salad, usually with the addition of i)epper, salt, and vinegar. Europeans as a rule do not like the fruit at first, but once the taste is acijuired they become exceedingly, often excessively, fond of it. The pulp contains an abundance of oil, which may be used for illuminating purposes; also for .soap making. The seeds yield a deep, indelible black stain, and are used for marking linen. Plants are easily raised from seeds, and in good soil in warm situations they grow rapidly and begin to fruit when about 5 years old. Tliere are a good many varieties, differing from each other in size, sha[)e, and quality of fruit. These differences are ncjt due to careful cultivation and selection in all cases, however, but to natural variation and accidental intercrossing. DISTRIBUTION AND TIME OF BLOOMING. Meissner « gives the habitat of the avocado as *" the forest, especially on the seacoast and following- the rivers of tropical America, as well as in Mexico, Pern, Colombia, Guiana, and the islands of the Antilles, thence to subtropical localities where this agreeable fruit is cultivated. It is found in Brazil, al)out Peru, and elsewhere; also about Yuri- magnus, in Peru, and in English Guiana." Emile Rodigas^ thinks that the avocado is native to Brazil. He figures a large green fruit without a seed cavit}'. It is interesting to note that according to this author it was introduced in Franco in 1750. An herbarium specimen in the New York Botanical Garden, col- lected by Mr. H. H. Smith, in Colombia, is accompanied bj^ a note stating that the species has ever}^ appearance of being' native to the mountain forest at an altitude of from 1,500 to 2,500 feet. The time "Translation from INIartius, Flora Brasiliensis, Vol. V, Part II, ji. 15i). 6 L' Illustrations Horticole, XXXVI: 15 (1889). 14 THE AVOCADO IN FLORIDA, of blooming is given as from December to April. The specimen is in full bloom and bears the date of December 7, 181)8. Dr. AVilliam Trelease, Director of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, who has made repeated excursions to Mexico in connection with the study of agaves, informs the writer that the smaller avocado with the bluish or l)lackish fruit (the Mexican avocado) is most commonly found in the markets on the eastern side of the country, while the larger forms occur on the western slope. Specimens in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden and in the United States National Museum indicate that the avocado has been widely disseminated. Among those occurring in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden are some collected at the following- places and on the dates given, which are of special interest: Colombia, December 7, 1898; Nassau, N. P., March 12, 1903; Key Largo, Fla., March 20-29, 1898; island of Saint Croix, March 4, 1896; Porto Rico, March 8, 1899; Porotonga, Cook Islands, June, 1899; Monterey, Mexico, January 10, 1828; San Luis Potosi, Mexico, 1879; Nicols Town, Andros (Bahamas), March 24, 1890; St. Vincent, British .West Indies, April, 1890; Java, 1865; Jamaica, 1827. The following specimens were found among those in the herbarium of the United States National Museum: Martinique, 1871; Danish West Indies, March 4, 1896; Santo Domingo, March, 1871; Colima, Mexico, March, 1841. The foregoing fifteen localities from which specimens of this species have been collected show^ how widely it has been disti'ibuted. The fact that specimens were collected in Java as earh^ as 1865 shows that the plants had been imported a considerable time previous to that date. While no specimens from the Hawaiian Islands were found in the herbaria referred to, it is w^ell known that the species occurs there in large quantities. It is also said to occur in the Seychelles Islands and in Madagascar, and it is doubtless found in all other tropical islands, and to some extent on the sealjoard of almost all tropical countries. The herbarium specimens referred to give some interesting informa- tion regarding the time of blooming. Those collected in Colombia show a date of blooming of December and Januar}^ while a note upon one of the herbarium sheets indicates that the time of blooming extends from December to April. In Mexico the period of blooming 'seems to bo about the same as in Colombia. In the West Indies, except the Bahamas, the earliest bloom may occur as eari}^ as Fel^ruary, but the season of bloom closes in April. In the Bahamas and Florida the flowers usualh" appear a})Out the first of ]\Iarch, though sometimes blooms occur as earh' as Februar}', while the l)looming period closes in April. The season near the ecjuator appears to l)c lengthened into five months. A shortening of the period of blooming seems to have METHODS OF STARTING AN ORrHARD. 15 occurred ])\' crowding the entire period into tlie las two months when the species is taken to the northern limit of its zone. Some allowance must be made for variations that occur from year to year, l)ut this does not amount to more than two or three weeks in South Florida. The connuercial importance of having- this fruit come into the market as late in the season as possible and in considerable quantity can not be overestimated. THE AVOCADO FOR WIND-BREAKS AND SHADE TREES. Nearl}' every orchardist is confronted with the necessity of securing- good shade trees about his premises, and especially a screen for out- buildings and for servants' houses. In addition to shade the (juestion of wind-])reaks is of great importance where high Avinds are almost certain to occur every year. The vigorous-growing varieties of avoca- dos meet these needs as satisfactorily as the purely ornamental trees, and in addition may be expected to give a return of fruit. The fact that the avocado can utilize almost any kind of organic fertilizer with- out becoming diseased makes it much more desira))le for these pur- poses than mangoes and citrous trees. The tall, sturdy growth makes free pruning of the lower limbs possible, so as to permit the passage of persons and animals under the trees, while the abundant growth of leaves will still produce a dense shade. METHODS OF STARTING AN ORCHARD. The general method of securing an orchard of avocados in Florida is to germinate seed in a quart or a two-quart tin can, and after the seed- ling has attained the height of a foot or two the can with its contents is transferred to the field where the tree is to grow\ A still more primitive way of starting an orchard is to plant the seed in the soil where the tree is to stand. There is no great difficulty in starting an orchard in either way, since the largest seeds (tig. 1) weigh several ounces and have great vitalit}-. If it does not happen to become in- fected by some germs of decay the seed may lie in the soil for an entire year awaiting a time favorable for germination. The unusual amount of nourishment stored up in the seed enables the seedling to make repeated starts after being dried off. It is capable of renewing its roots several times, as well as its top. This method of starting an orchard is cjuite certain and inexpensive. When the trees are one or two years old they may be budded to any desired variety. While this is better than to await the uncertain results and certain disappointment of a seedling orchard, 3'et top- working is expensive, and if budded trees of know n variety can be obtained from a good mu'sery they will be found cheaper in the end and much more satisfactory. 16 THE AVOCADO IN FLORIDA. THE SEED BED. Seed may be obtained in large <]uaiititie« during the ripening .-ieason from southern Florida, Cuba, and other places in the Antillean region. At the present time good seeds cost from 1^ to 2 cents each. These prices seem somewhat high, but every seed is nearly certain to make a seedling. The seed bed should 1)e made in some moist locality, in soil free from rocks and containing an abundance of vegetable matter. The rows may be made such distances apart as will suit convenience — from 1 to 4: feet. Place the seeds from -t to (5 inches apart in a drill 3 or 4 inches deep; firm the soil about the seed and cover 2 or 3 inches deep. Supply a heavj^ cover of mulch. As soon as the seedlings (see fig. 1) appear above ground, fertilizer may be applied. The mulch should ])e turned back, the fertilizer raked in or cultivated in, and the mulch replaced. If the seedlings are to be removed to the nursery soon, fertilizing and cultivating ma}^ be omitted. Removal to the nursery may be deferred until seasonable weather. THE NUKSEKY. For starting a nurserA' the best land should be selected, especiallj^ such as is fairh^ dry though never suffering from drought. Land that „ , ^ ^,. , • r> K f i'^ subiect to flooding should by all Fig. 1. — Seedling avocado m DocembtT from •> ^ " ^ _ "^ seed planted in September (somewhat slow UieauS be aVoidcd. AVllilc the treCS in starting, but otherwise apparently nor- .^^.^ .^,^j^ ^^ j-^^ -^^ standing Watcr for mal): (a) First shoot to start; (6) second ^ shoot starting from the axil of the incipient two or three weeks, they become sub- leaf;(c)third shoot to start-in case of. se- j^^.^. ^^ attack by VariouS formS of disease. When practicable, a gen- erous application of fertilizer should be made two or three weeks before the trees are set out. It should be scattered down the row and raked in, in the usual way. The land should be thoroughh' grubbed and put into a first-class state of cultivation. veredronghi or otheradverse conditions, all of these shoots may fail and some other bud grow into a new shoot; (d) scale-like leaf: (c) one of the cotyledons, the other having been removed, scar opposite c; (/) primary root. (Reduced to one-third natural diameter.) THE kursp:ry. 17 'ri:iiisplantiii<;- to the iiursciy should be done wlieii the scedlinj^'s are 0 incheri to ii foot hi,uh. After this time tiie taproot (sec li*^-. 1,/') will have formed and tlie transphintino- will distiiil) this and prevent it f rom ^-rowing to the lar^e size that it would attain if the seedling were not removed. For transplanting, rainy weather should he chosen; otherwise much waterino- will ])e neeessarv or manv trees will l»e lost. From the nurseryman's point of view the planting in a seed bed seems unneces- sary, but seeds planted in a nursery produce trees with large taproots and few tibrous roots; this is especially the case on hmd that is more or h^ss sandy. In the nurser}^ the rows should be from 4 to 0 feet apart and the trees set about a foot apart in the row. By thorough cultivation and generous fertilizing an abundance of tibrous roots will be produced, and if the nursery is located on moist land most of the trees will pro- duce many branched roots and very few large roots. ( ri,TIVATI()V IN THE NCKSKIJY. After planting in the nursery, cultivation should be thorough and frequent. The implements should not be permitted to go deejdy iido the soil if it is sandy, ])ut in marl or heavy lands cultivation should l)e as deep as is practicable. BUDDING. There have been many and varying reports regarding the possibility of budding and grafting the avocado. A few j'ears ago it was thought impossible to bud it at all. More recently statements have been made that 90 to 100 per cent of the buds had "taken.'' These reports when investigated have been only partiall}' verified, since a large per- centage of the buds that take fail to develop. In the avocado there seems to ])e no difficulty in making the buds take, but there is con sideral)le difficulty in making them start. The buds placed in a vigor- ous stock are frequently grown over, thus obliterating the bud.' Or again, the stock on being lopped to induce the bud to start often dies back to below the l)ud. Experience indicates that budding at or near the crown is preferable to top-working. The difficulty is not with budding but wdth the want of experience up to the present time. The nurser^nnen do not fully understand the time and manner best suited for budding their stock. Some buds respond promptly, while others are verv dilatory about starting and ma}" finally fail. Shield buds (fig. 2) inserted in the spring wdien the bark slips well and before the first flush, usually take well and make an excellent growth. It is very important in the work of budding that the stock and scion l)e in as perfect condition as possible. (See rigs. 3 and 4.) 29619— Nu. 61—04 2 18 THE AVOCADO IN FLORIDA. Bud sticks (tip". 5) are cut from well-matured g-rowth, especially such as shows an abundance of active Imds. (See iig. 5, (/, a^ a.) Wood with man}" blind buds (see lig. 5, l^ 7>, 1>) should be avoided and care taken not to use such buds in propag-ating. Some are likely to occur on an}" stick. Various methods of 1)udding have been adopted and some forms of grafting have been suggested. The common shield bud (fig. 2) seems to be about as successful as any that have been tried, though the patch bud is also used with a considerable degree of success. mm h b b b. ml CL.A ..h Fig. 2.— Shiclfl bud fut out preparatory to insertion. Fig. 3.— Sped- ling p.vocado stock with •shield bud in- serted. Fig. 4.— Shield bud wrapped with waxed cloth. GRAFTING. Fig. 5. — Bud stick; a, a, etc., "live" buds in varit )us stages of development; b, b, etc., blind buds wliich should not be used. ' Baltet" recommends four different methods of grafting: (1) Inarch- ing, (2) veneer grafting, (3) cleft grafting, and (-i) veneer grafting near the root. In inarching and cleft grafting the top of the stock is fig- ured as having l)een cut away. In the other two methods the top of the stock is left until the scion has started. Well-matured wood will live for several weeks if kept in a .sufficiently moist condition, and will doubtless unite readily with the stock, but it is much more wasteful of scion wood and a more tedious process than budding. f'L'Art de Greffor, 7tli cd., Tarig, ]W2, p. 226. TRANSPLANTING. 19 TltANSPLANTINi; 1 ( ) TIIK FIKLI). A oreut ck'til of the ilifficiilty that has heiMi cxpcrioiu-od in (raiis- plaiithio; the avocado is due to the fact that most of the trees have l)een grown in ''fence corners," or possiblv thev have been permitted to grow under the tree where the seed fell, thus producing tall, slender seedlings, with ver}' few" branches and long taproots, but not many fibrous roots. A verv different result is ol)tained from trees u'rown in a nurser}' (see Fl. Ill), where, as previously stated, an al)undance of fibrous roots and a good Imshy top are pi-oduced. A tree of this kind transplants without any greater dilhculty than is experienced with other orchard trees. One hundred l)udded trees to an acre are sufHcient. If the grower proposes to have a seedling orchard the trees should be set closer — 100 to 200 per acre. This should be done with a view to cutting out the inferior ones when they come to fruiting-. Of the lary cutting;- the trees off near the ground and then wait- ing for sprouts to start from the crown. Several of these sprouts are then budded and the most vigorous of those that have taken are per- mitted to grow (see PI. II, tig. 1). CULTIVATION. When the trees are set in the field a considerable quantity of mulch should be placed about them; this prevents the soil from becoming- hot about the roots and from dr3dng out. In Florida it is better to plant some field crops, such as cowpeas or velvet beans, or to sow beggar weed in a young orchard. During the wintev, crops of vegetables may he grown in the orchard with advan- tage to the trees. The ''middles" may be planted to pineapples, since the pineapple fertilizer will produce a good growth of avocado; but there is the disadvantage that these plants will dry out the soil severel}^ during a drought. During dry Aveather cultivation should be frequent and thorough, ])ut not deep; 3 inches of soil mulch is sufficient to conserve capillary moisture. During the rainy season cultivation ma}^ be suspended entirely and the middles planted to some cover crop, as indicated above. FERTILIZERS. In selecting fertilizers a formula should be chosen in which the ammonia is from an organic source, such as dried l)lood or cotton- seed meal, in preference to sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda. Sulphate of potash will be a safe form to employ as a source of potash. It should be used in liberal quantities to insure good firm leaves and wood, and also to prevent the dropping of the fruit. Phosphoric acid, so far as experiments teach, may be supplied from any source that is ordinaril}^ used. If the trees be planted about poultry yards, or fowls are allowed to roost in the trees, potash will be all the fertilizer needed, ])ut this should ))e used liberally to keep the trees healthy and free from insect attacks. Such trees when not fertilized with potash are usuall}" attacked by insect pests, but as a rule are exempt from Ghjeosporium. When conunercial fertilizers are to be applied, the ordinary- "fruit and vine" fertilizer, with the ammonia from an organic source, may be used. The quantity required will var}- according to the concentra- tion of the particular brand, the character of the soil in which the trees are growing, and the age of the trees. Fifteen pounds per tree per year of fertilizer prepared according to the following formula will be found good for growing trees four or five years old: Ammonia, 5 per cent; potash, 0 per cent; phosphoric acid, 6 per cent. SUrKUIOlUTY OK 15UDDED TREES. 21 As tlic trees grow oldin- :uul hogiii to fruit heavily, increase the percentHge of potash and phosphoric acid. Apply tlu> fertilizer in two or three doses during- the growing season. The time of applying must be determimxl l)y the particular orchard under consideration; ordinarily an application should not be made during December or Jan- uary, as it would be likely to force an early spring growth or even cause a vigorous winter growth, which should be avoided. If the trees be put into a dormant or semidorniant condition during Det'cmbcr and January, they will make a strong spring growth and produce a heavy crop of bloom. If the Ijloom is retarded as long as possil)le the blooming period will be shortened, and consequently the fruit will mature more n(^ar1y at one time, thus doing away with the necessity of making several pickings from the same tree. 'Frees that have l)een neglected do not prove productive unless they happen to l)e standing on some place where a large (piantity of organic matter has accumulated. Trees on abandoned homesteads located in the piney woods soon become unproductive and require two or three years' nursing to bring them back to good growth and bearing. It usually pays better to start in with good, fresh trees from the nursery than to attempt to " bring out" an al)andoned orchard. SUPERIORITY OF BUDDED TREES. The earlier productiveness of orchards composed of budded and grafted trees has been repeatedly demonstrated with most of the tree fruits that are grown under cultivation. While occasional seedling- trees of most species bear at as early an age as the ordinary budded or grafted tree of the same species, the trees in a seedling orchard usually vary greatly in this particular, and on the average conie into bearing much later than budded or grafted orchards of varieties of the same types of fruits grown under similar conditions. While many factors are concerned in producing this result, the greatest advantage of ))udding and grafting is that varieties of known precocity and productiveness, as well as other desirable characteristics, can be per- petuated with little variation, while the seedling orchard contains indi viduals differing widely in some or all of these important particularfe Seedling avocados usually do not fruit until the,y are four or more years old, and they are usually six years old before bearing a crop. There are exceptions to this, but the number of seedlings that bear a good crop before they are six years old will not amount to 10 per cent. VARIATION OF FRUIT FROM SEEDLING TREES. The S3^stematic work of propagating and cultivating avocados is just beginning. The fruit being- of American origin, it has come into cul- tivation rather recent!}-, and has not had the benefit of centuries of 22 THE AVOCADO TN FLORIDA. selection and propagation, as is the case with man}- other orchard fruits. Throughout Central America and the West Indies it grows in a native state, and only half-hearted attempts are made to put it into cultivation. So far as the writer is aware, no orchard of any consid- erable size exists outside of Florida. In Cuba, Jamaica, Porto Rico, and the Bahamas a few seedling trees are growing around nearly every settler's place. The owner plants the seed and takes his chances as to the character and fruitfulness of the tree. Under these conditions a considerable quantity of fruit is being grown and marketed, hut the product is of an exceedingly variable nature. The two following illus- trations prove the truth of this statement. DESCRIPTION OF YARIATIONS. Mr. G. L. Macdonald, of Cocoanutgrove, Fla., related his expe- rience to the writer. In preparing for his orchard Mr. Macdonald selected the seed from a tree that bore fruit of exceptionally line quality and in large quantit3^ At the time the selection was made it was generally l)elieved that avocados came true to seed. The parent tree produces pear-shaped avocados of large size, fine flavor, and purple color, ripening late. The seedling orchard from this tree has now come into bearing and produces fruit of varia])le size and shape; good, bad, and indifferent flavor; the color varying from green through 3^ellow to purple; and the fruits ripening at difl'erent times in the season. The following census, taken near Buenavista, Fla., in an orchard of about an acre in extent, shows how little foundation there is for the belief that the avocado trees are unusually fruitful and that the tree come.s "true to seed," The impression that the tree is unusually fruitful doubtless originated from the fact that occasional trees bear a heavy crop (see PI. Ill), causing the observer to overlook the dozens of trees that have less than ten fruits each or possibl}- none at all. The unfruitfulness and the variability of the product is not more than should be expected from an orchard of seedlings. This orchard contains 160 trees, 110 of which are five or more 3^ears of age and of a size to permit the smallest to bear 50 fruitsi, weigh- ing from a pound to one and one-half pounds each. This number of trees produced l,iCl fruits in 1903, a 3'ear during which the avocado crop was unusually heav}'. This gave an average of approximately^ 10 fruits to the tree. Forty-seven trees bore no fruit at all; 41 trees bore from 1 to 12 fruits; 22 bore a crop of more than 12 fruits, 9 of these latter trees bearing 595 fruits, or slightly over half the crop. The four most prolific trees bore 385 fruits — that is, one-twelfth of the trees produced one-third of the fruit, or, stating the matter in percentages, -13 per cent of the trees produced no fruit; 37 per cent MARKETING. 23 produced 1 to 12 fruits ouch; 20 per cent produced over 12 fi'uits each. Cousideriuo- only the prolific trees, we tiiid thiit S p(>r cent of the trees produced 60 per cent and that 3 per cent produced 38 per <-ent of the fruit. The nine trees that produced at least a fair crop were of medium size, while the largest and most vigorous trees in every instance bore less than a fair crop. The trees referred to above were from specially selected seed, so that it may safely ])e assumed that they were up to the standard for seedling orchards of the same type that have received fair attention and are of the same age. Some of the trees that were without fruit this 3^car had a fair crop last 3'ear, indicating a tendency on the part of the avocado to fruit in alternate years. The most fruitful trees are onl}' moderately vigorous and of a ])ush3' growth. Of the 03 trees that have fruited in the orchard mentioned there arc onl}' 2 which combine good ((ualities in such a way as to be of special merit. Some trees that bear tine fruits are not prolific; others ripen their fruit at an inopportune time of the year, while still others bear a fair crop at the right time but the fruit is infcrioi- in quality. (See ligs. 0, T, A; 8, and 9.) If a census of all the seedling orchards were taken, it is not probable that the general results would he \(«rv different, but this is just what should ))e expected in propagating from seed a species that is so variable as the avocado. MARKETING. PICKING. The time of ripening of the avocado extends in Florida from the middle of July to December. As now grown, the fruits of a tree do not as a rule mature uniforudy, so that in most cases two or more pickings have to be made. The variation in this respect is so much an individual characteristic that the peculiarities of each tree in the case of a seedling orchard, and of each variety if budded, will have to be ascertained by test. The fruit must be removed from the tree while it is still very firm if it is to be shipped to a distant market. For local consumption the crop may be permitted to remain on the tree until a few fruits have fallen. In picking, the avocado should be broken off so as to leave a portion of the stem attached to the fruit. If a particular variety does not break properl}^ an orange clipper or the ordinary pruning shears may be used. If the stem be pulled out of the fruit, as occurs in "drops," there is a strong probability that some of the fruit will be lost from ripe rot in transit, or b}^ softening in the hands of the dealer. 24 THE AVOCADO IN FLORIDA. GRADINO AND SIZING, With the a^'ocado, as with all other fancy fruits, it is necessary to exercise care to have all the specimens in a crate of uniform shape and A. B. Fig 0 — Longitudinal sections of rounil avooados. West Indian-Soulh American varieties (about one- half natural diameter): A, seed tillinf,' the cavity; 15, fruit I'roni another tree of lietter (|uality, Imt seed loose in the cavity. A. B, Fig. 7.— Longitudinal sections of olilons avocados, West Indiaii-Soutli American varieties (aboutone- half nat\iral liiameter) : A. small seed, loose in larye cavity; B, l,irf,'e seed, loose in the cavity. size. (See ligs. 6, 7, S, and 9.) A few small ones in a crate of otherwise large fruits will cause a greater loss to the seller than would have heen PACKINO. 25 occasioned by rejecting- the small ones. F'ruits that averat^(> more than fifty to a tomato crate are not desirable for sendini,^ to distant markets. While the demand has been so strong- that almost any avocado in sound condition would sell, too g-reat emphasis ciin not be placed upon the necessity for packing each crate with fruit of uniform size, shape, and color. "While the market has no pronounced demand for any particular form, those of a decided pear shape (see fig. 8), of even siz(>, and of which about three dozen can l)e packtnl in a tomato crate, bring the highest price. A. B. Fig. 8. — Lnnfjitudinal sct'lioii^ of pear-shaped avneados. West Indian-Son tli American varieties (about one-half natural diameter): A, very large seed, ls the followino- classitieation, based upon the characters of the fruit: The aguacate in, without doubt, one of the most viiliiahle I'ruit trees of South Aiiieriea. The fruit is in form of a lari^e pear, witiiout any depression at tlie head. The skin is a yellowish j^reen or a pale violet eolor, and smooth. The substance of the fruit, when well matured, is nearly white and has a soft, oily consistency and a slijihtly sweet taste, somewhat sufrary. It is eaten in its natural state and also seasoned in various manners, nearly always with a little salt. The animals devour it eajierly. Tlie tree l)lossoms in April and the fruit matures in July and Aue. 2. The large green, round, with the inside yellowish ami iiaving the consistency of bread. 8. The large yellow, similar to a large pear. 4. The long green. The maturity of the fruit is known when the seed which it, contains Ix'comes loosened from tiie substance of the fruit and rattles when it is shaken.'' In order to obtain good trees one must sow the see(l in the place where it will remain permanent, in holes of 3 feet in dimension in every direction, which are tilled with good soil. These trees ordinarily bear fruit from the lifth year and live to about their eightieth year. They are planted in form of beautiful groves and walks about the dwellings of the inhabitants, and as their growth is very vigorous they soon take strength from neighboring trees. Their flowers yield a very agreeable perfume. Compare the description of phites, page 30, and tigs. <>, 7, 8, and 9 with the above description. Meissner*^ recoo-nizes several l)otanical varieties ba.sed upon the shape and size of the leaves. Viil(/ cost of jiathcriuji- from tlu' tall-o-rowinu" trees is no sorious obstacle, but much fruit is lost from a tall tree as a result of hiuli winds, which are common in the Antillean region durino- the ripening season. The fruit should weigh al)0ut a pound to a pound and a half. This is large enough for persons with an ordinary liking for this fruit, while those who arc extraordinarily fond of it can call for two fruits. Pear-shaped (sec tig. 8) or o1)long varieties (sec tig. 7) should be pre- ferred, as they can be packed readily and transported without n)uch danpcr of bein"* bruised in transit. The seed should not 1)0 loose in the cavity, as the shaking of it in transit pounds the meat into an unsiyhtlv mush. The color of the fruit should be either vellow or scarlet. The fruits that ripen green are considered by the novice as having been picked when too inunature, and those that ripen I)r()wn or i)urple look as if they were in the first stages of decay. A very late variety would undoubtedly be the most desirable, since it would ripen at a time when all the W(>st Indian and ^Mexican avocados were gone, and most of the northern fruits were out of the market. USES OF THE FRUIT. According to Patrick Brown/' horses, cows, cats, dogs, as well as all sorts of birds, feed on this fruit. Much has been written regaixling the manner of serving this salad fruit, but only one or two essential additions have been made in the last two hundred years. No matter how daintil}' it ma}^ be prepared one can scarcely relish it more than when, tramping through the forests, be happens upon a tree with a few fruits fully matured. The traveler is likely to be seated at once, enjo}" his fruit without salt, sugar, or other condiments, and forever after he will rememl)er the deliciousness of that particular fruit, Avhich if eaten with an}^ of all condiments at the most carefulh' appointed table would not have made as strong an inipression on his memory. An avocado should not be used until the meat cuts smoothly with a teaspoon and is about the consistency of well-frozen ice cream. No one should attempt to eat the fruit after it has softened; a rancid avocado may well be compared to rancid butter. The simplest way of using this fruit is as alread}^ stated. One merely halves the fruit, removes the seed, and dips out the meat with a teaspoon, or to the plain fruit a bit of salt ma}' be added. Some people use pepper in addition. The number of w;avs in wdiich the « Civil and Natural History of Jamaica, London, 1789, p. 214. 32 THK AVOCADO IN FLORIDA- avociido iiuiv be served is as varied as the possible salad eombinations. One should not, however, deluge this rich fruit with oil iior overpower with condiments its mild, nutty flavor. Salt, pepper, and vinegar are often used; if to this enough sugar be added to take off the sharpness of the vinegar, it will be an improvement. Lime juice or lemon juice may be substituted for the vinegar with advantage. The avocado is sometimes served as a dessert with sugar and sherry. Another distinct method of using this fruit is to remove the meat from the skin, add the condiments desired, and then stir the whole into the form of a salad and serve either alone or on lettuce leaves. Some chefs cut the meat into small cubes of about a half or one-third of an inch in size and serve it with condiments, as in minced salad. The use of the avocado as an ingredient of lobster or other shellfish salad is said to have become quite general in localities where the fruit can he obtained, as it gives the salad a pleasing nutty after flavor not otherwise secured. Another use is in mixed pickles. For this purpose the fruit should be selected before it has become soft, yet after it is no longer hard and brittle. The fruit is pared, the seed taken out, and the meat cut into pieces not over a half inch thick. This is then prepared in the usual manner for cucumber pickles, etc. DISEASES. LEAF DISEASE. While the avocado has recently been introduced into cultivation, it has some severe diseases, which, however, can be handled without much ditticulty if taken in time. One of the most prominent and common diseases noticed is due to a (rlwosjjornn/t , probaldy an unde- scribed species. This almost invariably attacks the leaf at the tip, and gradually works ])ack from this point into the ))lade. By the time the leaf has become two-thirds or three-quarters diseased, it usually falls off, and in this way the fungus may defoliate the entire tree. Reiitedy. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture" should be begun on the first appearance of the trouble. If spraying is delayed until the tree has been partially defoliated, success will be attained 'with nmch greater difiiculty. « Bordeaux mixture may be prepared by dissolving 6 pounds of bluestone in 25 gallons of water. This may be done readily by placing the bluestone in a feed sack and suspending it near the surface of the water. Slake 0 pounds of lime with just enough water to cover it. When this has been thoroughly slaked, dilute with 25 gal- lons of water. Strain the slaked lime into the tank of the spraying machine through coarse sacking, to remove all particles which might clog the spraying machine.. Pour the dissolved bluestone into the lime water, stirring vigorously for two or three min- utes. Apply at once. SUMMARY. 33 FRUIT DISEASE. Apparenti}' the same fung-us which causes the disease of the leaves attacks the fruit in v.irious stages of developuKMit. If tiic disease becomes prevalent while the fruit is small, it will shed off until the tree is quite fruitless. If the disease attacks the more mature fruit, it is liable to remain on the tree until nearly ripe, but the fungus pro- duces a brown spot, and tinall}^ the skin cracks. Bemedi/.—The same remed\' should be used as for the leaf fungus. SUMMARY. Avocados do not come true to seed. Orchards of seedling trees can not be relied upon to produce good crops. Budding is practicable and it is the most desii-able way of propa- gating. Crown-working is preferable to top-working. Budded trees grown in a nur.sery should be used in planting an orchard. All the fruit shipped- to market in a crate should be of the same size, of the same shape, and of one color. Preferences for color are as follows: Yellow, scarlet, green, brown. Pear-shaped fruits and oblong shapes arc preferred. Round are less desirable than bottle-necked fruits. The varieties w^hich ripen during December, or later, sell for the highest prices. The large percentage of fat contained in this fruit makes it especially desirable, since it is much more agreeable to some people than the fat obtained from an animal source. 29619— Xo. 61—04 3 PLATES. 35 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. Plate I. Frontispiece. — West Indian-South American avocado tree, about 35 years old, growing on a coral breccia reef. Produces fruits of fine quality. Ripens purple. Plate II. Fig. 1. — Crown-worked avocado tree eighteen months after insertion of .bud. The bud was placed in a sprout that had started from a stump of a tree the summer before. West Indian-South American variety. About 8 feet tall. Fig. 2. — Top-worked tree eighteen months after insertion of bud, which was placed in a green sprout. The tree was approximately of the same age and vigor as the one shown in Plate II, figure 1. Mexican variety. Aliout 12 feet tall. Compare the general mode of growth, arrangement of leaves, etc., with the tree shown in Plate II, figure 1. Plate III. Nursery tree two years old, transplanted from seed bed. West Indian- South American variety. A good, vigorous stock for budding. About 4 feet tall. Plate IV. Fruiting branch of West Indian-South American variety, showing the manner in which the fruit is borne ujjon the branches. The photograph from which this illustration was made was taken from the inside of the tree to bring out the peculiar mode of attachment. This branch may be considered as carry- ing a very heavy crop. Fruits about one-tenth natural diameter, ripening green. 36 o Bui. 61, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Oept. of Agriculture. Plate II. 31 > o < • 5 I Hi m ^ mg 0 — 2 2 H ° 1 > > s m o > z Tl P H o sT o $ 2 O H 33 I X CO m m X o > 2 > < o o > o o H 3) m m m CD I H m m 2 ^i»*r Bui. 61, Buieau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Plate III. West Indian-South American Avocado Tree in Nursery, 2 Years Old, 4 Feet Bui. 61, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. Plate IV. c z o ro X > z o I m -I z o > z I CD o c H I m X o > z > < o o > D O H X m O z m > H c X > r O) N m U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY - BULLETIN No. 62. H. 1. \\'K\, Chief Of Ritreau. NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. BY GEORGE P. FOADEX, W. Sc.. Secrktary of the Ktiedivtal AoRicuiiTuuAT. Society, Cairo, Egyit. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued Jri.Y 9, 1904. WASHmGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 1904. BULLETINS OF THE BTJREATJ OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Tlie Bureau of Flant Industry, which was organi2ed July 1, 1901, includes Vt^e- table Pathological arid Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations and K>:i)ennients, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations, and Experimental (iardens and Grounds, all of which were fomierly separate Divi- sions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, the Arlington Exper- imental Farm, Tea Culture Investigations, arid Domestic Sugar Investigations. Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of bulle- tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one series of the Bureau. A list of the Bulletins issued in the present series follows. Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica- tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution. All copies not required for ofRcial use are by law turned over to the Sui)erint«ndent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant (irowth. 1001. I'rice, 10 cents. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents, o. JMacaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 7. The Algeriari Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 9. The North American vSpei-ics oi Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 10. Records of Seed Distril>ution and Cooperative Experiments with (irivsses-and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 18. Experiments in ~ Range Imjirovement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents. 15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campes- tris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 18. Observations on the Mosaic Disease i»f Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 20. ]\Ianufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 2L List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, o5 cents. 22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 bents. 23. Berseem: The Great Forage and Soiling Crop of the Nile Valley. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 24. The ^Manufacture and Preservation of Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 25. Miscellaneous Papers: I. TheSeedsof Rescue Grass and Chess. II. Saragolla Wheat. III. Plant Introductit>n Notes from South .Africa. IV. Congres- sional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars, 1902-1903. 1903. Price, 15 cents. 20. Spanish Almonds. 1902. Price, 15 cents. [Contiuued on 7)age 3 of cover.] Bui. 62, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate Fig. 1 .— Type of Egyptian Bull. Fig. 2.— Another Type of Egyptian Bull. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN No. 62. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. UY GEORGE P. FOADEN, B. Sc, Secretary of the Khedivial Agricultural Society, Cairo, Egypt. VEQETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PH.YSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued July 9, 1904. WASHINGTON: government printing office, 1 0 0 4 . BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. B. T. Galloway, Chief. J. E. Rockwell. Editor. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist. Erwin F. vSmith, Patholoijist i» Charge of Lahorafori/ of Plant Palhologij. George T. ]\Ioore, PJigsiologiM in Charge of Laboratorg of Plant J'hysiolagg. Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory uf Plant Breeding. Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Life History. Newton B. Pierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coast Laboratori/. i\l. B. Waite, Pathologi.it in Charge-of Investigations of LUseases of Orchard Fruits. Mark A. Carleton, Cerealist in Charge of Cereal Investigations. Hermann von Schrenk,« in Charge of Mississip})i Valley laboratory. P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Subtropical Laboratory. C. O. Townsend, Pathologist in Charge of Sugar Beet Investigations. P. H. Dorsett, Pathologist. Rodney H. True,'' Physiologist. T. H. Kearney, Pliysiologist, Plant Breeding. Cornelius L. Shear, Patliologist. William A. Orton, Pathologist. W. M. Scott, Pathologist. Joseph S. Chamberlain, Pliysiological Chcmi.'^l, Cereal Ivestigations. R. E. B. McKenney, Physiologist. Flora W. Patterson, Mycologist. Charles P. Hartley, Assistant (u Physiology, I'lant Breeding. Karl F. Kellerman, Assistant in Physiology. Deane B. Swingle, Assistant in Pathology. A. W. Edson, Scientific Assistant, Plant Breeding. Jesse B. Norton, Assistant i)i Physiology, Plant Breeding. James B. Rorer, Assistant in Pathology. Lloyd S. Tenny, Assistant in Pathology. , George G. Hedgcock, Assistant in Pathology. Perley Spaulding, Scientific Assistant. P. J. O'Gara, Scientific Assistant. A. D. Shamel, Scientific Assistant, Plant Breeding. T. Ralph Robinson, Scientific Assistant, Plant Physiology. Florence Hedges, Scientific Assistant, Bacteriology. Charles J. Brand, Scientific As.9istant in Physiology, Plant Life Hi.y means of primitive water wheels lifting the water as much as 15 or 20 feet. This cultivation is generally carried on where a sup- ply of manure is availal)le, an application of which is imperative. The soil is capable of raising only the ordinary winter crop without manure, and the summer croj?, which is generally millet, is heavily fertilized. Scattered throughout the country and in use throughout the whole of Egypt are large mounds, sites of antiquity, which are drawn upon to supply manure to grow these summer crops. They contain a nitrogen equivalent of about -2 or 3 per cent of nitrate of soda. As would naturall}^ be expected, however, the best supplies are being exhausted, and many of the poorer ones which remain scarcely pay for transport. The summer crop, when grown in the basins by irrigation, is therefore practically always manured, and this, together with the watering, entails a considerable outlay on the part of the cultivator, though a good margin of profit remains. In some districts corn is grown on basin land which, lying high or being protected by small embankments, does not become inundated until later in the seasoii, when the crop has become sufficiently advanced to stand a certain amount of flooding. It may be mentioned that in the southern provinces, where the basin land is poor, it is often found more profitable to irrigate the winter evop of wheat and barlej^ instead of trusting to the moisture in the soil after the flood. In this case the crop is always manured. Such, then, is an outline of the system of agriculture jiracticed in the basins of Upper Egypt, and some idea of its primitive nature can thus be obtained. Nearly 1,750,000 acres of land are under this system of irrigation, a system which will now, to a great extent, IRRIGATION AND FERTILIZERS. 11 disjippeur and jrivo way to pciciinial iniyal ion, wlu'rob}' two crops at least will bo anunally raised. Although basin irripition is charactevistie of Upper Kgypt, 3'et there is a belt of high land between the river and the basins protected from flooding by the dike rnnning along the river bank. This bolt could be inundated onl)^ in years of exceptionally high flood. The Nile Valley slopes away fi-oiu the river, not toward it, tlu^ river bed thus extending, as it were, along a ridge and not along a depression. The breadth of this high land varies greatly. In some places the basin reaches i)ractically np to the i-iver bank, while in others the high inclosed land possesses a width of a few miles, its area having been increased by the construction of banks, which shut off the flood waters from its farther side. This land, not being flooded, can be cultivated either during summer or during flood, or both; in fact, in intensitj^of culture it is comparabh^ to that of the Delta i)roper. The greatest width of this inclosed and artificially irrigated land is found in the provinces of Beni-Suef and Minieh, which are, with the exception of Gizeh, nearest the apex of the Delta. It is on this land in these two provinces and in the province of Fayum (which is an oasis) that the bulk of the cotton known as "Ashmouni" is cultivated. These high lands have, therefore, to be artificially irrigated, and cultivation can be carried on the whole year round. One great difference, as already i)ointcd out, between tlie cultiva- tion of these lands and the basin lands is the necessity for manure, large quantities of which are employed. JJarnyard manure is obtain- able only in limited quantities, and recourse must be had to the ancient mounds to which reference has already been made. In the southern provinces, where millet is characteristic of this inclosed ai-ea during the flood season, millions of tons of a nitrate-bearing clay are found. To the agriculture of this tract and to that of Nubia this is of vital imijortance; in fact, it is difficult to see how the land could support its present population were it not for the existence of this clay. The basin lands, as mentioned, are of poor quality and are often irrigated, while the inclosed area is large; consequently large quantities of .manure are required. As soon as the winter crops are removed, the whole population is occui^ied in the transport of this nitrate-bearing clay. When the material is near it is transported by the owner's own camels and donkeys, but when far awaj^ it is brought to the river banks and sold to cultivators who come in boats for it. It is a common sight in summer to see the river bank lined with heaps of this fertilizer, while hundreds of camels and donkeys may be seen wending their way to and from the river. As already mentioned, the fertilizer is a mixture of clay and nitrate of soda, the percentage of the latter reaching in exceptional cases to as much as 20 per cent and in others dwindling to as little as 2 or 3 per cent. The richest material is found on the surface, and, 12 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. generally speaking, it would be difficult by quarrying in bulk to obtain material containing as much as 5 per cent of nitrate. Of one fact, however, there can be no doubt, viz, that it forms a most valuable manure for a large tract of land, permitting better crops to be grown in the basins and the raising of a profitable crop of millet, which with- out it would practically be an impossibility. Farther north, on this inclosed land, the whole of the sugar crop of Egypt is grown, and, including the Fayum, the Ashmouni cotton crop. Nearly 600,000 acres of land are thus perennially irrigated, chiefly by means of a large canal (Ibrahimia) taking its water direct from the Nile. A branch of this canal waters the Fayum, a deep depression in the desert which lies outside the Nile Valley, and is divided from the river by a range of low hills. Through a break in these the Nile water is admitted. The Fayum is the only oasis in Egypt in direct communication with the river, and is surrounded by desert on all sides. The canal which conveys water to the Fayum is split up on entering the province into a number of radiating canals, like the fingers of an outspread hand. The Ibrahimia Canal, completed in the year 1873, is the only peren- nial canal in Upper Egypt which takes its water direct from the Nile. It has a length of about 170 miles, and not only supplies summer water to a large tract, but also water during flood to the basins. In perennially irrigated tracts the seasons are divided, as in the Delta, into summer, flood, and winter. The chief summer crops are sugar cane, cotton, and summer sor- ghum, which occupy along the Ib)"ahimia Canal tract about one-half the area. About 40 per cent of the land is under flood crops, which are chiefly flood sorghum, rice, and corn, while the winter crops (about 60 per cent) are clover, wheat, barley, beans, etc. The cultivation of these crops will be dealt with in detail subsequently, the few remarks which have been made being merely intended to convey an idea of the general system of agriculture in vogue in Upper Egypt. The completion of the new reservoirs will bring large tracts of land under perennial irrigation, and from what has preceded it will be gathered how, under such a system, a much more intensive system of agricul- ture is practiced. These reservoirs allow a great increase in the area planted to such crops as cotton and sugar cane, while Lower Eg^i^t will also receive its share of water to supplement the summer supply, which is taxed to its utmost to irrigate the gradually extending cotton area. In Lower Egypt, or the Delta, as already mentioned, perennial irri- gation is practiced, by which is meant that the land is irrigated bj'^ canals which supply water during the whole year. Under this system, Egypt, favored with an excellent climate and a soil of great natural fertility, may be reckoned ui3on to produce on an average as much per acre as is possible in any quarter of the globe. When to these SOILS. 13 conditions a plentiful supply of cheap labor is added, there exists every- thing necessary for the carrying on of an extensive and profitable sys- tem of agriculture. The vast improvements which have been made during recent years in the irrigation system of the country have been the means of greatly increasing the amount of water available during the summer months of low supply, and thus not only have made pos- sible a considerable extension in the area of summer crops (chiefly cotton), but will in the future provide a supply of water for carrying on the reclamation (washing) of large tracts of land in the lower j^art of the Delta. Drainage, which is an all-important problem, has received at the hands of the government its due share of attention, and enormous sums of money have been expended in making a complete network of drains throughout the country. Increased supplies of water neces- sarily involve more complete drainage schemes, and to Egypt, with its practically level soil lying but little above the level of the Mediterra- nean Sea, it is a question of first importance. In fact, increased sup- plies of irrigation water without better drainage and a more plentiful supply of manure are of doubtful benefit. It would be beyond the province of the writer and beyond the object of the present bulletin to deal in any way with the irrigation system of the Delta, and attention will be entirely confined to those matters which are of purely agricultural interest. SOIIiS. Unfortunately, no soil survey of Egypt has ever been made, nor has any series of extensive inquiries been made into the general mechanical composition or chemical "mature of the soils of the Delta. It is needless to say that the soils are all alluvial in origin, and, generally speaking, are of a clayey nature, differing only in the density of the clay. A heavy, dense black clay, extending to a depth of 18 or 20 feet or more, is perhaps the typical soil. This soil is very difficult to work, but is fertile, yielding good crops of cotton. It is not easily injured by infiltration and saturation, on account of the difficulty with which water penetrates it. . It can be understood that when canals ai'e running with water practically throughout the whole year, there is always danger of saturation and infiltration, especially so when the water is at a higher level than the surrounding country. It is feared that this class of soil often receives a greater quantity of water than is necessary, as, on account of the difficulty of percola- tion, it becomes more or less stagnant and sours the land. There is also insufficient care given to the question of cultivating the land when in the right condition. It is often plowed when more or less wet, the result being that it dries up into a brick-like condition, quite unsuited for a seed bed. 14 NOTES ON EGYFriAN AGKICULTURE. A second class of soil is also clayey to the depth of a few feet, but is underlaid b}'' soil of a more or less lij^ht nature. This soil is more free to work than that already mentioned. A third class of soil may be described as a sandy loam, while in some districts there are soils which maj^ be described as almost pure sand. As regards the chemical nature of the ordinary clay soil of the Nile Valley, it would be rash to rei^roduce any figures which could be taken as rej)resenting in any way their general composition. No systematic attempt has been made to analyze representative samples of every province, only the results of a few isolated analyses being available. It may be stated, however, that the soil is more deficient in nitrogen than in any other ingredient, and nitrogenous manures are found to exercise a most marked effect upon growth. The manures in common use in the country, in addition to barn- yard manure and pigeon manure, are what is known as "coufri," or the remains of ancient villages and ruins, and the nitrate-bearing clay found in Upper Egypt, to which reference has already been made. These latter two fertilizers are valuable chiefly on account of the sol- uble nitrogen they contain. The soils are almost invariably rich in potash, while in phosphoric acid they are neither poor nor exception- ally rich. For some croj^s, such as cotton and sugar cane, the use of phosphatic manures is attended with great benefit, while other crops do not, as a rule, repay the cost of the fertilizer. LABOR. In Egyi)t there is a plentiful supply of cheap labor. The labor, from a European point of view, would be described as inefficient, but with the crude sj^stems of cultivation in force it meets all require- ments. Owing to its cheaijness, a great deal of the labor which would be i)erformed in Europe and in the United States by one or other of the various farm implements is in Egyjjt done by hand. Practi- cally the only large imj)lements used in the cultivation of the land are the i^rimitive native j)lows, kassabiehs, or scooi^s for leveling the land, and planks of wood which, when drawn over the land, serve as harrows. The fass, or hoe, is the essential hand tool, and is the fellah's stock in trade. The land was formerly held by large proprietors, and though this is true to-day a division into smaller farms is gradually taking place. This subdivision of land is reducing the supply of labor available on large farms, and at certain times of the year it is somewhat difficult to find sufficient labor. The commercial developments of Egypt and the numberless improvements which are being effected attract a con- siderable amount of labor which would otherwise be employed in agriculture, and a rise in the jirice of labor has taken place during recent years which is likel}^ to continue in the future. As, however, labor is obtainable for 15 cents a day, it will be seen that there is no eause for complaint — at least from a western standjjoint. VALUE OF LAND. 15 Tlie tVllali is an exireinely clcvcrcultivator and a lianl worker. lie works sometimes for a daily wage, l)iit in the majority of eases is engaged under one of many bases of contract, receiving a certain area of land for the whole year in lieu of a part of his wages, or it may be a certjvin area for the growth of corn. In other eases he receives a sliare of certain crops, etc. ; in fact, it would be impossible in a short treatise to deal with the almost innumerable arrangements which are made between employers and employed. VALUE OF LAND. Land has increased enormously in value during rect^it years and to attempt to estimate the increas(? would be a dillicult matter. The best land in the J)elta can not be i)urchased for less than $500 to IGOO an acre, while there are many cases where as much as $800 liave been paid for land possessing no value, present or prospective, except from an agricultural point of view. Good average land costs from $;300 to to $400 jx'r acre, while it would be diflicult to find any land under a state of cultivation which could be purchased for less than $150 per acre. P^ven at these prices land well cultivated will return 0 or 7 per cent on the capital invested, the sheet-anchor of the cultivator being his cotton crop. ANIMAL LABOR. Practically the whole of the animal lal)or on the farm is done by bullocks, a race whose history is somewhat doubtful. The cattle of Upper Egypt are somewhat smaller than those of Lower Egypt, of which the accompanying illustrations (PL I, tigs. 1 and l') may be taken as good types. A certain number of mules and donkeys (see PI. II, figs. 1 and 2) for transport work are kept on the farm, and from eight to ten bul- locks are considered necessary to work 100 acres, generally the smaller number. The value of these animals has very considerably increased during recent years, and at the present time $100 would have to be paid for a good average working bullock, while anything above the ordinary costs up to $135. During the winter, spring, and early summer months — say, from December to June — they are fed on clover, chiefly grazed in the field, the animals being tethered. About three-fourths of an acre are allowed for each animal. From June to early Decem- ber they are fed on beans and chopped straw, about 12 or 13 pounds of the former and 22 pounds of the latter being a common ration. The fellahs are the cattle raisers of Egypt, and large cultivators supply their needs by purchasing from them; in consequence, the small cultivator, raising cattle as he does and keeping buffaloes for the supply of milk for his family and for sale, has a much greater quantity of manure in proportion at his disi)osal than has the large proprietor. 16 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGEICULTUEE. It may be mentioned incidentally that sheep in Egypt are of a very poor standard. There are several breeds or divisions of breeds known by local names, but the accompanying illustration (PL III, fig. 1) will give an idea of the type of animal found in the country. The sheep live on anything they can procure, and are allowed to run over the clover after the cattle have been tethered on it. A fair sheep weighs about 100 pounds live weight, though the better class fed by some cultivators weigh more. SEASONS. Agriculturally three seasons are, as already mentioned, recognized in Egypt, viz, winter, summer, and Nili. During the former, extend- ing from November or December to March, wheat, barley, beans, clover, etc., are sown in Lower Egypt, and also flax, lentils, onions, vetches, etc., in Upper Egypt. The summer crops are cotton, sugar cane (chiefly in Upper Egj'pt), rice, and summer sorghum (Upper Egypt), while during the Nili season corn and rice, together with flood sorghum in Upper Egypt, are the principal crops. COTTON. Of all crops cotton is preeminently the most important; it, in fact, in great part constitutes the agricultural wealth of Egypt. Its cul- tivation commenced about the year 1820, being simultaneous with the introduction of perennial irrigation in the Delta of the Nile. From this time the areas under cotton gradually increased, a great stimulus having been given to its cultivation at the time of the civil war in the United States and the consequent cotton famine through- out the world. When more or less normal conditions were reestab- lished Egypt did not, like many other countries, cease to show an increase in its cotton area, but on the other hand continued to pro- gress. Recent developments and improvements in the system of irri- gation, as well as the expenditure of large sums of money on drain- age, have given still greater facilities for cotton cultivation, until there seems to be a growing tendency on the part of cultivators to place too great a reliance on the "one crop," such as existed formerly and is still often found in many cotton districts of the United States. The cotton area seems to increase annually, though in the absence of a statistical bureau it is impossible to state what the area actually is or what increase takes place yearly. It has been generally accepted by the irrigation department that one-third of the land of the Delta was occupied by cotton, though there can be no doubt whatever that it is more correct now to assume that one-half of the land is planted to this crop. The present area under cotton in Egypt amounts proba- bly to between 1,500,000 and 1,750,000 acres, though the finance department of the Egyptian Government gives as the area under cot- ton in the year 1901-2, 1,275,676 acres, of which 1,169,106 acres were Bui. 62, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate II. Fig. 1.— Type of Mule Used in Egypt. Fig. 2.— Another Type of Mule Used in Egypt. Bui. 62, Bureau of Plant Indust^, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate III. Fig. 1.— a Meraise Sheep, the Best Egyptian Breed. Fig. 2.— Field of Mit Afifi Cotton. THE COTTON CROP. 17 in the Delta and 100,570 in Upper Egj'pt. In any case we may state that 90 per cent of the total cotton of Kgypt is grown in the Delta proper, and for the purposes of this bulletin, when dealing with the various l)ranches of cotton culture, the writer's observations will refer to this region. Theoretically a three-year rotation of crops is practiced, though this is in a great majority of cases reduced to a two-year course. Originally on good land the rotation was as follows: Tliree-year rotation of crops formerly jn-acticed in Equpt. Year. Winter. Summer. Nili. Clover Beana or clover Cotton Second vear Corn. Wheat Corn. At present, however, it is more common to find the following system: Two-year rotation of crojw at present practiced in Egypt. Year. Winter Summer. Nili. First year Sftcond vear Clover - Cotton Beans or wheat Corn or fallow. On poor land clover is grown more frequently and rice is intro- duced instead of corn, or the land may be fallowed. The cotton crop then generally follows clover or maize or a fallow. If it follows maize, the land is left fallow from the time of cutting the maize in October or November until cotton planting in March; or again, in some cases, the land may be fallowed from the time of the removal of the cereal crop in June until the following spring. If the land is to be fallowed after the cereal crop, a heavy flooding is given with the red water of the Nile, and when sufficiently dry it is plowed and left exposed to the action of the sun and other atmospheric agencies until the winter months, when the j)reparation of the land for cotton is continued. If it follows maize, the land is i^lowed as soon as pos- sible after the crop is removed from the ground, while if after clover, the land is generally left until about a fortnight before cotton plant- ing begins, when the soil is broken up and hurriedly prepared. Small cultivators who can not afford to leave their land fallow occupy the land every moment, as it were. They scatter the clover seeds among their standing maize before it is cut, and thus obtain two crops of clover previous to cotton sowing. Owners of large estates, however, adopt the fallow system^either a long fallow after a cereal crop, a short fallow after a maize crop, or both. It would be impossible for them to prepare a large area of land in time for cotton 39210— No. 62—04 3 18 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. after berseem, while again they would be unable to dispose of such a. quantity of clover were it grown. The small cultivator is, as already mentioned, the raiser of cattle, and can always dispose of his clover crop to advantage. Large administrations in Egypt are now using steam plows, and by means of them the land is thoroughly plowed for cotton during the autumn months to a depth of 12 inches. With this exception, how- ever, the cotton area of Egypt is i)repared by means of the ordinary native plow drawn by two bullocks. (See fig. 1.) As a general rule, four plowings are given in preparation for cotton, each being at right angles to the previous one. The plow is somewhat comparable to the " scooter" employed in the United States for laying off the cotton rows. The beam, which is Ordinary native plow. made of wood, is about 10 feet long, while the part which projects from it at an angle of about 25° is also made of wood, but shod with iron, the weight of the whole being about 00 i^ounds or more. This is the plow in almost universal use in Egypt, though on some areas cultivated by Europeans a few modern plows, provided with mold- boards which turn a furrow, are used. The nature of the plow does not admit of the soil being inverted, but merely stirs it. The angle between the draft jjole and the sole of the plow can be increased or diminished by adjustment. It is laid down as an axiom by the best cotton growers that cotton land should be j)lowed early and left exposed for some time. In a practically rainless climate there is nothing to fear from the leaching effects of rain, while it is universally accepted that cotton sown on such land germinates better and grows more regularly. Growers are fully alive to the necessity of deep and thorough cultivation, and some careful farmers plow their land even more than four times. It must PREPARING LAND FOR COTTON. 19 be confessed, on the other Iwind, lliat iiiiiny arc less enlightened; but this often aiises from the fact that when tlie cotton follows clover the latter crop occuines the land nntil the last moment, so that th<^ greatest amount may bo obtained from it. Whether this is j^ood practice or not will l)e dealt with subseciuently. The land, having been thoroughly plowerovinces of Beni-Suef, Fayuni, and Minieh, being watered by the Ibrahimia Canal. The area exceeds 100,000 acres, thongh, as already stated, the absence of a statistical department renders any figures somewhat approximate. The jjrodiiction in the year 1001-2 was 432,000 cantars, made up as follows: Beni-Suef, 174,000 cantars; Minieh, 128,000 cantars; Fayum, 130,000 cantars; total, 432,000 cantars. The Egyptian bale is equivalent to about 750 pounds of cotton. Expressed in American bales of 500 pounds, the j^roduction of Ash- mouni cotton would be thns 80,400 bales. Assuming the acreage given to be correct, the average yield is about 1,300 poiinds of seed cotton per acre. This variety is now replaced in Lower Egypt by "Afifi." Practically the whole of the Ashmouni cotton is ginned at various establishments in Upper Egyi^t, and the fiber is sent to Alexandria for sale and ship- ment. A small proportion is ginned in Lower Egypt, chiefly at Kafr Zayat. Ashmouni plants are smaller in habit of growth than Afifi and ripen early, owing to the hotter climate of Upper Egypt. When grown under the same climatic conditions Ashmouni does not ripen appreciably earlier than Afifi. The fiber of Ashmouni is brown, though less so than Afifi, and is' shorter, being about Ig to l:f inches in length. In strength it is fair, but it is neither so lustrous nor so fine as lower Egj'pt cottons. Though inferioi'to Afifi, it seems to do better in Upper Eg^i^t than the latter. Afifi not only gives a smaller yield, but soon deteriorates. There seems to be no i-eason, however, wh}' the latter should not be acclimatized there or a successful cross obtained between the two varieties. The yield of Ashmouni in ginning is unsatisfactory, lieing until quite recently only about 95 pounds of fiber per cantai-, or about 30 per cent. During the past few years the output has reached 98 to 104 pounds, i)robably owing to mixture with Afifi. Its value is about $1 per cautar le.ss than that of Afifi for classes up to "good," Ashmouni gives no fine or extra-fine qualities like Afifi. The seed differs from other Egyptian varieties in being "clean" — that is, possessing no adhering fiber. It is very much mixed at the present time, but for the season of 1903 it seemed a little cleaner than usual. The seed is sold early in the season for the same jirice as Lower Egypt varieties. The general cultivation of this variety in Upper Egypt has not received as much attention as the Lower Egypt cottons, and as a rule it is not so well cultivated. Tlio fil)er is exported chiefiy to the Con- tinent of Europe and to Russia, thougli (quantities are sent to England and the United States. LOWER EGYPT COTTONS. 35 LOWER ECJYPT COTTONS. MIT AKIKI. ITiidoubtcdly tho chief variety of cotton in Eirypl is Mil Alili (I'ls. Ill, lij;. '2, and VI, lig. 1), so called from a village in (ialiiil)ich Prov- ince, where it was lirst <;rown about ISS;]. It conslitiiles a very hiuh percentajj:o of the total production of the country, and llie piicc at which its (iljci- is soil forms a basis for that of olher \arieli<'s. Tlie plant is normal in size; and not so large, generally speaking, as .laniio- vitch. It is average as regards the time at which il riix'iis. Ash- mouni, grown in upi)er Kgyi>1, comes into the market lii-st. Abbasi is prol)ably a little earlier, and Jannovitch a little later than Alili. As regards sowing, quantity of seed used, watering, picking, etc., the [)ar- ticulars given in another part of this bulletin refer to this vai-iety. The liber of Mit Afifi is brown in color, long, lustrous, generally very strong, and fine to tlio touch. It attains an average lengtli of 1; to 1^ inches. There is a greatdemand for il ; in fact, it leads the market. The total production per acre is good, being on an average highei- tlnin that of any other variety. It is true that in cei-tain favoi-ed districts Abbasi may rival and even surpass it in this respect, but no other variety appears under all circumstances to yield 500 or (iOO pounds per acre of lint on good average soil. The bolls are pointed and rather small, l)ut the cotton is easily picked. Ginning is easy, and from 105 to 10!) pounds of fiber are ol)tained i)er cantar, i. c., fi-oni 33 to 35 per cent. Afifi cotton does not show great differences in (|nality in late pickings as do the other Lower Egypt cottons; that is to say, the difference between the first and second pickings is less mai'ked than with others. The origin of Afifi cotton is very doubtful. Some years ago there existed in Egj'pt a considerable number of varieties which Avere short lived, such as Hamouli, Gallini, Hindi, etc. Pure white cotton also existed, but its cultivation was abandoned after the appearance of Afifi. A variety known as "Bahmia" Avas also somewhat extensively grown for sevei-al years and gaA'e good results on good quality land. It Avas also rejilaced by Afifi. A \'ariety knoAvn as "Hariri" Avas first cultiA'ated in tlie Goddaba district (Garbieh province). This Avas finer CA'en than the A'ariety known as "Jannovitch" Avhich is cultivated at the present time. The output in ginning, however, Avas very poor (GO to 70 pounds of fiber per 315 pounds of raAV cotton), and its cultiva- tion Avas abandoned because groAvers found it unprofitable. Gallini was also first known in the Goddaba district Avhen this region Avas badly drained and the land consequently salty. Since that time, however, the quality has greatly deteriorated, and as the output in ginning was poor it also Avas replaced by Aflfi. It Avas commonly reported that this variety, Avhich Avas itself said t(; be of Sea Island 36 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. origin, gave rise to our preserTt Afifi. Each caiitar of Gallini cotton (315 pounds) gave only from 85 to 88 j)ounds of lint. What is known as "Hindi" cotton is really the old native variety and is now unfortunately found in almost every quality of cotton to a greater or less extent. This, of course, causes deterioration in the staple and also reduces the output in ginning. The silky natui-e of Egyptian cottons and the fact that they possess a broAvn color probably indicate that they are really of Sea Island oriirin, but there is no evidence to show whence their deeper coloia- tion than Sea Island arose unless it was by means of a cross with some highly colored variety, such as Peruvian. It has often been suggested in the United States that the i^eculiar soil conditions of Egypt, tlie Nile mud, etc., may account for this; but there exists in Egypt a pure white variety (Abbasi), which has now been grown for many years, and thei-e has been no tendency whatever toward the development of any brown coloration, which seems to preclude this idea. Again, previous to the appearance of Atili, the common white cotton was grown. This possessed a short staple and when in quantit}' sold for less than Ashmouni. It is doubtful also whether a cross with highly colored Peruvian cotton would have resulted in such good quality as Egj'Ptian cottons i)ossess. The majority of the varieties are probably " sports." When a new variety has appeared, its origin has always been kept a profound secret owing to the very high prices asked at tlie commencement for seed, and any inquiries made always led to widely differing replies. The seeds of the different varieties of Lower Egypt cottons can not readily l)e distinguished from each bther. They are black, with snuiU tufts of green fiber at the ends. Their market values are the same. ABBASI. This is the only white cotton now grown in Egypt. It made its appearance about 1891-92. At first it was grown only on large estates, but it gradually increased in favor, though at the present time its cul- tivation is diminishing. Afifi is the general cultivators' cotton, as it were; it is more suited to all conditions, requires less care in picking, and the market is always certain. All other vaiieties may be called "special," requiring more careful treatment, and the demand for them is not so universal. Abbasi, owing to its color, requires more care in picking. It is said to be more hardy than Afifi, resisting periods of drought and adverse climatic changes more successfully. In the late summer and early autumn, fogs which do a great deal of harm are experienced in Egypt, and it is said that Abbasi cotton suffers less than any other variety, and is also less affected b}' cold spells. It produces in certain districts a heavier crop than Afifi, and is perhaps a little earlier. In general management and cultivation it resembles the latter. JANNOVITCH COTTON. 37 The first pickiiii; of Al)bHsi is vny siiiu'rioi- and sells well; tho later gatherings deteriorate, and there is small demand for them. The liber of the first picking is as fine as Afifi and a little longer. As a general rule the second picking is much weakei- than the first, and the lower qualities sell for less in proportion than lower grade .Vfili. .Vbbasi is ratlier more difficult to gin, having a tendency to break the knives. The fiber clings to the roller and often comes to the knives again. Care must be taken not to injure the long fiber; therefore the gins are run at a slower speed. The longer stapled cottons, such as Abbasi, (Tal- lin!, and Jannovitch, require a little different regulation of the gins in order to avoid damaging the staple. The output of .seed per cantar of Abbasi is about the same as Afifi ; there is more " scarto," however. The price of the best qualities ranges from $1 to $1.50 per cantar of 315 pounds more than Afifi. Abbasi was first put on the market by a Greek i)lanter near Birket- el-Sab in the (4arT)ieh province, and it is abnost needless to state that the name given to it is derived from that of the present Khedive. The l)est ([ualities ai'e exported to England, and the jioorer <[ualities to all parts of the Continent — a little to Russia. JANNOVITCH. This variety, which has been cultivated for about seven years, is the most silky and fine of all Egyptian cottons. It possesses good length — li to If inches — is very fine, and stronger than the best qual- ities of Afifi. As a rule its cultivation is in the hands of large growers, the fellah confining himself chiefly to Afifi. The plant is of somewhat coarser growth than the other Egj^ptian varieties, and is a little later in coming to maturity. The best quali- ties are grown in the northern part of the Delta, near the sea, and where the land generally contains a certain amount of salt. The out- put in ginning is inferior to both Afifl and Abbasi, the average being about 07 to 100 pounds per cantar, but in some districts it gives 100 to 102 pounds of lint per cantar, or 315 pounds, of seed cotton. It is chiefly exported to England, but also to America, the north of France, and Switzerland ; other countries take very little. The price is gener- ally $2 to $2.50 per cantar above Afifi, and this in sj)ite of the fact that the yield in ginning is from 5 to 8 pounds of lint per cantar less. It is sujiosed that this variety originated from a cross of good quality Gallini (of which very little existed at the time in the district) and Afifi. Gallini gave in ginning only from 80 to 88 pounds of fiber j^er cantar, while Jannovitch when it v\'as subsequently grown gave from 07 to 100 pounds, and Afifi similarly yielded from lOG to 108 pounds. In this respect, therefore, the new variety was intermediate between its parents. At first the originator of this variety planted a few seeds in a garden, but in February, 1808, about 8 or 10 ardebs of seed were bought at $40 perardeb (5.4 bushels), while subsequently as much as 38 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. $100 pel- ai'deb was paid for about 11 ardehs. The following year seed was sold for from $20 to ^30 per ardeb. It maj^ be mentioned that Sea Island cotton when grown in Egypt produces good quality tlie first year. The staple is longer even than that grown, on an average, in America, but is more irregular in length and not so strong. During the second and third years tliere is a general deterioration. It ripens late and being in consequence exposed to cold weather and fogs, both yield and quality suffer. The yield in any case is inferior to native Egyi)tian varieties. The output is only from 70 to 80 pounds of fibei- per cantar, according to the quality of the lands. The best qualities are gi'own on salty lands. On rich soils the quality deteriorates. SEED SELECTION. The question of the selection of seed for sowing is occupying con- sideral)le attention in Egypt, as Aflft cotton, which is the mainstay of the crop, is greatly deteriorating. Owing to the great similarity not only of the plants of the different varieties grown in the countrj^ but also of their seeds, the matter is a somewhat difficult one. At the present time the question of seed is entirely in tlie hands of the cotton merchants. When the best qualities of cotton of the first pick- ing are being ginned, the factory owner places on one side the result- ing seed for disposal to his clients the following season. This is excellent as far as it goes, but where two or three varieties are being dealt with in a factory, even though the proprietor may clean his gins, his riddles, etc., aftei- each ginning a certain admixture must take place. The seedsman class is quite wanting in Egj'pt, and until recently most of the cultivators were not sufficiently alive to tlie question of good seed. At the present time, however, the Khedivial Agricultural Societ}' is paying special attention to this most important subject, while individual cultivators appreciate more the necessity of emiiloj'ing good and pure seed. Small cultivators in the past obtained their seed to a great extent through the village money lender, who supplied them with ordinary commercial seed quite unsuited for sowing purposes. The Khedivial Agricultural Society now distributes seed of first-picking cotton to small growers at cost jirice. The value of the seed, plus a moderate rate of interest, is collected b^^the Government agents when theordi- naiy taxes are collected. The seed is not j)aid for until the resulting cotton crop is picked. The benefits are two-fold — not only is the fel- lah provided Avitli better seed than he would obtain elsewhere, but he is to a certain extent kept out of the hands of the usurer. Afifi seed at present is mixed and contains Hindi seed. This, as already stated, is the old white variety, and its jn-esence greatly detracts from the value of any sample. There are also a gi-eat many seeds present in samples which, while differing in shape from good, PICKING AND MARKETING COTTON. 39 (nie Alili seed ai'c yet Alili, but seem 1<> 1><' in a state of deteriora- tion. Tlie (luestioii of llic establisluuent of seed areas is now under consideration. PICKING COTTON. The i)i('ldii,u()f cotlon t'oMiniences in Upper Egj-pt, where Aslunouni is «j;rown, duriuii: tlie latter part of August, but in tlie Delta, generall}' speaking, toward the middle of September. Cotton is usually picked by small children, who are paid a sum of 18 or 20 cents per hundred pounds of seed cotton (IM. VI, fig. -2). The previous watering of the crop is so arranged that the land is dr}' when picking commences to avoid poacliingof theland. Theoiu'i-ation of picking is more difficult than that of ordinary I'pland cotton, though not as much so as that of Sea Island. The average (Quantity picked per day is about 30 or 40 pounds. After the first gathering the land is watered, and during tlie month of October a second picking takes place. These two pickings give the best quality of fiber. They nvo never mix(Ml with each other nor with the third, or last, picking. The latter is taken in November, and as it is small in amount compared with the others a superior sum is generally paid for picking it, generally 25 or :}() cents per hun- dred pounds. After picking, the cotton is generally placed in large stoi'es and subsequently put into sacks which hold about 420 pounds, or it ma}^ be put directly into sacks. MARKETING COTTON. Cotton is almost invariably sold at the farm. There are distributed throughout the country a number of large ginning establishments (as well as a number of minor ones) owned b}^ large exporting houses. Agents are sent into the country to buy cotton, and the grower can obtain many offers f i-om competing houses. The cotton is sold as seed cotton, weighed at the store in the presence of the buj^er's agent and the seller, and is then taken charge of by the former for removal to the nearest railway station or is delivered by the seller, according to agreement; In the case of large lots of cotton the grower, pro- vided with samples, sometimes visits the factories,'^' and after a con- sidei-able amount of competition and bargaining disposes of his crop. Cotton is quoted on the bourse at Alexandria per cantar of 100 pounds of lint for "fully good fair" cotton. To this amount the value of the seed is added and a certain sum per cantar (of 315 pounds of seed cotton) is offered to cultivators, depending on the quality of the cotton in question. Ginning is carried on, as alread}' mentioned, at various centers, and the resulting fiber and seed are forwarded to Alexandria for shipment. The factories are generally situated so that " Known as ginneries or gins in the United States. 40 Ts^OTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. trunsporlatiou is easy both by rail aud by water. The season is from September to May, and during its height the factories work night and day. The gin ahnost invariably used in Egypt is that known as Macar- thy's patent self-feeding single action. It is particularly suited to long-stapled cotton, and seijarates the seeds without crushing, while the fiber is as a rule uninjured. The 40-inch gin so commonly used costs, when complete with roller, shafting, etc., about 1150. The gin alone costs $00. It is said to require only 1^ indicated horsepower to drive it, but in practice from 3 to 4 horsepower are allowed. The quantity of cotton turned out per hour varies according to tlie speed at which the gn runs. It is supposed to give a hundredweight of clean cotton per hour, but from 90 to 100 pounds is considered a good average. Running at 000 oi- 1,000 revolutionii per minute, 100 pounds of til)er per hour will bo ginned, or, say from 000 to 1,100 pounds per day of ten hours. The driving pulleys being now provided with bal- ance weights, the gin can lun at an increased speed with but little increase in vibration. The gin is not large, the floor space it occupies being less than 17 square feet, while the net weight is less than 700 pounds. In Egyptian factories from 50 to 100 of such machines are generally found. Regarding the cost of working, it may be taken as a general average that 30 cents will gin a cantar of cotton, i. e., 315 pounds of the seed and fiber, giving approximately 100 pounds of clean cotton. Accord ing to the reports of the State Donuiins the net cost of ginning is 20 cents p?r cantar, and tlius an acre of good cotton yielding 0 cantars would cost a little' over $1.50 for ginning (actual cost). The gins are geiK^-ally arranged in two rows, with a trolley line down the middle for the removal of the cotton. The latter is taken to the press room, which is situated at the end of the ginning room. Botli hydraulic and steam presses are used. In the small factories, the former only are found aud the bales are steam pressed at Alex- andria. In the large factoi-ies the good qualities are pressed twice. After removal from the gins the fil)er is spread out and sprinkled with water by means of a fine syringe and then put into hydraulic bales. After remaining a day the cotton is steam pressed, and the three bands which are' used in the former case are replaced by eleven in the steam bale. The seed after removal froni the gin is elevated to riddles, which allow those posse; sing no adhei-ing lint to pass through, while the rest is carried on to the "scarto" gin, which removes short fiber. One or two of such gins, each requiring 5 horsepower, are sufficient for 100 ordinary gins and turn out about 4 bales of "scarto" cotton per day. The seed is subsequently put into bags containing an ardeb (5.4 bushels), the weight being about 270 pounds, and is sent to Alex- o<:^ Bui. 62, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. Fig. 1.— Field of Mix Afifi Cotton Before Gathering. Fig. 2.— Egyptian Method of Picking and Carrying Cotton. MARKETING COTTON. 41 and lia for export. Someliines cotton is j^iiiiu'd for clients at about .')() cents per cantar, the owner selling the resiiltinj^ seed to the factory, while the cottm is sent in hydraulic ])ales for his account to Alexan- dria. If steam pressed, a charujo of 15 cents per cantar (100 jjounds) of lint is made, plus the cost of l)a.i!:ji:ini:j i-cquircd for the bales, 'i'he sackinjjj used for bales in Eji^ypt consists of old cotton sacks. The latter after being used two seasons for packing cotton are cut up for this purprtse. The first, second, and third pickings of cotton are always ginned separately. That of the tliird picking is generally put in hydraulic bales only and forwarded as such to Alexandria. During the past few years two cotton mills liave been erected, one at Alexandria and one at Cairo. The local consumption of cotton, however, is not great. A certain amount is consumed in the villages by being woven into coarse goods, but this is generally tlie very last cotton gatherenl from the plants and is of veiy low (piality. The con- sumption during the past season l)y local mills amounted to 27,000 cantars, or an equivalent of 5,400 American bales. l^raeticall}^ the whole of the Egyptian cotton seed is exported. A certain amount is, however, consumed by soap and oil mills in the country. This latter consumption amounts to 420,000 ardebs, or an equivalent of 2,320,000 bushels. The seed is rich in oil, the average content being about 25 per cent. The cotton cake resulting is exported to England, and, as is well known, is "undecorticated cotton cake," the seed not being decorticated. The following table shows the production of seed cotton in Egypt from the year 1804 to 190.3, the season being from September 1 to August 31 : Total cropn of need cotton {interior gross weight). Season. Cantars. Season. Cantar.s. Season. Cantars. 1864-65- 2,i:«,716 864,581 1,127,895 1,207,402 1,-:»3,1.56 1,382,514 1,970,717 2.044,2.54 2,298,942 2,. 5.38, .3.51 2,106,699 2,928,498 2,773,2.58 1877-78 2, .593, 670 1,683,749 3,198,8(X) 2,776,400 2,912,073 2,284,2.5(J 2,694,000 3,615,7.5(1 2,92.3,4.50 2,931,691 2,9.37,(KIO 2,VZ.i,m) 1 3,183,000 ! 1890-91 1891-9;e 1892-93 189:5-94 1894-95 1895-96 4,072,500 4, 672, .520 5,118,1.50 1865-66 1878-79. 1879-80.. 1866-67 1867-68 1868-69 1869-70 __.. 1880-81. 1881-82 1882-8;^. 4,933,666 4.61.5,270 5,275,383 1870-71 1871-72. -._ 188:^84 I884_a5 1896-97 1897-98. 1898-99 5,879,750 6 .543 128 1872-73 188.5-86 5, .589 :^14 1873-74 1874-75 1886-87 1887-88 1888-89 ]899-19(:k( 19(X)-1901 1901-2 6,510,050 5,427,3:« 6,371,643 187.5-76 _. 1876-77... 1889-90 1902-3 5,8:38,090 It is impossible, owing to the absence of a statistical bureau, to state the exact average yield of cotton per acre in Egypt, but it is probably about 1,300 iwunds of seed cotton. Very good land gives 2,500 pounds, and in exceptional cases more. 42 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. COTTON AND COTTON-SEED EXPORTS. The statistics of cotton and cotton-seed exports furnished 1)}' the customs administration are cak'ulated from January 1 to December 31. In the year 1001 cotton constituted 75.2 per cent of the total exports of Egypt and in 10O2 similarly 78.8 per cent. Distribution of cotton and cotton seed fur the yearn 100:2 and 100.1. Coiiiitries to which cxijorted. Exports from Alexandria to— Germany England Belgium Srjjain United States Prance India Italy .Japan Russia Austria The Netherlands Greece, Turkey, and other countries. Exported from Port Said and Suez Total in cantars. 1902. Balest. Balefi. 19, 126 19,423 323,514 a51,745 9,604 12,670 3I,7«1 24,910 106,565 84,819 78,875 70,(iO8 2,443 836 f«,06H 60,728 11,322 9,498 121,343 55,424 92,249 75,989 327 3,753 1,798 700 "5,445 863,670 773,892 6, .526, 407 5,860,023 1903. 'I Estimate. COTTON SEED ilN ARDEBS OP 5.4 BUSHELS). To England To Marseille To various Continental ports Total Local consumption 3,146,660 182,925 153,585 3,483,170 310,978 2, 732, 366 137,018 104,;i90 2,973,737 430,000 SUGAR CANE. Sugar cane is grown in Upper Egypt. The climate of the Delta proper is nnsuited to it and results in a low content of sugar. Cane is characteristic of the tract watered by the Il)rahimia Canal alread}^ referred to, but it is also grown farther south, being watered bj^ pumps direct from the river. The area varies from year to year, an increase in the cotton area being practically equivalent to a diminution in that devoted to sugar cane, (lenei-ally speaking, during the past few j^ears there has been a tendency toward a diminution. In the year 1002 the area under cane in U[)per Egyi)t amounted to 84,G(>1 acres, of which 58,705 Aver(^ on llu^ Tbi-ahimia Canal, while the remainder was gi-own farther soutli. CaiK^ occupies the land for nearly a year, and requires watei' during the whole jxM-iod, while for the production of maximum crops the soil has to Ix' in a high state of fertility. The Daira Sauieh Administration, whosc^ lands have now been sold SUGAR CANE. 43 to iiidividiuil cultivators, owned until quite recently the ^renter part of the supir-growini? lands and possessed several factories. Tlu' land under this administration was cultivated chiefly through tenants. Considerable areas were leased to large cultivators who grew cane under an auroement to sell tlie produce 1o the administration at. a tixcd pric(^ (genei'ally about lo cents pci" hundred pounds of canes). The leases for cane cultivation were for three years and bound the tenant to one year's fallow, during which it was plowed by the admin- istration at a fixed rate. This was followed by cane for two years. This again was followed by a three years' lease for minor cj-op cultiva- tion, after wliich cane was grown again. The growtli of summer crops was i^rohibited during the intermediate years, but coin was cultivated during the flood seaso)i, this being heavily manured. Th<^ growth of clover was practiced dui'ing the winter, and thus the land was brought into condition for cane again. Small owner pi'oprietors, however, crop their land more intensiv(dy. They numure tlieir cane heavily (while this was prohibited on the Daira lands) and only take one cane crop; that is to say, they do not take a rattoon crop. This is followed by two or three years' ordinary croi)ping with grain crops and clover, when cane is gi-own again. Though a large yield jkm- acre is obtained in this way, yet by applying heavy (quantities of numxire the sugar content is considerably reduced. The factories of the Daira Sanieli have been sold to a i)i'ivate com- l)any, and the sugar industry' of Egypt is now jjracticall}" a monopoly in the hands of a French company known as the Societe Generale des Sucreries et de la Raftinerie d'Egypte. This company owns the majority of the factories and may be said to crush practically the whole of the crop, except that employed for the manufacture of molasses in small mills owned by natives and Syrians. The rotation employed is either one of four or five years. In the former case cane is grown for two years, followed the next year by a flood and a winter crop, and this again during the fourth year by a fallow in preparation for the next year's cane crop. Since the intro- duction of the growing of beets into Egypt a modification in the rota- tion has been introduced in some i)laces by growing a crop of beets before the fallow, thus making the I'otation a five years' course. Steam plows and cultivators, which do most effective work, are employed by the company; but on ordinary" plantations the native plow is used, and four plowings and even more ai'e given with this implement in preparation for the sowing of the crop. The laud is thrown into ridges or beds about 40 inches apart; but native culti- vators allow a less distance than this, generally about 'M) inches. The ridges are made north and south and should have a depth of 15 inches measured from the top of the ri. 1»)1. 1902. :«,IM9 ;i2,747 (i7 4ti,(M2 22,2:i5 70 F'nirliKli TMmsa^ssions in tho oxtroino Eliist - . --._, 21,(Rft» :{4,(JU (■l*»i'in*inv 449 Unitod states 402, 454 4.:*ut requires frequent waterings in order to give the best results, and, as already explained, there are too many denuinds on the supply of summer water to permit this. During these months it becomes, unfortunately, the home of myriads of worms, which are attracted by it and spread to adjoining crops, often doing considerable damage. The scarcity of summer water already mentioned is also a great impediment to its cultivation. Again, land is usually too A'aluable to make it profitable to leave it under a forage crop for three or four years. The limited area grown is generally cultivated to supply a little green forage to sick animals, or to a few milch cows or horses. CORN. The corn crop is of great importance, as it forms the staple food of the lower classes. It is the characteristic Nili crop. The summer season ends about the last of July, when this, the great flood crop, is sown. As already mentioned, during the summer months a system of rotation of canals is adopted to insure a sufficient supply of water for the cotton crop, and during this period the watering of fallow lands is severely prohibited. The cereal crops, wheat and barley, as 39310— No. 62—04 4 50 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTUEE. well as beans, berseem, etc., are all off the land by June, ami it is on these lands that the corn crop is sown. The latter, however, can not of course be planted without water, and every cultivator awaits the removal of the decree which has prohibited the flooding of such lands. As soon after the first week in July as water can be obtained, the irrigation of the land for corn sowing begins. If the Nili is a favor- able and early one, this may be i)ermitted as earlj^ as Julj'^ 10, while if the reverse be true it is only toward the end of the month tliat this is jjossible. The earlier the corn crop is sown the better, and there is consequently a great rush for water, as not only has the corn area to be watered, but cotton, rice, and sugar cane also require water, while the land to be left fallow is also flooded. The water for flood irriga- tion is obtained from separate flood canals, in addition to the ordinary perennial canals, and during this period is "flush." The flood canals run from the month of August to November. It will be seen that for flood irrigation, the earlier the Nile rises the better it is for the farmer. The earlier the corn is sown the better, and an early removal of this crop enables the berseem, which often follows it, to be sown in good time. As already mentioned, it may be assumed that about 50 per cent of the area of Lower Egypt is under summer croi^s (chiefly cotton), while the flood crops occupy about 30 per cent. The area of land in Lower Egypt under corn during the year 1902 was 1,128,254 acres, while in Upper Egypt also a certain area is grown. It is seen, therefore, that during flood the whole of the country requires water and the demand is unlimited; thus, the more the canals can carry the better. The watering given in preparation for the corn crop is a very heavy one, and if water is flush at this pei'iod may amount to as much as 600 tons per acre, but less if x)umped. This, the first watering of the land to be put under flood irrigation, is thus a very heavy one, but as soon as the land is put under crop the sub- sequent waterings are about the same as the ordinary summer water- ings, viz, about 350 tons. The land after being watered is allowed to remain some days until it is sufficiently dr}- to admit the plow. As the latter is drawn through the soil by the usual pair of bullocks, its effect, as already explained, being somewhat similar to the scooter or a one-tined scarifier, it is followed by a boy who deposits seed behind it, which will be covered by the plow on its return journey. The land is subsequently harrowed by drawing a plank of wood over it. No attempt is made to deposit the seed in an}" regular manner in rows, such as is practiced in the United States, and, as would be imagined, the jilants are very thickly crowded together. The number of plants found in an acre of corn varies from 13,000 to as many as 20,000, or even more. This, it will be seen, is strikingly different from American practice. The quantity of seed sown per acre is about 1 ^^ bushels. The cultivation is simple, the crop l»eing merely hoed three times during growth and watered CORN, WHEAT, AND 1?ARLEY. 51 six or seven times. The phiiils nvv thiiiiuMl twice, once wlieii very small siiul once snbse-, and when sufficiently diy for plowing the seed is sown and plowed in, no water being given after i)lanting. The use of implements, such as European harrows, for covering the seed instead of the native plow is very restricted. The quantity of seed employed is about 2| bushels per acre. When the crop has attained a height of about 8 or 0 inches (in January or early in February) it is watered, and no further Avater- ing need be given, though it is more usual to irrigate the crop a sec- ond time, viz, when the plants are forming into ears (March or early April). This completes the cultivation of the crop. Cereals are harvested in Upper Egypt in the month of April, and in Lower Egj^^t in May and June. The crop is either pulled by hand, in the case of barley, or cut by means of small sickles. About live men are sufficient per acre, and this work is often done by contract for about II per acre. Harvesting machinery is not employed, as the small ridges made to facilitate Avatering jirevent the successful working of a reaper, the knives of which run into these small ridges and are broken. Some years since thrashing machines were introduced into Egypt, these being provided with revolving drums for crushing and bruising the straw into what is known as " tibn." The grain is deliA^ered from them similar to the ordinary thrasher, Avhile the bruised straAv is blown out at the end of the machine. These are found on some large estates, though the bulk of the grain is still separated by means of the prima- tiA^e "norag," consisting of a number of circular disks on an axle, Avhich rcA^olve as the whole is drawn by two bullocks. The produce is arranged in a circle and the tread of the bullocks and the cutting and bruising action of the disks chop the straw and knock out the grain. When this is completed the whole is thrown into a heap for the subsequent separation of the grain from the tibn. This is accomplished by throwing it into the air, when the grain, being the lieaAier, falls directly to the ground, AA'hile the tibn is blown by the wind to one side. It Avill at once be understood that this sj'^s- tem is most laborious. Barley is more easy to thrash than wheat, the straw being more brittle. Hand sittings are necessarj^ to clean the grain, though grain-cleaning machines Avorked by hand are now find- ing a use in the country. As regards the employment of manures, barlej' is practically never manured, though it is grown on poorer lands than wheat; in fact, it is one of the earliest crops cultiA^ated on newly reclaimed saltj^ lands, as it succeeds Avhere Avheat Avould fail. WHEAT AND BARLKY 53 Stal)lo inanniv is soiiu'times nsod «m wheat, Uioiiuh it i.s very econie eonmion, and most s1rikin<; results are obtained. The yield both of j;rain and straw is inereased, and a net profit of fully *."> an acre is obtaine(l by its use. It maybe intt'restinfj: to note that E.uypt is practically fr<'<' from "rust." The native varieties ^n-ow so rapidly that they seem to out- strip it. On the other hand, foreiirn varieties, when j;rown, ar<' occa- sionally entirely destroyed by it, as hai)pened, for example, with Anieriean seed introduced l»y the writer some years since. The weight of wheat per l)ushel is about 00 pounds. The standard measure is the ardeb of .5.4 bushels, whieh weijihs about olT) pounds, and is sold on an averajje for about *4.75 to $5. There are no well- defined varieties «;i'own, different names Ix'inir i;iven to tlu^ same variety in diirer<'nt provinces. As ret a greater portion of §o-called red wheat is found. For making bread natives pi-efer the wheat grown in the basin lanils of Upper Egypt to that grown on irri- gated land. Egypt, instead of being an exporter of wheat, as is often thought, actually imports a considerable quantity of flour ft-om France and Russia, though that from the former country is largel}' of Russian origin, having been ground at Marseille. The following table shows the importation of flour during the past tliree years, the bulk being wheat flour, thougli a small portion is that of maize. The figures refer to Egyptian pounds, equivalent to about 1:4.94 in American monej^ : Country to which exported. England English possessions in the Mediterra- nean - - - English possessions in the extreme East Germany _ ITnited States Austria-Hungary 1900. 1901. 1902. 42,641 34,094 67,628 5.S 5 54 .3(J5 1,.549 3,364 91 2,842 6,096 2,612 j 204 5,025 1,1&5 Country to which exported. Belgium .-. France and Algeria. Greece Italy -. Russia - Turkey Other countries Total . 1900. 1901. 323 ■^n 2;M,035 294,045 60 213 9,. 506 4,663 104, 700 112,863 811 1,017 2.54 2.257 397,660 455,8.58 1902. 1,403 310,799 71 5, a59 119,1.53 5, 767 776 .5.52,897 54 NOTES OK EGYPTIAN AGRICULTUKE. During the same period the import of wheat (as grain) was as follows : T. <.■ Egyptian pounds. 1900 ^2,669 1901 • 110-374 1902 67,630 The bulk of this grain is of Turkish and Russian origin. From a European point of view, the barley is poor, being long and thin. Attempts have been made to grow European barleys for malt- ing purposes, and while a good (puility can be produced the yield is slight compared with that obtained from native varieties. Practi- cally the whole of the crop is consumed by horses, mules, etc. A superior class of barley (Mariout barley) is grown in the desert in the neighborhood of Alexandria and is dependent on rainfall. As this latter is a very varying amount, the crop fluctuates greatly from year to year. Even in the case of barley the imports exceed the exports in value, as will be seen from the following table : Year. 190(J. 1901. 1902- Imports. Egypiian pDKHtlx. 4«,989 Exports. Egyptian ponnils. 8,000 11,200 33,602 The barleys of Egypt are light and generally weigh less than 50 pounds per bushel. The yields obtained on favorable soils are heavy, amounting to as much a-^ 100 bushels per acre in exceptional cases. The average is from ;30 to 35 bushels, and the price at which it is sold may be taken as 12.50 to 12.75 per ardeb of 5.4 bushels. The culti- vation of barley is similar to that of wheat. BEANS. The bean crop of Egypt is a most important one, as it supplies the staple food of working animals during a great part of the year, while a considerable quantity is exported. It is grown in the basin lands, as well as in Lower Egypt, though the bulk of the crop is raised in Upper Egypt. According to the latest returns there were 471,530 acres of l)eans in the latter division of tlu^ country and 162,300 in Lower Egypt during the year 1902, a total of 633,836 acres. The cultivation of the crop is simple. On the basin lands seed is sown after the emptying of the basins, and the crop is simply allowed to remain until harvest in the spring. The crop is luxuriant and yields on an average from 30 to 35 bushels per acre on good land. From 3 to 4 bushels of seed are required per acre in Upper Egypt. In Lower Egypt the crop is sown about the same time as ordinary cereal crops, the grain being deposited in the BEANS. 55 lurrow U'lt by tho ordinary native plow, a hoy r()llo\yin<; tho latter and (h'positini; the seeds by hand. They are then covi'red on the relnrn Jonrney of the plow, and the land is snlisele exportation from Smyrna, Ejj^ypt, etc., to Europe. The ex[)ort from Kuy[)t is not increasinjr, therc^ beinu' a threat er homo consumption, as will be seen from the following' lij^ures, showinjj total exports: Year. issg-isai (average) lW)4-KS'.i.s (average) 19(11 lavorajie) 190^ (average) Quantity. Bushels. .5,(114.(569 4,244, l.-iT i,iHS(j,(i:i l,34«,7(r2 Value. Etiyi>tinn l>l>Ullfls. ()(ii),:7,:e(i4 i!(ai,.T()8 190,5:iti As already' mentioned, about I'-i pounds of crushed beans are fed per day to working bullocks durinj^' the season of scarcity of green forage and a i^roportional amount to cows, etc. The animals, of course, do not keep up their condition on this food (mixed with chopped straw) as well as they do on green, succulent food, but the work they accom- plish during the hot weather when on this diet is remarkable. Beans form an article of diet of nearly all classes. They are j)re- Ijared in several waj's. They ma}' be soaked throughout the night in water, which is kept at a high temperature, and eaten in the morning, with liberal quantities of clarified butter, or they may be soaked in cold water nntil they begin to burst pi-evious to germination, and are then boiled and eaten. Upper P^gypt beans are i^referred to those of Lower Egypt for human consumption. RICE. Rice is grown in Egvpt both as a summer and aNili crop, and largely so as a means of reclaiming land. Thus it is sown both in summer and during flood, the difficulty in connection with the former being the large quantities of water required at a time when the cotton area 56 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGKICULTURE> makes such heavy demands oii the available supply. For this reason in seasons of a very low Nile the growth of summer rice has l)een pro- hibited by governmental decree. As regards actual quality, summer rice (Sultani) is superior to that grown during flood (Sabeini). It is almost needless to state that this crop will grow on land heavily Impregnated with salt. The large amount of water required and the shallow-rooted nature of the crop tend to make this possible. The salt is washed down into the lower reaches of the soil, where the roots do not penetrate. Summer rice, of which several varieties are grown, is sown in May and early June and occupies the land for varying periods, according to the variety grown, some remaining in the ground for as long as seven months. Sabeini, or flood rice, is sown as soon .as the flood arrives, generally early in August to the first week in September, and occupies the land for about ninety days, according to the date of planting. It is thus liarvested about the same time as summer rice. During flood, rice lands get flush irrigation and receive every ton of water that the drains can carry. For summer rice it is generally accepted that at least 40 cubic meters of water per acre per day must be allowed, while during the flood season the land practically receives as much water as the drains can carry off. The first and most important essential in reclamation and rice cul- tivation is to make the land perfectly level. Unless this is done dis- appointment will result. The land is divided into squares equal in size, and ai-ound thevse divisions small dikes are made to retain the irrigation water. After leveling is completed sowing takes place. The seed is soaked in water for about six days. It is then spread out under sheds in the shade for two or three days to sprout. Water to a depth of 3^ or 4 inches is put on the land and the seed is sown broadcast. Three days after sowing the water is removed and the land allowed to dry for twenty-four hours. During fifteen days this operation is twice repeated. Subsequently the water is changed from time to time. When about 7 or 8 inches high thinning is done and seedlings of dineba (barnyard grass) and of weeds which would inter- ferfere with the development of the plants are removed. When ripe the crop is cut by hooks and placed in small bundles and is thrashed either by machine or by the noiag. For summer rice from 1 to If bushels of seed are sown. For the flood crop more is employed. Rice is grown in Lower Egypt on low-lying lands and those under- going reclamation, chiefly in the three provinces of Gharbieh, Dakah- lieh, and Behera. During the year 1902, 59,634 acres of summer rice and 50,134 acres during flood were grown in Lower Egypt. In Upper Egypt flood rice is grown m the Fayum, the area last year being 24,903 acres. The accompanying diagram (fig. 3) will give an idea of the ai-rangement of a crop of flood rice which is found successful in the northern part of Gharbieh. EICE. 57 The plan shows a plat of land 500 meters long bj' 300 meters in width, or a little over 35 acres. Tlie land is cut up into divisions (" gattas "), eacli being 150 meters by 100 meters, or a little moi-e than 3.1 acres. The main drains are -7 inches deep and the smaller drains, similarly, 23 inches. The drainage, according to these data, requires l,S(j5 cubic meters of eartliwork per acre, whicli, at the rate paid in Egypt, is equal to an expenditure of $2.15. It is generally conceded that it is preferal)le for a landowner to let land to tenants for the growth of flood rice rather than to cultivate it himself, 'i'he small banks and water channels are made by the tenant. The former are very neces- sary, as they prevent the disturbing of the young plants during the first fortnight of growth by the heavy winds which often prevail. The small channels are also necessary; otherwise the plats marked "C " will I 100 I 100 \ 100 \ fOO I /ao MAIN DRAIN 1 c c SMALL BANKS C C A a A B "O a A A 4 A e SMALL BANKS ■ B c c C C CAf^AL /oa 100 100 1 0.0 100 MA /A/ DRAIN I I 5 I I Fig. 3.— Arrangement of a crop of flood rice. not get fresh water and will be more backward than those marked "A." Fellaheen pay from %\ to 15 per acre as rent to grow a croi) of flood rice on fairly sweet land. If the land is salt, the tenant gets half the crop for his labor and the owner the other half as rent. The seed is provided by the owner, half of which is returned at harvest. As soon as the Nile water arrives, the little divisions are filled with water, and the land is again leveled by drawing a plank over it. If the land is not very salt, the seed may be sown after leveling; but if salt, the water must be run off once or twice before sowing. More seed than usual is required on salt lands. The critical period of the crop is the first ten or fifteen days, and if the land has not been proj)- erly leveled the high patches die for want of water, or, on the other hand, the low-lying patches are flooded out. On fairly sweet land 58 NOTES ON EGYPTIAN AGRICULTURE. the water may not be run off for the first six or seven clays, and it may be necessary to water every clay at the rate of 100 cubic meters per acre under a nood system of drainage. After eight or ten days tenants will employ all the water they can get, but this is not neces- sary and is done at the sacrifice of good drainage. On salt land more water is necessary than if the soil is fairly sweet, and at first it is necessary to irrigate and run off the water almost daily, which means as much as 150 cubic meters per acre each twentj- four hours. If sown later than the end of August, rice does not grow so well, and any land remaining at that time may be sown with dineba. To obtain the greatest benefit from the growing of rice it shoidd be followed by berseem. When the heads of the rice begin to curl up, the berseem may be sown ; and if rice is sown as late as September, the sowing of the clover is greatly delayed. The success of the berseem after i-ice is an indication as to the extent of the removal of salt; and if the clover grows well, it will not be necessary to sow rice again. If otherwise, it may be necessary to resort to rice again. This system of reclamation without summer water is that adopted by a very capable rice grower, to whom the author is indebted for the information. As regards the yield of rice in Egypt, 40 to 00 bushels per acre may be taken as an average of the summer crop on good land, while of flood rice the product varies from 25 bushels on poor land to 50 or 00 bushels on more forward lands. ONIONS. Onions are grown to a considerable extent in Upper Egypt (not less than 15,000 acres), largely on the islands which appear after the fall of the Nile and on the banks of the river. They are also grown on ordinary soils under perennial irrigation. Although two or three varieties are recognized, that known as the Saidi forms the bulk of the export trade. The crop grows to the greatest advantage on deep, loam}^ soils, inclining to sandy, and possessing a considerable amount of humus. Seed is sown in a manured seed bed in September. About one- ninth of a bushel of seed sown on 350 square yards of land provides sufficient plan Is for 1 acre. The land for onions should be well prepared by two or three plow- ings, reduced to a friable condition, and made into ridges about 2 feet apart. The seedlings are pushed in the sides of the ridges (both sides) by the fingers and are left about G inches jipai't. On the islands and river banks the land is not plowed at all, but the seedlings are sown on the flat, either singly in rows about 14 inches apart or in bunches in row>s 20 inches apart. In this case the crop is not watered during growth. The operation of transplanting is done in November and December ONIONS. 59 on the islands and river banks, but later on ordinary lands <'\t'ii m[) to January and February. The crop re<[uires cai'eful eullivaliou 1o i)revent the .lifrowHi of weeds, and a small hoe is employed to keep the land well stii-red. During the first month aft(M- transplantin<^, Ihe crop must be hoed and weeded, and this must be repeated dui-injj the second month. Onions respond to liberal manuring, liarnyai'd manuii* is employed, and on the alluvinl deposits this is put under the i)lanls at the time of transplanting, but on other land i1 is ap|>lied from one to one and one-half months after transplanting and as a rule before any water is applied. Small iiiiils w^mc «'xporlc(l, I'liielly to Turkey. CHICK-PEAS. Chick-peas are jijrown to a limited extent both in l'pi)er and Lower Egypt t"<»r hx'al coiisuniplion. 'I'he seeds ai"e calt'ii eitliei' gi-een or roastetl, and are also employed in native coiifeetionei'^'. The ei-op is sown in October and November and harvested from five to six months later, yielding abont 2.'} to '40 bushels of seed per acre. No manure is applied and very little water. During the year r.ioi' the exports amounted to 7,827 bushels, valued at l,7()i) Egyptian p(^unds. LUPINES. Lupines are grown on sandy situations, and, generally speaking, in I^laces where it would be dilfteult to grow other crops successfully. They are sown in October and November in holes about 15 or 10 inches apart, four or five seeds being droi)ped in, or the seed may be deposited behind the plow. Lupines are grown either as a green manure croj^ or for the sake of the seeds, of which about 20 bushels are obtained per acre. The crop is harvested in ^Vpril. It requires no care, is not manured, receives but little water, and sometimes none at all. FENUGREEK. Fenugreek is sown in October or November, the seed at the rate of If bushels per acre being broadcasted after a lieavy watering. If grown as a green crop it is cut al)out sixty or seventy days after sow- ing and fed, in conjunction with berseem, to camels chiefly and also to cattle. It is not fed alone, as it is too laxative. It is eaten green by natives. If for grain, the crop is cut about four and one-half to five months after sowing. About 20 to 25 bushels of seed are obtained per acre. The seed is mixed with corn and millet in bread making, and ,when germinated it is also eaten by natives as a purgative. The seeds are largely used in Europe for the preparation of condiments. FLAX. Flax is not so extensively grown as formerly. Seed is sown broad- cast from the end of October to the end of November at the rate of 2^ to 2| bushels per acre. The crop is grown both for fiber and seed. The harvest is in March. The fiber obtained is inferior and calls for no mention. The seed is crushed in native mills and the cake is used for feeding. O U. S. DEPARTMENT OE AGRICULTURE. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN No. 63. B. T. G.VLLOWAY. CMe/ »/ lliirmu. INVESTIGATIONS OF RUSTS, BY •MARK ALFRED CARLETON, Cekealist in Charge of Cereal Investigations. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued July 12, 1904. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1904. BULLETINS OF THE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. The Bureau of Plant Industry, which was organized July 1, 1901, includes Vege- table Pathological and Physiological Investigations, Botanical Investigations and Experiments, Grass and Forage Plant Investigations, Pomological Investigations, and Experimental Gardens and Grounds, all of which were formerly separate Divisions, and also Seed and Plant Introduction and Distribution, the Arlington Experimental Farm, Tea Culture Investigations, and Domestic Sugar Investigations. Beginning with the date of organization of the Bureau, the several series of bulle- tins of the various Divisions were discontinued, and all are now published as one series of the Bureau. A list of the bulletins issued in the present series follows. Attention is directed to the fact that "the serial, scientific, and technical publica- tions of the United States Department of Agriculture are not for general distribution. All copies not required for official use are by law turned over to the Superintendent of Documents, who is empowered to sell them at cost." All applications for such publications should, therefore, be made to the Superintendent of Documents, Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington, D. C. No. 1. The Relation of Lime and Magnesia to Plant Growth. 1901. Price, 10 cents. 2. Spermatogenesis and Fecundation of Zamia. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 3. Macaroni Wheats. 1901. Price, 20 cents. 4. Range Improvement in Arizona. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 5. Seeds and Plants Imported. Inventory No. 9. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 6. A List of American Varieties of Peppers. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 7. The Algerian Durum Wheats. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 8. A Collection of Fungi Prepared for Distribution. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 9. The North American Species of Spartina. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 10. Records of Seed Distribution and Cooperative Experiments with Grasses and Forage Plants. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 11. Johnson Grass. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 12. Stock Ranges of Northwestern California. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 13. Experiments in Range Improvement in Central Texas. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 14. The Decay of Timber and Methods of Preventing It. 1902. Price, 55 cents. 15. Forage Conditions on the Northern Border of the Great Basin. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 16. A Preliminary Study of the Germination of the Spores of Agaricus Campes- tris and Other Basidiomycetous Fungi. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 17. Some Diseases of the Cowpea. 1902. Price, 10 cents. . \ 18. Observations on the JNIosaic Disease of Tobacco. 1902. Price, 15 cents. - 19. Kentucky Bluegrass Seed. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 20. Manufacture of Semolina and Macaroni. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 21. List of American Varieties of Vegetables. 1903. Price, 35 cents. 22. Injurious Effects of Premature Pollination. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 23. Berseem. 1902. Price, 15 cents. 24. Unfermented Grape Must. 1902. Price, 10 cents. 25. Mi.scelianeous Papers: I. The Seeds of Rescue Grass and Chess. II. SaragoUa Wheat, ill. Plant Introduction Notes from South Africa. IV. Congres- sional Seed and Plant Distribution Circulars, 1902-1903. 1903. Price, 15 cents. [Continued on page 3 of cover.] ul, 63, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept of Airicuiture. Plate A Perennial Rust. (/tciDiuM Tuberculatum E& K.on Callirrhoe involucrata Gr' U. S. DEPARTMENT OV AGR\CV\:\VRK. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY BULLETIN No. 63. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chiif of Hurcau. INVI^XnCATIONS OF ursTs, HY MARK ALFKKD CARLETON, Cekkalist in Ciiak(sk of Cereal Investigations, VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. Issued July 12, 1904. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 190i. BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. B. T. Galloway, Chief. J. E. Rockwell, Editor. VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist. Erwin F. Smith, Pathologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Pathology. George T. Moore, Physiologist in Charge of Laboratory of Plant Pln^wlogy. Herbert J. Webber, Physiologist in Charge of Lahoratory of Plant Breeding. Walter T. Swingle, Physiologist in Charge of Lahoratory of Plant Life History. Newton B. Pierce, Pathologist in Charge of Pacific Coast Lahoratory. M. -B. Waite, Pathologist in Charge of Investigations of Diseases of Orchard Fruits. Mark Alfred Carleton, Cerealist in Charge of Cereal Investigations. Hermann von ScHRENK,a Jn Charge of Mississippi Valley Laboratory. P. H. Rolfs, Pathologist in Charge of Subtropical Laboratory. C. O. TowNSEND, Pathologist in Charge of Sugar Beet Livestigatiom. P. H. DoRSETT, Pathologist. Rodney H. True, & Physiologist. T. H. Kearney, Physiologist, Plant Breeding. Cornelius L. Shear, Pathologist. William A. Orton, Pathologist. W. M. Scott, Pathologist. Joseph S. Chamberlain, Physiological Chemist, Cereal Investigations. R. E. B. McKenney, Physiologist. Flora W. Patterson, Mi/rologist. Charles P. Hartley, Assi.r!l 20. inOJf,. Sir: I have tho honor to ti'aii.sniit lici-owith the niaiiusi-iipt ol" a toflinical papi-r entitled " Investio-ations of Rusts," by Mark Alfred Oarleton, Cerealist in diarize of Coreal Investigations, Vegetable Pathological and Physiological Investigations, and recommend its publication as Bulletin No. (>3 of the series of this Bureau. The two illustrations accompanying the manuscript are necessar}'^ to a complete understanding of the subject-matter of this paper. Kespectfully, B. T. Galloway, Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture. C/ilef of Bureau. PRl-FACH. Tlio oxporimonts and o'n.sL'rv.aion.; wii rusts which are tho l)asis of the foUowin*,^ notos woro l)oo-nn by Mr. Carloton sovoral years a,i!:o, and wove continuod at intervals until the sprino- of llMIO, when the pressure of othcM- duties prevented further work of this kind up to the present time. The results obtained in tuan}' instances arc still incomplete, but are of sufHcient value to he recorded. Some of the species studied are of nuidi economic importance. The investigation is a continuation of the work reported in bulletin 16 of the Division of Vey-etable Phvsioloo-v and Patholoov. and is concerned chieflv with the seg-reg-ation of rust forms of economic importance on the conuuon grasses and the completion of the life historv of certain species. The work is to be carried on more extensively during 1904. A. F. Woods, Pt eiiphurhiiv C. ami 1*. ) {( SunHower rust ( I'uccima JielUmihi Sch w. ) 11 Crown rust of oats {Puccmid rhdmni [Pers.] Wi4ttsl. ) \?> Segregation of host ])lants 14 Blaek stem rust of Agropyron and Klynius 15 Orange leaf rust of Agropyron and P21ymus 17 Black stem rust of Agrosth alha vulgaris 17 Rust of Chloris ( I'licrinia chJoridix Diet. ) 18 Rusts of willow and cottonwood ( Melampsora) 18 Winter resistance of the uredn 19 Uredo of Kentucky bluegrass rust {Purrinui poarum Niels. ) 20 Uredo of Piirriiiiii ninntducns-ix Ell 20 Emergency adaptations 21 Piicciniii re.vaiis Farl 22 Experiments with Lei)to-uredine;e 25 Rust of cocklebur ( Pucciida .ranthii 8ch w. ) 26 Rust of velvet leaf ( Pvrrinia Jieterospora B. and C. ) 26 Perennial si)ecies 27 ^lu'UVniin tnhi'rculatinn E. and K 27 Rust of Peuci'(hun(iii ficniciddreum 28 Description of plates ' 32 7 I L L U S T R A T IONS. Page. Plate I. A perennial rust Frontispiece. II. Rusts of Euphorbia and grauia grass 32 8 B. 1'. I.— 102. V. I'. 1'. 1,-117 INVESTIGATIONS OF RUSTS. ADDITIONS TO OUR KNOWLEDGE OF LIFE HISTORIES. In many iii.stancos, without any oxpoiinicntal i)roof, it i.s inferred that there is a connection between the diil'erent forms of rust occur- ring on the same host plant simply because of their constant associa- tion with each other. Sometimes it is afterwards demonstrated that these inferences are wrong-, though they are probabh' correct in a majority of cases. Studies of the following species were made with the view of obtaining a more accurate knowledge of their life liistory. PjUphorbia Rust {Uronu/ces enphorhlce, C. and P.). Until the experiments herein described were performed it iiad not been demonstrated that there is any connection ])etween the an-idial and other stages of this species, although experience naturally leads one to think that there is. They are in very close association on the same plant, the jvcidium appearing tirst, quickl\' followed by the uredospores. In the spring of 1893 Mr. ,1. B. S. Norton, now pro- fessor of botany at the Maryland Agricultural College, while engaged in experiments in the germination of weeds in the greenhouses of the Agricultural Experiment Station at Manhattan, Kans., called the writer's attention to a ver}^ 3'om^S' I'usted seedling of Eu.j>horhia di^ntata. \\\ this instance, as is usually the case with the young plants of this host, the pods were first badly afl'ected by fecidia. This fact, taken together with the common observation that the seed pods of this host are usually affected by all stages of the rust, led at once to the thought that it was a case of rust propagation through the medium of the germi- nating seed of the host, something not before demonstrated for any other species in the entire group of Uredinese, so far as the writer knows, unless we except the single instance of the experiments of Doctor Eriksson" with Puccinia glumarum? The seed used by Mr. « Vie latente et plasmatique de certaines Uredinees. Compt. Rend., 1897, pp. 475-477. ^ T. S. Ralph, in Victorian Naturalist, Vol. VII, p. 18, de.scribes an instance of a rust attacking the seed of Senecio vulgaris, stating that "with the microscope we are able to trace the fine yellow sporular matter into the covering of the seed, and into the seed itself;" but apparently it was not determine-erminating seed of the host, and also make it seem probable that this is even the common method of reproduction in the case of its occurrence on Euphorhla dentata. It will be noted also that the results of these experiments make it almost certain that the .Ecidium and Uromyces appearing upon the plants are one and the same species, since in every case all stages resulted from planting the rusted seeds, the a'cidium appearing first, then the uredo, and then the teleutospores. If anything was lacking, however, the proof has since been made complete ])y the experiments of Dr. J. C. Arthur, as reported in the Botanical Gazette,'^ in which the uredospores and teleutospores were obtained on EnphorVm nxtans from a sowing of ivcidiospores from other plants of the same host on June 20, 1899. As is well known, the Euphorbia rust is widel}' distributed over the United States, occurring on numerous host species, but it is probably most abundant on J£. dentata and Ji. predii. It is a significant fact, bearing upon the ontogeny of the species, that it is also on these two hosts, particularly on E. dentata, that the a>cidium is most common, and that the rust attacks the seed so severely. The seed pods are also affected considerably in the cases of E. lata and E. vmrginata. On June 12, 1897, tecidiospores of this rust had germinated very well in water-drop culture after three days, and on June 22, after a two da3's' culture in water of both tlie aH'idium and uredo from EupJwrhla marginata^ the latter germinated sparingly, but the former not at all. In no instance could the teleutospores be germinated, though germination was not attempted very often. The writer has collected all three stages of this rust on EuphorMa naculata^ E. marginata, E. dentata, E. presUi, E. glyptosjjerma, and E. heterophyUa. On E. petaloidea and E. seipylUfolki only the uredo and teleuto stages were found, and on E. lata and what was probably E. geyeri even the uredo was rarely seen. Sunflower Rust {Puccinia helianthl Schw.). Although Saccardo rightly regards this species of Schweinitz as quite distinct, and includes with it the ^cidium of ten associated on the same host, in many herbaria the authority of Winter and Burrill is followed in making it a form of Puccinia tanaceti, while the ^Ecidium is commonl}" referred to JEcldiuni componitaruni, a convenient dump- ing ground for numerous uncertain forms. The writer has always considered this disposition of the species to be without any good reason even on a purely morphological basis, and now the experiments "Arthur, J. C, "Cultures of Uredineie in 1899," Bot. Gaz., Vol. XXIX, No. 4, pp. 270-271, April, 1900. 12 INVESTIGATIONS OF RUSTS. here recorded make it rather certain that Schweinitz and Saccardo are correct. So far as this country is concerned, the writer is convinced that P. tanaceti either belongs almost entirely to tanacetum or does not exist at all. So far it has been utterly impossible, even in a green- house, to make transfers of the uredo from one to another of the numerous supposed hosts of that species, except among hosts of the same genus." It is, at any rate, pretty certain that the forms occurring on Vernonia, Helianthus, Actinella, and Aplopappus. which have been referred to /*. tanaceti at various times, should be considered distinct. The circumstances connected with the culture experiments with this species were in themselves peculiar. Late in the autumn of 189T at Manhattan, Kans., it was desired to obtain fresh material of the uredo for inoculating various hosts, but at that date very little else than the teleuto stage could lie found. Finally, on October 29 a small amount was found on Helumt/ius petiolaris, unixed among a much larger quan- tity of teleutospores, and from this material sowings were made on JL pet/'olari.-! and IT. a /in a us. On November 8 there resulted one rust spot on the latter host and three on the former. The spots were of the uredo stage, but the interesting feature accompanying this culture was the appearance first of spermogonia in one of the spots. This fact made it probable that a part of the infection resulted from the teleuto- spores of the inoculating material, even at this unusual season for the germination of these spores. On March T, 1898, while stationed at the University" of Nebraska, inoculations of H. petiolai'is were again made with the teleutospores onl}" from other plants of the same host, from which luimerous spermogonia appeared in eight days, followed shortly by tecidia, which were fullv developed by November 1. By these results the connection of the different stages of the rust is pretty well established. At the same time it is shown that the forms on //. petiolaris and H. aniiuus are identical. In all cultures made of this rust both the uredospores and teleutospores have been found to germinate easily and produce infections readily. Reverse cultures with tecidiospores were not made. These experiments were first reported at the 1900 meeting of the Society for Plant Morphology and Physiology, at Baltimore. Since that time Drs. J. C. Arthur'' and W. A. Kellerman'' have made a number of such experiments, confirming these results, but also seem- ing to indicate a distinction of host forms on different species of sun- « Dr. M. Voronin at first also obtained negative results in similar experiments in Russia in attempting transfers of the rust on to other hosts. (See Bot. Zeitung, vol. 30, pp. 694-698, Sept. 27, 1872. ) Later he obtained infections of Puccinia tanaceti from Tanacetum rulgare on sunflower, which, however, did not produce such vigorous growth as ordinarily. (Bot. Zeitung, vol.' 33, pp. 340,341, May 14, 1875.) ''Botanical Gazette, vol. 35, p. 17, January, 1903; Journal of Mycology, vol. 10, pp. 12-13, January, 1904. 'Journal of Mycology, vol. 9, j)}). 2: '.()-•_':; 2, December, 1903. CKOWN Kl'ST OF OATS. 13 flower. Doctor Voronin, in his experiineiits above iiietitioiied, also found that rust of cultivated sunflower would not infect ILIlitnthuti tuherofoi.s. In 1!^()1 P]rnst Jack}' " inoculated the foUowin*^ hosts with tcleutospores from I[ellanth>isannHHi<: II. luinxus, II. llu)<., II. eallforxicHs^ II. ti(her<»<>is^ II. iixi.i-iinllunxi.. II. inKltilforxK, II. scahei'iiints^ and II. rujklxs^ with resultinj^ infections of the three flrst- naiued species, but no infection of any of the others. The evidence from all these experiments just quoted and those of the writer shows at least that the rusts of Ilelhmthus annuua (includ- ing;- cultivated varieties), //. petlolarus., and //. nidllis are identical, with the probability that a distinct form exists on II. tnherosu.s. Sunflower rust has been collected by the writer on the following- species of Helianthus. including all sta<»-es on nearly every species: II. annnns (both wild and cultivated), //. rigidu.'i, II. jfetiolarls., II. tiiberosus., II. Mrsutius, II. niaxiinlJliina, II. (/ross'e-scrr'ffifs, II. onjiiaJ)^^ II. moUi.s., and IF. eUiaris. The lecidium occurs rarely in compari- son with the occurrence of other stag-es, but is to be found on a num- ber of hosts and occasionally in considerable abundance. This rarity of its occurrence, together with the occurrence of spermogonia so often with the uredo, ma}^ be accounted for by the fact that the uredo is often produced by direct teleutosporic infection. Crown Rust of Oats {Pnccinla rhuiiuil [Pers.] Wettst.). In a mere note in a previous bulletin of this Department'' it is stated that certain infections had just been made showing the connection of the crown rust of oats on Phalarls carollniana and Arrhenatheruni elatlux with the secidial form on Rhamnus hmceolata. No other dem- onstration of such a connection of forms had been reported up to that time. During the same season, however. Doctor Arthur obtained infections with the »cidium of Rhamnus lanceolata on oats at Lafayette, lnd.<^ The experiments of the writer are here given in detail. On August 23, 1897, the uredo stage of a rust, supposed to be Puc- clnia coronata., was found in great abundance on Phalarls caroliniana at Stillwater, Okla. This host, with the rust, was transferred to a green- house of the Agricultural College at Manhattan, Kans., and inocula- tions were made on oats, wheat, and orchard grass on August 3(>, IS07, resulting September T in a good infection of oats, a poor one of the orchard grass, and no infection at all of wheat. Other inoculations were made September 1 on wheat and rye, with no result. By October 8 the tcleutospores had appeared on the original plants of Phalaris «Cen trail). Bakt. Parasit. u. Infekt., 2 Abt., Bd. 9, No. 21, pp. 802-804, December, 1902. ^Cereal Rusts of the United States, Bui. No. 16, Div. of ^"eg. Phys. and Path., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1899. <^ Bui. Lab. Nat. Hist. State Univ. Iowa, Vol. IV, pp. 398-100, December, 1898, 14 INVESTIGATIONS OF EUSTS. at Stillwater and were of the crown rust type. After this date the experiments were continued at the State University laboratories at Lincoln, Nebr., all host plants then in use being transferred to that place. On November 16 the crown rust was found, in the uredo stage, on ArrJienatheruDi elatius on the State Universit}^ farm, and a rusted plant was transferred to the greenhouse. On December 11 inoculations with the rust were made on oats and rye, resulting in a good infection of the former in twelve days, but with no result on the latter. Fur- ther ino'culations of oats with the Phalaris rust on February 16, 1898, resulted again in a good infection in 9 days. No species of Rhamnus is native near Lincoln, Nebr., but lihamnus lanceolata is rather common at AVeeping Water, about 20 miles east of Lincoln, where it is often badly rusted with ^Fcidium. From that place a large amount of the /Ecidium was obtained fresh on June 1, 1898. A water-drop culture of the material, made the next day, gave a profuse germination of the spores in twenty-two hours. Inocula- tions with the fficidiospores on oats and PJialaris caroliniana were made June 1 and June 2, resulting in a successful infection of Phalaris on June 14 and of oats on June 18. The oat inoculations were made simply on detached portions of the plant preserved with their broken ends in water in a damp chamber. As in all other instances, these inoculations were made with the greatest of care to prevent accidental infections. The whole series of experiments proves (1) the connection of the aecidial form of Rhamnus with the crown rust of oats, and (2) the identit}^ of the latter with the forms on Phalaris caroliniana and Arrhenatherum elatius, besides making it probable that orchard grass may also support this species. SEGREGATION OF HOST PLANTS. The most important economic results of the study of rusts are likely to be derived from the investigation of the relationship of the forms on our common grasses. Such work has alreadv been carried on to some extent by the writer and partially reported in the l)ulletin entitled "Cereal Rusts of the United States." A more detailed account of some of this work will he given here. Because bearing upon the same question, it seems proper to mention also some experiments with the rusts of Salix and Populus. Probably the greatest confusion exists concerning the identity of the different forms on Agropyron and Elynms, though there is much uncertainty also about those occurring on Bromus and other genera. The experiments here described were conducted at Stillwater, Okla.. Manhattan, Kans., Lincoln, Nebr., and Washington, D. C, the host plants being sometimes transferred from one place to another. Of all these rusts the one receiving most attention was the black stem rust of Agropyron and Elymus. BLACK STEM KU8T OF AGROPYRON AND ELYMUS. 15 Black Stem Rust of Ac.kopyuon and Elymus. At least three and piobal)ly four ditterent rusts occur on the species of these two grass genera, and are often so closely associated that their accurate identitication is extremely difficult. Of the herbarium specimens of these rusts throughout the country, probabl}' not one in fifty is identified with any certainty. The writer's experiments with these forms are still incomplete, but a few things at least haYC been established. When these grasses are brought under cultivation the changed conditions and proximity to other grasses and grains cause them to become much more rusted than is ordinarily the case. In the cultivated grass plats at the experiment stations in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska the rusts were found in great abundance. It was therefore eas}^ to carrj' on many culture experiments. These experiments with the uredospores of black stem rust were sufficientl}'^ numerous to make it desirable to arrange them in the following table: Tahle I. — Culture experiments ivith black stem rust of Agrojryron and Elymus. Datf. Jan. 9, 1897.. Do Jan. 22, 1897 . Do Do Do Sept. 13, 1897 . . Do Oct. 5, 1897 . . . . Do Locality. Origin of inoculating material. Washington, D. C. . do do do do do... Stillwater, Okla .. do Manhattan, Kans do Do do Do do Oct. 21, 1897....' do Do Do Do Do Do Do Do Nov. 24, 1897 Jan. 5, 1898.. Do Jan. 21, 1898. do , do do , do do ....do ....do Lincoln, Nebr ....do .do. -do. Do Feb. 11, 1898. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. .do. -do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Wheat. ....do. ....do. ....do. do do Agropyron tcneriim — Afiropyron oecidentale Wheat (originally Agropiirrm trncrum). do .do. .do , .do. -do. .do. Agropyron oecidentale do do do do Elynms canadensis f/laucifolius. do Wheat (originally Elymus canadensis glducifolius). do Elymus canadensis glaucifolius. do do do do .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. Plant inoculated. Elymus virginicus Wheat Elymus virginicus Agropyron richard- snni. Wheat Agropi/ron oecidentale Wheat Af/ropi/ron tenerum .. Wheat do Barley Aqropiiron tenerum . . Wheat Barlev Oats .". Rve Wheat Rye Barley Agropyron tenerum .. Agrop >/ronocc id en tale Wheat Barley. Wheat. Barlev. Wheat. Barley Rye Oats Elymus canadensis glaucifolius. Elymus virginicus Elymus virgin i cus muticus. Elymus inlermedius. . Agropyron tenerum . . Agropyron oeciden- tale. Period of incu- bation in days. 10 10 11 11 U 11 6 6 12 8 8 16 16 16 16 18 18 18 18 15 21 21 10 10 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 Result. Success. Do. Do. Do. Do. Failure. Success, a Do. Failure. Success. (ft) Failure, c Success. Do. (d) Failure. Do. Do. Do. Do. Success. Do. c Do. Do. Do. Do./ Do. Failure. Do. Success. 14 [ Failure. 14 I Do. Do. Do. Do. aPustules differ in color from the original. bl pustule only. "Conditions very unfavorable, however. rt Apparently 1 pustule formed. e Rust changes color and form of pustule. / Rust changes color, 16 INVESTIGATIONS OF RUSTS. Tablk I. — ( 'allure experiments ivilh black stem ruM of Agropyron and Elymus — Continued. Date. Locality. Origin of inoculating material. Plant inoculation. Period of incu- bation in days. Result. Feb. 11,1898.... Do Lincoln, Xebr do Elymus virglnicus do Elymus virgivicus Elymus virginicus viuticus. Elymus canadensis glaucifnlius. Agropyron tencrum . . . Agropyron occidcn- talc. Rye 13 13 13 13 13 13 13 7 U 9 Succes.s. Do. Do do do Do. D(i do do do. Do. Do do Failure. Do ...do do Do. Do do . ...do Wheat Do. Feb ''1 1898 do Wheat (originally Elymus canadensis glaucijolius) . do Elymus canadensis.. . Hordeum jubatum Wheat Succos.'i. a Full "'.'i 1898 do Do. Feb.'->8,-1898.... .do Elymus canadensis glaucifolius. Do. 6 a Pustules differ in color from the original. b Rust changes in appearance. The result.s of these experiments, considered in connection with those recorded in Bulletin No. 16, Division of Vegetable Physiolog-y and Patholog-y, U. S. Department of Agriculture, appear to establish two things, viz, (1) that the forms of black stem rust on wheat, barley, Ilordeum juhatum^ Agropyron teneriim^ A. richardsoni^ Elymus cana- densis, and E. canadensis glaucifolius are identical, with the proba- bilit}^ that those on Elymus virginicus, E. virginicus muticus, and Holcus lanatus^'' should be included; (2) that the black stem rust of Ag7x>pyron occidentale^ is physiologically distinct from anjr other.'' A very interesting phenomenon in these experiments was the change in color and form of sorus of the rust produced by a transference to another host. In some cases after a transfer the rust w^as scarce!}^ recog- nized. The change of color was sometimes from a bright yellow to a deep brown or orange, or the reverse. The uredo of Agro])yron tene- r II III, for example, was often very yellow on the leaves, but changed to brown when transferred to w heat. On the species of Elymus the rust has a brown, wax}' appearance, and the teleutospores long remain cov- ered by the epidermis of the host. "On January 5, 1900, quite successful infections on wheat were made with tlie uredospores of black stem rust of this ho.«t. ''Probal)ly the most correct name of this host, which is known also as Agropyron spicaium and A. glaunn (See Hitchcock, "Note on Nomenclature," Science, vol. 17, pp. 827-828, May 2t^, -J03.) 'The form on this host was described as a distinct species, named Piicrinia a(/ro}>yri, by Ellis and Everhart, in Journal of Mycology, Vol. VII, p. 131, March 10, 1892, a fact not noticed by the writer until after most of these experiments were made. This species includes Mddium dernatidis D. C. according to Doctor Dietel, the proof of relationship being the result of culture experiments. (Oesterr. Bot. Zeitschr., No. 8, 1892.) ORANGE LEAF RUST OF A(;K0PYK(>N AND ELYMHS. 17 Orange Leaf Rust of Acjropyron and Elymus. In the following- table arc siinimarizod the results of inoculations with the uredoforni of this rust. They were carried on siniultancously with tiiose of the l)lack stem rust, and the niatm-ial was taken chiefiy from the same individual host plants. Tamlk II. — Culture crperimenls ivilh urainji' leaf rust of Agrniijiron and Klm-Mn'. Date. Dec. 21, 1890.. Do Jfin.7, 1.H97... Do Feb. 1,1897... Do Feb. 13,1897.. Do Do Feb. 20, 1897. Do Do Do , Mar. 30,1897. Do , Nov. 3, 1897 . , Do Do Do Jan. 5, 1898.. Do Mar. 4, 189S. Do Localitv. Wa.shingtoii, D. (' . do.. do -do. .do . .do . .do. Mar. 12, 1898. Do Do do do do do do do do do Manhattan, Kans. do do do Lincoln, Nebr do Origin of inoculating material. Kye.... do. do. do. do. do. Wheat . Plant inoculated. Period of incu- bation in days. Do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do. .do do do Rye . ..;.do do do do do do do do do do do F.I 11 III UK virt/hiK'iin.. . Ell/Ill ».s ruiia(lengi!< fjtaud/oUiis. Wheat do do Eli/mus amcricaiius . . Kye Kli/mus vin/inictts Rye J-fli/muH virijinicux Rye Agropiirim ricliani- noni. Wheat Rye Af/rnpi/roii teneruiii. . . TrUicum vill(»itim Elymus canade)i! Ki 12 12 13 13 18 18 18 12 12 12 12 2(i 26 9 9 9 9 21 21 18 l.S II II 14 11 Kcsult. Failure. Success. Failure. Succe.'^s. Failure. Success. Failure. Success. Failure. Do. Do. Do. Success. Failure. Success. Failure. Do. Do. Success. Do. Failure. Do. Do. Success. Failure. Do. Do. The chief conclu.sion to be derived from the results of these cultures is that the orange leaf rust is very sharply limited in its host adap- tation and differs widely in this respect from the black stem rust. Similar results are given in Bulletin No. 16 of the Division of Vege- table Physiology and Pathology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, for cultures of the forms on wheat and rye. In fact, it is (^uite proba- ble that almost every distinct host species bears a distinct form of the rust. One of these forms on Elyjnus virginicus L. has recently been found by Doctor Arthur to be connected with the ^Ecidium on Tuqm- tiens atirea Muhl. and is now to be known as Puccinla impatientis (Schw.) Arth. ' Black Stem Rust of Agrostis alba vulgaris. Culture experiments with the uredoform of this rust and observa- tions in the tield indicate that it is distinct and does not occur on other " Botanical Gazette, vol. 35, pp. 18-19, January, 1903. 27787— No. 63—04 2 18 INVESTIGATIONS OF RUSTS. hosts." The rosiilts of the culture experiments are given in the follow- in i>- table: Tablk III. — Culture experiments tvith Idark stem rust of Agrostis alba vulgaris. Date. Lociilit}-. Origin of inoculating material. Plant inoculated. Period of incu- bation in days. Result. Dec. 23,1897... Do Lincoln, Nebr do Agrostis alba vulgaris. do Agrostis alba vulgaris. Wheat 8 8 8 12 12 14 Success. Failure. Do .....do do Oats Do. Jan. 24, 1898... do do Wheat Do. Do . .do .do Oats Do. Feb. 11, 1898.. . .do Elymus canadensis glaucifolius. Agrostis alba vulgaris. Do. The rust is evident!}^ of the black stem rust group {Pucclnla graminis of authors), but contains quite a number of abnormal teleutospores, including mesospores. Many measurements of these spores average 27-54 by 16-23yM, mostly 40-46 by 16-18yM. Rust of Chloris {Puccmia cJiloridln Diet.). The uredoform of this rust is sometimes verv abundant on Chloris vertlc'illata in the Great Plains region, occurring in late summer and autumn. The sori are deep l)rown in color. The uredospores germi- nate very freely and easily. In a number of experiments made in 1898 it was found that the uredo on C. vertiGiUata and 0. elegans would readily transfer from either host to the other, but not to other grasses, in several cases which were attempted. In a wat«h-glass cul- ture, made March 18, 1898, of uredospores from C. elegans^ produced from artificial infection in a greenhouse, not only these spores germi- nated freely, but a number of newly formed teleutospores at the same time, an occurrence unusual except in the Lepto-uredinew. Among thousands of cultures made by the writer only one other instance of this kind has occurred. In the summer of 1895 at the Biological Lab- oratory at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, both teleutospores and uredospores taken from the same sorus of a rust on Luzula caiwpestris gave good germinations.'' Rusts of Willow and Cottonwood (Melampsora). Both the uredospores and teleutospores of the rusts of willow and Cottonwood germinate readily, the germ tubes of the latter containing alwa3^s brilliant endochrome. Health}^ leaves of either cottonwood or willow placed in a damp chamber have often been infected by the « Arthur describes culture experiments made by his assistant, WilUam Stuart, in July, 1898, in which wheat plants were infected with uredospores from this host, but the spores of the infection sori were larger than those of the original material. (Bui. Lab. Nat. Hist. State Univ. Iowa, vol. 4, No. 4, pp. 396-397, 1898.) '^The species was, without much doubt, Pucdiiia obscura Schroet. WINTER kksistancp: of the ukedo. 19 writi'i ill nine to twelve days. The incubation period is iniieli short- ened 1)V usino- o-erniinatinj;- spores in the inoculations. In the month of October, at Manhattan, Kans., an infection was produced in this way in three days. It was attempted by numerous inoculations with the uredoform, chielly at Washington, D. C, to transfer the rust from willow to Cot- tonwood and the reverse, but always without success. An interesting feature of theso experiments was the discovery of the fact that the Cottonwood most common in Washington, known as South Carolina poplar, could not be infected by the uredoform from the conuuon Western cottonwood, though these two poplars are classed by some as being the same species. Moreover, the rust does not occur in nature on the South Carolina poplar, but is very abundant on the Western cottonwood, and even occurs in Washington on the few indivitlual trees of that type growing in the city. WINTER RESISTANCE OF THE UREDO. In another bulletin" the writer has given in detail the ol)servations and culture experiments proving the successful wintering of the uredo in the orange leaf rust of both wheat and rj^e. In this connection it is easy to see a number of closely correlated facts, which may mutually explain each other: (1) As shown under the preceding topic, the uredo of black stem rust may infect a number of different hosts, and there- fore has a manifoldly greater chance of propagation with the same number of uredospores than if there were but one possible host; (2) as also shown, the uredo of orange leaf rust is restricted in eyery case to but one host, or at most to but one genus, and a much greater produc- tion of uredospores is therefore necessary for the life of the species in this stage; (3) as a corresponding matter of fact it is well known that the uredo of the latter rust exists usually in very much larger quantity than that of the former; (i) on the other hand, the teleuto- sporic stage is the prevailing form of the stem rust, which fact makes this rust usually the more damaging of the two, as the teleutospores infest the steni chielly, thus more directly interfering in plant nutri- tion; (5) the stem rust is proyed to be connected with the barberry rust, thus giving it an additional chance for increased propagation, and this through the medium of the teleuto stage instead of the uredo; (6) finally, the uredo being the prevailing form of the leaf rust, and no secidial form being known in this country,^ it would seem necessary that this stage of that rust should be yery hardy in order to endure extremes of cold and drought and preserve the life of the species. Previous investigations of the writer and others have amply proved that this is the case. In the meantime it is found that in other species «Cereal Rusts of the United States, Bui. 16, Div. Veg. Phys. and Path., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 21-23, and 44, 45. & Except in the case of the form on Elymus virginicus already mentioned. 20 INVESTIGATIONS OF BUSTS. there exists a similar hardiness of the urcdo, of which cases the fol- lowing- will be discussed here: Uredo of Kentucky Bluegrass Rust {Puccmia poariim Niels.). The writer has known for some time that the uredo stage of the blue- grass rust is able to pass the winter alive and in g-erminating condition during- any season as far north as Lincoln, Nebr., but additional evi- dence has been obtained from time to time. At the same time it is sii^- niticant that there is no record that the teleutospores have ever been found, except in one instance, at the above-named place. In fact, few, if any, uredoforms so hardy as this one exist in this country. On February 1, 1893, this uredo was still alive in the vicinity of Man- hattan, kans. Every month of the year it exists alive and growing in great abundance everywhere about Washington, D. C. On March 2, 1898, it was found fresh on green leaves of the host at Lincoln, Nebr. On the same spot of ground it was still growing and spreading rapidly on May 8 of the same year. Host plants were transplanted that day into a greenhouse, where the rust continued to increase rapidly. As would now be supposed, the rust is sharply limited to its one host, Kentucky bluegrass. The results of the following cultures may be given in evidence. Table IV. — CuHure cxperimeitls (dlh the lurdo af Kenlurhj bluegrass. Date. Locality. Origin of inoculat- ing material. Plant inoculated. Period of incu- bation in day.s. Result. Jan. 10,1893.... Do Jlanhattan, Kans . do Poapmtensis do Wheat 18 18 16 11 11 13 13 18 10 Failure. Oats Do. Dec. 21, 1896.... Ian •'•' 1897 Washington, D. C. do Rye (Uredo rubigo- vera). Wheat ( Uredo gra- minis). do Poa pralcn^is do Do. Do. Do do Poa nemnraUs Do. Feb. 1,1897 do Rye ( Uredo ridngo- vera). do Poa pratensU Poa ncmoralis Poa i)raten)