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Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

Bulletin No. 379 July. 1941

Trace Metals and Total Nutrients
in Human and Cattle Foods

By E. B. Holland and W. S. Ritchie

This information concerning the composition of various plant materials is
p/ovided because of the very general interest in the nutritional function of certain
trace elements.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

TRAcfE METALS AND TOTAL NUTRIENTS

IN HUMAN AND CATTLE FOODS

By E. B. Holland, Research Professor, and W. S. Ritchie, Professor of

Chemistry

Foods have been a subject for investigation by the Massachusetts Experiment
Station ever since its organization, and comprise a wide range of products. Re-
cently the determination of trace metals, supposed to have a functional activity
in assimilation and possibly some therapeutic value, has received major atten-
tion. As natural food products are in themselves responsive in assimilation and
growth to seasonal, cultural, and other environmental conditions, the problem
becomes somewhat involved.

Collection and Preparation of Samples

Numerous samples of fruits and vegetables were obtained from the State Col-
lege and vicinity and many vegetables from the Waltham Field Station and east-
ern market gardeners. Similar samples were secured from other sections and in
addition cereals, nuts, processed human foods, and cattle feeds. Duplicates in
succeeding years served to check variability in some measure. All samples were
expected to be mature, marketable products in prime condition for use, but some
failed to meet these requirements. Immature and overripe products vary appre-
ciably in proximate constituents but to a less extent in trace metals. The type
and rapidity of growth are also factors influencing composition. Respiratory
changes in some fruits and vegetables during transportation and storage affect
composition at the expense of the carbohydrates.

The samples were culled as in household practice, washed if necessary, com-
minuted, and dried in an electrically heated oven in a strong current of warm air
(about 50° C). Under such treatment the tissue sets quickly with a minimum of
deterioration in fat and carbohydrates. Many of the early samples were pared
or scraped but the practice was largely discontinued later. The dried samples
were ground to a 1 mm. sieve and preserved in glass containers for subsequent
analysis.

Basis of Analysis

Most fruits and vegetables contain from 80 to 96 percent of water at maturity
but lose rapidly on exposure. These foods are frequently marketed fresh, frozen,
canned, or dried. On the other hand, most cereal products, navy beans, nuts,
oil meals, and other industrial by-products are substantially air-dry when market-
ed. With such a range in moisture content, dry matter offers the most equitable
basis for comparison. Pro.ximate constituents are reported in percentage and
trace metals in parts per million.

As previously stated, most fruits and vegetables are high in moisture when
received by the consumer in fresh condition but lose water on exposure in harvest-
ing and in transportation and storage. The amount of loss will, of course, vary
with the character of the product and subsequent treatment. Generally the
dry matter will range from 5 to 20 percent. Comparatively few contain less than
5 percent, but others having a long ripening period or suffering undue e.xposure
will contain more than 20 percent of dry matter. Any arbitrary percentage

TRACE METALS IN FOODS 3

derived from a single sample or a small group has little significance. For those
desiring comparable data on the fresh product, the factors .05, .10, .15, and .20
may be applied to the results published for materials containmg 95, 90, 85, and
80 percent of moisture.

Classification of Food Products

For comparative purposes the samples have been grouped according to the
nature of the product and its use as a food. The determination of the proximate
constituents was a secondary objective but serves to show to what extent sub-
stitution may be feasible. The following classification was employed. The
botanical classification used is that of Albert F. Hill.i

Major Fruits — large fruits such as apples and peaches

Minor Fruits— berries

Vegetables

Garden Fruits — pumpkins, squash, melons, etc.
String Beans
Peas and Shell Beans

Leaf and Stem — spinach, lettuce, celery, cabbage, onions, etc.
Root — beet, turnip, radish, carrot, potato, etc.
Cereals, low fiber — without hulls or with hulls removed
Cereals, high fiber — with hulls, as oats
Nuts

Processed Human Foods — breakfast foods
Cattle Feeds, low protein
Cattle Feeds, medium to high protein
Roughage

Kitchen Waste — fruits and vegetables
Miscellaneous
With the elimination of water, most natural and processed foods contain
from 50 to 90 percent or more of soluble or easily digested carbohydrates (sugars
and starch). Exception will be noted later. Appreciable amounts of protein
occur in some members of most groups. Fat is a minor constituent except in
one group. Fiber is present in nearly all plant foods and tends to increase in
most instances with maturity and overripe stages of growth.

The soluble ash constituents of natural foods vary with environmental condi-
tions and feeding ability of the plant. The insoluble ash (largely silica) is due
frequently to the retention of soil particles in the interstices of the leaves. When
the amount exceeds 0.50 percent, the determination of trace metals may be
vitiated.

Metliods Employed

The following analytical methods were employed: moisture was determined
by drying in a vacuum oven at 50° C to constant weight; protein (N x 6.25),
by the Kjeldahl-Gunning method with salicylic acid; fat, by extraction with
anhydrous ethyl ether; fiber, by the Official Method for Grain and Stock Feeds^;
and ash, by incineration in an electric mufifle below visible redness (about 500'^ C).
By acid extraction, the crude ash was resolved into two carbon-free portions,
soluble and insoluble.

'Economic Botany. 1st Ed. 592 pp. McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1937.
'A. O. A. C. Methods of Analysis, 4th Ed. pp. 340-341. 1935.

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TRACE METALS IN FOODS 5

Nutrients in Dry Matter

Although based on a limited number of samples, the analytical data seem to
warrant the followmg deductions. The major fruits are notable primarily for
their high carboh^'drate content. The berries average considerably lower in
carbohydrates and contain more protein, fat (wax), and fiber. The Rubus
varieties are relatively high in crude fiber. The garden fruits, as a whole, contain
more protein and ash than the fruits previously considered, with the exception
of the pumpkin, winter squash, and muskmelon.

The beans and peas, in common with most leguminous crops, contain con-
siderable protein, and some varieties of soybeans are high in fat.

The leaf and stem vegetables constitute one of the most diversified groups.
Wide variations in composition occur in the same variety grown under different
environmental conditions. Onions, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, and lettuce
frequently contain 50 percent or more of nitrogen-free extract, and the quality,
in some instances at least, appears to increase with the percentage. Onions are
low in protein, while leaf greens, celery, and lettuce are fairly high in protein
and ash, and asparagus in protein. Most root vegetables are high in carbohy-
drates, with mangels and radish containing more than average amounts of protein
and ash.

The cereals of low fiber content are similar to the root vegetables in total
extract, although this is more largely starch. The other cereals reflect a higher
fiber content. The nuts, including the peanut, are unlike any other group and
contain a very high percentage of fat.

Processed human foods resemble the cereals from which many are derived.
The cattle feeds are industrial by-products and vary with the original substances
and subsequent treatment.

Forage plants, fed green or dry to farm animals, are naturally high in fiber and
ash and when cut early contain considerable protein, especially in the case of
leguminous forage.

Trace Metals in Dry Matter

Innumerable determinations of the more prominent inorganic elements in
plant products have been reported in the literature during the past few decades.
These results were obtained largely by the gravimetric methods then in vogue.
More recently, with the introduction of the so-called microchemical or colorimetric
methods, the determination of the rarer mineral elements has received con-
siderable impetus. The results herein reported were determined exclusively by
colorimetric methods based on visual readings with a Duboscq Comparator.
In the preparation of solutions, wet combustion was found more serviceable,
more rapid, less subject to contamination, and of wider application than dry
combustion when many samples are invohed. Dry combustion was used for
the determination of zinc, but later investigation has shown that with a pre-
liminary treatment the regular sulfuric acid solution can be employed. Iron
was determined by the thiocyanate reaction; copper, by sodium diethyl dithio-
carbamate reagent and extraction with carbon tetrachloride; zinc, by diphenylthio-
carbazone reagent and extraction with carbon tetrachloride; manganese, by
periodate oxidation; and phosphorus, as molybdenum blue. The methods are
presented in some detail on pages 24-31.

Many practitioners and dietitians assume that foodstufTs containing appre-
ciable amounts of these elements may serve as curative or at least preventive
agents in cases of malnutrition and functional derangements. Furthermore some

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 379

workers believe that these elements as components of plant and animal tissue
are more efficient than drugs and unquestionably safer to employ.

The factors that affect synthesis of proteins, fat, carbohydrates, and fiber
may play a somewhat similar role in the assimilation and utilization of ash and
ash constituents as all groups are more or less interdependent; but the available
supply of soil nutrients appears to be more of a limiting factor in ash assimilation
than selective absorption.

Distribution of Ash Constituents

The soluble ash is a measure of plant assimilation but not of the distribution
of its constituents. As previously stated, seasonal and environmental conditions,
soil, fertilization, cultural treatment, etc., and the feeding ability of the plant
are all factors, but to a considerable extent uncontrollable. The garden fruits
exceed the major and minor fruits in ash content, followed by root and leaf and
stem vegetables. The remaining groups except some cattle feeds and roughage
are low in ash.

Iron is the most abundant of the trace metals determined and in some instances
seems to parallel the soluble ash. The amount increased from fruits and cereals
to root vegetables, leaf and stem vegetables, cattle feeds, and roughage.

Copper is apparently not present to any great extent in most soils or at least
is not available, as the amount assimilated by plants varied from 4 to 40 parts
per million.

The amount of manganese in foods exceeds copper. It is of similar distribution
but more variable. Two grams of material in many instances will yield only a
bare trace of manganic acid.

A few results on zinc are also reported. These were determined by the
original method and may be slightly low in some instances because of incomplete
recovery of the zinc from the ash. The amount of zinc in most samples
exceeds that of copper and occasionally even that of manganese. The results are
inadequate, however, for any generalization.

The amount of phosphorus in most natural and processed foods is relatively
high as compared with the metals so far reported, generally' ranging from 200 to
16,000 parts per million, the main portion of which occurs in organic combination
with the protein and ether-soluble bodies. The phosphorus content appears to
increase from the major fruits to the minor fruits, root vegetables, cereals, rough-
age, leaf and stem vegetables, and cattle feeds.

The analyses show that trace metals are subject to a greater range than the
nutrients (proximate analysis). The differences in composition between members
of the same group and even between samples of the same variety are so large
that a generalization or trend is about all that is permissible.

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24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 379

COLORIMETRIC METHODS EMPLOYED

As has been stated, colorimetric methods were employed for the determination
of the mineral elements, based on visual readings with a color comparator with
filters, such as a Duboscq. These instruments are subject to personal error and
are less satisfactory than a spectrophotometer but were the only apparatus
available.

The fundamental theory underlying the use of "Colorimeters" to obtain maxi-
mum sensitivity is acknowledged by most analysts but is not properly observed
in practice. It requires a preknowledge of the transmission curve of the solute
under examination and the selection of a filter (complementary) having its
highest transmission in the spectral region where the solute exhibits maximum
absorption. Such narrow band color filters, however, are relatively dense and
their use is precluded in some instances by their inability to transmit sufficient
rays (monochromatic) for accurate measurement from the light provided. This
necessitates a filter of wider band and of less selectivity with probably some
sacrifice in accuracy.

The color filters recommended in the text are based on actual determinations
made by P. A. Clifford and A. K. Klein of the Food and Drug Administration
on the different colored solutions employed for trace metals. The Corning Glass
Works supplies the various units necessar}' for the combined filters.

The so-called C. P. chemicals used in the analyses have occasionally proved a
source of trouble. For instance, iron has been found in the mineral acids in
appreciable amounts and copper in the citric acid. Some lots of potassium
thiocyanate failed to produce a stable color with iron, and potassium periodate
to oxidize manganese salts to manganic acid. One lot of ammonium molybdate
was largely insoluble, and amino-naphthol-sulfonic acid gave rise to a precipitate
in the phosphate solution, etc. In some cases purification was possible, but in
others replacement was the only solution.

The methods are based on well-known reactions and have proved entirely
satisfactory in the hanas of many workers in this laboratory over a long period
of time. Many new processes have appeared in the literature within recent
years, but there appears to be no particular advantage in their adoption.

Preparation of Ash Solutions
Wet Combustion

Reagents

Sulfuric acid, sp. gr. 1.84, 95%.

Nitric acid, sp. gr. L42, 70%.

Water redistilled from glass.

The acids should be free from all elements under determination, as results cor-
rected for impurities are less dependable. Perchloric acid, ammonium persulfate,
and other oxidizing agents are occasionally employed but are seldom necessary.

Method

Transfer 10 grams of finely ground (1 mm.) air-ory material to a 500 ml.
Kjeldahl flask, add 8 to 10 glass beads (6 mm.) and concentrated nitric acid, drop
by drop, from a separatory funnel until frothing ceases and the organic matter is
largely disintegrated. Add 20 to 25 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid, heat over
a low flame, and continue the addition of nitric acid until the solution becomes
colorless.

Cool, add 25 ml. of water, and boil until the nitric acid has been expelled.
Cool, add 200 ml. of water, shake occasionally, and allow to stand over night.

TRACE METALS IN FOODS 25

Transfer to a 500 ml. volumetric flask, make to volume at 25° C, filter, and
determine the ash constituents in various aliquots. Such solutions will stand a
year without discoloration.

With milk, fruit juices, and other liquid products, 100 grams are generally
employed.

Determination of Iron

Reagefits

Standard iron solution. — Dry reagent iron wire free from surface oxidation i
and dust, transfer 2 grams (about 21.4 feet) to a volumetric flask, add about
200 ml. of water, 50 ml. of sulfuric acid (1-1), and 5 ml. of concentrated nitric
acid. Boil until solution is complete and the nitrous oxide expelled, cool, and
make to 2000 ml. at 25° C. One ml. contains 0.0010 gram of iron.

Dilute iron solution. — To 20 ml. of the standard iron solution add 200 ml. of
sulfuric acid (1-1) and sufficient water at 25° C to make 2000 ml. One ml. contains
0.00001 gram of iron.

Potassium thiocyanate solution, KCNS. 400 grams per 2000 ml. (Occasional
lots will not produce a stable color.)

Nitric acid, 5%. — Boil 100 ml. of colorless concentrated nitric acid in 500 ml.
of water, cool, and make to 2000 ml.

Method

Transfer an aliquot (25 ml.) of the original ash solution containing about
0.0001 gram (0.02-0.60 mg.) of iron to a 50 ml. volumetric flask, add 5 ml. of
dilute nitric acid, mix, and allow to stand over night. Add 10 ml. of potassium
thioc>anate, make to volume, and mix thoroughly. Compare the color, Fe(CNS)3,
in a Duboscq, using a blue color filter (spectral centroid about 465 millimicrons),
against 10 ml. of dilute iron solution treated in exactly the same manner.

sR

% = X 200 for 0.50 gram (F)

Ri

0.02R

p.p.m.

Ri

200R

"rT

s=grams ol standard employed.
R=^scale reading at which the standard was set.
R.=scale reading of the unknown.
F^lactor for converting the aliquot to percentage or p.p.m.

The limit of error between parallel solutions should not exceed 0.00020%
or 2 p.p.m.

Determination of Copper

Reagents

Standard copper solution. — Dry reagent electrolytic copper foil (0.002") free
from surface oxidation' and dust, transfer 2 grams (about 6 square inches) to a
volumetric flask, add 200 ml. of water, 50 ml. of sulfuric acid (1-1), and 10 ml. of
concentrated nitric acid. Boil until solution is complete and the nitrous oxide

'Cleaned with fine crocus cloth.

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 379

expelled, cool, and make to 2000 ml. at 25° C. One ml. contains 0.001 gram of
copper.

Dilute copper solution. — To 20 ml. of the standard copper solution add 1000 ml.
of sulfuric acid (1-1) and sufficient water at 25° C. to make 2000 ml. One ml.
contains 0.00001 gram of copper.

Sodium diethyl dithiocarhamate solution. 2.5 grams per 1000 ml.

/S-Na

^N = (C2H5)2

Ammonium citrate solution, Q.SM. (NH4)2HC6H507.

Dissolve 226.2 grams of diammonium citrate or 210.1 grams of citric acid in water,
add ammonmm hydroxide until alkaline to litmus, and make to 2000 ml. Transfer
250 ml. to a 1000 ml. glass-stoppered pear-shaped separatory funnel, add an
excess of diphenylthiocarbazone (dithizone) solution (usually 3, 2, and 1 ml.
respectively), and shake out with three 25 ml. portions of carbon tetrachloride
to a green color. Discard the solvent laj^ers and filter the aqueous portions
through washed ashless paper.

Ammonium hydroxide, concentrated.

Nitric acid, concentrated.

Carbon tetrachloride, reagent or redistilled.

Method

Evaporate an aliquot (100 ml.) of the original ash solution containing about
0.00005 gram (0.01-0.30 mg.) of copper, together with 10 ml. of concentrated
nitric acid, in a 150 ml. Griffin beaker on a steam bath. Wash down the sides of
the beaker with 10 ml. of water, add concentrated ammonium hydroxide until
alkaline to litmus, and cool. Transfer the solution to a 500 ml. glass-stoppered
separatory funnel (pear-shaped with a short delivery tube), and wash to a volume
of about 85 ml. Add a few drops of ammonmm hydroxide in excess, 10 ml. of
ammonmm citrate, 5 ml. of carbamate solution, and mix. Add 10 ml. of carbon
tetrachloride (measured carefully), stopper the separatory funnel, shake for about
2 minutes, and allow to layer. Wipe the delivery tube with filter paper, rinse
with a few drops of the carbon tetrachloride solution containing the colored
copper salt (brownish-yellow), then draw off the remainder through a small
coarse filter (to remove traces of moisture) into a weighing bottle, and stopper to
prevent evaporation.

Precautions. — If iron is precipitated on the addition of ammonium hydroxide,
which frequently occurs with soils, dried blood, etc., centrifuge the precipitate
and decant the clear solution into the separatory funnel. Wash the precipitate
twice with water containing a few drops of ammonia, centrifuge and decant, then
proceed as usual. The carbon tetrachloride seldom forms an emulsion on shaking
out the test, but this has been observed several times on the determination of
blanks.

Compare the color in a Dubosq, using micro cups and a blue color filter (spectral
centroid about 435 millimicrons), against 5 ml. of dilute copper solution treated
in exactly the same manner. In hot weather the rapid evaporation of the carbon
tetrachloride in the cups necessitates a frequent change of standard.

TRACE METALS IN FOODS 27

%■■

sR
= -— X 50 for 2

0.0025R
Ri

grams

(F)

p.p.

.m. =

25 R
Ri

s=grams of the standard employed.
R=scale reading at which the standard was set.
Ri^scale reading of the unknown.
F=factor for converting the aliquot to percentage or p. p.m.

The limit of error between parallel solutions should not exceed 0.00010%

or 1 p. p.m.

Determination of Manganese

Reagents

Standard sodium oxalate solution. — -Dry sodium oxalate (Soerensen's), transfer
0.3050 gram to a volumetric flask, dissolve in water, and make to 1000 ml. at
25° C. Unstable, use a fresh solution.

Potassium permanganate solution. — Dry reagent potassium permanganate
0.2877 grami per 2000 ml. at 25° C. One ml. contains 0.00005 gram of manganese.
Potassium periodate, KIO^ (G. Frederick Smith Chem. Co.).
Nitric acid, concentrated.

Sulfuric acid, 2 N, 9.26%. 110 ml. per 2000 ml.

Sulfuric acid, 1-1.

Standardization of Manganese Solution

5Na2C2O4+2KMnO4+8H2SO4 = 2MnSO4+5Na2SO4+K2SO4 + 10CO2+8H2O

5 X 134.014 : 2 x 158.026 :: 0.30497 : 0.14385 potassmm permanganate

5 X 134.014 : 2 x 54.93 :: 0.30497 : 0.05 manganese in 1000 ml.

Titrate the potassium permanganate against 10 ml. of standard sodium oxalate
solution to which has been added 5 ml. of 2 N sulfuric acid in a 150 ml. Erlenmeyer
flask at 80° C to a faint pink that will persist for about 1 minute.

KMn04 titer : 10 :: 0.05 : X actual manganese in 1000 ml.

Method

Evaporate an aliquot (100 ml.) of the original ash solution containing about
0.00025 gram (0.04-1.5 mg.) of manganese, together with 10 ml. of concentrated
nitric acid, in a 150 ml. Griffin beaker on a steam bath. Wash down the sides
of the beaker with 10 ml. of water, cover with a watch glass, and heat on a steam
bath. Add from 0.2 to 0.5 gram of potassium periodate and continue the heating
until the pink color develops (2 hours). ^

2MnS04+5KI04+3H20 = 2HMn04+5KI03+2H2S04.

Cool, filter through a sugar tube with a glass wool and asbestos felt into a
50 ml. volumetric flask (glass-stoppered) containing a small amount of periodate,
and wash nearly to volume. Stopper the flask and again heat on the steam bath
to develop the maximum color (2 hours). Cool, make to volume, and mix.

Compare the color in a Dubosq, using a green color filter (spectral centroid
about 515 millimicrons) when the amount of manganese is appreciable, against

'Preferably 0..^0 gram to allow for impurities and slight decomposition. Filter through porous
glass or asbestos to remove insoluble matter.

^The presence of hydrochloric acid vitiates the results.

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 379

5 ml. of potassium permanganate solution treated in exactly the same manner
after the addition of 5 ml. of sulfuric acid (1-1). For traces of manganese, discard
the color filter and use the white porcelain surface and a more dilute standard.

sR

%= X 50 for 2 grams (F)

Ri

0.01 25R

Ri

125R

p.p.ni.

Ri

s=erams of the standard employed.
R=sca!e reading at which the standard was set.
Ri=scale reading of the unknown.
F=factor for converting the aliquot to percentage or p. p.m.

The limit of error between parallel solutions should not exceed 0.00010%
or 1 p.p.m.

Determination of Phosphorus
(Modified Fiske and Subbarow)

Reagents

Standard phosphate solution. — Dry monopotassium phosphate (Soerensen's),
transfer 0.8786 gram to a volumetric flask, add water, 25 ml. of 10 N sulfuric
acid, and make to 2000 ml. at 25° C. One ml. contains 0.00010 gram of phosphorus.

Ammonium molybdate solution, 2.50%. — Dissolve 50 grams of ammonium
molybdate (NH4)6Mo7024.4H20 in 400 ml. of water and pour slowly with
agitation into 1000 ml. of 10 N sulfuric acid and make to 20C0 ml.

1 Amino-2 naphtholA sulfonic acid solution, 0.10%. — Dissolve 1 gram^ of the
purified compound in a mixture of 975 ml. of 15% anhydrous sodium bisulfite
and 25 ml. of 20% anhj'drous sodium sulfite, and filter into an amber bottle.
In some instances an additional 1 or 2 ml. of sodium sulfite may be necessary to
insure complete solution. The solution is unstable but is serviceable for several
weeks if protected from heat and light.

Sodium bisulfite, anhydrous, 15% 150 grams per 1000 ml.

Unstable, use a fresh solution.

Sodium sulfite, anhydrous, 20%. 20 grams per 100 ml.

Sulfuric acid, 10 N, 38.21%. 564 ml. per 2000 ml.

Purification of 1 amino-2 naphtholA sulfonic acid

Prepare a solution of 150 grams of anhydrous sodium bisulfite and 5 grams of
anhydrous sodium sulfite in 1000 ml. of water and heat to 90° C. Add 15 grams
of amino-naphthol-sulfonic acid, shake until dissolved, and filter with suction
to remove impurities. Cool the filtrate, add 10 ml. of concentrated hydrochloric
acid, and allow to stand over night in a refrigerator to precipitate. Filter through
a Buchner funnel, wash thrice with cold water and twice with cold alcohol, dry
in a vacuum oven at room temperature, and preserve in an amber glass-stoppered
bottle.

Method

Transfer an aliquot (10 ml.) of the original ash solution containing about
0.0005 gram (0.08-3.00 mg.) of phosphorus into a 100 ml. volumetric flask, dilute

'The recent product proved more reactive than formerly; hence less is employed.

TRACE METALS IN FOODS 29

to about 70 ml., add 10 ml. of ammonium molybdate solution, mix, add 5 ml. of
amino-naphthol-sulfonlc acid solution, make to volume, mix thoroughly, and
allow to stand about 10 minutes to develop its maximum color (molybdenum
blue, MoaOe). Cold or strongly acid solutions react slowly.

Compare the color in a Dubosq, using an orange color filter (spectral centroid
about 645 millimicrons), against 5 ml. of standard phosphate solution treated in
exactly the same manner.

^ sR

%=-- x 500 for 0.20 gram (F)
Ri

0.25R
Ri

2500R
p.p.m.

Ri

s^grams of the standard employed.
R=scale reading at which the standard was set.
Ri=scale reading of the unknown.
F^actor for converting the ahquot to percentage or p.p.m.

The limit of error between parallel solutions should not exceed 0.005% or
50 p.p.m.

Synopsis of Reaction
8(NH4)6Mo7024.4H20+2H3P04+21H2S04 = 2(NH4)3P04.12Mo03 +

32H2Mo04+21(NH4)2S04+24H20
3(12Mo03) +4NH2 = I2M03O8+4NO2+4H2O

Determination of Zinc

Reagents

Standard zinc solution. — Dry reagent zinc foil (0.002") free from surface oxida-
tion ^ and dust, transfer 2 grams (about 8.43 square inches) to a volumetric flask,
add about 200 ml. of water and an excess of distilled hydrochloric acid. Boil
until solution is complete, cool, and make to 2000 ml. at 25° C. One ml. contains
0.0010 grams of zinc.

Dilute zinc solution. — To 4 ml. of the standard zinc solution add sufficient water
at 25° C to make 2000 ml. One ml. contains 0.000002 gram of zinc.

Hydrochloric acid, 0.20 iV.--Distill the hydrochloric acid into cold "metal
free" water by allowing concentrated sulfuric acid to drip from a separatory
funnel into concentrated hydrochloric acid below the surface, and dilute to the
required strength at 25° C.

Ammonium hydroxide, 0.20 N. — Distill the ammonium hydroxide to about
70° C into cold "metal free" water and dilute to the required strength at 25° C.

Sodium diethyl dithiocarbamate (carbamate) solution. — 2.5 grams per 1000 ml.
Preserve in a brown bottle.

Diphenylthiocarbazone (dithtzotie) solution. — Dissolve 0.03 gram of dithizone
in 20 ml. of 0.20 N ammonium hydroxide, crushing the aggregates to facilitate
solution, and transfer to a 500 ml. pear-shaped separatory funnel with 180 ml.
of water. Shake out with 25 ml. portions of carbon tetrachloride to a green color
and discard the solvent layers. Add 45 ml. of 0.20 N hydrochloric acid, 5 ml. cf
water, and shake out with 50 ml. portions of carbon tetrachloride, filter the solvent

"Cleaned with fine crocus cloth.

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 379

layers through dry ashless paper and dilute to 200 ml. with carbon tetrachloride.
Reasonably stable in a brown bottle.

H H

I I
^^^--N-N-CeHs

\N = N— CeHs

Ammonium citrate solution, O.SM. (NH4)2HC6H507'

Dissolve 226.2 grams of diammonium citrate or 210.1 grams of citric acid in
water, add ammonium hydroxide until alkaline to litmus, and make to 2000 ml.
Transfer 250 ml. to a 1000 ml. glass-stoppered pear-shaped separatory funnel,
add an excess of dithizone solution (usually 3, 2, and 1 ml. respectively), and
shake out with three 25 ml. portions of carbon tetrachloride to a green color.
Discard the solvent layers and filter the aqueous portions through washed ashless
paper.

Carbon tetrachloride, reagent or redistilled.

Potassium cyanide solution, 10%. 50 grams per 500 ml.

Method — Dry Combustion

Transfer 2 or 4 grams of finely ground (1 mm.) air-dry material to a flat-
bottomed platinum ash dish, incinerate carefully in an electric mufifle (with the
door open), continue the heating (door closed) at 500° C (visible redness) until
a white or gray ash is obtained. If carbon persists, moisten the ash with water
to bring the particles to the surface, evaporate to dryness on a steam bath and
reheat. Transfer the ash with small portions of hot water, distilled hydrochloric
acid, and a rubber policeman to a 150 ml. Griffin beaker, add an excess of distilled
hydrochloric acid, and evaporate to dryness on a steam bath. Take up with
20 ml. of 0.20 N hydrochloric acid, heat to boiling, and transfer to a 100 ml.
volumetric flask, cool,, make to volume at 25° C. and pass through a dry filter.

Transfer 10 ml. of the ash solution containing about 0.00001 gram (0.002 to
0.025 mg.) of zinc to a 500 ml. glass-stoppered separatory funnel (pear-shaped
with a short delivery tube). Add 23 ml. of water, 7 ml. of 0.20 N ammonium
hydroxide, 10 ml. of ammonium citrate solution, 15 ml. of carbon tetrachloride,
and dithizone solution in small portions until a yellow color is imparted to the
ammoniacal aqueous solution after shaking. Shake for at least 2 minutes to
extract copper, lead, and zinc (also cobalt, cadmium, and mercury (ic) when
present). Allow the mixture to separate and draw off the solvent layer into a
second separatory funnel. Discard the ammoniacal aqueous layer, which should
be yellow and contain the non-reacting bases and acids.

To the carbon tetrachloride layer, add 45 ml. of water and 5 ml. of 0.20 N
hydrochloric acid and shake out to extract the lead and zinc as chlorideo in the
acid aqueous solution, which should be colorless, leaving the copper iu the solvent
layer which may be used for the determination of copper if desired although a
larger aliquot of the original ash solution is preferable.

To the acid aqueous solution aad 20 ml. of water, 15 ml. of 0.20 N ammonium
hydroxide, 10 ml. of ammonium citrate solution, 5 ml. of carbamate solution,
10 ml. of carbon tetrachloride, a measured quantity of dithizone solution (in
small portions) sufficient to impart a yellowish tint to the ammoniacal aqueous
solution after shaking, then additional carbon tetrachloride to a total volume of
15 ml. including that from the dithizone. A greater dilution may be necessary
for some samples when a spectrophotometer is employed. This procedure is

TRACE METALS IN FOODS 31

the so-called single color method. An excess dithizone produces a mixed color
and is preferred by some analysts.

Shake out for at least 2 minutes to extract the colored zinc salt, allow to sep-
arate, rinse the delivery tube with a few drops of the solvent layer, and draw
off the remainder through a dry ashless filter (to remove traces of moisture)
into a weighing bottle and stopper to prevent evaporation.

Compare the color in a comparator or spectrophotometer using a narrow
band green color filter (spectral centroid 515 millimicrons) against 5 ml. of dilute
zinc solution treated in exactly the same manner.

sR

%= x 250 for 0.40 gram (F)

Ri

0.0025R

Ri

25R

p. p.m. =

Ri

s=grams of the standard employed.
R=scale reading at which the standard was set.
Ri^scale reading of the unknown.
F=factor for converting the aliquot to percentage or p. p.m.

Since a small amount of zinc will frequently be found in the reagents after

., . (s + B)R
careful purification, should be substituted in the calculations and the

Ri

blank deducted.

R R S R

Example— — = R(s + B)=RiB; — = B=2.50

^ Ri s-l-B 25 10-fB

The limit of error between parallel solutions should not exceed 0.0003% or 3
p.p.m.

If due care is exercised in the manipulation, no modifications will be found
necessary such as a second shaking out with carbon tetrachloride in the three
extractions, etc. With proper color filters the mixed color method is easier to
handle.

An aliquot of a sulfuric solution prepared by wet combustion may be used for
the determination of zinc and has been found to yield similar results.

Lead may be determined in a similar manner by adding 10 ml. of potassium
cyanide solution instead of carbamate in the third extraction to inhibit the zinc.

Publication of this Document Approved by Commission on Administration and Finance
5m-8-41-7017.

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

BuUetin No. 380 October 1941

Pasture Culture in
Massachusetts

By William G. Colby

Pastures are of great economic importance in Massachusetts agriculture,
and this study represents an attempt to organize such available information as
may have a bearing on their best management.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

PASTURE CULTURE IN MASSACHUSETTS

By William G. Colby,* Research Professor of Agronomy

CONTENTS

Page Page

Introduction 2 Present-day pastures 26

The soils of Massachusetts 3 The soil 26

The soil profile 3 Soil fertility and yields 27

The influence of geology. 4 Soil fertility and feed quality 28

Influence of climate 5 Soil fertility and resistance to disease

Influence of cultivation 7 and winter injury 28

Summary 10 Factors in soil fertility maintenance . 29

Early pastures in Massachusetts 10 Fertility improvement and maintenance

Pasture plants 11 In permanent pastures 35

Pasturing in common 12 In semi-permanent pastures 37

Agricultural expansion 1700-1750; The grazing system 38

1750-1790 13 Historical 38

Importance of the grass crop to nineteenth The principles of grazing management. 39

century agriculture 15 The pasture plant 39

Pasture deterioration and exhaustion. ... 16 Permanent pasture species 40

Pasture exhaustion and land abandonment 18 Semi-permanent pasture species 40

The causes of pasture deterioration 19 Pasture seeding mixture 41

Early attempts at pasture renovation ... 20 The climate 41

Why pasture improvement failed 25 Summaiy and Conclusions 42

INTRODUCTION

Grass, for many years the foundation of the agriculture of Massachusetts, is
still one of the State's most important agricultural crops. Interest in grass and
grasslands has increased greatly in recent years not only among livestock farmers
seeking a satisfactory solution to their feed problem but also among agricultural
leaders interested in the conservation of soil resources. Certain leaders have
enthusiastically spoken of developing what they have called "a grassland agri-
culture."

However, in most of these discussions on the value of grass as a feed or as a
conserver of soil resources very little attention has been given to the requirements
of grass as a crop. Conditions have greatly changed since grass grew "spon-
taneously" in Massachusetts "even on the driest grounds." At the present time,
grass, as a crop, is no different from any other. To grow it successfully certain
cultural requirements must be met and certain rules of management must be
observed. The aim of this bulletin is to outline in general what these basic re-
quirements are and to advance insofar as is possible the fundamental reasoning
underlying these requirements.

During the three hundred years that have elapsed since the Pilgrims imported
their first cattle in 1624, manj- observations, experiences, and experiments have
been recorded concerning the pastures of Massachusetts. In an effort to assemble
all available pertinent information on grass and grassland management in Massa-
chusetts, historical as well as current sources of information were extensive^
reviewed.

For the period of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, such information
must be gleaned from the descriptive writings of early travelers and historians,
from various private records in the form of letters, diaries, and account books,
and from early colonial reports and town records. Beginning with the nine-
teenth century, the record is much more complete. Books and treatises on agri-
culture and agricultural practices were published; several agricultural periodicals
were founded; and newly organized agricultural societies in Massachusetts began
to publish their reports and proceedings. Since sheep and cattle grazing were

*The writer acknowledges with sincere appreciation helpful criticism and advice from Professor
Wm. A. Albrecht, Chairman Department of Soils, University of Missouri; John B. Abbott, Director
of Agricultural Research, American Cyanamid Company; and Wilbur J. Locke, County Agri-
cultural Agent, Hampden County, Mass.

PASTURE CULTURE 3

important industries at that time, frequent reference is made in these sources to
pastures and pasture management.

Toward the middle of the nineteenth century, the Massachusetts State Board
of Agriculture was established. This organization coordinated and greatly ex-
tended the work of the local agricultural societies. Through its annual reports,
it made public the observations and experiences cf many successful farmers, the
ideas and opinions of leading agriculturists, and the results of early experiments
in the agricultural sciences. A large amount of valuable practical information
concerning the pastures of this State was accumulated in this way, much of which
is extremely helpful to anyone working on problems associated with present-day
pastures. It is a singular fact that there are very few standard practices or
modern innovations in the field of pasture management for this section of the
country that have not been discussed in more or less detail in some of these
old reports.

While a body such as the State Board of Agriculture was able to perform the
very important task of collecting and publishing much practical information of a
general nature, it was unable to sponsor or carry on scientific research to obtain
more specific information. This need was met during the latter part of the
nineteenth century by the establishment of the agricultural experiment stations
which began to conduct detailed scientific investigations in the various sciences
associated with agriculture.

As a result of these activities, together with those of other scientific organiza-
tions, a scientific basis has been worked out for many of the soil management
practices, cultural methods, and harvesting procedures which are followed in
the production of most field crops. The pasture crop is an exception. Although
some attention has been given to pastures and to the production of pasture
herbage, this crop has never been given the consideration that it needs or merits.
The present approach is an attempt to formulate the fundamental principles of
successful pasture production in Massachusetts by integrating the general in-
formation which has accumulated from many past years' observations with
specific information obtained from researches in the different plant and soil
sciences during recent years.

THE SOILS OF MASSACHUSETTS

"... if the fundamental principles of the soil are understood, you
. . . will find their applications to practice."

The following discussion on soils, although by no means exhaustive, is neverthe-
less an endeavor to present in clear perspective some of the outstanding character-
istics and essential knowledge of the soils of Massachusetts. It is included here
in order to facilitate a better understanding of why our pasture areas have for
the main part become so badly "run out" and also to show how some of these
lands may now be best treated to restore them to their most efficient level of
productivity.

The Soil Profile

The unit now in general use for describing a soil or for comparing one soil
with another is known as the "soil profile." A soil profile may be regarded as
that portion of a vertical cross-section of earth which includes the complete
succession of soil layers or horizons from the surface down to the geological
parent material. Profile lasers are grouped under three heads: the A-horizon
corresponds roughly to the topsoil; the B-horizon to the subsoil; and the C-horizon

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

to the parent material from which the soil was derived. Perhaps at this point
it would be well to distinguish between the formation of soil material chiefly
through geological processes of weathering, and the differentiation of this material
into layers or horizons through the processes of profile development. According
to Professor G. VV. Robinson:

We must regard weathering, physical and chemical, as essentially a
geological process, fulfilled, it is true, in the superficial layers of the earth's
crust in close relationship with the soil and its processes. The develop-
ment of the soil profile must be regarded as superimposed on the geological
process of rock weathering. ^

The importance of a careful consideration of the soil profile is shown by the
following quotation, also from Robinson:

The soil profile is the significant factor in the study of relationship of
the soil to plants, not only because the profile embraces the root system of
plants growing on the soil but also because the all-important factors,
moisture and air, can be defined only in terms of the soil profile and not
in terms of the laboratory samples. It is important also because a study
of its characters can give information as to its probable behavior under
different types of management and as to its suitability for different crops.
In the soil profile we can read the past history of the soil and forecast its
future possibilities.2

Although the major characteristics of fully developed soil profiles under virgin
conditions are largely determined by climatic forces; in regions like Massachusetts,
where the soils are young and their profiles immature, other factors such as the
nature of the parent geological material exert strong modifying influences. With
soils long farmed, pronounced alterations from virgin conditions have been
brought about as a result of tillage, cropping, and fertilizer practices. Therefore,
to fully understand the nature of Massachusetts soils and to comprehend their
limitations and potentialities, the modifications resulting from human interven-
tion must be carefully considered in conjunction with the effects of climatic and
geological factors.

The Influence of Geology

Since geological factors determine the nature of the parent soil material, it
seems advisable to indicate briefly the geological background of the present land
topography of Massachusetts. Leading up to this present topography is a
long history replete with a great variety of geological activity. From the earliest
era of the geological time scale, long periods of deposition have alternated with
long periods of profound erosion. At times uplifting processes were so violent
that lofty mountain systems were raised, accompanied by much tilting and fold-
ing and subsequent faulting of rock strata. Volcanic action has also occurred
intermittently, whereby great quantities of molten igneous material were forced
up into the sedimentary strata and occasionally appeared as lava outpourings
on the surface. These mountain systems have been largely worn away so that
the present land surface of Massachusetts exemplifies well the descriptive termi-
nology often given the New England area — "a worn -down mountain region."
The removal of vast quantities of material through prolonged erosive action has
exposed a great variety of rocks of different ages and of different physical and
chemical characteristics. The great diversity in the nature of the parent rock
material from which our soils have been developed has been one factor, though
not the most important, in the formation of the many varied types of soils which
are now found in the State.

'Mother Earth — Letters on Soil (London, 1937). p. 63.
2lbid., p. 14.

PASTURE CULTURE 5

The last geological event of major significance which strongly affected the
character of Massachusetts soils was the spreading of vast ice sheets over the
whole of New England during a comparatively recent Ice Age. Great ice masses
moving over the State in a southerly direction scoured rock and soil surfaces to
carry along great quantities of heterogeneous materials ranging from fine clay
through sand and gravel to huge boulders. After the melting of the ice, these
materials were left as an irregular veneering over most of the State's surface.

According to W. J. Miller, "Most of the deposits made during the ice advance
were obliterated by ice erosion, but those formed during the ice retreat have been
left practically intact except for the small amount of post-glacial erosion."^ As a
result, the land surface of most of Massachusetts is that of a typical glaciated
country. A mantle of unsorted glacial till covers the more level areas. Well-
sorted outwash materials occur along valley walls and on valley floors, while old
glacial lake beds yield considerable deposits varying in phj'sical character and
depth.

The presence of hundreds of small lakes and the occurrence of many bogs and
marshes indicate a condition of imperfect and haphazard drainage, and this is
typical of recenth" glaciated country. Other formations peculiar to glacial action
also occur, among the most important being the many low, elongated, distinctively
rounded hills called drumlins, which are widely distributed over the State.

This wide variety of glacial formations and remains has given rise to the develop-
ment of equally variable soils. Because glaciation was relatively recent, these
soils are young and the profiles are comparatively immature; hence they are
much influenced by the parent rock material from which they have been derived.
Thus may be attributed to the glacier the necessity for classifying an unusually
large number of soil types which differ in physical characteristics, chemical com-
position, and drainage conditions.

Influence of Climate

Cool temperatures and moderately high rainfall (40 to 45 inches annually)
characterize the climate of Massachusetts. Since such conditions favor the
development of forest trees, it is not surprising to learn from historical records
that a natural cover of mixed forest trees spread over the whole of Massachusetts.
The rich and varied character of the vegetation is indicated by an observer in
1775, who writes as follows: "1 should not forget the woods, which, in the parts
not brought into culture, are very noble; they consist of oak, ash, elm, chestnut,
cypress, cedar, beech, fir, sassafras, and shumac."*

The surface of the ground in these virgin forests was covered with a thick layer
of organic matter or "vegetable mould," as it was first called, which was com-
posed of leaves of forest trees, forest undergrowth, and other forms of forest
debris. This layer is described by an early writer as being "fattened by the
continual fall of leaves from trees growing thereon" and as covering the ground
"to a spit's depth"^ (a "spit" was approximately cne foot). Scill another report
states that in Berkshire County "the first settlers feared that they would have no
building-material, so deeply were the stones covered by the richness of the forest
mould. "^ As long as a forest cover remains, this layer is continually being added
to on the surface, and, when not frozen, continually undergoing decomposition
beneath the surface. Since cool temperatures do not favor its rapid oxidation,
the accumulative process is faster than the wasting-away process. As a result, a

^The Geological History of the Connecticut Valley (Northampton, 1921), p. 63.

^American Husbandry [London, 1775] (1939 ed.. New York), p. 42.

%ew England Quarterly, IX (1936), 220.

•■Mass. State Bd. .-Xgric. 26th Annual Report (1878), Pt. II, p. 29.

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN .S80

peaty humus layer of considerable depth frequenth accumulates.

A moderately high rainfall has subjected all soil layers including the humus
layer to a strong washing or leaching action, which has the effect of removing
material both chemically and physicall)' from the surface soil layers. Some of
this material may be redeposited at lower levels in the B-horizon,and some may
pass on through the profile and be lost altogether in the drainage waters. Fre-
quently chemical action is particularly strong in the A-horizon. Practically all
readily soluble salts are carried away, together with a considerable proportion
of the bases, including calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. These
bases, according to Robinson, "in the completely leached profiles of humid
climate . . . are lost in the drainage; the profile falls in base-status and becomes
acid until the loss in bases is just balanced b\' gains from the weathering of minerals
in the soil."' The same author goes on to say:

When the base-status of the soil is lowered by leaching out of bases, the
cla>' complex ma\' undergo decomposition. In the initial stages, this may
result simply in the liberation of free silicic acid, alumina, and ferric
oxide, such a change being betokened by the yellowish, orange, or brown
color of hydrated ferric oxide. Where the removal of bases is more ac-
centuated, ferric oxide, and in extreme cases, alumina, may pass into
solution associated with humic acids, and be removed from the upper
horizons, which thereby acquire a bleached appearance. Deposition of
ferric oxide and alumina occurs at lower levels, giving a yellowish-brown
sequioxide B-horizon, which in extreme cases may be hardened to a pan.

The presence of a well-defined bleached A2-layer and a well-developed pan
formation or "orterde" is characteristic of a number of important soil types in
Massachusetts. The soil profile which develops under such circumstances is
known as a "podzolized" profile and the process itself as "podzolization." It is
characteristic of a great group of soils known as podzols or as podzolic soils.

Practically all soil types in Massachusetts are podzolic in nature. It is not
difficult to understand, therefore, why the profiles of almost all soil types are
quite similar in their chemical characteristics. There are, of course, marked
variations between the profile characteristics of different soil types, but these
variations are due primarily to the diversity of the parent soil material and to
differences in the extent to which the process of podzolization has taken place.

Brown Podzolic Soils

A majority of the soil types belong to a subgroup known as "brown podzolic
soils" or "brown forest soils." They have been characterized as imperfectly
developed podzols "having, in timbered areas, an organic mat on the surface and
a very thin gray leached [or bleached] horizon just below it — usually less than
an inch thick. The B-horizon is largely yellowish brown in color and has only
the beginnings of a dark-brown orterde just below the gray A-horizon. "* Some
of the agriculturally important soil series belonging to this group are the Glouces-
ter, Plymouth, Charlton, Paxton, Wethersfield, and Cheshire series.

Podzols

In the eastern part of the State where the parent materials contain a high
proportion of quartz sand and where the vegetation was largely coniferous, and
also in the western highlands where the climate is cooler, groups of soils are found
which are more completely podzolized and are classified as true podzols. The
A-horizon is more intensely leached, the bleached layer thicker and more clearly
defined, and the pan formation or orterde more fully developed. The less agri-
culturally important soils of the Berkshire, Worthington, Becket, Hermon,
Hinckley, and Duke series are all included in this group.

■'Mother Earth, p. 66.

^Soils and Men, U. S. Dept. Agric. Yearbook (1938), p. 1029.

PASTURE CULTURE 7

Ground-Water Podzols

In poorly drained areas where the water table is close to the surface, a modified
type of podzolization occurs. Fluctuations in the ground-water level produce
a zone where alternate conditions of oxidation and reduction occur. A characteris-
tic mottling and staining, resulting from the precipitation of iron oxides, is found
in this zone, and the permanently saturated zone below has a typical gray or
bluish-gray color. Soils of the Whitman, Peru, and Sudbury series are all ex-
amples of ground-water podzols.

Influence of Cultivation

Before the advent of any human civilization in this region, the natural forest
cover served to a considerable extent to counteract the serious effects of leaching.
This was particularly true for thei various plant food elements in the soil. Before
these could be washed out of the profile and lost in the drainage, they were re-
moved by plant roots and utilized for carrying on growth and other normal life
processes. After being taken up from the soil in this manner, these elements were
returned to the soil surface as dead plant remains, to add to and become a part of
that gradualh- increasing layer of organic matter or humus. Then, when en-
vironmental conditions were such as to accelerate the complete decomposition
of these plant remains or soil humus, simple plant food elements were again
released in the soil and were again taken up by living plants to produce new plant
growth. Thus a cycle was established eons ago. Changing little in nature, an
ever thicker layer of humus was built up which endured until the coming of
civilization.

It is particularly important at this time to point out that, because of the
strongly leached character of the mineral fraction of the soil, the non-mineral
fraction or soil humus represented the only real reserve or accumulation of soil
fertility. As the surface layer of organic matter or "vegetable mould" increased
in thickness, just so much did the reserve supply of soil fertility increase. This
important relationship was recognized by Henry Colman, when in 1841 he wrote:

In a forest, the soil is not injured by the Growth of the wood but rather
is enriched . . . because the annual decaying matter from these trees,
these leaves, and rotten limbs is continually accumulating on the Ground,
passing into a state of decomposition and increasing the vegetable mould.*

Nature's scheme of fertility conservation proceeded, with constructive forces
slightly outweighing destructive forces, until the coming of human civilization,
at which time this natural balance was thrown in the other direction. It began
in a limited way with the Indians, who, according to an early writer, "at the
Spring and the fall of the leafe" were accustomed to "fire the country," burning
the underbrush and the younger trees, so that the woods were "thin of Timber
in many places, like our Parkes in England."'** In addition to restricting the
growth of shrubs and young trees, the firing of the woods also destroyed large
quantities of dry organic material, since, according to another writer in 1632,
"it consumes all the underwood and rubbish. ^ According to Dwight, "The
grounds, which were covered with Oak, Chestnut, etc. or with Pitch Pine, were
selected, for this purpose, because they alone were, in ordinary years, sufficiently
dry."l2

Destructive practices initiated by the Indians were not only continued but
greatly extended by the white settlers. They continued for a time the bad prac-

^Agriculture of Massachusetts, 4th Report (1841), p. 239.
'"New England Quarterly. IX, 220.

'HVilliam Wood, New England's Prospect [1634] (Prince Society ed., Boston, 1865), p. 17.
'^Timothy Dwight, Travels in New England and New York (New Haven. 1821 ed.), I, 103.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

tice of annually burning over their woodlands, but the serious effects of this
operation were quickly evident. According to Judd, "a law of "Massachusetts
in 1743, made to restrain such fires, says the burning of the woods greatly im-
poverishes the soil, prevents the growth of the wood and destroys much fence. "^^
But in order to clear land for their tilled crops, the early colonists cut down and
frequently burned over large areas of the natural forest. Although the first
colonists apparently felt some restraint in the reckless destruction of their forests,
those that came after them did not. Jared Eliot, writing in 1747, related, "They
tho't themselves obliged to stubb all Staddle [grub out all small trees], and cut
down or lop all great Trees; in which they expended much Cost and Time, to
the prejudice of the Crop and impoverishing the Land."!* An anonymous writer
in 1775 wrote: "They not only cut down timber to raise their buildings and fences,
but in clearing the grounds for cultivation they destroy all that comes in their
way, as if they had nothing to do but to get rid of it at all events as fast as pos-
sible."i5

The most serious consequence of the removal of all tree growth was not so
much the loss of a considerable quantity of vegetative material itself as the
destruction of the principal source of supply for the surface-accumulating layer
of "vegetable mould" or organic matter, the only important reserve of soil fertility.
The shallow- rooted, short-lived, rapid-growing farm crops were a poor substitute
in this respect for the deep-rooted, long-lived, slow-growing forest trees.

For a time, newly cleared lands with their rich accumulation of humus were
very productive. Referring to the newer settlements, the author of American
Husbandry wrote in 1775: "Worse ploughing is nowhere to be seen, yet the
farmers get tolerable crops; this is owing, particularly in the new settlements,
to the looseness and fertility of old woodlands, which with very bad tillage, will
yield excellent crops."i6 A few years later, in 1800, Timothy Dwight observed,
"It is the universal tendency of the mould to produce great crops''^'^; and in
another instance, "This mould is the manure, and ultimately the soil, of grounds
long forested; and always yielding rich crops with very slovenly cultivation."!*
As long as the supply of soil organic matter lasted, good crops were grown, but
when the store was exhausted, yields fell off badly. The burning over of timber
lands, the continued removal of fertility through harvested crops, and the in-
jurious effects of tillage, including the acceleration of the rate of decomposition
of organic matter and greatly increased losses from leaching and surface erosion,
were all important factors contributing to a rapid depletion of the soil's native
fertility.

As early as 1637 one writer, speaking of the light sandy soils first cultivated
in the vicinity of Cape Cod, wrote, "This soil is like your woodland in England,
best at first, yet afterward grows more barren. "^^ As indicated by Jared Eliot
in 1747, very little effort was made to return to the land even part of the fertility
which was removed or destroyed. "... the Land being new they depended
upon the natural Fertility of the Ground, which served their purpose very well,
and when they had worn out one piece they cleared another, without any con-
cern to amend their land, except a little helped by the Fold and Cart-dung. . . .
Our poor Land is so poor that it will not bear Turnips bigger than Buttons. "^o

l^History of Hadley [Mass.] (New ed., Springfield. Mass.. 1905). p. 98.

^''Essays on Field Husbandry in New England [Boston, 1760] (1934 ed.), p. 1.

^^American Husbandry, p. 61.

l^Ibid., p. 60.

"Travels. II, 343.

l^Ibid., I, 103.

l^New England Quarterly, IX, 219.

^Opield Husbandry, p. 29.

PASTURE CULTURE 9

In 1853 C. L. Flint wrote that, "He [the early farmer] raised wheat until the
land became too poor, and then he raised corn, and when it would no longer
produce corn, he sowed barley or rye, and so on to beans."2i

The same general pattern of exploiting the native soil fertility was followed in
practically all areas of Massachusetts which were brought under cultivation,
although, of course, it was not followed in all areas at the same time. A con-
siderable period of time elapsed between the settling of Plymouth in 1620 and
the founding of some of the hill towns in western Massachusetts during the
latter part of the eighteenth century. The rapid destruction of humus did not
worry the "exploiting" pioneer because he had no intention of settling permanently
and cultivating the land. That the farmers who succeeded the pioneers were
more careful and diligent in their farming operations is shown in a statement made
by Timothy Dwight; "That which may be called the second set of planters may be
considered as regularly superior to the first and the third, when there is a third,
as regularly superior to the second. "22 Before better systems of farming were
instituted, however, early cultural practices had destroyed most of the original
store of soil humus and with it most of the soil's native productive capacity.

Besides severely impairing productive capacity, this destruction of humus
had a pronounced deleterious effect on the soil's physical condition. Instead of the
topsoil's being loose and friable and capable of growing good crops without much
tillage, as many references indicate, more thorough tillage practices soon became
necessary and grew increasingly difficult. The author of American Husbandry,
in commenting on the "excellent crops" from "very bad tillage" on newly cleared
land, says, "they are apt to suppose the same treatment will do on land long since
broken up which is far from being the case."23 The difficulties experienced in
plowing where the mould layer was absent (possibly because of being burned over
annually) were described bj' William Wood in 1634, when he wrote, "This ground
is in some places of a soft mould and easie to plow ... in other places so tough
and hard, that I have seene ten Oxen toyled, their Iron chaines broken, and their
Shares and Coulters much strained. "^^

(The effects of cultural practices and the importance of soil humus and their
relationships to the physical condition of Massachusetts soils are points which
will be further expanded in discussing the improvement of permanent and semi-
permanent pastures.)

By no means all of the land which was exhausted was kept under cultivation;
some was relegated to hay-land and pasture and much more was abandoned and
allowed to revert to timber. In 1800 Timothy Dwight observed that "several
specimens of an entire change in the forest vegetation are common in many,
perhaps in all, parts of New England where the land has been cultivated, and
again covered with wood."^^ This land abandonment probably began and
progressed most rapidly on areas where physical handicaps were greatest. The
presence of many rocks or conditions leading to poor drainage are physical handi-
caps which make cultivation a difficult, laborious procedure. When native fertility
was depleted and the use of fertility supplements became obligatory, farmers
naturally chose land which could be easily tilled. The introduction and increased
use of machinery has also been a factor in the abandonment of steep and rocky
land. The soils which are now being cultivated, therefore, are not necessarily
inherently more fertile than many which have been abandoned, but many of the
physical obstacles to cultivation are either absent or not objectionable. Some

2lMass. Sute Bd. Agric. 1st Annual Report (1853), Pt. I. p. 2.

22Travels. II. 469.

2*American Husbandry, pp. 59-60.

2*New England's Prospect, p. 14.

25Travels, II, 440.

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

exception may be made in thr cise of coarse sandy sails which have been abandoned
and which offer no particular tiifiiculties to cultivation, but even in this instance,
it would seem that the cropping of sand\ soils was given up principally because
of poor water-holding capacity, and this is largeh a physical relationship.

Summary

In concluding a discussion on the effects of cultivation on the character of
Massachusetts soils, it should be pointed out that its influence was not important
until the coming of the white settlers. Geology and climate, on the other hand,
had largely accomplished their ends in developing most of the important character-
istics of our soils long ages before any civilization was established. It should be
further emphasized that some of the effects of geology and climate on the soils
of Massachusetts, such as their sandy nature and their strongly leached profiles,
play a greater role in both past and present-day fertility relationships than do
early cultural practices. Even in the beginning, nature did not endow our soils
with a large fertility reserve, and even this reserve was in a form which could be
quickly and easily dissipated. We must not condemn the ways of our forefathers
too strongly because, even if they had been less ruthless in exploiting the fertility
of their land, the natural reserve would not have lasted indefinitely. Sections
of the country where soils have been endowed by nature with far greater reserves
of fertility than ours are now learning that these reserves are not inexhaustible,
even under what are now considered good soil management practices.

The Massachusetts soils which are now being used for crop production may
be characterized, before soil amendments are added, as being acid in reaction
and deficient in nitrogen, calcium, potassium, magnesium, and to a lesser degree
phosphorus. Soils of limestone origin or with a strong limestone influence may
be less acid in reaction and contain some available calcium and magnesium, but
they are deficient in other elements. All the cultivated soils are low in organic
matter. Agricultural soils in Massachusetts, in short, may be characterized as
productive but not fertile.

EARLY PASTURES IN MASSACHUSETTS

The first grazing areas in Massachusetts were the woods, which had previously
been the hunting grounds of the Indians, together with scattered natural open
meadow areas. Contrary to what might have been expected, the country was
not a continuous expanse of dense forest for, as a result of being burned over
annually by the Indians, extensive areas of open woods existed which provided
considerable grazing. William Wood wrote in 1634 that "in many places, divers
Acres being cleare, so that one may ride a hunting in most places of the land, if
he will venture himselfe for being lost: there is no underwood saving in swamps,
and low grounds that are wet . . . where the Trees grow thinne, there is good
fodder to be got among the Woods. "26 The natural occurrence of open meadow
areas is also indicated by the same writer, "There be likewise divers places neare
the Plantations great broad Meadowes, wherein grow neither shrub nor Tree,
lying low, in which places grows as much grass as may be throwne out with a
Sithe, thick and long, as high as a man's middle." Graves wrote from Salem in
1629 that the country was "very beautiful in open lands mixed with goodly
woods, and again open plains, in some places 500 acres, some more some less, not

2*New England's Prosp«ct, p. 17.

PASTURE CULTURE 11

much troublesome to clear for the plough. . . . The grass and weeds grow up
to a man's face . . . "^^

Pasture Plants

Native Grasses

The native grasses included a few true grasses together with rushes, sedges,
and other genera. Carrier^^ states that wild rye (Elymus sp.) was the most
common of the native grasses, although Judd^s says that three species of Andro-
pogon, fur^atus, nutans, and scoparius, were native to the intervales of the
Connecticut Valley.

Some writers were quite enthusiastic about the merits of the native grass.
"The worst that can be sayd against the meddow-grounds," wrote Wood in
1634, "is because there is little edish or after-pasture which may proceede from
the late mowings . . . "3" Other contemporary writers, on the other hand,
were not nearly so enthusiastic. One of them wrote that the native grass is "so
devoid of nutritive vertue, that our beasts grow lousy with feeding upon it."^'
Later, in 1747, Jared Eliot observed that, "Where there is no English Grass, it is
difficult to make cattle truly fat."^^ Since none of the native species which were
first utilized for forage were ever domesticated, one can safely conclude that
they were not particularly valuable.

"English Grass"

At the time of the first settlements in Massachusetts, a number of good grasses
and legumes were being cultivated in England, but, since clean seeds of grasses
and clovers were not yet available, the stands were a mixture of many diflferent
species, including those of low as well as of high value. Sweepings of chaff from
haystacks and haymows were used for seed, and it was in this form that the
first "grass" seed was brought into Massachusetts. The expression "English
grass" was a collective term regularly used to distinguish the introduced species —
which usually included a mixture of blue grasses, rye grasses, bent grasses, fescues,
and white clover — from the native grasses.

One writer speaks "of stocking lands from the gleanings of the floors and
mangers of the barn 'where every plant, good and noxious, has left its seeds.' "^s
Judd reports that "the farmers of Rhode Island sowed hay-seed with chaff before
1647"^^ and also that William Pynchon of Springfield had "30 bushels of hay-
seed" brought up the river from Hartford in 1650. According to the same author,
"The General Court of Massachusetts by 1670 recognized three sorts of mowing,
viz., salt marsh, fresh meadow, and English grass."

White Clover

Some of the introduced species became quickly naturalized and spread over
wide areas. This was particularly true of white clover, which frequently appeared
after land had been cleared and plowed far distant from places where it had been
sown. According to Judd, white clover "was abundant in New Jersey in 1684,
in New York in 1738 . . . and was observed by farmers in the new towns of

27judd, Hadley, p. 96.

^^Lyman Carrier, Beginnings of Agriculture in America (New York, 1923), p. 27.

29Hadley. pp. 96-97.

^New England's Prospect, p. 13.

3lNew England Quarterly, IX, 219.

^^Field Husbandry, p. 17.

''Mark Doolittle, Address to the Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden County Agricultural Society

(Northampton, 1826), p. 12.
'^Hadley, p. 362.

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

Hampshire, and of other parts cf Massachusetts."^^ Governor Hutchinson
of the Province of Massachusetts observed in 1760, that white clover seed was
supposed to be in the earth in all parts of the country. Richard Parkinson in
1807 wrote that "The uncultivated land in North America also abounds with
White Clover. The earth indeed seems almost to have been impregnated with
its seed from the Creation as any kind of land when manured will produce it . . . "^^
In view of the recent popularity of imported "Wild" White Clover strains
from England, it is interesting to note that similar strains, probably the pro-
genitors of the present English strains, were introduced into Massachusetts from
England some three hundred years ago. Since our own "native" or "naturalized"
white clovers have originated from the same original stock seed as the present
English strains, many of the "native" strains should be quite similar in their
growth characteristics as well as their performance to the present English strains.

Other Naturalized Species

Other pasture species which became quickly naturalized included Kentucky
blue grass, Canada blue grass, the bent grasses, and to a certain extent some of
the fescues. These grasses were somewhat more dependent on artificial seeding
than white clover, but when once established they persisted almost indefinitely,
particularly if soil conditions and grazing management practices were favorable.
Belknap, in describing the clearing of new land in New Hampshire, states that
"When the seeding with grass is neglected the ground becomes mossy and hard
and must be ploughed before it will receive seed. . . . land which is intended
for mowing, and which takes the common grass well at first, is seldom or never
ploughed afterward. "^^

Ptisturing in Common

Throughout the first settlements in Massachusetts, an extensive system of
common pasturage was followed. Throughout the seventeenth century and
much of the eighteenth, cattle, horses, sheep, hogs, and goats ranged the woods
in every direction from the town proper, sometimes at large and sometimes in
the care of village herdsmen.^s These undivided pasture areas included the
partially cleared plains and uncleared hills and mountain sides, frequently ex-
tending as far as twenty miles from the settlement itself. Dry stock, young stock,
and hogs were pastured on the more remote areas, while working oxen, horses,
and milk cows were pastured on the more accessible lands close to the village.

This woods pasturage, which consisted primarily of native herbs, weeds, and
grasses, supplied most of the forage for all types of livestock with the exception
of some aftermath or rowen grazing on common meadowlands. Bidwell and
Falconer relate that "In the fall after harvest, on a day fixed by the town authori-
ties, the barriers were taken down and the village cattle were allowed to pasture
on the stubbie. This yearly 'opening of the meadows' was an event in the life
of the vinage."^^ They also report that such pasturage was regarded as especially
valuable in preparing animals for the long winter and that pasturing rights on
such areas were jealously guarded. Since many of the meadowlands were seeded
down to "English grass," this would indicate that the superior feeding value of
these introduced species was early recognized. Some of these meadowlands were

S^Hadley, p. 363.

36Richard Parkinson. The Experienced Farmer (London, 1807), p. 63.
3TThe History of New Hampshire (Boston. 1792), III. 100.
38judd. Hadley, p. 102.

39p. W. Bidwell and J. I. Falconer, History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620-1860
(Washington. 1925), p. 22.

PASTURE CULTURE 13

undoubtedly later used as pastures, and as such became the first high-quality
pastures in Massachusetts.

Pasturing in common continued through the seventeenth century in the older
towns and for most of the eighteenth century in the newer towns. By the be-
ginning of the eighteenth century in the older towns, scattered lots of meadows
and pastures came under private ownership. The same procedure of common
pastures becoming private holdings was reenacted in the frontier towns as the
eighteenth century progressed. The last common pasture to be broken up was
on the Island of Nantucket in 1848. Up until this time, sheep had been given
free range, but certain of the inhabitants objected so strenuously that they in-
stituted legal proceedings, and according to one writer "then began the war
which drove the sheep from the island and their value into the pockets of the
lawyers."^'

Agricultural Expansion in Massachusetts
1700-1750; 1750-1790

Notwithstanding the fact that grass-fed cattle were driven to Boston from
the Connecticut Valley before 1655,^1 and also that salted meat and horses were
exported from New England throughout the rest of the seventeenth and all of
the eighteenth centuries,^2 ^^g pasture crop received no particular attention dur-
ing early colonial days except from a few individual farmers fattening beef in
the Connecticut Valley and a few others operating dairies close to some of the
larger coastal towns.

The period 1700 to 1760*^ was a period of expansion in which grain crops were
the principal object of culture, and it was largely to obtain new land for grain
production that frontiers were pushed back and new settlements established.
About 1748 Jared Eliot observed that "Our Lands being thus worn out, I suppose
to be one Reason why so many are inclined to Remove to new Places that they
may raise Wheat. "^^

The pasture crop was largely incidental and no special effort was made to
cultivate it. Land too poor to grow grain and meadows too badly "run out" to
grow good ha\ were given over to pastures. Kalm about 1748 wrote:

After the inhabitants have converted a tract of land into fields which
had been a forest for many centuries together, and which consequently
had a very fine soil, they use it as such, as long as it will bear corn; and
when it ceases to bear any, they turn it into pasture for the cattle and take
new corn-fields in another place where a fine soil can be met with, and where
it has never been made use of for this purpose.^^

The general lack of good meadow both for pasture and hay had a serious effect
on the quality and health of the livestock. In 1747 Jared Eliot stated that "It is
evident that the increasing stock of the Country hath out-grown the meadows,
so that there is not hay for such a stock as the present increased number of people
really need."*^ C. L. Flint records that "the death of their cattle from starvation
and exposure was a very common occurrence"^^; and an earlier author in 1775
observed that "the stunted diminutive size of all the cattle in North America
to the northward, as well as in the southern colonies, shows plainly the great

^''Mass. State Bd. Agric. 13th Annual Report (1865), Pt. I, p. 256.

^Ijudd, Hadley, p. 369.

^^Bidwel! and Falconer, History of Agriculture, p. 44.

''^P. W. Bidwell, Connecticut .Academy of Arts and Sciences, Transactions, XX (1920-21),

241-399.
**Field Husbandry, p. 30
^^American Husbandry, p. 106.
^^Field Husbandry, p. 44.
^''Grasses and Forage Plants (Boston, 1867 ed.), p. 184.

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

want of pastures: cattle will live and multiply in their woods, but they will never
be cattle of any value and yielding a profit as unconsiderable as their worth. "*8

About the middle of the eighteenth century the potentialities of grass as a
crop were generally seized upon, with the result that a period of rapid expansion
took place between the years 1750 and 1790. Large areas of rough, rocky land
generally unsuited for tillage were cleared, seeded to grass, and made to yield a
most profitable crop. It was during this period that the "hill" towns, or "grazing"
towns, as they were frequently called, in central and western Massachusetts were
cleared and settled. Some indication of the rapidity with which this movement
proceeded is found in the writings of a French traveler describing what he saw
in western Connecticut in 1780: "I have never traveled three miles without
meeting with a new settlement, either beginning to take form or already in culti-
vation"; whereas, he continues, "four years ago, one might have traveled ten
miles in the woods I traversed without seeing a single habitation. "^^ By 1800
Timothy Dwight had enthusiastically written, "Grass is undoubtedly the most
valuable object of culture in New England. Grass grows spontaneously even
on the driest grounds and luxuriantly on others."™ Concerning the County of
Worcester, he wrote, "Excellent neat cattle abound . . . and beef is perhaps
nowheres better fattened upon grass. Swine also abound here. . . . Sheep are
not very numerous. . . . Horses abound in every part of New England. "51
Speaking of the soils in western Massachusetts, he wrote that they "are generally
fertile; and, particularly, are excellent grazing grounds. "52

This period of pasture expansion is important because it was at this time
that most of the permanent pasture area now found in Massachusetts was laid
down. Some new lands were cleared after 1790 and the total area in pasture
did not reach its maximum until 1875, but most of the land added to the total
pasture acreage after 1790 was made up of hayland and cropland which was
converted into pasture.

The various means by which much of this huge area (over a million acres)
was cleared and seeded to grass can best be described by quoting direct from a
current historian of the time. Jeremy Belknap, in his "History of New Hamp-
shire" in 1792, gives clear and detailed description of how this was accomplished.

Several ways of raising a crop on new land have been practiced. The
easiest and cheapest method was originally learned of the Indians, who
never looked very far forward in their improvements. The method is
that of girdling the trees; which is done by making circular incision through
the bark, and leaving them to die standing. This operation is performed
in the summer, and the ground is sowed in August, with winter rye inter-
mixed with grass. The next year, the trees do not put forth leaves, and
the land having yield a crop, becomes fit for pasture. This method helps
poor settlers a little the first year; but the inconvenience of it is, that if the
trees are left standing, they are continually breaking and falling with the
wind, which endangers the lives of cattle. . . . The more able sort of
husbandmen, therefore, choose the method of clearing the land at first,
by cutting down all the trees without exception. The most eligible time
for the operation, is the month of June, when the sap is flowing, and the
leaves are formed on the trees. These leaves will not drop from the fallen
trees, but remain till the next year, when, being dry, they help to spread
the fire, which is then set to the trees. This is done in the first dry weather
of the succeeding spring, and generally in May; but if the ground be too
dry, the fire will burn deep, and greatly injure the soil. There is therefore
need of judgment to determine when the wood is dry enough to burn, and

^^American Husbandry, p. 250.

^^Bidwell and Falconer, History of Agriculture, p. 77.

SOTravels. I, 48.

Sllbid.. p. 376.

52lbid.. II, 267.

PASTURE CULTURE 15

the soil wet enough to resist the action of the fire; ... if the land be
intended for pasture only, the trees are cut down, and after the fire has
destroyed the limbs, grass is sown, and the trunk of the trees are left to
rot, which in turn, turns to good manure and the pasture is durable. . . .
When the trees are burnt later in the summer, wheat or rye is sown,
mixed with the seeds of grass, on the new land. The seed is scattered on
the surface and raked in with a wooden or iron tooth rake, or a hoe. . . .
Sometimes a crop of Indian Corn is raised the first year, and another of
rye or wheat, the second year, and the land is sown with grass, which will
turn it into pasture or mowing the third year. ... It is not an uncommon
thing for people, who are used to this kind of husbandry, to bring a tract
of wilderness into grass for the first two crops; . . . Many husbandmen,
in the old towns, buy lots of new land, and get them cleared and brought
into grass, in this way, and pasture great numbers of cattle: the feed is
excellent and the cattle are soon fattened for market. ^^

It is significant that over much of the area laid down to grass, the grass seeding
was usually made directly after the forest cover was removed. In this way there
was little opportunity for the store of native fertility to be dissipated either
through crop removal or by soil erosion before the grass was established. The
existence of a large area of permanent pasture in the State today is probably
directly traceable to this practice, because it was observed years later that pastures
which were established on cultivated land deteriorated much more rapidly than
those which were laid down immediately after the removal of the forest trees.^*
Many of these original pasture areas produced many successive crops of grass
without the aid of soil amendments before exhibiting any signs of exhaustion.

Importance of the Grass Crop to Nineteenth Century Agriculture

During most of the nineteenth century the grass crop, including both hay and
pasturage, supported, either directly or indirectly, practically' all types of agri-
culture in Massachusetts. Directly, grass supplied most of the feed for the beef,
dairy, and sheep livestock industries, which flourished to a greater or less extent
over the course of the century; indirectly, grass supported other types of agri-
cultural enterprises in that it was the manure and by-products of the meat-
processing industries which supplied most of the fertility for the successful pro-
duction of tilled crops. The extensive raising of grain, the growing of different
market-garden crops near large cities, and the development of such special crops
as broomcorn, tobacco, and onions in the Connecticut Valley were made possible
only because manure and various other by-products of animal origin were used
as fertilizers in liberal quantities. Cattle were fed in the Connecticut Valley
many years even after the cattle-feeding enterprise itself was unprofitable, for the
sole purpose of producing manure for the culture of tilled crops.^^

A clear recognition of the important role played by the grass crop in the agri-
culture of Massachusetts is contained in a report made by the pasture committee
of the State Board of Agriculture in 1859. It read:

The importance of the grass crop will be justly appreciated when it is
remembered that no other crop equals it in value, not even the cotton
crop of the South. It bears a similar relation to the other products of the
farm that agriculture bears to the other interests and occupations of
civilized communities. It is the basis of the farmer's success; it is his
first, his continued and last dependence. His milk, butter, cheese, bread,
meats, fruits, vegetables, the labor of his teams and his own labors, im-
mediately or remotely, are derived from and sustained by his crops of
grass.56

5^The History of New Hampshire, III, 97.

5''Mass. State Bd. Agric. 12th Annual Report (1864), Pt. I. p. 84.

SSlbid., 9th Annual Report (1861), Pt. I, p. 93; 13th Annual Report (1865). Pt. I, p. 300.

'^Ibid., 7th Annual Report (1859), Pt. I, p. 24.

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

Of course other fertilizer materials were used to supplement manure, such as
muck, wood ashes, gypsum, guano, bone meal, poudrettes (night soil), wool
wastes, and other materials of greater or less fertilizing value; but it was not until
commercial fertilizers as we now know them were introduced and made available
in large quantities during the last quarter of the nineteenth century that grass
ceased to be the major source of fertility for most forms of agriculture in Massa-
chusetts.

The relationship of the grass crop to other crops and the serious situation which
resulted when the grass crop began to fail is described by Goessmann in 1887,
as follows:

A serious falling off in the yield of the grass crop under the described
circumstances necessitated a reduction in the farm live-stock, which in
turn caused a decrease in the production of manure. Adding to this result
the current practice of using the manure obtained from the feeding of the
crops secured from the grasslands for the improvement of the ploughed
lands, with scarcely any material assistance from outside sources of ma-
nurial substances, it is but natural that the productiveness of the former
became in the course of time seriously impaired. A scanty supply of
suitable manurial matter for the production of the crops raised is to-day
universally considered the most fatal circumstance in any system of farm-
ing for profit. 5''

The fact that the grass crop was able to support the agriculture of Massa-
chusetts for almost three quarters of a century is striking testimony to the effi-
ciency of this crop as a conserver of soil fertility. With the use of only small
quantities of supplemental fertilizers, this crop was able to extend the reserve
supply of native or natural fertility over a long period of years. This is in sharp
contrast to tilled crops, which, as already shown in the experience of the early
colonists, exhausted the reserve of natural soil fertility in a relatively short
period of years.

Pasture Deterioration and Exhaustion

In 1786 General Warren wrote that "Pastures are never manured and mowing
lands seldom. "58 Since essentially the same situation continued on through the
nineteenth century, it is not surprising to find that indications of pasture deteriora-
tion and exhaustion multiplied as the century progressed. Grass was an extremely
efficient user of the reserve of natural fertility, but it could not go on producing
indefinitely, for, as has already been explained, the reserve of natural fertility in
most Massachusetts soils was not large. It is not surprising either to find that
evidence of pasture deterioration is first found in the early settled portions of the
State. Not only had the land been cultivated longer, but in many instances the
soils in these sections were lighter and more quickly exhausted of their fertility,
and in addition the early practice of making land into pastures only after cul-
tivated crops were abandoned greatly shortened the life of the pastures.

The course of pasture deterioration may be followed by noting both the nature
and the frequency of the comments which were made over the course of the
nineteenth century. The following selected references, arranged chronologically,
are an attempt to demonstrate this course:

Middlesex County, 1795.

It is a prevailing errour to overstock both barns and pastures; in con-
sequence of which, much of our grass land produces less than two, and some
that has been wholly devoted to feed, less than one third of what it did
30 or 40 years ago . . . ^9

S'^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 35th Annual Report (1887), p. 164.
S^Bidwell and Falconer, History of Agriculture, p. 185.
S^Mass. Historical Society Collections, 1st Series, IV (1795), 49.

PASTURE CULTURE 17

State as a whole, 1841.

... in general nothing is more disreputable to the large majority of
farmers throughout the State, than the conditions of their pastures. ^^

State as a whole, 1840-1850.

The pasture lands were increased more than 100,000 A., with scarcely
any increase of neat cattle, and a reduction of 160,000 sheep and 17,000
swine.^i

Middlesex County, 1853.

A large proportion of land, formerly improved as pasturage or tillage
land, is now under a promising growth of young wood.^2

Essex County, 1853.

Pasture lands for the past twenty years have been on the decrease.
Except where they are ploughed and manured, they become mossy, run
over to bushes, and are rapidly getting into wood.^^

In many of our pastures it is now literally a struggle for life or death
between the cow and the grass, from spring to autumn, and often neither
has vitality enough to exult in a victory. ^^

State as a whole, 1853.

... in nearly one-half of the whole State there is a gradual and constant

decrease, much of the land formerly tilled being given up to pasturage. In

• very many towns the number of acres in pasturage, also, is decreasing,

many old pastures having become so poor as to be abandoned to bushes,

or converted into woodland. ^5

State as a whole, 1859.

. . . the grazing lands of the State are greatly exhausted — feeding from
one-sixth to three-sixths less stock than the same fed twenty-five to forty
years ago.^^

Worcester County, 1863.

It seems to be an established fact that the pastures in this vicinity are
not as good as they were once. In them bushes and briars more easily
take the places of some of the best grasses; they need ploughing oftener
and require larger applications of manure to make them hold good, and it
is said they need almost constant care and labor to keep them from running
out."

State as a whole, 1867.

Many of our old pastures have been stocked hard, time out of mind, and
the grasses in them have been literally starved out, and grow thin of
necessity, while, as the finer and nutritious grasses disappear, nature very
kindly covers up the nakedness of the soil with moss, as an evidence of the
effect, and not the cause of poverty. . . . Many of them are grown over
with bushes and briers, and other equally worthless pests, till they carry
but an animal to four or five acres, and often require twice that amount to
keep an animal on foot, to say nothing of fattening him.fi*

State as a whole, 1872.

The Board of Agriculture have agreed to this: that there has been a great
deterioration in the producing power of our pastures during the last fiftj'
or one hundred years; that the time was when the hillsides of Massachu-
setts, those fields that are now our pasture-lands yielded large quantities
of sweet nutritious grasses, — grasses which made butter, which made
milk, which made cheese, — grasses which made beef of splendid quality. . . .

^•'Agriculture of Massachusetts, 4th Report (1841), p. 398.

filDavid A. Wells, The Year Book of .Agriculture (1855-1856), p. 215.

^^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 1st Annual Report (1853), Pt. I. p. 70.

63lbid.. p. 69.

^''Mass. Agricultural Societies Transactions (1853), p. 74.

^^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 1st Annual Report (1853), Pt. I, p. 69.

•'^Ibid., 7th .■Annual Report (1859), Pt. I, p. 24.

"Ibid.. 11th Annual Report (1863), Pt. II, p. 209.

^^Flint, Grasses and Forage Plants, p. 355.

18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

but they have gradually deteriorated. . . . They will not carry the stock
of former years; the quality of the grasses is not so good, and they will not
produce so good cattle, or butter, or milk.^^

Hampshire County, 1877.

It seems to be a very important question here in New England, how
shall we best improve our pasture-lands. . . . They were formerly cropped
with wheat, rye, and corn, until reduced too low to make it pay. Then
they were given up to pasture; and the constant drain upon them since,
in the form of beef, butter, cheese, mutton and wool, has reduced them,
so that they hardly pay for fencing and bushing, to say nothing of taxes,
and interest on capital. There are hundreds of acres in my vicinity, on
which I have seen good crops of grain growing, that are now abandoned
to brush and wood; . . . ™

State as a whole, 1884.

. . . besides this, many farmers have been in the habit of cultivating
their smoother land as long as it would bear a remunerating crop, applying
as little manure as would possibly serve, and then laying it down to grass,
under rye, oats, or barley, so as to get the last ounce of nutriment from the
soil. This having been pretty well accomplished, a crop or two of hay
is taken from it, and the land is then abandoned in an exhausted condition
for a number of years to pasture, and from land thus treated cattle are
expected to derive their support for four or five months; they go on it in
lean condition in May, and come from it in November as poor as they went
out. How to increase the productiveness of these pastures so that they
shall not only hold their own, but carry more stock is the question. ''i

Pastures have continued to deteriorate since 1884 even up to the present, but
since that date fewer references to their condition are available. One reason for
this may be the much greater dependence since that time on commercial fertilizers
as a source of fertility for tilled crops rather than on barnyard manure which came
indirectly from the grass crop. Another reason is probably the increasing ten-
dency during recent years to rely on periodically reseeded pastures and annual
pastures for the main supply of pasturage rather than on permanent pastures.
Still a third explanation may be the limited use in some sections of top-dressed
fertilizers on permanent pastures, which in certain instances has greatly improved
their condition.

Pasture Exhaustion and Land Abandonment

Permanent pasture was in the past and for that matter still is the last use to
which land is put before it reverts to timber. That much of this land was badly
depleted before being given over to pastures and that land abandonment quickly
followed, is reported from Franklin County in 1865. Speaking of general practices
in "hill towns", this report stated:

The main feature in these towns is expressively termed 'skinning,'
cutting of? wood and timber, selling hay, and sometimes what little grain
they raise, to the river farmers, 'running' their mowing lands and then
turning them into pasturage. In short, taking all they can from the land
and returning nothing. ... In many of the hill towns population is
diminishing. Many houses are unoccupied, and going to decay, and there
is a general lack of thrift and enterprise among the farmers.''^

By 1872, according to another writer, "The border settler in New England
twenty years ago is close to the forest now. Half-made clearings are again growing
up, and log-cabins are tenantless. Hills once covered with sheep are moss-

*9Ma8S. State Bd. Agric. 20th Annual Report (1872), Pt. I. p. 202.
'^Ibid., 25th Annual Report (1877), Pt. I, p. 299.
'Ubid., 32d Annual Report (1884). p. 83.
■'^Ibid.. 13th Annual Report (1865). Pt. I, p. 307.

PASTURE CULTURE 19

grown. . . . "^2 Some years later, in 1888, a western hill-town farmer com-
plained that the chief difficulty in sheep raising "is not so much on account of
dogs as on account of the difficulty in keeping sheep in your own pasture. The
abandonment of so many farms in our mountain town has left a large tract of
land open [and] there is no place to confine the sheep. . . . "^'*

This reversion of permanent pasture land to timber land is still proceeding at a
fairly rapid rate, though not as fast as during the latter part of the nineteenth
century.

The Causes of Pasture Deterioration

The causes of pasture deterioration were obvious and quickly recognized by
many agricultural leaders. In 1859 the pasture committee for the State Board
of Agriculture reported:

It is known to all who have investigated this subject, that all pastures
which have been constantly and closely cropped for many years, without
receiving suitable returns, must of necessity be greatly exhausted of those
substances which, in the economy of nature, are appropriated to the growth
and support of bone and muscle, and to the production of milk; and that
thorough renovation can be effected only by restoring those substances
to the soil. ^5

Some years later, in 1872, Levi Stockbridge, in a stirring address before a
meeting of the State Board of Agriculture, declared :

We have all agreed on saying that the cause of this deterioration is
perfectly clear and apparent; that it is because we have been building up
animal structures, or manufacturing cattle products which have been
taken away from the fields that produced them, never to return; that
where all the products have not been transported to the market, we have
taken the milk for the manufacture of butter and cheese, and the manurial
qualities that were contained in the milk left at home have been given to
other fields instead of being carried back to the pastures that produced
them; and that we have been sending away tens of hundreds of tons
annually from these New England pastures in the form of phosphates, and
sulphates in the bones of animals, and nitrogen in their muscles and tissues;
it has gone in one sweeping current down to our great cities; and then,
owing to the most abominable and wasteful system of sewerage which
has been adopted, it has been carried to the sea and been lost. We have
agreed that this is the cause of the deterioration of our pastures.'^

C. L. Flint, secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, summed up the sit-
uation in 1877 by declaring that:

The great besetting sin of New England farming has been, that we have
robbed our grass-land to feed our hoed crops and our arable lands. We
have done it persistently almost from the first settlement of the country.''^

It was also observed that milk cattle exhausted pasture more rapidly than
either beef cattle or sheep. This was noted as early as 1859 by the pasture com-
mittee of the State Board of Agriculture''^ and also by Flint^^ in 1867. Therefore
the shift from beef cattle and sheep to dairy cattle, about the middle of the
nineteenth century, was an important factor in accelerating the deterioration of
pasture lands.

■'^Ibid., 20th .Annual Report (1872), Pt. II. p. 77.
''^Ibid.. 36th Annual Report (1888), Pt. I, p. 72.
'5lbid., 7th Annual Report (1859), Pt. I, p. 25.
'^Ibid., 20th Annual Report (1872). Pt. I, p. 202.
"ibid., 25th Annual Report (1877), Pt. I, p. 121.
■'Slbid., 7th Annual Report (1859). Pt. I, p. 27.
'^Grasses and Forage Plants, p. 362.

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

Early Attempts at Pasture Renovation

It would seem that, if the seriousness of pasture deterioration were appre-
ciated and its causes understood, as appears to have been the case, something
would have been done to correct the situation. The answer is that something
was done. Many different systems of pasture renovation were tried out from
time to time during most of the nineteenth century and many of them were
highly successful. The difficulty was that none of these systems, even though
highly successful, was ever widely adopted. A variety of materials was used
from time to time, including ashes, gypsum, lime, bone meal, guano, manure,
compost, and muck, both as top-dressings and as amendments worked into the
soil by tillage.

Henry Colnian*" in 1841 tells of a particularly successful farmer in Essex
County who regularly ploughed, manured, and seeded his pasture lands. In
1851 the chairman of the pasture committee of Essex County recommended the
use of gypsum as a top-dressing "on such land as is benefited by it," as the "best
and cheapest way of renovating pasture lands."*' The pasture committee for the
State Board of Agriculture*^ in 1859 advised using bones combined with wood
ashes if manure were not available. They also suggested top-dressing old pastures
with "from one to two bushels of plaster per acre; or twenty-five bushels of wood
ashes per acre, where plaster refuses to operate"; but in most instances the com-
mittee favored ploughing and reseeding as opposed to top-dressing. They rec-
ognized, however, that ploughing "will be found of little avail — except to destroy
weeds and bushes — without a suitable application of manure." They suggested
the following plan for the renovation of old pastures:

Set apart four or five lots of convenient size; plough and plant No. 1
with corn, applying enough manure to produce a good crop. The next year
sow the same with wheat or barle^', and stock down to grass. Plant and
treat No. 2 with the same manure, and so continue, planting one lot and
stocking down one lot each year, until all are stocked down to grass. At
the end of six years the five lots will have been completely renovated, and
the same course commenced for a second turn. Thus the system may be
indefinitely continued, yielding an unbroken succession of remunerative
crops and pasturage of the finest quality.

In the light of present-day knowledge of soils and soil fertility in Massachusetts,
this committee in 1859, in the opinion of some at least, were sounder and more
logical in their recommendation than perhaps they themselves realized.

There is considerable evidence that tillage was rather widely practiced as well
as recommended as a means of pasture improvement. A report*^ frcm Plymouth
County in 1865 stated that a considerable portion of the corn and most of the
rye that \vas raised was grown on pasture land "to rid it of bushes and briars."
The supervisor for pasture improvement for the same county in 1866 declared
that "the process of mowing bushes is merely conservative, having, like all con-
servatism, n> higher aim than that of keeping 'things as they are.' For permanent
improvement more radical measures are necessary, and the plough, where it can
be used, is the most approved agency for initiating them."*-*

A farmer in Worcester County in 1877 described a system that he had been
following to improve his worn-out pasture land, which consisted of removing
the stones, ploughing, cultivating, manuring, and reseeding. "In this way,"
he wrote, "I expect to restore my pastures to that abundant supply of sweet,
milk-producing grass that was produced so abundantly in former years. "*5

^"Agriculture of Massachusetts, 4th Report (1841), p. 398.
S^Mass. Agricultural Societies Transactions (1851), p. 45.
82Mass. State Bd. Agric. 7th Annual Report (1859), Pt. I, p. 27.
SSlbid., 13th Annual Report (1865), Pt. I, p. 280.
*''lbid., 14th Annual Report (1866), Pt. II, p. 19.
*5lbid.. 2Sth Annual Report (1877), Pt. I., p. 299.

PASTURE CULTURE

21

The Difference Between the Two Pastures Shown Above is Largely a Difference in Soil Fertility.

Above: A "run-out" pasture which is rapidly reverting to brush and trees.

Below: A well-fertilized semi-permanent pasture supplying excellent grazing to a large herd.

22

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

Where Land is too Stony to Plow, a "Bog" Harrow is Sometimes Used to Facilitate Seedbed

Preparation.

Above: A field which has just been tilled with a "bog" harrow.
Below: A "close-up" of the machine.

PASTURE CULTURE

23 J,

Above: A strongly podzolized soil profile located near Wellfleet on Cape Cod, showing a" well-
developed A 2 horizon.

Below: Alfalfa requires a high level of soil fertility. Where a top-dressing of potash has been
applied annually, a good stand of alfalfa remains after four seasons; but where no potash was
applied, severe winterkilling took place at the end of the third season.

24

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

Grass Strains
Differences Between "Strains" may be of Real Practical Importance.

Above : The short-growing orchard grass strain on the right is a late leafy hay type which can
be grown satisfactorily with alfalfa. It is much more desirable than either of the two coarse-
stemmed early-maturing strains on the left.

Below : The Svalof early meadow fescue on the right is apparently immune to leaf rust whereas
the "commercial" meadow fescue on the left is very susceptible.

PASTURE CULTURE 25

But notwithstanding the pasture improvement recommendations of the agri-
cultural leaders and the success achieved by some of the best farmers, pasture
improvement practices were never generally adopted. Secretary Flint reported
in 1853 that "In some places some real and positive improvement has been
made — in others no pains have been taken even to prevent deterioration. "*6 And
Secretary Russell, in a spirit of resignation, some years later reported that "These
pastures are the constant topic of agricultural discussion. 'How to improve the
fertility of our pasture,' is a standing question of clubs and inoiicutes, only an-
swered in theory."*^

Why Pasture Improvement Failed

It would appear that one of the most important reasons for the failure of ail
attempts to prevent a general deterioration of pasture lands during the nine-
teenth century was the great scarcity of manures of all kinds. As has already been
pointed out, most of the available supply of barnyard manure was used on the
arable land to maintain satisfactory- yields of tilled crops. Since most of this
manure was made on the individual farms by feeding the grass crop of the farm
to livestock, it was obvious that enough manure could not be made available
to supply both the grass and the cultivated crops. The farming system was one
of a slow transfer of the fertility of the grassland over to the tilled land. Until
some outside source of fertility could be tapped either to maintain the fertility
of the grasslands or to provide the fertility for the tilled lands, a gradual de-
terioration of the grasslands was inevitable. To a limited extent outside sources
of fertility did exist, but the supplies were limited and the materials were usually
expensive. Wood ashes, gypsum, guano, bone meal, muck, composts, and various
mill wastes were all used, but the quantity of plant food material which either
was available or could be profitably used was wholly inadequate to meet the
needs.

Another important factor was the existence of large areas of cheap grasslands.
Farmers discovered that it was much cheaper to clear or buy and exploit new
lands than it was to renovate old land. Land was relatively abundant and
values were low. For example, in 1865 pasture lands could be bought for as low
as two dollars an acre, and seldom was the price more than twenty-five dollars
per acre.^^ Together with cheapness of the land were low standards of productivity
for both land and livestock. In 1841, a pasture of thirty acres which would keep
twelve cattle was considered an "excellent" pasture.*' A cow which produced
two or three thousand pounds of milk in a year was a satisfactory producer.
These standards of production are less than half present-da^^ standards.

Still another important consideration was the widespread belief among farmers
that, since pastures would produce something even on poor lands and would also
withstand a great deal of abuse in their management, this, then, was the most
profitable way to handle them. F. H. Storer wrote that "one fundamental con-
ception in the mind of many New England farmers is, that the land devoted to
pasturage upon any given farm should either be poor land or rocky land or land
so inaccessible that it could hardly be used for any other purpose. . . . "^
Unfortunately this conception has continued in the minds of many farmers all
o\"er the country' down to the present day.

A final factor which undoubtedly played some role in earlier as well as in recent

^^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 1st Annual Report (1853), Pt. I, p. 70.

''■'Ibid., 29th Annual Report (1881), Pt. I, p. 17.

^^Ibid.. 13th Annual Report (1865). Pt. I. p. 122.

^^Agriculture of Massachusetts. 4th Report (1841), p. 79.

'"Agriculture in Some of Its Relations with Chemistry (7th ed.. New York, 1910), III, 593.

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

times is the slowness with which pasture lands frequently respond to treatment
and the difficulties involved in measuring the magnitude of the response. It
may take one or more years for top-dressed materials to produce their full effect,
and reseeded pastures require most of one full season's growth before they are
■well established. As a result, farmers have become somewhat impatient with
pasture improvement practices and have not fully appreciated their worth.

The historical development of agriculture in Massachusetts was accurately
.summarized fifty years ago by one Professor Whitcher, when he wrote:

First we have the so-called period of inexhaustible fertility, when it
was thought that the soil would continue to yield abundant crops in-
definitely, without the application of fertilizer. Then we have the period
of exhaustion, when the soil has become exhausted of plant food and
will no longer produce a good crop. Then comes the third period, the
period of renovation, when we are asking how we can overcome the results
of the errors of previous methods. ^i

Pasture lands in Massachusetts have already passed through the first and second
periods and they are just entering the third period at the present time.

PRESENT DAY PASTURES ~ THEIR CULTURE AND MANAGEMENT

Since agricultural leaders first attacked the problem of pasture improvement
in the nineteenth century, conditions have materially changed. Fertilizer sub-
stances which were either non-existent or scarce and expensive in former days
are at present available in practically unlimited quantities and at relatively low
cost. Our present-day knowledge of the soil and plant sciences, although by no
means exhaustive, nevertheless offers plausible explanations for phenomena which
puzzled our nineteenth century predecessors. It is desirable, therefore, to examine
the observations and conclusions of these earlier workers, in the light of present-
day theories and information. It would be a serious omission if the early work
in the field of pasture improvement were ignored or slighted, because the apparent
accuracy of much of this work is amazing.

The following discussion is an attempt to integrate that which appears to be
the best in nineteenth century thinking with that which appears to be the best
in twentieth century thinking as it relates to the problem of pasture improve-
ment in Massachusetts. The problem is considered from the standpoint of the
four principal cultural factors which determine the productivity and usefulness
of pastures in Massachusetts — the soil, the grazing system, the pasture plant,
and the climate.

The Soil

In reviewing the history of pastures in Massachusetts, the one significant fact
which stands out above all others is that the soil, in terms of soil fertility, has been
the chief limiting factor to successful pasture culture.

A satisfactory explanation of why this was true may be found when one con-
siders the fundamental nature of the soils themselves, a subject which has already
been discussed in some detail. If this explanation is true for the past, and the
writer on the basis of his studies and experience thoroughly believes that it is,
then soil fertility must still be one of the most important limiting factors in pasture
culture since it is practically impossible to change the fundamental character of
a soil.

Before discussing soil fertility, a definition or an explanation of what is meant

SlMass. State Bd. Agric. 38th Annual Report (1890), p. IS.

PASTURE CULTURE 27

by the term is desirable. Unfortunateh* no simple, concise definition can be given
because soil fertility is "a complicated and multi-dimensional problem." Soil
fertility is not simpl)' a matter of abundant supplies of nitrogen, calcium, potas-
sium, and phosphorus, but includes many other chemical, physical, and biological
relationships of the soil as well. Soil fertility really consists of a large number
of factors operating favorably toward the production of a crop. Some of these
factors are known, others as yet little understood, and probably many others
still unknown. Perhaps the best definition of soil fertility which can be given
was formulated many years ago by one Nathan Bowen in a letter to Jared Eliot
in 1761, when he wrote, "The grand secret of the planters Art, seems to be to
Supply the plants with a Sufficient & proper Food, water and air in due propor-
tion & Time. This Art being well understood and practiced by him, will give the
fruit of his Labour to his Sattisfaction if he have any Reason at all."92 A high
level of soil fertility implies a capacity on the part of the soil to "satisfy simul-
taneously and continually during the whole time of the growth of a plant its
maximum demand in water and food." A low level of soil fertility or infertility,
of course, implies the opposite condition.

Soil Fertility and Yields

To point out the relationship of soil fertility and crop yield may seem super-
fluous since such a relationship should be perfectly obvious. Within certain
limits this has been generally recognized with most other field crops but not with
pastures. The fact that pasture yields are extremely difficult to measure and
the fact that pastures will withstand a great deal of abuse in their cultural manage-
ment and still produce something have partially obscured the direct relationship
which exists between soil fertility and herbage yields. Some appear to go so far
as to assume that, although such a relationship exists with tilled crops, with
pastures it is relatively unimportant and the most economical way, if not the best
way, to manage a pasture is to starve it. Those who wish to fit the plant to the
soil and not the soil to the plant and who are searching for a high-yielding, nu-
tritious, palatable pasture species which will thrive on "run-out"soils fall in this
group.

Soil fertility influences pasture yields in two important ways. The first is
through the direct relationship which exists between the level of soil fertility
in a pasture and the productivity of whatever pasture species may be present.
Any pasture species, irrespective of its particular growth habit or soil adaptation,
is much more productive at high than at low fertility levels.

The second way is through the close correlation which exists between the soil
fertility level and the botanical composition of the pasture vegetation. This is
more noticeable in semi-permanent pasture than it is in permanent pastures.
In the former, highly productive species, such as alfalfa or Ladino clover, will
maintain themselves and remain productive as long as soil conditions are favorable;
but when soil conditions become less favorable, they are supplanted by less produc-
tive species and disappear altogether. In permanent pastures, a similar suc-
cession of lower fertility species supplanting higher fertility ones is easily observed
as soil fertility levels fall. As permanent pastures become exhausted, bent grass
and low-growing white clover supplant blue grass and tall-growing white clover;
poverty grass supplants both bent grass and white clover; while mosses and
woody shrubs eventually succeeded by forest trees complete the whole succession.

It has long been observed that many of the more productive pasture species
demand a relativeh' high level of fertility before they will grow satisfactorily.
John Worlidge observed in 1675 that "Land too rich for Corn, cannot be too rich

92Field Husbandry, p. 208.

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

for [red] clover. "^^ In 1747 Jared Eliot stated that "If Land be too poor, it
[clover] will not grow."^^ Recent experience with Ladino clover in Massachusetts
has shown that the superior yielding capacity of this plant and its phenomenal
ability to make a quick comeback after grazing can be realized only through the
maintenance of high levels of soil fertility. When this high level declines, as it
inevitably does three or four years after seeding, this species usually disappears.
Alfalfa, another high yielding species, reacts similarly, and there is mounting
evidence to show that certain of the grasses behave in the same manner.

Soil Fertility and Feed Quality

In addition to producing more feed, fertile soils produce better feed. This fact
was recognized many years ago by G. L. Clemence, when he stated that "A ton
of hay gathered from a third of an acre has more of the elements of animal growth
than has a ton raised upon an entire acre. . . . that one acre has been able to
produce only one ton to the other's three, is evidence in itself that it is lacking
in the elements of plant and animal growth. "^^

In recent years, coincident with generally declining fertility levels of many of
the hay and pasture sections of the country, there has been an increase in nutri-
tional diseases traced to mineral deficiencies in forage crops. Nutritional anemia
in cattle has been traced to a deficiency of iron in forage produced in certain sec-
tions of southeastern Massachusetts. ^^ Elsewhere in the country other nutritional
disorders or diseases have been variously traced to mineral deficiences of calcium,
phosphorus, and copper and still other elements.''^

Albrecht has expressed the situation thus: "Crops can make themselves only
from what is offered by the soil. Animals can make themselves only from what
is offered them by the crops as feed, and thus in the final analysis, the animals
reflect the fertility of the soil. "9*

Palatability, another important factor in feeding any type of livestock, is
closely associated with feed quality. Feeds low in nutritive value are seldom
palatable. Wheat straw is an extreme example, yet the herbage supplied by
many of our "run-out" pastures in midseason is little more palatable. Indeed,
it is no coincidence that the hay and pasture plants most sought after by stock-
men for their nutritive value and for their palatability require a fertile soil.

Soil Fertility and Resistance to Disease and Winter Injury

Just as the health of animals is dependent upon nutritious forage, so is the
health of plants dependent upon a fertile soil. This conception is another idea
that is not new. Years ago, W. H. Bowkcr in 1880 stated that, "It has been
demonstrated over and over again that a healthy plant will withstand disease,
and a healthy plant means one that is properly fed from beginning to end."^^
Professor Stone some years later wrote that "a condition of health is the natural
or normal thing with the plant, and that if we as cultivators do our part by making
the condition right for the normal development of the plant, many of these
troublesome problems of disease are thereby solved in advance. . . . The first
essential in the prevention of plant disease is to supply the plant with the condi-
tions for its best normal development."'"*'

In recent vears, closer studies of nutrient deficiency symptoms in plants have

^^Systema Agriculturae (London, 1675), p. 26.
9^Field Husbandry, p. 18.

95Mass. State Bd. Agric. 38th Annual Report (18901. p. 297.
36journal of Dairy Science, XXI (1938), 59-68.
^'National Fertilizer Association, Pamphlet No. 129, 1941.
'^Fertilizer Review, XIII (1938), No. 5.

^^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 34th .Annual Report (1886), p. 209.
lO^Ibid.. 54th Annual Report (1906), p. 22.

PASTURE CULTURE 29

shown that many physiologic disorders or diseases are directly associated with a
deficiency in one or more essential nutrient elements. Some of these so-called
"deficiency diseases" have been found affecting forage crops in Massachusetts.
A characteristic chlorotic condition of the plant leaves has been identified with a
deficiency of soil magnesium. More recently, a yellowing of the leaves of alfalfa,
particularly in the second crop, has been definitely associated with deficiency of
soil boron.

Winter injury, particularly with some of the leguminous crops, is another
important trouble which has long been associated with soil fertility'. In 1888,
for example, the Massachusetts Experiment Station reported^"' that the un-
fertilized plots of alfalfa, red clover, alsike, perennial rye grass, and meadow
fescue showed serious winter injury, whereas fertilized plots did not. It was
reported from Rhode Island in ISQSi*'^ that the liberal use of lime had resulted
in good crops of red clover on soils where clover had "formerh" winterkilled nearly
every year."

Much evidence has been obtained in Massachusetts recently to show that
additional potash applied as top-dressing to fields of alfalfa will greatly reduce
winter injury and thereby prolong the life of the stand. '"^ In this case potassium
appears to have been the limiting fertility factor to what was otherwise a satisfac-
tory level of fertility. Since alfalfa is a heavy feeder on potassium and since
Massachusetts soils are naturally low in potassium, this pronounced response
to a potash fertilizer is readily conceivable. In Rhode Island, lime or more likely
calcium was directly associated with winter injury while in Massachusetts it was
potassium. It would seem, therefore, that a deficiency of any important nutrient
element might so weaken a plant as to render it susceptible to winter injury.
The weakening of a plant by injury from certain disease organisms might also
hav^e the same effect.

Healthy plants are hardy plants and to produce healthy plants the soil must
be capable of delivering to the plant an adequate supply of all essential plant
nutrients. Plants like animals perform at their best only when given a balanced
as well as a plentiful "diet."

Factors in Soil Fertility Maintenance

Practically all available evidence indicates that adequate levels of soil fertility
are just as important to the pasture crop as they are to any other productive
crop. Pastures offer some difficulties in this respect which do not exist with tilled
crops. The fundamental principles of fertility maintenance are essentially the
same in both cases, but because of differences in cultural procedure, the practical
application of these principles is more difficult.

Fertilizer Materials. — As previously discussed, the soils of Massachusetts
are naturally low in available quantities of many essential nutrient elements,
including calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Therefore,
for these soils to supply the pasture crop with an "adequate and balanced diet,"
the supplies of these necessary elements must be periodically replenished.

Lime. — The need for calcium was early recognized and materials supplying
this element were among the first soil amendments used in this country. Jared
Eliot in 1747 wrote of a type of marl which he tried and "found it equal to good
dung."!"^ The use of this material on grasslands was mentioned as early as

Wllbid.. 36th Annual Report (1888). p. 517.
^"^ibid., 46th Annual Report (1898), p. 189.
lO^Mass. Agric. Expt. Sta.. Bui. 355 (1939), p. 19.
'"^Field Husbandry, p. 17.

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

ITdl.^"^ During the latter part of the eighteenth century- the use of gypsum or
land plaster was initiated with much success and it was used extensively through-
out most of the nineteenth century. The use of limestone was common by 1820
in sections where it was abundant, but its general use was not extensive until
later on in the nineteenth century when processing and transportation facilities
were improved and costs had been lowered. In 1838 Colman reported that the
cost of lime in Massachusetts prevented its use to any considerable extent except
in the limestone regions. Many of the principal benefits of lime were recognized
by the same author when he spoke of its use as "neutralizing the acids which
render a soil sour and unproductive; in converting insoluble into soluble matter
and in thus preparing the vegetable matter in the soil for the food of the plants
and bringing it into condition by which it can be taken up by their roots. "'"^

Recent studies by Albrecht^"^ indicate that calcium is even more important in
the nutrition of plants than was formerly thought. Not only must calcium
be considered as a very essential element in itself, but plentiful supplies of calcium
in the soil are essential for the efficient utilization of other nutrient elements such
as potassium and phosphorus. These same studies have shown that available
calcium is the important consideration and that soil pH to a large extent is more
or less incidental. Therefore the use of materials which supply available calcium
in adequate quantities is of utmost importance. Limestone is probably the
cheapest and most effective source of calcium, and in Massachusetts where soils
are also deficient in magnesium, a dolomitic limestone is preferable. It must
also not be overlooked that man}' fertilizer materials carry calcium as an incidental
part of their composition and that calcium in this form may serve a very useful
purpose in supplying the needs of the crop.

Potash and Phosphates. — The early and extensive use of wood ashes as a
"manure" indicates an early recognition of a deficiency of soil potassium in
Massachusetts. Jared Eliot in 1747 observed "Ashes is allowed on all hands to
be some of the best Dressing or Manure for Land; it enriches much and lasts long
but the misery is we can get but little."^"* A hundred years later Colonel Wilder
declared, "I have never used any manure on my soils that would produce such a
wonderful effect as ashes. ... I am of the opinion that there is no mineral manure
that we need so much upon our soils here in New England that have been long
under cultivation as potash. "^"^ Recent experimental results on the beneficial
effects of potash in stimulating the growth of white clover in permanent pastures,
in greatly benefiting stands of alfalfa and Ladino clover, and in increasing the
yields of hay mixtures, merely substantiate the keen observations of Colonel
Wilder.

Historical references to the importance of phosphates are not nearly so fre-
quent as they are for potash and lime. However, the use of "bone manure"
before the middle of the nineteenth century is evidence that the addition of
phosphates was beneficial. More recently crop responses from phosphate fertili-
zation have not been so pronounced as they have from potash fertilization prob-
ably because of the comparatively light, or sandy nature of most Massachusetts
soils. Such soils invariably respond to potash fertilization before they do to
phosphate fertilization. Moreover, the phosphorus content of most commercial
fertilizers has been proportionately high ever since they came into extensive use
so that phosphorus needs in general have been met. It must not be construed,

lOSpield Husbandry, p. 160.

106Agriculture of Massachusetts, 2d Report (1838). p. 11.

^"^Soil Science Society of America Proceedings V (1940), 1-16.

lOSpield Husbandry, p. 43.

l^^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 17th Annual Report (1869). Pt. I, p. 47.

PASTURE CULTURE 31

however, that liberal applications of phosphate fertilizers need not be continued,
for many of our most desirable forage crops, particularly the legumes, are raven-
ous consumers of phosphorus as well as of calcium, magnesium, and potassium
and they must have adequate supplies of all of these elements.

Nitrogen. — Organic matter is the natural repository of soil nitrogen. The
original reserve of nitrogen in Massachusetts soils was contained in the accumu-
lated layer of organic matter or vegetable mold and as long as appreciable quanti-
ties of this original supply of organic matter persisted in the soil, there was no
great need for additional nitrogen. As soon as the supply was exhausted, how-
ever, another source of nitrogen was necessary. For many years this need in
pastures was supplied principally by the legume, white clover. Where legumes
constitute a substantial part of the vegetation today, they can still be relied upon
to supply a considerable portion of the necessary nitrogen. Where grasses pre-
dominate, on the other hand, the use of nitrogen fertilizers is obligatory, since
grasses to be productive must have large quantities of this element.

Minor Elements. — The lack of some of the minor elements is indicated by the
more frequent occurrence in recent years of a number of different "deficiency
diseases." To prevent this occurrence, it now appears that, in addition to mag-
nesium, boron and perhaps other elements must be supplied to many Massachu-
setts soils.

Organic Matter. — Soil organic matter, the material which played such an
important soil fertility role in the past in Massachusetts, is at the present time
a very important factor in soil fertility relationships. The principal difference
between present and former times is that today the nature of organic matter and
its behavior are better understood and the desirability of periodically replenishing
the organic matter supply of cultivated soils is more widely appreciated.

Soil organic matter is one of the most active constituents in the soil. If present
in adequate quantities in soils well supplied with plant food it serves to hold
certain of the more soluble nutrients in such a way as to make them readily
available to growing plants but yet to prevent excessive losses through leaching.
This function is also carried on by colloidal clay, an inorganic material, but since
the clay content of most Massachusetts soils is quite low, the action of organic
colloids in this respect is of much greater importance.

A great many of the favorable effects of organic matter result not from its mere
presence in the soil but from its being continually broken down into its simpler
constituents. Under favorable circumstances complete breakdown of this material
releases quantities of plant food nutrients which can be readily taken up by grow-
ing plants. In this way not only nitrogen is released but also calcium, potassium,
magnesium, and many other essential elements.

The relationship of decomposing organic matter to the development and
maintenance of good soil structure is important, but this subject will receive fuller
treatment in the discussion on tillage.

In spite of the many "positive" effects of soil organic matter, Albrecht.i^** in
a recent enlightening discussion on this subject, points out that organic matter
under certain conditions may be injurious to plant growth. Such can be the
case if plant nutrients are physically held through absorption so securely as to be
unavailable to growing plants. Injurious effects can also result if, during the
process of complete breakdown, the microorganisms which bring about this
transformation are not supplied with a "well-balanced bacterial ration." The
microorganisms may withdraw nutrients from the soil solution and from the

ll'Soil Science, LI (1941), 487-494.

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

organic material itself to such an extent that the crop plants actually suffer from
an unbalance or a deficiency of one or more essential elements. A temporary
nitrogen deficiency is frequently induced when large quantities of carbonaceous
materials are plowed under without sufficient nitrogen to promote both the
decomposition of the organic matter and the satisfactory growth of the crop.
If available supplies of other elements are limited, deficiencies or perhaps an
unbalance of essential plant food nutrients may also be induced as a result of
the decomposition process. This is likely to be the situation in soils which had
been badly depleted of their available essential minerals before a quantity of
organic matter was plowed under.

The need for supplementary nitrogen to promote the decomposition of certain
types of organic matter is generally recognized and steps are usually taken to
provide it; but the need for additional quantities of supplementary mineral
elements to promote decomposition is not generalK" recognized and this may
account for some of our now unexplainable difficulties in crop production. For a
number of years many farmers in Massachusetts have frequently had difficulty
in producing satisfactory tilled crops following immediately on land which has
lain for several years in hay or pasture. Since the common hay and pasture
species are capable of reducing fertility of a soil to a low level and since the general
practice has been to let such a condition develop, immediate difficulties in pro-
ducing crops on "run out" hay or pasture land might be expected. Unless the
needs of both the microorganisms and the crop can be satisfactorily met, the
crop will certainly suffer. The succeeding crop may be adequately fertilized,
but it may require a considerable period of time for the fertilizers to act and re-
establish satisfactory soil fertility relationships.

The most satisfactory solution of this problem would be to prevent such a
condition from developing. If satisfactory levels of soil fertility are maintained
in hay and pasture lands, not only will greatly increased yields of better hay or
pasture herbage result but the succeeding crops in rotation will benefit from the
"positive" effects of decomposing organic matter instead of suffering from its
"negative" effects. In fact, one of the most satisfactory means of replenishing
the supply of organic matter in a cultivated soil is through the periodic produc-
tion of a well-fertilized sod crop. Stapledon has recently written that, "It is
an axiom to my mind to say that a ley [sod ] is a good preparation for any crop,"'!!
but this will only be true when the fertility levels maintained in sod lands are
comparable to those maintained in other crop lands.

Tillage. — Over three hundred years ago Lord Bacon wrote that "Old ground,
that hath been long unbroken up, gathereth mosse; and therefore husbandmen
use to cure their pasture grounds, when they growe to mosse, by tilling them for a
yeare or two."'i2 Since the time of Bacon, much evidence has accumulated which
definitely indicates that grasslands, at least on soils similar to those in Massachu-
setts, must be periodically plowed and reseeded if high levels of productivity are
to be maintained. Jared Eliot, in describing grasslands in Connecticut, noted
that, "The Experienced Farmers say that their Grass Ground thus Ploughed
Once in Five Years mends the Land in this way."ii^ Bordley, writing about
grasslands in eastern Pennsylvania in 1801, said, "It is of great advantage to turn
up the ground, shift its surface, and bury the sods of grass. "i'^ This is in direct
contradiction to the idea now occasionally expressed, though not proved, that a
layer of organic matter at the surface of the ground is necessary for some of the

!!!piough-Up Policy and Ley Farming (London, 1939), p. 75.

I'^storer, Agriculture III, 612.

!!*Fie!d Husbandry, p. 64.

^'''Bordlcy's Husbandry (Philadelphia, 1801). p. 10.

PASTURE CULTURE 33

shallow-rooted permanent pasture plants — principally native white clover — to
thrive. Bordley continued, "The expense of seed for renewing grass is thought
too much of by farmers. It is a trifle, when opposed by the advantages gained."

Many observations on the benefits of tillage to grasslands have also been
recorded in Massachusetts. Henry Colman in 1841 wrote:

Without a question, where land has become, as it is termed, 'bound
out', the sward matted, and the herbage fine, small and stunted, much
would be gained by simply turning it over, keeping the sward unbroken,
harrowing it and freely sowing grass seed upon it, especially with the
application of ashes or plaster, or some other alkaline substance ... to
get the greatest yield, an occasional manuring, and the cultivation of the
soil so as to break up its tenacity and expose it freely to the influence of
sun and air are indispensable. The coarse grasses will soon come in again
if the land is not cultivated and manured. ^^

The following quotation, taken from the Massachusetts State Board of Agri-
culture report for 1871, on the necessity of periodically plowing grasslands is
typical of a number which appear from time to time from 1853 through to 1906:

If land is moist and thoroughly stocked, it may be kept in good condition
for several years by a judicious top-dressing. But my own experience is
that top-dressing cannot be applied to high lands with so good a result.
Manage as we may, in from three to five years the crop grows less, the
wild grass begins to creep in, and from five to eight years the land needs
turning over and reseeding.ii^

Many experiments in top-dressing both hay lands and pasture with fertilizers
have been carried on from time to time in Massachusetts. A marked improve-
ment has usually been obtained in both quality and quantity of feed produced,
but in no instance have the results indicated that top-dressed applications of
fertilizer materials were nearly as effective as plowing, fertilizing, and reseeding.
In experiments reported by W. P. Brooks^i^ from the Massachusetts Station in
1903, hay top-dressed with manure yielded something over 5,600 pounds per
acre; while hay land which was manured, plowed, and reseeded, yielded 10,000
pounds per acre. Although much encouraged by his first results from the use of
top-dressed fertilizers, he finally concluded that their use could extend the useful
life of hay sods only a year or two.

Levi Stockbridge, one of the keenest agricultural men of his day, whose judg-
ment concerning practical agricultural matters in Massachusetts was unsur-
passed, declared in 1872: "... my experience and observations are, that there
is no grass-land in Massachusetts but what ought to be ploughed once in ten
years. "11* There is a striking similarity in Stockbridge's statement to one made
in 1939 by Sir George Stapledon, one of the world's leading pasture authorities,
discussing the grasslands of England. Sir George writes:

In this country, and even on the very best grassland soils, I do not
believe there is a single field that would not benefit from periodic breaking.
I do not say that it would be possible or desirable, to plough into every
single acre of permanent grass in the country: but this is my point.

The sods below all permanent grass, if not becoming actually matted,
at least attain to a sort of "pot bound" condition after the lapse of a suffi-
cient number of years; on the best soils and under the best and most
intelligently grazed swards this condition may take thirty, forty, fifty or
sixty years to develop. On poorer soils, and under less intensive grazing
ten to fifteen years will be long enough for an advanced pot-boundness
to show itself. Some soils cannot carry decent grass for longer than four
to six years . . . the concensus of opinion everywhere is that animals are

^1 ^Agriculture of Massachusetts, 4th Report (1841), p. 239.

ll^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 19th Annual Report (1871), Pt. II, p. 22.

ll'^Hatch Expt. Sta. (Mass. Agric. College), 16th Annual Report (1904), p. 145.

ll^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 20th Annual Report (1872), Pt. I, p. 197.

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

healthy in proportion as the pastures are kept tolerably near to the plough —
are not, in short, of too great age in sward. ii^

John Orr, another prominent British authority on grass farming, writes:

Nothing will establish British agriculture on such a sound basis as the
use of the plough for the growth of grass. . . . For the quick and eflfective
introduction into the soil of raw materials from which grass is made, and
for its speed}' production in finished form, the plough is necessary. i^o

Such expressions of expert opinion concerning the best grasslands of England,
for years regarded as models of perfection in grassland management, are certainly
interesting if not revolutionary. If permanent pastures do not represent the best
pastures of England where soil and climatic conditions are generally favorable
for their best development, then prospects are indeed poor for making first-rate
permanent pastures out of the large area of run-down pasture land in Massachu-
setts, where both soil and climate are far less congenial.

The Case jor Tillage in Pasture Culture. — Why is tillage essential to high
productivity levels in grasslands? If both historical evidence and present-day
expert opinion agree that the periodic plowing and reseeding of grasslands are
prerequisite to high productivity levels, then there must be some good funda-
mental explanation. In recent 3'ears experimental work has been carried out in
various parts of the world which has supplied some scientific evidence to support
early observations. Although still more scientific evidence may be necessary
to provide a full explanation, the following discussion in the light of present in-
formation supplies a plausible if not a totally correct interpretation.

It was early observed in Massachusetts that adequate soil tillage for cultivated
crops was directly associated with soil moisture relationships. "The very Dews
will enter his pulverized Fields, with a larger Blessing than a large Shower can
give his Slovenly Neighbour because his ground is not fit to re».eive it or Retain
it," '21 wrote one Nathan Bowen, in 176L Later it was observed that moisture
relationships in grasslands become steadily poorer as the character of the sod
itself depreciates. The surface becomes hard and rather impervious to rainfall,
the water-holding capacity is reduced, and even the moisture already present in
the soil appears to be lost from the surface more readily by evaporation. 122 To
substantiate some of these observations, experiments reported recently from
New Jerseyi23 showed that the water loss, as total run-ofT, from a continuously
grazed pasture plot was four times as great as that from a grass-legume seeding
and even greater than that from the corn plot. Recent work on the evaporation
of water from bare soil surfaces, carried on at the Missouri Station, 124 indicates
that, for some soil types at least, moisture from below the surface may be con-
tinually lost through evaporation until the available moisture supply is depleted
to a considerable depth. It appears, therefore, that, as a sod becomes older,
particularly on sandy soils, certain physical relationships of the soil become pro-
gressively less and less favorable to plant growth.

In order to determine just what factors were responsible for reduced yields
from aging sods, experiments were carried out in Germany on soils similar to
those in Massachusetts. In one series of experiments'^s certain physical prop-
erties of the soil were measured in natural meadowland and similar areas which
had been plowed and reseeded. It was found that in the plowed land the water-

119piough-Up Policy and Ley Farming, p. 21.

I20Scottish Journal of Agriculture, XX (1937), 3-40.

12lField Husbandry, p. 208.

122Mass. State Bd. Agric. 58th Annual Report (1910). p. 12.

123Soil Conservation, V (1940), 256-258.

124pfjya(g Communication from C. M. Woodruff, Dept. of Soils, Mo. Agric. Expt. Sta., 1941.

l^^Zeitschrift fiiV Pflanzenernahrung Dungung und Bodenkunde, A XXXII (1933), 278-301.

PASTURE CULTURE 35

holding capacity of the soil was increased, particularly on mineral soils naturally
low in organic matter; the air content was over 50 percent greater; and the organic
matter content was appreciably lower. In another series of similar experiments, '26
some of these same measurements were taken over a period of years and the results
correlated with yields of hay. The hay yields on the plowed and reseeded areas
fell off progressively as the values for water-holding capacity, soil structure, and
content of soil air of the reseeded areas approached those for natural meadow soils.
It is difficult to say just which factor was the most important in raising the
production of the reseeded plots because it is difficult to separate the effect of
improved nutrient relationships and water-holding capacity in the newly seeded
areas from the effects of better aeration or some other changed relationship.
It is likely that in the case of light, mineral soils, greater supplies of plant nutrients
and increased water-holding capacity were important factors, but improved soil
aeration may also have been very important. Recent investigations on the
importance of oxygen in plant nutrition definitely suggest this possibility. Hoag-
land and Arnon believe that, "the factor of oxygen supply and of carbon dioxide
removal from around the roots may sometimes limit nutrient absorption by
plants, even when availability of nutrients, in a chemical sense, is not limiting."'"''^
Similar views have recently been expressed by Shive.^^s

In the second series of German experiments, efforts were made to increase the
yield of the natural meadowland by the use of various fertilizer top-dressing ma-
terials. There w'as some increase in yield from several of the treatments, but in
no instance did the yield even approach that obtained from the reseeded plots.
The fact that factors other than a lack of plant food nutrients were important in
limiting yields, explains why simply supplying these nutrients did not restore
hay yields. Perhaps lack of an adequate supply of available oxygen and an
excess of carbon dioxide were important.

Further light is thrown on the subject of tillage by results from Russian ex-
periments which have been reviewed by Russell. 129 The Russians have found
that the structure of a soil is improved not b\' the presence of raw organic matter
in the soil but by its decomposition, and that the greater the rate of decomposition
the greater will be the improvement in soil structure. This explains why, although
a large amount of organic material accumulates in a soil under a continuous sod
cover, soil structure actually deteriorates together with other factors influencing
plant growth, such as moisture-holding capacity and soil aeration. It also shows
why a well-developed sod, when plowed under, may produce so many desirable
effects. As Lindsay-Robb writes —

The age-old implement the plough is still the most efficient cultivator
on the farm. ... It is the only implement that enables a farmer to
release and cash the 'frozen' fertility that has accumulated since the
pasture was established. The effect of cultivation on arable land — which
incidentally commences with the plough — is well known, and it is equally
true of established grassland. i^"

Fertility Improvement and Maintenance in Permanent Pastures

Although one might conclude from the foregoing discussion that it is practically
impossible to maintain satisfactory fertility levels in a grass sod for more than
a few years, such an interpretation is not altogether correct. By following suitable
practices, fair yields of moderately good feed can be produced in permanent

126pflanzenbau, XIV (1938), 241-264.

127Soil Science, LI (1941), 431-444.

128lbid., pp. 445-458.

"^Imperial Bureau of Soil Science, Tech. Communication No. 37, (1938).

'^University of Pretoria (South Africa), Series No. 1. BuK 36, p. 29.

36 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

pastures, provided natural soil conditions are favorable. Following is a critical
discussion of certain widely publicized "systems" for bringing about permanent
pasture improvement.

Factors Influencing the Growth of Natural White Clover. — Since the success of
several methods for treating permanent pastures depends upon the successful
growth of natural white clover, it would be well to consider some of the important
factors which influence its growth.

Moisture. — Without question, moisture is the most important factor in-
fluencing the prevalence of natural white clover in permanent pasture sods.
"Indeed, it depends so much upon a general distribution of rains through the
season," wrote Flint in 1867, "that when they are sufficiently abundant it comes
in profusely even where it was not observed in other years, and hence such seasons
pass under the term of 'clover years.' "^^^ An adequate supply of moisture is so
important for this very aggressive but shallow-rooted plant that any permanent
pasture-improvement program which depends largely on the growth of natural
white clover for its success, should be confined only to those pasture areas which
have satisfactory moisture relationships throughout most of a normal season.

Mineral Nutrients. — An adequate supply of mineral nutrients is just as im-
portant as soil moisture in maintaining a vigorous growth of white clover. At
the present time most permanent pasture soils in Massachusetts which have not
been limed and fertilized are too deficient in a number of the necessary plant food
elements, particularly calcium and potash, to support a good growth of white
clover. If adequate quantities of these elements are supplied through top-
dressed lime and fertilizers to soils with good moisture relationships, an abundant
growth of natural white clover will invariably result.

Competition from Associated Grasses. — A third important factor influencing
the prevalence of natural white clover is the vigorous growth of the accompanying
grasses. 1*2 This competition frequently exists in pastures which have been im-
properly grazed or which have been heavily fertilized with nitrogen fertilizers
and then improperly grazed. If grass is not subdued in pastures of moderately
low levels of fertility, the white clover will seriously suff'er because under such
conditions only the low-growing forms will thrive and such forms offer poor com-
petition for tall-growing grasses.

Competition from grasses is always serious following periods of drought. The
effects of dry weather are always much more severe on the clover than on the
grass. The succulent leaves and stems of the clover usually dry up completely
and the plant dies, whereas the grasses usually remain dormant throughout the
dry period and then begin growth again as soon as growing conditions are again
favorable. These grasses, stimulated by the nitrogen released from the dead
clover plants, then make very rapid growth which in turn makes survival difficult
for any clover plant which may have escaped the drought. It is now generally
believed that the effects of nitrogen fertilizers on clovers are indirect. The nitrogen
stimulates the grasses and the grasses in turn, unless closely grazed, tend to crowd
out the clovers.

"Hard" Seeds. — The "spontaneous" appearance of natural white clover
wherever and whenever soil conditions are favorable, is probably explained by
the abundant production of "hard" seeds. Early observations have shown that
some of these "hard" seeds will germinate after remaining many years in vials

l*lGras3 and Forage Plants, pp. 188.189.

132b. a. Brown, Journal American Society of Agronomy, XXXI (1939), 326-332.

PASTURE CULTURE 37

filled with water.133 That such seeds can live for a long time submerged in water.,
gives some indication as to how long they might lie dormant in the soil before
germinating. More recent experimental work tends to support these earlier
observations. 13* What evidently happens is that a great many seeds are lying
dormant in the soil and that a few of them germinate every year. If fertility
conditions are favorable these few plants make an extremely rapid, spreading
growth. One single plant under favorable circumstances may spread out in a
radius of from two to three feet in one season's growth. The limiting factor to
growth may be the lack of one or more of the fertilizer elements, or it may be
lack of moisture; but if these factors are eliminated, this remarkable "spon-
taneous" growth of natural white clover invariably results. The seeds of natural
white clover appear to have been universally distributed over the whole of New
England and the sudden appearance of this species can occur almost anywhere.

Top-dressing with Lime and Fertilizer. — The use of only lime and super-
phosphate has been reasonably successful in sections where silt loam and clay
loam soils are found and also on lands recently cleared of timber where the soils
have a high content of organic matter. Since neither extensive areas of silt loam
and clay loam soils nor lands recently cleared of timber are found in Massachu-
setts, this type of treatment for permanent pastures has met with only limited
success here. Some of the heavier soils in Franklin and Berkshire counties do
give a moderate response to treatments with lime and superphosphate, but most
of the lighter soils both in these two counties and elsewhere in the State do not.

The application of potash in addition to lime and superphosphate has produced
moderately good results on a much greater variety of soil types than has just
lime and superphosphate. This is to be expected since it has already been shown
that the potassium deficiency in many Massachusetts soils is more acute than
phosphorus deficiency. The response of all clovers to application of potash in
Massachusetts has long been observed. ^^^

If moisture relationships are such that a complete mineral treatment cannot
be relied upon to induce a good growth of natural white clover, nitrogen must
be added to the top-dressing mixture. Grasses must have plenty of nitrogen
to produce a satisfactory growth, and if a legume cannot be relied upon some
other source must be provided. Permanent pasture grasses are more widely
distributed than natural white clover in Massachusetts, with the result that
there is a considerable area of land which will respond to a complete fertilizer.
It is by no means uncommon in badly depleted pastures for a complete fertilizer
to actually stimulate the growth of natural white clover. Quite often nitrogen
alone is applied on permanent pasture in the early spring to provide early spring
grazing. Although this provides an economical source of early spring feed, nitro-
gen alone without additional use of lime and mineral fertilizers will merely hasten
the depletion of essential soil minerals and thereby hasten pasture deterioration.

Detailed recommendations for the kinds and amounts of lime and fertilizer
materials to use, together with a description of how and where they may be ap-
plied, are available in several current publications. i^^

Fertility Improvement and Maintenance in Semi- Permanent Pastures

The fertility problem in semi-permanent pastures is handled much the same
as for any tilled crop. The land is plowed, then adequately fertilized using suit-
able fertilizer materials including barnyard manure if available, and finally worked

ISSMass. State Bd. Agric. 54th Annual Report (1906), p. 150.

134international Seed Testing Association Proceedings, X (1938), 93-122.

135wm. P. Brooks, Hatch Expt. Sta. (Mass. Agric. College). 6th .Annual Report (1894), p. 9.

136Mass. State College Extension Leaflet 150 (1940).

38 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

up into a satisfactory seedbed and seeded. On many areas used for pastures
of this kind, it is difficult to use the ordinary plow because of rocks and stones.
A tillage implement known as a "bog" harrow is sometimes used under these
circumstances with quite satisfactory results. Any tool which will break up and
pulverize the top five or six inches of soil can be employed; although for the best
decomposition and utilization of the old sod it should be completely turned under.
The use of annual top-dressings of mineral fertilizers on pastures of this type
is recommended in order to maintain high levels of productivity. Moderate
applications of fertilizers at seeding time, followed by annual applications, usually
result in a more efficient use of these materials than if large applications are made
at seeding time only. As is the case with permanent pastures more detailed in-
formation is contained in current publications. ^^^

The Grazing System

"Manure right, sow right and manage the grazing animal wrong and >ou are
nowhere," writes Stapledon'^* in emphasizing the importance of grazing manage-
ment. It is only within the last few years, with the extensive growing of Ladino
clover pastures, that the importance of grazing management has begun to be
understood and appreciated in Massachusetts.

With old run-down permanent pastures the yield depends more upon the
weather and on fertilizer practices than on the grazing system employed. It
has always been difficult to demonstrate any marked improvement or benefit
from a rotational over a continuous system of grazing on permanent pastures.
Grazing management becomes important only as the potential productive capa-
city of a pasture increases. The productive capacity of most of our permanent
pastures is too low for them to show much benefit from rotational grazing. In
other words, the greater the productive capacity of a pasture, the greater the
need for controlled grazing.

Historical

The need for exercising some control in the management of grasslands has
long been recognized in Massachusetts. Almost two hundred years ago Jared
Eliot wrote: "It will be best to take out the Sheep at the latter end of August
that so what English Grass there is, may make coat for the ground before Win-
ter . . . "1^9 The principles of rotational grazing were also early understood
and the adoption of rotational systems of grazing advocated. Jn. Turner in 1761
wrote concerning early colonial grazing practices:

Another Error, I mention, is, that in Pasture Ground we leave open
too large a Piece to feed upon, in Proportion to the Number of creatures
to feed; as it is frequently the case, for one Cow to range on five or six
Acres of good Land at once, whereas by Division Fences in two Acre Lots,
the same Tract would maintain three Cows; . . . There is another ad-
vantage I have experienced in Division Fences, that in a wet Year I have
saved several Lots for Mowing which my Creatures did not want the
Feed of; and, had my Pastures lain in common, they would have been
trampled down and useless. ^^^

Other references^*! to the use of rotational or "on and off" systems of grazing
appear from time to time, but at no time until recently was the system adopted

l^Mass. Stat? College Extension Leaflets 175 (1937); 144 (1939).

ISSpourth International Grassland Congress, Great Britain, Report (Aberystwyth, 1937). p. 1.

IS^Field Husbandry, p. 19.

'^^ibid., p. 155.

^'''Doolittle, Address to the Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden County Agricultural Society,

(Northampton, 1826), p. 11; Mass. -Agricultural Societies Transactions (1853). p. 9; Mass.

State Bd. Agric. 20th Annual Report (1872), Pt. I, p. 38.

PASTURE CULTURE 39

to any great extent. In the early da\s when pasture land was plentiful and
grazing was good, farmers saw little need for expending additional time and
money to rotate the grazing of these pastures. Later, when these pastures were
"run out," it made comparatively little difference whether grazing was rotated
or not. Controlled grazing practices are at present much more important in the
management of good semi-permanent pastures than in most permanent pastures.

The Principles of Grazing Management

About the only semi-permanent pasture species whose grazing management
has been studied in Massachusetts is Ladino clover. Although the requirements
of other species may vary, it is likely that many of the best management prac-
tices for Ladino clover will apply to many of the other legumes at least. Some
of the most important elements of grazing technique include the following:

Alternate Grazing. — Ladino clover will not withstand continuous, close grazing.
Vigorously growing Ladino clover produces large leaves borne on long upright-
growing stems. If these leaves are continually removed, the plant cannot main-
tain a large enough leaf surface to carry on its normal life functions. Its growth
becomes less vigorous and before long it is crowded out altogether by some less
productive, less desirable species. Continuous grazing probably results also in
much mechanical injury to the heavy, succulent runners which spread over the
ground, and in this manner reduces plant growth. Therefore, Ladino clover
pastures must be rested periodically to allow the plants to recover from the effects
of grazing. A grazing period of one week to ten days appears to be the best for
Ladino clover. This permits the removal of most of the vegetative growth which
was present at the beginning of the grazing period, but not of much of the new
growth which occurs during that period.

Keeping animals on the pasture only a few hours a day during the grazing
period is another desirable practice, for it reduces mechanical injury to the plants
and compaction of the soil through tramping. This latter factor is particularly
important in the spring and during wet weather.

Even Grazing. — Unless a good pasture is uniformly grazed it deteriorates
rapidly. The undergrazed areas quickly become less palatable and are therefore
shunned more than ever, while the overgrazed areas become more palatable in
contrast and are therefore still more heavily overgrazed. Heavy stocking over a
relatively short grazing period is the best way to prevent the development of this
condition. A good Ladino clover pasture usually requires from eight to twelve
cows per acre to graze it evenly in a grazing period of one week to ten days.
Occasionally the use of a mower after grazing may be necessary to remove un-
eaten clumps.

Late Fall and Early Spring Grazing.— Grazing good pastures late in the fall
frequently prevents the storage of adequate food reserves in the roots of plants
like Ladino clover and often results in severe winter injury. Grazing early in
the spring before good growth has started or while the ground is soft is also fre-
quently injurious. Pasture plants must be permitted to make their early spring
growth unmolested, to enable them to maintain high productivity levels later
in the season.

The Pasture Plant

The third principal factor which directh- influences the productivity, feeding
value, and general usefulness of a pasture is the kind and type of plants which
thrive there.

Not only the total productivity of a pasture but also its seasonal productivity,

40 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

the ability to supply herbage during the hot summer as well as during the spring
and autumn, is closely associated with the nature of the plant cover. This phase
of the pasture problem, like that of grazing management, is relatively new and
it is one in which rapid progress is now being made. Therefore, it is not possible
at this time to present a full or conclusive discussion.

Permanent Pasture Species

The pasture plants most commonly found in permanent pastures are Kentucky
bluegrass and white clover in the best pastures; variable percentages of blue-
grasses, bent grasses, fescues, and native white clovers, together with a variety
of weed species, in the poorer ones. Although the species composition of most
poor permanent pastures can be definitely improved by following suitable fertiliz-
ing practices, the best that can be hoped for without plowing and reseeding is a
good stand of Kentucky bluegrass and native white clover. These two plants,
although a good source of grazing during the spring and fall, are invariably a poor
source during midsummer. The clover is particularly susceptible to injury from
drought, while bluegrass grows very slowly during hot weather. The result has
been that permanent pastures reach high levels of production in spring and
autumn and fall to very low levels during midsummer.

Semi- Permanent Pasture Species

Because of the serious limitations inherent in the common permanent pasture
species, a number of other grasses and legumes have recently been used in pasture
seedings. In practically all cases with these plants, however, it is necessary to
plow and fertilize before seeding; and in most cases, even though the plants are
perennial in nature, a good stand will not last for more than three to five years.
Consequently the period of maximum usefulness of such pastures is limited and
they are called semi-permanent pastures.

Several of these newer legumes and grasses, have proved to be definitely superior
to bluegrass and native white clover. If soil fertility relationships are favorable
and the grazing is controlled, total yields of herbage are much larger and, what is
more important, seasonal fluctuations in yield are smaller. Production is main-
tained at fairly high levels even during the hot summer months when good graz-
ing is usually quite scarce.

Of the newer pasture legumes tried in Massachusetts, Ladino clover has been
used with the greatest success over a fairly wide range of soil conditions. In other
sections of the country alfalfa is showing some promise as a pasture plant, but
because of the nature of the soils the extensive use of alfalfa in Massachusetts as
compared to Ladino clover is unlikely, especially as alfalfa lacks some of the quali-
ties of a good grazing plant. Many of our soils are shallow with sandy or gravelly
subsoils and as such are not well suited to a deep-rooted, strong-feeding crop like
alfalfa, while with other soils the water table is too high for satisfactory growth.
Ladino clover, which compares favorably with alfalfa in yielding ability, is a
surface feeder with large numbers of small roots which develop principally in the
plow layer of soil. It is a comparatively simple matter to maintain adequate
supplies of mineral nutrients in the plow layer through adequate fertilizer prac-
tices, but it is difficult to make up mineral deficiencies in the subsoil layers.

The newer grasses have been given only limited trials in ]Massachusetts and
most of these have been experimental. Of the species thus far tested, brome grass,
meadow fescue, orchard grass, and certain types of rye grass appear to show the
most promise. With most of these species, particularly with orchard grass, many
different strains have been developed, some of which are much more suitable for
pasture purposes than others. Many of these different strains are now under-
going careful test, seeded alone and in mixtures, and it is likely that plant breeders
will produce still better strains as time goes on. Indications are that some superior

PASTURE CULTURE 41

pasture strains of the above-named species will soon be available for general use.
However, a word of caution needs to be sounded regarding the use of these new
and improved strains of both grasses and legumes. Important though they may
be, they are no substitute for soil fertility and, to a considerable extent, will
accentuate rather than reduce the need for controlled grazing. This is a condition
which plant breeders and farmers alike should not overlook.

Pasture Seeding Mixture

Little can be said concerning the matter of seed mixtures until many of the
newer pasture strains have been given wider testing. A few conclusions, however,
do appear justified. It is generally conceded that a suitable combination of
grasses and legumes appears to be desirable from the standpoint of maintaining
not only high levels of production but also high feeding values. A number of
species which have regularly been included in pasture mixtures since mixtures
were first used in Massachusetts, are likely to be eliminated in the future. For
example, it seems unnecessary to include the seed of Kentucky bluegrass and
white clover in a pasture seeding mixture when these species will come in volun-
tarily and dominate the vegetation in a few years whether they are seeded or not.
Red top is another grass which will probably be used less extensively. The
growth habits of this grass appear to be incompatible with those of some of our
better pasture species. It does not grow well with Ladino clover and when
associated with alfalfa, excessive lodging frequently results. To include red top
with a seeding of either Ladino clover or alfalfa appears to be unwise.

The whole question of pasture seeding mixtures is one which is now being
carefully studied and investigated and it is probable that still more important
changes will be made.

The Climate

Weather is perhaps the most important factor affecting the productivity and
usefulness of a pasture but since nothing can be done to control it directly, it
has been considered last. Temperature and rainfall are closely associated not
only with seasonal production of pastures, but with total production as well.
In wet seasons, herbage yields rise to high levels and in dry seasons they fall to
low levels. There are several ways, however, of indirectly ameliorating the
unfavorable influence of the weather.

One important means is the maintenance of high soil fertility levels. Fertile
soils in good tilth with a dense, rich vegetative cover are much less affected by
adverse weather conditions than are depleted soils with hard, baked surfaces
which will support only a scanty plant cover. "It is a rule that admits of no
dispute," wrote J. E. Russell almost sixty years ago, "that well-manured lands
best withstand drouth. "1^2

A second means is the use of desirable pasture plants which are heat and drought
tolerant, are cold resistant, and are productive even though seasonal weather
conditions are somewhat unfavorable. In 1853 J. C. Gray wrote "As no human
power can change our climate, and as there seems no prospect of any amelioration
of its severe winters or its parching droughts, it is an obvious dictate of common
sense, to select such plants for cultivation, whether annual or perennial, as can
best resist its fierce extremes." i*^

If, after careful attention has been given to the soil and plant factors, further
consideration is given to a well-conceived farm management program, the prob-

^^^Mass. State Bd. Agric. 30th Annual Report (1882), p. 10.
l^^ibid., 1st Annual Report (1853), Pt. I. p. 162.

42 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

lem of weather can be largely solved. This management program may call for a
large semi-permanent pasture acreage which would supply most of the normal
grazing requirements. Any excess could be used for the production of hay or
grass silage. It might involve the normal cutting of the first crop for hay or silage
with grazing of the regrowth or aftermath during midsummer. This practice
appears now to be particularly promising. During protracted dry summer
periods the hay or silage previously harvested can be used as supplementary
feed and thereby lighten the grazing load of the suffering pastures. All these
suggestions, of course, imply carefully controlled grazing, since controlled grazing
is necessary in achieving maximum performance from a good pasture.

To most effectively reduce the fluctuation in pasture yields due to weather,
one must fertilize his soil adequately, select and manage his pasture plants judi-
ciously, and plan farming operations carefulh'.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In the foregoing treatment of pastures an attempt has been made first to
review the historical background of pastures in Massachusetts and second to
analyze the principal agronomic factors involved in their present day culture and
management. In actual practice of course, other factors, principally economic,
must be taken into consideration, but many of these vary in importance from time
to time and so are difficult to discuss or evaluate. Taking into account the soil,
the plant, and the weather, the following conclusions seem justified concerning
the production of pasture forage in Massachusetts.

Permanent Pastures

It seems likely that permanent pastures will never again occup>- the position
of prominence they once held. The limited reserve of soil fertility which carried
them through many productive years of existence has long since been exhausted.
If these "run-out" pasture soils could be restored to their original state of fertility
by the superficial use cf fertilizers, this condition would not be so serious; but
such is not the case. The gradual depletion of these old sods meant not only the
loss of mineral nutrient elements alone; it meant the destruction of the virgin
accumulation of organic matter and a degradation of the soil's physical condition.
Surface-applied fertilizers are fairly effective in correcting soil mineral deficiencies,
but they accomplish little toward improving the physical condition of the soil.
In many permanent pastures the slopes are either so steep or rocky or already
so encumbered by brush growth that it is practically impossible to make fertilizer
treatments. Permanent pastures also present a difficult problem with respect
to organic matter because, while a sod may build up organic matter in the soil,
this material is not effectively utilized unless it is turned under and allowed to
decay. As a final consideration it must be pointed out that pasture standards
have probably risen in recent years. A permanent pasture which may have been
wholly satisfactory for beef cattle or sheep one hundred years ago is quite in-
adequate for the average dairy herd of today.

What place, therefore, will the permanent pasture have in present-day pasture
systems? This question cannot be answered definitely because conditions will
vary from farm to farm, but certain generalizations can be made. In pastures
where the soil is retentive of moisture and where moderate regular applications
of fertilizers will maintain a good bluegrass-white clover sod, much good economi-
cal grazing ma\' be had during the spring and fall months and, depending on the

PASTURE CULTURE 43

weather, a fair amount during midsummer. If a considerable acreage of such
land is available (a situation rare in Massachusetts) and some form of supple-
mentary grazing is available during midsummer, permanent pastures maj' supply
most of the grazing requirements. An extensive system such as this can be used to
particular advantage with beef cattle, dry stock, young stock, and sheep, or with
dairy cattle on medium production. On most farms, it is desirable to main-
tain a number of small permanent pasture lots conveniently located near the
buildings to be used as overnight pasture or for some other reason in which ac-
cessibility is important.

It is obvious that there are in Massachusetts large acreages of permanent
pastures, much of which should and probably will shortly revert to forest.

Semi-Permanent Pastures

Adequately fertilized, well-managed, semi-permanent pastures have great
potentialities. Not only will such pastures go far in solving the pasture problem
in Massachusetts but, in addition, they will aid greatly in solving problems
relating to soil fertility and soil conservation. Where land acreage is limited
and grazing requirements heavy, the normal condition throughout most of the
State, a source of grazing must be sought which is more productive and more
dependable than the permanent pasture. Semi-permanent pastures are already
extensively used and the acreage is rapidly increasing. One of the principal
reasons why farmers have not used this type of pasture to a still greater extent
is that many of them do not even yet full>- appreciate many of iis actual and
potential advantages

Perhaps the most important advantage of the semi-permanent pasture is that
once every few years the farmer has an opportunity tc deal directly with that all-
important problem of soil fertility. When he plows to seed or reseed a field, he
can apply adequate amounts of suitable fertilizer as well as barnyard manure
and he can mix these materials thoroughly through the plow laj^er of soil where
they will most effectively promote the growth of the new seeding. Plowing makes
possible the decomposition of the old sod or any other kind of raw organic matter
which may have been turned under so that, where mineral deficiencies have been
satisfied, the many benefits which accrue from decomposing organic matter in
the soil may be realized. The semi-permanent pasture presents an opportunity
to deal directly with the pasture soil fertility problem easily and effectively.
Stapledon has recently written, "If only all interests concerned will properly
evaluate the meaning and far-reaching implications of the golden word ferlility,
then great things will indeed happen. "'^^

The semi-permanent pasture gives the farmer an opportunity to control, for a
few years at least, the kind of plant he grows in his pastures. He can seed pasture
strains of species which will deliver not only much greater total herbage yields,
but yields which are well sustained throughout the grazing season despite the
vagaries of the weather. He is able to select plants particularly well adapted to
certain kinds of livestock or a particular type of soil or to suit any personal prefer-
ences. It is only the semi-permanent pasture which will benefit greatlv from the
present extensive program of plant breeding which is being carried on all over
the world.

A third important attribute of the semi-permanent pasture is its great flex-
ibility. Many of the seeding mixtures can be used for hay, for grass silage, or for
pasture. This gives the farmer a splendid opportunity to insure his grazing re-

^'*''Plough-Up Policy and Ley Farming, p. 170.

44 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 380

quirements against the unfavorable effects of the weather. In favorable seasons
the surplus crop can be made into hay or grass silage. In unfavorable seasons
any surpluses which existed at earlier periods can be used to fill later feed require-
ments. By using strains and species of varying seasonal maturities in different
fields, he can spread his haying or grass silage operations over a longer period of
time and in doing so he can make more effective use of his rowen or aftermath
grazing. It must be conceded that the semi-permanent pasture magnifies the
grazing management problem, but the benefits to be derived from a well-co-
ordinated, properly controlled system of grazing far outweigh the few disadvan-
tages which exist.

The last important potentiality of the seeded or rotation pasture is the logical
role it should play in a well-conceived system of "grassland agriculture." In the
writer's opinion, a grassland system of agriculture for Massachusetts does not
imply decreasing the acreage of tilled crops and increasing the acreage in grass,
nor does it mean keeping to the present long-continued practice of growing tilled
crops continuously on certain restricted parts of the farm and grass continuously
on other parts. A logical system of grassland farming will alternate insofar as
practical the tilled crop with the sod crop, a system which will operate to the
mutual advantage of both crops. More than a hundred years ago S. F. Dickinson
said of farming in Massachusetts, "Alternate ploughing and seeding is a valuable
substitute for manure; and an economical method of keeping land in heart. 'i^^
Stapledon has more recently written, "The ley itself is the pivotal crop in any
good system of alternate husbandry, both for the feed it produces and for the sod
it develops. Both feed and sod properly disposed of carry fertility around the
whole farm. "1*6

The difficulties which have frequently been enountered in Massachusetts in
the use of sod crops in rotations probably resulted from inadequate fertilizing
of the land while it was in sod. When the hay or pasture crop is permitted to
exhaust most of the available soil fertility, an operation at which grass is very
efficient, the succeeding crop, particulary if it is one with high fertility require-
ments, will usually make poor and unsatisfactory growth.

The grass crop is one of infinite usefulness and one which can be made to serve
a wide variety of purposes; but its success, together with the success of crops
grown in rotation with it, centers around the key words soil fertility.

^^^Address to the Hampshire. Franklin and Hampden County Agricultural Society (Amherst,

1831), p. 10.
l**Plough-Up Policy and Ley Farming, p. 150.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 381 February 1941

Spraying to Control
Preharvest Drop of Apples

By Lawrence Southwick and J. K. Shaw

The use of "hormone sprays" to reduce preharvest drop is a new devel-
opment. This bulletin reports results of recently conducted tests in an
attempt to evaluate the method, especially in relation to Mcintosh.

MAS.SACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
A^[HERST, A1AS.S.

Effect of Hormone Sprays on Preharvest Drop

^^ V>.-*4 ^^f^/-% ,#

Thebc pliotuyiaphb, ihuw the marked difference in the amount uf drop in one 24-hour
period, September 2-3, 1940, between sprayed and check Duchess trees. The tree in the
upper picture rece>ved a hormone spray on August 28. The response was outstanding and
was unequaled in tests with other varieties. (See Table 1 and text.)

SPRAYING TO CONTROL PREHARVEST DROP OF APPLES
ESPECIALLY IN RELATION TO McINTOSH

By Lawrence Southwick, Research Assistant in Pomology
and J. K. Shaw, Research Professor of Pomology

INTRODUCTION

Tlie dropping of fruit just before and during harvest often causes con-
siderable loss to apple growers. In Massachusetts the problem centers
around Alclntosh, the leading commercial variety and a notoriously "bad
dropper." However, this fault is not limited to any one variety. It is
natural for any apple upon approaching or attaining maturity to terminate
its iiitiiiiale connection with the tree and fall to the ground. Nature's
purpose has been accomplished in the production of mature seetls to per-
petuate the species. But unlike nature, man is concerned primarily with
tiie flesh of the apple which, unfortunately, is particularly susceptible to
physical injury and deterioration. In short, apples belong to the class
of very perishable "handle with care" farm products and many precautions
are necessary to prevent bruising. One of the first requisites is to harvest
apples before they drop to the ground. On the other hand, apples should
be allowed to mature properly in order to develop size, color, and quality.
W'itli some varieties, this development is not as satisfactory at the time
dropping begins as with seme others. Mcintosh is a good example. P>e-
cause of its recognized tendency to drop before full development, many
Mcintosh are harvested early and thus deprived of the chance to develop
that exquisite quality that should be associated with this variety. This is
especially true with the larger orchards where, in order to finish the har-
vest before disastrous dropping takes place, an extra early start is a
practical necessity. A further impetus to early picking is the insistent
ilemand for Mcintosh at that time. Buyers urge growers to "color pick"
ill order that this demand may be supplied. Too often this demand is
over-suppliefl with immature, poor-quality fruit. Consumers, fooled once,
do not reorder and demand slackens. This depresses prices, which olten
-liow a decided tendency to resist a later, usually justified upward trend.
In siiort, low-quality ofiferings at any time may limit the immediate sale^.
lower current prices, and even depress the price level for later oilerings
of better quality. Any development which promises to aid materially in
getting apples to the consumer in prime condition is a step in the right
direction. The proper use of the recently developed lionnone sprays may
lielp.

Development of Quality

The ultimate quality which an apple can develop depends to a consifl-
erable degree on its stage of development at the moment it is harvested.
Following its removal from the tree, which has furnished its entire nour-
ishment, an apple continues to respire and in so doing proceeds to use up
its own energy resources. A stage called the "climacteric" is eventually

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 381

reached, by which time an apple has developed "good eating condition."
That ultimate eating quality is due in large part to initial ([uah'ty at time
of picking is a logical conclusion. This is apparent in the generally ac-
cepted notion that Mcintosh apples which have matured fairly well on
the tree develop the highest eating quality. "Green" Mcintosh, on the
contrary, never do reach this state. The idea that apples improve in cold
storage is basically false. Low temperatures simply prolong the interval
of ripening. Of course, no increase in red color occurs in storage. Studies
at this Station and elsewhere indicate that delated picking of Mclntosli is
imperative if the highest quality development is desired. Further, the
studies show that early-picked "green" fruit often stores rather poorly.
Color ant[ quah'ty in a crop from a given tree are often closely associated.

Use of Hormones

The use of hormone sprays to delay dropping of Mcintosh just prior
to and during harvest, if sufficiently successful, sliould encourage grower.s
to delay picking somewhat in order to take advantage of this critical
period in quality and color development. Improvement of an entire
crop in these factors would be a significant accomplishment, especially
if it were not accompanied by disproportionate losses due to excessive
tiropping. Further, it has been shown in a previous publication (6) that
Mcintosh apples continue to grow in size into October and that a ver\-
significant increase in yield results from this late-season growth. It is
the purpose of this bulletin to analyze briefly the results of some drop
control experiments at the Massachusetts Experiment Station in 1940
and to evaluate the method in the light of the considci'ations just dis-
cussed.

EXPERIMENTAL TESTS

The work involved several tests Avith four varieties. Each test included
two or three to many comparisons. Five commercial proprietary products
and the pure naphthalene acetic acid powder were used. When the pure
cliemical was used, it was dissolved in a small quantity of alcohol and
was then added directly to the water in the spray tank. Its low rate
vjf solubility in water made this procedure necessary. The commercial
products, being specially prepared to take care of this solubility problem,
were used as received. When the manufacturers' directions were followe<U
assuming that their statements were correct, spray mixtures contained 10
parts of pure hormone to a million parts of water (10 p. p.m.) or 3.8 grams
in 100 gallons. This was the "standard" or 0.001 percent concentration
for 1940. The most effective chemicals (hormones) for harvest drop con-
trol seem to be naphthalene acetic acid and naphthalene acetamide. These
two have been about equally effective in many tests. In commercial prep-
arations, various hormone carriers, both liquid and dry, were used. A
carrier dilutes the pure hormone and the resulting mixture is more readily
handled and used by growers.

While most of the tests were made in the Experiment Station orchards,
several cooperative tests with growers were followed rather closely. In
practically all of the tests, the sprays were applied very thoroughly with
a four- or six-nozzle broom at about 350 pounds of pressure. The attempt

SPRAYING TO CONTROL APPLE DROP 5

was made to "wet" each apple stem. To do this, it was iiecessarj' to use
from 15 to 40 gallons of spray per tree depending on the size of the tree
and crop and somewhat on the density of the foliage. A small amount
of summer oil (1 pint to 100 gallons) was included as a spreader in a few
of the spray applications. No unforseen difficulties developed in actual
spraying operations. A few growers have reported trouble due to excess
foaming of some commercial hormone preparations. One grower reported
some wear of leather gaskets, but it was not possible to trace this to the
spray material. In case of any such injury, the fault would lie with the
carrier. The active hormone itself would not be deleterious.

EfTective Period of Hormone Sprays

The influence of hormones on the dropping of fruit is not manifest
immediately following application. An interval of from 1 to 5 days elapses
before any effect becomes evident or measurable. In these tests, the
interval was usually 2 or 3 days, thus making the effect of the hormone
on rate of drop discernible on the third or fourth day after spraying. It
should not be assumed on the basis of this statement that dropping de-
creased suddenly and markedly at any particular time. In all the tests
with Mcintosh and Wealthy, the lessening of dropping usually was not
apparent in the field to the casual observer, especially where treatments
were randomized. This was due not only to variations in apparent effec-
tiveness between trees within treatments, but often to the considerable
differences in total yield among the trees. With Duchess of Oldenburg
and an unnamed variety maturing in late summer, the effects were readily
apparent and hardly needed yield and drop figures for confirmation. Table
1 illustrates a case of very effective control from the application on August
20 of a commercial hormone spray containing 10 p. p.m. of hormone and
used at the rate of about 15 gallons of spray per tree.

T.\BLE 1. — Dropping of Duchess of Oldenburg
Average numbers of dropped apples per tree picked up during the ripening

period. Test 8.

Aug. Sept. Average No.

21 22 23 24 26 27 29 31 2 3 of apples

per tree

Sprayed 52.7 18.3 6.7 1.8 2.0 2.7 1.8 3.5 12.0 3.0 1095

Check 74.8 19.0 26.0 19.6 31.8 19.0 48.4 80.0 230.0 225.0 1198

Total drops per tree from August 23 to September 3 amounted to ap-
))roximately one peck for the sprayed trees and over 5 bushels for the
checks. Many of the apples were over-mature when picked on Septem-
ber 3.

Other fall varieties such as Williams, Melba, and Early Mcintosh are
reported to react similarly to hormone spraying.

After the effect is initiated, the length of time that it will be maintained
depends greatly on the variety. As far as Duchess was concerned, the
apples held on even after internal breakdown had commenced. Table 2

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 381

sums up the data of test 3 with Mcintosh. The orchard used for this test
consists of seven plots under different cultural and fertilizer treatments.
Therefore, the drop control experiment was arranged so that the five spraj-
treatments ran across the plots. These treatments in test 3 will be referred
to as (a), (b), (c), (d), and (e).

Table 2. — Aver.'\ge Cumulative Percent Drop of Original Crop.
Test 3, Mcintosh.

Test

Hormone

Con-

Spraying

Cumulativi

e Percent Droji

Percent-

.\verage

centration

Date

B

age Equiv-

Number

p.p.m

Sept.

Oct.

alent to a

of Apples

11

18

2 4

30

5

Bushel*

per Tree

3 (a)

10

•Sept.

12 ^'

17

2.6

4.2

7.2

11.5

35.4

6.5

2154

3 (b)

10

Sept.

12 &

28

2.3

3.7

6.9

11.8

29.3

8.1

1736

3 (c)

5

Sept.

12 &

17

2.2

4.1

6.2

12.5

41.3

8.6

1621

3 (d)

5

Sept.

12 &

28

2.0

3.2

6.6

14.5

42.6

12.0

1170

3 (e)

Check

2.8

4.7

15.2

37.5

65.9

S.4

1670

* These percentages of the total crop equal one bushel of apples in each case.

The first spray was applied on September 12. One-sixth to one-third
bushel of drops per tree had been picked up September 11. Many of these
fruits were imperfect in one way or another and the fact that they had
fallen was not a reliable indication that normal preharvest dropping had
begun. This was proved to be the case since dropping from the check
trees was light during the following week. Hence, this spray was applied
too early. Nevertheless, as shown in Table 2, treatments (1)) and (d), it
did exert a beneficial eflfect in lessening drop over a rather long period.
The influence of this spray was manifest at least to September 30 — a period
of 18 days from the time of application or about 14 days from the ex-
pected initial efifective date. Most of the tests indicate that in general the
effect of hormone sprays on Mcintosh may be expected to last around 10
days. In one test the dropping increased noticeably on the eighth day
after the effect first became evident. When the fruit was harvested before
the effect of the hormone had worn off appreciably (usually within 12 days
from date of application), the numbers of apples that dropped during the
picking operations were considerably less with the sprayed trees. This was
seldom true when picking was delayed too long.

Similar results in other states have been reported in regard to the length
of the effective period with Mcintosh. Batjer and Marth (1) in Mary-
land concluded that the maximum effective period of a spray extends gen-
erally 10 to 12 days from the application date. Murphy (5.) in Rhode
Island and Hoffman (3) in New York drew similar conclusions. Other
reports are corroborative.

The effective period on other varieties seems to vary considerably. This
year's experience with Wealthy indicates that it l^ehaves similarly to
Mcintosh in this respect. With some later-maturing varieties, the evidence
indicates a more prolonged period of effectiveness. This was found to be
true, for example, with Delicious and Stayman Winesap (1).

SPRAYING TO CONTROL APPLE DROP 7

When to Apply a Hormone Spray: Repeat Sprays

It was stated that in test 3 (table 2) the September 12 spray applica-
tion was too early. The data show that this spray might have been de-
layed somewhat without undue risk. Since the effective period of a hor-
mone spray on Alclntosh is definitely limited, it is to the grower's advan-
tage to delay as long as possible before putting it on. The endeavor to
determine the proper time showed that there are many considerations
which may upset any hard and fast rule. It must be remembered that
when the retarding effect of tlie hormone wears off, dropping may be
sudden and severe. This evidently happened after October 1 with Mc-
intosh in the tests reported in Table 2. Despite the second application on
September 28, heavy dropping resulted. In fact, the increase in dropping
was relatively larger with the sprayed trees than with the checks. A
repeat application on October 2 on a few trees in one of the tests had a
slight influence but was unsuccessful in materially slowing up the severe
rate of dropping. The failure of repeat sprays with Mcintosh is also re-
ported by Batjer and Marth (1) who offer the explanation that when
abscission has progressed beyond a certain stage spray applications of
hormones will not retard the process.

With some varieties, a repeat spray closely following the initial spray
increases effectiveness of drop control (2). This probably is due to a
"building up" of protection or to a more complete coverage. However,
with Mcintosh in 1940 repeat sprays did not prove particularly advan-
tageous. In Table 2, it is difficult to see any added beneficial effect of the
September 17 application (treatments (a,) and (c)). The accumulated
drop to September 30 for the trees receiving this application was just about
equal to the drop of the trees which had had only the September 12 spray
(treatments (b) and (d)). The application on the 28th, of course, had not
become effective. In another test with 10 large trees per treatment, re-
sults were as follows:

2 sprays (10 p. p.m.) 3.1 percent drop

1 spray (10 p. p.m.) 4.4 percent drop

Check .^. 19.9 percent drop

Here, the repeat spray, 6 days after the first one, did have a beneficial
effect, but it was of minor importance. However, in Rhode Island (S),
a second application 6 days after the first seemed to increase by 4 days
the period of effectiveness. Batjer and Marth (1) found that a repeat
application (in 7 days) increased the effective period only 1 to 1^ days
longer than the single application treatment. They found little added
benefit from smy sprays following the initial application. Additional data
on this point may be needed, but the evidence at hand seems to show that
repeat applications, at least with Mcintosh, are hardly warranted.

It is evident then, that with Mcintosh it is doubly important to determine
the best time for hormone spray applications. On the basis of the evidence
to date, it would seem advisable to wait until the preharvest drop has
begun and then to apply one spray only. The dropping of injured or
wormy apples at this season should not be used as a certain indication that
preharvest dropping has definitely commenced. When average-sized, well-
shaped, sound, clean apples have begun to drop in any quantity — 20 to 25

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 381

to a large tree — then a spray should be applied immediately provided the
crop can and will be harvested within about 12 days. With some other
varieties a spray application may precede the harvest date by considerably
longer periods than is the case with Mcintosh. For instance, the effect
with Winesap has persisted longer than 4 weeks from the date of spraying.
However, with all varieties there is a time limit beyond which effectiveness
decreases markedly. With Mcintosh and Wealthy this interval seems to
be peculiarly short.

Effect of a Single Late Application

It is possible, of course, to apply hormone sprays at any time after drop-
ping has begun. Common sense, however, imposes certain limits. For
instance, since the effect from an application will not be manifest for from
2 to 4 days, there obviously would be little justification for spraying trees
which are to be picked within 4 or 5 days. Furthermore, as the proportion
of a crop which has dropped increases, the probability of an economical
use of hormone sprays decreases. Finally, a point is reached where an
application is not justified.

It has been stated that a spray should go on very soon after dropping
has commenced in some volume. But suppose that a grower, for some
reason or other, fails to pick or to spray a block until one day he observes
that perhaps one-third of the crop is on the ground? Furthermore, he
figures that he will not be able to pick the block for another week. Will
hormone sprays be helpful? This question cannot be answered categorical-
ly because no two situations are strictly comparable. Table 3 illustrates
what happened in one such case in an experimental block at Massachusetts
State College.

Table 3. — Average Cumulative Percent Drop of Original Crop.
(Sprayed September 28 — Harvested October 7)

Test Hormone
Concentra-
tion
p. p.m.

Cumulative

Percent

Drop

Average Calculated

Number of Bushels

Apples per Acre

Per Tree Dropping

After Oct. 1

Sept.
26

30

Oct.
1

2

3

4

6

7

4 (a) 10
Check

19.0
20.8

34.4
32.9

39.8
38.5

42.2
43.0

45.2
47.7

47.6
54.9

49.8
61.0

56.0
74.2

1189
819

75
115

40

4 (b) 10
Check

30.0
30.6

39.1

37.8

44.1
43.6

46.7
46.8

48.8
51.4

49.9
57.4

51.4
62.8

58.6
74.4

1726
1520

50
106

55

This test (Number 4) is separated into two parts: (a) young trees,
(b) mature trees. It is interesting to note the similarity of results. The
spray, which included one pint of oil per 100 gallons, was applied on Sep-
tember 28. The effect is barely discernible in the table on October 2 and
becomes progressively more pronounced up to the time of harvest. It

SPRAYING TO CONTROL APPLE DROP 9

should be noted that the average dropping percentages of the sprayed and
the check trees in each case were practically equivalent up to October 2.
Although the actual yields are not the same, estimates of the drops per
acre based on these yields are given. Under conditions of these tests, a
saving of about 50 bushels per acre could be attributed to the late hormone
spraying. These estimates are based on 27 trees to the acre for the large
trees and 50 trees to the acre for the smaller ones. Of course this arbitrary
analysis is for comparative purposes only. No two tests could be expected
to give identical net results. Thus, if the above yields had been higher, the
benefit froin spraying would have been enhanced.

Two other tests were conducted where spraying was delayed even longer
than in the above cases. There was some effect from these applications,
but the results probably did not justify the cash outlay and the time ex-
pended. Furthermore, the data indicate that the effectiveness of a hormone
spray application on Mcintosh may be progressively less pronounced as
the crop becomes more and more mature on the tree. Involved, of course,
is the question of decreasing temperature means as the season progresses.
Late spraying of York Imperial and Rome Beauty in Maryland (1), Bald-
win in Rhode Island (5), and Baldwin at Ainherst was generally unsuccess-
ful in lessening subsequent dropping. This possibly may be explained on
the basis of the low physiological activity of the tissues of the tree late in
the fall. Without ignoring the question of variety itself, the above argu-
ment is supported by the fact that early apples usually are more likely to
react favorably to hormone applications than late varieties.

It is a widely accepted fact that losses from preharvest dropping of Mc-
intosh were, in general, less pronounced in 1940 than in many previous
years. This was certainly true in Massachusetts. As a result, several
investigators have concluded that the response of Mcintosh to hormone
sprays in 1940 may not represent a true index of response for a normal sea-
son. August and September were relatively cold months, the Amherst
mean temperatures being respectiveh^ 1.7° F. and 1.6° F. below normal.
That the effectiveness of the hormone in a spray is influenced greatly by
differences in temperatures at a critical time has not been proved, but may
offer one explanation for certain differential results. It has been observed
that high temperatures at this season increase preharvest dropping of
apples. This is discussed at greater length in a previous publication (6).
It is sufficient here to emphasize the important influences which temper-
ature may have on drop. With high temperatures, which favor dropping,
the usefulness of hormone spraj's may be enhanced.

Effect of Concentration

The amount of active hormone in the spray solution seems to be very
important. The proprietary commercial hormone preparations on the
market last season were designed to furnish 10 parts of hormone per mil-
lion parts of water when the manufacturer's recommendations were fol-
lowed. This is a .001 percent concentration. Table 4 summarizes results
secured as a result of reducing the hormone concentration. Three com-
mercial preparations were used. In every case, some decrease in effective-
ness resulted from the use of the lower hormone concentrations.

This finding is substantiated, in general, by results elsewhere. Gardner,

10

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 381

Marth, and Batjer (2) in tlieir first full rei)ort in 1939 stated that with
Mcintosh ". . . . as with other varieties, the higher concentrations have
given better control within the effective period." Some further work
(1940) by Batjer and Marth (1) supports this statement, especially in re-
gard to late varieties. However, with some varieties, particularly Williams
Early Red (1) and Mcintosh', drop control was not necessarily improved
by increasing the hormone concentration above 5 p. p.m. Also, Murphy (5)
in Rhode Island found no significant differences in the drop of Mcintosh
from trees receiving sprays with different hormone concentration. Consid-
erable variability was evident within treatments. The results of Hoffman
(3) in New York with Mcintosh suggest that the standard .001 percent
sprays were possibly a little more reliable than sprays with half the amount
of hormone. Murneek (4) found more reduction in amount of dropping
of Delicious with a .001 than with a .0005 percent spra\'. Other experi-
ments seem to present a further picture of variability in results. However,
the evidence on the whole seems to verifj' the authors' experience that the
higher concentrations up to 10 p. p.m. are usually somewhat more effective
in controlling preharvest drop. A test (Mcintosh) in Canada^ resulted
in better control with about 15 p. p.m. of hormone than with the standard
10 p. p.m. spray. In a single test with Baldwin at Amherst, a sim-
ilar high concentration seemed to increase effectiveness. But most of the
sprays contained 10 p. p.m. or less of actual hormone. Table 4 gives some
results with Mcintosh and Wealthy.

Table 4. — Percentage of Total Crop That Dropped After Treatments
Became Efft:ctive in Several Tests.

Hormone

Average

Average

Test

Variety

Date

Date

Concentration

Percent

Number of

Sprayed

Harvested

p.p.in.

Uiop

Apples
per Tree

1

Mcintosh

Sept. 13

Oct. 2

10
Check

12.3
14.0
15.7

1307
715
670

2

Mcintosh

Sept. 1-1

Oct. 2

10

(-1- oil)

12.6

4024

'

1/2 (+ oil)
Check

16.4
24.3

2382
1754

5

Mcintosh

Sept. 13

Sept. 23

10

5

Check

4.2

6.(5

19.3

2562
1976
3521

6

Wealthy

Sept. 4

Sept. 20

10

5

Check

22.2
30.8
36.8

3801
3852
2700

7

Wealthy

Sept. 4

Sept. 19

10
5

12.1
30.9

2153
1065

Check

29.6

1076

'L. P. Batjer. Correspondence. 1941.
^G. H. Dickson. Correspondence. 1940.

SPRAYING TO CONTROL APPLE DROP 11

The data in Table 4 do not show uniformly good results from spray
applications (note test 1) and few of the differences in ])ercentages of
drop due to hormone concentration are large enough to be significant.
Whether any of the differences are sufficiently pronounced to justify the
use of the stronger sprays is a inatter of opinion. For example, let us
briefly analyze test 2. The average tree yield of the block was 20.1
bushels. This average is used rather than the actual yields because of the
large variations in the latter. Since higher percentages of drop often
have been found to be associated with heavy production (6), the calcula-
tions herewith tend to be conservative. That is, the check trees rather
than the treated trees are favored because the lower yielding trees (this
particular season) were chosen for the check trees. Now, on the basis
of 27 trees to the acre, the bushels dropped per treatment per acre were
as follows: 10 p. p.m., 68.3; 2'/ p.p.m., 89.8; check, 131.8. In short, the
weak spray application saved 42 and the strong 63.5 bushels. The dif-
ference is 21.5 bushels of Mcintosh apples per acre. The costs of applica-
tion were the same except for the diflference in the amount of hormone
material used. Assuming a figure of 1.5 cents per gallon of spray as the
actual cost of the hormone, this item of cost per acre based on 30 gallons
per tree was $12.15 for the stronger spray and $3.04 for the weak spray,
making a saving of $9.11 per acre in the case of the latter. The problem
is resolved to the question of the economics of spending $9.11 to save
21.5 bushels — approximately 42 cents per bushel. This analysis considers
the problem only in terms of the actual bushels of apples saved. There are
other considerations which should not be ignored, however, such as the
increased development of quality; the nature of the surface on which the
drops would fall, which largely determines injury to and hence the salabil-
ity of dropped Mcintosh; and the local market situation in relation to
disposal of such drops. A limited supply of good "drops"may find a ready
market. Usually, the average market price for such apples, however,
ranges from 50 cents to one dollar below that of hand-picked Mcintosh
out of cold storage.

Such an analysis could be made of each test in Table 4. In tests 1 and
5, the increased dollar value of the strong over the weaker sprays is much
less pronounced than in test 2. With Wealthy (tests 6 and 7) the added
effectiveness of the stronger sprays is evident and their use might seem
justified on the basis of these tests. However, the varietal problem
enters the picture here. For many Massachusetts growers it may never
he profitable to spray Wealthy and some other "before Mcintosh" sorts
due to a characteristic downward trend in the price level for such varieties
as the season progresses. Even with the very eflfective control of drop-
ping that was obtained with Duchess, it is doubtful that hormone spray-
ing can be economically justified with such a variety.

Thoroughness of Application

As with spra3dng for disease and insect control, hormone spraying for
drop control is dependent for effectiveness upon good coverage. Best
results have been obtained when sufficient spray was applied to "wet"
the entire tree thoroughly. The most eflfective part of an application has
seemed to be the spray that hits and wets the fruit stems. Theoretically,

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 381

for best control, the hormone should come in contact with the abscission
zone itself. This is the area that roughly defines the location of the
abscission layer which, upon development, separates the pedicel from the
cluster base (the stem from the spur). Gardner, Marth, and Batjer (2)
have reported some eflFect from a spray applied only to the calyx end of
Delicious fruits. But such an eflfect must be of doubtful significance.
They also found that leaf coverage is not particularly important. Apples
only a short distance away from sprayed foliage seem to be aflfected little
if at all.

The amount of spray material which is adequate for thorough coverage
depends on a number of factors such as wind movement, spray pressure,
and especially spraying technique. Material, of course, should be applied
efficiently with a minimum of wastage, but it is better for best control of
drop to apply too much than too little. Reports of amounts used in 1940
vary remarkably. In some cases, good results evidently were secured
with young trees when less than 5 gallons of spray were used per tree.
Another extreme was the application of more than 40 gallons on single
trees. These, of course, were very large trees bearing 15 to 40 bushels
of apples. Two ways of determining the amount of spray material needed
are based respectively on tree size and on tree crop. Competent men on
a spray rig will automatically consider both aspects. With hormone
spraying it is the apple rather than the leaf that deserves primary con-
sideration and this fact naturally places emphasis on the crop of fruit
rather than on the size of tree. On this basis, a recommended application
might be from one to two gallons of spray for each estimated bushel of
apples. Results have been too inconsistent and individual situations are
too variable to allow a more specific recommendation. The important
point is that very thorough coverage is essential. For example, in Mary-
land (1), with Delicious averaging seven bushels per tree, a 5-gallon
application per tree was just one-half as effective in retarding drop as a
10-gallon application of the same strength.

This brings up the possible use of dust in a drop control program.
Several advantages of dusting over spraying are obvious to those who
have used both systems. One of the most important considerations is
the shorter time required for dusting. Since hormone spraying comes
during a particularly busy season, the time required to put on an applica-
tion is of vital concern to growers. Hence, the question of incorporating
the hormone in a dust carrier for use in the usual orchard dusters has
been raised. Although the efficacy of this method of hormone application
to fruit trees is practically unknown, it is believed that dusting will not
eflfect as thorough coverage as spraying. Intimate contact with tissue
.surface is better obtained with a wet than with a dry film of material.
The question is further complicated by the fact that, to be most effective,
the hormone probably should be in solution, although for certain other
uses dust application of hormones has been quite effective. The possibil-
ities of hormone dusts are being investigated further and it is possible
that certain of the obvious difficulties may be remedied, .^t the moment,
however, since spraying itself is none too effective, partly because of in-
adequate coverage, a dust program for drop control ofifers little encourage-
ment, especially with Mcintosh.

SPRAYING TO CONTROL APPLE DROP 13

Addition of Oil

III 1939, tiardiicr, Martli, and Batjer (2) reported increased effectiveness
ot drop control sprays when a small amount of oil was added. Since it
seemed that even a small quantity of oil might act as a spreader and
improve coverage, it was included in some tests with Mcintosh. The
addition of a summer oil (1 pint per 100 gallons) had an effect similar to
that reported above. For example in one test, using 10 p. p.m. of hormone,
tlie dropping amounted to 10.2 and 14.1 percent respectively witli and
witliout oil. Tlie check trees dropped 24.3 percent. Furtlier work nui\
indicate that the use of oil may compensate in part for decreased hormone
concentrations. At the present time, however, it should be considered as
a supplementary procedure to enhance the action of the hormones. Its
use should not affect apples in appearance, quality, or storage ability.

Importance of Size of Crop

It lias already l)een suggested that the amount of fruit on a tree may be
a deciding factor in determining the advisability of using a hormone spray
It) lessen dropping. The grower is interested in actual bushels, not in
mere percentages. Percentage figures in themselves, as related to dropped
aijples, mean little in terms of monetary gains or losses. However, when
a grower reads that a hormone spray has reduced drop by 10 percent, he
immediately associates this percentage figure with an arbitrary orchard or
acre yield, or possibly with the known performance of his own trees. The
"10 ])ercent" then becomes "bushels per tree" or "bushels per acre" and
lias a definite meaning so far as that grower is concerned. Other growers
will interpret differently as a result of different yield standards. Thus,
with a 200-bushel yield per acre, a reduction in drop from 15 to 5 percent
means a saving of 20 bushels. Such a reduction with a 600-bushel yieUl,
on tiie other hand, gives a saving of 60 bushels per acre — an increased
saving of 40 bushels. Hence, it is evident that size of crop is especially
significant in the economical use of hormone sprays. The heavier the
\ield, tlie more jiistification there is for a hormone application.

Orchard Variability

.Since the purcliase of liormones and their application cost considerable
money, it is wise for each grower to consider carefully to what extent
this method of decreasing drop should be utilized under iiis particular
conditions. No two Mcintosh orchards are alike. Even similar appear-
ing orchards in close proximity often behave differently in regard to pre-
liarvest dropping of fruit. This same variability may e.xist among neigh-
boring trees in a single block. It has been shown also that severity ol
droj) with Mcintosh may be associated with a high state of fertility,
esijecially in relation to nitrogen. These relationships have been discussed
fully in a previous publication (6). Briefly, when available nitrogen is
jjlentiful and trees are in a vigorous state of growth, more severe pre-
harvcst dropping of apples is likely to occur than when trees are grown
on the "liard side." Since good vigor is essential for high production, a
method to reduce premature dropping other than by decreasing vigor is
ol paramount significance. The use of drop-control sprays is especially

14 A[ASS. EXPKRUrKNT STATION HUIJ.KTIN 3S]

adapted to sucli a setup. Past records of drop sliould enable growers to
choose the particular orchards that have caused the most trouble with
excessive fruit drop year in and year out. These should have precedence
in receiving hormone sprays over orchards whicii have a record of pro-
ducing fruit that attains good size, color, and maturity before falling to
the ground.

Experiment with Excised Branches

Two similar branches of a Mcintosh tree were chosen for a comparative
study of fruit drop following their removal from the tree. One was
sprayed thoroughly on September 18 with a hand pressure sprayer using
a spray containing 20 p. p.m. of naphthalene acetic acid. The other branch
served as a check. On September 22 the two branches were carefully
removed from the tree and the cut ends were placed in water. The
branches were supported so that their previous positions relative to the
horizontal were approximately maintained. There was some dropping
of apples within a few days from the unsprayed branch, and apples con-
tinued to absciss until all (23j had dropped. The hormone-treated branch,
however, showed practically no dropping of its 36 apples for longer than
two weeks. Even a month later, after two freezes, some apples were still
hanging. Previous work (6) has indicated that an injured limb may
exhibit delayed dropping of fruit to some degree and possibly these
branches so behaved. However, the effect from the spraying was far
more significant than the effect from the cutting itself.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

'iiie use iii so-called hormone or drop-control spra\s to tlecrease the
preharvest dropping of apples offers some promise to fruit growers in
Massachusetts. The method is still in the development state and the
material in thi.s bulletin sums up much of the present knowledge concern-
ing it. Some aspects are more definitely established than others where
results have not been sufficiently extensive or uniform for positive con-
clusions. That certain chemicals, such as naphthalene acetic acid and
naphthalene acetamide, when dissolved and diluted in water and applied
to apple trees around harvest time, exert a retarding effect on natural
fruit drop is well authenticated.

There is no doubt also that the effect of these and other chemicals is
variable. Many factors may contribute to this variability, such as variety,
time of application, thoroughness of application, concentration, weather
conditions, and season. These factors and other considerations iiave
been discussed and the attempt has been inade to evaluate their signif-
icance on the basis of exjjeriniental tests. Most of the work was done
with Mcintosh.

The effective period of hormone spra\'s is tiie number of da\-s that a
retarding influence on drop is maintained and varies greatl\' with variet\ .
With MclntoNh and Wealthy this period was about 10 to 12 da.\s. With
other varieties, it is usually somewhat longer.

The practical effect of a S];ray application is not immediately apparent.
L'sually from two to three da\'s elapse before dropping is measurably

SPRAYING TO CONTROL APPLE DROP 15

retarded. The interval between application and elTect may be longer if
the temperature is relatively cool.

The response of dififerent varieties is variable. Drop control was most
successful with Duchess of Oldenburg and an unknown earlj- fall variety,
and least successful with Baldwin. Control was variable with Mcintosh
and Wealthy. Reports from tests in other states show that early varieties
in general responded better to hormone sprays than later varieties, al-
though there were exceptions.

The application of hormone sprays must be timed accurately for best
results, especially with Mcintosh. As soon as well-sized and uninjured
uiiilorm apples begin to drop in any quantity, a spray should be applied.

Most repeat sprays were unsatisfactorj'. A single application, well
timed, should furnish the most economical protection.

The longer an application is delayed after dropping hag commenced,
the less opportunity there is for benefit from a commercial standpoint.

The concentration of hormone in the spray had a decided influence on
the degree of drop control. Better results were secured as the amounts
of chemical were increased up to 10 parts per million of water. Whether
increased effectiveness warrants the extra cost for material is not definite.
A{ the moment it seems unwise to use tiie lower concentrations with
Mcintosh. Whether higher concentrations than 10 p. p.m. might be justi-
lied lias not \'et been shown.

It is essential to wet eacii apple stem for best control of preharvest drop.
This means very thorough coverage — 10 to 40 gallons per tree or 1 to 2
gallons i)er bushel oi fruit. Dusting does not seem feasible at the present
time.

The inclusion of a small amount of summer oil tended to increase effec-
tiveness. One pint in 100 gallons of spray did not seem to affect the fruit
in any way.

The temperature before and during the normal harvest season may be
very important. Warm weather seems to have an accelerating effect on
fruit abscission. Cool weather delays fruit drop. It is possible that hor-
mone spraying is more effective in warm weather.

There is no evidence that would indicate any harmful effects from the
proper use of hormone sprays on the fruit, on the tree, or on consumers.

It is probably to the growers' advantage to use the commercial prepara-
tions. There is not sufficient evidence at the present time to permit the
recommendation of one commercial product more than another.

In Massachusetts any extensive use of hormone sprays will be limited
largely to Mcintosh and possibly one or two other varieties in particular
cases. There is often a good but limited market for drop apples, especial-
ly Mclnlosli, and a small grower ma\ have no difficulty in moving this
part ot his crop. The advantage of hormone spraying in such instances
will not be sufficient to warrant its use.

Harve.st sjirays with Mcintosh seem likely to be most profitable —

1. In orchards that have a record of dropjjing badly in previous years.

2. In orchards tliat usually produce i)oorl>- colored fruit.

Ji. In orchards that are in vigorous growth from natural fertility, heavy
nudching, or liberal fertilizer application.

4. In orchards where the crop is good to heavy.

5. In orchards where harvesting is delayed.

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 381

REFERENCES

1. Batjer, L. P. and P. C. Martli. l'"urtlicr studies with sprays in con-

trolling preharvest drop of apples. Proc. Anier. Soc. Hort. Sci.
38. 1941. (In press).

2. Gardner, F. E., P. C. Marth, and L. P. Batjer. Prevention of the pre-

harvest drop of apples by spraying with plant growth substances.
Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 37:415-428. 1940.

3. Hoffman, M. B. Some results in controlling the preharvest drop of

Mcintosh apples. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38. 1941. (In press).

4. Murncek, A. E. New practices to regulate the fruit crop. Mo. Agr.

Expt. Sta. Bui. 416. 1940.

5. Murphy, Lyle M. Preharvest apple spraying and fruit abscission.

Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38. 1941. (In press).

6. Southwick, Lawrence. The Mcintosh dr(jp. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta.

Bui. HZ. 1940.

PUBLICATIOK OF THIS DoCUMlNT ApTROVED BY COMMISSION ON ADMINISTRATION AND FiNANCB

em-3-41 — 5541

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 382 March 1941

The Propagation of

Some Trees and Shrubs

by Cuttings

By William L. Doran

The detailed information regarding recent developments in plant
propagation dealt with in this bulletin should be of significant economic
importance, especially to nurserymen and foresters.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

THE PROPAGATION OF SOME TREES AND SHRUBS
BY CUTTINGS

By William L. Doran, Research Professor of Botany

Research on the propagation of trees and shrubs by cuttings, a subject
of particular interest to nurserymen and, increasingly, to foresters, has
been stimulated in recent years by the coining into use of certain root-
inducing substances and considerably more has been learned than merely
how to use such substances. Much remains to be learned but, for the
convenience of propagators and other investigators, some of the results
are now brought together.

Work done here and described below has involved the rooting of cut-
tings of 122 species, some of them represented by a number of varieties
and hardly two of them exactly alike as regards requirements for best
rooting. Some of the more noteworthy of these species, either because
cuttings have been considered especially difficult or slow to root or because
there has been so little information about their propagation by cuttings,
include white cedar, red cedar, incense cedar, white pine, Pfitzer juniper,
Asiatic sweetleaf, Japan quince, American elm, and species of Magnolia,
Corylopsis, Hamamelis, Fothergilla, Poncirus, H^lwingia, Stewartia and
Idesia.

No brief and general conclusion, other than that different species
respond diflferently, is now attempted, for factors which afifect rooting
include the species (or even variety) itself, the type or condition and
time of taking of cuttings, concentrations and methods of applying root-
inducing substances if any are used, the rooting medium, and environ-
mental conditions (temperature, light and moisture) during rooting. These
and other factors are separately considered below, following which there
is a list of species (names taken from Rehder (84)*) the cuttings of which
have been rooted here or elsewhere by the methods mentioned in con-
nection with each. Common names are used when there are any and
an index is appended.

It is not to be assumed that all species named are best propagated by
cuttings rather than by other means — seeds, grafting or layering for
example. But if cuttings are used, and if they are taken and handled or
treated as described, results to be expected should be about as indicated.

Unless stated to the contrary, cuttings were rooted in greenhouses or
under glass and were not treated. Treatments, as will be seen, are not
always worth while. Cuttings designated as "treated" were treated with
a root-inducing substance, indolebutj'ric acid unless otherwise indicated.
Time of taking cuttings and treatments described are those which gave
the best results or, in some cases, the only ones tried. The emphasis is, in
general, on methods which were successful or relatively successful rather
than on those which were not.

Cuttings which are described as rooting better, rooted in larger per-
centages than did the cuttings with which they were being compared.
In referring to work done here, percentages recorded, unless otherwise

•Numbers ia parentheses refer to Literature Cited. See rage 41.

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 3

stated, are those which had rooted when all unrooted cuttings had died.
Some investigators, in reporting upon their work, have not made that
point clear and one can conclude no more than that a certain treatment
or method of handling did or did not hasten rooting; a difference im-
portant with some species, not with others.

Most of the cuttings used here were taken in Amherst, either on the
campus of Massachusetts State College or in the garden of the writer.
Some of them came from the Arnold Arboretum in Boston and the kind-
ness of Dr. E. D. Merrill, in permitting their collection there, is gratefully
acknowledged. Amherst is about 90 miles west and inland from Boston
but, being in the Connecticut Valley, it is probably less than that distance
from the effect of sea on climate, and cuttings of a given species collected
at or about the same time in these two towns did not respond very dif-
ferently.

Time of Taking Cuttings

Time of taking cuttings or age of wood, which is almost but not quite
the same thing, is an important factor. Softwood cuttings of some species
root well if taken in late summer or after growth has stopped. Cuttings
of others root better if taken in late spring or early summer while the
wood is still growing. Cuttings of many species can be taken with fair
success during a period of several weeks or months. For others, the time
limits are narrower, the best time varying somewhat with locality, weather
of the season, or from year to year. Cuttings of mayflower root better
if the summer has not been very dry (6). Lilac cuttings taken in mid-
May one year were equivalent to those taken two weeks earlier the year
previously (49). Climatic differences between years may affect response
to treatments (18). Cherry cuttings taken at about the end of June
responded to a certain treatment one year, not the next (12). The amount
of light preceding the taking of cuttings influences their response and it i&
possible that cuttings taken during a long period of sunny weather are
benefited by a lower concentration of a root-inducing substance (17).
Starch content fluctuates but that did not, in the case of hardwood cut-
tings of rose, have much effect on rooting (10).

Occasional reference is made to seasons at which cuttings are taken in
England but it does not follow that they are to be taken here at exactly
the same times. There is, however, no great difference in the case of
certain species. It is English practice to take cuttings of lilac in June, and
of Deutzia, Lonicera, Philadelphus, Itea and Viburnum in July; and
these are good months in which to take softwood cuttings of those shrubs
here.

Many deciduous species can be propagated by hardwood cuttings taken
during dormancy in late fall, winter, or early spring. These are eith«^r
planted at once in a greenhouse or, more commonly, stored in moist
sand or peat in a cool place until spring when they are set in the field.
For such plants as can be thus propagated, this is the simplest method.
Among the woody plants which can be propagated in this way are buck-
thorns, firethorns, currants, sumacs, alders, grapes, wistarias, buttonbush,
trumpet-vine, ninebark, Virginia creeper, bladdernut, tamarisk, Chae-
nomeles, Elaeagnus, Akebia, Catalpa, Euonymus (32) and a number of
others, some of which are mentioned below.

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Differences Between Individual Plants

Age of tree from which cuttings are taken, regardless of age of wood
of which cuttings are made, is also a factor. Cuttings of some species,
including dove-tree (64), hemlock, white pine (24), apple, pear, Catalpa,
white elm, black locust, cherry plum, Mahaleb cherry (33), Norway
spruce, Ginkgo, Norway maple, red oak, and white ash (109) root more
freely if taken from young, seedling trees than if taken from mature
trees, and the ability of some of these to root well without treatment de-
creases rapidly as trees become more than one, two, three or four years
old. It may be assumed, unless stated to the contrary, that the work
described in this bulletin was done with cuttings from mature trees.

Cuttings from some individual trees root more or less readily than
cuttings from some other trees of the same species even though all are of
the same age. American holly (129), white pine, Norway spruce (24)
and red maple are examples. Snow (93;) took softwood cuttings of red
maple from a number of different trees in early July, treated them with
indolebutyric acid (200 mg. per liter for 6 hours) and planted them in
sand-peat outdoors. Average percentages which rooted varied from about
97 to about 17 percent for different trees or clones, a clone being, as he
uses the word, "a group of plants which have originated by vegetative
propagation from one individual seedling."

Making Cuttings

Unless indicated to the contrary, it may be assumed that cuttings are
made of wood of the current year, wood not more than one year old.
There are a few exceptions, including Chimaphila umbellata, July cuttings
of which rooted better if made of wood two years old (69) ; pecan (hard-
wood cuttings) (95); and many conifers, cuttings of which root well if
so made as to include all of either one or two years' growth (61). The
larger the conifer cutting, the larger the root system is likely to be (123)
and a rooted large cutting is, of course, more of a plant than a rooted
small cutting. A good way to make cuttings of some conifers is to make
them of complete shoots, cut or pulled from the plant at a yearly ring.
"Heeled" cuttings, cuttings with a bit more of heel or older wood at the
base can, in the case of many species, be made by pulling rather than cut-
ting the cuttings from the plant.

In the work of Chadwick (14) with softwood cuttings of deciduous
plants made to include part but not all of the current year's growth, the
best place for the basal cut proved to be about a half inch below a node
in the case of 75 percent of the species; at a node in the case of sweet
pepperbush, golden-chain, madenhair-tree, box, pea-tree, beauty-bush,
alder, buckthorn, Photinia villosa, Potentilla fruticosa var. Veitchii, Vibur-
num Sieholdii, Pyracantha coccinea var. Lalandii, and six species of Coton-
easter; and about a half inch above a node in the case of California privet,
common privet, Magnolia stellata, and Weigela florida.

The more leaves there are left on leafy cuttings of most species, the
better they are likely to root, provided, always, that wilting or most
wilting is prevented. Basal leaves are usually removed to make it easier
to treat or insert cuttings in rooting media, and large leaves may be re-
duced in size or number; otherwise, leaf areas are usually kept at a max-
imum. There are a few exceptions mentioned below in connection with
the species.

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 5

The making of leaf-bud cuttings, mentioned in connection with a few
species, is briefly described in the discussion of Rhododendron,

Effects of Treatments with Root-Inducing Substances

Treatment of cuttings with a root-inducing substance such as indole-
butyric acid is no substitute for care and skill in handling them; but the
effects of treatment, with many although not all species, are to extend the
season during which cuttings may be successfully taken (114) and to
induce more rapid rooting, rooting in larger percentages, and early de-
velopment of more roots per cutting. Cuttings with more roots do not
always develop into better plants, however, than those which began with
somewhat fewer (117); and if untreated cuttings root in good percentages,
the propagator will have to decide for himself whether or not the saving
of a few days or weeks in time required for rooting is important enough
to warrant treatment (83). But if cuttings rooted by the aid of a root-
inducing substance grow no better after rooting than do untreated cut-
tings, at least the treated cuttings usually grew no less well (62, 113, 125)
and that is a point of some consequence.

The most common good effect of treatment with a root-inducing sub-
stance is to hasten rooting and it is perhaps by this very hastening that
rooting is sometimes improved and percentages which root are increased.
Cuttings which root more rapidly are, generally speaking, less likely to
die unrooted, for the length of life of unrooted cuttings of most species is
rather limited. They either root or rot. If they rot, it is partly because
they did not root; but if they do not root, it is not necessarily and only
because they rot.

It is unfortunately true that cuttings of species which root with great
difficulty or not at all if untreated are the ones least likely to be much
benefited and to root well if treated (57), the degree of response being
more or less proportional to the ease with which untreated cuttings root
(3). But the rooting of cuttings of many species is improved by treatment
and as more is learned about the best time to take cuttings, the use and
choice of root-inducing substances (there are now some fifty chemical
compounds which are known to be growth-promoting (130)), and safe
and effective concentrations for each species, the number which it is really
difficult to propagate by cuttings will become less. There are at least
2550 species of trees and shrubs hardy in North America (84). Ascertain-
ing the best treatment and method of handling for all of these or for those
which are difficult to propagate by cuttings is slow work but it is proceed-
ing and the number of species which can be readily propagated by cut-
tings will certainly increase.

Some Root-Inducing Substances Compared

Indolebutyric acid, alpha-naphthaleneacetic acid and indoleacetic acid,
also their potassium salts (49), are highly effective root-inducing sub-
stances; and mixtures of indolebutyric acid and naphthaleneacetic acid
are even more effective with cuttings of some species than is either sub-
stance alone (50).

Indolebutyric acid, as used here and by other investigators (12, 43, 48,
61, 83, 114), has given better results than indoleacetic acid with cuttings
of most species. Among the exceptions are Pyracantha coccinea, Lonicera

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Korolkowii (83) and mountain laurel (88), rooting of cuttings of which was
more improved by indoleacetic acid.

Indolebutyric acid is also probably more effective than alpha-naphtha-
leneacetic acid for cuttings of most species (16, 25, 43, 48, 83, 114). Ex-
ceptions include oriental bittersweet (48), black locust (99), Deutcia scabra
(34), Loniccra nitida, cherry plum (82), and species of privet (49) and yew
(58), cuttings of which responded more to treatments witli naphthalene-
acetic acid.

Naphthaleneacetic acid is probably more effective with most species
than indoleacetic acid (48, 49), although the reverse was true with
Kerria japonica (113). Naphthaleneacetic acid, at a given concentration, is
more toxic to cuttings of most species than is either of the other two
(96, 97).

Naphthylacetamide and naplithylthioacetamide are less toxic than the
above-named acids and are fully as effective root-inducing substances with
cuttings of some species (97), although with cuttings of some other species,
more difficult to root, indolelnityric acid gave better results (104).

Preparation of Solutions of Root-inducing Substances

Solutions, ready for use, are made by dissolving the crystals (previously
weighed by the propagator or by a druggist) in a few drops of 95 percent
ethyl alcohol which is then diluted with the required amount of water.
Naphthaleneacetic acid is difficult to dissolve and may require a period of
48 hours in water, with occasional shaking, to get it all into solution (113),
but there is no such delay with indolebutyric acid.

Stock solutions of indolebutyric acid may be prepared for later dilution
and, if stored out of the light and in a cool place (16, 88), will keep for
weeks (68, 113) without much or any loss in effectiveness. A stock
solution which contains indolebutyric acid 200 mg. per liter may, by re-
peated dilution with equal volumes of water, be reduced to an indole-
butyric acid content of 100, 50, 25 or 12.5 mg. per liter (mg./l., as here-
after referred to). Another method (16, 22) consists in dissolving 1 gm.
of the crystals in a little 95 percent alcohol, 100 cc. or less, and then
adding this to enough water to make a total of 250 cc. There will then
be 10 mg. of the root-inducing substance' in each 2.5 cc. and the quantities
of this stock solution which it is necessary to add to each liter of water
to make dilute solutions of the following concentrations will be as follows:
2.5 cc. for 10 mg./l., 5 cc. for 20 mg./l., 7.5 cc. for 30 mg./l., 10 cc. for
40 mg./l., 12.5 cc. for 50 mg./l., 20 cc. for 80 mg./l., and 25 cc. for 100
mg./l. Safe and effective concentrations, named below for cuttings of a
number of species, depend upon the species, condition of cuttings, and
length (in hours) of treatment but this is probably a sufficient range for
most species.

In working with species for which no good treatment is yet known, the
propagator, having in mind the concentrations and treatments which are
effective with related species, should remember that a treatment which is
safe and effective with one species at one time of year mav not be for
another species, or even for the same species at other times of year (50).
In general, the less mature the wood, the lower should be the concentra-
tion or the shorter the treatment (16) although cuttings of some species
reach their peak of requirement for concentrations, at least of indolebutyric
acid, in October and November (49).

Low concentrations of indolebutyric acid are effective with herbaceous

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 7

plants; 5 or 10 mg./l., 24 hours, or 2 to 5 mg. per gni. talc being enough,
for example, for cuttings of heliotrope, Begonia, and Chrysanthemum (49).

Treatment of Cuttings by the Solution-Immersion Method

The cuttings, usually iield in bundles by rubber bands, are set with their
basal ends in a solution of root-inducing substance (not in metal con-
tainers (58)) about one inch deep and there they remain for a number of
hours. Solutions of indolebutyric acid (17, 83) and naphthaleneacetic acid
can be used three times if within a week and if most evaporation is mean-
while prevented, but solutions of indoleactic acid ma}' deteriorate more
rapidly (99).

Cuttings during treatment should be out of direct sunlight but in good
light (17, 79, 81). At night or in very dark weather the length of time
of treatment may well be somewhat longer (113).

Moderately dry air and ordinary room temperatures have given good
results but the rate of absorption of the chemical varies with humidity and
temperature of the air (79) and a shorter treatment in a very warm room
may be long enough (125). The temperatuie of the solution itself may
also be a factor. Cuttings of Thuja dlccidentalis var. cricoidcs which were
taken here in December rooted the same, 64 percent in seven months,
whether or not they were treated with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l., 20
hrs.) at 68° F., but when this treatment was applied at an initial temper-
ature of 90° F. dropping to 86° F. in one hour and to 68° F. for the fol-
lowing 18 hours, they rooted 100 percent in three months. Rooting of
similar cuttings of Taxus media and Picca pungcns var. globosa treated for
20 hours with solutions of indolebutyric acid was similarly more improved
if the first two hours of the treatment were at 86° F., dropping then to
68° F., than if they were treated at an approximately constant temperature
of 68° F.

Cuttings are sometimes rinsed in tap water immediately after this treat-
ment (17, 68, 117) and that was the practice here. In other instances
(16, 57), they have been placed directly in the rooting medium without
rinsing. It is probable that the first method is safer with high concentra-
tions; perhaps less effective with low concentrations or if length of time
of treatment is very short.

The Powder-dip Method of Treatment as Compared with the
Solution-immersion Method

Treatment by the powder-dip method consists in dipping the basal half
inch of cuttings, previously moistened with water (18, 49, 58, 104), in talc
with which a root-inducing substance has been intimately mixed in the
proportion of a certain number of milligrams per gram (mg./gm.) talc.
Talc alone improves the rooting of cuttings of some species (49, 96) but
does not improve it enough. The excess of powder is removed by tap-
ping the cuttings on the inside of the container of the powder, after which
they are inserted in the rooting medium just as if they had not been
treated (49).

The powder-dip method is quick and convenient, therefore popular;
but when cuttings are handled in bundles, solution treatments may have
some advantage in convenience and thoroughness of application (99).
The powder-dip method has, in some cases (18, 114), given results

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

inferior to the solution-immersion method, but other investigators ( 58, 96)
have found these methods equally effective if the talc is mechanically-
fine enough (49, 58, 114) and if the root-inducing substance is applied at
optimum concentrations. More than one concentration of root-inducing
substance in the powder is needed to meet the requirements of cuttings
of different species (58), so no one dust can be ideal for all (96).

Powder preparations of indolebutyric acid which had been in open con-
tainers, and in continuous use, for a year were no less effective for treat-
ment of cuttings (of roses) than were freshly prepared mixtures (62).

It may develop that one method is better for some species, another for
others (34). The powder-dip method improved the rooting of softwood
cuttings of Kurume azaleas, although they were injured by treatment for
24 hours with a very dilute solution of indolebutyric acid (57). The
powder-dip method gave satisfactory results with cuttings of a number
of species of ericaceous plants but was better than the solution treatment
only with male-berry, the cuttings of which rooted very poorly after
solution treatment (90). Cuttings of Lantana and Poinsettia are also
subject to injury when soaked (18), and the powder-dip rnethod or the
concentrated solution-dip method (see below) is better for such species.

Immersion of basal ends of cuttings in water for 24 hours, previous to
their insertion in sand or sand-peat, interfered with the rooting of cuttings
uf Norway spruce (24), Chinese wistaria, Syringa Prestonae, Jasminum stcph-
anense, two species of Magnolia, and some other species (18, 125) and had
a bad effect on the rooting of leaf-bud cuttings of a raspberry (2).

Not all species react in this way, the cuttings of some being benefited
rather than injured by immersion of their basal ends in water for at least
a few hours. Softwood cuttings of buttonbush, sweet gale, osage-orange,
Ceanothus Delilianus. Viburnum tomentosum, Fothergilla Gardeni, Hydrangea
quercifolia, and H. macrophylla treated for 24 hours with water rooted in larger
percentages than did cuttings directly inserted in the rooting medium (87).
November cuttings of Taxus media var. Hicksii, the basal ends of which had
stood in water for six weeks before their insertion in sand-peat, rooted
100 percent, as did untreated cuttings, but the best roots developed on
the cuttings which had been in water.

It should be noted in this connection that some investigators (16, 47,
117, 119) have treated control cuttings, checks, with water for the same
number of hours that other cuttings were immersed in a solution of growth
substance; but in the work done here, control cuttings were directly in-
serted in rooting media without any previous treatment with water for,
in practice, cuttings are either treated with a growth substance or not at
all.

Concentrated Solution-dip Method of Treatment

Treatment of cuttings by this method consists in merely dipping the
basal half inch of cuttings in a concentrated solution containing 1 to 20
mg. root-inducing substance in 1 cc. of water or mixture of water and
alcohol (49). Like the powder-dip method this reduces the time of treat-
ment to a few seconds and is said to be about as effective at optimum
concentration as the standard or solution-immersion method (49). The
last named is, of course, a matter not of seconds but of hours and this
is a point of some importance with cuttings of species which may be
injured by a prolonged soaking in a solution or even in water.

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 9

Root-inducing Substances Sold Under Trade Names

These have given results not significantly different from those secured
by the use of the pure chemicals (83, 113). They improve the rooting of
cuttings of some species if properly used. That usually means as recom-
mended by the manufacturers, although their recommendations, like those
of the experiment stations for use of the pure chemicals, are probably
sometimes tentative and may not finally and in all cases prove tci be the
best (102). Rootone contains alpha naphthylacetamide and the Hormo-
dins contain indolebutyric acid. As v/ith indolebutyric acid, so with Hor-
modin A, rooting response varies with the season and conditions under
which cuttings are taken, treated, and handled (117). One B T I unit
in Hormodin A, as now made, is equivalent to indolebutyric acid 1 mg./l.,
a point of interest when a recommendation for optimum concentration of
one of these materials is being followed in diluting the other.

Treatment of Hardwood Cuttings

Hardwood cuttings of most trees and shrubs respond less to treatments
with root-inducing substances than do softwood cuttings (25, 57, 114, 130),
but rooting of hardwood cuttings of a number of species including grape
(130), Tatarian honeysuckle (40), oriental bittersweet (48), black locust
(95), poplars (65), and Deutzia (48) has been improved or hastened by
treatments. Rooting of hardwood cuttings of common privet was not affect-
ed by callusing before treatment (57), but treatment of hardwood cuttings
of pecan and some other species was more effective if cuttings were al-
lowed to callus before treatment (95). Such cuttings rooted, if, immediate-
ly after treatment, they were packed in moist san4 or sphagnum at 68° to
70° F. for a week and then planted in the field (95); and hardwood cut-
tings of apple, grape, and Hibiscus responded to treatments when buried,
after treatment, in damp peat moss at about 75° F. (58).

Deferred Treatment or Re-treatment of Cuttings

Cuttings are usuallj' treated with a root-inducing substance very soon
after they are taken if they are treated at all. If, however, they have not
rooted, either with or without treatment, cuttings of some species may be
removed from the rooting medium and effectively treated, without remov-
ing callus (48), weeks or months after they were first inserted. Such
treatments are called "deferred" if applied for the first time; "re-treat-
ments" if applied for the second time.

Rooting of cuttings of box, Japanese yew, and a variety of Camellia japonica
was improved when treatments were first applied to cuttings six weeks
to five months after they were taken (48). A treatment first applied to
cuttings of American holly after they had remained unrooted in the bench
for eleven weeks was beneficial (101). A first treatment of cuttings of
incense cedar (see page 25) with indolebutyric acid fifteen months after
they were taken was decidedly effective.

Cuttings of some species which respond little or not at all to an initial
treatment will root or root better if re-treated (61). Rooting of cuttings
of Hamlin sweet orange was improved by re-treatment three weeks after
the initial treatment (19). Re-treatment of cuttings of papaya and Camel-
lia (19), after callus had formed on the latter (61), gave similar results.
Other species which responded well to re-treatment are Japanese yew and
Pfitzer's juniper (59).

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Use of Potassium Permanganate

Potassium permanganate has a decidedly beneficial effect on the rooting of
cuttings of some species. A solution, one pound in fifteen gallons of water,
applied to the rooting medium at the rate of two quarts per square foot,
resulted in better roots on cuttings of twenty-three out of twenty-five
species and in increased percentages of rooting of softwood cuttings of
arrow-wood, dockmackie, flowering dogwood, Tatarian honeysuckle,
Japan quince, dwarf flowering almond, Coriius racemosa, Magnolia Sou-
langeana, Viburnum Carlcsii, Mains atrosauguinca and Philadclphtis coronarius
(14). When potassium permanganate, 18 gm. per square foot, was well
worked into sand-peat before the insertion of cuttings taken here in
October, they rooted as follows:

Percentage Rooting

With Potassium Without
Permang-anate It

Eiionyyniis patens 100 80

Taxus media 93 40

Ilex crenafa 100 60

Thuja occidentalis var. Columbia 86 53

The good effects of potassium permanganate, not due to anj^ soil-
disinfecting action (26), are also marked when it is applied to cuttings of
some species rather than to the rooting medium. Rooting of cuttings of
black-alder, common privet, and Japanese j'^ew was improved by treat-
ment for 24 hours with a solution of one ounce in five gallons water (14),
and treatment of cuttings of Kudzu-vine for thirty minutes with a solution
of one ounce in eight gallons water improved their rooting more than did
treatment with an ordinary root-inducing substance (75).

Cuttings should not be treated with both potassium permanganate and
a root-inducing substance, for the former has a somewhat inactivating
effect on the later (109).

Use of Sugar

Sugar, common table sugar, alone or in combination with a root-inducing
substance, is of benefit in the rooting of cuttings of some species. Treat-
ment for 24 hours with a sugar solution (one pound in seven gallons water)
improved the rooting of cuttings of black-alder, common privet, and Jap-
anese yew (14). October cuttings of ninebark produced longer roots
after treatment with sugar and a root-inducing substance than after treat-
ment with the latter alone (37). Cuttings of white ash and white pine lived
for a longer time if, after treatment with a root-inducing substance, they
were immersed for three days in a 5 percent sugar solution (109). Cut-
tings of Picea glauca var. conica which were taken here in December rooted
39 percent without treatment, 64 percent after treatment (24 hr.) with
indolebutyric acid 50 mg. in one liter of water, 84 percent after that treat-
ment followed by treatment (24 hr.) in 2.5 percent sugar solution, and 84
percent after treatment (24 hr.) in a solution of 50 mg. indolebutyric acid
in one liter of 2.5 percent sugar solution. Cuttings were in all cases well
rinsed in water upon their removal from sugar solutions. Rooting of
November cuttings of Pfitzer juniper and two varieties of Chamaecyparis
obtusa was more improved by treatment for 20 hours with indolebutyric acid

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 11

50 mg./l. in 2.5 percent sugar solution than by this concentration of the
acid in water. Similar cuttings of Taxus media rooted in equally large percent-
ages after treatment for 17 hours with indolebutyric acid 100 mg./l. in wa-
ter and in the sugar solution, but cuttings given the latter treatment had
better roots. Rooting of cuttings of two varieties of arbor-vitae and three
varieties of Norway spruce, however, was no better after treatment with
solutions containing both sugar (2.5 percent) and indolebutyric acid than
after treatment with a solution of indolebutyric acid only.

Acetic Acid
Vinegar or dilute acetic acid has long been recommended in horticul-
tural literature as a treatment for cuttings or rooting media. It may have
somewhat improved the rooting of cuttings of some species but, if so, the
improvement was probably slight compared with that which, with some
species, results from the use of such growth substances as indolebutyric
acid (3); and in the work of other investigators (48, 113), acetic acid
has been totally inefifective.

Rooting Media

Sand or a mixture of sand and peat moss are most commonly used.
The latter, referred to as sand-peat, sometimes consists of equal parts of
sand and peat moss, but it gave better results and was usually made and
used here in the proportion of sand two parts (by volume, in all cases)
and peat moss one part. There is probably no better rooting medium
than sand-peat for cuttings of ericaceous plants, although, for some
species, their native soil may be as good, and sand-peat is a better rooting
medium than sand for cuttings of the majority of woody plants (58). But
softwood cuttings of many species, including a number of those named
below, have rooted better in sand than in sand-peat.

German peat moss is now practically unobtainable. Some native peats
will do as well, but, lacking both, more use might well be made of sandy
soil. Sandy soil, a mixture of sand two parts and sifted loam one part,
is a good rooting medium for cuttings of some, not all, species of woody
plants (27). It is also sometimes used as a rooting medium for cuttings
of some herbaceous plants, but the risk of attack by soil fungi in that
medium, unsterilized, might be greater with them than with cuttings of
woody plants and only the latter are here considered.

The good effect of loam in a rooting mixture (27) may be due to the
presence of indoleacetic acid (34) or other root-inducing substance. Soil
fungi in an organic medium are known to produce auxin (86), and the
reaction of plants to applied hormones was less marked in good soil than
in sand (34). Nutrients in loam may also be a f?.v.tor. Their application
to sand improved the rooting of cuttings of Norway spruce (36) and a
honeysuckle (40). It is possible too that vitamins are involved. Cut-
tings of Asiatic sweet-leaf and Pfitzer juniper rooted better in the sandy
soil which was used here than they did in sand and these are both species
the cuttings of which responded to applications of vitamins to sand
(98, 103).

It should be noted, in this connection, that Vitamin Bi has had little
if any effect on the rooting of cuttings not previously treated with a root-
inducing substance (103, 109, 114), and that treatment of cuttings with
Vitamin Bi after their treatment with a root-inducing substance did not

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

affect their rooting (50), but that when a solution 1:1,000,000 was used to
water sand in which treated cuttings of Japanese yew and Pfitzer juniper
had been planted twelve days previously, their rate of rooting was sig-
nificantly increased (103). Vitamin B,i, in a solution of 1:5,000,000, sim-
ilarly applied to sand once a week, hastened rooting and caused cuttings
to retain leaves better in the case of about one-third of the species with
which it was used (98).

In anj^ case, or without regard to the explanation, the addition of loam
to sand has a good effect on rooting of cuttings of some species. Whether
or not the results would be even better if the loam were first sterilized
was not determined, but the risk of trouble from that quarter may be
less great than might be expected. It is interesting to note that cuttings
of woody plants sometimes root better in old sand — sand which has been
used for rooting cuttings and is probably contaminated, certainly not
clean — than they do in new, fresh sand (113), and that cuttings of azaleas
(44) and Erica (105) rooted better in a medium in which they had pre-
viously been rooted or grown than in one freshly prepared.

Insertion of Cuttings and Their Subsequent Care

Cuttings are inserted firmly in the rooting medium, usually as deeply as
possible without burying the leaves. Leafy cuttings of most woody plants
are likely to do best if inserted slantingly, not vertically, for, in the slant-
ing position, inore of the leaves are near or upon the rooting medium
where there is less danger of the air being too dry. If there is much top
growth before rooting or transplanting, cuttings so set may not have
straight stems, but that risk is slight except with the most actively grow-
ing material.

To help prevent wilting, cuttings in bench or frame are usually shaded
with cheesecloth or whitewashed glass and sprinkled with water several
times a day, a practice which is likely to give better results than heavier
and less frequent waterings. Good temperatures of the air are 70° to 80°
F. days, 60° to 65° F. nights (130). Bottom heat, 70° to 72,° F. often
hastens rooting (49). It was used here in fall, winter, and spring but,
because of high air temperatures, not in summer. Bottom heat at 70° to
75° F. gave better results than at 80° to 85° F. with cuttings of Japanese
yew and Pfitzer juniper (103), and temperatures of 75° to 80° F. are known
to be too high for best rooting of cuttings of some other species (49;).

The most effective temperatures for rooting treated cuttings are between
70° and 80° F. and root-inducing substances are without much eft'ect if
cuttings, after treatment, are given a low temperature (49, 58), 60° F. or
lower (61).

Treated cuttings need no less care than untreated, although, if treat-
ment is effective, they may not need it for so long a time.

Results with Individual Species

Abelia grandiflora. Softwood cuttings root readily, but treatments with
indolebutyric acid (10 mg./L, 24 hr., or 2 mg./gm. talc) (61) may hasten
rooting. Taken here in early August, they rooted 100 percent in 7 weeks
without treatment, in 4 weeks with treatment (12.5 mg./l., 24 hr.). Root-
ing of July cuttings was similarly hastened by treatment with Hormo-
din (102).

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 13

Abeliophyllum distichum. Untreated hardwood cuttings which were taken
here in mid-March and immediately inserted in sand-peat rooted 63
percent in 10 weeks.

Abies, fir. February cuttings of Colorado fir, untreated, rooted 60 percent
in peat moss, little or not at all in sand-peat or sand (67). Sandy soil
is the English rooting medium (7). Rooting of winter cuttings of Spanish
fir and Veitch fir was improved by treatment with indolebutyric acid
40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc (61). Cuttings of Spanish fir
also responded to treatment with 10 to 20 mg./cc. applied by the con-
60 percent without treatment (87).

Acanthopanax Sieboldianits. Late June cuttings rooted 7Z percent in 27 days
after treatment with indolebutyric acid (20 mg./l., 24 hr.), not at all mean-
while without treatment (57). August cuttings rooted 50 percent in 55
days without treatment, 80 percent with treatment (100 mg./l., 20 hr.) (83).

Acer, maple. Hardwood, late November, cuttings of silver maple which
were buried in a cool place until February and then planted in sand at 72° F.
rooted 84 percent (52). Hardwood, late winter or early spring, cuttings of
A. barbinerve, A. caudatum, A. cissifolium, A. rufinei-ve, and A. Tschonoskii
rooted 20 to 80 percent in 4 to 9 weeks in sand at 70° to 74° F., bottom
heat (111).

The best time to take softwood cuttings of maples is probably late spring
and early summer. Cuttings of Acetr argiituin, A. barbino've, box-elder, and
Japanese maple which were taken, with a heel, when oldest leaves were
no more than half grown rooted 35 to 100 percent in sand in 18 to 60
days (111). Such cuttings responded to treatments with indolebutyric
acid. Equivalent concentrations for June cuttings of Japanese maple are
2 to 5 mg./gm. talc or 10 to 40 mg./l., 24 hr. (49). Early July cuttings
of red maple rooted 60 percent after treatment (20 mg./l., 24 hr.), not
at all without it (1). June cuttings of silver maple rooted 85 percent
after treatment (50 mg./l., 32 hr.), not at all without it (65). June cut-
tings from very young Norway maples responded slightly to treatment
with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l., 24 hr.) (109). Cuttings of sugar maple,
taken in early summer, rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in 40 days after
treatment with indoleacetic acid (10 mg./l., 48 hr.), 33 percent without
ireatment (87). Snow (92) took cuttings of sugar maple from young
trees, made them four inches long with all leaves but the upper removed,
and set them deeply in sand-peat in an outdoor propagating frame. By
the end of summer, the cuttings which he took in mid-June had rooted
25 to 36 percent without treatment and about 66 percent after treatment
with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 3 hr. ). Results were decidedly less
good with cuttings taken in July.

Actinidia. Cuttings are taken in summer and fall. September cuttings of
A. arguta, in sand, rooted 86 percent in one month after treatment with indole-
butyric acid (5 mg./l., 24 hr.), 42 percent without it (96). Equivalent con-
centrations for treatment of December cuttings are 20 to 40 mg./l., 24 hr. ;
4 to 10 mg./gm. talc; or, by the concentrated solution-dip method, 1 to 4
mg./cc. (49). July cuttings of A. chinensis, in sand-peat, rooted 100 per-
cent in 40 days after treatment with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l., 48 hr.),
60 percent without treatment (87).

Ahius, alder. Cuttings, which do not root very readily, are taken in autumn
as soon as the leaves fall and inserted in sandy soil (7).

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Amelanchier, shadbush, is not easily propagated by cuttings (51). Soft-
wood, summer cuttings of one species rooted 25 percent after treatment with
indoleacetic acid (50 mg./I., 24 hr.), 8 percent without it (65). There is
some evidence that A. canadensis can be propagated by hardwood cuttings
taken in April and set in a solar frame (85).

Amorpha fruticosa. Softwood, July cuttings, made with the basal cut at
a node and planted untreated in sand, rooted 100 percent (116).

Andromeda, bog-rosemary. Untreated cuttings of A. glaucophylla and
A. Polifolia which were taken here in January rooted 100 percent in 8 weeks
in sand-peat, less well in sand, and treatments with root-inducing sub-
stances were without effect.

Airctostaphylos Uva-ursi, bearberry. Untreated cuttings taken here in Jan-
uary rooted 86 percent in sand in 12 weeks. February cuttings rooted
best, about 90 percent in 74 days, wlien multiple terminal cuttings (those
having three or more shoots on one branch) were treated and inserted in
sand-peat with bottom heat at 76° F. (22). Treated October cuttings
rooted better if made of basal parts of shoots rather than of their tips (48).
Effective concentrations of indolebutyric acid are 40 mg./l., 24 hr., or
12 mg./gm. talc (61).

Aristolochia. September cuttings of one species, untreated, rooted 75 per-
cent in sand in 26 days (98). Dutchman's pipe is more readily propagated
by softwood, summer, than by hardwood cuttings (80).

Aronia, chokeberry. Softwood, summer cuttings of red chokeberry root in
good percen*^ages (42). Cuttings of that species and of black chokeberry
gave best results when the basal cut was made a half inch below a
node (14).

Berberis, barberry. Cuttings are taken in summer or fall. August cuttings
of B. Thunbcrgii (44), the basal cut a half-inch above the base of the current
season's growth (46), root readily in sand-peat. Cuttings of evergreen species
may well be taken later than those of the deciduous (105). There was 100
percent rooting of untreated cuttings of B. candidida and B. triacanthophora
which were taken here in late November and inserted in sandy soil, the
medium used for barberry cuttings in England (7, 105). December cuttings
of B. verruculosa rooted well in sand (67). Rooting of July cuttings of that
species was at least hastened by indolebutyric acid (83). Cuttings of B.
Sargentiana rooted 80 percent in 51 days after treatment with indolebutyric
acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.), 60 percent without it (72). Hormodin No. 2 im-
proved rooting of cuttings of B. Julianae (102).

Betula. Birches are not easy to propagate by cuttings (73), but treated
softwood cuttings will root to some extent. Summer cuttings of European
birch rooted 25 percent after treatment with indoleacetic acid (50 mg./l.,
32 hr.), not at all without it (65). Cuttings of gray birch taken in July,
with the tenninal buds and all but one or two square inches of leaf area
removed, rooted 30 percent after treatment with indolebutyric acid (50
mg./l., 6 hr.); and cuttings of canoe birch rooted 50 percent after treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (20 mg./l., 24 hr.) (1).

Buddleia, butterfly bush, is easy to propagate by cuttings. Taken here in
late June or early July and inserted untreated in sand, cuttings of B. alterni-
folia rooted 83 percent and cuttings of B. Davidi rooted 100 percent. Treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (33 mg./l.. 24 hr.) hastened the rooting of June
cuttings of B. alt ernif alia (114).

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 15

Buxus, box. Untreated summer (67), fall (44, 125). or winter cuttings of
B. sempervirens root very readily in sand (105, 125) or sandy soil (127).
Rooting of July (57), October (125), and February cuttings of B. sempervirens
was hastened by treatment but not otlierwise affected. Optimum concentra-
tions of indolebutyric acid are 40 mg./l., 24 hr., for that species and 20 mg./l,
24 hr., for B. microphylla, or 12 mg./gm. talc fcur either (61).

Callicarpa is easy to propagate by both softwood and hardwood cuttings.
Hardwood cuttings of C. dichotoma taken here in early January rooted 100
percent in sandy soil in two months without treatment and in one month after
treatment with indolebutyric acid (40 mg./l., 18 hr.). Untreated summer
cuttings of that species root in high percentages in sand (44, 125), but root-
ing of August cuttings was hastened by treatment with indolebutyric acid
either in talc or 5 mg./l., 24 hr. (96). Late June cuttings of C. Bodinieri
rooted 100 percent in 20 days after treatment (5 or 10 mg./l, 24 hr.) (57).
Tips of shoots of C. japonica gave better results (59) and responded better to
low concentrations than did cuttings made of basal parts (48).

Calluna vidgaris, heather. Summer, fall, and winter cuttings root well with-
out treatment. Untreated cuttings taken here in September, November,
and January rooted 90 to 100 percent in sand-peat in 6 to 8 weeks, more
slowly or less well in sand or sandy soil. Optimum concentrations of
indolebutyric acid are 20 to 40 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc (61).

Camellia japonica is not very difficult to propagate by cuttings taken in July,
or when new growth is only moderately hard, and planted in sand-peat
(30). Cuttings of the variety alba plena are less easy to root, but cuttings
of some other varieties root readily enough after treatment (49) with
indolebutyric acid 40 to 80 mg. /L, 24 hr., 12 mg./gm. talc (61), or 4 to 10
mg./cc. b\- the concentrated solution-dip method (49). July cuttings
rooted 100 percent in 10 weeks after treatment (100 mg./l., 24 hr.) (114).
Stevens* got equally good rooting of cuttings made of somewhat harder
wood following treatment with indolebutyric acid (60 mg,/l., 24 hr.). He
got better rooting in sand-peat than in sand, better rooting with bottom
heat at 70° to 75° than at 60° F.

Caragana. Late July cuttings of pea-tree, treated or not, rooted more than
80 percent in sand (102). Equivalent concentrations of indolebutyric acid for
May cuttings of C. Boisii are 10 mg./l., 24 hr., or 4 mg./cc. bj- the concen-
trated solution-dip method, or 2 to 5 mg./gm. talc (49).

Ca-rya Pecan, pecan. Hardwood, early April, cuttings of the variety Posey,
made of wood two to four years old, were allowed to callus in moist
sphagnum at 68° to 78° F. for about three weeks, then treated with in-
dolebutyric acid (100 mg./l., 24 hr.) and set in sand at 70° F. bottom
heat, where large cuttings, a half inch in diameter, rooted 63 percent (95).
Smaller cuttings rooted less well and there was no rooting of the un-
treated. Equivalent concentrations for treatment of such cuttings are
40 mg./l., 24 hr., or 2 to 12 mg./gm. talc (49).

Catalpa. These can be propagated by softwood, summer cuttings in sand
(105). L^'ntreated cuttings of western catalpa rooted 77 percent (33).
Equivalent concentrations of indolebutyric acid for April cuttings are 5
to 12 mg./gm. talc or, by the concentrated solution-dip method, 4
mg./cc. (49).

* Stevens, Robert F. The genus Camellia with special reference to the propagation by
cuttings. Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science, Massachusetts State
College, May 15, 193 S.

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Ceanolhus. Cuttings root readily in sand if taken in summer (105), Septem-
ber (51), or earlier. July cuttings of C. Dclilianus rooted 100 percent in
30 days after treatment with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l., 24 hr.), 40
percent if untreated (87). Rooting of fall cuttings was hastened by treat-
ment with 20 mg./l., 24 hr. (113).

Cedrus libani, cedar of Lebanon, is not easily propagated by cuttings (61)
although there is some rooting of those taken in the fall (80) Untreated
cuttings taken here in November rooted 30 percent in sand-peat, less
well in sand.

Celastrus. Untreated softwood cuttings of American bittersweet root read-
ily in sand (125) but treatment may hasten rooting. July cuttings rooted
90 percent in 70 days without treatment and in half that time after treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 20 hr.) (125). Their rooting wa>?
similarly hastened, 100 percent rooting in 50 days, by treatment with 30
mg./l., 6 hr. (83). Hardwood, April cuttings of oriental bittersweet pro-
duced more roots after treatment with indolebutyric acid (40 mg./l., 24
hr.), and there was even more benefit by naphthaleneacetic acid (48).
Equivalent concentrations of indolebutyric acid for treating hardwood,
winter cuttings of tliis species are 40 mg./l., 24 hr.; 2 mg./gm. talc; or,
by the concentrated solution-dip method, 1 to 4 mg./cc. (49).

Ccphalaufhus occidentalis, buttonbush. Cuttings taken here in late July
and early August rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in one month whether
or not they were treated. Hardwood cuttings also root readily (51).

Cercis, redbud. Softwood cuttings of C. chincnsis and C. canadensis which
were taken in June or July, or when one leaf of the new growth was al-
most full grown and the smallest leaves of CI canadensis were about a half
inch in diameter, rooted 75 to 90 percent in sand at 72° F. in about four
weeks (111).

Chacuomclcs. Japan quince has been considered diflficult to propagate by
cuttings (113) but treated softwood cuttings, taken in late spring or early
summer, root well. Those which were taken here in early June, when
fruits were about a half inch in diameter, rooted at least 90 percent in
sand in four weeks after treatment with indolebutyric acid (12.5 mg./l.,
24 hr.), not more than 30 percent without treatment. Rooting of July-
cuttings of C. japonica was hastened by treatment with naphthaleneacetic acid,
1:1000. in talc (104).

Chaniaccyparis Lawsoniana, Lawson cypress, is easily propagated by fall
cuttings. Untreated, they rooted 90 percent or more in sand-peat when
taken here in October, equally well but more slowly when taken in Jan-
uary. Rooting of cuttings of the variety Fletcheri was improved by indole-
butyric acid 40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc (61).

Chamaecypans obtusa, Hinoki cypress. Rooting of cuttings of the varieties,
sometimes poor otherwise, is better if they are treated with indolebutyric
acid (40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc) (61). Cuttings of the
varieties nana and compacta which were taken here in November rooted,
in sand-peat, not more than 40 percent in 12 months without treatment, not
less than 90 percent in 5 months after treatment (100 mg./l. , 20 hr.). Root-
ing of late December cuttings of the varieties niagnifica and filicoidcs was
similarly improved by SO mg./l., 24 hr. Cuttings of the varieties named
rooted in about the same percentages when taken here in October, November,
and December. Cuttings of the variety compacta which were taken here in
mid-July rooted 22 percent without treatment, 55 percent after treatment

"^ PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 17

with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l., 16 hr.). Untreated cuttings of the variety
filicoides rooted better in sand-peat than in sandy soil, better in sandy soil
than in sand.

Chauiaccyparis pisifcra. Sawara cypress. Cuttings of the variety plumosa
rooted well in sand-peat or sand if taken in November or December, less
well if taken in February (31). Treated cuttings rooted equally well in
sand-peat when taken here in October, November, or December, less well
in sand. Effective treatments for cuttings of five varieties were indolebutyric
acid 40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., dr 12 mg./gm. ta)lc (61). Cuttings of the va-
rieties filifcra and squarrosa which were taken here in late November rooted
90 to 100 percent after treatment with indolebutyric acid (75 mg./l., 24 hr.),
45 to 63 percent, and more slowly, without treatment. October cuttings of
the variety plumosa rooted 100 percent in 12 weeks with that treatment and
in 19 weeks without treatment.

Chamaccyparis thyoidcs, white cedar, has not been easy to propagate by
cuttings (5), but cuttings which were taken here in mid-November and
treated with indolebutyric acid (125 mg./l., 24 hr.) rooted 96 percent in
sand-peat in 6 months. Results were less good with lower concentra-
tions, and only ii percent of the untreated cuttings rooted.

Chiogcnes bispidula. creeping snowberry. Cuttings root readil}*. Taken
here in mid-July and not treated, they rooted 100 percetu m sand-peat in
8 weeks, less well in sand.

Cladrastis lutea, yellow-wood. Untreated softwood, summer cuttings rooted
100 percent in sand-peat in 6 weeks (87).

Clematis. Cuttings are taken in summer, late summer in the case of most
of the small-flowered kinds (71). Untreated cuttings of C. lanuginosa, in
sand or sandy soil, rooted more than 90 percent in 45 days when taken here
in late June and early July. Cuttings of C. Lawsoniana and C. tangutica are
successfully taken in July (116). Cuttings root equally well with the basal
cut made at a node or between two nodes, and single node, internodal, cut-
tings of the large-flowered sorts give good results (71). June cuttings of
C. vedraricnsis which had been treated with indolebutyric acid (33 mg./l.,
24 hr.) rooted 75 percent more in 3 weeks than did untreated cuttings. In-
doleacetic acid (100 mg./l., 18 hr.) hastened the rooting of cuttings of C.
vwntana var. rubcus (20).

Clcthra alnifolia, sweet pepperbush. Summer cuttings root readily (113),
up to 100 percent in sand-peat, less well in sand, without treatment (66)
but treatments may hasten rooting. Late June cuttings rooted 100 per-
cent in 20 davs after treatment with indolebutyric acid (10 mg./l., 24
hr.) (57).

Coriaria. Early July cuttings rooted 85 percent in sand in 18 days after
treatment with naphthaleneacetic acid (1:1000, in talc), about 57 percent
without treatment (97).

Cornus alba. Late June cuttings rooted 80 percent in 30 days after treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.), not at all meanwhile
without it (57).

Cornus Amomiim. July cuttings rooted so well without treatment that the
only result of treatment (indolebutyric acid 30 mg./l., 20 hr.) was more
roots per cutting (125).

Cornus florida, flowering dogwood. L^ntreated cuttings rooled 100 percent
in 3 weeks if taken in spring when flowering period was ending, less well
if taken later (111). June cuttings rooted equally well with or without

18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

a heel (46), more quickly with four leaves than with two (111); but if
there is much danger of wilting, half the leaves may well be removed
(57). Cuttings root well in sand (57, 111), sometimes better in sandy
soil. Taken here in early June, they rooted 47 percent in sand, 64 percent
in sandy soil without treatment; IZ percent in sand, 95 percent in sandy
soil in 34 days after treatment with indolebutyric acid (12.5 mg./l., 24 hr.).
Other effective concentrations are 10 mg./l., 24 hr. (57) or 5 mg./gm.
talc. (49).

Cornus Kousa has not been considered easy to propagate by cuttings (64)
but, treated, they root fairly well in sandy soil. Taken here in early July,
untreated cuttings rooted 20 percent in sand, 53 percent in sandy soil;
and those treated with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l., 24 hr.) rooted, in
8 weeks, 62 percent in sand, 82 percent in sandy soil. Tips of shoots
make good cuttings (105).

Cornus mas, Cornelian cherry, is less readily propagated by cuttings than
some dogwoods (116), although they root sometimes fairly well in sand
(44, 66), better in sandy soil. L^ntreated cuttings which were taken here
in mid-July rooted only 25 percent in either medium; those which had
been treated with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l., 20 hr.) rooted 100 per-
cent in sandy soil, but no better than the untreated in sand.

Cornus raccmosa. Cuttings rooted 66 percent following treatment with
indolebutyric acid (80 mg./l, 4 hr.), much less well without it (125).
Rooting of July cuttings was improved by naphthaleneacetic acid dust,
1:1000 (102).

Cornus sangiiiitca, red dogwood. Late June cuttings rooted 68 percent in
3 weeks after treatment with indolebutyric acid (30 mg./l., 12 hr.), 44
percent without it (83).

Cornus stolonifera, red-osier dogwood. Hardwood cuttings, treated or not,
rooted 90 percent in 8 weeks when taken here in mid-April and imme-
diately set in the field. Softwood cuttings, whether or not they were
treated, rooted 100 percent in 5 weeks when taken here in early August.

Coronilla Emeriis, scorpion senna. Summer (51) or early fall cuttings root
in sand without difficulty (105). Taken here in early September and early
October, untreated cuttngs rooted about 70 percent.

Corylopsis, Softwood, late spring cuttings root well if taken while young
shoots are still growing (107). Untreated cuttings of C. pauciflora which
were taken here in early and mid-June, with basal cut at base of the current
year's growth, rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in 8 weeks, less well in sandy
soil. Summer cuttings of C. Willmottiae rooted about 60 percent more after
treatment with indolebutyric acid (17 mg./l., 24 hr.) than did untreated
cuttings (113).

Corylus, hazel. Hardwood, early spring, cuttings of European hazel will
root if kept fresh and in good light after leaves appear (128). Softwood,
summer cuttings rooted 22 percent after treatment with indoleacetic acid
(100 mg./l., 24 hr.), not at all without it (65). Mid-July cuttings of a
filbert rooted 52 percent in 58 days after treatment with indolebutyric
acid (4 mg./gm. talc), not at all meanwhile without treatment (104); and
mid-June cuttings of European hazel responded to treatment with indole-
butyric acid, 5 mg./gm. talc (49).

Cotoneastcr. Softwood cuttings are taken in late spring or early summer.
Untreated cuttings of C. dwaricata rooted 100 percent in 7 weeks when taken

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 19

here July 1 and there was good rooting of cuttings of C. acutifolia, C. hori-
sontalis (14), and C. adpressa (67) taken at or about that time. Cuttings of
harder wood are also used. Those of C. microphylla rooted 100 percent when
taken here in September. Cuttings of C. horisontalis which were taken here
in early August rooted 61 percent without treatment, 74 percent after treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 16 hr.). Rooting of October cuttings
of C. microphylla was merely hastened by similar treatment (125). Sand is a
good rooting medium for that species (125), and it is better than sand-peat
for summer cuttings of C. divaricata and C. horisontalis.

Cryptomcria japonica. Summer and fall cuttings will root, although slowly
(124). Effective concentrations of indolebutyric acid for December cut-
tings are 40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., 4 to 10 mg./cc. by the concentrated
solution-dip method (49), or 12 mg./gm. talc (61).

Cupressus macrocarpa, Monterey cypress. Cuttings responded to treatment
with indolebutyric acid 40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc (61).

Cydonia oblonga, quince. Softwood cuttings which were treated with indole-
butyric acid (20 mg./l., 24 hr.) rooted well if taken in spring while still
growing but not if taken a little later than that (81).

Cytisus. Cuttings are made of nearly ripe wood (7) in late summer or fall.
Cuttings of C. Beanii and C. ptirgans, treated or not, rooted more than 90
percent in sand when taken here in early November. It is English practice
to root cuttings in sandy soil and to make them with a heel (80, 105). Cut-
tings of C. supinus, made without a heel, rooted better with the basal cut a
half inch below a node rather than at or above one (14). Cuttings of a
hybrid which were taken here in late October rooted 69 percent without
treatment, 100 percent after treatment with indolebutyric acid (75 mg./I.,
20 hr.). Rooting of cuttings of one species was improved by treatment
with indoleacetic acid (40 mg./l, 24 hr.) (47).

Daphne. D. Genkwa is easily propagated by cuttings taken while still very
soft (108). D. Mescreum, mezereum, can be propagated, although not very
easily (73), by cuttings taken in the fall (51). Fall, November, cuttings
of D. Laureola rooted 100 percent in 12 weeks after treatment with indole-
acetic acid (50 mg./l. 24 hr.) (68). Fall cuttings of D. odora rooted 80 per-
cent in 6 weeks after treatment with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l., 18 hr.),
14 percent without treatment (25). D. Cneo^Mi can be propagated by cut-
tings taken in summer or in fall. Untreated cuttings taken here in July
and December rooted more than 80 percent in sand, less well in sand-
peat. December cuttings rooted 56 percent in 6 weeks after treatment
with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l, 16 hr.), not at all meanwhile without
treatment (21). Summer cuttings are not very responsive to treatments
with indolebutyric acid (83, 125). Rooting of cuttings taken here in Sep-
tember was at least hastened, however, by 50 mg./l., 5 hr., for, in 9 weeks,
with some unrooted cuttings still living, there was 66 percent rooting of
treated cuttings, 20 percent rooting of the untreated.

Davidia involucrata, dove-tree. Cuttings, made of side shoots or twigs with
a heel (80), are taken in late summer (8) or when the wood is firm (105).
Their rooting, usually not good (64), was somewhat improved by treat-
ment with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l, 24 hr.) (87).

Deutsia. Untreated softwood, July, cuttings of D. Lcmoinei (66) and
D. gracilis (14) rooted 100 percent in sand but rooting of similar cuttings of
D. scabra was at least hastened by naphthaleneacetic acid or indolebutyric
acid (1:1000, in talc), the former giving the better results (34) Hardwood,

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

January, cuttings of one species developed more roots per cutting after
treatment with naphthaleneacetic acid (60 mg./l., 24 hr.) and there was
similar, although less response to indolebutyric acid (48).

Dorycnium hirsutwii. Taken here in September and October, untreated
cuttings rooted 100 percent in sand in 3 months.

Elacagnus. Cuttings of E. pungeius rooted 72 percent without treatment,
100 percent in sand if treated with indolebutyric acid (30 mg./l., 4 hr.)
and taken in October; less well if taken earlier or later (125). January
cuttings rooted 30 percent without treatment, 75 percent after treatment
with indolebutyric acid (40 mg./l., 6 lir.) (119). The species are also
propagated by softer wood, summer cuttings made with a heel (80).

Enkianthus. Untreated softwood cuttings of E. campanulatus and E. peru-
latus rooted 80 percent or more when taken here in late May. Cuttings of
the former taken here in early June rooted 100 percent in 6 weeks after
treatment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 20 hr.), 83 percent in 10
weeks without treatment. Sand-peat is a better rooting medium than
sand (44).

Epigaea repens, mayflower. August or September cuttings, made to include
the current year's growth and, at the base, some of that of the previous
year, rooted in high percentages in sand-peat, peat, sphagnum, or their
native soil, and in higher percentages than did cuttings taken in spring (6).
Untreated cuttings which were taken here in late August rooted 94 per-
cent in sand-peat in about 5 weeks. Treatment is unnecessary, but the
rooting of October cuttings was hastened by naphthaleneacetic acid
(50 mg./l., 24 hr.) (114).

Erica, heath. Summer cuttings root readily in a sandy, peaty soil (105) or
in sand-peat. Untreated cuttings of cross-leafed heath rooted 93 percent in
8 weeks when taken here in late June, less well when taken in August. Root-
ing is sometimes improved or hastened by indolebutyric acid (40 mg./l., 24
hr. or 12 mg./gm. talc) (61). July cuttings of E. darlcyensis rooted 100 per-
cent in 4 weeks with treatment, 77 percent without it (88).

Eiwnymus, spindle-tree. Softwood, summer, cuttings of evergreen species
usually root readily, more readily than those of the deciduous species (7),
and cuttings of both may be taken later and rooted in sand. Untreated cut-
tings of E. japonica which were taken here in October rooted 100 percent.
October cuttings of E. kiautschovica (125) also rooted well. Hardwood cut-
tings of winged spindle-tree which were taken here in early April and im-
mediately set in the field rooted 100 percent in 4 months whether or
not they were treated. November and March cuttings of that species and of
E. latifolia also rooted well (29). Rooting of cuttings of several species was
hastened by treatment with indolebutyric acid (16, 49, 83, 125), concentra-
tions to which there was a response being as follows : European spindle-
tree (August), 100 mg./l., 24 hr. ; E. japonica (September), 60 mg./l., 24 hr. ;
strawberry-bush, winged spindle-tree, and E. kiaiitschoznca 5 to 10 mg./l., 24
hr. ; E. Fortunei, 1 to 5 mg./gm. talc

Exochorda, pearl bush. Softwood, June or July, cuttings will root although
not very well (7,105). July cuttings of E. raccmosa rooted 40 percent in
sphagnum peat, not at all in sand (66).

Fagiis, beech. Cuttings do not root at all readily O'i), but European beech
has been propagated by softwood cuttings taken in early summer when
tlie last one or two leaves on the twig were beginning to develop (42, 67).

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 21

Such cuttings responded to treatment witli indoleacetic acid (200 mg./l.,
24 hr.), 50 percent of them rooting in sand-peat in 2>7 days (87).

Foiitancsia Fortunei is easily propagated by softwood cuttings. Taken here
in mid-July, they rooted 100 percent in sand in 8 weeks without treat-
ment. Sandy soil may also be used (80). Late June cuttings rooted 53
percent in 3 weeks after treatment with indolebutyric acid (5 mg./l., 24
hr.), less well with greater concentrations (57).-

Forsythia, golden bell. The species are easily propagated by hardwood and
softwood cuttings. Untreated cuttings of F. ititeniicdia (14) and F. viridis-
sima (66) rooted 100 percent when taken in July; also very well, in sand, when
taken from May through September (44). Rooting of late June cuttings was
hastened by treatment with indolebutyric acid, F. suspensa responding to 50
mg./l., 6 hr. (83) and F. intermedia to 5 mg./l, 24 hr. (57).

Fothergilla. Cuttings are considered difficult to root {73), but July cut-
tings of F. Gardeni rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in 42 days after treat-
ment with indoleacetic acid (200 mg./l., 24 hr.), 67 percent without it (87).
Untreated softwood cuttings of F. monticola which were taken here in spring,
when the shrubs were in flower, failed to root in sand but rooted 67 percent
in sandy soil in 60 days.

Franklinia alatamaha (Gordonia) is not difficult to propagate by late sum-
mer or fall cuttings. August cuttings rooted 83 percent in sand in 29
days after treatment with indolebutyric acid (30 mg./l., 24 hr.), equally-
well but more slowly without treatment (125). Cuttings which were
taken here in early November rooted 93 percent in 64 days after treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.), 67 percent without it;
and these November cuttings proceeded to make more top growth than
did cuttings taken in August.

Gardenia. Cuttings respond to treatment with indolebutyric acid (40 mg./l.,
24 hr. or 2 mg./gm. talc) (61) but sometimes the only effect is to hasten
rooting. Untreated cuttings which were taken here in late November,
from greenhouse plants, rooted equally well, 94 to 100 percent in 40 days,
in sand, sand-peat, or sandy soil and the only benefit of treatment was
to hasten rooting by about a week. April cuttings rooted 88 percent in
53 days after treatment with indolebutyric acid, 56 percent without it (16).
While cuttings taken about December 1 were rooting 57 percent without
treatment, there was more than 80 percent rooting of cuttings which had
been treated with Rootone or Hormodin (120).

Genista. Summer cuttings of most species root well in sandy soil (7, 105).
Some of them may also be taken in fall. Untireated cuttings of G. pilosa
rooted at least 90 percent in sand when taken here in September and
October, less well if taken in December.

Ginkgo biloba, maidenhair-tree. Softwood, July, cuttings root fairly read-
ily (45). Such cuttings rooted 90 percent in sand in 36 days after treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.), but untreated cuttings
rooted almost as well (125).

Halesia, silverbell-tree. Cuttings of H. Carolina and H. monticola which
were taken here in mid-July rooted 80 percent in sandy soil in 6 weeks
after treatment with indolebutj^ric acid (25 mg./l., 20 hr.), not more
than 40 percent without treatment; and decidedly less well in sand,
whether treated or not (27). Cuttings have also rooted well in sand-peat
(87) and better in peat moss than in sand (66).

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Hamamelis. Witch-hazels have not been easily propagated by cuttings {.72),
80). Cuttings of H. mollis which were taken here in July rooted 59 percent
in sandy soil, less well in sand, without treatment; and those which were
treated with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 20 hr.) rooted 72> percent in
sandy soil, less well in sand.

Hedera Helix, English ivy, with the possible exceptioin of the variety con-
glomerata (5), is easily propagated by softwood cuttings, made of growing
tips (69, 83), inserted in sandy soil (80) or sand. Benefits of treatment
are not great (83) but rooting is sometimes hastened (113). Optimum
concentrations of indolebutyric acid are 10 mg./l., 24 hr., or 2 mg./gm.
talc (61).

Helianthcmutn, sun-rose, is easily propagated by summer and early fall cut-
tings. Taken here in early October, cuttings of H. nummidariutu rooted 100
percent in sandy soil whether or not they were treated.

Hclwingia japonica is not difficult to propagate by fall cuttings. Untreated
cuttings rooted 90 percent in sand when taken here in early November,
less well if taken in July.

Hibiscus syriacus, shrubby althaea. Softwood cuttings which were taken
in July, a good month for this species (14), rooted 100 percent in 36 days
after treatment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 6 hr.), 52 percent
without it (83). Such cuttings are successfully made of side shoots, with
a heel, and rooted in sand (105). Rooting of hardwood cuttings, which
should be made of the basal or middle parts of the shoot rather than its
tip, was improved by treatment (48). Such cuttings, taken from October
to February, responded to treatment with indolebutyric acid 40 to 60
mg./l., 24 hr., 4 to 10 mg./cc. by the concentrated solution-dip method,
or 2 to 12 mg./gm. talc (49).

Hydrangea. With the exception of H. petiolaris (18, 7Z, 113) and possibly
H. quercifolia, the species are easy to propagate by softwood cuttings taken
in summer, although those of H. arborescens (121) and H. petiolaris may root
more readily if taken in spring (102). At least for H. paniculata (16), H.
quercifolia, and H. macrophylla (87), sand-peat is a good rooting medium.
Rooting of cuttings of H. paniculata was hastened by indolebutyric acid (20
mg./l., 24 hr. (87). July cuttings of H. quercifolia rooted 100 percent in
sand in 39 days after treatment with Hormodin No. 2, 10 percent without
it (102). Their rooting was also improved or hastened by treatment with
indolebutyric acid, 1:250, in talc (104) or 30 mg./l., 10 hr. (83).

Hypericum. St. John's-worts are not difficult to propagate by summer
cuttings made of tips of branches (105) and rooted in sandy soil (7).
Cuttings of H. frondostim, treated or not, rooted 100 percent in sand in 7
weeks when taken here in early August, less well if taken in June.

Idesia polycarpa. Cuttings taken here in late July rooted 76 percent in sandy
soil after treatment with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l., 16 hr.), 40 per-
cent without it.

Ilex cornuta. Summer cuttings root well if taken after young leaves have
become dark green (110). Cuttings have also rooted well when taken
as late as January (44). Rooting was hastened by treatment with a
40-unit solution of Hormodin A, 100 percent of the treated cuttings
rooting in 35 days (117), or with indolebutj^ric acid 30 to 80 mg./l.,
24 hr. (125).

Ilex crenata. Cuttings, torn from the plant at the base of the current
year's growth (61), root readily if taken in fall and winter (15, 107), even

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 23

more quickly if taken in summer (125). They root well in sand (125),
probably better in sand-peat (15), and respond to treatments with indole-
butyric acid (20 mg./L, 24 hr., or 2 mg./gm. talc) (61). Cuttings taken
here in November rooted 100 percent without treatment, in half the time
with it. Cuttings taken here in January rooted 89 percent in 15 weeks
without treatment, 100 percent in 6 weeks with treatment. Rooting of
summer cuttings was similarly hastened by treatment (125), and treated
fall cuttings developed larger root systems than the untreated (47).

Ilex glabra, inkberry. Cuttings may be taken from July or August to as
late as January (15). They responded to treatments with indolebutyric
acid (20 mg./L, 24 hr., or 2 mg./gm. talc) (61). Summer cuttings rooted
90 percent in sand with or without indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 4 hr.),
but they rooted more rapidly with it (125). Rooting of summer cuttings
was also hastened by treatment with 10 mg./l., 24 hr. (57).

IlcA- opaca, American holly, is not difficult to propagate by late summer or
fall cuttings, taken after the new growth has become dark green (76) and
made with the basal cut at the base of the current year's growth, only 3
or 4 leaves nearest the tip being retained (76, 129). They may be taken
as late as December (45), but August and September are better months
{Z2)). Sand (29, 101) or sand-peat (57) are good rooting media, better
than sandy soil. It is well to insert cuttings at an angle, the leaves al-
most flat on the rooting medium (129). Treatments with indolebutyric
acid (40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc) are beneficial (61). Cut-
tings taken here in late August rooted 96 percent after treatment (50
mg./L, 20 hr.), 49 percent without it. Rooting of winter cuttings was
more improved by 30 or 50 mg./l. than by greater concentrations (57).
October cuttings rooted 90 percent in 2 months without treatment and in
1 month after treatment (100 mg./L, 18 hr,) (125).

Ilex rugosa. Untreated cuttings taken here in November rooted 100 percent
in sand-peat in 5 months. Their rooting was hastened by 2 months, but
not otherwise affected, by treatment with indolebutyric acid (100 mg./L,
18 hr.).

Ilex verticillata, black-alder. Summer cuttings and those of harder wood
rooted better in peat moss than in sand (14, 66). Cuttings rooted in 18
days at 80° F., much more slowly at 59° F. (126). Treatments with indole-
butyric acid (40 to 80 mg./L, 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc) are beneficial (61).

Ilex voniitoria, yaupon. Cuttings, untreated, rarely root, but they rooted
after treatment with naphthaleneacetic acid, 1:1000, in talc (96).

Itea virginica is easily propagated by softwood cuttings. Taken here about
July 1, they rooted 100 percent in sand in 4 weeks whether or not they
were treated.

Jasmimim nudiflornm. winter jasmine, is readily propagated by cuttings
taken in late summer (80, 106) and inserted in sand (105), sand-peat (87),
or sandy soil (80).

Juniperus, juniper. Cuttings respond to treatments with indolebutyric acid.
Effective concentrations are 40 to 60 ing./L, 24 hr., or 5 to 12 mg./gm. talc
for mountain juniper (49); 40 to 80 mg./L, 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc for
Chinese juniper. Pfitzer juniper, creeping juniper, savin, red cedar, /. con-
ferta, and /. excelsa (61). Cuttings of /. excelsa, creeping juniper, and
Pfitzer juniper root better in sand-peat than in sand (14). A few of the
species are separately referred to below.

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Juniperus chinensis var. Pfitzeriana, Pfitzer juniper. Cuttings are usually
difficult to root in good percentages (103), but untreated cuttings rooted
100 percent in sandy soil in 4 months, 86 percent in sand in 11 months,
when taken here in August. November cuttings have often rooted better
than those taken later (13, 31, 57) but they sometimes root as well if
taken in December and January (103). Rooting of cuttings taken here
in December was improved by treatment with indolebutyric acid
(50 mg./l., 24 hr.), 100 percent of the treated cuttings rooting in 5 months,
but that treatment apparently injured August cuttings. Cuttings taken
in early February rooted, in about 15 weeks, 20 percent without treatment,
92 percent with Hormodin No. 3 (103).

Juniperus communis, common juniper. Cuttings of prostrate juniper rooted
about equally well when made of wood one,, two, or three years old, but
wood two or three years old results more quickly in larger plants (69). Cut-
tings of /. communis var. Ashfordii which were taken here in December rooted,
without treatment, 50 percent in sand or sand-peat, 80 percent in sandy
soil; and those which had been treated with indolebutyric acid (100 mg./l.,
22 hr.) rooted 60 percent in sand, 90 percent in sandy soil. Taken here in
December, cuttings of Irish juniper treated with indolebutyric acid (100
mg./l., 20 hr.) rooted 75 percent in sand in 6 months ,100 percent in sandy
soil in 3 months; and untreated cuttings rooted as well but more slowly.

Juniperus horizontalis, creeping juniper. Untreated cuttings of Waukegon
juniper rooted more than 90 percent in 8 weeks when taken here in No-
member and December. They also rooted well if taken in summer (14),
but summer cuttings of the variety plumosa rooted less well than fall and
winter cuttings (123). Fall and winter cuttings root so readily that treat-
ments may be without much effect (57, 83) except sometimes in increasing
the numbers of roots on each cutting (125). A higher concentration of
indolebutyric acid is suggested for cuttings in the first stages of dormancy
than for those taken in the winter (57}.

Juniperus procmnbens. Untreated cuttings rooted more than 90 percent in
sand-peat when taken here in early November, less well if taken in Feb-
ruary.

Juniperus Sabina, savin. Cuttings rooted better when taken in late fall or
early winter than when taken later (13,31). Untreated cuttings of the
variety tamariscifolia taken here in late November rooted 90 to 100 percent in
sandy soil or sand-peat, less well in sand.

Juniperus virginiana, red cedar, and its varieties have not been easily prop-
agated by cuttings even after treatment (17, 18, 57, 83). Cuttings of the
variety Kosteri taken here in December failed to root without treatment, but
cuttings treated with indolebutyric acid (100 mg./l., 20 hr.) rooted 58
percent in sandy soil, less well in sand.

Kalmia lafifolia. mountain laurel, is considered difficult to propagate by
cuttings (73, 113), but there was 100 percent rooting of untreated Novem-
ber cuttings in a mixture of cinders and peat, 1:1, with bottom heat at
80° F. (29). Sand-peat is also a good rooting medium (51). Rooting of
late July cuttings, poor at best, was more improved by indoleacetic acid
(90 mg./l., 24 hr.) than by indolebutyric acid (88). Rooting of early-
winter cuttings was also improved by indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l., 48 hr.);
66 percent rooting with it, 12 percent without it, in 5 months (113). Leaf-
bud cuttings gave better results than ordinary stem cuttings and, taken
in late July, leaf-bud cuttings rooted 80 percent in 19 weeks after treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (90 mg./l., 24 hr.), 20 percent without it (88).

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 25

Kalmia polifolia. Untreated cuttings rooted 100 percent in 3 months in sand-
peat when taken here in mid-September, much less well when taken in
mid-July.

Kerria japoiiica. Untreated softwood, July, cuttings rooted 100 percent in
sand-peat, less well in sand (14). Treatments with indolebutyric acid (57)
and indoleacetic acid did not increase percentages which rooted, but root-
ing was hastened by indoleacetic acid (33 mg./l.) (113).

Keteleeria Davidiana. December cuttings rooted 100 percent in 7 weeks
after treatment with indolebutyric acid (100 mg./l., 24 hr.), not at all
meanwhile without treatment (109).

Kolkwifsia amabilis, beauty-bush. Softwood, summer, cuttings, made of the
tips of shoots (48) usually root well in sand (105) or sandy soil (80).
Rooting of June or July cuttings was hastened by treatment with indole-
butyric acid 12 mg./gm. talc or 20 mg./l., 24 hr. (49), or 60 mg./l., 4 hr.
Cuttings given the last named treatment rooted 100 percent in 34 days
(125).

Laburnum anagyroides, golden-chain. Softwood, July cuttings, made with
the basal cut at a node, rooted 100 percent without treatment (14).

Larix sibirica, Siberian larch. There was some rooting of softwood, early
summer, cuttings treated with indoleacetic acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.), not of
the untreated; but cuttings of slightly harder wood, taken two weeks
later, failed to root whether or not they were treated ' (65).

Lavandula officinalis, lavender. Summer cuttings, untreated, root readily
in sandy soil (80, 105).

Lespedcca. Cuttings of L. Thunhcrgii taken here in early October rooted
66 percent in sandy soil after treatment with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l.,
18 hr.), not at all without it. The species is also propagated by cuttings
taken in summer and rooted in sandy soil (80).

Leucothoe Catesbaci is easily propagated by softwood cuttings (67), made
with the basal cut a half inch below a node (14). July cuttings rooted
100 percent in sand-peat in 12 weeks without treatment or in 10 weeks
after treatment with indolebutyric acid (10 mg./l., 24 hr.) (88). This
species is also readily propagated by leaf-bud cuttings whicli, taken in late
June, rooted 100 percent in 10 weeks without treatment (90).

Libocedrus decwrens, incense cedar. Untreated cuttings taken here in No-
vember remained alive but unrooted in sand-peat for 15 months. Some
of them were then treated with indolebutyric acid and all were replanted.
Those treated with 150 mg./l., 24 hr., rooted 100 percent in the next 9
weeks. Results were a little less good with 75 mg./l. and only 50 percent
of the untreated rooted in a total of 22 months.

Ligustrum. Privets can be propagated by softwood, summer, cuttings in
sand or by hardwood, fall, winter, or early spring cuttings. Early summer
cuttings of Japanese privet rooted best if made of growing tips, not older
wood (125). There are sometimes more roots per cutting or more rapid
rooting following treatments with indolebutyric acid (57, 83, 117), optimum
concentrations for California privet being 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm.
talc (61). For privets in general, naphthaleneacetic acid is more eflFective
(49). Concentrations of 60 mg./l., 24 hr., or 1:250 in talc liastened root-
ing of September cuttings of L. cnmpactuni (96).
Lindera Benzoin, spice bush, is sometimes propagated by summer cuttings

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

made of half-ripe young shoots (80), but they do not ordinarily root very
well (51).

Liquidambar. Cuttings of L. formosana, L. oricntalis (105), and sweet gum
(42) will root in sand if taken in summer and made of half-ripened wood
with a heel.

Liriodendron Tulipife\ra, tulip-tree. Propagation by cuttings has been con-
sidered impractical (105), but there was 52 percent rooting of untreated
July cuttings made with the basal cut a half inch below a node (14).
Rooting of summer cuttings, in sand-peat, was hastened by treatment with
indoleacetic acid in a relatively high concentration (87).

Lonicera, honeysuckle. Softwood, summer, cuttings of many species root
well in sand (44, 105) or sandy soil (7), and hardwood cuttings are also
used with good results. Untreated hardwood cuttings of L. Morrowii
rooted well when taken in April (13). Cuttings of L. pileata and L.
nitida, without treatment, rooted 100 percent in sandy soil in about 8 weeks
when taken here in December. Hardwood, early spring, cuttings of L.
coerulea (65) and Tatarian honeysuckle (40, 65) responded to treatment with
indoleacetic acid 50 mg./l., 48 hours for the former, 24 hours for the latter.
Rooting of November cuttings of L. Korolkozvii was more improved by that
acid (100 mg./l., 24 hr.) than by indolebutyric acid (83) but very dilute
S'olutions of the latter are effective with softwood cuttings. July cuttings of
L. nitida rooted 100 percent in 14 days after treatment with indolebutyric acid
5 mg./l., 24 hr. (57) and that treatment was followed by good rooting of
softwood, spring, cuttings of L. Maackii in 16 days (48). July cuttings of
L. fragrantissima rooted so well without treatment that treatments were of
no significant advantage (104), but the rooting of Tune cuttings of that
species was hastened by indolebutyric acid (10 mg./l., 24 hr.) (57).

Lycium, box-thorn. Untreated softwood, summer, cuttings of Chinese mat-
rimony-vine and L. ruthcnicimi root readily (42). Hardwood cuttings also
root well. Taken here in late March, buried in sand in a cold cellar for 3
weeks and then planted in the field, cuttings of L. rtithetiicum rooted 100 per-
cent in 9 weeks with or without treatment.

Madura pomifera, osage orange, can be propagated by softwood cuttings,
the basal cut a half inch below a node (14). July cuttings rooted 100 per-
cent in sand-peat in 42 days after treatment with indoleacetic acid (100
mg./l., 24 hr.), 32 percent without treatment (87).

Magnolia. These have not been considered easy to propagate by cuttings
{72)). Cuttings are made of soft wood, taken in summer (63, 67, 105, 124).
Sand is a good rooting medium (63, 87, 105) — better, at least for some species,
than sand-peat (14) and better, at least for M. Soiilangcana (27), than sandy
soil. A small heel is considered desirable (63). Untreated cuttings may
root slowly (124) or not in large percentages and treatments are worth while.
Cuttings of M. Soulangcana which were taken here in late June rooted 100
percent in 35 days after treatment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l. , 22 hr.),
32 percent without it. This treatment also improved the rooting of early
July cuttings of M. stcUata. August cuttings of M. liliiiora rooted 1(X) per-
cent in 49 days after that treatment, 21 percent without it, and rooting of June
cuttings of M. Kobus was improved by similar treatment with 80 mg./l. (125).
Malus, apple. Softwood cuttings of some species and varieties will root if
they are taken in late spring or early summer and if they are more than usually
well protected against wilting (42). Taken here in late June, cuttings of
M. atrosanguinea rooted 57 percent in sand-peat without treatment ; and cut-

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 27

tings of M. arnoldiana rooted 60 percent after treatment with indolebutyric
acid (50 mg./L, 20 hr.), although not at all without treatment. Early July
cuttings of M. pumila var. Eleyi (the common apple is M. putnila) rooted 70
percent in sand after treatment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./L, 4 hr.),
not at all without it (125). Cuttings of another variety rooted well after
treatment with naphthaleneacetic acid (20 mg./L, 24 hr.) if they were
taken in spring or early summer before growth had been completed (81).
There was no rooting of similar cuttings of Siberian crab whether or not
they were treated (113).

Hardwood cuttings of some varieties of the common apple, made of
wood in its first, second, or third year (126) will rout, but propagation in
this way has not in the past proved commercially practical (12). Cuttings
of Northern Spy taken in March rooted 25 percent in peat moss at 65° F.,
not at all in sand-peat or sand (66). Similar cuttings of Delicious failed
to root even after treatment (95). There was 75 to 100 percent rooting
of hardwood (November to February) cuttings of Rhode Island Greening
and Grimes Golden which were made of tips of the current year's growth,
treated with indolebutyric acid (40 mg./L, 24 hr.), and immediately buried
in moist peat moss, but no rooting of untreated cuttings (48, 49). At-
tempts to repeat this with cuttings of Mcintosh taken here in February
and March were unsuccessful. Best rooting, only 20 percent, was of
treated cuttings made of wood two years old or of tips of the newest
growth, but the rooted cuttings died when transplanted.

Myrica Gale, sweet gale, is easily propagated by softwood cuttings. Un-
treated cuttings which were taken here in late June rooted 85 percent in
sand in 57 days. July cuttings rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in 38 days
after treatment with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./L, 24 hr.), 60 percent
without it (87).

Ostnanthus ilicifoHus. Summer cuttings root readily in sand (105) or
sandy soil (80). Rooting was liastened by treatment with indoleacetic
acid (20 mg./L, 24 hr.) (113) or indolebutyric acid (150 mg./L, 4 hr.), but
untreated cuttings taken in late July rooted more than 90 percent (125).

Oxydendrum arboreum, sorrel-tree, can be propagated by softwood cuttings,
short side shoots with a heel (80). Late July cuttings rooted 80 percent
in sand-peat in 8 weeks after treatment with indolebutyric acid (90 mg./L,
8 hr.), less well in sand, and not at all in 8 weeks without treatment (88).

Pachistima. Cuttings of P. Canbyi and P. Myrsinites taken here in October
and November rooted more than 90 percent in sand-peat whether or not
they were treated. Softwood cuttings are also successfully taken in July
and rooted in sand (67).

Pachysandra terminalis is easily propagated by July and August cuttings
(106). Late June cuttings rooted 100 percent in 28 days after treatment
with indolebutyric acid (30 mg./L, 6 hr.), 60 percent without it (83.).
Concentrations effective with winter cuttings are naphthaleneacetic acid
20 to 100 mg./L, 24 hr., (47) and indolebutyric acid 20 to 40 mg./L, 24 hr.
or 5 to 12 mg./gm. talc (49).

Parrotia per ska. Summer cuttings rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in 38
days after treatment with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./L, 24 hr.), less than
50 percent without it (87).

Parthenocissus. Boston ivy and Virginia creeper are easily propagated by
softwood cuttings. Untreated August cuttings of the former rooted 90
percent in 20 days and treated cuttings rooted no better (16).

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Passiflora racemosa, passion-flower. Softwood cuttings taken here in July
rooted 90 percent in sand in 8 weeks after treatment with indolebutyric
acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.), 40 percent if untreated. Sandy soil may also be
used as a rooting medium (80).

Periploca. Softwood cuttings of silk-vine and P. sepium taken here in early
August rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in 4 weeks with or without treat-
ment. Late August cuttings of silk-vine, in sand, failed to root in 4 weeks
without treatment but rooted 70 percent after powder-dip treatment with
indolebutyric acid, 1:500 (104).

Philadelphus, mock-orange. Softwood. July, cuttings of many species root
well without treatment (44, 66, 116, 125) ; better sometimes in sand-peat that
in sand (14, 66). The only response of P. grandiUorus to treatment was more
roots on each cutting (125). Rooting of cuttings of P. cymosus (125) and
P. coronarius (83) was hastened by treatment with indolebutyric acid, the
former responding to 30 to 80 mg./l. , 4 hr., and the latter to 50 mg./l.,
20 hr.

Photinia. The species can be propagated by fall or late summer cuttings,
short side-shoots, with a heel (105). Fall cuttmgs of P. glabra rooted 100
percent in 62 days after treatment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 18 hr.),
5 percent without it (20). Summer cuttings of P. scrrulata rooted 20 percent
without treatment, 80 percent after treatment with indolebutyric acid
(20 mg./l., 6 hr.) (119).

Physocarpus opulif alius, ninebark, is easily propagated by softwood, summer
cuttings. They rooted better in sand-peat than in sand, better at 60° F.
than at 70° F. (116). Cuttings of harder wood are also successfully
used. Taken in November, they rooted 80 percent in 53 days without
treatment and only a little better after treatment with indolebutyric acid
(50 mg./l., 40 hr.) (16).

Picea Abies, Norway spruce. Cuttings rooted better if taken in November
than if taken in late winter (38), better if taken in December than if taken
in spring, summer, fall, or later in the winter (24). Best results have followed
the taking of cuttings, laterals rather than terminals (109), from the lower
in preference to the upper part of trees (35). Cuttings root with less diffi-
culty than do those of most spruces (106) ; and cuttings of the varieties nigra,
Maxwellii, Clanbrasiliana, and Ohlendorfii which were taken here in December
rooted at least 70 percent without treatment, no better and not always so
well with it. Treatments for 24 hours with solutions of indoleacetic (41)
or indolebutyric acid (24) failed to improve rooting significantly and
similar treatment with water alone was apparently somewhat injurious
(24). Powder-dip treatment with indolebutyric acid (4 mg./gm. talc)
caused some injury in many cases (24), but rooting was somewhat im-
proved by indoleacetic acid in talc (41). November cuttings, made with
the basal cut somewhat above the base of the current year's growth and
planted immediately in a mixture of equal parts of sand and peat humus in
shaded outdoor frames, rooted about 50 percent without treatment, 82
percent in 10 months after treatment with indoleacetic acid ( 5mg./gm.
talc) (39). Treated cuttings in that experiment rooted less well in sand,
but untreated cuttings from trees 40 years old, made with the basal cut
not far above the base of the current year's wood, rooted 80 percent in
sand; better, with less rotting, in open benches in a warm greenhouse
than in a closed sweat bench (24).

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 29

Picea glauca var. conica. Taken here in early December, cuttings in sand-
peat rooted 39 percent without treatment, 92 percent after treatment with
indolebutyric acid (70 mg./l., 20 hr.), with results less good in sand. Late
winter cuttings respond to treatment with 40 to 60 mg./l., 24 hr., or 2 to
12 mg./gm. talc, or, by the concentrated solution-dip method, 4 mg./cc.
(49). Cuttings are taken in summer in England (7).

Picea Omorika, Serbian spruce. Suggested treatments with indolebutyric
acid are 40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc (61).

Picea pungens, Colorado spruce. Best rooting was of cuttings taken in Feb-
ruary (61, 67, 127). Summer proved to be a poor time to take them (126).
April cuttings rooted 80 percent in 8 weeks after treatment with indole-
acetic acid (100 mg/L, 24 hr.), but bud development was retarded for a
few months following (109). Indolebutyric acid (40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr.,
or 12 mg./gm. talc) may also be used (61). Cuttings rooted better in
peat moss than in sand (44), but cuttings of the variety Kosteriana rooted
well in sand (66).

Picea sitchensis, Sitka spruce. Late winter cuttings made of the current
year's wood rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in 60 days after treatment
with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l., 24 hr.), less well if taken in fall or
early winter or if not treated (43).

Pieris. P. japonica and P. Uoribunda can be propagated by cuttings taken in
July or August when the wood is nearly ripe, made with the basal cut about
one-fourth inch below a node (67), and inserted in sand-peat (80, 88). July
cuttings of P. japonica rooted 80 percent without treatment, 100 percent in 6
weeks with treatment (88). Indolebutyric acid (10 mg./l, 24 hr.) has
given good results with that species (61), which is also easily propagated
by leaf-bud cuttings taken in early summer (89).

Pinus Strobus, white pine. Cuttings, treated or not (61), have not often
rooted well if obtained from mature trees or, in fact, from trees more
than three or four years old (24, 42, 109), but cuttings from older
trees can be rooted (24, 28, 74, 94). Cuttings which were taken
here in mid-March from a tree about thirty years old did not root without
treatment and rooted poorly or not at all, with or without treatment, if
taken from the upper part of the tree; but cuttings from the lower part of
the tree rooted 70 percent in sand-peat in 3 months after treatment with
indolebutyric acid (200 mg./l., 5 hr.) (28).

Deuber (24) got 14 and 16 percent rooting of cuttings taken in December
and January from trees thirty years old, 30 percent rooting of cuttings
taken in February from a tree sixty years old; such cuttings rooting
better in sand than in sand-peat (1:1), better in the moist air of a green-
house at 70° F. than in a sweat bench at higher temperatures. Rooting was
somewhat improved by treatment for 24 hours with indolebutyric acid
(100 mg./l.), but improvement was not very great and this treatment was
sometimes injurious. He found that small cuttings, lateral twigs, root
better than large cuttings, terminal shoots, with all taken from the lower
part of the tree, and that winter, especially late winter, is apparently a
better time to take cuttings than spring, summer, or fall.

Snow (94) took cuttings in August from trees ten years old and planted
them in outdoor beds, covered with sash at night, in a six-inch layer of
sand-peat over old horse manure. They were there carried through the
winter mulched with hay, rooting the following summer. There was 35
percent rooting of those which had been treated only with water, 47.5
percent rooting of those which had been treated with indolebutyric acid

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

(25 mg./l., 6 hr.) followed by treatment with a dust containing indole-
butyric acid or naphthaleneacetic acid, but no benefit from the solution
treatment alone. Best rooting was of cuttings farthest from the terminal,
cuttings taken from lateral branches of lateral branches in the lower part
of the tree.

Rooting of cuttings from very young trees, better in sand-peat than in
sand, was improved by treatment with indoleacetic acid (200 mg./l., 24
hr.) (109).

Deuber got about 50 percent rooting of cuttings of lace-bark pine from
a tree ten years old and he mentions the rooting of cuttings of Scots pine,
Austrian pine, and a few other species by other investigators. In the
present limited state of our knowledge, propagators working with these
and other pines will probably do well to take cuttings, laterals not termi-
nals, from the lower part of the trees in late winter. Cuttings of lace-
bark pine, a variety of mountain pine (61), and white pine have sometimes
rooted better after treatment with indolebutyric acid; and this chemical,
if used, should probably be applied to dormant cuttings in a relatively
concentrated solution for a relatively short time.

Poncirus trifoliata. Cuttings which were taken here in mid-December and
inserted in sand-peat rooted 60 percent in 9 weeks after treatment with
naphthaleneacetic acid (100 mg./l., 17 hr.). Untreated cuttings and those
similarly treated with indolebutyric acid were alive but not rooted at the
end of that time.

Populus, poplar. Hardwood, April, cuttings of white poplar and black
poplar rooted poorly without treatment, very well after treatment with
indoleacetic acid (50 mg./L, 30 hr. or 100 mg./l., 18 hr.) (65). Rooting
of October cuttings of quaking aspen and March cuttings of large-toothed
aspen was much improved by treatment, the former with indoleacetic acid
(100 mg./L, 24 hr.) (109), the latter with indolebutyric acid (10 mg./l.,
27 hr.) (91). Late November cuttings of cottonwood, untreated, rooted
well when buried in a cold pit for about two months before' being planted
(52). Treated hardwood cuttings of quaking aspen rooted better in sand
than in sand-peat (91). Rooting of softwood, July or early August,
cuttings of white poplar and of a hybrid was much improved by treatment;
indoleacetic acid (50 mg./L, 24 hr.) being effective with the former (65)
and indolebutyric acid (20 mg./L, 12 hr.) with the latter (1).

Potentilla fruticosa is easily propagated by softwood cuttings. Taken here
in early July, they rooted 100 percent in sand in 3 weeks whether or not
they were treated.

Prunus spp. The best time to take softwood cuttings is, generally speaking,
in late spring and early summer. Treated cuttings of three plums and a
cherry rooted best if taken immediately after growth had stopped (81);
similar cuttings of another cherry, if made of tips of shoots taken shortly
before they became woody (11). Indolebutyric acid (15 or 20 mg./L,
24 hr.) markedly improved the rooting of such cuttings of both plum and
cherry (81). Cuttings of a species of Prunus taken in mid-July rooted 90
percent in 38 days after treatment with naphthylacetamide (1:1000, in
powder), 5 percent without treatment (104). A few other species are
discussed separately below.

Prunus ceo'asifera, cherry plum. Softwood cuttings, made in spring of
terminal shoots which were still growing, rooted 100 percent in 4 weeks

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 31

after treatment with naphthaleneacetic acid (30 mg./l., 12 hr.), the most
effective root-inducing substance for this species, 20 percent without it
(82). Similar cuttings responded to indolebutyric acid (2 to 5 mg./gm.
talc, or, by the concentrated solution-dip method, 4 mg./cc.) (49).

Prunus glandidosa, dwarf flowering almond, is not difficult to propagate by
untreated softwood, July, cuttings (14, 44), made with the basal cut at
the base of the current season's wood (46) and planted in sand-peat (14).

Prunus incisa can be propagated by softwood cuttings taken with a heel
early in the season or when the new shoots are about three inches long
(105). Rooting of late summer cuttings was improved by naphthalene-
acetic acid (25 mg./l., 24 hr.) (113).

Prunus japonica. Late June cuttings, untreated, rooted about 50 percent
when made of tips, not basal parts, of young shoots (70).

Prunus Laurocerasus, cherry laurel, is easily propagated by late summer
cuttings (7). Untreated cuttings taken here in early August rooted more
than 90 percent in sand-peat in seven weeks. January cuttings rooted 80
percent in 34 days after treatment with indolebutyric acid (40 mg./l.,
6 hr.), not at all without treatment (119).

Prunus maritima, beach plum. Softwood cuttings taken here in late June
failed to root without treatment. They rooted 43 percent in sandy soil
after treatment with indolebutyric acid (12.5 or 25 mg./l., 20 hr.), less
well in sand or sand-peat or if cuttings were taken later.

Prunus Padus, European bird cherry. July cuttings rooted 32 percent with-
out treatment, 52 percent after treatment for 20 hours with a solution of
Auxilin containing indolebutyric acid 22 mg./l. (69).

Prunus pseudocerasus. Softwood cuttings, made of entire young shoots, are
successfully taken when such shoots are about three inches long (105).

Prunus subhirtella, Higan cherry. Softwood cuttings have been taken with
some success in early June (55). Taken here near the last of that month,
they did not root if untreated, but rooted 50 percent in sand-peat in 4 weeks
after treatment with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l., 20 hr.).

Prunus tomentosa. Hardwood cuttings rarely root but softwood cuttings
root fairly well (127) in sand-peat or sandy soil. Untreated cuttings rooted
63 percent in sand, 80 percent in sandy soil when taken here in late May,
less well if taken a month later. Rooting is better if most of the leaves
are left on the cuttings (126). Taken here in mid-June, cuttings rooted
100 percent in sand-peat in 3 weeks after treatment with indolebutyric
acid (40 mg./l., 6 hr.), 35 percent in 7 weeks without treatment.

Prunus triloba, flowering almond. Cuttings root best if ma^le of new shoots
taken in spring (128) or when they are about three inches long (105). Root-
ing of July cuttings of the variety plena was improved by treatment with in-
dolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 4 hr.) (125).

Pseudotsuga taxifoUa, Douglas-fir. Late winter cuttings rooted 80 percent
in sand-peat after treatment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.),
less well without treatment or when taken in fall and early winter (43).

Pterocarya, wing-nut. The species, or some of them, can be propagated by
late-summer cuttings made of young shoots with a heel (80). Cuttings of
P. stenoptera rooted 90 percent in 3 weeks after treatment with Hormodin A
(20 B T I units), not at all meanwhile without treatment (118).

Puerarta Thunhergiana, kudzu-vine. Cuttings are decidedly respotisive to
treatments with potassium permanganate. Those treated 30 minutes with

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

a solution of 1 ounce in 8 gallons water rooted 86 percent in 30 days,
which was much better than the rooting of untreated cuttings or of those
treated with some ordinary root-inducing substances (75).

Pyracantha, firethorn. Cuttings are taken in summer (67) or fall (124).
Untreated cuttings of P. coccinea taken here in early August rooted 100 per-
in sand-peat and in sand. October (98, 125) and November (83) cuttings
have also rooted well. Rooting is better if thorns are removed (42) and if
the basal cut is at a node (14). Indolebutyric acid hastened rooting (125),
but indoleacetic acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.) was more effective (83) and also
improved rooting of cuttings of P. atlantioides (72). September cuttings of
P. crenulata rooted, in 35 days, 6 percent without treatment, 75 to 100 percent
after treatment with indoleacetic acid (25 mg./l., 20 hr.), a treatment which
was of more benefit to cuttings of P. coccinea made of tips of shoots rather
than their basal parts (68). December cuttings of P. coccinea rooted 82 per-
cent without treatment, 100 percent with Hormodin No. 1 (102),

Pyrus, pear. Hardwood cuttings of most varieties of common pear are not
easily rooted, but some can be propagated by treated softwood cuttings.
Untreated cuttings did not root but those treated with naphthaleneacetic
acid (40 mg./l., 12 hr.) rooted 100 percent if made of growing shoots in
spring, 75 percent if taken in early summer when growth had recently
ceased (82). There was also good rooting of cuttings taken in spring
or early summer and treated with indolebutyric acid (20 to 40 mg./l., 24
hr.) (81); and 2 mg./gm. talc improved the rooting of early June cut-
tings of sand pear (49). Cuttings of Hood, an oriental pear, rooted 100
percent in sand-peat in three weeks after treatment for 24 hours with
Hormodin A (40 B T I units), not at all without treatment (117).

Quercus, oak. Cuttings from other than very young trees are not likely to
root much without treatment. Untreated July cuttings of English oak
did not root, but there was 56 percent rooting of cuttings from trees 6 to
8 years old which had been treated with indoleacetic acid (50 mg./l.,
18 hr.), 34 percent rooting of cuttings from a tree 20 years old similarly
treated with 200 mg./l. (65). Cuttings of red oak from mature trees
failed to root, but there was 82 percent rooting of February cuttings made
from the basal parts (wood more than one year old) of 4-year-old trees
which had been treated with indoleacetic acid (400 mg./l., 24 hr.), 22
percent rooting of untreated cuttings (109).

Rhododendron. As may be seen by reference to the table, early summer
cuttings of some species root well without treatment. That is true also
of cuttings of R. japonicum, R. racemosum (88), R. laetevirens (90), R. lap-
ponicum (105), R. yunnanense, and R. indicum (106). Cuttings of most
azaleas (9), R. maximum (5), and the common evergreen hybrids have been
more difficult to root although cuttings of some, e. g., the varieties Boule
de Neige, catawhiense album, and purpurcum clegans, rooted well without
treatment iy"^)-

Cuttings of many species root better or more rapidly after treatment
with indolebutyric acid, some effective concentrations of which are listed
in the table. For broad-leaved evergreen species and hybrids, a relatively
high concentration of indolebutyric acid (40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12
mg./gm. talc (61) or 10 to 20 mg./cc. by the concentrated solution-dip
method (49) ) is usually needed. Cuttings of the hybrid album grandiHorum
taken here in late August rooted 62 percent in 5 months without treat-
ment, 92 percent in 3 months after treatment with 50 mg./l., 20 hr.

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS

33

Rooting of Cuttings of Rhododendron

Species and Time of
Taking Cuttings

Indolebutyric

Acid

Treatment

Rooted

with

Treatment

Rooted

without

Treatment

Lit.
Cit.

Percent Days Percent

Days

R. arhorescens

Late June 80 mg./l., 4 hr.

Latp May 12 mg./gni- *

Mid-July 5 ing./gm. *

Jl. calendulaceum

I^ate May 12 nig. /gm. *

Early Jiily 50 mg./l., 16 hr.

R. canadense

Early July 50 mg./l., 20 hr.

JR. canescens

Late June 12 mg. /gm. *

Hormodin A
Jl. CoUettianum

Late June 12 mg. /gm. *

R. dauricum

Mill- July 5 mg. /gm. *

Jl. gandavense

Late June 60 mg./l., 8 hr.

R. f^andavense (hybrids)

Early June 12 mg. /gm. *

Jl. hursutum

Mid-August 30 mg./l., 24 hr.

Jl. micranthum

Late July 10 mg./l., S hr.

Jl. minus

Late November 75 mg./l., 16 hr.

R. mixtum

Late June 90 mg./l., 10 hr.

Jl. molie

Mid-July 2 nig. /gm. *

R. mucronatum

Late Mav 2 nig./gm. *

Mid-June 30 mg./l., 4 hr.

R. mucTonulatum

Early July 50 mg. /I., IS hr.

Late June 12 mg. /gm.. *

R. nudijiorum

Late June SO mg./l., 4 hr.

R. ohtusum (varieties)

Early June 70 mg./L, 20 hr.

Late June 2 mg. /gm. *

Hormodin A
R. ohtusum var. japonicum

Late June 2 mg./gm. *

R. ohtusum var. Kaempjeri

Early July 50 mg./l., 4 hr.

R. ponticum „ „ , ,

Late June 40 mg./l., 24 hr.

R. pulchrum ,, „ _ ,

Late July 90 mg./L, 24 hr.

R. Tcticulatuni

Late July 40 mg./l., 8 hr.

R. roseum

Mid-July 12 mg./gm. *

R. Schlippenbachtj

Late May 12 mg./gm. *

R. Vaseyi

Late June 2 mg. /gm. *

Late June 10 nig. /I., 8 hr.

R. viscosepalum

Late July 25 mg./l., 6 hr.

R. viscosum

Earlv June 15 mg./gm. *

Late July 90 mg./l., 4 hr.

R. yedoense var. pou^hanense

Mid-July 2 mg./gm. *

Late July 50 mg. /I., 20 hr.

* Tn talc. ** Work done here.

63 Same, but better
roots

100
100

75
100

75
100

50

100

100

75

90

100

50

80

50

100
70

100
75

73

93
100
100

100

85

80

100

100

50

75

75
60

100

50
100

100
100

45
83

54
80

50

92
42

61

53

70

47

80

91

150

147

68

33
73

87
46

62

49
37
49

34

45

63

35

35

68

76

76
105

52

47

22
64

2 5
0

25
50

27

0
30

0
25
80

0
90
60

0
20

0

100
10

74
0

56

86

25-75

56

100

85

80

100

100

0

0

0
30

45
33

54
80

92
42

61

53

105

47

96

91

150

147

68

33

73

110
46

63
37
49

112

50

56

68

76

76
105

90

0 47

100 (but more
slowly)

25 2 2

12 60

125

61
61

61

118

61
61
90
61

61

61

125

61

125

90

61

117

61

125

88
S8
88
61
61
61

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Cuttings of Rhododendron mucronatum, R. pulchrum, R. obtusum, and R.
yedoense var. poukhanense will root at almost any time (9), but cuttings of
most azaleas, deciduous species, root best if taken in spring or early summer
when the wood is soft (90, 125), much less well in fall or winter (61). Best
rooting of cuttings of R. calcndulaceuin, R. mucronulatum, R. viscose paluni,
and R. canadense followed when they were taken here before rather than after
the middle of July.

A good time to take cuttings of broad-leaved evergreen Rhododendrons,
including the named hybrids, is August (9, 77) or after the leaves on the
newest growth have become dark green. They have also rooted well
when taken in September, October, or early November (61, 77). Such
cuttings are made of terminal shoots, without flower buds, cut through
the basal ring (61). Nearing and Connors (77), using different methods,
successfully shorten cuttings to three inches below the lowest of the
three to five leaves which are left on the cutting.

The basal cut may be made in wood of the current year in the case
of Indian and Kurume azaleas (9), but cuttings of other azaleas are
usually made with a heel (9, 61) or with the basal cut at the juncture of
the wood of the current and previous year (105).

A mixture of sand and peat, 1:1 or 3:2, is a good rooting medium (9, 90),
better than sand (44, 88) and better than a mixture (2:1:1) of sand, peat,
and loam. Azalea cuttings rooted better in sand-peat which had l)een
previously used than in a freshly prepared mixture (44). Bottom heat
may benefit fall cuttings but is unnecessary for those taken in July and
August (9).

Broad-leaved evergreen Rhododendrons can also be propagated, be-
ginning in July or when new leaves have fully developed, by leaf-bud
cuttings consisting of one leaf of the current year's growth, its axillary bud,
and an attached bit of bark and wood or piece of stem about a half inch
long (61, 88). This leaf-mallet type of cutting, so set as not to cover
any of the blade of the leaf with rooting medium, rooted in higher per-
centages than stem, terminal cuttings (61). Such cuttings, in sand-peat
at 70 to 75° F., rooted in 13 weeks without treatment or in 10 weeks after
treatment of the mallet or heel with indolebutyric acid (60 mg./l., 8 to
24 hr.) (89). Leaf-bud cuttings of the variety purpureum elegans rooted
100 percent in 15 weeks with treatment (indolebutyric acid 120 mg./l., 20
hr.), 88 percent in 18 weeks without it (90).

Rhodotypos scandens. Softwood, late spring, cuttings root well. Taken here
in late May, they rooted 86 percent in sand in 8 weeks witliout treatment,
100 percent in 3 weeks after treatment with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l.,
24 hr.). Late June cuttings rooted 84 percent in 7 weeks after treatment
with indolebutyric acid (1:1000, in talc), not at all meanwhile without
treatment (104).

Rhus, sumac. Untreated July cuttings of fragrant sumac rooted 80 to 100
percent in sand-peat, less well in sand (66). Cuttings of staghorn sumac and
smoke-tree {Cotinus Coggygria or Rhus Cotinus) are taken in England (80)
in late summer, but smoke-tree is not readily propagated by cuttings (73).

Ribes. Garden currant can be propagated by September or October cuttings
set in the field, the upper bud level with the soil surface, and given a
protective mulch in winter (121). That and other species can also be
propagated by summer cuttings. July cuttings of European black cur-
rant, alpine currant (44), and northern red currant (65) rooted well.
Gooseberry cuttings may root less readily (5, 105), but untreated cuttings.

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 35

of the variety Poorman which were taken here in mid-July rooted 70
percent in sandy soil, 32 percent in sand. Late June cuttings of alpine
currant rooted 77 percent in 22 days after treatment with indolebutyric
acid (20 mg./l., 24 hr.), 39 percent witliout it (57). Rooting of October
cuttings of R. Grossularia was improved by treatment with naphthalene-
acetic acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.) (113).

Robinia Pscudoacacia, black locust, and its varieties can be propagated by
hardwood, winter and early spring, cuttings treated with indoleacetic acid
or naphthaleneacetic acid (100 mg./l., 24 hr.). Cuttings, six to twelve
inches long and about one half inch in diameter, were allowed to callus
for seven to ten days in moist sphagnum moss at 68° to 80" F. before
treatment. Stored in moist sand at 70° F. for about ten days following the
treatment, the}' rooted, in soil, more than 60 percent in the field, more
than 90 percent in a greenhouse (99).

Rosa, rose. Most hardy climbing roses and hybrids of R. mgosa, some
hybrid teas, and some hybrid perpetuals do well on their own roots (121,
122). Cuttings of some species are difficult to root (10), but hybrid per-
petuals, Polyantha roses, most hardy climbers, and some hj'brid teas can
be propagated by dormant, late fall or winter, cuttings planted imme-
diately in a cold frame or stored cool, in sand, during winter and planted
outside in spring (122). Rose cuttings are taken in late fall in England,
and untreated October cuttings of R. rugosa there rooted to the extent of
100 percent (10).

Greenhouse varieties of hybrid teas were most responsive to treatment
if cuttings were taken from canes of flowering wood just after petals
began to fall, and softwood cuttings rooted best if taken from garden
varieties of hybrid teas in August or from climbers and creepers in July
and August (62). Three buds are enough on a cutting (122). Sum-
mer cuttings of R. Hugonis, R. omeiensis, and prairie rose rooted better
if made with a heel (46) but all roses do not need one (121). There
was good rooting of three-node cuttings of hybrid teas made from
the basal portion of flowering shoots, the basal cut in the internode
below a node, the lowest leaf and the terminal leaflets of the remain-
ing leaves removed (62). Sand-peat, sand (62), and sandy soil (121,
122) have been used successfully as rooting media. Sandy soil gave
better results than sand with treated cuttings of a hybrid perpetual {27).

Indolebutyric acid in very low concentrations (48) is the most effective
of the known root-inducing substances for rose cuttings and some of the
results of work with it as described by Kirkpatrick (62) are here sum-
marized. Cuttings of several, not all, garden varieties of hybrid teas,
taken in August from flowering shoots, rooted as much as 50 percent
more after treatment with 2.5 mg./l., 24 hr., or 2 mg./gm. talc. Similar
cuttings of greenhouse varieties rooted in 15 to 20 days after treatment
with 1.25 to 2.5 mg./l., 24 hr., or 1 to 2 mg./gm. talc. Rooting of summer
cuttings of several climbers and creepers, also R. multitlora, was improved
b}' 5 mg./l., 24 hr., or 2 mg./gm. talc but at least twice these concentra-
tions were needed to induce rooting of cuttings of R. Hugonis. Treatments
did not affect rooting of Pernettiana hybrids. Dormant cuttings of
R. multiftora responded to 5 to 10 mg./l.. 24 hr., or 2 mg./gm. talc if treated
cuttings were then given a temperature of 65° to 75° F., not lower. Air
temperatures of from 60° to 80° F. proved to be best for quick rooting of
rose cuttings in general and it was necessary to give them heat at other
times but not in summer. Indolebutyric acid had little effect at temper-
atures of less than 60° F.

36 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Rubus. Cuttings of Van Fleet raspberry, new shoots taken in May, rooted
well in 26 days (127), but some red raspberries are not readily propagated
in this way (115). Leaf-bud cuttings of a black raspberry taken in July,
made to include an axillary bud and a heel of bark and wood, rooted 100
percent in sand (100). This method is successful with some red rasp-
berries, not with others (115). Leaf-bud cuttings of several species, taken
in July or August before leaves began to mature, rooted in sand in 2
weeks or in half the time required for stem cuttings (112).

Salix, willow. Softwood, summer, cuttings of white willow (44), dwarf
willow (105), S. Elacagnos (66), and other species root readily in sand.
Rooting of late Jime cuttings of 5". Elaeagnos and early July cuttings of pussy
willow was, however, at least hastened by indolebutyric acid, 10 mg./l., 6
hr., for the former (83); 5 mg./l., 24 hr., for the latter (57).

Salvia officinalis, garden sage. Untreated cuttings taken here in October
rooted 100 percent in sandy soil in 6 weeks. Taken here in late June,
they rooted, in sand, 79 percent in 7 weeks without treatment, 100 percent
in 3 weeks after treatment with indolebutyric acid (40 mg./l., 24 hr.).

Samhucus, elder. Softwood, summer, cuttings of American elder (44), Eu-
ropean elder (66), European red elder, and 5". mclanocarpa (116) root well.
Cuttings of American elder, whole new shoots about five inches long,
root well if taken in spring (127) and that is a good time to take cuttings
of the varieties also (51). Sand is a good rooting medium (66, 127),
better, at least for some species, than sand-peat (116).

Sciadopitys (verticillata, umbrella-pine. January cuttings four or five inches
long, from trees about seven years old, were treated with indolebutyric
acid (20 mg./l., 20 hr.), planted in a mixture of sifted cinders three parts
and peat moss one part, and transplanted after three months to sand-peat
w^here they rooted 70 percent in 8 months (23). There was no rooting
meanwhile of untreated cuttings.

Sccurinega suffruticosa. Hardwood cuttings taken here in late March, buried
in sand at about 50° F. for one month and then planted in soil outdoors,
rooted 100 percent in 6 weeks whether or not they were treated.

Sorbaria sorbifolia. Untreated softwood, summer, cuttings, made with
the basal cut at a node, rooted 80 percent in sand at 60° P., less well at
70° (116).

Spirca. Softwood. July, cuttings root readily. There was 80 to 100 per-
cent rooting of untreated cuttings of S. Bumalda, S. salicifolia (46), S. Thun-
bergii, S. Billiardii (66), 5^. arguta, and S. Vanhouttci (116), but rooting of
some species may be at least hastened by treatment. June cuttings of S.
Bumalda var. "Anthony Watercr" rooted 100 percent in 4 weeks after treat-
ment with indolebutyric acid (10 mg./l., 24 hr.), 55 percent without it
(57). Cuttings of S. Vanhouitei rooted 100 percent in 3 weeks after treat-
ment for 8 hours with Hormcnlin A (40 B T I units), not at all without
it (118). Cuttings of S. arguta (80), S. Vanhouttci (14), and 5*. Billiardii
(66) rooted better in sand-peat than in sand.

Stephanandra. Softwood cuttings are easily rooted without treatment. Taken
here in July and August, cuttings of 5*. Tanakac rooted 100 percent in sand
in 3 to 4 weeks whether or not they were treated. Cuttings of S. incisa rooted
better in sand than in sand-peat (14).

Stewartia. Cuttings are taken in summer, often in late summer (106). It is
English practice to make them with a heel (80, 105). Cuttings of 5". korcana
and S. ovata taken here in late July and early August rooted not more than

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 37

20 percent without treatment but they rooted 88 to 100 percent in sand-peat
in 8 to 10 weeks after treatment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./L, 20
hr.). Sand (105) and sandy soil (7, 80) have also been used successfully.
To induce more of the rooted cuttings to live through the first winter,
sometimes difficult, they should be kept in a warm place and, if possible,
growing (105).

Styrax. S. japonica is not usually propagated by cuttings (104), but un-
treated softwood cuttings of that species, 5". americana, and 6". Obassia rooted
well if taken here in mid-July, less well if taken in late August. Taken here
in late July, untreated cuttings of S. japonica rooted 40 percent in sand, 80
percent in sandy soil; and those which had been treated with indolebutyric
acid (12.5 mg./L, 18 hr.) rooted 50 percent in sand, 90 percent in sandy
soil. Such treatments sometimes merely hasten rooting. Cuttings of
S. japonica rooted 1()J pe-Ccut in 8 weeks wilhuut h-eatment and in 3 weeks
after treatment (indolebutyric acid 50 mg./L, 4 hr.) (125). December
cuttings of S. americana responded to treatment with 4 mg./cc. applied by
the concentrated solution-dip method (49).

Syiiiphoricarpos can be propagated by cuttings of hard or soft wood (51).
Untreated cuttings of snowberry rooted well when taken in June, July, and
August (44). Similar cuttings of coralberry, untreated, rooted 100 per-
cent and best with the basal cut a half inch above the base of the current
season's growth (46). Late June cuttings of that species rooted, in 3
weeks, 93 percent after treatment with indolebutyric acid (5 mg./L, 24 hr.),
27 percent without it (57). Softwood cuttings of snowberry rooted better
in sand than in sand-peat, better at 70° F. than at 60° or 80° (116).

Symplocos paniculata, Asiatic sweetleaf, has been considered difficult to
propagate by cuttings (98). Softwood cuttings taken here in early June
rooted 58 percent in sand with treatment, 36 percent without it; and
similar cuttings in sandy soil rooted 92 percent with treatment (indole-
butyric acid 50 mg./L, 24 hr.), 55 percent without it.

Syringa, lilac. Cuttings of 6". vulgaris root best if taken in spring, May or
June here, while new shoots are still growing (49) or very soon after
flowering (67, 78, 125). Being very soft, they must be carefully protected
against wilting; but taken later, when the wood is harder, they root more
slowly and usually in smaller percentages (60). Cuttings taken as late as
July are less likely to make good top growth that season (46). Good
cuttings are made of shoots, not too vigorous (106), which are not more
than six inches long (45). Complete shoots, with the basal cut at the
base of the current year's growth (46), root better than parts of shoots
(60).

Lilac cuttings root well in sand (78), better than in sand-peat (44, 56,
116). They should be inserted at an angle so that the leaves are almost
flat on the sand (45, 60). Shading is more than usually important for
such very soft cuttings. Bottom heat has been recommended and cut-
tings of two species rooted better at 70° F. than at 60° F. (116).

The optimum concentration of indolebutyric acid is not exactly the same
throughout the season (cuttings taken early are likelj^ to need a some-
what greater concentration than those taken two weeks later), nor is it
exactly the same for all horticultural forms of 5". vulgaris (60). But their
rooting, and tlie rooting of cuttings of other species (60), is usually im-
proved by treatment with 20 to 60 mg./L, 24 hr., 2 to 12 mg./gm. talc, or,
by the concentrated solution-dip method, 4 to 10 mg./cc. (49). Taken
here in mid-June, cuttings of Marie Legraye rooted 22 percent without

38 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

treatment, 100 percent in 90 days after treatment with 25 mg./L, 24 hr.
Similar cuttings of Vestale, more benefited by 50 mg./L, rooted 87 percent
with treatment, 36 percent without it. Cuttings of Reine Elizabeth and
Siebold, taken in May, rooted 100 percent in about 4 weeks after treat-
jnent with indolebutyric acid 12 mg./gm. talc (49). Similar cuttings of
S. villosa, S. Henryi, S. tomentella, and Persian, Hungarian, and Himalayan
lilacs rooted not more than 25 percent without treatment, but 75 to 100
percent after treatment with indolebutyric acid (40 mg./L, 24 hr.) (60).
Indoleacetic acid is also eflfective (87), and a treatment of lilac cuttings
with naphthaleneacetic acid (20 mg./L, 24 hr.) was highly beneficial (47).
Cuttings of the variety Mme. Lemoine taken here in early July, too late
for best results, rooted 17 percent without treatment, 34 percent with
indolebutyric acid (25 mg./L, 22 hr.), 48 percent with naphthaleneacetic
acid similarly used, and 63 percent with naphthaleneacetic acid (100 mg./L,
5 hr.).

Tamarix, taiitarisk. Softwood, summer, cuttings root readily in sand (106).
Untreated late June cuttings of T. odessana rooted 90 percent in 3 weeks (57)
and similar cuttings of 7". pentandra rooted about equally well (66).

Taxus, yew. Cuttings of Japanese yew rooted best when taken in Decem-
ber (13), December and January (31), or January (103), but cuttings of
this and other yews also root well when taken in October and November.
August cuttings will root in a cold frame but more slowly than do fall
cuttings in a greenhouse (123, 125). The basal cut is made at the base of
a year's growth, usually that of the current year, but it can be lower.
Cuttings of Canada yew rooted practically equally well when they had
wood one, two, or three years old at the base, but the latter types result
more quickly in larger plants (69). Cuttings have rooted well in sand-
peat (29, 57) ; better, in the case of T. media and Japanese yew, in sand (14,
21, 57). Cuttings of T. media taken here in November and December rooted
better in sand-peat than in sandy soil whether or not they were treated.
Bottom heat, 68° to 70° F., improved the rooting of cuttings of that
species (31).

Rooting of untreated cuttings of yews is generally slow but sure and
the commonest eflfect of treatments is to hasten rooting. Cuttings in the
first stages of dormancy are benefited by higher concentrations than are
those taken later (57). Cuttings of three species responded to treatment
with indolebutyric acid (40 or 80 mg./L, 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm. talc) (61).
Cuttings of a variety of English yew which were taken here in early
December rooted 100 percent in 5 months without treatment, in 3 months
after treatment with indolebutyric acid (75 mg./L, 24 hr.). Cuttings of
T. media taken here in late January responded in the same way to treat-
ment with 50 mg./L, 24 hr. Indoleacetic acid (50 mg./L, 12 hr., or 100
mg./L, 16 hr.) also improved or hastened rooting of cuttings of yews
(21, 83), and naphthaleneacetic acid (40 mg./L, 24 hr.) was very eflfective
with fall and winter cuttings (47) — rather more eflfective in fact, than
indolebutyric acid (58). Naphthaleneacetic acid {2i2> mg./L, 24 hr.) also
hastened rooting of summer cuttings (113).

Thuja, arbor-vitae. Cuttings are usually taken in fall and winter. There was
good rooting of cuttings of American arbor-vitae, made of the current
year's wood with a heel, which were taken here in every month from
November to March, but those taken in and after January rooted a little
more quickly. January cuttings of giant arbor-vitae also rooted well (123,
^25). August cuttings of American arbor-vitae (var. robusta), in a cold

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 39

frame, rooted more slowl}' but as well finally as did fall and winter cut-
tings in a greenhouse (123). Sand-peat (14) or sandy soil (27) gave bet-
ter results than sand as a rooting medium. Cuttings of nine varieties of
American arbor-vitae responded to treatment with indolebutyric acid (40
to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or 12 mg./gm talc) (61). Cuttings taken here in
January rooted 100 percent whether or not they were treated (100 mg./l.,
16 hr.), but treated cuttings rooted in less time by about four weeks. The
only eflfect of treatment (80 mg./l., 20 hr.) of October cuttings of the
variety globosa and January cuttings of giant arbor-vitae was, similarly,
to hasten good rooting (125). November cuttings of the latter (var.
atrovirens) rooted 75 percent in about two months after treatment (50
mg./I., 24 hr.), 15 percent without it (57). Such treatments not only
hasten rooting but may also increase percentages which root finally. With
sandy soil as the rooting medium, cuttings of oriental arbor-vitae which
were taken here in December rooted 78 percent with treatment (50 mg./l.,
24 hr.), 2i7 percent without it; and December cuttings of T. occidentalis var.
"Douglasii pyramidalis" rooted 100 percent with treatment, 62 percent with-
out it.

Thujopsis dolabrata, Hiba arbor-vitae. Cuttings do not root readily, but
those taken in summer and treated with indoleacetic acid (50 mg./l., 24
hr.) rooted 45 percent more in 3 months than did untreated cuttings (113).

Tripterygium Rcgelii. Hardwood cuttings taken here in late March, buried
in sand in a cold cellar for a month, and then lined out in the field, rooted
100 percent in 9 weeks whether or not they were treated.

Tsuga canadensis, common hemlock. Cuttings, if treated, have rooted well
when taken in September or October (109), November (24), January
(125), March or April (61), and early summer, although early summer
cuttings, being soft, are difficult to keep in good condition (49, 126).
Summer (49), fall, and winter cuttings of this species (and T. Sieboldii)
responded to treatment with indolebutyric acid (40 to 80 mg./l., 24 hr., or
12 mg./gm. talc) (61). January cuttings rooted 79 percent in 62 days
alter treatment (50 mg./l., 22 hr.), not at all without it (125). Cuttings
of the variety pendula which were taken here in early September rooted 83
percent in sand-peat with treatment (50 mg./l., 24 hr.), 34 percent with-
out it. November cuttings rooted 5 percent without treatment, 65 percent
after treatment with indolebutyric acid (4 mg./gm. talc) (24). November
cuttings of a dwarf hemlock growing in southern Vermont and making not
more than one inch of new growth a year were here made with the basal
cut at the base of the two-year-old wood. Best results and most rapid root-
ing, 80 to 96 percent in sand-peat in 11 weeks, followed treatment with
indolebutyric acid, 100 mg./l., 16 or 24 hr., or 200 mg./l., 8 or 12 hr.,
rather than lesser concentrations. There was at that time no root'ng
of untreated cuttings although all were still living. Summer (44) and
winter (125) cuttings have also rooted well in sand.

Ulmus, elm. Oriental elms (124) and white elm can be propagated by soft-
wood, spring, cuttings. New shoots of Siberian elm, taken when they
were four to six inches long, rooted in 4 weeks (127). June cuttings of
that species and of Chinese elm rooted well in sand (44). Cuttings of
Siberian elm rooted best, more than 80 percent, with the basal cut a half
inch above the base of the current season's growth (46). Cuttings of
white or American elm taken here in early June rooted 94 percent in 5
weeks after treatment with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 24 hr.), 23 per-
cent in 12 weeks without treatment. Cuttings of Siberian elm rooted 60

40 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

percent in 25 days after treatment with Hormodin A (80 B T I units),
not at all without treatment (118).

Vaccinium corymbosum, highbush blueberry. Propagation by hardwood cut-
tings is well described by Bailey and co-workers (4) and their paper
should be read for details beyond those given here. Cuttings 3 or 4 inches
long are made in late March, before buds begin to break, or they may
be taken earlier in the winter and stored cool in moist sphagnum until
spring. They are made of such of the previous year's growth as bears
no fruit buds and is not too weak, with the basal cut just below a bud,
the top cut just above a bud. They should be set so deeply in the root-
ing medium, sand-peat, that only the top bud is out of it. Untreated
hardwood cuttings which were taken here in mid-March rooted 100 per-
cent in sand-peat in the case of the varieties Rubel and Harding, 50 to
88 percent in the case of Adams, Jersey, and Pioneer. Their rooting
here, as elsewhere (54), was not improved by treatment with root-induc-
ing substances.

Softwood cuttings taken in or about July (44, 53), are made with the
basal cut at or near the base of the current season's growth, with few
or no leaves removed (46). They should be set deeply in the rooting
medium, sand-peat. Rooting of June and July cuttings of Rubel was
improved by treatment with indolebutyric acid (20 to 40 mg./l., 24 hr.,
or 2 to 5 mg./gm. talc) (49). Softwood cuttings taken here in July and
treated with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./l., 20 hr.) rooted in sand-peat
as follows: Jersey, 100 percent in 40 days; Cabot, 80 percent in 35 days;
Wareham, 77 percent in 27 days. Untreated cuttings rooted 50, 2>Z, and
42 percent.

Vacciniufn Vitis-idaea, cowberry. Untreated cuttings which were taken
here in early August rooted more than 90 percent in sand-peat in 8 weeks.
Results were less good in sand or if cuttings were taken in late Sep-
tember.

Viburnum. Spring and early summer is a good time to take softwood cut-
tings. Taken here in late June or early July, untreated cuttings of V. tomen-
tosum, V. rhytidophyllu)!!, V. fragrans, V. Sicboldii, and European cranberry-
bush rooted 80 to 100 percent. Hardwood cuttings of some species also
root well (67). Treatments with indolebutyric acid improve or at least
hasten rooting. Cuttings of V. Carlesii taken here in early June rooted lOO
percent in 7 weeks after treatment (20 mg./l., 18 hr.), 59 percent without
it. Rooting of late June cuttings of that species was hastened by 30 mg./l.,
6 hr. (16). Concentrations may need to be increased if cuttings are taken
later in the summer (83), but rooting of July cuttings of the following
was improved by these treatments : V. tomentosum, 5 to 20 mg./L, 24 hr. ;
arrow-wood, 5 mg./l., 24 hr. (57); V. Sicboldii, 10 mg./l., 24 hr. ; European
cranberry-bush, 10 mg./l., 6 hr. (83). Also eflfective are 2 mg./gm. talc,
or, by the concentrated solution-dip method, 4 mg./cc. (49). Cuttings of
six species rooted better in sand-peat than in sand (14'). Sandy soil is
also good. Cuttings of V. Carlesii, untreated, rooted better in sandy soil
than in sand (27). Cuttings of hobble-bush taken here in mid-July and
treated with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./L, 20 hr.) rooted 67 percent in
sandy soil, 25 percent in sand.

Vitex. Hardwood cuttings of chaste-tree taken here in late March, buried
in moist sand at about 50° F. for four weeks, and then planted outdoors,
rooted 79 percent without treatment, no better with it. Softwood, July,
cuttings of V. Negundo (var. incisa) rooted 64 percent in 22 days after treat-

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 41

inent with indolebutyric acid, only 4 percent without it (83). Similar
cuttings of chaste-tree rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in i2 days after
treatment with indoleacetic acid (100 mg./l., 24 hr.) (87-). Sandy soil
is successfully used as rooting medium for both species (80, 106).

Vitis, grape. Hardwood cuttings respond to treatments (130), although
less, at least in the case of Concord, than do greenwood, summer and
fall, cuttings. Hardwood, April, cuttings of Concord which had been
treated with indolebutyric acid (80 mg./l., 24 hr.) produced many n.ore
roots per cutting than did the untreated, and a concentration of 10 mg./l.,
24 hr., had a similar effect on softwood cuttings (48). November cuttings
of that variety responded to 40 mg./l., 24 hr.; 2 to 10 mg./gm. talc; or,
by the concentrated solution-dip method, 10 to 25 mg./cc. (49). August
cuttings of muscadine rooted 44 percent in 3 weeks after treatment with
indolebutyric acid (20 mg./l., 20 hr.), not at all without it (125).

Weigela. Hardwood cuttings of a hybrid which were taken here in late
March and immediately set in sand-peat in the greenhouse rooted 90
percent in about 9 weeks, with no benefit from indolebutyric acid. Soft-
wood, summer cuttings, usually root well in sand (14, 44, 105, 106).
There was good rooting of untreated cuttings of IV. Ronbunda taken from
June through September (44). Probably the best place for the basal cut
is above a node (106). Indolebutyric acid at least hastens rooting of
such cuttings. Late June cuttings oi W. florida rooted 72 percent in 20 days
after treatment (50 mg./l., 12 hr.), not at all meanwhile without it; and
August cuttings of a hybrid rooted 95 percent in one month after that
treatment, 30 percent without it (83). July cuttings of another hybrid
rooted 90 percent in 14 days after treatment with 20 mg./l., 24 hr. (57).
Equivalent concentrations of indolebutyric acid for October cuttings of
the hybrid Mme. Ballard are 10 mg./l., 24 hr., or 2 mg./gm. talc, or by
the concentrated solution-dip method 4 mg./cc. (49).

Wisteria, wistaria. Softwood cuttings of Japanese wistaria which were
taken here in mid-July rooted 100 percent in sand-peat in 2 months after
treatment with indolebutyric acid (25 mg./l., 24 hr.), 80 percent without
it. July cuttings of Chinese wistaria, treated, rooted well in sand-peat
(68, 87). Fall cuttings of wistarias will also root, although slowly (124).

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PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 43

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PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 45

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dodendrons and azaleas by stem and leaf-bud cuttings. Prop.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 2,7 (1939) :1013-1018. 1940./ ? .' i ' ■ '^ '

91. Snow, Albert G., Jr. Use of indolebutyric acid to stimulate the
rooting of dormant aspen cuttings. Jour. Forestry 36:582-587.
1938

92 Chemically-induced rooting of sugar maple cut-
tings. U. S. Dept. Agr. Northeastern Forest Expt. Sta. Tech.
Note No. 27. 1939.

46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

93. Snow, Albert G., Jr. Clonal variation in rooting response of red

maple cuttings. U. S. Dept. Agr. Northeastern Forest Expt. Sta.

Tech. Note No. 29. 1939.
94 Rooting white pine cuttings. U. S. Dept. Agr.

Northeastern Forest Expt. Sta. Occasional Paper No. 11, 6 pp.

1940.
95. Stoutmeyer, V. T. Root hardwood cuttings with acids. Amer.

Nurseryman 68:9:3-5. 1938.
96 Talc as a carrier of substances inducing root forma-
tion in softwood cuttings. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 36 (1938):

817-822. 1939.
97 Root-inducing substances in amide form. Amer.

Nurseryman 70:9:5-6. 1939.
98 Vitamin Be and the rooting of cuttings. Amer.

Nurseryman 71:6:11-13, 32-33. 1940.
99 , Jester, J. R., and O'Rourke, F. L. Propagation

of black locust clones by treating hardwood cuttings with growth

substances. Jour. Forestry 38:558-563. 1940.
100 , Maney, T. J., and Pickett, B. S. A rapid method of

propagating raspberries and blackberries by leaf-bud cuttings.

Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 30 (1933) :278-282. 1934.

101. Stuart, Neil W., and Marth, Paul C. Composition and rooting of

American holly cuttings as affected by treatment with indole-
butyric acid. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 35 (1937) :839-844. 1938.

102. Swartley, John W. Effects of synthetic growth substances on the

rooting of softwood cuttings of woody ornamentals. Ohio State

Univ. Nursery Notes 9:10:1-6. 1940.
103 Further experiments on the rooting of evergreen

cuttings. Ohio State Univ. Nursery Notes 10:1:5-12. 1940.
104 and Chadwick, L. C. Synthetic growth substances

as aids to root production on evergreen and softwood deciduous

cuttings. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. i1 (1939) :1099-1104. 1940.

105. Taylor, G. C, and Knight, F. P. The Propagation of Hardy Trees

and Shrubs. London. 1927.

106. Taylor, Norman. The Garden Dictionary. Boston. 1936.

107. Teuscher, Henry. Trees and shrubs of the Orient. — IV. Jour. N.

Y. Bot. Card. 36:163-166. 1935.

108 Twenty-four choice ornamental shrubs. Jour. N.

Y. Bot. Gard. 37:134-140. 1936.

109. Thimann, Kenneth V., and Delisle, Albert L. The vegetative propa-

gation of difficult plants. Jour. Arnold Arboretum 20:116-136. 1939.

110. Thomas, C. C. Some factors influencing the rooting of cuttings of

Chinese holly {Ilex cornuta). Natl. Hort. Mag. 14:276-279. 1935.

Ill The propagation of some deciduous trees from

softwood cuttings. Natl. Hort. Mag. 15:103-107. 1936.

112 Leaf-bud propagation of several introduced species

of Rubus. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 32 (1935) :377-379. 1936.

113. Tincker, M. A. H. Further experiments with growth substances
and the rooting of cuttings. Jour. Royal Hort. Soc. 63:210-229.
1938.

114 and Unwin, C. H. A further report on root-form-
ing substances used for propagation purposes. Jour. Royal Hort.
Soc. 64:554-566. 1939.

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 47

115. Tukey, H. B., and Brase, K. D. Random notes on fruit tree rootstocks

and plant propagation. N. Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 649, 22 pp.
1934.

116. Ure, C. R. Preliminary tests with softwood cuttings of trees and

shrubs in Alberta. Sci. Agr. 17:720-726. 1937.

117. Watkins, John V. Response of certain tropical and subtropical

plants to Hormodin. South. Florist and Nurseryman 45:5:3-4.
1938.

118 Further data on response of cuttings to Hormodin

A. South. Florist and Nurseryman 45:25:5-8. 1938.

119. Weaver, J. G. Use of organic acid in rooting cuttings. N. C. Agr.

Ext. Circ. 221, 12 pp. 1938.

120. Weinard, F. F. Rooting gardenias. Florists' Rev. 86:221:23. 1940.

121. Weston, T. A. Shrubs propagated by cuttings. Horticulture 13:

308-309. 1935.

122. Wildon, C. E. Garden roses. Mich. Agr. Expt. Sta. Spec. Bui. 222,

47 pp. 1933.

123. Wyman, Donald. The time of year to make cuttings of narrow-

leaved evergreens. Florists' Exch. 75:11:27. 1930.

124. Yerkes, Guy E. Propagation of trees and shrubs. U. S. Dept. Agr.

Farmers' Bui. 1567, 51 pp. 1932.

125 Treat cuttings with indolebutyric acid. Amer.

Nurseryman 67:9:10-11. 1938.

126. Zimmerman, P. W. Vegetative plant propagation with special ref-
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1926.

127 Recent investigations regarding seeds, seed germi-
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Assoc. Prop. Nurs. June 23, 1926:8-14. 1926.

128 Remarks at 8th Ann. Meet. Proc. Natl. Assoc.

Prop. Nurs. June 21, 1927:3-10. 1927.

129 and Hitchcock, A. E . Vegetative propagation of

holly. Amer. Jour. Bot. 16:556-570. 1929.

130 and Hitchcock, A. E. The practical application of

growth-promoting substances to plant propagation. Proc. Amer.
Assoc. Nurserymen 62d Ann. Conv. July 13-15, 1937:162-167. 1937.

Index

Page

Ahelia grandiflora ( Andre ) Rehd 12

Abeliophyllum distichum Nakai 13

Abies concolor ( Gord.) Engelm., Colorado fir 13

Abies Pinsapo Boiss., Spanish hr 13

Abies Vcitchii Lindl., Veitch fir 13

A cantho pan-ax Sieboldianus Mak 13

Acer argutum Maxim 13

Acer barbinerve Maxim 13

Acer caudatum Wall 13

Acer cissifolium (Sieb. & Zucc.) K. Koch 13

Acer Ncgundo L., box-elder 13

Acer palmatm)i Thunb., Japanese maple 13

Acer platanoides L., Norway maple 13

Acer rubrmn L., red maple 13

Acer rufinerve Sieb. & Zucc 13

48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Page

Acer saccharinum L., silver maple 13

Acer saccharum Marsh., sugar maple 13

Acer Tschonoskil Maxim 13

Actinidia arguta (Sieb. & Zucc.) Miq 13

Actinidia chincnsis Planch 13

Akcbia 3

Alder, Ainns 3, 4, 13

Almond, dwarf flowering ; Prunus glandulosa 10, 31

Almond, flowering ; Prunus triloba 31

Ahius, alder 3, 4, 13

Althaea, shrubby ; Hibiscus syriacus 22

Amelanchicr canadensis (L.) Med., shadbush 14

Amorpha jriiticosa L 14

Andromeda glaiicophylla Link 14

Andromeda Pol if alia L 14

Apple ; Malus 4, 9, 26, 27

Arbor-vitae, American ; Thuja occidentalis 7, 10, 11, 38, 39

Arbor-vitae, giant ; Thuja plicata 38 39

Arbor-vitae, Hiba ; Thujopsis dolabrata 39

Arbor-vitae, oriental ; Thuja orientalis 39

Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi ( L.) Spreng.. bearberry 14

Aristolochia durior Hill, Dutchman's pipe 14

Aronia arbutifolia (L. ) Elliott, red chokeberry 14

Aronia incianocarpa (Michx.) Elliott, black chokeberry 14

Arrow-wood, Viburnum dentatutn 10, 40

Ash, white 4, 10

Aspen, large-toothed ; Popuhis grandidentata 30

Aspen, quaking ; Populus tremMloides 3;j

Azalea, Rhododendron 12, 32

Azalea, clammy ; Rhododendron mscosum 2>2

Azaleas, Ghent ; Rhododendron gandawense ZZ

Azaleas, Kurume; Rhododendron obttisum var. japonicum 8, 34

Barberry, Berberis 14

Bearberry, Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi 14

Beauty-bush, Kolkzvit::ia amabilis 4, 25

Beech, European ; Fagus sylvatica 20

Berberis candidula Schneid 14

Berberis Julianac Schneid 14

Berberis Sargentiana Schneid 14

Berberis Thunbergii DC 14

Berberis triacanthophora Fedde 14

Berberis verruculosa Hemsl. & Wils 14

Betula papyrifera Marsh., canoe birch 14

Betula pendula Roth, European birch 14

Betula populifolia Marsh., gray birch 14

Birch, canoe ; Betula papyrifera 14

Bfrch, European ; Betula pendula 14

Birch, gray ; Betula populifolia 14

Bittersweet, American ; Celastrus scandens 16

Bittersweet, oriental ; Celastrus orbiculata 6, 9, 16

Black-alder,, Ilex verticillata 10, 23

Bladdernut, Staphylea 3

Blueberry, highbush ; Vaccinium, corymbosum 40

Bog-rosemary, Andromeda . . . , 14

Box, Buxus , 4, 9, 15

Box-elder, Acer Negundo 13

Box-thorn, Lycium 26

Buckthorn, Rhamnus 3, 4

Buddleia alternifolia Maxim 14

Btiddleia Davidi Franch 14

Butterfly-bush, Buddleia 14

Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis 3. 8, 16

Buxus, box 15

Buxus micro phylla Sieb. & Zucc 15

Buxus semperuirens L IS

Callicarpa Bodinieri Levi 15

Callicarpa dichotoma (Lour. ) K. Koch 15

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 4Q

Page

Callicarpa japonica Thunb 15

Calluna vulgaris ( L.) Hull., heather 15

Camellia japonica L 9, 15

Cainpsis radicans ( L.) Seem., trumpet-vine 3

Caragana arborcscens Lam., pea-tree 15

Caragana Boisii Schneid 15

Carya Pecan ( Marsh.) Engl. & Graebn., pecan 4, 15

Catalpa spcciosa Warder, western catalpa 3, 4, 15

Ccanothus Dclilianus Spach 8, 16

Cedar, incense ; Libocedrus decurrcns 2, 9, 25

Cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus libani 16

Cedar, red ; Junipenis virginiana 2, 23, 24

Cedar, white ; Chamaecyparis thyoides 2, 17

Cedrus libani Loud., cedar of Lebanon 16

Cclastnis orbiculata Thunb., oriental bittersweet 16

Celastrus scandens L., American bittersweet 16

Ceplialanthus occidcntalis L., buttonbush 16

Cercis canadensis L 16

Cercis chinensis Bge 16

Chaenomeles japonica (Thunb.) Lindl 2, 3, 16

Chaenomeles lagenaria (Loisel.) Koidz., Japan quince 3, 16

Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana (A. Murr.) Pari., Lawson cypress 16

Chamaecyparis obtusa (Sieb. & Zucc.) Endl., Hinoki cypress 10, 16

Chamaecyparis pisifera (Sieb. & Zucc.) End!., Sawara cypress 17

Chamaecyparis thyoides (L.) B.S.P., white cedar 2, 17

Chaste-tree, Vitex Agnus-castus 40

Cherry, Prunus 3, 4

Cherry, Cornelian ; Cornus mas 18

Cherry, European bird ; Prunus Padu-s 31

Cherry, Higan ; Prunus subhiriella 31

Chimaphila umbellata (L.) Nutt 4

Chiogenes hispidula Torr. & Gr., creeping snowberry 17

Chokeberry, black ; Aronia melanocarpa 14

Qiokeberry, red ; Aronia arbutifolia 14

Cladrastis lutea (Michx.) K. Koch, yellow-wood 17

Clematis lanuginosa Lindl 17

Clematis Lawsoniana Moore & Jackman 17

Clematis montana DC 17

Clematis tangutica ( Maxim.) Korsh 17

Clematis vedrariensis Vilm 17

Clethra alnifolia L., sweet pepperbush 17

Coralberry, Symphoricarpos orbiculatus 37

Coriaria 17

Cornus alba L 17

Cornus Amomum Mill 17

Cornus florida L., flowering dogwood 17

Cornus Kousa Hance 18

Cornus mas L., Cornelian cherry 18

Cornus racemosa Lam 10, 18

Cornus sanguinca L., red dogwood 18

Cornus stolonifera Michx., red-osier dogwood 18

Coronilla Emerus L., scorpion senna 18

Corylopsis pauciflora Sieb. & Zucc 18

Corylopsis Willmottiac Rehd. & Wils 18

Corylus Avellana L., European hazel 18

Corylus maxima Mill., filbert 18

Cotinus Coggygria Scop., smoke-tree 34

Cotoneaster spp 4, 18

Cofoneaster acutifolia Turcz 19

Cotoneaster adpressa Bois 19

Cotoneaster divaricata Rehd. & Wils 18, 19

Cotoneaster horicontalis Decne 19

Cotoneaster microphylla Lindl 19

Cottonwood, Populus deltoidcs 30

Cowberry, Vaccinium Vifis-idaea 40

Crab Siberian, Malus baccata 27

Cranberry-busli. European ; Viburnum Opulus 40

50 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Page

Creeper, Virginia ; Parthcnocissus quinqiiefolia 3, 27

Cryptomcria japonica ( L. f .) D. Don 19

Cuprcssus macrocarpa Gord., Monterey cypress 19

Currant, alpine ; Ribcs alpinum 34, 35

Cur; ant, European black ; Ribcs nigrum 34

Cun ant, garden ; Ribes satizmm 34

Currant, northern red ; Ribcs rubrum, 34

Cydo)iia oblonga Mill., quince 19

Cypress, Hinoki ; Chariiaccyparis obtusa 16

Cypress, Lawson ; Chamaccyparis Lazvsoniana 16

Cyp''oss, Monterey ; Cuprcssus macrocarpa 19

Cyp''ess, Sawara ; Chamaccyparis pisifera 17

Cylisus Bcanii Nichols 19

Cytisus purc/ans ( L. ) Spach 1''

Cyfisus supiuiis L 19

Daphne Cncoruin L 19

Daphne Genkzva Sieb. & Zucc 19

Daphne Laureola L 19

Daphne Mczereum L., mezereum 19

Daphne odora Thunb 19

Davidia invoiucrata BailL, dove-tree l:i

Dcutsia spp 3, 9

Deutzia gracilis Sieb. & Zucc 19

Deutzia Lemoinei Lemoine 19

Deutzia scabra Thunb .'j, 19

Dockmackie. Viburnum acerifolium 10

Dogwood, flowering ; Cornus florida 10, 17

Dogwood, red ; Cornus sanguinca 18

Dogwood, red-osier ; Cornus stolonifera 18

Dorycniuni hirsutum ( L. ) Ser 20

Douglas-fir. Pseudotsuga taxifolia 31

Dove-tree. Davidia invoiucrata 4. 19

Dutchman's pine, Aristolochia durior 14

Eleagnus pungens Thunb 3, Zd

Elder, American; Sambucus canadensis 36

Elder, European ; Sambucus nigra 36

Elder, European red ; Sambucus raceniosa 36

Elm, Chinese ; Uhnus parvifolia 39

Elm, Siberian ; Uhnus pumila 39

Elm, white ; Uhnus amcricana 2, 4. 39

Enkianthus campanulattis ( Miq.) Nichols 20

Enkianthus perulatus (Miq.) Schneid 20

Epigaea repcns L., mayflower 3, 20

Erica, heath 12, 20

Erica darleyensis Bean 20

Erica Tctralix L., cross-leafed heath 20

Euonynius spp 3, 10, 20

Euonymus alata (Thunb. ) Sieb., winged spindle-tree 20

Euonymus amcricana L.. strawberry-bush 20

Euonymus europaea L.. European spindle-tree 20

Euonymus Fortunei ( Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz 20

Euonymus japonica L 20

Euonymus kiautschoz'ica Loes 20

Euonynius latifolia Scop 20

Exochorda racem,osa (Lindl.) Rehd 20

Fagus sylvatica L., European beech 20

Filbert ; Corylus maxima 18

Fir, Colorado ; Abies concolor 13

Fir, Spanish ; Abies Pinsapo 13

Firj Veitch ; Abies Vcitchii 13

Firethorn ; Pyracantha 3, 2>Z

Flower, pinxter ; Rhododendron nudiflorum 32

Fontanesia Fortunei Carr 21

Forsythia, golden-bell 21

Forsythia intermedia Zab 21

Forsythia suspensa ( Thunb. ) Vahl 21

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 51

Page

Forsythia viridissima Lindl 21

Fothergilla Gardcni Murr 8, 21

Fothcrgilla monficola Ashe 21

Fraukliitia alatainaha Marsh., Gordonia 21

Gale, sweet ; Myrica Gale 8, 27

Gardenia 21

Genista pilosa L 21

Ginkgo biioba L., maidenhair-tree 4, 21

Golden-bell, Forsythia 21

Golden-chain, Labiimuni anagyroides 4, 25

Gooseberry 3 (

Gordonia, Franklinia alataniaha 21

Grape. J'itis 3, 9, 41

Holesia Carolina L., silverbell-tree 21

Halesia monticola (Rehd.) Sarg.. silverbell-tree 21

Hamaniclis mollis Oliv 22

Hazel, Corylus 18

Hazel, European ; Corylus Avcllana 18

Heath, Erica '. 12, 2J

Heather, Calluna vulgaris 15

Hcdera Helix L., English Ivy 22

H clianthemwn nummularinm ( L. ) Mill., sun-rose 22

Hclwingia japonica ( Thunb. ) F. G. Dietr 22

Hemlock, common ; Tsuga canadensis 4, 39

Hibiscus syriacus L., shrubby althaea 9, 22

Hobble-bush ; Viburnum alnifolium 40

Holly, American ; Ilex opaca 4, 9, 23

Honeysuckle ; Lonicera 26

Honeysuckle, Tatarian ; Lonicera tatarica 9, 10, 26

Hydrangea arboresccns L 22

Hydrangea macrophylla (Thunb.) DC 8, 22

Hydrangea paniculata Sieb 22

Hydrangea petiolaris Sieb. & Zucc 22

Hydrangea quercifolia Barth 8, 22

Hypericum, St. John's-wort 22

Hypericum- frondosmn Michx 22

Idesia polycarpa Maxim 22

Ilex cornuta Lindl 22

Ilex crenata Thunb 10, 22

Ilex glabra ( L. ) Gray, inkberry 23

Ilex opaca Ait., American holly 23

Ilex rugosa Fr. Schmidt 23

Ilex verticillata ( L.) Gray, black-aider 23

Ilex vomitoria Ait., yaupon 23

Inkberry ; Ilex glabra 23

Ilea z'irginica L 3. 23

Ivy, Boston ; Parthenocissus tricuspidata 27

Ivy, English ; Hedcra Helix 22

Jasmine, winter ; Jasminum nudiflorum 23

Jasminum, nudiflorum Lindl., winter jasmine • 23

Jasminum stcphanense Lemoine 8

Juniper, Chinese ; Juniperus chinensis 23

Juniper, common ; Juniperus communis 24

Juniper, creeping ; Juniperus horinontalis 23, 24

Juniper, Irish; Juniperus communis var. hibernica 24

Juniper, mountain ; Juniperus communis var. saxatalis 23

Juniper Pfitzer; Juniperus chinensis var. Pfitzeriana ..2, 9, 10, 11, 12, 23, 24

Juniper prostrate ; Junipertus communis var. depressa 24

Juniper, Waukegan ; Juniperus horisontalis var. Douglasii 24

Juniperus chinensis L. var. Pfitseriana Spaeth., Pfitzer

juniper 2, 9, 10, 11, 12, 23, 24

Juniperus communis L., common juniper 24

Juniperus conferta Pari 23

Juniperus excelsa Bieb. 23

Juniperus horisontalis Moench., creeping juniper 23, 24

52 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Page

Jttniperus procumbens ( Endl. ) Sieb. & Zucc 24

Juniperus Sabina L., savin 23, 24

Junipcrus virginiana L., red cedar 2, 23, 24

Kaliuia latifolia L., mountain laurel 6, 24

Kalinia polifolia Wangenh 25

Kerria japonica ( L. ) DC 6, 25

Keteleeria Davidiana (Franch.) Beiss 25

Kolkivitsia amabilis Graebn., beauty-bush 25

Kudzu-vine, Pucraria Thunbergiana 10, 31

Laburnum anagyroidcs Med., golden-chain 25

Larch, Siberian ; Lari.v sibirica 25

Larix sibirica Ledeb., Siberian larch 25

Laurel, cherry ; Prunus Laurocerasus 31

Laurel, mountain ; Kalmia latifolia 6, 24

Lavandula officinalis Chaix., lavendar 25

Lavender ; Lavandula officinalis 25

Lespcdeza Thiinbergii ( DC.) Nakai 25

Leucothoc Catesbaci ( Walt. ) Gray 25

Libocedrus dccurrens Torr., incense cedar 2, 25

Ligiisirwn compactum Hook, f . & Thorns 25

Ligustruin japonicum Thunb. Japanese privet 25

Ligustrum ovalifolium Hassk., California privet 25

Lilac, common ; Syringa vulgaris 3, 37

Lilac, Himalayan ; Syringa eniodi 38

Lilac, Hungarian ; Syringa Josikaea 38

Lilac, Persian ; Syringa pcrsica 38

Lindera Bensoin ( L.) Bl., spice bush 25

Liquidanibar formosaua Hance 26

Liquidatnbar oricntalis Mill 26

Liquidanibar StyraciHua L., sweet-gum 26

Liriodendron Tulipifera L., tulip-tree 26

Locust, black ; Robinia Pseudoacacia 4, 6, 9, 35

Lonicera spp., honeysuckle 3, 26

Lonicera coerulca L 26

Lonicera fragrantissima Lindl. & Paxt 25

Lonicera Korolkozvii Stapf 5, 26

Lonicera MaackH Maxim 26

Lonicera Morrowii A. Gray 26

Lonicera nitida Wils 6, 26

Lonicera pileata Oliv 26

Lonicera tatarica L., Tatarian honeysuckle 26

Lyciuni chinense Mill., Qiinese matrimony-vine 26

Lycium ruthenicum Murr 26

Lyonia ligustrina (L.) DC, Male-berry 8

Madura pomifera ( Raf.) Schneid., osage-orange 26

Magnolia spp 8, 26

Magnolia Kobus DC 26

Magnolia liliflora Desrouss 26

Magnolia Soulangeana Soul 10, 26

Magnolia stellata ( Sieb. & Zucc.) Maxim 4, 26

Maidenhair-tree, Ginkgo biloba 4 ,21

Male-berry, Lyonia ligustrina 8

Malus arnoldiana ( Rehd. ) Sarg 27

Mains atrosanguinea (Spaeth.) Schneid 10, 26

Malus baccata (L.) Borkh., Siberian crab 27

Malus pumila Mill., common apple 27

Maple, Japanese ; Acer palnmfum 13

Maple, Norway ; Acer platanoides 4, 13

Maple, red ; Acer rubrum 4. 13

Maple, silver ; Acer saccharinum 13

Maple, sugar ; Acer saccharum _ 13

Matrimony-vine, Chinese ; Lycium chinense 26

Mayflower, Epigaea repens 3, 20

Mezereum, Daphne Mezereum 19

Mock-orange, Philadelphus 28

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 53

Page

Muscadine, Vitis rofundifolia 41

Myrica Gale L., sweet gale 27

Ninebark, Physocarpns opulifolius 3. 28

Oak, English ; Quercus robur 2>2

Oak, red ; Quercus borcalis 4, 32

Orange, Hamlin sweet 9

Osage-orange, Madura pomifera 8, 26

Osmanthus iiicif alius ( Hassk. ) Mouillef 27

Oxydcndrum arborcum ( L. ) DC, sorrel-tree 27

Pachistima Canbyi Gray 27

Pachistima Myrsinites Raf 27

Pachysaiidra terminalis Sieb. & Zucc 27

Parrotia persica C, A. Mey 27

Parthcnocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch., Virginia creeper 27

Parthcitocissus tncnspidata (Sieb. & Zucc.) Planch., Boston ivy 27

Passidora raceiuosa Brot., passion-flower 28

Pear, common -fPyrus communis 4, 32

Pear, sand ; Pyrus pyrifolia 32

Pearlbush, Exochorda 20

Pea-tree, Caragana arborcsceus 4. 15

Pecan, Carya Pecan 4. 15

Pepperbush, sweet ; Clcthra ainifolia 4, 17

Periploca graeca L., silk-vine 28

Pcriplocd scpium Bge 28

Philadclphus spp., mock-orange 3, 28

Philadelphn^s coronarius L 10, 28

Philadelphus cymosiis Rehd 28

Philadelphus grandiiiorus Willd 28

Photinia glabra (Thunb.) Maxim 28

Pbofinia sarrulata Lindl 28

Photinia villosa ( Thunb. ) DC 4

Physocarpus opulifolius (L.) Maxim., ninebark 28

Picea Abies (L.) Karst., Norway spruce 4, 8, 11, 28

Picca glauca ( Moench.) Voss. var. conica Rehd 10, 29

Picea 0))iorika ( Pancic) Purkyne, Serbian spruce 29

Picca pungcns Engelm., Colorado spruce 7, 29

Picca sitchciisis (Bong.) Carr., Sitka spruce 29

Picris floribunda ( Pursh. ) Benth. & Hook 29

Pieris japonica ( Thunb. ) D. Don 29

Pine, Austrian ; Pinus nigra 30

Pine, lace-bark ; Pinus Bnngcana 30

Pine, Scots ; Pinus syltvestris 30

Pine, white ; Pinus Strobus 2, 4, 10, 29

Pinus Bungcana Zucc, lace-bark pine 30

Pinus nigra Arnold, Austrian pine 30

Pinus Strobus L., white pine 2, 4, 10, 29

Pinus sylvestris L. Scots pine 30

Plum, Prunus 30, 31

Plum, beach ; Prunus maritima 31

Plum, cherry ; Prunus cerasifera 4, 6, 30

Poncirus trifoliata ( L. ) Raf 30

Poplar, black ; Populus nigra 30

Poplar, white ; Populus alba 30

Populus spp 9, 30

Populus alba L., white poplar 30

Populus dcltoidcs Marsh., Cottonwood 30

Populus grandidcntafa Michx., large-toothed aspen 30

Populus nigra L., black poplar 30

Populus ircnniloidcs Michx., quaking aspen 30

Potentilla fruticosa L 4, 30

Privet, California ; Ligustrum ovalifolium 4, 6, 25

Privet, Japenese ; Ligustrum japonicum 6, 25

Prunus cerasifera Ehrh.. cherry plum 30

Prunus glandulosa Thunb.. dwarf flowering almond 31

Prunus incisa Thunb - , 31

54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Page

Primus japonica Thunb 31

Prunus Laurocerasus L., cherry laurel 31

Prunus maritima Marsh., beach plum 31

Prunus Padus L., European bird cherry 31

Prunus pseudoccrasus Lindl 31

Prunus subhirtclla Miq., Higan cherry 31

Pntnus tomentosa Thunb 31

Prunus triloba Lindl., flowering almond 31

Pscudotsuga taxifolia (Poir.) Brit., Douglas-fir 31

Pterocarya stenoptera DC 31

Pueraria Thunbergiana (Sieb. & Zucc.) Benth., Kudzu-vine 31

Pyracantha atlantioidcs ( Hance) Stapf 32

Pyracantha coccinca Roem 4, 5, 32

Pyracantha crcnulata (Roxb.) Roem 32

Pyrus communis L., common pear 32

Pyrus pyrifoiia (Burm. ) Nakai, sand pear 32

Quercus borealis, Michx. f ., red oak 32

Qucrcus robur L., English oak 32

Quince, Cydonia oblonga 19

Quince, Japan ; Chacnoniclcs lagenaria 2, 10, 16

Raspberry, Rubus 8, 36

Redbud, Ccrcis 16

RJianinus, buckthorn 3, 4

RJwdodoidron arbor cscens (Pursh) Tort 2>2i

Rhododcndroji calc7idii!aceum (Michx.) Torr 33, 34

RJiododcndroii canadcnse (L.j Torr., rhodora 33, 34

Rhododendron cancsccns (Michx.) Sweet 33

Rhododendron Collctiianuni Aitch 33

Rhododendron dauricuni L 33

Rliododendron gandavcnse (K. Koch) Rehd., Ghent azalea 33

Rlwdodendron hirsutum L 33

RJiododendron indicmn (L.) Sweet 32

Rhododendron japonicuin (Gray) Suringar 32

Rhododendron laetevirens Rehd 32

Rhododendron lapponicum Wahlenb 32

Rliododendro)! maximum L 32

Rhododendron micranthum Turcz 33

Rhododendron minus Michx 3"?

Rhododendron mixtum Wils 33

Rhododendron molle ( Bl.) G. Don 33

Rhododendron mucronatum G. Don 33, 34

Rhododendron mucronulatuin Turcz 33, 34

Rhododendron nudMorum (L.) Torr., pinxter flower 33

Rlwdodendron obtusum (Lindl.) Planch 33. 34

Rhododendron obtusum (Lindl.) Planch, var. japonicum (Maxim.) Wils. 33

(includes Kurume azaleas)

Rhododendron obtusum (Lindl.) Planch, var. Kaempferi (Planch.) Wils. 33

Rhododendron ponticum L 33

Rhododendron pulchrum Sweet 33, 34

Rlwdodendron raeemosuin Franch 32

Rhododendron reficulatuni D. Don 33

Rhododendron roseum (Loisel.) Rehd 33

Rhododendron Schlippenbachii Maxim 33

Rhododendron Vascyi Gray 33

Rhododendron viseosepalum Rehd 33, 34

Rhododendron fuiscoswn (L.) Torr., clammy azalea 33

Rhododendron yedoense Maxim, var. poukhanensc (Levi.) Nakai .... 33, 34

Rhododendron yunnanense Franch 32

Rhodora, Rhododendron canadensc 33, 34

Rhodotypos scandcns ( Thunb.) Mak 34

Rhus aromalica Ait., fragrant sumac 34

Rhus typhina L., staghorn sumac 34

Ribes spp., currant 3

Ribcs alpinum L., alpine currant 34, 35

Ribes Grossularia L 35

Ribcs nigrum L., European black currant 34

Ribes rnhrum L., northern red currant 34

PROPAGATION OF TREES AND SHRUBS 55

Page

Ribes sativum Syme., garden currant 34

Rohinia Pscudoacacia L., black locust 35

Rosa spp 35

Rosa Hugonis Thunb 35

Rosa multiflora Thunb 35

Rosa oineiciisis Rolfe 35

Rosa riigosa Thunb 35

Rosa sctigera Michx., prairie rose 35

Rose, hardy climbing 35

Rose, hybrid perpetual 35

Rose, hybrid tea 35

Rose, prairie ; Rosa sctigera 35

Rubus, raspberry 36

garden ; Salvia officinalis 36

St. John's-wort ; Hypericum 22

Salix alba L., white willow 26

Salix discolor Muhlenb., pussy willow 36

Salix Elacagnos Scop 36

Salix hcrbacca L., dwarf willow 36

Sak'ia officinalis L., garden sage 36

Saiiibucus canadensis L., American elder 36

Sanibucus vielanocarpa Gray 36

Sanibucus nigra L., European elder 36

Sanibucus racemosa L., European red elder 36

Sav'mJwiipcrus Sabiiia 23. 24

Sciadopitys vcrticillata (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc, umbrella-pine 2>'o

Securinega stiff I'liticosa ( Pall. ) Rehd 36

Senna, scorpion ; Coronilla Emerus 18

Shadbush, Amclanchicr 14

Silk-vine. Periploca graeca 28

.Silverbell-tree, Halcsia 21

Smoke-tree, Cotinus Coggygria 34

Snowberry, Syniphoricarpos albus 27

Snowberry, creeping ; Chiogenes hispidula 17

Sorbaria sorbi folia ( L. ) A. Br 36

Sorrel-tree, Oxydcndrum arboreum 27

Spice bush, Lindcra Benzoin 25

Spindle-tree, Euonynius 20

Si)indle-tree, European ; Euonymus europaea 20

Spindle-tree, winged ; Euonymus alata 20

Spiraea arguta Zab 36

Spiraea Billiardii Herincq 36

Spiraea Bunialda Burvenich 36

Spiraea salicifolia L 36

Spiraea Thunbergii Sieb 36

Spiraea Vanhouttei ( Briot) Zab 36

Spruce, Colorado ; Picea pungcns 7, 29

Spruce, Norway ; Picca Abies 4, 8, 11, 28

Spruce, Serbian ; Picea Omorika 29

Spruce. Sitka ; Picea sitchensis 29

Staphylea, bladdernut 3

Sfeplianandra incisa (Thunb.) Zabei 36

Stephanandra Tanakae Franch 36

Stczvartia koreana Rehd 36

Stezi'artia ovata (Cav.) Weatherby 36

Strawberry-bush, Euonymus anicricana 20

Styrax anicricana Lam 2)7

Styrax japonica Sieb. & Zucc 37

Styrax Obassia Sieb, & Zucc 27

Sumac, fragrant ; Rhus aromatica 34

Sumac, staghorn ; Rhus typhina 34

Sun-rose, HcUanthemum 22

Sweet-gum, Liquidanibar Styracifluci 26

Sweetleaf, Asiatic ; Symplocos paniculata 2, 11, 27

56 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 382

Page

Syinphoricarpos albiis Blake, snowberry 2)7

Symphoricarpos orbiculaius Moench, coralberry 2i7

Symplocos paniculata (Thunb.) Miq., Asiatic sweetleaf 2, 11, 2>7

Syringq emodi G. Don, Himalayan lilac 38

Syringa Henryi Schneid 38

Syringa Josikaca Jacq., Hungarian lilac 38

Syringa persica L., Persian lilac 38

Syringa Prestonae McKelvey 8

Syringa tomcntella Bur. & Franch 38

Syringa villosa Vahl 38

Syringa vulgaris L 3, 37

Tamarisk, Tamarix* 3, 38

Tamarix odessana Stev 38

Tamarix pentandra Pall 38

Taxus baccata L., English yew 6, 38

Taxus canadensis Marsh., Canada yew 6, 38

Taxus cuspidata Sieb. & Zucc, Japanese yew 6, 9, 10, 12, 38

Taxus media Rehd 7, 8, 10, 11, 38

Thuja occidcntalis L., American arbor-vitae 7, 10, 11, 38, 39

Thuja orientalis L., oriental arbor-vitae 39

Thuja plicata Lamb., giant arbor-vitae 38, 39

Thujopsis dolabrata (L. f.) Sieb. & Zucc, Hiba arbor-vitae 39

Triptcrygium Regclii Sprague & Tak 39

Trumpet-vine ; Cainpsis radicans 3

Tsuga canadensis (L. ) Carr., common hemlock 39

Tsiiga Sieboldii Carr 39

Tulip-tree, Liriodendron Tulipifera 26

Ulmus americana L., white elm 2, 4, 39

Ulmus parvifolia Jacq., Chinese elm 39

Ulmus puniila L., Siberian elm 39

Umbrella-pine, Sciadopitys verticillata 36

Vaccinium corymbosuni L., highbush blueberry 40

Vaccinium Vitis-idaea L., cowberry 40

Viburnum spp 3

Viburnum acerifolium L., dockmackie 10

Viburnum alnifolium Marsh., hobble-bush 40

Viburnum Carlesii Hemsl 10, 40

Viburnum, dentatum L., anow-wood 40

Viburnum fragrans Bge 40

Viburnum Opulus L., European cranberry-bush 40

Viburnum rhytidophyllum Hemsl 40

Viburnum Sieboldii Miq 4, 40

Viburnum tomentosum Thunb 8, 40

Vitex Agnus-castus L., chaste-tree 40

Vitex Negundo L 40

Vitis, grape 41

Vitis rotundifolia Michx., muscadine 41

Wcigela Horibunda (Sieb. & Zucc.) C. A. Mey 41

IVcigela iiorida (Sieb. & Zucc.) A. DC 4, 41

Willow, dwarf ; Salix herbacca 36

Willow, pussy ; Salix discolor 36

Willow, white ; Salix alba 36

Wing-nut, Pterocarya 31

Wistaria, Chinese; Wisteria sinensis (Sims) Sweet 8, 41

Wistaria, Japanese ; Wisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC 41

Wisteria, wistaria 3, 41

Witch-hazel, Hamamelis 22

Yaupon, Ilex vomitoria 23

Yellow-wool, Cladrastis lufea 17

Yew, Canada ; Taxus canadensis 6, 38

Yew, English ; Taxus baccata 6

Yew. Japanese ; Taxus cuspidata 6, 9, 10, 12, 38

Publication or this Document App»ovbd bt Couuissiom oh Aduinistration and Finance
6m-3-41— 5731

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 383 March, 1941

The Sanitary Evaluation of
Private Water Supplies

By Ralph L. France

A safe water supply for rural homes is of prime importance. This is an
explanation of some of the problems involved, with special attention to
contamination and its detection.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS

THE SANITARY EVALUATION OF PRIVATE
WATER SUPPLIES

By Ralph L. France, Assistant Research Professor of Bacteriologjy.

Introduction

Water is a prime factor in the support of all forms of life. While not
classified as a food, yet it is a necessary item in the diet. The value
of an abundant and pure water supply has been known from remote times.
Hippocrates, some four hundred years before the beginning of the Chris-
tian era, wrote that a polluted water should be boiled and filtered before
it was used for drinking — certainly a most up-to-date piece of advice.

Centers of population spranp: up around places where water was avail-
able. Where it was not available, extraordinary means were taken to
transport it. In Egypt and India today are to be found ruins of what
must have been great hydraulic works. Some were constructed at least
two thousand years before Christ. The great aqueducts of Rome were
built some few years before the Christian era. When one reflects that
these works of antiquity were constructed before the advent of steam,
electricity, and explosives, one is impressed with the great intelligence
and perseverance exhibited by these early engineers.

The fact that water can intensify and spread certain diseases was sus-
pected long before the discoveries of Pasteur and the germ theory of
disease. As the knowledge of bacteriology and sanitation has been ad-
vanced by new discoveries, the number of epidemics caused by contam-
inated water has been gradually reduced. In spite of the present advanced
knowledge in sanitation and water works practice, some epidemics of
typhoid and dysentery still do occur. In most cases they can be traced
to a lack of alertness, or a lack of proper application of modern knowledge,
on the part of those responsible for the purity of the supply.

It is the object of this bulletin to discuss rural private water supplies,
laying particular stress on the possibilities of their becoming contaminated
with disease producing bacteria; to explain the type of test used in the
laboratory to detect contamination; and to analyze the results of more
than 1,000 tests made during the past ten years on rural private water
supplies located in this State.

Classification of Water

"For practical purposes water may be classified as clean, polluted, or con-
taminatcd. (1) A clean water is one which at all times is free from contam-
ination or pollution, and safe for human consumption, as determined by
laboratory analysis, sanitary survey, and continued use. (2) A polluted water
is one which has suffered impairment of physical properties through the
addition of substances causing turbidity, color, odor, or taste. (3) A
contaminated water is one which carries potential infection by reason of the
addition of human or animal wastes, or has been rendered unwholesome
by poisonous chemical compounds." (Rosenau — Preventive Medicine and
Hygiene, 6th ed., 1935).

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 383

According to their sources, waters are classified as rain water, surface
water, or ground water. (1) Rain water is really a "distilled water";
that is, a water that has been vaporized and condensed. Distillation is
one of the best-known methods for purifying liquids. Thus, if properly
collected, rain water should be the purest type of water.

(2) Surface waters, i. e., ponds, creeks, rivers, lakes, etc., vary greatly
in composition and are subject to impurities. From a sanitary standpoint
they are the most dangerous type of water to be used for drinking. Most
cities in America depend upon surface water for their supply. It is hardly
possible in a populous country to obtain any great amount of surface water
free from contamination with human wastes. It is for this reason that
the modern water-treatment plant has been constructed. Ry the use of
filtration and chlorination these plants render the water safe for human
consumption.

In reality, streams are the natural sewers for the regions they drain.
It is inadvisable to use surface water as a source of supply without first
treating it to remove impurities.

(3) Ground water is the type almost universally used as a source of
supply for rural homes. It is usually satisfactory as far as impurities go.
As water percolates through the soil certain impurities are reinoved by
the natural filtering properties of the soil. The soil can take care of a
large amount of impurities if not over-burdened, or if tliere are no cracks
or crevices.

When water soaks into the soil it will finally come to rest upon an
impervious stratum. With its downward motion finally stopped, it then
spreads out in a horizontal plane, forming what is known as the ground
water tabic. This ground water table underlies practically all the earth's
surface.

Ground water may be divided into tliree types depending upon the depth
at which it is tapped, (a) Spring water is ground water that comes out
on the surface because of the topography of the land. Spring water does
not necessarily diflfer in composition from other types of ground water.
It is of a high degree of purity and can be easily utilized if it has a good
flow. Spring water, liowever, can easily become contaminated unless
proper precautons are taken to protect it. The protection of springs
against contamination requires a careful study of each location.

(b) Shallow well water is obtained from a source in which the ground
water table is very near the surface. It is perhaps the hardest type of
well water to protect from contamination, particularly in a dug well.

(c) Deep well water is that usually obtained at a depth of 50 or more
feet. It is generally the purest of ground waters, and the easiest to protect
against contamination. Artesian wells are of this type. The water is
mostly obtained by suction pumping or by means of compressed air.

Contamination of Water Supplies

The greatest hazard to man in drinking water is found in a water con-
taminated with the discharges from the human body, i.e., feces, urine, and
sputum. There is really little danger from water containing the waste materials
from other animal life, for the reason that few of the diseases contracted
by the lower animals are transmissible to man. There is still less danger
from organic matter of plant origin.

PRIVATE WATER SUPPLIES 5

The only diseases which in this State may be contracted by drinking con-
taminated water are typhoid fever and dysentery. There has been some sug-
gestion that jaundice might be transmitted in this manner but proof of this is
lacking.

Now the chance in this State of contracting typhoid or dysentery from any
source whatsoever is about 1 in 500,000. The Massachusetts State Board
of Health, in their Annual Report for 1939, list only 78 cases of typhoid
fever as occurring in the entire State for that year. The total number of
dysentery cases for the same period was 491. This latter figure may seem
rather high but further study of the Report shows that most were of
epidemic form and located in institutions.

In a personal communication from Dr. Roy F. Feemster, Director of
the Division of Communicable Diseases, the following comment is made:

We make a careful investigation of each case of typhoid fever
and bacillary dysentery and there is little in our records to indicate
that any of the cases in 1939 or in the years immediately preceding
were contracted because of contaminated private water supplies.
Bacillary dysentery may occasionally be transferred in this way
but I have considerable doubt as to whether any of our typhoid
cases result from the drinking of contaminated water. You will
be interested to know that practically all of our typhoid cases
occur singly and it is hard to believe that a water supply could
cause one case in a family and not afifect other individuals using
water from the same source. The reason for this condition can be
attributed to a number of factors, among them the alertness of
people of this area to make sure that water supplies are satisfac-
tory and the fact that we are in a glacial region containing sand
which acts as a natural sand filter.

To these reasons we would add another rather obvious one. In the
case of any water supply the only persons capable of contaminating that
supply are those living in its immediate vicinity. If none of these persons
contracts typhoid or dysentery from an outside source, or if none of these
persons is a carrier of the disease organisms, then it is practically im-
possible for such bacteria to gain access to the supply. Even if the
drainage from a cesspool, backhouse, or any other sewage disposal system
were to run directly into the well, it would still be practically impossible
for persons drinking the water to contract typhoid or dysentery from that
water.

The floods of 1936 present a fine illustration of the fact that the chances
of contracting disease from drinking contaminated water are, in this State,
practically nil. In our knowledge hundreds of wells were inundated with
polluted flood water. In many cases the water was used for drinking
before health authorities had the chance to purify the water. Yet no case
of typhoid fever resulted from these conditions.

However, even if a contaminated water may not cause a specific disease,
no one cares to drink it. Whether the contamination is of human or
animal source makes little difference; it is not a desirable water for human
consumption. There is some evidence to indicate that while water con-
taining sewage material may not cause a specific disease, it may cause
intestinal upsets of varying intensity. It is here that the laboratory test
renders its greatest service, for this test is designed to detect minute
amounts of sewage material rather than actual disease-producing bacteria.

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 383

The Laboratory Test

Most uninformed persons seem to think that all the bacteriologist has
to do to determine the purity of a water is to put a drop of it on a glass
slide and look at it through a microscope, and that if any typhoid or
dysentery bacteria are present they would be seen and recognized. Bac-
teriologists wish it were as simple as that. But it is not, and for the
following reasons:

In the first place, it would be impossible to concentrate water to the
point where a single drop would contain sufificient bacteria to be seen.

In the second place, under the microscope bacteria can be identified
only by the following general shapes and formations:

1. Spirilla. Here the cells are spiral, or corkscrew-like, in appearance.

2. Cocci. These cells are spherical in shape and appear in the follow-
ing formations:

a. Staphylococci, bunched like grapes.

b. Streptococci, in chains of varying length.

c. Diplococci, in pairs.

d. Some other formations which need not be mentioned here.

3. Rods. Here the cells are somewhat rectangular in shape.

It is true that by certain staining methods further identification within
these groups can be made. However, identification by microscopic methods
would still be very general, so that within each of these groups would be
hundreds of species which must be identified by other than microscopic
methods.

Both the tj'phoid and dysentery organisms belong to the third group;
that is, they are rod shaped. To the bacteriologist these forms are known
as "bacilli." Under the microscope, even with the use of stains, it is im-
possible to distinguish between them. Further, there are normally present
in water many other rod-shaped bacteria which are similar in appearance
to the typhoid and dysentery bacilli, but which are harmless. Therefore,
a direct microscopic examination of a water would supply little if any
information regarding its purity.

The major methods used in identifying and classifying all bacteria are
of a chemical and physical nature. They can be very simply explained
as follows. Bacteria, like plants and animals, are living organisms. The
main difference between the bacteria and higher forms of life is that the
former are single-celled while the latter are multicelled. Being alive,
bacteria must "breathe," they must "eat," and they must discharge the
by-products of that "breathing" and "eating"; even as all animals do. By
cultivating the organisms in known kinds of atmospheres, and by "feed-
ing" them known kinds and amounts of food, then analyzing the by-
products both chemically and physically, it is possible to identify and
classify them. Another factor that assists is the source of the organism.
Many species of bacteria, like many plants and animals, live and multiply
best in certain localities. With bacteria it may be the oral cavity, the in-
testines, or the skin uf man or animal; with plants and animals it may be
geographic locations.

It is by these methods then, rather than by the microscope, that the
bacteriologist determines the purity of a water supply. It will be noted
that the term used was "determines the pttrity of a water supply," not

PRIVATE WATER SUPPLIES 7

"determines whether or not the water contains typhoid or dysentery bac-
teria." For, and again some readers will be disappointed, even with these
chemical methods, no attempt is made to isolate disease-producing bac-
teria from the water. In other words, in the bacteriological test of water
no attempt is made by any method to determine whether ot not the water under
test contains typhoid or dysentery bacilli. The reasons for this are easily
understood.

As explained above, the microscope is of little practical value in de-
termining tlie purity of water. To date bacteriologists have been unable to
devise a direct method that is both economically and technically satis-
factory for the isolation of disease-producing bacteria from water. As
stated above, there are normally present in water many other rod-shaped
bacteria which are harmless in so far as disease-producing capacities are
concerned, but which so closely resemble the typhoid bacilli in microscopic
appearance and in their "breathing" and "eating" habits that it is possible
to distinguish ainong them only by highly specialized methods. In a
routine water analysis such highly specialized methods are not desirable
froin an economic standpoint, if for no other reason. The disease-produc-
ing bacteria are for the most part rather "fussy" in their habits. The harm-
less bacteria on the other hand are more rugged, more vigorous, than the
disease-producers. One might say that these latter organisms are the
"aristocrats" of the bacterial world while the harmless ones are the
"peasants" or "workers." When mixed together the harmless bacteria
will outgrow and outlive the disease-producers. This is particularly true
in a medium such as water, where the food supply is generally very
limited. This is another reason why it is so difficult to isolate typhoid
and dysentery bacilli from a contaminated water. So, instead of using
a direct method for the isolation of disease-producing bacteria from water,
the bacteriologist makes use of an indirect method.

There normally is present in the intestines of man and animals an or-
ganism known as "B. coli." This strain of bacteria is given off in the waste
materials in large numbers. The organism is harmless, and resembles
the typhoid and dysentery bacteria in that it is rod-shaped. It can be
rather easily identified by somewhat simple cultivation methods. The
presence of this organism in a water supply indicates that the supply
either is or has been receiving waste material of animal or human origin.
The numbers present will indicate to some degree the extent of contam-
ination. The argument presented when this test was devised was, of
course, that if "B. coli" could gain access to a water supply then typhoid or
dysentery bacteria might also gain access to the supply. Thus in the
•laboratory test this "B. coli" organism is used as an "indicator" of contam-
ination in water. This is what was meant when it was said that the
laboratory test was an indirect test rather than a direct test.

So far it has been impossible to distinguish in the laboratory between
the "B. coW of human origin and that of animal origin, and there is little
reason to believe that such a distinction would have any practical value
in routine water testing. If either type is present in a water it means that
faulty construction or poor location is responsible. The mere presence
of "B. coli" in a water supply, be it of human or animal origin, indicates
that the water is unsatisfactory for drinking purposes. And, further,
drinking water containing waste material from any source is potentially
dangerous.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 383

It is only fair to call the reader's attention to the fact that this bac-
teriological test is not infallible. Water should not be judged wholly on
such a test. A common-sense sanitary survey of the supply and its im-
mediate surroundings should supplement the laboratory analysis. In most
cases this survey will indicate the source of contamination and the kind —
whether it is of human or animal origin. Further, there may be occasions
when the laboratory test fails to reveal any contamination, but the sanitary
survey may show certain potential sources of contamination. Such a
condition should arouse questions about the future purity of the supply
even though the present laboratory tests failed to reveal any impurities.
This survey will reveal also faulty construction in the supply, which is an
important item particularly in shallow dug wells. If persons building
new homes in rural areas would only remember to locate their water
supply first, and then so construct their homes that the disposal of waste
materials can not contaminate the supply, little trouble would ever be
experienced with impure drinking water.

The results of a single analysis are not always too dependable. A
drought or a rain storm just previous to sampling can influence the results
considerably. As Dr. Feemster points out in his letter to the writer:

No doubt in your bulletin you will emphasize the fact that bac-
terial examination of water should not be depended upon solely
to give an idea of the safety of a particular supply since a sample
taken during a wet period or after a heavy rainfall might show
evidences of pollution of a well which under more favorable cir-
cumstances might appear by bacteriological examination to be
perfectly safe.

Careless sampling methods, and careless handling of the sample between
sampling and testing, can also influence the results considerably.

Before concluding this section some mention should be made of chemical
tests of drinking water. In the laboratory at the Massachusetts State
College chemical analyses of drinking water are not made. One reason
is the belief that the bacteriological test is a much more dependable and
sensitive test than the sanitary chemical test. The bacteriological test
can detect minute amounts of contamination which might be missed in the
chemical tests. Further, the chemical analysis is of little value when
applied to rural private water supplies unless several such tests can be
made over a considerable period of time. Individual waters vary con-
siderably in their chemical composition, and unless normals have been
established by means of frequent tests it is dii^cult to justify an opinion
of the quality of the water upon one test. In the case of town and city
water supplies the State Board of Health makes frequent routine chemical
analyses of the supplies. This has been done for many years, and in this
way it has been possible for them to establish normals for the several
chemical components of the water. If at any testing period results show
that any one or several of these chemical components varies from the
normal, check tests, as well as an immediate sanitary survey, are made
to locate the source of the change. Incidentally, the bacteriological
analysis is one of the most important check tests.

In conclusion there is another type of chemical analysis for which
frequent requests are made. So far as we know there is no water in the
State of Massachusetts that might contain any one, or several, chemical

PRIVATE WATER SUPPLIES §

compounds which might have a medicinal "cure-all" value. Frequently
persons send us samples of water which they believe to contain some
unusual chemical constituent with remarkable curative properties for prac-
tically all known human ailments. Our answer is that there is no such
water and such analyses can not be made.

All analyses of this type, as well as analyses to determine what type
of piping or hot water tank to install, should be referred to a commercial
laboratory. The laboratory at the Massachusetts State College deals
only in health applications of any tests made.

Results of 1,016 Analyses

A very brief survey of 1,016 analyses made in the Service Laboratory
during the past ten years is presented in the final section. The very fact
that these samples were sent in to us for analysis suggests that in the
majority of cases some doubt existed in the minds of the owners as to
the purity of their supplies. Therefore a rather high percentage of con-
taminated supplies is to be expected. The reader must not interpret the
final figures given in tables 1 and 2 to imply that this is a general picture
of the condition of the rural private water supplies in the State of Massa-
chusetts. These figures mean' just what they represent: that 44 percent
of all the supplies suspected of being contaminated, and scut to the laboratory
to he tested, were contaminated.

Table 1.— Total number and type of each sltpply tested, and the
number and percentage of each showing contamination.

Total
Type of Number Number Number not Percent

Supply Tested Contaminated Contaminated Contaminated

Spring 193 77 116 39

Dug Well 452 250 202 54

Driven Well 332 119 213 35

Totals 977 446 531 45

Table 1 presents the total number of samples tested from each type
of supply together with the number and percentage of each that showed
contamination. These results show, as might be expected, that the high-
est percentage of contaminated supplies occurred in the group classified
as dug wells. Being for the most part rather shallow (the average depth
of those tested was only 15 feet), dug wells are the most difficult type of
supply to protect from contamination. The majority of those tested were
of rather ancient vintage; that is, from 30 to 150 years old. At the time
of their construction a general knowledge of water sanitation was lacking.
Field stone was used as a curbing, and the cover, if any, was of loosely
laid planks. Further, for convenience the well was located in or near
the house. So also were the toilet facilities. The result is obvious. The
loosely laid field stone curbing and plank cover allowed surface-water
contamination, while the nearness to the sewage disposal system resulted

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 383

in sewage contamination. Modern knowledge of water sanitation, requir-
ing a tight tile curbing and a tight inetal or stone cover, in addition to
proper location of the supply, results in a fully protected drinking water
supply.

As stated previously, spring water as it emerges from the ground is
generally of high quality. Contamination of the supply occurs only after
the water has emerged from the ground, and it is for the most part of
the surface-drainage type rather than the sewage type. Proper excavation
back to the actual point where the water emerges and a well-constructed
spring house will prevent this subsequent contamination.

The records show that in practically every case where contamination
occurred in a driven well it could be traced to a poor location. It is true
that soil will act as a natural filter for the water percolating through it.
However, when it becomes saturated with impurities, it tlien ceases to
act as a filter. Further, even though the source of the impurities was
removed, it still would take the soil a considerable length of time to
purify itself. The answer to this problem is to so locate the well in respect
to the waste disposal systems from the house that no contamination from
these sources can gain access to the well, or to the soil immediately sur-
rounding the well.

Table 2. — Location of supplies tested, by counties, and the number

AND percentage SHOWING CONTAMINATION.

Total

Number Number Number not Percent

County Tested Contaminated Contaminated Contaminated

Nantucket 0 0 0 0

Dukes 0 0 0 0

Plymouth 9 0 9 0

Bristol 17 7 10 41

Barnstable 118 29 89 24

Norfolk 3 1 2 33

Suffolk 8 7 1 87

Middlesex 21 6 15 28

Essex 17 11 6 64

Worcester 223 121 102 54

Hampden 104 41 63 40

Hampshire 235 118 117 50

Franklin 184 84 100 45

Berkshire 11 29 48 2>1

Totals 1,016* 454* 562* 44"

* Includes drilled wells.

PRU^ATK WATER SUPPLIES 11

In table 2 the supplies tested are classified by counties. Here again
tlie results given are in no way a reflection on the general condition of
tlie private supplies located in the respective counties.

As migiit be expected, the majority of the supplies tested were located
in counties near to the laboratory. The 118 samples received from Barn-
stable County were an exception to this. It is interesting that the lowest
percentage of contaminated supplies also occurred in the case of the
supplies tested from this County. This directly reflects the fact tliat
people are becoming more alert to make sure their water supjdies are
satisfactory, for most of these supplies were of new construction. This
is brouglit out more clearly wiien the results of Barnstable County are
compared with those of Worcester, Hampden, or Hampshire Counties.
In tlie case of these three latter counties the majority of supplies tested
were not newlv constructed.

It has been the intention in preparing this bulletin to present certain
information, little known or little understood by the public, regarding
the contamination in, and the bacteriological testing of, rural private water
supplies. The containination of such supplies with typhoid and dysentery
bacteria has ceased to be a public health problem in Massachusetts. The
State Board of Health Reports for the past few years fail to reveal any
case of typhoid fever directly traceable to the drinking of contaminated
water from a rural private supply.

Water can and does, however, become contaminated witli the waste
materials from man and animals. The routine bacteriological test i>
designed to isolate and identify an organism known as "B. coli," which is
present in large numbers in the feces of man and warm-blooded animals.
This organism is used as an indicator of tlie presence of fecal material
in water. The test is both sensitive and dependable, for the presence of
such inaterial in a drinking water supply is at least objectionable, and
should always be considered as potentially dangerous. No attempt is
made in (his test to directly isolate disease-producing bacteria from the
water.

Publication op this Document Ahhroved ay Commission on Administration anu hiN,-
4i]i-4-4 1 — ."i7Vl2

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

Bulletin No. 384 July 1941

The Importance of

Length of Incubation Period

in Rhode Island Reds

By F. A. Hays

This represents an attempt to determine whether length of incubation period
may serve as a criterion of the future performance of chicks.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

THE IMPORTANCE OF LENGTH OF INCUBATION PERIOD
IN RHODE ISLAND REDS*

By F. A. Hays, Research Professor of Poultry Husbandry

INTRODUCTION

A limited amount of preliminary unpublished data on Barred Plymouth Rocks,
collected by Dove (1935) at the Maine Station, suggested that chicks emerging
early from the shell were more likely to be females than males and that such
chicks were probably more viable than chicks emerging later. It is also com-
monly observed, in chicks from the same setting of eggs, that those emerging late
are less likely to survive and often grow more slowly than those emerging early.
Such observations suggested the possibility that the length of the incubation
period might be a useful criterion of the future outcome of chicks. A study of
the length of incubation period for Rhode Island Reds in its possible relation to
sex, viability, and characters afifecting fecundity was therefore undertaken m
the spring of 1937 and continued through three hatching seasons.

Data Available

All chicks were pedigreed Rhode Island Reds hatched in the same forced-
draft electric incubator in 1937, 1938, and 1939. Observations covered si.\
hatches obtained at weekly intervals between March 7 and April 23. Seven
emergent periods, each covermg eight hours, were included in the study. The
first chicks appeared during the last third of the 20th day and the last chicks
appeared during the last third of the 22d day under the methods of incubation
used. Data were secured on 4730 chicks in the three-year period. Records were
taken on sex, mortality at different ages, body weight at about six months of
age for both males and females and at sexual maturity and at the end of the first
laying year for females, age at sexual maturity in females, winter and annual egg
production, and the emergent period of chicks from sires and dams classified
according to their individual emergent periods.

In order to reduce to a minimum the temperature shock to the newly hatched
chicks, it was necessary to keep the chicks out of the incubator for the shortest
possible time during each eight-hour observation. For purposes of identification
a series of water colors was used for marking. It was found that the color mark
was most satisfactory when placed beneath the wing with a small brush. The
pedigree baskets were opened at each eight-hour observation. All chicks that
were out of the shell at the first observation were marked; and at the second and
later observations, all unmarked chicks were given the respective color mark
for the period. When the hatch was taken out of the incubator at the end of
the 22nd day, the emergent period of each chick was recorded. It was found
that the chicks could be gone over and marked in a short time by this method.

♦Special credit is due J. W. Locke, Plant Foreman, for assisting in the observations on time of
emergence.

LENGTH OF INCUBATION PERIOD 3

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
Relation of Length of Incubation Period to Weight of Eggs

Huggins and Huggins (1941) have recently reviewed the literature on varia-
tion in the length of the incubation period in wild birds. These workers are of
the opinion that fresh egg weight is an important factor in observed variability.

Byerly (1934) and McNally and Byerly (1936) found egg weight to be an
important factor in variation in length of the incubation period. Heavier eggs
generally required a longer incubation period than lighter eggs.

In the studies here reported, the mean weight of the first ten eggs laid during
the hatching season was used as a measure of egg weight. By setting this mean
against the emergent period of each chick from the respective dams, the correla-
tion between egg weight and length of incubation period was approximated.

There were 430 dams that laid at least ten eggs and the mean egg weight of
these dams was tabulated against the emergent period of their 4730 chicks in a
correlation table. The constants arrived at were as follows:

Number of dams 430

Number of chicks 4730

Mean egg weight of dams, grams 62.1

Mean emergent period of chicks 4.2 (last third of 21st day)

Coefficient of correlation —.0981 +.0097

Regression was found to be strictly linear, so that the coefficient of correlation
may be used to measure association. Using either 400 or 500 degrees of freedom,
the magnitude of the coefficient of correlation is insufficient to be definitely sig-
nificant. It seems apparent, therefore, that this small negative value of the
coefficient of correlation indicates no relation between weight of eggs and length
of the incubation period in Rhode Island Reds.

Relation of Hatching Date to Length of Incubation Period

The range in hatching dates was limited, extending from March 7 to April 23.
All the data are thrown together in table 1 to indicate the percentage of chicks
emerging in the different periods as the hatching season advanced.

The data indicate that the majority' of chicks hatched in periods 3, 4, and 5
which represent the second third of the 21st day, the last third of the 21st day,
and the first third of the 22d day. The number hatched on the last third of the
20th day was extremely small, and the number hatching at the end of the 22d
day was also small.

In the hatches produced at the end of March and during the first half of April,
there were fewer early emerging chicks and a significant increase in the number
of chicks emerging on the 22d day of incubation. The first two hatches, produced
before March 15, agreed closely in the percentage of chicks emerging during the
different periods. A slight tendency was observed in the third hatch, produced
after the middle of March, for the chicks to emerge somewhat earlier than was
noted in the first two hatches. Since there was a tendency for the chicks in the
earlier hatches to emerge somewhat earlier than in the later hatches, this may in
part account for a more rapid growth in chicks from the earlier hatches during
incubation, to two weeks, and to four weeks, as reported by Hays and Sanborn
(1929).

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 384

Table 1. — Percentage of Chicks Emerging in Different Periods, by
Hatches, with Summary of Time of Emergence of All Chicks

Emergent
Period

Percentages of Chicks Erne

:rging

Summary of
Chicks Emerging

Hatch
1

Hatch
2

Hatch
3

Hatch
4

Hatch
5

Hatch
6

Total
Number

Percent

1

.38

1.07

.24

15

.34

2

3.13

4.02

7.20

—

—

3.39

161

3.63

3

22.86

20.86

28.46

8.62

6.01

23.00

916

20.64

4

40.95

44.98

43.72

38.90

37.19

38.01

1,848

41.65

5

24.18

22.20

14.93

37.60

36.75

25.67

1,080

24.34

6

5.59

3.83

4.19

13.58

17.15

8.23

310

6.99

7

3.29

3.73

.43

1.31

2.90

1.45

107

2.41

Mean Length of the Incubation Period in the Normal Hatching Season

As previously indicated, the chicks were hatched in March and April, and
this may be considered the normal hatching season for this locality. All of the
hatches during the three-year period have been thrown together in the "Sum-
mary" in table 1 to get a general picture of the proportions of chicks emerging
during each of the seven 8-hour periods under the uniform conditions of m-
cubation used.

About 42 percent of the chicks emerged during the last third of the 21st day
of incubation. At the end of the 21st day only 66.26 percent of the chicks had
emerged. The remaining one-third hatched during the 22d day of incubation.
Precautions were taken to have the incubator heated to about 100° F. for several
hours before receiving the eggs, and the temperature was maintained within a
half degree of the manufacturer's recommendations. The data in general indicate
that there was a wide fluctuation in the length of the incubation period, which
may or may not be a normal condition.

Table 2. — Percentage of M.\les from
Different Emergent Periods

Emergent

Percentage

Period

of Males

1

20.00

2

40.99

3

46.62

4

51.62

5

54.81

6

55.81

7

51.40

Totals

51.16

LENGTH OF INCUBATION PERIOD 5

Relation of the Length of the Incubation Period to Sex of Chicks

It is desirable to know whether the length of the incubation period is in any way
associated with the sex of chicks. For purposes of study, table 2 was constructed
to show the percentage of males obtained in the seven different emergent periods.

There is considerable evidence to indicate that the sex ratios were lower in
the chicks hatched through the second third of the 21st day of incubation. Chicks
emerging on the 22d day — periods 5, 6, and 7 — showed a high sex ratio. The
mean emergent period for all males was found to be 4.24, and for all females 4.09.
The difference in these values is small and does not appear to be of any great
significance.

The data tend, however, to substantiate the postulate that females predominate
in the chicks emerging early and that males predominate in the chicks emerging
later.

Relation of Length of Incubation Period to Viability

Mortality rates for the first six months of life may be taken as a measure of
viability. These rates have been calculated for the first week, for one to four
weeks, between four and eight weeks, from eight to twelve weeks, and from twelve
weeks to housing time at about six months of age. Some chicks died on an
unknown date during the first eight-week period without the sex being known,
and are included as a separate group in the table. Total mortality for six months
is also included. Table 3 gives the summarized results.

Mortality for the first four weeks showed essentially no relationship to the
time of emergence from the shell. Between the ages of four and eight weeks,
however, there appeared to be an important relationship between the length
of the incubation period and mortality rate. During this period the chicks in
emergent groups 1 and 2 showed no mortality; the chicks that hatched during
the last two periods of the 21st day (groups 3 and 4) showed considerable mortality;
and the chicks emerging in the last three periods, that is on the 22d day, showed
excessive mortality.

There were 68 chicks missing at the end of the first eight weeks so that the
age at death as well as the sex was unknown. These chicks were placed in their
respective emergent period and the mortality recorded in the fifth line of the
table. No relationship between emergent period and mortality rate was ob-
served in this small group, except that the very late emerging chicks had a mortali-
ty rate of about 4.5 percent compared with about 1.5 percent for the chicks
from the other emergent periods.

Mortality rates are recorded separately for the sexes after eight weeks. No
consistent relationship between time of emergence and mortality rate appeared
during the age period from eight to twelve weeks in either sex. Between twelve
weeks and six months of age, males had a significantly higher mortality rate than
females, but the relationship between time of emergence and mortality rate is not
conspicuous if it exists at all. The data do seem to indicate that both males and
females from the last emergent period were low in viability. The data in table 3
appear to indicate that chicks emerging late are very likely to exhibit low viability
between four and eight weeks of age and not at other ages during the first six
months.

The last line of the table records the total mortality to the age of six months,
obtained by adding together the preceding mortality rates. The data indicate a
consistent increase in mortality rate with each eight-hour increase in length of

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 384

the incubation period. This fact furnishes rather definite evidence that the
early emerging chicks are the more viable.

Table 3. — Number of Chicks and Percentage Mortality by Emergent

Periods

Emergent Period

Number of Chicks 15 166 970 1,978 1,151 355 126

Percent Mortality First Eight Weel<s
Sex Unknown:

1st week 0 .60 .72 1.06 .70 2.25 4.76

Between 1 and 4 weeks .. . 0 2.42 2.08 2.20 1.40 3.46 2.50

Between 4 and 8 weeks .. . 0 0.00 1.06 1.93 2.66 5.37 4.27

Date unknown 0 0.00 1.61 1.44 1.37 1.89 4.46

Total 0 3.01 5.36 6.47 5.99 12.39 15.08

Percent Mortality Between Eight and Twelve Weeks

Males 0 0 .76 .35 1.24 0 0

Females 0 0 .36 1.08 1.28 0 0

Both Sexes 0 0 .55 .68 1.26 0 0

Percent Mortality from Twelve Weeks to Housing (Six Monfh.s)

Males 0 0.00 3.45 3.32 1.57 3.13 8.33

Females 0 3.13 1.79 2.84 3.03 1.35 4.76

Both Sexes 0 1.90 2.59 3.11 2.18 2.35 7.02

Total Mortality to 6 Months 0 4.91 8.50 10.26 9.43 14 74 22.10

Relation of Length of Incubation Period to Laying-House Mortality

A portion of the pullets produced was placed in the laying houses at about six
months of age and trapnested for 365 days. No culling was done and the mor-
tality rate from all causes was calculated for birds emerging during the different
periods. The summarized data are presented in table 4.

The data indicate no relation between the time of emergence and mortality
rate in females between the ages of six and eighteen months. It appears, therefore,
that the length of the incubation period cannot be considered a criterion of future
viability in the laying house.

Relation of Length of Incubation Period to Characters Affecting
Egg Production and to Winter and Annual Egg Production

In the selection of pullets to be placed in the laying houses it is desirable to
make use of every possible criterion of egg-laying ability. It was therefore con-
sidered advisable to test the relationship between the length of the incubation
period in female chicks and certain fecundity traits, as well as winter and annual
egg production.

LENGTH OF INCUBATION PERIOD

Table 4. — Relation of Length of Incubation Period to Laying
House Mortality in Females for a 365-Day Period

Emergent

Total in

Died \V

ithin

Percent

Period

Laying House

365 Days

Mortality

1

10

4

40.00

2

62

11

17.74

3

275

69

25.09

4

444

106

23.87

5

224

57

25.45

6

72

15

20.83

7

19

5

26.32

Body Weight at Six Months of Age

Females. — Heavy body weight in pullets when placed in the laying houses is
desirable from the standpoint of large egg size and low mortality, according to
Hays (1939). Furthermore, the experience of many practical breeders justifies
the selection of larger pullets near the onset of sexual maturity. All pullets were
weighed individually when they were placed in the laying houses at about six
months of age. In table 5 are recorded the mean weights of pullets from the
seven different emergent groups.

Mean body weights were almost identical for pullets in the different emergent
groups. These data therefore indicate that the length of the incubation period
does not affect body weight of pullets at six months of age.

Males. — Cockerels were weighed individually at six months of age, and the
mean weights recorded according to emergent period, in table 5. The data
indicate that cockerels hatched during the 21st day of incubation (periods 2,
3, and 4) were slightly heavier than cockerels hatched on the 22d day of incuba-
tion (periods 5, 6, and 7).

Table 5. — Rel.

ATioN of Length of Incubation Period to Body

Weight at Six Months

Pullets

Cockerels

Emergent
Period

Number

Mean Weight

Number

Mean Weight

Pounds

Pounds

1

10

5.09

1

6.00

2

62

5.26

41

6.57

3

275

5.38

252

6.56

4

444

5.33

558

6.50

5

224

5.37

316

6.41

6

72

5.32

93

6.34

7

19

5.25

35

6.40

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 384

Body Weight at Sexual Maturity in Pullets

Body weight at sexual maturity is of considerable importance because sexual
maturity marks the onset of the reproductive function. The mean weights of
pullets in the different emergent groups are recorded in table 6. The pullets in
the last five emergent groups were heavier than those of the two earliest groups,
but there was no significant difference in body weight among the last five groups.

Table 6. — Relation of Length of Incubation Period to Body
Weight and Age of Pullets at Sexual Maturity

Emergent

Number

Mean Weight

Number

Mean Age

Period

of

at First Egg

of

at First Egg

Pullets

Pounds

Pullets

Days

1

9

5.67

9

187

2

57

5.76

57

183

3

257

5.96

261

192

4

409

5.98

412

193

5

195

6.06

196

197

6

60

6.05

60

197

7

17

5.99

17

202

Age at Sexual Maturity in Pullets

The stock used does not vary widely in age at sexual maturity because it
closely approaches genetic purity for this character. Variations in age at first
egg, when they occur, must therefore be attributed largely to environmental
modifiers. For testing possible effects of length of the incubation period on mean
age at first egg, the data are summarized in table 6.

It will be noted that the emergent groups were closely parallel in age at first

egg and in mean weight at first egg; that is, the pullets from the two very early

, emerging groups averaged about ten days younger than those from the five

later groups. These data indicate that age at sexual maturity is afTectly slightly

by the length of the incubation period.

Winter and Annual Egg Production

Winter egg production includes the number of eggs laid from first pullet egg
up to March 1. In order to discover whether there is any relation between the
length of the incubation period and subsequent winter egg production, the data
are summarized in table 7.

There was a consistent decline in mean winter egg production as the length
of the incubation period increased. There was a decline in mean winter egg
production of about 30 eggs between the earliest emerging group and the sixth
emergent group. These rather limited data indicate that the length of the in-
cubation period bears an important relationship to subsequent winter egg pro-
duction.

Annual egg production represents the number of eggs laid from first pullet egg
for a period of 365 days. Available data are assembled in table 7 to discover
possible relations between length of incubation period and annual egg production.

LENGTH OF INCUBATION PERIOD

Table 7. — Relation of Length of Incubation Period to Egg
Production

Emergent

Mean Winter Production

Mean Annual Production

Period

Number of

Number of

Number of

Number of

Birds

Eggs

Birds

Eggs

1

9

107

6

248

2

55

100

45

225

3

238

96

179

217

4

382

89

294

204

5

182

80

134

194

6

56

77

43

197

7

15

79

13

193

The data are rather limited, but they show a consistent dechne in mean annual
egg production as the length of the incubation period increased. There was a
difference in annual egg production of about 55 eggs between the very early
emergmg pullets and the very late emerging pullets. In view of this fact, it would
seem advisable for breeders to breed selectively for early emergence of chicks
from the shell, and information regarding possible hereditary factors that may
influence time of emergence would be very useful.

Annual Persistency

High persistency is vitalh' important from the stan dpoint of maxinmm egg
production in any flock; hence it is desirable to ascertain whether persistency
bears any relation to the length of the incubation period. Table 8 presents the
mean persistency of birds in the seven different emergent periods.

A rather consistent decline in persistency may be observed as the length of the
incubation period increased. There was a decline of about 25 days in the length
of the production year in the birds of group 7 as compared with group 1. It
seems probable, therefore, that earlier emerging birds are likely to be somewhat
more persistent layers than late emerging birds.

Table 8. — Relation of Length of Incubation Period
TO Annual Persistency

Emergent Period

Number
of Birds

Mean Annual Persistency
Days

1

6

362

2

45

350

3

179

344

4

294

338

5

134

330

6

43

334

7

13

336

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 384

Body Weight at the End of the First Laying Year

Heavy body weight at the end of the first laying year is important, according
to Hays (1939). It serves as a general measure of how well each individual has
survived a year of heavy laying. As a rule, those birds which fail to increase
in body weight and those which actually decline in weight will give unsatisfactory
hatching records the following spring as well as low egg records during the second
year. In table 9 mean body weights at the end of the first laying year, at about
eighteen months of age, are recorded for each emergent group. The absolute
weight of a bird at this time may be used as something of a criterion of the bird's
future value for breeding as well as for egg production.

Differences in mean weight between the emergent groups were small and
bear no particular relationship to the time of emergence. It seems likely, there-
fore, that the length of the incubation period has no relation to body weight at
the end of the first laying year.

Table 9. — Relation of Length of Incubation Period to Body
Weight at End of First Laying Year

Emergent Number Mean Weight

Period of Birds Pounds

Evidence on Inheritance of Length of Incubation Period

Since a large series of matings to test for possible inherited factors affecting
length of incubation period has not been made, some evidence on this point may
be gained from a study of the correlation between sires and sons and sires and
daughters as well as between dams and sons and dams and daughters in length
of incubation period. The constants arrived at from available data are given
in table 10.

Table 10. — Correlations

6

5.63

51

6.19

199

6.39

328

6.29

162

6.28

54

6.26

14

6.07

N

umber of
Parents

Number of
Offspring

Coefficient of
Correlation

Correlation
Ratio

Sires and Sons

Sires and Daughters .

Dams and Sons

Dams and Daughters

24

24

108

108

639
628
518
474

+ .1686t±.0259
+ .10801 ±.0266
+ .1690t±.0288
+ .2615t±.0289

.1737
.2074

tNot significant.

JDefinitely

significant.

LENGTH OF INCUBATION PERIOD 11

The limited data are not conclusive regarding possible inherited factors affect-
ing the length of the incubation period. Sires and sons, sires and daughters,
and dams and sons showed insignificant correlations in length of incubation
period. Regression was non-linear between sires and daughters and between dams
and sons. On the basis of 100 degrees of freedom, there was a significant corre-
lation between dams and their daughters m length of incubation period. The
meaning of this relationship is not clear. If dams transmit factors affecting the
length of mcubation period to their daughters, it is difficult to understand why
such factors are not transmitted to their sons. It therefore seems logical to
assume that the data are too meager to furnish satisfactory evidence on the
inheritance phase of the problem.

SUMMARY

Data were secured during a three-year period on the length of incubation
required by 4730 Rhode Island Red chicks. A study of possible relationship
between length of the incubation period and sex, viability, and characters affect-
ing fecundity led to the following deductions:

I. The length of the incubation period was not affected by weight of eggs in
430 dams studied.

2 Length of the incubation period was slightly shorter in the earlier hatches.

3. Length of the incubation period fluctuated over a period of about 56 hours
during the ncrmal hatching season.

4. Fen ales predominated in the early emerging chicks.

5. Mortality rates for six months increased consistently as the length of the
incubation period increased.

6. There was no relation between the length of the incubation period and
the mortality rates for pullets in the laying houses between the ages of six and
eighteen months.

7. No relation was shown between length of incubation period and body
weight of pullets at six months of age.

8. Ccckerels emerging early were slightly heavier at six months of age than
late emerging ones.

9. There was no important relation between length of incubation period and
body weight of pullets at sexual maturity.

10. Very early emerging pullets are likely to be slightly earlier in sexual
maturity than late emerging ones.

II. More eggs before March first may be expected from early emerging
pullets.

12. There was a consistent decline in annual egg production as the length of
the incubation period increased.

13. Early emerging pullets are likely to be more persistent layers than late
emerging pullets.

14. No relation was found between length of the incubation period and
body weight at the end of the first laying year.

15. There was no conclusive evidence that the length of the incubation period
is governed by inherited factors.

16. Selection of early emerging chicks appears to be of considerable economic
importance.

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 384

REFERENCES

Byerly, T. C. 1934. Some Factors Affecting the Length of the Incubation Period.
Rep. Fifth World's Poultry Cong. pp. 373-379.

Dove, W. F. 1935. Report at Eighth Annual Poultry Breeders' School.

Hays, F. A., and Ruby Sanborn. 1929. Rate of Growth in Rhode Island Reds.
Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 259.

Hays, F. A. 1939. The Significance of Body Weight in Breeding for Egg Produc-
tion. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 364.

Huggins, R. A., and Sara E. Huggins. 1941. Possible Factors Controlling Length
of Incubation in Birds. Amer. Nat. 75 (758):282-285.

McNally, E. H., and T. C. Byerly. 1936. Variation in the Development of
Embryos of Hen's Eggs. Poultry Sci. 15:280-283.

Publication of this Document Approved by Commission on Administration and Finance
4m-8-41-7018

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 385 May 1941

Natural Land Types

of Massachusetts

and Their Use

By A. B. Beaumont

This represents an attempt to supply certain technical information
regarding soils considered essential as a basis for sound land-use studies
and classifications.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

T-^'-;^
^

Upper: Profile Vitw uf (jiuucubter Soil, tliu niobt cxtunsue upldiid aoii in Massachusetts:
important in dairy farming and fruit growing: typical of Land Type Al.

Lower: Landscape and Profile View of Hinckley, an outwash soil; one of the poorest

agricultural soils of the State: best use, forestry or source of sand and gravel; Land Type B3.

NATURAL LAND TYPES OF MASSACHUSETTS
AND THEIR USE

By A. B. Beaumont, Extension Soil Conservationist

Farmers have always recognized natural land characteristics as im-
portant factors governing land use; often, but not always, they are the
determining factors of land use. Natural land characteristics fall into two
general groups: permanent or fixed, and impermanent or transitory, de-
pending upon whetlier they may be altered or modified by man acting
directly or by natural forces directed by man.

Among the permanent land characteristics generally recognized as im-
portant in determining land use in New England are slope, elevation,
texture and depth of soil, and nature of subsoil. To these is now added
erodibility, or the capacity of a soil to erode, a soil characteristic heretofore
not generally recognized in this section as of much importance m de-
termining land use.

Impermanent land characteristics of importance in land use in New
England include soil reaction, or the condition of the soil with respect to
an adequate supply of lime; nutrient level, or state of fertility; and the
nature and condition of the soil organic matter. Drainage and stoniness,
two important land-use factors, may be considered permanent or imper-
manent, depending largely upon the economic aspects of modification.

It is the purpose of this bulletin, first, to report and interpret some
data on natural land characteristics in relation to land use, and s.°cond, to
present methods of land classification for use considered both applicable
and practicable for Massachusetts conditions.

A Study of Natural Land Characteristics Affecting Land Use

In a study' of factors affecting land use in several towns of Worcester
County, certain data concerning land characteristics were collected. Field
mapping was done on a scale (1"=200' or 1"=660') sufficiently large to
show areas as small as one-quarter acre. The information collected on
the physical features is somewhat unusual in respect to the detail inapped.
and is, therefore, valuable as a source of more precise knowledge of fac-
tors hitherto subject to rough estimate or opinion. Soil type, perceni of
slope, degree of stoniness, and character of erosion were mapped. Forty-
eight soil types in seventeen correlated series and several provisional series,
totaling 13,211 acres, were mapped. The soils mapped included one or
more series in each of the principal topographic groups of the area studied.
Summarized data are presented in tables 1 to 6.

Influence of Slope on Land Use (Table 1.). — In the area under considera-
tion, where dairy farming is the major farm enterprise, pasture competes
favorably with crops for the nearly level land (A slopes); 33.5 percent in
pasture against 35.5 percent in crops. On all other slopes pasture has

'A cooperative study conducted jointly by the U. S. Bureau of Agricultural Economics,
the U. S. Soil Conservation Service, Harvard University, and Massachusetts State College.
Data published in mimeographed form by the Massachusetts Extension Service as "A
Statistical Study of Land-I^se Data," Release No. 1 of Worcestep County Land-Use Plan-
ning Project, December 1940.

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 385

the ascendancy, reaching a ratio of about 4 to 1 on C slopes and 6 to 1
on D slopes. Pasture competes efifectively with woodland, the percentage
devoted to pasture being greater on all slopes except B, where the figures
are close.

Moderate slopes predominate on the land surveyed, as is indicated by
the large acreages in A, B, and C slopes, B being the largest. The weight-
ed average for all slopes, taking the mid-point of each slope range except
D, and 30 for the D class, is 7.9 percent. However, it should be noted
that these statements and the figure apply only to the farm land surveyed.
More than half the land of Worcester County is not in farms, and much
of this land has D slopes.

Table 1. Distribution of Land-use Classes in Each Slope Class.
(Acres and percentage given.)

Slope Class Cropland Idle Pasture Woodland Farm- Total

and Range liand yards and

in Percent Urban Areas

A (0-3) Acres 1255.3 311.5 1186.3 769.2 18.5 3540.8

Percent 35.5 8.8 33.5 21.7 0.5 100.0

B (3-8) Acres 1363.3 160.6 1562.8 1612.9 32.0 4731.6

Percent 28.8 S.h 33.0 34.1 0.7 100.0

BB (8-15) Acres 884.5 107.0 1373.7 1116.6 22.7 3504.5

Percent 25.2 3.1 39.2 31.9 0.6 100.0

C (15-25) Acres 133.3 17.8 550.3 300.3 1.1 1002.8

Percent 13.3 1.8 54.9 29.9 0.1 100.0

D (25-f ) Acres 37.4 8.0 226.0 159.9 0.1 431.4

Perceyit 8.7 1.8 52.4 37.1 (1) 100.0

Total area Acres 3673.8 604.9 4899.1 3958.9 74.4 13211.1

Percent 27.8 4.6 37.1 30.0 0.5 100.0

(1) Less tlian 0.1 percent.

Table 1 also shows the broad aspects of land use. Disregarding slopes,
the distribution agrees fairly closely with that reported in the census of
1935. The cropland, according to the census, was 27.3 percent, which
compares with 27.8 percent of this survey. There is more discrepancy in
the figures from the two sources for pasture and woodland, which is due
in part to the difficulty in separating pasture and woodland classes. The
census reports a third separation, woodland pasture, and gives 43.3 per-
cent for woodland pasture and "other" pasture, against 37.1 percent from
the survey; it gives 23.3 percent woodland "not pasture", against 30.0
percent woodland found in the survey; and "other" land, 6.1 percent, which
compares with 4.6 percent idle land and 0.5 percent farmyards and urban
areas.

All the percentages in the preceding paragraph are based on the total
farm land surveyed or, in case of the census, the total farm land of the
county. Since the survey was made by the sampling process, no figures
are reported for percentage of farm land in the county. The census gives
47.1 as the percentage of the total land area of the county in farms in 1935.

LAND TYPES OF MASSACHUSETTS 5

This figure combined with that of the survey gives 13.1 percent of crop-
land in the area, and combined with that of the census gives 12.8 percent.

Effect of Stoniness on Land Use. (Table 2). — Stoniness increased with all
slopes. The lowest degree of stoniness was found on more than half of
the A slopes; moderate stoniness was most abundant on the intermediate
slopes, although slight and moderate stoniness were approximately equal
on B slopes; and the fourth degree of stoniness was found on almost half
the D slopes.

The significance of stoniness as a factor in land use is shown by the dis-
tribution of the different classes of stoniness in cropland. According to
these figures, 92.2 percent of all the cropland fell in the first two classes,
which are none or very slight and slight. A similar relationship is shown
by a study of the situation on the Gloucester soils considered alone: 53.9
percent of the fine sandy loam and 85.9 percent of the loam were classed
as cropland; whereas the corresponding figures for the stony phases of
these types were 13.2 and 15.0. All these figures indicate that stoniness
is a more important factor than slope in determining land use within the
limits studied.

Table 2. Distribution of Stoniness Classes in Each Slope Class.
(Acres and percentage given.)

Slope Class
and Range
in Percent

None*

A (0-3) Acres 1929.4

Percent 54.5

B (3-8) Acres 1051.6

Percent 22.2

BB (8-15) Acres 720.7

Percent 20.6

C (15-25) Acres 161.G

Percent 16.1

D (25+) Acres 32.1

Percent 7.4

Total area Acres 3895.4

Percent 29.5

Cropland Acres 2320.3

Percent 63.2

*IS'one, or very slight.

Slight Moderate

Severe

Total

797.1

716.5

97.8

3540.8

22.6

20.1

2.8

100.0

1626.7

1631.0

422.3

4731.6

3i.U

34.5

8.9

100.0

832.9

1521.6

429.3

3504.5

23.8

43.4

12.2

100.0

220.4

385.9

234.9

1002.8

22.0

38.5

23.4

100.0

78.2

110.3

210.8

421.4

18.1

25.6

48.9

100.0

3555.3

4365.3

1395.1

13211.1

26.8

33.1

10.6

100.0

1067.7

216.4

69.4

3673.8

29.0

5.9

1.9

100.0

Erosion, Erodibility, and Land Use. — The significance of soil erosion, and
by implication, erodibility, is shown in tables 3, 4, and 5. First, it may be
noted that second degree, or slight erosion predominated (84.0 percent,
tables 3 and 4) and that moderate erosion was found on 12.1 percent of
the total area surveyed. However, only 3.8 percent of the area showed
no erosion, and only 0.1 percent showed severe erosion.

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 385

Table 3. Distribution of Erosion Classes in Each Land-use Class.
(Acres and percentage given.)

Land-u.so

Erosion

Class

None

Apparent

Slight

Moderate

Severe

Total

Cropland

Acres

94.7

3182.0

394.1

3.0

3673.8

Percent

2.6

86.6

10.7

0.1

100.0

Idle land ..

Acres

81.3

441.3

80.4

1.9

604.9

Percent

134

73.0

13.3

0.3

100.0

Pasture -.

Acres

190.5

3978.7

716.7

13.2

4899.1

Percent

3.9

81.2

H.6

0.3

100.0

Woodland

Acres

138.1

3419.8

399.8

1.2

3958.9

Percent

3.5

86.A

10.1

(1)

100.0

Farmyard!

3 and

urban areas ...

Acres

0.0

71.8

2.6

0.0

74.4

Percent

0.0

96.5

3.5

0.0

100.0

Total

area .

Acres

504.6

11093.6

1593.6

19.3

1.3211.1

Percent

3.8

84.0

12.1

0.1

100.0

(1) Less than 0.1 percent.

Table 4. Distribution of Erosion Classes in Each Slope Class of

Cropped L.^ND

(Acres and percentage given.)

Slope Class
and Range
in Percent

None
.Apparent

Slitilit

Moderate Severe

Total

A (0-3) Acres 92.8 1154.5 8.0 0.0 1255.3

Percent 7. A 92.0 0.6 0.0 100.0

B (3-8) Acres 1.9 1299.4 62.0 0.0 1363.3

Percent 0.1 95.3 4-6 0.0 100.0

BB (8-15) Acres 0.0 678.9 205.1 0.5 884.5

Percent 0.0 76.8 23.2 (1) 100.0

e (15-25) Acres 0.0 42.5 88.7 2.1 133.3

Percent 0.0 31.8 66.6 1.6 100.0

D (25+) Acres 0.0 6.7 30.3 0.4 37.4

Percent 0.0 17.8 81.1 1.1 100.0

Total area Acres 94.7 3182.0 394.1 3.0 3673.8

Percent 2.6 86.6 10.7 0.1 100.0

(1) Less than 0.1 percent.

LAND TYPES OF MASSACHUSETTS 7

The relationship of erosion to land use is shown by tables 3 and 4. With
the exception of the idle land, the acreage of which was so small as to
throw doubt on the value of deductions based on it, the percentages of
the land-use classes in the erosion classes are fairly uniform (table 3).
Cropland had the lowest percentage showing no erosion, slightly more
than pasture and woodland showing slight erosion, and next to the least
amount of severe erosion. Severe erosion was percentually very small in
all classes. Moderate erosion was most abundant on pasture land.

It is difficult to interpret erosion in this area in terms of land use
because of marked and continuous changes in land use since 1880. Much
land now in permanent pasture or woodland was previously cropped.
Soils activeh' eroded at the peak of agricultural development have in
many cases become stabilized by grass or forest cover, but the evidence
of erosion still exists. This doubtless accounts largely for the uniformity
of the figures under the different types of land use. Also, since erosion
has been, and is, only slight to moderate, as a factor determining land use
it was outweighed by the more significant factors of slope and stoniness;
or at least these factors were apparently considered more significant by
the farmer.

In the survey, sheet erosion was found to be by far the most common
and extensive type. Occasional gully erosion was mapped on 17.9 acres,
or 0.13 percent of the area. For practical, interpretative purposes, this
class was thrown in with moderate erosion in this study. The damage
caused by sheet erosion is less obvious to the average farmer than is that
line to gullying, and can to some extent be counteracted by a generous
use of soil supplements. These facts probably account to a considerable
degree for the apparent unimportance of erosion as a factor influencing
land use.

Table 5. Distribution of Erosion Classes in Each Slope Class.
(Acres and percentage given.)

Slope Class
and Range
in Percent

None
Apparent

Erosion

Slight

Moderate Severe

Total

A (0-3) Acres

Percent

B (3-8) Acres

Percent

BB (8-15) Acres

Percent

C (15-25) Acres

Percent

D (25 + ) Acres

Percent

Total area Acres

Percent

489.0

13.8

12.4

0.3

2.8
0.1

0.4
(1)
0.0

0.0

3043.5
86.0

4570.9
96.6

2899.1
82.7
513.2
51.2
66.9
15.5

8.3
0.2

148.3
3.1

602.0
17.2

482.5
^8.1

352.5
81.7

504.6 11093.6 1593.6
3.8 84:0 12.1

0.0
0.0

0.0
0.0

0.6
(1)
6.7
0.7
12.0
2.8

19.3
0.1

3540.8
100.0

4731.6
100.0

3504.5
100.0

1002.8
100.0

431.4
100.0

13211.1
100.0

(1) Less than 0.1 percent.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 385

Interrelationships Between Certain Land Characteristics

Slope and Erosion. — More striking than the relation between erosion and
land use is that shown between the degree of erosion and slope of land.
Table 5 shows that there was definite and continuous increase in the
severity of erosion with the increase in steepness of slope, excepting the
first two classes of erosion on B slopes. On A slopes 99.8 percent of the
total land, and on B slopes 96.9 percent had no erosion or slight erosion.
C slopes were about evenly divided between no or slight erosion on the
one hand and moderate or severe erosion on the other. On D slopes 84.5
percent of the land had moderate or severe erosion.

Soil Type and Erosion. — The data of the survey were not sufficient to permit
a study of the soil type as a factor in erosion. The next unit of classifica-
tion above the type is the series. Table 6 shows the distribution of erosion
in certain soil series. It is to be noted that, with the exception of the
Hinckley series, the erosion mapped was almost wholly slight or moderate
with little difference among series. With the small acreages represented
in all series except Gloucester, the figures should be considered indicative
rather than conclusive. The comparatively high percentages of moderate
and severe erosion of the Hinckley soils is in accordance with general
field observations. This series is characterized by rather siiarp slopes
and soil poorly adapted to grasses.

Table 6. Distribution of Erosion Classes in Certain Soil Series.
(Acres and percentage given.)

Soil Series

Erosion

None

.\pljaient

Slight

Moderate

Severe

Total

Gloucester

Acres

11.1

3845.9

704.0

3.1

4564.1

Percent

0.2

84.3

15.4

0.1

100.0

Sutton

Acres

17.9

905.9

148.9

0.0

1072.7

Percent

1.7

84.4

13.9

0.0

100.0

Brookfield .......

Acres

0.0

640.1

63.4

0.6

704.1

Percent

0.0

90.9

9.0

0.1

100.0

Charlton

Acres

0.0

1122.3

87.1

0.0

1209.4

Percent

0.0

92.9

7.1

0.0

100.0

Merrimac

Acres

0.0

870.1

74.3

0.0

944.4

Percent

0.0

92.1

7.9

0.0

100.0

Hinckley

Acres

0.0

232.5

479.9

15.6

728.0

Percent

0.0

31.9

66.0

2.1

100.0

Additional Factors Affecting Land Use

Other natural factors important in determining land use are those affect-
ing soil moisture, and, to a less extent, the cheinical characteristics of the
soils. These factors are more or less definitely associated with soil type,
but there are also significant variations within the soil types. Factors

LAND TYPES OF MASSACHUSETTS 9

affecting soil moisture and chemical characteristics were not specifically
treated in the survey reported, but they will be discussed briefly here.

Most Hinckley soils are excessively drained and, therefore, are subject
to drouth. They are also low in native available plant food. Because of
these characteristics the use of Hinckley soils for agricultural use is
hazardous. Poorly drained soils have very limited agricultural use. Soils
of this nature having definite characteristics are given special series desig-
nations, such as VViiitmaii. (iloucester fine sandy loam generally has
medium moisture relations, being neither poorly nor excessively drained,
but there are exceptions to this.

Massachusetts soils have been developed under a cool, humid climate,
and are, therefore, generally deficient in available bases, particularly in
the upper layers. This is a characteristic which to some extent affects
land use but more generally affects the practice followed after the choice
of use has been made. It is generally necessary to add lime and fertilizer
supplements to Massachusetts soils for successful cropping. Some soils
require more of these supplements for a given crop than do others, and
there is also a difference in crops in their requirements for lime and
fertilizer.

Classification of Land for Use

There are many methods for the classification of land, and the objectives
in land classification are numerous and varied. Any method which ac-
complishes the purpose for which it was intended may be called good.
Agronomists and others interested in land use seek a method of land
classification which has practical application and is developed on a scien-
tific basis, but is not so technical as to require a trained technician for
its interpretation or application.

The classification of land according to soil type has received a wider
application in the United States than any other method which has had
agricultural use as its objective. Massachusetts has been entirely sur-
veyed as to soil type, and there is niuch valuable information regarding
soils and their use in the reports of the survey. These surveys have been
made at considerable cost to the State and Federal Governments. There-
fore, any method of land classification which can be based largely or
wholly on the soil survey has certain obvious advantages over others
which make little or no use of this survey.

In the past the fullest use possible has not been made of the information
supplied in the reports and the maps of the soil survey, by those without
special training in soil technology. This has been due partly to the lack
of technical training by those having need of the information, and partly
to the failure of those who wrote the reports to make the necessary inter-
pretation of their findings. Soils have recognizable morphological char-
acteristics which make it possible for a good soil surveyor to differentiate
types which, though perhaps highly significant from a pedological view-
point, have little or no significance from the standpoint of agricultural use.
Soils may well be subdivided in great detail for scientific purposes, and
then recombined into groups, or land types, for practical utility.

Possibly in the light of future research the significance of certain soil
characteristics not now understood may be discovered. Consider, for
example, the Gloucester and Brookfield soils. These series have very
similar characteristics related to topography, stoniness, erodibility, soil

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 385

moisture, and content of lime and the common plant nutrients. They
differ in color and the content of easily soluble iron, both of which are
due to differences in the parent rock material of the two series. These
series are at present used for the same types of farming with about equal
success. It is not thought that the color difference is or will be found to
be significant from the standpoint of use. The difference in content of
available iron may be significant, particularly from the standpoint of pro-
ducing crops of high iron content and therefore of greater therapeutic
value in preventing anemia in man or beast.

Natural Land Types

Of the many methods which have been proposed for classifying land for
use, one of the most useful and practicable is that based on the natural
land type.^ A natural land type is defined as a body of land having a
given set of physical, chemical and biological characteristics. In its sim-
plest form a land type may be identical with a soil type or a phase of a
soil type. It may, and usually does, comprise two or more soil types or
phases of them; it may even cut across soil types. It meets the need for
a unit of land which is broader than the soil type, is more restricted than
the soil group, and is capable of areal delineation. A good soil survey is
an excellent basis for a land-type classification, but it is not indispensable;
land types can be mapped directly in the field.

Natural land-type classification is being developed in connection with
county land-use planning work in Massachusetts. This classification is
essentially an interpretation of the soil survey in terms of land use. It
simplifies the soil surve}^ puts the valuable and extensive information
contained in it into a form which can be readily understood by those not
trained in soil technology, and reduces the number of land units to a
workable number. In Essex County 50 soil types were reduced to 13
land types. Soil types or their phases having closely similar natural char-
acteristics are grouped together to form land types. Provided no soil type
is divided between or among land types, the land-type map is as accurate
as the soil-type map from which it is made. In placing the soil types in
land-type categories it is usually necessary to supplement the information
given in the soil survey with some field work.

The land-type classification as developed in Massachusetts is useful
especially in large-scale, or area, land-use planning. The scale on which
the maps are made is 1:62,500 (approximately 1 inch to the mile), which is
the same as that of the soil-type map. This scale is not large enough for
detailed land-use planning on individual farms, but can be used with
facility for such large-scale planning as locating areas suitable for certain
types of farming, delineating areas unsuited to farming, and deterinining
or analyzing causes of problem areas. An example of a natural land-type
classification is that developed for Essex County, given in table 7.^ This
kind of land classification can be developed for each county of the State.
Rarely will the outline for any county be found entirely applicable to
another; each county must be considered individually.

''Beaumont, A.B. The natural land t.viie in land-use planning.

Southwest. See. Sci. Quart. 18 (3):231-234 (1937).

"This classification was developed with the assistance and cooperation of Francis C.
Smith, County Agricultural Agent, and Alton G. Perkins, Instructor in Soils, Essex County
Agricultural School.

LAND TYPES OF AfASSACHUSETTS 11

This classification is based in part on principles established by the study
of natural land characteristics reviewed above. The categories were
selected and defined so that information given in the soil survey reports
could be used to the best advantage. It will be noted that the major
groups are based on positional and topographic relationships, as uplands
and lowlands. Slope, stoniness, and drainage are given considerable
weight; and the several factors determining soil type such as profile ar-
rangement, texture, and content of organic matter are considered. The
non-agricultural group (E) is composed of all land types not suited to
agriculture for various reasons including rough topography, excessive
stoniness, and high susceptibility to drouth. This classification states the
types of farming, but not the specific crops, to which the land tj^pes are
adapted; and it broadly prescribes methods of soil conservation necessary.

Use Capabilities of Land

In planning land-use activities for individual Massachusetts farms a
scale much larger than that used in making the county soil maps is neces-
sary. The United States Soil Conservation Service has developed technics
for mapping farms and planning land use which are being applied effective-
ly in this State. The scale of 1 :7920 (8 inches to the mile) is being used.
First, a map is made showing soil type, physical characteristics of land,
and erosion. With this as a basis a second map showing recommended
practices of land use is then made.

As a further aid to land-use planning, the Soil Conservation Service has
developed a system of land classification based on land-use capabilities.
"Classes of land according to use capability are based on the physical
land factors together with their environment and expressed in terms of
the restrictions in use or practices and measures necessary for the most
intensive utilization that is consistent with the preservation of the soil
and its plant cover. Eight classes of land according to use capability are
now recognized. The classification is national in scope, designed to meet
the conditions throughout the country. . . . Seldom, if ever, will all eight
classes be represented in one area."^

For Massachusetts conditions six categories of this classification ajjpear
to be sufficient. They are as follows:

A. Suitable for cultivation

I. Without special conservation practices.

II. With simple conservation practices.

III. With complex or intensive conservation practices.

. IV. Suitable for occasional or limited cultivation.

B. Not suitable for cultivation.

Vg. Suitable for permanent grassland.
Vw. Suitable for woodland.

In order to show the applicability of this method of classification to
Massachusetts conditions the soil types of Essex County have been ar-
ranged according to their use capabilities, which are given in table 8.

^From Field Memorandum S.C.S. No. 848-B, Sept. 28, 1940.

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 385

Table 7. Natural Land Types of Essex County, Massachusetts

A. Uplands derivrrl from glacial till; topograiihy undulating to liill\'.

1. Soils of niediuiii texture, good drainage, and few stones; licst soils of A group.
Suitable mainly for general farming, dairying and orcharding; selected small areas
good for market gardening and small fruits. Sloi>es average abotit 6 per cent;
erosion control measures generally necessar.y; simjde measures such as striji cro]i-
ping and contour planting usually siiffioicnt ; some land too steep for successful
cultivation.

Gloucester loam

Gloucester fine sandy loam

Gloucester fine sandy loam, gravelly phase

Coloma loam

Coloma fine sandy loam

Charlton loam

Charlton loam, gravelly phase

Brookfield fine sandy loam

Hollis fine sandy loam

Woodbridge fine sandy loam

2. Same as A 1, except subsoils or substratum more compact; best suited to general
and dairy farming; in favorable cases also orcharding, small fruits and market
gardening. Slopes average about 4 l)er ccnl ; much of the area can be cultivated
without special erosion controls.

Woodbridge loam

Esse.x fine sandy loam

Esse.x fine .sandy loam, gravelly phase

Sutton loam

3. Same as A 1 or A 2 except containing enough stones or ledge to interfere with
cultivation; best suited to pasture or woods; also good for poultry raising. Slopes
average about S per cent ; strip-cropping and contour planting generally suffice for
erosion control on cultivated land; permanent pasture or woods most common.

Gloucester stony loam
Gloucester very stony loam
Gloucester stony fine sandy loam
Brookfield fine sandy loam, stony phase
Hollis fine sandy loam, stony |ihase
Woodbridge loam, stony phase
Woodbridge fine sandy loam, stony phase
Hinsdale stony fine sandy loam
Essex fine sandy loam, stony phase
Coloma fine sandy loam, stony phase

B. Land at intermediate levels, derived from terraces, glacial outwash material; topography
level to hummocky; drainage generally good to excessive.

1. Soils of medium texture; level to undulating; free from large stones; organic
matter and natm-al fertility low, slightly to somewhat subject to drouth; best
soils of B group; best suited to intensive farming, especially market gardening;
also good for poultry raising. Slopes of Merrimac soils average about 2 per cent;
mtich of this type Requires no special erosion control methods; slopes above 2
per cent require contour planting, strij) cropping, or terracing. Slopes of Wenham
soils average about 6 iier rent; terraces are generally necessary under intensive
cultivation. Winter cover crops are especially necessary on this type to check
losses by leaching.

Merrimac fine sandy loam

Merrimac loam

Wenham fine sandy loam

2. Same as B 1 except of coarser texture and more subject to drouth ; uses similar to
B 1. Slopes average about 2 per cent; no special erosion control methods neces-
sary on much of this type; cover crops especially necessary to check leaching
and supply organic matter.

LAND TYPES OF MASSACHUSETTS 13

Merrimac fine sandy loam, gravelly phase

Merrimac sandy loam

Merrimac sandy loam, gravelly phase

3. Soils of medium to coarse texture, hummocky topography, and excessive drainage;
subject to drouth; best suited to woods, hut favored areas may be used for pas-
ture or early market garden crops; also good for poultrj' raising. Extensively used
for sand and gravel supplies. Slopes average about 6 per cent; vvlion cultivated,
complicated erosion control methods are usually necessary.

Hinckley gravelly sandy loam

Hinckley gravelly sandy loam, dark colored phase

Hinckley gravelly loam

C. Lowlands derived from low terraces and recent alluvium; topography level to un-
dulating.

1. Soils of medium to fine texture, level to slightly undulating; first bottom and low
terraces; good for dairy farming, market gardening and small fruits; drainage
needed in some cases; slopes average about 1 per cent; special erosion control
methods rarely necessary.

Orono fine sandy loam
Ondawa very fine sandy loam

2. Soils of fine texture; level to slightly undulating; terraces; good for dairy farming

and in some cases market gardening and small fruit; drainage needed in many
cases. Slopes average about 1 per cent; special erosion-control measures rarely
necessary.

Orono silt loam

Orono silt loam, stony jiliase

Palmyra loam

D. Poorly drained land requiring artificial drainage for agricultural use; texture and
organic matter variable.

1. Soils high in organic matter; in some places potentially valuable for dairy farm-
ing and truck crops. Level or nearly level; erosion control methods may be
necessary in rare instances on Whitman soils.

Whitman loam

Muck

Peat

2. Soils of medium to low organic matter subject to overflow; best use pasture or
hay; some non-agricultural. Level or nearly level; surface erosion control rarely
necessary; control of stream-bank erosion occasionally necessary.

Meadow
Tidal marsh

E. Land of little or no agricultural value; best suited to forest, recreation, wild life

preserves, building sites, etc. Erosion control rarely necessary because of permanent
natural cover or buildings.

1. Soils of coarse texture, level to hummocky topography, and strongly subject to
drouth; low in organic matter and available plant food.

Gloucester stony loamy sand

Hinckley gravelly sandy loam, stony phase

Merrimac loamy sand

Hinckley loamy sand

Coastal beach

2. Land of very rough topography, very .stony or ledgy.

Rough stony land

3. Filled areas of miscellaneous origin.

Made land

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 385

Table 8. Soil, Slope, and Erosion Grouping for Land-use Capability
Classes in Essex County, Mass.

Land Type* Sloie Erosion

or Classes* *

C 1

E 3

Soil (iroup None to Very

Sliiil't Moderate Severe Severe

7 A I u ~ ....

] B II II III

A 1 < BB III III IV IV

C IV IV Vg Vg

'^ D Vg Vg Vw Vw

(A I II

B II II III

A 2 < BE III III IV IV

C IV IV Vg Vg

V D Vg Vg Vw Vg

r A IV IV

J B IV rv Vg

A 3 i BB IV Vg Vg Vw

C Vg Vw Vw Vw

^ D Vw Vw Vw Vw

(A I II III

B II II III III

B 1 < BB III III IV IV

C IV IV Vg Vg

'^ D Vg Vg Vg Vw

(A I II II

B 2 i B II II III III

I BB III III III IV

( BK II II III

B 3 J BBK III III IV Vw

\ CK IV IV Vw Vw

I DK Vw Vw Vw Vw

) A I II

^ B II II III

(A I II

C 2 < B II II III

( BB III III IV

D 1 ^ A IV IV

D 2 A IV

r A Vw Vw , Vw Vw

I B Vw Vw Vw Vw

E 1 ^ BB Vw Vw Vw Vw

C Vw Vw Vw Vw

I D Vw Vw Vw Vw

^ A Vg Vg

B Vg Vg Vw

E2 J BB Vw Vw Vw Vw

J C Vw Vw Vw Vw

L D Vw Vw Vw Vw

; A I TI

^ B II III III

*The land types indicated by the letters and figures belo\\' are described in table 7.
**For percentage range of slope classes, see table 1. K=very uneven, usually hummocky,
land.

LAND TYPES OF MASSACHUSETTS 15

Discussion of Natural Land Types of Massachusetts

First, consider the major groups of land types. Most counties of
Massachusetts will be found to have the largest acreage in the group (A,
table 7) composed of well-drained upland soils derived from glacial till,
and the land (B group) lying at intermediate levels comes second in
amount. The C and D groups are relatively small in all counties in the
State. In Barnstable County the acreage of alluvial soils is so small that
it ma\- well be combined with the C and D groups. In all counties the
last group (E in Essex County), or land of little, or no, agricultural value,
is relatively large, either because of tlie large amounts of rough stony
land and/or of poor grades of Hinckley or Plymouth soils.

The breaking down of tlie major groups into categories significant in
land use is more difificult than the first division. Variations within the soil
series, even within the type, account for some of this dii^culty. Stony
types and phases are usually put in the agricultural group on the assump-
tion that they may be used for pasture. However, some portions of these
soils are too stony for good pasture, and a further breakdown into degrees
of stoniness would serve as a basis for tlirowiiig portions of the stony
soils into tlie non-, or low, agricultural group. The B group is somewhat
easier to differentiate into land types significant in land use because of
marked dififerences in Merrimac and Hinckley soils. There is more dif-
ficulty in subdividing the C and D groups.

This classification does not permit a consecutive numbering of land
t^^pes with respect to their agricultural value — a type of classification or
rating often requested, and one that would have obvious advantages. A
land type or soil type is poor, good, better, or best, onh- with reference
to a particular use, characteristic, or condition. For example, that which
is naturally good for vegetable growing may be poor for dairy farming,
or for forestry or recreational purposes; and first-class land for dairy
farming is valueless for cranberry growing. This classification does, how-
ever, permit some comparative evaluation of land types within the groups,
and this has been pointed out where it is well defined. Upland soils free
of, or low in, stones are the best of that group for general farming and
dairying, and the nearh- level outwash soils of medium texture (Bl) are
the best for market gardening.

Finally, it is to be pointed out and emphasized that this classification
is based on natural land characteristics. In its practical application it
must be used in connection with other factors afifecting land use, par-
ticularly economic and social factors. Unique advantages of location, for
example, may outweigh certain natural limitations. Land poorly adapted
to a given crop because of low fertility and poor water-holding capacity,
may be made productive by the use of large amounts of commercial ferti-
lizers and the use of irrigation water. All such factors must be taken
into consideration in determining the best use of a given piece of land.

This classification and its interpretation have emphasized use of land
for agriculture or forestry; but in a state such as Massachusetts, urban,
industrial, and recreational uses assume great importance and cannot be
ignored. Much of the non-agricultural group and the poorer types of
the A and B groups are highly valuable for such uses. Some fine resi-
dential sections are located on rough stony land, and this type is ex-
cellent for certain kinds of recreation. Most of the gravel pits of the State

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 385

are found in the Hinckley soils of the B3 group. Unfortunately, due ir
some cases to poor planning or in most cases to lack of planning, a con-
siderable amount of good agricultural land has been taken for urban and
industrial uses. Some readjustments in use may be possible; future plan-
ning should take more cognizance of natural adaptability.

Summary

Data on certain natural characteristics of land important in determining
its use were collected from 48 soil types in 17 series on 13,211 acres. Soil
type, slope, stoniness, and erosion were mapped in great detail, which
permits comparisons and interpretations hitherto impossible in this area.
Slope was shown to be an important factor affecting land use in dairy
farming, but stoniness was more important. Erosion was found to be
extensive, only 3.8 percent of the area surveyed showing no erosion, but
slight erosion was by far the predominant type.

Any method of land classification which accomplishes the purpose for
which it was intended may be called good. A method of land classification
which is not so technical as to require a trained technician for its inter-
pretation or application is sought by certain groups interested in land use.
Soil type is one of the important factors determining land use, but it is
not considered the most practicable unit for this purpose. Soil types may
be grouped into natural land types for practical utility.

The classification of land into types based on natural characteristics and
for purposes of utilization is illustrated by means of the categories set up
for one county. This classification is of value especially in connection
with large-scale planning. It is based on the information given in the soil
surveys of the State and a small amount of field work. Since this classi-
fication is a natural one, it must be applied in connection with economic
and social factors.

For detailed land-use planning, as on individual farms, the technic and
classification involving land use capabilities developed by the United States
Soil Conservation Service has certain advantages. An example of the
application of the method of classifying land according to its use capa-
bilities is given.

Publication or this Document Affrovbd bt Coumission on Administration and Financb
3in-5-41 — 6327

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

Bulletin No. 386 December 1941

Rural Youth
in Massachusetts

By Gilbert Meldrum and Ruth Sherburne

National concern regarding the general welfare of our population deserves
some planning, for which studies of this sort may furnish a basis.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

RURAL YOUTH IN MASSACHUSETTS!

By Gilbert Meldrum2 and Ruth E. Sherburne,
Research Assistant in Economics

Twenty years ago, in 1921, more children were born to American parents than
in any other year, before or since. Today, in 1941, those children and the others
born in the years immediately before and after 1921, are young men and women — -
the "older youth." Greater in number than ever before, they represent a sig-
nificant segment of our population ; the kind of people they are will have a profound
effect on the kind of business and industry, religion and government the country
is to have in the jears to come.

These young people were born during or just after the first World War, lived
through a great depression, and emerged as adults in the face of a second world
conflict. Their problems, their needs, and their opportunities are to a large
extent the responsibiUty of young and old alike. Rural policy committees in
Massachusetts, as in several other States, have recognized this responsibility
and accepted its challenge. They realize that a well-rounded and continuing
program for the welfare of rural people should include plans for rural youth.

The study described in this report was made at the request of these rural policy
committees and had two purposes: (1) To gather and analyze information on the
resources, the problems, and the opportunities of rural >outh in Massachusetts;
(2) to create interest among the young people themselves to furnish assistance
in the recognition and solution of their problems.

To do these things efifectively, the work was planned so that rural young people
would have a part in it from the beginning. Most of the field work was done by
\olunteers in the 4-H Service Clubs. In selected rural towns in four counties,
the field workers made a house-to-house survey in an attempt to interview all
boys and girls between the ages of 16 and 25. In addition, boys enrolled in voca-
tional agriculture schools and girls taking vocational agriculture and home eco-
nomics courses in these counties were interviewed. In all, nearly 600 question-
naires were filled out.

The general plan for this project and guidance in the collection and analysis of the data were
provided by Dr. David Rozman, Research Professor of Economics, Massachusetts Agricultural
Experiment Station; and by Dr. O. E. Baker, Walter C. McKain and C. R. Draper of the Bureau
of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture. Grateful acknowledgment
is made to individuals in the Massachusetts Extension Service for their assistance in the study,
and to the young people in various towns lor their enthusiastic participation in the field work.

''junior Sociologist, Division of Farm Population and Rural ^^'elfare, Bureau of Agricultural
Economics. United States Department of Agriculture.

RURAL YOUTH 3

The Problems of Rural Youth

In order to discover the most important needs of the \ oung people, interviewers
asked each to select from a list of 13 personal problems the two that he or she
found most pressing. Their answers are summarized in figure 1.

Economic problems were listed most frequently b\" the boys. Two out of
every five responses had to do with making a living, finding a job, or getting
started in farming. One-fourth of the problems listed by the girls also had to do
with economic welfare. For the total group of young people economic problems
outweighed any other.

Next in importance was the need for more education and for vocational guid-
ance. One-fourth of the problems of the boys and girls had to do with education.
This emphasis upon economic and educational problems reflects a seriousness not
generally attributed to joung people. But it must be remembered that the last
depression struck these young people at an impressionable age. The sobering
effect of the depression years is indicated in their present attitudes.

Figure 1

PERSONAL

PROBLEMS

PERCENT

BOYS

PERCENT

GIRLS

* r^

1 f^ r^

' <i<

&

&

<M

&

ECONOMIC

"i

u y y y L
"111"

! y y
1 1

"1

1

1

1

I

^

1^ r^ 1^ r^

&

&

&

&

i

EDUCATIONAL 23 M

111*

"f

1

1

1

1

r^

f*l f*

&

&

&

&

&

&

SOCIAL

"i

M

■"1

1

f

1

1

1

TRAVEL

4

ii

•If

f^

fl if

ih

m

OTHER

-1

i 1

"1

1

!

Each symbol represents 5 percent

Personal needs considered most outstanding by the girls ma\' be grouped under
the heading "social." Twenty-nine percent of their responses were concerned
with knowing more young people, developing their own personalities, and en-
joying more entertainment. For boys, on the other hand, social opportunities
did not seem so significant, or perhaps were thought unworthy of male con-
sideration.

One out of five of these young people checked "opportunity to travel" as one
of their major problems. The significance of this item is difficult to measure,
and probably depends upon when and why the desire to travel comes to the front
before the various economic, educational, and social problems. A partial explana-
tion may be found in the quest for new experience; but, more likeh', the prevalence
of this desire for travel represents a degree of discontent and dissatisfaction which
these young people feel in their home communities, and from which they vaguely
wish to break awav.

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 386

The Employment of Rural Youth

Practically all of the boys and girls who were out of school were employed last
year. Only one of the boys and eight of the girls were unemployed for the entire
year. Not all the jobs were full-time and many of the full-time jobs were of brief
duration. This indicates that underemployment rather than unemployment is
the most serious problem of these young people. As part-time jobs and summer
cmplo\ment are significant for rural youths of all ages, vocational and other
educational training should be adapted to meet these needs.

Opportunities to find employment varied greatly among the local communities
studied. In towns adjacent to urban centers such as Worcester, New Bedford,
Taunton, Attleboro, and Pittsfield, chances for off-farm employment were greater.
In the more isolated farming communities considerable variation was found in
the number of available farm jobs, either at home or on farms away from home,
and in the average rates of pay for farm work. These differences were reflected
in the \arying degrees to which the young folks wanted to leave their home
communities. The girls, for example, were more an.\ious to get to the city,
because they had fewer chances for rural employment than the boys.

Figure 2
PLACEMENT METHODS

FRIENDS OR
RELATIVES

PERCENT

BOYS

1 1

8

i

PERCENT °""-S

,, ft ft ft ft ft ]

¥ ? ? ¥ I 1

PERSONAL
APPLICATION

i

"II

SCHOOL OR
TEACHER

4i

4'

OTHER
METHODS

-|

¥ t

Each symbol represents 10 percent

Apparently only the most meager placement service was available for these
young people. Two-thirds of the boys and more than half of the girls obtained
their jobs through friends or relatives. A fifth were placed by school teachers and
about the same proportion obtained their jobs by personal application. Voca-
tional agricultural schools provided a fairly effective placement service for their
students. Although much can be said for the spirit of individualism that it un-
doubtedly fosters, this reliance upon a small circle of friends and acquaintances
can not best serve the placement needs of the majority of boys and girls in a
community. Obviously considerable attention should be given to the placement
question, as a young person's first job frequently determines his lifework.

Most of these young people were dissatisfied with their present employment and
only one-fourth believed their jobs afforded opportunities for advancement.
One possible explanation lies in the small incomes they received. Only six youths

RURAL YOUTH 5

(boys) earned more than $1,000 during the year preceding this study. Of the
boys in school (but not in vocational training schools), half made less than $100;
the rest, between $100 and $400. The girls in school earned even less. Three out
of five earned nothing, and 87 percent of the remainder reported an income of
less than $100.

Of the boys not in school, a third earned less than $200; another third, between
$200 and $600; and the remainder, something over $600. .For the out-of-school
girls, $800 seemed to be the maximum income toward which anyone could aspire;
only one received more than this amount during the year.

Most of the jobs wanted by these young people were well witiiin the limits of
possible achievement. Nearly all the boys in vocational agricultural .schools
were looking, quite naturally, to farming and related occupations for a lifework.
Of the rest, more than half wanted work in agricultural or mechanical trades.
Sixteen percent of the boys in school, and 5 percent of those out of school had ex-
pectations of becoming professional men.

Ambitions of the girls stil! in school were somewhat higher than those of the
girls whose formal education was completed, perhaps because those in the latter
group realized that further training for them v/as unlikely. Principal occupational
choices of the school girls were clerical and secretarial work, nursing, and teach-
ing. Less than a fifth chose homemaking. Of the girls not in .school, nearly one
in four gave homemaking as her choice, and one in five chose clerical or secretarial
work. Such occupations as mill work, domestic help, and salesgirl were listed
frequently by this group of girls, but not at all by those in school.

Both boys and girls apparently were vague as to the requirements of their
chosen occupations and the difficulties of getting started in them. But the ones
who were in school showed more optimism than those out of school regarding
the chances of getting the jobs they wanted. This emphasizes the need, already
sensed by the young people, for vocational guidance adapted to their situation.

Of the boys planning to enter into farming, most of those who answered the
question indicated that .savings from wages would furnish the necessary capital.
Although some boys mentioned working on other farms, the majority regarded a
factory job as the best method of getting started. They planned to start out in
a small way and continue on a part-time basis.

The Education of Rural Youth

From responses given by these rural youths to the questions concerning educa-
tion, It was possible to obtain a description of their opportunities for formal
education, some measure of the degree of satisfaction derived from their schooling,
and some idea as to their plans and needs for the future.

Most of the young people had some high-school training. Those still in school
numbered 386, and of these 4 were in grammar school, 6 in post-high-school
business training, 10 in college, and the rest in high or vocational schools.

About half of the 175 out-of-school boys and girls had the equivalent of a high-
school education. Only four had attended college. The remainder had com-
pleted grammar school and in some instances one or more years of high-school
training. It should be remembered that only young people still living in rural
areas Were studied and that a disproportionate number of high-school and college
graduates may have left their home towns.

To the question "Do you think your schooling has helped or will help you to
get ahead?", 92 percent of the boys, and 88 percent of the girls answered "yes."

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 386

When asked how education had helped them, answers were vague, but three out
of five indicated that the main thing these boys and girls gained from their ed-
ucation was either general knowledge or the social prestige that comes from
having been to school. Most of the other answers mentioned directly some
specific skill acquired in school, and several stated that vocational guidance was
the chief way in which their education had helped them.

In general, these boys and girls appeared to be satisfied with what their educa-
tion had done for them. None of the boys mentioned what their education lacked,
although six girls noted that their schooling had not prepared them to do anything.

Half of the young people — 50 percent of the boys, and 46 percent of the girls —
said they did not plan to go to school (or back to school) the next year. In general,
those in school were much more certain of entering the next year, than those out
of schopl; and in general, the schoolgirls showed more inclination to continue
in school than did schoolboys. Three-fourths of the girls and two-thirds of the
boys in school planned to continue the next year.

Figure .5

VOCATIONAL COURSES WANTED

m

1

\ j |ecvs| i j

(tC -

v/z/mv/z/M

^^i

\ \

^^ji

\ 1

1 pH Vo(.*UonAl Asncullural boys

SSIONAL

za

^

p7^ Oth»r

'y////////////A

1

—

v//////////////////////m//A

\ 1

3

1

'■'7///////////A

3

■■"isctoJl

^H

& 0.to/=c/,o»/

3

.i'i

3

__.

Of the youths who did not plan to return to school, not all were staying out
from choice. One-fourth of the boys and girls indicated that they wanted to go to
school the next year, but would be unable to attend. Lack of money, and the
necessity of working were mentioned frequently as reasons.

Practically all of the reasons given for continuing in school showed a strong
desire on the part of these young people for specific vocational training. They
were dissatisfied, in other words, when high schools did not provide such training,
and their desire for more education was concerned mainly with the chances for
acquiring skills to be used in the occupation of their choosing.

RURAL YOUTH 7

Two-thirds of these >oung people said they would enroll for vocational courses
if such courses were made available. This means that many young people not
intending to go to school would be interested in taking specific training courses
along some vocational line. The tjpes of training which most interested them
are shown in figure 3. Two out of five boys who said they might enroll for voca-
tional courses if such courses were available, wanted training in some mechan-
ical line — 59 percent of those surveyed by field workers, and 14 percent of the
boys in vocational classes. Of the latter, the great majority were most interested
in vocational agriculture.

The girls' major interest was in commercial courses, both in-school and out-of-
school girls desiring this type of training. Not many of the girls who were still
in school wanted home economics courses, but to the girls who had left school,
such training was considered as important as commercial and business courses.
The girls were definitely interested in professional preparation. Not many
wanted to be teachers, but one girl out of seven showed interest in nurse's training
courses.

The Social Life of Rural Youth

The \oung people's leisure-time pursuits were distributed over a wide field,
with moving pictures and the radio furnishing the most frequent diversions.
Nine out of 10 bo>s and girls listened to the radio at least once a week, and 3 out
of 7 attended more than one "movie" a week.

Some differences were found between forms of recreation enjo>ed by those in
school and those out of school. In general, the in-school youth patronized the
more informal leisure activities such as reading, riding, engaging in hobbies,
participating in sports, and dancing. Out-of-school youths depended more upon
the commercialized forms of recreation : moving pictures, public dances, bowling,
and roller-skating.

One in 10 of the youths did not belong to an}- organization. Most young people
belonged to one or two organizations, and the girls had, on the average, a wider
membership than the boys. Church, Sunday School, and young people's church
groups were listed most frequently, and yet one out of four boys, and one out of
seven girls reported having taken no part in church groups during the last year.
All other organizations together were not attended by more than one-half the
boys or two-fifths of the girls.

The out-of-school group was apparenth' not being reached either by religious
or by secular organizations. This would seem to indicate that if social groups,
in the churches or out of them, are to continue to attract young people, programs
must be developed that will interest the older group of young folks.

The Organizational Needs of Rural Youth

Apparently these young people felt the lack of programs especially adapted
to their needs. A fourth of them said there was no organization in their com-
munity that had a program for young people. Among the replies of those who
thought otherwise, the 4-H Club, the Grange, and the churches were mentioned
(in that order) most frequently.

A program which would attempt to meet more fully the needs of older rural
youth was thus definitely indicated, but opinion was divided as to whether there
should be a completely new organization. Just half of the group wanted such
an organization, slightly more than a third did not feel the need of any, and the

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 386

others were undecided. The girls, particularly the out-of-school girls, felt the
need of a new organization most strongly.

To the question as to what types of new programs the}' would like to participate
in, the answers showed that purely "social" activities, including dancing, were
not thought to be important. Only 7 percent of the responses were concerned
with this type of social program. Economic interests, on the other hand, received
by far the most attention, and after these in importance came programs con-
centrating on the improvement of personality. Evidently the young people
wanted a type of social organization which would help them to overcome their
problems — and their problems are principally economic.

Recommendations

The specific needs of these youths vary to some extent in the different towns,
so that definite recommendations will depend on facilities already available in
the local community. The young people themselves are in the best position to
determine the application of programs designed to meet their needs. A program
which would enlist their support in this way would go a long way toward filling
one of their most basic needs— the opportunity to gain recognition and a sense
of their own importance.

More vocational training is wanted by these young people. Repercussions
of the National Defense Program have shown vividly that this is more than a
personal need. An expanded vocational training program for rural youth is
imperative.

Present social organizations are not satisfying the needs of the older rural
youths. The 4-H Service Club or the Grange might be expanded to meet these
requirements. Any organization trying to meet the needs of this group should
offer a program designed to help young people in the solution of their economic
and vocational problems. In the past too much attention has been given to
recreation.

Adequate placement service is lacking for rural young people. The study has
shown plainly the need for more adequate means of finding employment oppor-
tunities and allocating individuals to them. It might be desirable for high-
school teachers to discuss public and private employment services in their classes.

It must be recognized that the needs of the young people are interrelated, so
that one need can not be touched without influencing others. For example,
the desire for more and better job opportunities on the part of these youths will
almost certainly be affected if the desire for more vocational training is satisfied.
Moreover, these young people have shown that they want their social organiza-
tions to fit in more closely with their struggle to achieve recognition in society.

This brings out at least one further consideration. In getting jobs, the young
people showed that they have had to be largely self-reliant. Why not let them
pool their self-reliance? A young people's community placement bureau, even
though difficult to set up, would have the advantage of striking at several basic
problems. It would provide the needed placement service, and would also enable
the youths to demonstrate their own importance. In finding a place for boys
and girls in our society, methods should be used which will afford them the best
opportunities to work out their own destinies.

Publication of this Document Approved by Commission on Administration and Finance
4M-1-42-8278

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

Bulletin No. 387 December, 1941

Interrelationship of

Land Uses

in Rural Massachusetts

By David Rozman

The extent and signifcance of the various land uses and their relationship to
each other are analyzed with a view to providing a basis for a balanced system
of land utilization.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

INTERRELATIONSHIP OF LAND USES
IN RURAL MASSACHUSETTS

By David Rozman,i Research Professor in Economics

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 2

Sources of information 3

Trend of land utilization in Mass S

Land in farms 5

Improved land 5

Land suitability 8

Factors affecting agricultural land utiliza-
tion 12

Climate 13

Erosion and deterioration of soil 13

Non-resident ownership of land 15

Disappearance of local industries 15

Land values 16

Value of buildings 18

Farm taxation 20

Residential land uses 21

Part-time farming 24

Recreational land uses 25

Water supply areas 27

Page

Airports and flying fields 27

Military camps and areas for defense

activities 27

Highways 27

Woodland 27

The industrial factor 29

Town groupings on the basis of major fac-
tors in land utilization 30

Land suitability 31

Proportion of improved land 34

Density of cows and poultry 34

Proportion of total area in woodland ... 35

Density of population 35

Industrial employment 36

Land values 37

Types of communities and the problems
arising from their patterns of land

utilization 42

Summary and conclusions 48

INTRODUCTION

Until very recently, studies in land utilization with their conclusions and rec-
ommendations were often of only remote or academic significance as far as bring-
ing about any changes was concerned. The most eflfective legislative measures
were undertaken in the field of conservation where, through public purchase or
governmental regulation, it was possible to provide for better care of certain rural
land areas. As for the bulk of agricultural land resources, the matter was left
primarily to various educational measures where action was very slow and in
most cases rather uncertain.

This condition has been radically changed with legislative recognition of various
action agencies dealing with the most important phases of agricultural activities
in rural areas. The range of situations affected by the newly created or existing
agencies, considerably reinforced, extends from the conservation and improve-
ment of soil to the whole range of human relationships involving ownership,
tenancy, land settlement, and other similar factors affecting the life of individuals
and the character of the community. Moreover, with the organization of agri-
cultural land-use planning committees on a town, couuty and state basis, the
whole matter of land-use relationships has been put on a realistic basis with the
possibility of effecting needed readjustments in cooperation with governmental
action agencies. Under these conditions a greater opportunity is offered to the
research worker to make immediate and direct application of the results of his
study.

In the light of existing opportunities in the field of land utilization, it seems that
two lines of research are of special significance. One is concerned with the clear
presentation of the important factors entering into the picture of land uiilization^

*The author wishes to acknowledge the contribution made by Ruth E. Sherburne and Gilbert
Simpson of the Massachusetts State College in the work of classifying land areas as presented in
this study.

LAND USES 3

dealing largely with topography, climate, the classification and preponderance of
different types of soil, the character of land use, and the type of settlement in
rural areas. The other concerns the fundamental relationships between agri-
cultural and other uses of land, which are of special importance in the rural areas
of an industrialized state like Massachusetts.

The physical conditions of land resources, with diversity of soils, topography,
and climate, and the proximity to densely populated areas have combined to
form a complicated pattern of land utilization in rural areas of Massachusetts.
Agricultural land uses, moreover, are determined in many cases by the type and
character of other kinds of land utilization which have come into prominence
over a period of time. To determine the present condition of agricultural land
use in the State it is important, therefore, not only to indicate various factors
directly related to farming, but to analyze the elements of interdependence
existing among a number of land uses.

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

In preparation of this bulletin, field studies were made in conjunction with
an analysis of existing basic data pertaining to land utilization. Beginning with
the Census of 1925 statistics on important agricultural matters became available
by minor civil divisions. This gave an opportunity to gain a clearer insight into
the agricultural situation by the analysis of individual rural commimities. For
an exhaustive study of land utilization in a locality it is, however, essential to
have more than these general data. The basic problem is to know how different
land uses are distributed in the community and where they are located. This
involves detailed mapping of agricultural and other important land uses in rural
areas. Such mapping was accomplished through the organization of and partici-
pation in a land-use survey sponsored by the State Planning Board and carried
out by WPA workers throughout the entire area of the Commonwealth.^ (Boston
area and the Islands excluded.) The most important contribution of this survey
lies in the fact that for individual communities and the State as a whole the use
of land areas, mapped out on the scale of two inches to the mile, became definite
as to the location of crop land, plowable and unimproved pasture, woodland, and
settled and water areas. On a separate map of the same scale is indicated the
location of farms as well as of other buildings in rural areas, including schools,
churches, hospitals, stores, and other public and private structures.

Another important source of information was the soil survey made by the
United States Soil Service over a period of years. In view of the diversity of
soil types with their exceedingly scattered distribution in various areas it has been
difficult to form a clear picture of their relative significance as presented by the
extensive classification cf the United States Soil Survey. In the present study
all the soil types were divided into seven major groups largely on the basis of
their texture and topography. By way of further simplification these groups
were subdivided into areas of good, medium, or poor suitability for agricultural
purposes. (Table 1) While for the purposes of agronomy and farm management
such simplification may not be recognized as of sufficient accuracy or detail,
from the standpoint of determining broad land-use relationships it appears to be
of definite value and of sufficient scientific accuracy. On this basis the major
types of land were mapped out for each town in the State.

-By sponsoring and carrying out this survey, the Massachusetts State Planning Board, under the
chairmanship of Miss Elisabeth M. Herlihy, provided a real working basis for effective planning in
rural areas of the State.

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Table 1. — Percentage of Land in Three Major
Groups Classified on the Basis of Soil and
Topography, by Counties

; Suitability for Agriculture

County

Good Medium Poor

Barnstable 1.8 29.2 62.8

Berkshire 23.0 27.0 46.0

Bristol 34.0 12.0 44.0

Essex 26.7 22.4 37.1

Franklin 21.3 33.7 40.8

Hampden 24.2 24.2 42.2

Hampshire 27.6 23.1 43.8

Middlesex. 21.6 33.3 28.7

Norfolk 29.1 14.0 42.5

Plymouth 20.8 11.0 57.7

Worcester 30.0 32.7 28.7

As a part of the classification essential for the background of land utilization
analysis, two other maps were worked out: one indicating topography by means
of contours adapted from the United States Topographical Survey, and the other
showing in detail the location of roads and waterways in the individual towns.
With all this detailed information available in a series of five maps for each com-
munity, and with all factors presented on the same scale, it has become possible
to study the fundamental land-use relationships in a most comprehensive and
definite form. These basic data have been further tested and analyzed in local
land-use planning committees and field studies in individual communities.

Chart I. Land Utilization in Massachusetts
Based on Land Use Survey of 1936-38 and U. S. Census, 1940

LAND USES 5

TREND OF LAND UTILIZATION IN MASSACHUSETTS

The first factor that comes to the attention in a land utilization study in Massa-
chusetts is the general trend in the amount of land used for agricultural purposes.

Land in Farms

In 1880, when agricultural land utilization was still high, about two-thirds of
the total area of the State was included in farming, as compared with the present
farming area of only 38 percent. This means that more than 1,400,000 acres of
land, representing almost 26 percent of the total area of the Commonwealth,
went out of agricultural use. In 1880 the highest proportion of land included in
farms was found in Hampshire, Franklin, and Berkshire counties, each having
about 80 percent of its total area in farming. (Table 2) At the present time
Hampshire and Franklin counties maintain their lead, but the proportion of land
in this classification amounts to about 50 percent only. The smallest proportion
of land in farming in 1880 was in Barnstable County, which retains the same
position at the present time, but the percentage now is only 13.9 as compared
with 29.5 in 1880.

Improved Land

The changes in total land area included in farms present only a partial picture
of the situation. Of much more significance is the trend in improved land which
is actually being utilized for agricultural purposes. In this direction the decline
has been much more pronounced. From 2,128,311 acres or 41.4 per cent of the
total area of the Commonwealth, it has declined to 787,815 acres or 15.5 percent.

Chart II. Land Classification in Relation to Suitability for Agricultural Utilization

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

SETTLED -^

BARNSTABLE

B ERK5HIRE

BRISTOL

ESSEX

FRANKLIN

HAMPDEN

Chart III. Land Utilization in Massacliuseits by Counties
Based on Land Use Survey of 1936-38 and U. S. Census, 1940

LAND USES

SWAMPS

AMD WASTE

©.3 "7.

HAMPSHIRE

MlDOLELSEl X

A.Z'f,

Z-ff^

NORFOLK

PLYMOUTH

I Swamps

AND WASTE

WORCESTER

Chart III. Land Utilization in Massachusetts by Counties
Based on Land Use Survey of 1936-38 and U. S. Census, 1940

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Table 2. — Percentage of Total Area Suitable for Agriculture, in
Farms, and in Improved Land

Percent of Percent of Total Percent of Total

Land Suit- Area in Farms Area Improved

able for

County Agriculture 1880 1940 18S0 1940

Barnstable 31.0 29.5 13.9 12.7 5.0

Berkshire 50.0 79.2 38.2 51.9 16.2

Bristol 46.0 50.6 41.5 26.4 19.0

Essex 49.1 56.9 35.6 39.9 17.2

Franklin 55.0 79.2 49.2 52.0 16.5

Hampden 48.4 74.1 43.7 45.4 14.6

Hampshire 50.7 80.5 51.4 54.8 22.3

Middlesex . 54.9 72.3 34.2 49.1 16.1

Norfolk 43.1 45.6 20.8 27.0 8.6

Plymouth 31.8 44.1 38.0 19.4 12.0

Worcester 62.7 70.9 42.1 47.1 17.7

The greatest decline in the proportion of improved land occurred in Berkshire

County, the percentages for 1880 and 1940 being 51.9 percent and 16.2 percent
respectively. At present the highest percentage of improved land, 22.3, is found
in Hampshire County; the lowest, 5.0, in Barnstable County.

Land Suitability

The decline in the amount of total and improved land in farming raised the
question whether the land withdrawn from agriculture was of a type that was
not suitable for cultivation, because of the nature of the soil or topography. ^By
analyzing the tj'pes of soil and the character of the topography from the general
data presented in the United States Soil and Topographical Surveys, it was pos-
sible to work out a general classification of suitability of land for agricultural
purposes for every community of the State and map these areas in considerable
detail. In this way the percentages of land areas suitable for agriculture were
obtained for each county. By examining Table 2 it will be observed that these
percentages are in most cases in close correspondence with the amount of land
actually used for agricultural purposes in 1880. This confirmation may serve as
substantial evidence that the method of land classification employed is fairly
accurate and may be used as a starting point for the analysis with a fair degree
of reliability.

Berkshire, Franklin, Hampden, Hampshire, and Middlesex counties had reached
the point of utilizing practically all the land suitable for agricultural development.
As a matter of fact, in Berkshire and Hampshire counties the percentage of
improved land was slightly higher than that indicated as suitable for agriculture.
This may be partly accounted for by the fact that some of the good land areas
have been utilized for residential or industrial purposes since that time. In
contrast with other counties, a rather low degree of land utilization for agricul-
tural purposes existed in 1880 in Norfolk, Bristol, Plymouth, and Barnstable
counties. Evidently residential and recreational influences due to their location
and proximity to the Boston settled areas were already exerting their power. It
must be stated also that land classification in these counties does not come up to
the same level of reliability as in the other counties. These were the first areas
where the United States Soil Survey was made in Massachusetts and the types of
soils were not always correctly designated.

LAND USES 9

Considering the State as a whole, about 50 percent of the total land area,
according to the adopted classification, is designated as suitable for agriculture.
The actual use of land for this purpose does not amount at the present time to
more than 15 percent. For the purposes of detailed study in individual com-
munities the major tjpes of land have been mapped by towns. The percentages
of land suitability by individual towns are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. — Percentage of Land Suitability by Towns

Town or
Citv

Suitability for
Agriculture

Good

Me-
dium

Set-
tled Water
Poor Areas

Town or
City

Suitability for
Agriculture

Good

Me-
dium

Set-
tled Water
Poor Areas

Barnstable.. 1.4

Bourne 0.0

Brewster 0.0

Chatham. . . 1.4

Dennis 6.2

Eastham ... 1.5

Falmouth... 0.0

Harwich. ... 7.9

Mashpee ... 1 .3

Orleans 5.1

Provincetown 1 . 4

Sandwich ... 2.8

Truro 0.0

Wellfleet.... 0.0

Yarmouth. . 2.0

Barnstable County

40.2

14.8

31.4

2.0

48.1

44.5
49.5
2.6
18.5
10.1

0.0

43.3
1.4
4.4

53.6

52.0
80.9
57.4
90.7
37.7

51.3
46.1
77.2
71.6
81.9

90.8
49.8
93.6
92.8

35.8

Berkshire County

Adams 11.8 27.7 57.5

Alford 33.3 30.9 35.8

Becket 14.2 15.7 67.1

Cheshire... . 21.4 32.3 43.4

Clarksburg .11.5 28.7 56.2

Dalton 17.6 28.7 50.3

Egremont . . 43.0 22.4 32.1

Florida 7.4 32.1 59.7

Great Bar-

rington... 19.0 27.5 46.5

Hancock ... 15.7 13.8 70.3

Hinsdale ... 21.9 40.8 33.4

borough. .37.1 22.0 37.6

Lee 28.8 11.0 53.4

42.0
28.1

Lenox. . .
Monterey
Mount
Washington 0.0
New Ashford 7 . 6

New Marl-
borough. . 27.6
North Adams 16.5

Otis 7.8

Peru 4.0

Pittsfield . . .
Richmond .
Sandisfield . .

Savoy

Sheffield

Stockbridge .

47.5
50.0
11.8
8.2
48.1
32.9

22.6
26.8

17.8
18.4

36.7
16.9
37.9
47.5

16.2
25.8
30.3
39.6
23.8
29.2

31.1
41.9

81.7
74.0

35.1
51.7
48.5
48.3

14.0

22.5
56.2
51.9
24.2
27.8

2.3
3.0

.8

3.2
2.3

.3
1.8
5.7

.5
1.2

3.2
1.8

2.9
0.0
.7
1.0
3.0

3.2

1.7

.1

.1
1.6

1.3
4.6

3.8

.7

0.0
0.0

.2

14.4

.2

0.0

18.2
1.1
.8
0.0
2.1
6.5

4.1

1.3

10.4

2.7
5.7

2.4
2.6
6.6
8.1
1.7

4.6
2.3
4.2
1.7
5.5

The County 1.8 29.2 62.8 2.1 4.1

.1
0.0
2.3
1.9

.6

.1

2.3

2.0

2.2

.5
2.5

.5
CO

.4

.5

5.6

.2

4.1

.6

.9

.3

1.8

3.6

Berkshire County — Cent.

Tyringham . 8.7 29.5 58.4 2.3 1.1

Washington. 14.2 23.8 60.5 0.0 1.5

West Stock-
bridge 33.7 16.5 44.3 4.0 1.5

Williams-
town 39.2 22.8 36.2 1.5 .3

Windsor 14.7 44.8 40.1 0.0 .4

The County 23.0 27.0 46.0 2.6 1.4

Bristol County

Acushnet. . . 42.8

Attleborough 27.6

Berkley 19.3

Dartmouth . 40.9

Dighton. ... 6.0

Easton 47.6

Fairhaven . . 43.5

Fall River. . 27.2

Freetown ... 46 . 1

Mansfield... 35.0

New Bedford 21.7
North Attle-
borough . . 43 . 7

Norton 38.3

Raynham ... 43 . 7

8.1
6.9

36.1
6.4

39.9

2.4
0.0
0.0
7.7
12.0

40.2
53.3
39.2
47.0
49.9

46.5
32.7
35.0
39.4
48.4

4.6

11.3

.3

4.2
1.8

2.1

21.8

24.2

2.3

3.5

5.9 43.7
8.0 46.5
4.9 47.5

4.6
2.1
1.8

Rehoboth..
Seekonk . . .
Somerset . .
Swansea . . .
Taunton. . .
Westport. .

8.0
31.6
24.4
15.8
26.9
62.2

27.8
5.6
28.4
19.9
27.3
2.3

63.3
58.3
23.1
58.7
31.5
30.7

Essex County

Amesbury . . 38.6

Andover 27.2

Beverly 32.8

Boxford .... 25.8

Danvers. ... 43.6

Essex 16.9

Georgetown. 18.8

Gloucester. . .5

Groveland . . 35 . 1

Hamilton. . . 34.6

Haverhill ... 58 . 1

Ipswich 17.6

Lawrence. . . 14.8

Lynn 3.0

Lynnfield ... 19.1

35.0
39.7
7.0
53.6
13.7

6.4

47.8

.8

28.2

24.2

11.2

26.5

7.9

1,2

39.3

8.6
22.7
44.6
16.2

23.2

72.0
28.9
89.5
28.2
35.9

8.1
49.3

2.2
38.2
29.6

9.4
7.6

14.2
2.0

18.1

3.3
3.2
8.2
3.5
3.1

15.0

6.2

68.2

51.0

9.5

4.3

.9

5.1

1.5

2.4

1.4
2.0
13.6
4.5
1.1

1.5 42.1 30.5 4.2

2.1
5.1
2.1

.4
.3
16.3
3.0
2.7
4.0

The County 34.0 12.0 44.0 6.5 3.5

8.4
2.8
1.4
2.4
1.4

1.4
1.3
1.0
5.0

2.2

7.6
.4
6.9
6.6
2.5

10

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Table 3. — Percentage of Land Suitability by Towns— continued

Town or
City

Suitability for
Agriculture

Good Me-
dium

Set-
tled

Poor Areas

Water

Town or
City

Suitability for
Agriculture Set-

tled Water

Good Me-
dium

Poor Areas

Essex County — Cont.

Manchester. 6.3
Marblehead. 10.6
Merrimac. .
Methuen . .
Middleton.

68.5
47.5
15.2

Nahant 5.0

Newbury. . . 12.0

Newburyport 5 . 2
North

Andover. . 42.1

Peabody 28.2

Rockport... 4.2

Rowley 10.2

Salem 3.2

Salisbury ... 6.3

Saugus 12 .3

Swampscott 5.5

Topsfield. . . 37.2

Wenham ... 39.9
West

Newbury 61.2

8.2

3.8

13.2

29.7

38.8

0.0

5.8

31.7

63.5
34.0
8.8
12.8
37,5

21.9
79.3
38.8

22.0

51.1

5.5

7.2
7.2

71.5

1.4

17.5

28.8 21.0 3.8

26.8
2.7

31.6
1.7

37.8

1.9

.3

31.8

13.5

34.3
82.4
57.8
60.0
47.4

44.9
17.5
28.7
37.0

8.6

9.9

.3

32.8

6.1

32.2

76.1

1.9

4.1

Franklin County

Ashfield 35.9

Bernardston 21.5

Buckland... 10.7

Charlemont. 20.7

Colrain 15.3

Conway. ... 15 .9

Deerfield... 47.7

Erving 8.2

Gill 50.4

Greenfield .. 58.9

Hawley 24.4

Heath 44.4

Leverett 11.2

Leyden 34.4

Monroe 10.2

Montague . .
New Salem ,
Northfield ,

Orange

Rowe

Shelburne . . .
Shutesbury ,
Sunderland .

Warwick

Wendell...,
Whately

17.5
7.8

15.5
4.9

32.2

20.8
3.5

28.6
5.9
5.6

46.5

28.2
59.3
43.6
29.4
47.0

43.9
22.9
13.5
34.5
15.5

16.6
29.5

48.5
36.7
38.3

36.2
11.2
16.7
38.9
11.9

36.4
66.1
35.2
42.2
53.4
36.5

35.4
18.2
44.3
47.7
37.0

39.4
23.4
76.2
8.9
11.8

58.7
25.9
39.9

27.8
50.8

38.6
60.3
63.3
49.2
54.7

40.9
29.1
33.1
50.3
40.1
15.2

.6

3.0

.7

.2

12.1

.2
.1
.3
.4
.3

4.5

.1

1.5

4.8

.1

Hampden County

Agawam 59.3

Blandford .. 19.4
Brirnfield. . . 18.0

Chester 16.2

Chicopee ... 16.7
East Long-
meadow . . 65 . 7

17.1
24.0
41.5
19.7
44.7

13.0
52.6
39.7
62.6
8.7

6.6

.5

.4

.6

25.2

0.0

.5
4.0
2.8
1.3

1.6
1.5
6.8

4.3

2.1

.8

.1

2.3

2.4

8.7
.6
.4

5.5

9.7 22.1 1.8 5.2

The County 26 . 7 22.4 37.1 10.8 3.0

.4 .1

.8 .2

.4 1.0

.4 1.8

.2 .5

.2
3.0
1.4
6.0
1.7

.1
.1
.1

.7
.4

3.2
20.6
3.0
2.2
1.1

1.1
1.0

2.8

1.2

.8

1.7

The County 21.3 33.7 40.8 1.3 2.9

4.1

3.5

.4

.9

4.7

4.5 18.8 10.9

Hampden County — Cont.

Granville... 13.9 17.3 66.6 .5

Hampden... 24.6 17.5 57.1 .6

Holland 16.4 48.3 30.1 .7

Holyoke 16.1 6.8 51.5 18.2

Longmeadow 21.5 36.1 19.9 16.3

Ludlow 28.9 14.9 47.6 3.9

Monson.... 16.5 23.5 57.6 2.1

Montgomery 8.1 20.3 70.1 .1

Palmer 17.1 23.3 52.8 4.6

Russell 6.2 18.9 71.3 1.0

Southwick.. 48.8 12.9 35.2 1.1

Springfield.. 10.5 38.2 6.8 40.3

Tolland 9.0 20.1 68.1 .1

Wales 14.9 48.4 33.2 2.2

Westfield. . . 48.0 25.0 13.1 12.5

West Spring-
field 39.2 18.0 17.8 20.5

Wilbraham . 34.2 28.5 34.0 2.0

1.7

.2
4.5
7.4
6.2

4.7

.3

1.4

2.2
2.6

2.0

4.2
2.7
1.3
1.4

4.5
1.3

The County 24.2 24.2 42.2 6.9 2.5

Hampshire County

Amherst 38.7 29.8 24.4

Belchertown 32.1 20.8 42.6

Chesterfield. 21.7 27.1 50.1

Cummington 27.2 31.0 41.1

Easthampton45.5 21.2 20.5

Goshen 20.3 43.5 33.4

Granby 23.5 21.9 53.6

Hadley 57.7 9.2 24.7

Hatfield 39.4 21.1 33.9

Huntington. 17.3 19.7 60.0

Middlefield .26.6 0.0 72.8

North-
ampton... 32.5 30.4 26.1

Pelham 16.2 0.0 76.3

Plainfield... 31.1 21.9 46.5

South

Hadley... 28.1 27.6 36.5

Southampton 26 . 0 27.7 44.1

Ware 13.5 33.8 28.9

West-

hampton . 12.3 15.4 70.9

Williamsburg 15.8 42.3 39.5

Worthington 37.6 17.7 44.4

The County 27.6 23.1 43.8 2.2 3.S

Middlesex County

Acton 19.8 49.0 24.8

Arlington... 5.1 18.0 7.7

Ashby 24.9 26.8 46.2

Ashland 14.0 42.7 38.1

Ayer 8.0 42.9 37.0

Bedford 36.6 18.7 39.7

Belmont 8.2 14.4 7.9

Billerica 28.2 40.6 21.5

Boxborough. 27.9 39.7 32.3

Burlington.. 11.3 47.2 35.5

Cambridge.. 7.2 0.0 9.5

Carlisle 11.3 49.5 37.8

6.8
.9
.1

0.0
10.1

.3
3.6
1.0

.7
2.7

.5
.2
1.8
.9
.9

2.3
.8
6.6
4.7
2.1

.1

.5

8.2
0.0
0.0

2.8

7.5

.5

4.2

3.6

.8
6.2

1.4
17.6

.3
2.2
0.0

1.1
.2
.3

5.1

1.3

62.0

7.2

.9

1.2

1.0

4.2

6.5

5.6

4.1

.9

68.0

1.5

7.8

1.9

0.0

.1

5.7

.3

70.9

12.4

1.0

.4

LAND USES

11

Table 3. — Percentage of Land Suitability by Towns — continued

Town or
City

Suitability for
Agriculture

Good Me-
dium

Set-
tled
Poor Areas

Water

Town or
City

Suitability for
Agriculture

Good Me-
dium

Set-
tled
Poor Areas

Water

Middlesex County — Cent.

Chelmsford. 14.8 46.2 26.8 10.4

Concord 25.1 38.3 27.9 5.6

Dracut 27.9 36.3 23.5 10.2

Dunstable.. 14.3 56.9 27.8 .1

Everett 6.2 0.0 4.1 79.4

Framingham 32.4 22.0 18.2 21.0

Groton 38.0 29.0 28.9 2.1

Holliston... 32.2 33.1 29.4 4.2

Hopkinton.. 7.9 36.7 45.9 4.1

Hudson 11.2 65.5 13.8 8.2

Lexington.. 9.5 36.8 40.8 12.0

Lincoln 18.1 39.9 38.3 1.3

Littleton.... 28.2 43.7 19.9 3.1

Lowell 5.2 4.3 4.6 79.7

Maiden 10.0 0.0 15.1 73.9

Marlborough 32 . 8
Maynard. . . 37.0
Medford.... 5.5
Melrose. ... 7.8
Natick 29.4

32.7

28.0

4.8

2.8

26.3

22.0
14.0
35.0
14.6
18.4

7.8
19.0
48.3
73.3
19.0

Newton . . . ,
North

Reading.
Pepperell. .
Reading. . .

9.0

58.1
16.2

Sherborn ... 18.0

Shirley 42.8

Somerville.. 8.0

Stoneham... 10.1

Stow 24.0

Sudbury. . .
Tewksbury
Townsend .
Tyngs-
borough .

23.8
16.3
21.0

44.8
28.8
22.8

39.2
45.8
0.0
13.5
36.0

37.0
40.7
42.4

41.0
10.6
36.8

40.5

8.0

.9

49.7

36.0

32.5
29.8
32.5

3.2

1.7

24.1

.9

2.0

86.5

17.2

2.5

6.2
12.2
3.6

Wakefield... 8.4

Waltham... 8.1

Watertown . 17.8

Wayland ... 27.2

Westford. . . 18.3

7.0

24.0

.7

30.5

31.7

45.6
23.9

31.7
42.9

32.2

35.8

78.0

6.9

4.7

Weston 33.3 22.6 40.8 2.2

Wilmington. 9.8 53.0 26.5 10.5

Winchester. 9.0 20.5 36.5 28.0

Woburn 18.5 22.6 31.0 26.0

Norfolk County

Avon 9.4 28.2 54.0 5.2

Bellingham . 43.6 16.1 36.4 2.2

Braintree... 21.4 11.9 49.7 12.1

Brookline. .. 11.0 3.8 23.5 58.8

Canton 22.1 20.4 52.2 3.4

Cohasset.... 12.0 .2 70.7 15.1

Dedham 16.6 6.0 48 8 26.0

Dover 32.9 13.7 49.3 3.1

Foxborough. 46.3 13.5 31.7 3.6

Franklin.... 45.3 15.1 30.1 8.7

Holbrook . . .
Medfield. . . .
Medway. . . .

18.8 21.8 52.1 7.1

27.9 17.9 50.6 3.0
21.5 31.5 40.5 6.0

1.8

3.1

2.1

.9

10.3

6.4
2.0
1.1
5.4
1.3

.9
2.4
5.1
6.2
1.0

4.7
2.0
6.4
1.5
6.9

12.1 4.2 10.3 71.0 2.4

2.0
.8
.1

1.4
1.4
4.6
9.5
1.5

.5

1.0

.5

18.0 43.5 29.8 3.1 5.6

6.8
8.2
2.7
3.7
2.4

1.1

.2

6.0

1.9

The County 21.6 33.3 28.7 13.6 2.8

3.2
1.7
4.9
2.9
1.9

2.0
2.6
1.0
4.9

Norfolk County — Cent.

Millis 54.8 6.4 35.1 2.9 .8

Milton 37.7 4.4 53.2 4.0 .7

Needham... 14.6 9.9 44.9 28.6 2.0

Norfolk 40.3 18.1 36.9 3.1 1.6

Norwood... 25.9 10.6 39.3 23.1 1.1

Plainville. .. 43.9 14.1 33.8 3.8 4.4

Quincy 5.5 3.8 30.7 59.2 .8

Randolph... 7.4 26.1 53.0 11.1 2.4

Sharon 35.9 16.4 39.1 5.6 3.0

Stoughton.. 27.9 20.1 39.1 12.0 .9

Walpole 32.9 6.4 48.6 9.6 2.5

Wellesley. .. 35.2 6.9 32.0 21.5 4.4

Westwood . 32.3 9.4 48.4 9.1 .8

Weymouth.. 11.8 12.2 39.8 30.5 5.7

Wrentham.. 22.9 24.3 48.3 1.5 2.9

The County 29 . 1 14.0 42.5 12.2 2.2

Plymouth County

Abington. . . 37.5 0.0 51.0

Bridgewater 36.0 1.6 54.3

Brockton. . . 25.4 .2 42.9

Carver 5.1 24.4 66.7

Duxbury.... 19.4 15.0 61.5

East Bridge-
water 28.8 1.8 56.9

Halifax 26.0 6.1 59.9

Hanover 35.3 4.2 52 2

Hanson 27.5 7.4 53.0

Hingham... 14.7 15.1 59.8

Hull 3.1 0.0 8.0

Kingston... 14.3 11.2 66.7

Lakeville ... 15.5 10.7 52.7

Marion 14.8 0.0 79.8

Marshfield. . 11.3
Mattapoisett 7.4
Middle-
borough. . 30.1
Norwell 31.8

Pembroke . ,
Plymouth. . .
Plympton. ..
Rochester. . .
Rockland. . .

32.2
3.1
34.7
39.2
26.2

Scituate 24.4

Wareham... 19.3
West Bridge-
water 33.9

Whitman. . . 23.7

9.7
1.0

5.5
5.2

5.7
30.9
3.6
1.3
1.5

2.0
17.1

' .2
0.0

67.4
88.0

55.6
59.2

50.0
56.7
59.8
52.7
43.4

60.4
54.6

56.1
40.6

9.8

5.0

31.0

.8

3.3

10.1
1.0

7.2
8.0

9.9

85.0

5.6

2.8
5.2

11.0
3.5

4.7
2.1

4.7

3.8

.1

.5

28.0

12.2
5.4

8.1
31.5

1.7
3.0

.5
3.0

.8

2.4
7.0
1.1
4.1

.5

3.9

2.2

18.3

.2

.6
.1

4.1
1.7

7.4
5.5
1.8
6.3
.9

1.0
3.6

1.7
4.2

The County 20.8 11.0 57.7 6.5 4.0

Worcester County

Ashburnham.19.4 13.6 60.4 2.3 4.3

Athol 21.8 16.4 52.6 7.0 2.2

Auburn 37.3 23.7 27.5 7.0 4.5

Barre 26.7 36.4 33.9 1.9 1.1

Berlin 21.6 32.5 42.5 1.6 1.8

Blackstone.. 31.2 40.8 19.9 5.2 2.9

Bolton 29.8 43.7 24.9 .9 .7

Boylston.... 13.9 38.3 26.3 2.3 19.2

12

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Table 3. — Percentage of Land Suitability by Towns— continued

Town or
City

Suitability for
Agriculture

Good Me-
dium

Set-
tled
Poor Areas

Water

Town or
City

Suitability for
Agriculture Set-

tied Water

Poor Areas

Good

Me-
dium

Worcester County — Cont.

Brookfield.. 24.9 36.3 29.9 3.3

Charlton.... 54.9 29.2 12.6 .8

Clinton 11.3 26.3 13.1 23.6

Douglas 14.4 30.9 50.1 1.3

Dudley 46.1 23.2 21.6 5.0

East Brook-
field 32.4 30.9 27.1 4.0

Fitchburg . . 27.3 18.4 29.5 22.9

Gardner ... 31.8 31.6 22.1 11.1

Grafton 37.8 35.5 21.2 3.0

Hardwick... 17.2 26.8 51.2 .9

Harvard 24.0 55.9 15.2 2.6

Holden 26.7 42.6 25.1 3.7

Hopedale... 37.1 27.9 18.8 12.9

Hubbardston 36.6 40.2 19.8 .1

Lancaster... 39.7 42.9 10.2 6.2

Leicester... 39.8 36.7 14.5 2.2

Leominster . 32.8 34.9 18.8 11.1

Lunenburg.. 52.9 16.7 22.9 2.3

Mendon 23.1 46.2 28.0 1.5

Milford 21.8 34.5 32.5 10.8

Millbury.... 31.7 43.4 13.2 8.0

Millville 16.9 39.9 34.2 7.2

New Brain-
tree 37.2 40.3 21.3 .1

North-
borough. . 22.1 51.4 24.0 1.6

Northbridge 28.0 38.5 21.3 6.3

North Brook-
field 45.3 30.0 17.7 3.5

5.6
2.5
25.7
3.3
4.1

3.3
3.3

1.0
6.8

.9
5.9

3.5

Worcester County — Cont.

Oakham 37.8 46.3 14.3 .5

Oxford 42.4 27.9 24.5 2.7

Paxton 65.4 11.8 17.2 .8

Petersham.. 13.7 20.9 44.5 .3

Phillipston.. 26.6 4.8 66.1 .1

Princeton... 24.5 44.6 29.8 .2

Royalston ..15.2 6.2 77.1 .4

Rutland 50.0 33.0 14.7 .8

Shrewsbury. 22.3 44.1 19.2 8.5

South-
borough. . 29.1 32.3 22.7 5.4
Southbridge. 19.5 51.1 19.4 8.3

Spencer 44.3 37.1 13.6 2.4

SterHng 46.4 38.4 11.5 .7

Sturbridge.. 13.4 57.2 23.3 2.0

Sutton 32.7 29.2 32.9 1.1

Templeton.. 29.8 27.1 38.5 2.3

Upton 22.4 56.7 18.2 2.0

Uxbridge. . . 35.4 38.0 22.5 2.5

Warren 21.7 43.9 31.0 2.3

Webster ... 17.0 23.6 30.2 13.5

Westborough 27.2 35.5 30.4 4.5
West

Boylston .27.2 43.2 20.0 2.7

West

Brookfield 26.1 37.3 31.3 2.7

Westminster 35.2 34.8 25.3 .7

Winchendon 38.3 26.7 28.3 3.6

Worcester.. 25.3 15.6 7.0 48.6

The County 30.0 32.7 28.7 4.5

.9
1.1
1.5
5.9

10.5
1.7
2.6
3.0

4.1
4.1
2.3

.7
1.6

1.1

15.7

2.4

6.9

2.6
4.0
3.1
3.5

4.1

FACTORS AFFECTING AGRICULTURAL LAND UTILIZATION

The extent to which land classified as suitable for agriculture on the basis of
soil and topography will be actually cultivated depends on a number of different
factors. From the data already examined it appears that in 1880 the degree of
land utilization was high in most of the counties, and in five important counties
it almost reached the practical limit of physical possibility. It remains to be
seen why there has been such a considerable falling off in the amount of cultivated
land and what major developments are likely to take place in the future. To
account completely for the decline in the total area in farming would require the
consideration of a wide variety of subjects, including such important factors as
technological improvements of transportation and food preservation, a radical
change in the methods ot farm operation and farm living, and a number of com-
petitive factors in land utilization and marketing emanating from other sections
of the country and even from some foreign markets. In dealing with land utiliza-
tion matters in this discussion it is intended to confine the analysis to the con-
sideration of important factors related to the land as they evolved in Massa-
chusetts.

There are two important sets of conditions which effected a reduction in the
amount of cultivated land in Massachusetts. One relates to physical influences
and the other to economic and social factors arising from the use of land.

LAND USES 13

PHYSICAL FACTORS

Climate

From the physical point of view primary consideration should be given to
climate and the length of the growing season. While very great extremes in
temperature in Massachusetts seldom occur for more than a few successive days,
there is a considerable variation from one locality to another. On the average
there are from 40 to 50 inches of rainfall during the year. The length of growing
season is subject to wide variations depending mostly on local conditions, such as
elevation and air drainage, proximity to the shore, and the influence of winds.
A very uneven topography makes it difficult to indicate the length of growing
s^son for any large area.

A rfecent study in Essex County (Map 1) brings out vividly the fact that in-
dividual farms in the same locality have their own climatic problems which must
be closely studied in order to obtain the best results from farming operations.

Even with all these irregularities and variations in climatic conditions, the farm
operators of a few decades ago were able to adjust themselves to a comparatively
high level of utilization of the land resources. Under present-day conditions,
however, when competitive factors are more potent and readjustments in pro-
duction more frequent, climate often becomes a limiting factor. The introduction
of each new crop into a locality is followed by a period of uncertainty during which
some producers find that climatic conditions on their farms are unfavorable and
lead to considerable losses with continued production of the same crop. The
most important factor, however, which has contributed to many failures and the
abandonment of much land, is the attempt of many farmers, especially vegetable
growers, to advance or retard the growing season to meet competition from other
areas. Failure under these conditions leaves the impression that the soil or
climate is not favorable, whereas the true cause is the artificial forcing of a type
of cultivation which runs contrary to the prevailing physical background. Some
areas in the eastern part of the State, therefore, were left out of vegetable produc-
tion and by virtue of their location in high-cost sections were also barred from
less intensive types of agricultural utilization.

Erosion and Deterioration of Soil

With the withdrawal of land from agriculture in Massachusetts going on at a
rapid rate over a period of several decades, there has been a constant increase
in the forested area. The decline in agricultural land use has been traditionally
explained in terms of economic pressure or technological changes. As for soil
erosion and exhaustion, the general notion was that they were only minor factors
in the agriculture of the State, all the more since the major portion of the State
area was under protective forest cover. The first soil erosion reconnaissance
survey made in Massachusetts early in 1930 indicated that very little soil erosion
of much consequence existed in Massachusetts. Another survey made in 1938
indicated that soil erosion was more widespread and more serious than had been
previously recognized. A more detailed study made in 1939 and 1940* came to
the conclusion that accelerated erosion is both more extensive and more severe
than the previous survey indicated. It was pointed out, furthermore, that
erosion formerly was more severe and that many areas now under protective
cover of grass or trees had suffered severe losses in the past. By accepting this
point of view it is possible to explain to a considerable extent the retirement of

'Beaumont, A. B., and Kucinski, K. Conservation of Massachusetts Soils. Mass. State Col.,
Ext. Bui. 193, 1941.

14

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

land from cultivation which has occurred in Massachusetts during the last several
decades. One must, however, guard against accepting this factor as one of ex-
clusive or major importance. Examination of individual areas on the basis of
the soil survey and the land-use survey indicates that in many localities large
sections of land were abandoned where erosion and deterioration of soil could
not have been of as much importance as in some of the areas still retained in
cultivation.

I — IMay 3o-5e.pt. 15, 105 D. SMay io - Oct. i , 140d.
SMay 15-5EPT. i5',iaoD. KSMay 15 - Oct. 15, i5o o.

^MAY 15 - 5ePT. 20^125D.HnAY 1 - OcT. ao, 1 To D.

' f Map 1. Frost Dates and Length of Frost- Free' Season" in Essex County
Prepared by Essex County Agricultural School from information supplied by local farmers

LAND USES 15

Both erosion and general soil exhaustion have been responsible for the with-
drawal of land from agricultural cultivation primarily when combined with
certain economic and social influences. In some areas, like the Connecticut
Valley and a few market garden sections, cultivation has continued in spite of a
high degree of erosion and considerable exhaustion of the natural fertility of the
soil. In these areas high expenditures for fertilizers and other protective meas-
ures have been justified by the level terrain and the possibilities of an intensive
type of farming.

ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL FACTORS
Non-Resident Land Ownership

An important factor which has contributed directly to the withdrawal of land
from agricultural cultivation is connected with the social process which has been
going on in Massachusetts and in other parts of New England ever since the
end of the Civil War. The children of many old New England farmers either
emigrated to the West or settled in the cities. On the death of the parents the
farm was often retained but without active cultivation. It requires only a short
period of time under Massachusetts climatic conditions for land remaining 'un-
attended to grow into brush and woods. Left to itself, even the best quality of
land is ordinarily lost to farming. This process has been further accelerated in
some localities by the purchase of farms by city people for recreational or other
non-agricultural purposes. Such farming land is allowed to grow into woods,
which becomes the predominant cover. That all these conditions have had a
great effect on the trend of land utilization in Massachusetts is attested by the
great extent of non-resident ownership. In a study made in 1932 of 71 towns,
representing a fair cross section of the State, it was found that a little more than
one-third of the total area was owned by non-residents. Almost one-half of the
land owned by these non-residents had no buildings at all. Very little of this
land was being used for farming and practically the entire area is now under
some kind of forest cover.

Disappearance of Local Industries

Traditionally, agriculture in Massachusetts has been associated in most towns
with some type of local industry. With the gradual disappearance of these
industries in many towns, a considerable setback has been given to farming.
According to a recent study the number of industrial employees in towns of less
than 10,000 population has declined since 1895 more than 75 percent.'*

Local industries provided both the opportunity for employment for the surplus
labor of the' farms and a good market for the farm products purchased by the
employees. In many cases, with the disappearance of local industries, a portion
of the employees emigrated to urban centers, and the farmers, not finding a con-
venient outlet for their products, were compelled to curtail their operations.
When new market outlets were not found in a reasonably short time, much of
the land went out of cultivation. Evidences of that condition are found through-
out the State, but especially in some sections of Worcester County.

In some towns, however, in the vicinity of industrial communities or urban
centers, the disappearance of local industries has not necessarily involved the
loss of subsidiary employment for the local population. Better means of trans-
portation have made it possible for a good many people to be employed at some

*Rozman, David, and Sherburne, Ruth E. Historical Trend in Massachusetts Industries,
1837-1933. Mas:,. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 340, 1938. '

16

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

distance from their home communities. Moreover, the growth of residential'
recreational, and other uses of land in rural areas has provided many oppor-
tunities for the local farming population to render various services, including work
with their teams. With the increase in all kinds of construction work in both
cities and rural areas, and the introduction of modern highways, there has been
a constantly increasing demand for such materials as gravel and sand. This has
resulted in more intensive utilization of gravel and sand pits throughout the State
wherever favorable sites are available. This is one type of industrial activity
based on local natural resources that has experienced an upward rather than a
downward trend in the rural areas of the State.

Land Values

In some areas the most important factor contributing to the curtailment of
the amount of land used for agricultural purposes is the demand for land for
other uses, largely related to residential, industrial, and certain types of recrea-
tional activities. When land becomes important for these more intensive uses,
people are generally willing to pay higher prices for land. High land values,
however, in many areas of Massachusetts, are not necessarily associated with
actual use of the land for these more intensive purposes. It is sufficient for people
to recognize that certain areas have a potential importance for other uses which
may come in the immediate future or over a period of time. There may also be
mistaken judgment, and certain areas may never come into the expected use.
Nevertheless, as long as people generally agree that a higher use is forthcoming,
the land values may be out of all proportion to values justified by the present use.
In communities where land areas are aflfected by present or potential considera-
tions for more intensive use, farm land is ordinarily valued at a higher level than
is justified by its agricultural importance.

FRANKLIN

BERKSHIRE

HAMPDEN

HAMPSHIRE

WORCESTER

BR\STOL

ESSEX

MIDDLESEX

NORFOLK

PLYMOUTH

BARNSTABLE

$5L4a

$56.29

$74.77

$60.21

$80.67

$132,36

$167.77

$175.78

$206.8a

$211.51

$228.81

DOLL ARS
100 150

Chart IV. Value of Farm Land and Buildings, per Acre, by Counties
Based on U. S. Census. 1940

LAND USES 17

The chart showing average farm land values by individual counties indicates
a wide variation, with Franklin County at the lowest level of $20.78 and Barnstable
County reaching $107.63 per acre. In considering these average farm land values
it is important to keep in mind that they refer to all the land in farms irrespective
of the cover and use. The land which is actually used for farming operations is,
however, only a fraction of the total land area. (Table 4) For the State as a
whole 40.5 percent of the total farm land is classified as improved. By individual
counties it varies from 31.6 percent in Plymouth County to 48.2 percent in Essex.
Thus it becomes clear that the average value for the land actually used in farming
is at least twice as high as indicated by official figures. The fact that the average
value per acre of farm land in Franklin County is the lowest in the State may be
attributed, to a certain extent, to the small proportion of improved land. More
important, however, is the general location of Franklin County and the low
density of population that place it in a position where present or potential high
land uses exert only a slight influence.

Table 4. — Percentage of Farm Land Improved,
BY Counties

Percent of Farm Land Improved

County

1935 1940

Barnstable 32.5 36.3

Berkshire 31.0 42.3

Bristol 39 . 6 45 . 7

Essex 40.3 48.2

Franklin 25.5 33.5

Hampden 34 . 3 33 . 5

Hampshire 33.9 43.4

Middlesex 41.5 47.0

Norfolk 37.9 41.2

Plymouth 33.0 31.6

Worcester 35.8 42.0

The State 34.5 40.5

The average land value in Berkshire County is only slightly higher than in
Franklin County, or $22.38 per acre. While Berkshire County is even farther
removed from large centers of population and is, therefore, comparatively free
from the influence of higher land uses in that direction, there is an important
recreational factor related to exceedingly favorable local natural conditions.
In addition, the proportion of land in farms classified as improved is somewhat
higher than in Franklin County. In Hampshire, Hampden, and Worcester
counties both the proportion of improved land in farms and the average value per
acre of farm land are on about the same level, whiv^h, in the matter of land values,
is almost 50 percent higher than in the two preceding counties. In general, farm
land values per acre increase going from the western to the eastern part of the
State. In all the counties lying east of Worcester the average value of farm land
is over $50, with Plymouth and Barnstable exceeding $100 per acre. In all these
counties land values reach a very high level by virtue both of greater pressure
from higher land uses and of the fact that land in agriculture becomes more
profitable because of proximJty to densely settled consuming areas. Of these
two influences the first is of far greater importance.

18

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

When the major factor in farm land values is connected with expectations of
future land uses rather than with the current returns in agriculture, it becomes
almost impossible for a producer dependent on the farm for his living to carry
on stable farming. This is especially true in the case of the farmer who pur-
chased his land at an inflated high level and who has to justify his investment
on the basis of his returns in farming.

MIDDLESEX

NORFOLK

ESS EX

BERKSHIRE

PLYMOUTH

HAMPSHIRE

WORCESTER

BARNSTABLE

HAMPDEN

BRISTOL

FRANKLIN

STATE

Chart V. Average Value of Farms and Percentage of Value in Land and Buildings, by' Counties
Based on U. S. Census, 1940

Value of Buildings

The cost of land is only one part of the fixed investment and overhead charges
with which the farmer has to reckon. The other part is represented by the cost
of buildings both for residence and for the needs of the farm. For the State as a
whole, the average value of a farm on the basis of the 1940 Census was $6,647,
of which 41.3 percent represents the value of land and 58,7 percent the value of
buildings. In each county the value of buildings is higher than the value of land.
In Norfolk County exactly two-thirds of the total value of farm real estate is
represented by buildings. From the standpoint of profitability of farming opera-
tions, in some sections of Massachusetts and especially in the eastern counties,
the large investment in buildings in addition to the high cost of land creates a
real problem. It is true that the types of farming prevailing in Massachusetts as

LAND USES 19

well as in the entire northeast, especially dairy and poultry enterprises, involve
considerable investment in farm facilities. It is also true that some of the farms
are of a semi-residential type where people engaged in other lines of activity can
afford to have more expensive buildings for residential or recreational purposes.
Nevertheless, in cases where the farmer must justify his investment on the basis
of farming operations, considerable caution is required. While it is generally
recognized that high cost of land or high cost of farm buildings not fully utilized
may lead to eventual failure, not enough attention has been given to the fact
that in mauy cases failure results from investment in a type of farm house which
is not justified by the particular farming business, especially for a farmer in the
early part of his career.

Table 5. — Distribution of Value of Land and Buildings, by Counties

1940.

Average Value Land Buildings

County of Land

and Buildings Value Percent Value Percent

Per Acre

39.8

33.91

60.2

38.3

81.66

61.7

45.3

91.76

54.7

40.4

30.64

59.6

41.1

44.06

58.9

41.5

46.93

58.5

43.2

99.63

56.8

Barnstable $228.81 $107.63 47.0 $121.18 53.0

Berkshire 56.29 22.38

Bristol 132.36 50.70

Essex 167.77 76.01

Franklin 51.42 20.78

Hampden 74.77 30.71

Hampshire 80.21 33.28

Middlesex 175.78 76.15

Norfolk 206.82 80.38 38.9 126.44 61.1

Plymouth 211.51 104.74 49.5 106.77 50.5

Worcester 80.87 33.13 41.0 47.74 59.0

The State..." 109.40 47.08 43.0 62.32 57.0

Per Average Farm

Barnstable $5,699 $2,477 43.5 $3,222 56.5

Berkshire 7,705 2,965

Bristol 5,105 1,903

Essex 8,349 3,619

Franklin 4,806 1,898

Hampden 5,645 2,266

Hampshire 6,206 2,467

Middlesex 9,166 3,774

Norfolk 9,011 3,025

Plymouth 7,045 3,376

Worcester 5,720 2,262 39.5 3,458 60.5

The State 6,647 2,748 41.3 3,899 58.7

38.5

4,740

61.5

37.3

3,202

62.7

43.3

4,730

56.7

39.5

2,908

60.5

40.1

3,379

59.9

39.8

3,739

60.2

41.2

5,392

58.8

33.6

5,986

66.4

47.9

3,669

52.1

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Table 6. — Average Size of Farms, by Counties, 1940

County Acres

Barnstable 24.9

Berkshire 136.9

Bristol 38.6

Essex 49.8

Franklin 93.5

Hampden . 75.5

Hampshire 77 .4

Middlesex 52.1

Norfolk 43.6

Plymouth 33 . 3

Worcester 70.7

The State 60.8

Farm Taxation

Closely connected with the level of farm land values and investment in the
farm is the problem of taxation. The total amount paid by the farmer depends
both on assessed valuation and on the rate of taxation. The comparison of rates
from one town to another does not tell the whole story, inasmuch as there is a
wide variation in the relationship between assessed valuation and true value.
In Massachusetts there is a considerable difference from one town to another
in this respect, as indicated by a farm tax study made at the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College.^ In a group of ten towns the ratio between assessed value and
owners' value varied from 41.9 percent to 62.4 percent.

Table 7. — Average Tax Rate in Towns Below
10,000 Population, by Counties, 1940

County Tax Rate

Barnstable $27 . 32

Berkshire 30.26

Bristol 32.76

Essex 34.41

Franklin 29.10

Hampden 31 . 62

Hampshire 30.45

Middlesex. 32.05

Norfolk 31.98

Plymouth 30.80

Worcester " 36 . 85

The State 32.16

The average tax rate for towns under 10,000 population, as imposed in 1940,
amounted to $32.16. (Table 7) By counties, the highest average rate was in
operation in Worcester County, with Essex County following; the respective
figures being $36.85 and $34.41 per $1,000 of valuation. The lowest average rate
is recorded in Barnstable County at $27.32.

^Yount, H. VV. Farm Taxes and Assessments in Massachusetts. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui.
235, 1927.

LAND USES 21

When tax rates are considered by towns the extent of variation becomes more
pronounced. They range from $12.90 in the town of Boxborough in Middlesex
County to $53 in the town of Warren in Worcester County. With such variations
in assessments and tax rates, a more adequate measure of the weight of taxation
on agriculture in individual communities will be obtained by taking the amounts
paid either per acre of farm land or on the entire farm, as reported in the Agri-
cultural Census.

Taxes on land and buildings per acre of farm land are indicated in Chart VI.
The variation is from $1.02 per acre in Franklin County to $5.64 in Norfolk
County. In general, individual counties exhibit the same relationships that have
been found in the case of land values.

As shown in Chart VII, the same thing is true of taxes per farm. A notable
exception is Barnstable County, where the tax per acre is close to the highest,
but because of the small average size of farms the tax per farm is nearer to the
lowest payment.

Both investment in farm real estate, as represented by land and buildings, and
taxes paid represent fixed charges in the cost of farm operations and if too high
have the effect of discouraging agricultural land utilization when all the charges
are to be covered from farming operations. In attempting to make recommen-
dations for agricultural land utilization in individual areas, therefore, the level
of land values, the size of fixed investment, and taxation should be given primary
consideration.

Residential Land Uses

With the increase of population in Massachusetts the amount of land used for
residential purposes has been gaining constantly in importance. At the present
time the total area of land used for residential, industrial, and commercial pur-
poses in densely settled areas comprises about 6 percent of the entire area of the
State. The proportion naturally varies from one county to another. The rural
counties in the western part of the State have the lowest percentage of densely
settled area, with 1.3 percent in Franklin and 2.6 percent in Berkshire County.
The eastern counties have the highest percentages, Middlesex, Norfolk, and Essex
counties having 13.6, 12.2 and 10.8 percent respectively. The only exception
to this high percentage in the eastern section is Barnstable County, where the
area so occupied amounts to only 2.1 percent of the county. Bristol and Plymouth
counties each have 6.5 percent of land in settled areas; and Worcester County,
in the central part of the State, has 4.5 percent, somewhat below the State average.

The amount of land in densely settled areas is not, however, under present
conditions the only important indicator of the extent to which land is being used
for residential purposes. In the last two or three decades, with the advent of
the automobile, residential uses of land have extended ii.to rural areas, with
dwellings scattered far and wide. This is true especially in the eastern part of
the State but also in the vicinity of urban centers in other sections. If the use
of land for residential purposes in these widely scattered rural areas is taken into
consideration, the total area of the State devoted to residential uses will be con-
siderably higher than is indicated by the densely settled areas alone. A certain
amount of land formerly in farming, especially in the eastern section of the State,
has become a part of these expanding residential sites.

22

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Average Tax per Acre of Farm Land (owner-operated farms), by Counties
Based on U. S. Census, 1940

DOLLARS
O 1 e 3 4. 5

FRANKLIK

BERKSHIRE

HAMPSHIRE

HAMPDEN

WORCESTER

BRISTOL

MIDDLESEX

ESSEX

BARNSTABLE

PLYMOUTH

NORFOLK

'

$i.oai

$ 1.1£ 1

$1.67 1

sa.oa 1

S2.15 1

$3.79 1

$4.71

1 1

^4.79 1

$4.94 1

$5.06

1 1

- 1

$5.64

r 1

1

Chart VI. Average Tax on Land and Buildings

FRANKulN

BERKSHIRE

HAMPSHIRE

HAMPDEN

WORCESTER

BRISTOL

BARNSTABLE

ESSEX

MIDDLESEX

PLYMOUTH

NOR FOLK

$1.16|

$i.3ei

$1.91 1

$2. 2a 1

$2.42 1

$4.18

$5.14

$5.20

$ 5.ao

$5.34

$ 6.13

DO LL A RS
Z. 3

Chart VIIL Average Total Tax

LAND USES

23

Average Tax per Farm (owner-operated), by Counties
Based on V. S. Census, 1940

FRANKLIN

BARNSTABLE

HAMPSHIRE

PLYMOUTH

BRISTOL

BERKSHIRE

HAMPDEN

WORCESTER

ESSEX

MIDDLESEX

NORFOLK

$100.04

$1 1 8.86

$1£1.96

S126.80

$129.20

$129.57

$1 29. 9 8

$136.44

$186.11

DO LLAR5
100 150

$215.

98 1

$ 2 2 8. 5 9 1

Chart VII. Average Tax on Land and Buildings

FRANKLIN

BARNSTABLE

PLYMOUTH

HAMPSHIRE

HAMPDEN

BRISTOL

BERKSHIRE

WORCESTER

ESSEX

MIDDLESEX

NORFOLK

0 so

DOLLARS
100 150

200

as

S 113.69

1

$123.60

1

$133.85

1

$139.11

$142.55

$14-2.60

$ 151.92

$153.55

$204.61

$238.13

$248.37

Chart IX. Average Total Tax

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Part-Time Farming

Closely connected with residential land uses is the development of part-time
farming. As a matter of fact, the desire to have residence in a rural environment
has been one of the primary motives of a good many people in adopting part-
time farming as a mode of living. Where farming is done on a very small scale,
hardly sufficient to cover the essential requirements of the family in a few products,
the residential element is undoubtedly dominant. Where part-time farming
expands to the extent of not only fully covering the family requirements in a few
essential products but even going into the production of a surplus for sale, the
matter of additional income enters more fully into consideration. In most cases
the decision to settle in part-time farming is based on a combination of several
considerations: cheaper living, more acceptable housing conditions, especially
for a large family, opportunities for better health because of country environment
and more abundant fresh farm products, a certain amount of additional income
combined with the security of owning a small farm — all these enter into the
picture.^

Part-time farming has been on the increase in the State for the last two or three
decades and is still advancing. One type of part-time farming, that carried on
by retired people with an outside income, is slated now for a big increase. On the
basis of recent social legislation a large number of people engaged in industries
and trades will be retiring after a certain age with a definite income through the
rest of their lives. Many of these, either because of a previous rural background
or because of an urge for rural life, will be looking forward to settling on a piece
of land in the country. Some of them are not waiting for the beginning of the
retirement period and are already getting suitable holdings in readiness for that
time. These tendencies have been definitely discovered in the studies of part-
time farming carried on under this and other projects in Massachusetts.

To determine the extent of part-time farming is extremely difficult because of
a variety of types existing in the State and the difficulty of formulating an ade-
quate definition. The most recent complete figures available are for the Census
of 1940. (Chart X) According to this information, 40 percent of the 31,897
farms included in the Census enumeration are operated on a part-time basis.
Some part-time farmers are engaged in outside work on other farms, but the
majority, comprising 84 percent of the total, are employed in industry and other
occupations. The amount of time spent by part-time farmers outside of their own
holdings varies widely. While only 17 percent of them spent less than 100 days
per year in such work, 61 percent of them were engaged in outside activities to
the extent of 200 days or more through the year.

The extent of part-time farming varies with the location and general conditions
in a particular area. There is more part-time farming in towns with industrial
enterprises and in rural areas in the vicinity of industrial centers. With the
improvement of rural roads and better transportation facilities, commuting is
possible for longer distances and part-time farming spreads over wider areas.

Much of the land previously in commercial farming is now being occupied by
part-time farming. More of it will undoubtedly be taken, especially in the eastern
part of the State. Considering the level of land values and the high taxes in the
eastern counties, it is difficult to visualize much farming on a commercial scale
carried on profitably in some of these areas. Inasmuch as the part-time farmer
has an additional income and does not need as much land as an operator engaged
in commercial farming, he can carry the load with much less difficulty. In
addition, to the part-time farmer the expense of maintaining his holding is to a
large extent a part of his housing costs.

*Rozman, David. Part-Time Farming in Massachusetts. Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 266, 1930

LAND USES

25

Z5

PELR CENT
50

ALL FARM5

part-time:

WORK

DAYS OF

PART-TIME

WORK

FULL-TIME
5 9, 9 <%

100

BOTH
^3.5 «/o

y/////////////////

OFF FARM^
84.. Oo^

V//////////

UNDER
100

K/V///////
/1OO- 199,
16.9%^ ^2.5*70
V///////,

Chart X. Pjirt-Time Farming in Massachusetts
Based on U. S. Census, 1940

Recreational Land Uses

The demand for recreational land uses has been increasing, mostly from two
important causes: the congestion of people in densely settled areas, and the rising
standard of living. Both of these causes have been operative in Massachusetts as
well as in the rest of the country for a considerable time. In addition, large areas
of land in Massachusetts are devoted to providing recreational facilities, especially
in the form of summer homes for non-residents.

Opportunities for recreational land uses in Massachusetts are provided largely
by wooded sections of hilly areas with their beautiful scenery, and by water areas
both in the interior aroi.nd numerous lakes, ponds, and rivers, and in the eastern
part of the State along the seashore. The first type of recreation is mainly con-
centrated in the Berkshire area; while recreation connected with water attrac-
tions, even though scattered throughout the State, is of greatest importance on
or near salt water.

Recreational land uses are provided by both private and public sources. From
the standpoint of private land utilization for recreational purposes, the greatest
area is occupied by summer homes and private estates. Summer homes in the
various sections of the State are coming into greater prominence and are likely
to remain an important source of demand for a considerable time. For some
communities the maintenance of summer homes has become the most important
form of land utilization.

Public facilities for recreational needs involving the use of considerable areas
of land are largely connected with parks, picnic areas, playgrounds, and beaches.
Within recent years an important step has been taken by providing recreational
facilities in the State forests. Since the State forests already occupy an area of
almost 200,000 acres, even a limited utilization of some of the forests will mean
considerable extension of recreational land uses.

26

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Most of the recreational land is in the wooded hilly sections of the State or in
areas with the least advantageous conditions for agriculture. The use of these
areas for recreational purposes, therefore, does not offer real competition to
agricultural land uses. Much of this land either never was in agricultural use or
was abandoned prior to the advance of the interest in recreation. Some types of
recreational land uses, however, expanded at the expense of agricultural land
utilization. These are mostly intensive types located near urban centers or areas
adjacent to bodies of water. The high desirability of these areas for recreational
use brings the land values to a point where ordinary agriculture can not very
effectively compete and is eventually driven out. This does not mean, however,
that some of the farming areas adjacent to the intensive types of recreational land
uses do not actuall)' benefit from the existence of readily available and profitable
markets during certain seasons of the year.

It is possible to conclude, therefore, that some areas previously in agriculture
are now in recreational use. This, however, refers only to a very limited amount
of land in special areas.

Because of the endless variety of recreational land uses, including both winter
and summer sports and a combined use of land for recreational and other pur-
poses, it is extremely difficult to determine exactly what proportion of the State
is used for recreation. One thing is certain, that recreational land use is constantly
growing in importance and that various communities have considerable amounts
invested in recreational property. The survey made in 1930 by the Massachusetts
Industrial Commission in cooperation with the New England Council disclosed
these investments in Massachusetts communities. The amounts involved show
to a certain extent the relative importance of recreational land uses in various
parts of the State. The assessed valuation of recreational property amounted to
$190,000,000 in the State as a whole. Essex County led with recreational prop-
erty assessed at about $48,000,000; Plymouth County, with $44,000,000, was
second; and Barnstable County, with $42,000,000, third. The variation by
counties is indicated on Map 2.

MILLIONS OF DOLLARS
□ LESS THAN 3
E3 3-5.9

6-9.9
M 1 0 - 24 9
■ 25 AND OVER

Map 2. Assessed Value of Recreational Property, by Counties
Massachusetts Industrial Commission, 1940

LAND USES 27

Water Supply Areas

With the growth of urban areas and industrial centers in the State, it has
become necessary to keep an increasing amount of land for water-supply systems.
The areas involved are not only those actually linder water but also the surround-
ing territory kept under control for the protection of the reservoirs. Some of the
areas so kept were formerly in agricultural use and some would still be used if
they were not incorporated into the water-supply systems. The largest area of
land under a water system is controlled by the Boston Metropolitan Water
System which extends far into the western part of the State. It has recently been
augmented by the Quabbin Reservoir which caused the disappearance of four
towns and reorganization in the areas of several others. The total area controlled
by the Metropolitan Water System is 98,383 acres, the major portion of which
is connected with the Quabbin Reservoir.

Airports and Flying Fields

Airports and flying fields have come into existence in some parts of the State
and are being developed in others. This is another illustration of new uses for*
land which may take land already abandoned by agriculture as well as areas
which are still valuable for farming.

Military Camps and Areas for Defense Activities

In several towns considerable land areas are being used for military camps.
In connection with the present defense activities more land has been taken for
various military needs, including some sections which are important from the
standpoint of agricultural land utilization. This is not likely to continue beyond
the present emergency, although som.e of the land taken out of farming now is
likely to be permanently lost to agriculture.

Highways

The intensification of automotive traffic in the last two or three decades has
been accompanied by an extensive program of highway' construction. Some of
the modern highways follow existing road facilities. Others have been constructed
through new areas including some occupied by farming. This and the fact that
the existence of new roads has made some of the adjacent land more valuable for
purposes other than farming has resulted in a decrease in the total amount of
land in agriculture. On the other hand, the construction aud improvement of
secondary roads in rural sections have been beneficial to some farming areas,
making their cultivation more desirable and advantageous.

Woodland

One of the most important consequences of land utilization changes in Massa-
chusetts during the last several decades has been a steady increase in land areas
under wooded cover. As land areas under cultivation have gone out of use they
have almost invariably developed a wooded cover — a natural thing under Massa-
chusetts conditions. As determined from the analysis of the Land Use Survey,
almost two-thirds of the total area of the State, is under wooded cover.'' The
variation by counties runs from the highest, 73.1 percent found in Barnstable

'This term includes all types of timber growth from brushland to good stands of merchantable
timber.

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

County, to the lowest, 52.0 percent in Essex County and 57.8 percent in Middle-
sex. In the remaining counties the percentage of land under wooded cover is
fairly close to the State average. (Table 8) Most of this woodland is located
outside of farms, which contain only one-third of the total area under wooded
cover. The greatest proportion of total woodland located on farms is in Hampden
and Franklin counties where it amounts to about two-fifths of the total. Barn-
stable County, with the highest proportion of land in the whole State under
wooded cover, contains the smallest proportion of it in farms.

Table 8. — Percentage of Total Area in Woodland,
BY Counties, 1941

Percent of Total Area

County Farm All

Woodland Woodland

Barnstable 5.4 73.1

Berkshire 14.3 71.8

Bristol 14.7 62.1

Essex 10.0 52.0

Franklin 19.6 66.3

Hampden 19.8 66.9

Hampshire 17.5 61.2

Middlesex 10.8 57.8

Norfolk 6.9 67.7

Plymouth 17.2 66.1

Worcester 13.9 63.1

The State 14.2 64.3

With large areas of woodland present in the State, special emphasis must be
placed on proper utilization of these areas, which, for the most part, remain
neglected. In considering woodland, two different lines of approach should be
made, depending on whether land is in farms or not. As far as farms are con-
cerned, wooded areas are a part of the farm organization and the main effort
should be directed towards proper treatment and better conservation methods.

The major section of woodland is, however, outside of farms, and of this about 10
percent is already in State and town forests. In this area a definite attempt is
made to carry on forest management on a scientific and systematic basis. Although
these publicly owned areas have many uses, including recreation and wildlife
preservation, the primary purpose is to provide proper conservation methods
in encouraging forest culture. There are very few other wooded areas in the
State where the same objectives are maintained. The rest of the area is under
rather scattered and confused ownership, with the major proportion held b\' non-
residents. These areas are being used for a variety of different purposes, some
woodland in the eastern part of the State being held with the expectation of more
intensive uses. This fact is reflected in land values, which are based in some
sections net so much on the type of the timber stand as on the expectation of a
more intensive type of land utilization.

Consideration of the tables indicating the proportion of farm land in woodland
and the average values of farm land, shows that in some counties where more
farm land is under wooded cover, land values are higher. This is especially true
of Norfolk and Barnstable counties where more than half of the total farm land
is in woodland.

Several attempts have been made in the past to provide foundations for the

LAND USES 29

development of wooded areas under a better system of management and con-
servation. One of the measures adopted by the Legislature gave the owner of
woodland an opportunity to register his holding with the idea of deferring the
time of tax payments until the timber is actually cut. This was expected to
prevent indiscriminate cutting and to provide an incentive for better conservation
practices. Experience with this law over a period of years, however, has not been
very fortunate, inasmuch as very few woodland owners registered their land for
forest development. A new law was passed this year which automatically pro-
vides for deferred payment of taxes on the timber on all woodland which is
assessed for less than $25 per acre. It is possible that this will prove a turning
point in the progress of land utilization under wooded cover in extensive sections
of the State.

The Industrial Factor

The presence of industries in rural communities has a definite effect on local
agriculture and land utilization. Under favorable conditions it provides an
opportunity for local employment of the farming population and a certain amount
of land utilization for residential and part-time farming purposes. The results
are of a sustaining nature for local farmii.g if it presents a proper supplement to
local land utilization and brings about a desirable balance. The disadvantages
that may accrue arise largely from the fact that a number of recent industrial
plants in small towns have been operating on an unstable basis, frequently leav-
ing a large number of local people without definite employment. This condition
often places a heavy burden on the rest of the population, and especially on those
engaged in farming, by the necessity of providing relief and other assistance.
The pressure on the going farming business may be exceedingly high, especially
when, because of higher taxes, some farms are being abandoned and withdrawn
from agriculture.

Historically, it is important, however, to note that traditionally rural communi-
ties of Massachusetts have been associated with local industries which in the
early period of development fitted into the fundamental conditions of the in-
dividual community. A certain balance in the utilization of human and natural
resources was created thereby in the interchange of activities between agri-
cultural and industrial pursuits. Over a period of years, the gradual disappear-
ance of local industries in a number of communities has disturbed this balance,
with a resulting decline also in farming activities and agricultural land utilization.

Inasmuch as the presence of local industries in Massachusetts towns has played
such an important part in agricultural land utilization in the past, it is of imme-
diate consequence to consider what is the situation in the number of local indus-
tries at the present time. By combining and analyzing the data obtained from
the State Industrial Census of 1938 and from the special survey of local in-
dustries made in 1935, and the information supplied by industrial directories,
it has been possible to determine the number of industrial employees for all
rural towns in Massachusetts.

From the map indicating the number of industrial employees in towns below
10,000 population it appears that, out of a total of 273 towns, 89 or about one-
third have no industries at all. In 87 towns, or roughly another third, the number
of employees is below 100 in any one town. In the next group of 58 towns, the
number of industrial employees ranges from 100 to 500. The remaining 39 towns
have more than 500 industrial employees each. The full significance of these
data will appear later when they are discussed in connection with agricultural
land utilization and other important factors in rural communities.

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

employees
none:

BELOW 100

100 -499

500 OR OVER

Map 3. Towns Below 10,000 Population Classified on the Basis of the Number of Employees

in the Town Industries

Table 9. — Group Averages for Towns Below 10,000 Population

Population per Square Mile, 1940

Percent of Total Area in Woodland, 1941

Percent of Total Area in Improved Land, 1935 .
Percent of Land Suitable for Agriculture, 1941 . .
Value of Farm Land and Buildings, per Acre, 1935

Size of Farms, Acres, 1935

Cows per Square Mile, 1940

Poultry per Square Mile, 1940

Percent of Farm Land Improved, 1935

Tax Rate, Towns Below 10,000 Population, 1940
Employees — Percent of 1940 Population

TOWN GROUPINGS ON THE BASIS OF MAJOR
FACTORS IN LAND UTILIZATION

In the preceding discussion general consideration has been given to several
important factors which have affected agricultural land utilization in Massachu-
setts over a period of years. The influence of some of these factors has been
naturally more important than that of others, depending on the period of time
and the character of individual sections. The areas so far considered have been
in terms of counties which in themselves contain a great variety of conditions.
This gives, therefore, only a partial picture since in Massachusetts even individual
towns present a wide variation, especially in the physical background found
within their limits.

In order to form an adequate picture of land utilization and to explain it in
terms definite enough to propose desirable adjustments in any particular com-

Group 1
Low

Group 2
Middle

Group 3
High

26.8

100.9

356.0

47.9

67.1

81.2

6.7

14.2

26.4

29.7

54.0

70.4

$37.38

$98.85

$284.57

34.3

64.8

135.7

6.1

18.3

35.8

71.5

289.9

911.8

21.8

33.0

50.5

$24.06

$31.68

$40.75

.7

4.8

19.0

LAND .USES 31

munity of the State, a detailed analysis of local conditions is of primary import-
ance. The land utilization survey throughout the State and the analysis of land
utilization factors, presented in considerable detail in a series of maps for in-
dividual towns, make it possible now to formulate local plans on a definite factual
basis. From the data obtained and from the examination of individual com-
munities, it is possible to fix broad classifications of the individual towns in rela-
tion to several important factors. These factors cover both vital features in
agricultural land utilization and pertinent social and economic influences operat-
ing in the communities. On this basis consideration is given by towns to the
proportion of woodland, the density of cow and poultry population, the average
size of farms, and the percentage of land suitable for agriculture.

From the economic and social point of view land values, density of population,
and the amount of industrial employment in various communities are taken into
account. For purposes of effective measurement of these characteristics and for
subsequent classification of the towns, all the communities in the State (excluding
the Island counties) with a population of less than 10,000 have been divided into
three groups, each containing the same number of units. The procedure followed
was, first to array the towns in ascending order in relation to each item under
consideration. In this manner the first group contains one-third of the towns
where a certain characteristic is least important, and the second and third groups
indicate in their respective order the increasing importance of the factor under
consideration. By observing the group into which the town falls in regard to
each particular item, it is possible to form a judgment as to the character of the
town and its relation to other towns. For instance, the standing of the town in
regard to the proportion of improved land, amount of woodland, and density of
cow and poultry population will indicate the extent of agricultural land utiliza-
tion and development in relation to other communities in the State. The relative
position of the town in regard to farm land values, if considered with other factors
such as location and proportion of iniproved land, will indicate the extent to which
other land uses exert their influence on agricultural land utilization. The intensity
of industrial employment indicates the extent to which additional sources of
income are available to the town and the amount of land associated with resi-
dential and part-time farming developments. The grouping of towns in regard
to each item under consideration is presented in a subsequent series of maps.

Land Suitability

Land suitability has been determined on the basis of soil and topography.
Areas classified as of good or medium quality for agricultural purposes have been
combined to form the total amount of land designated as suitable. This designa-
tion has no reference to the present use or cover. As a matter of fact, for reasons
already discussed in the first part of this report, much of the land suitable for
agricultural development and at one time actually used in farming is now devoted
to some other use, with most of it under wooded cover. This in itself would
prevent these areas from being immediately available for agriculture. However,
by comparing the groupings of towns on the basis of land suitability and the
amount of improved land it is possible to observe which towns, by virtue of his-
torical or other reasons, have lost their agricultural significance, even though
they may rank high on the basis of their physical background. Likewise there
are a few towns where a high degree of agricultural land utilization prevails in
spite of a rather limited amount of good land to justify such a condition. Never-
theless for the great majority of towns a high degree of coincidence between these
two factors will be easily observed.

32

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Towns Below 10,000 Population Classified in Three Equal Groups

Man 4. On the Basis of the Percentage of Land Suitable for Agriculture
Map 5 On the Basis of Percentage of Total Land Area Improved
Map 6. On the Basis of Percentage of Farm Land Improved

LAND USES

33

Towns Below 10,000 Population Classified in Three Equal Groups

Map 7. On the Basis of Density of Cow Population

Map 8. On the Basis of Density of Poultry Population

Map 9. On the Basis of Percentage_of Total Area in Woodland

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Proportion of Improved Land

The proportion of improved land is considered both from the standpoint of
total town area and in relation to land in farms. Each indicates a different set
of circumstances. A high percentage of improved land in the total town area
denotes the agricultural character of the town as far as land utilization is con-
cerned. On the other hand, a high proportion of improved land in farms does not
necessarily point to the same position of the town in agricultural land utilization.
There are a number of towns of a residential and industrial character with only
a few farms but with most of the land on these farms being utilized for farming.

Classification on the basis of percentages of improved land in relation to total
town area indicates (Map 5) that the group of towns with the lowest proportion
of improved land is found in the hilly sections of the Berkshire area, in the northern
section of Worcester County with the adjoining towns of Franklin County, and in
the Cape Cod region. The proportion of improved area in this group of towns
ranges up to 10.6 percent. The small amount of land utilized for agricultural
purposes in these towns is due in most cases to the poor quality of the soil or rough
topography or both. In the eastern part of the State the primary cause is most"
often the use of land for purposes other than agriculture or forestry.

The second or intermediate group of towns has a range in proportion of im-
proved area from 10.6 to 18.6 percent; these towns are scattered in various sec-
tions of the State. The third group, with the highest percentage of improved
land, is represented largely by towns in the western part of Berkshire County, in
the Connecticut River Valley, in the southern part of Worcester County, and in
the northwestern portion of Middlesex County. Most of these towns have a
high degree of land suitability and are primarily agricultural in character.

In considering the grouping of towns on the basis of proportion of improved
land in farms it will be observed from the maps that there is substantial coinci-
dence with the groups based on the relation of improved lai;d to total town area.
There are, however, a number of exceptions, the most notable being the Cape
Cod area, where little land is in farms, but most of it is used with a fair degree of
intensity.

DENSITY OF COWS AND POULTRY

The amount of improved land indicates the degree of intensity to which the
land is being utilized for crops and improved pasture. Much of the agriculture
of Massachusetts, however, is carried on through the medium of imported feed
which enables some towns with a low degree of land utilization to maintain con-
siderable numbers of livestock and poultry. Maps 7 and 8 indicate respectively
the number of cows and poultry supported by the individual towns per square
mile of their territory.

Density of Cow Population

Dairying is the predominant type of agricultural enterprise in Massachusetts
and is found in all sections of the State. The major distinctions in the organiza-
tion of the dairy industry in Massachusetts, going from west to east, lie in the
smaller size of farms (Map 7), the declining proportion of pasture land, and the
amount of home-grown feed per head of livestock. In considering the grouping
of towns on the basis of the density of cow population it will be observed that the
greatest concentration is in towns where the proportion of improved land to the
total town area is the highest, or in other words, in towns which have already
been designated as agricultural on the basis of land utilization.

LAND USES 35

Density of Poultry Population

In regard to the importance of the poultry industry, the distribution of towns
presents a different picture with more emphasis on geographical location. The
greatest density of poultry population is found in the eastern part of the State.
It is lower in the central part and reaches the lowest level in the towns of Berk-
shire County. Unlike the situation with the dairy industry, poultry farming,
therefore, is largely located irrespective of the suitability of land for cultivation
or the proportion of improved land.

Proportion of Total Area in Woodland

In classifying the towns on the basis of the proportion of woodland, all the
areas under wooded cover have been included, whether in farms or not. As
already pointed out, trees are the major cover of land in the State and this is illus-
trated by the fact that in some cases the proportion of woodland exceeds 50
percent of the total area, even in the lowest third of towns. In general, the group-
ings of towns indicate an inverse ratio to the classification on the basis of im-
proved land. The towns with the highest proportion of improved land show the
smallest amount of woodland and vice versa.

The classification of towns on the basis of land suitability, amount of improved
land, and density of livestock population deals primarily with factors involved
in agricultural land utilization. In order, however, to grasp the full significance
of these factors and place them in proper relation to other types of land utiliza-
tion, it is necessary to take into consideration several major economic and social
developments which pertain to the character of the communities.

Density of Population

Coincident with the general decline in agricultural land utilization in a number
of Massachusetts communities, there occurred also a decrease in total population.
This took place primarily in towns where agriculture and small local industries
were the basis of the town's economic development. With the decline or disap-
pearance of these basic activities and no new enterprises to take their place, a
general decline set in with a crushing effect on the entire economic structure of
the community. In spite of the fact that the total population of Massachusetts
more than doubled in the period between 1880 and 1940, there are 101 towns in
the State where the population now is smaller than it was at the earlier date.
Most of these towns are located west of the Connecticut River Valley, with an
additional group in the eastern part of Franklin County and the western section
of Worcester Count}'. In the eastern part of the State the decline took place in
most of the towns of Cape Cod and the two Island' Counties.

In considering the three groups of towns segregated on the basis of density of
population, as presented on Map 10, it is easy to see that the group at the lower
level closely coincides with those towns experiencing a decline in agriculture
since 1880. The group with the highest density of population is mostly in the
eastern part of the State, although some towns belonging to this class are found
in the Connecticut River Valley and around industrial centers in other sections.

36

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

MASSACHUSETTS

POPULATION PEIR SQUARE Mil
2,.6 - 58.3
^ 59,6 - 156.4

■ 1566 -1.8350

Towns Below 10,000 Population Classified in Three Equal Groups

Map 10. On the Basis of Population Density ^ , „ , ».

Map 11. On the Basis of the Ratio of Those Employed in Industry to Total Population

Industrial Employment

It has already been pointed out that in the past there existed in Massachu-
setts a very close connection between agricultural land utilization and local
industries. Judging by the State Census of Massachusetts, in the middle of the
last century practically ever}' community had some industry giving full- or part-
time employment to a certain number of local people who ordinaril}' were also
engaged in farming. This well-balanced arrangement has been disturbed over a
period of time for a good many towns with the disappearance of local industries.
At the present time, 89 towns, or one-third of the total number with a population
of less than 10,000, have no industries at all. Only a small number of these towns

LAND USES 37

is in the eastern part of the State. Most of them are in the western areas where
the main reliance has always been on agricultural land utilization accompanied
by extensive areas of woodland. In the remaining 176 towns under 10,000 pop-
ulation where figures for industrial employment at the present time are available,
the group classified as the lowest third has so little in the way of industries that
it can be practically disregarded as a factor in industrial classification. In the
intermediate group the number of industrial employees ranges from 1.9 to 9.0
percent of the total population, with an average just under 5 percent. The
towns in this group are scattered throughout the State, although in most cases
they adjoin towns with the highest concentration of industrial employment.
This upper third group of towns is decidedly industrial in character and is con-
centrated mostly in the eastern and central parts of the State. From the stand-
point of land utilization the existence of established industries in these towns has
a definite significance by providing an additional source of income for the town
and b}' involving a certain amount of land use for residential, recreational, and
part-time farming purposes.

Land Values

The influence of various factors on land utilization in any community finds its
final expression in the prevailing values of land. While from the standpoint of
agriculture the value of land should be determined primarily by its productive
capacity, in many Massachusetts towns this condition obtains only to a limited
extent. In working out the map indicating the division of towns into three
groups, the average value of both land and buildings has been employed because
of the character of the information available by minor civil divisions. The
actual division is therefore on the average \'alue of farm real estate per acre of
farm land. In the lowest of the three groups the average value of farm land and
buildings per acre ranges from $9.05 to $63.62 with an average for the group of
$37.38. The map shows that these towns are located mostly in the western part
of the State. Inasmuch as this section is least subject to the influence of more
intensive land uses, the farm land values in this area come the nearest to being
based on the agricultural importance of the land. The supplementary land uses
in this area are largely forestry and less intensive types of recreational develop-
ments.

For all the towns in the intermediate group the average value of land and build-
ings rises to $98.85 per acre. While some of the towns in this group, as in the one
preceding, derive their land values solely on the basis of their agricultural impor-
tance, most of them, especially in the upper range, definitely show the influence
of more intensive uses. This follows both from their location and from the relative
density of the local population. The major concentration of the towns in this
group is in the western edge of the eastern third of the State and in the Connecticut
River Valley.

The third group of towns, with the highest land values, appears in the eastern
densely settled area of the State. The values here range from $146.28 to $1,910,
with an average for the group of $284.57 per acre. In these towns, agricultural
land utilization, with a few minor exceptions like cranberry bogs, is dependent,
from the standpoint of land values, upon more intensive uses present or antici-
pated. In these towns, the interdependence and interrelationship among
several major land uses is most apparent and effective. Agricultural land
use planning, therefore, can not be carried on adequately in these towns without
giving full recognition to the presence of residential, part-time farming, recrea-
tional, and industrial land uses. (Table 10)

38

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Towns Below 10,000 Population Classified In Three Equal Groups

Map 12. On the Basis of Average Value of Land and Buildings per Acre of Farm Land

Map 13. On the Basis of Size of Farms

Map 14. On the Basis of the Tax Rate per $1,000 of Valuation

LAND USES

39

Table 10.

Relative Position of Towns Below 10,000 Population in
Three Groups for Eight Different Factors

1 — Percentage of land suitable for agriculture, 1941
2 — Percentage of total area in improved land, 1935
3 — Cows per square mile, 1940
4 — Poultry per square mile, 1940

5 — Percentage of total area in woodland, 1941 ^

6 — Population per square mile, 1940
7 — Employees — percentage of total population, 1940
8 — Value of farm land and buildings per acre, 1935
The towns are divided into three equal groups for each factor: 1 indicates the "low" group;

2, the "medium" group; and 3, the "high" group; 0 in column 7 means that there were no industrial

employees in the town.

Town

12 3 4 5 6 7

Town

12 3 4 5 6 7 8

Barnstable County

1 1 1

3

2

1

2

1 1 1

3

2

1

2

1 1 1

3

1

0

3

1 1 2

2

2

0

3

1 1 1

3

2

0

3

1 1 1

1

1

0

2

2 1 1

3

2

1

3

1 1 1

3

2

1

3

1 1 1

3

1

0

3

1 1 3

3

2

1

3

1 1 1

1

3

2

3

1 1 1

3

1

1

7.

1 1 1

1

1

0

s

1 1 1

1

1

2

9

1 1 1

3

2

1

2

Barnstable 1

Bourne 1

Brewster 1

Chatham 1

Dennis 2

Eastham 2

Falmouth 2

Harwich 1

Mashpee 1

Orleans 1

Provincetown 1

Sandwich 2

Truro 1

Weimeet 1

Yarmouth 2

Berkshire County

Alford 3 3 3 1110 1

Becket 1 1 1 1 3 1 3 1

Cheshire 2 3 3 1 1 2 2 1

Clarksburg 1 1 3 3 3 2 3 1

Dalton 22212332

Egremont 3 3 3 1110^

Florida 11113 10,

Great Harrington. .2331222^

Hancock 1 2 2 1 3 1 0 f

Hinsdale 3 3 2 12 10^

1

Lanesborough 233 12 101

Lee 1 2 3 1 2 3 3 2

Lenox 3 3 2 1 1 2 0 3

Monterey 2 2 1 1 3 1 0 1

Mount Washington 11113101

New Ashford 11113101

New Marlborough 3 3 2 2 2 12 1

Otis 2 1113 12 1

Peru 2 1 1 1 3 1 0 1

Richmond 3 3 3 2 1 1 0 2

Sandisfield 12 12 3 10 1

Savoy 2 1 1 1 3 1 0 1

Sheffield 3 3 3 1 1 1 0 1

Stockbridge 33212213

Tyringham 12212111

Washington 11113 10 1

West Stockbridge. .23311121

Williamstown 3332 122 1

"Windsor 2 2 113 10 3

Bristol County

Acushnet 22332323

Berkley 2 2 2 3 1 2 0 2

Dartmouth 2 3 3 3 2 2 12

Dighton 22232232

Easton 21232323

Freetown 2 1 1 2 3 1 3 2

Mansfield 22233322

Norton 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2

Raynham 22331222

Rehoboth 1 2 3 3 2 1 2 2

Seekonk 1 3 3 3 1 3 2 3

Somerset 2 3 3 3 1 3 1 3

Swansea 1 3 3 3 1 3 2 2

Westport 3 3 3 3 2 2 0 2

Essex County

Boxford 3 2 2 2

Essex 1 2 2 3

Georgetown 3 113

Groveland 3 3 2 3

Hamilton 2 2 12

Ipswich 12 2 1

Lynnfield 2 2 2 2

Manchester 1112

Merrimac 3 2 2 2

Middleton 2 2 3 3

Nahant 1111

Newbury 1 3 2 2

North Andover 3 2 3 1

Rockport 1 1 2 1

Rowley 112 2

Salisbury 12 2 2

Topsfield 3 3 3 1

Wenham 2 3 2 3

West Newbury .... 3 3 3 3

Franklin County

Ashfield 3 2 3 2 1 1 1 1

Bernardston 33322112

Buckland 2 3 3 2 2 2 1 1

Charlemont 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 1

Colrain 3 2 3 3 1 1 1 1

Conway 2 2 3 11111

Deerfield 3 3 3 112 12

Erving 11113 2 2 1

2

1

0

2

1

2

0

3

2

2

2

2

3

1

3

2

0

3

3

2

2

3

1

3

3

1

3

3

2

2

3

2

2

3

0

3

2

1

1

2

3

3

2

3

3

2

3

2

2

2

2

1

2

3

2

1

2

1

3

1

2

0

3

1

2

0

2

40

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

Table 10. — Rel.a.tive Position of Towns Below 10,000 Popul.\tion in
Three Groups for Eight Different Factors — continued

1 — Percentage of land suitable for agriculture, 1941
2 — Percentage of total area in improved land, 1935
3 — Cows per square mile, 1940
4 — Poultry per square mile. 1940
5 — Percentage of total area in woodland, 1941
6 — Population per square mile, 1940
7 — Employees — percentage of total population. 1940
8 — Value of farm land and buildings per acre, 1935
The towns are divided into three equal groups for each factor: 1 indicates the "low" group;

2, the "medium" group; and 3, the "high" group: Gin column 7 means that there were no industrial

employees in the town.

Town

12 3 4 5 6 7

Town

12 3 4 5 6 7

Franklin County — Cont.

Gill 3 3 3 2 1 2

Hawley 11113 1

Heath 3 3 2 1 3 1

Leverett 2 2 113 1

Leyden 3 2 3 1 1 1

Monroe 2 1 1 1 3 1

Montague 2 2 2 1 3 3

New Salem 1 1 1 1 2 1

Northfield 1 2 3 1 2 1

Orange 112 2 2 3

Rowe 11113 1

Shelburne 2 3 3 2 12

Shutesbury 3 1113 1

Sunderland 3 3 3 2 2 2

Warwick 2 1113 1

Wendell 2 1 1 1 3 1

Whately 3 3 3 2 11

Hampden County

Agawam 3 3 3 3 1 3

Blandford 11113 1

Brimfield 2 3 2 2 2 1

Chester 11113 1

East Longmeadow. 3 3 3 3 13

Granville 11113 1

Hampden 13 2 2 11

Holland 3 2 1 1 3 1

Longmeadow 2 2 1 2 1 3

Ludlow 1 3 3 2 1 3

Monson 1 2 2 2 2 2

Montgomery 112 13 1

Palmer 12 2 2 3 3

Russell 1 1 1 1 3 2

Southwick 3 2 3 2 2 1

Tolland 11113 1

Wales 3 1113 1

Wilbraham 3 3 2 2 2 2

Hampshire County

Amherst 3 3 3 3 1 3

Belchertown 2 3 3 2 2 2

Chesterfield 2 1113 1

Cummington 2 2 2 1 3 1

Goshen 3 2 2 1 3 I

Granby 2 3 3 3 11

Hadley 3 3 3 2 12

Hatfield 2 3 2 2 1 2

Huntington 12 2 13 1

Middlefield 112 13 1

0

0

0

2

0

3

3

0

0

3

0

3

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

3

0

1

0

1

2

1

0

3

I

1

0

1

0

1

0

3

3

2

1

1

0

1

3

1

3

1

0

2

0

1

3

1

3

2

1

3

0

1

2

1

0

I

0

1

0

2

0

3

1

3

2

1

0

1

Hampshire County — Cont.

Pelham 1 1 1 2 3 1 2 2

Plainfield 2 2 113 10 1

Southampton 2 2 3 2 2 1 1 2

South Hadley 2 3 3 2 13 2 2

Ware 2 3 2 113 3 1

Westhampton 1 1223 1 1 1

Williamsburg 2 2 3 2 3 2 3 1

Woithington 2 1113 10 1

Middlesex County

Acton 3 3 2 3 1 2 2 3

Ashby 2 2 2 3 2 111

Ashland 21223333

Ayer 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 2

Bedford 2 3 3 3 1 3 1 3

Billerica 3 2 2 3 2 3 2 3

Boxborough 33232102

Burlington 2 2 13 2 3 13

Carlisle 2 12 3 3 10 2

Chelmsford 2 3 3 3 1 3 2 3

Concord 3 3 2 3 1 3 2 3

Dracut 3 3 3 3 1 3 2 2

Dunstable 3 3 2 3 2 10 2

Groton 3 3 1 2 2 2 3 2

Holliston 32232323

Hopkinton 22122222

Hudson 322323 3 3

Lincoln 2 3 2 2 2 2 0 3

Littleton 33331233

Maynard 3 2 2 3 13 3 3

North Reading 2 12 3 13 13

Pepperell 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2

Sherborn 2 2 3 3 2 2 13

Shirley 33222332

Stow 2 3 3 3 12 2 2

Sudbury 2 3 2 3 1 2 0 3

Tewksbury 2 3 3 3 13 0 3

Townsend 3 1 1 3 3 2 3 2

Tyngsborough 22232212

Wayland 2 1 2 2 1 3 0 3

Westford 2 3 2 3 2 2 3 2

Weston 2 1 2 2 3 3 1 3

Wilmington 3 1 1 3 2 3 1 3

Norfolk County

Avon 1 13 3 3 3 2 3

Bellingham 2 13 3 3 3 3 2

Canton 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3

Cohasset 112 2 2 3 0 3

LAND USES

41

Table 10. — Relative Position of Towns Below 10,000 Population in
Three Groups for Eight Different Factors — continued

1 — Percentage of land suitable for agriculture, 1941
2 — Percentage of total area in improved land, 1935
3 — Cows per square mile, 1940
4 — Poultry per square mile, 1940
5 — Percentage of total area in woodland, 1941
6 — Population per square mile, 1940
7 — Employees — percentage of total population, 1940
8 — -Value of farm land and buildings per acre, 1935
The towns are divided into three equal groups for each factor: 1 indicates the "low" group;

2, the "medium" group; and 3, the "high" group; 0 in column 7 means that there were no industrial

employees in the town.

Town

2 3 4 5 6 7

Town

12 3 4 5 6 7

Norfolk County — Cont.

Dover 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 3

Foxborough 22133 3 22

Franklin 2 12 3 2 3 3 2

Holbrook 1 12 3 3 3 3 3

Medfield 2 2 12 2 3 12

Medway 2 3 3 3 1 3 2 3

Mniis 23232333

Norfolk 2 2 13 2 2 12

Plainville 22232232

Randolph 112 3 2 3 2 3

Sharon 2 1 1 2 3 3 1 2

Stoughton 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 3

Walpole 12 2 3 2 3 3 3

Westwood 1 3 3 2 1 3 1 3

Wrentham 2 1 1 3 2 3 2 3

Plymouth County

Abington 1 2 2 3

Bridgewater 1 3 2 3

Carver 12 11

Duxbury 1 1 1 2

East Bridgewater ..1233

Halifax 1 2 2 3

Hanover 1 2 2 3

Hanson 1 2 1 3

Hingham 1 2 2 2

Hull 1 1 1 1

Kingston 1 1 2 2

Lakeville 12 13

Marion 1 1 1 2

Marshfield 1 1 1 2

Mattapoisett 1 1 2 2

Middleborough ... 1 2 3 3

Norwell 1 2 1 3

Pembroke 1 1 1 2

Plympton 12 12

Rochester 1113

Rockland 1 1 1 3

Scituate 1 2 1 2

Wareham 1 1 1 1

West Bridgewater .13 3 3

Whitman 1 2 3 3

Worcester County

Ashburnham 1 11 12 13 1

Auburn 22222323

Barre 3 2 3 2 2 2 3 1

1

3

3

3

1

3

2

2

1

1

1

3

3

2

0

3

3

3

2

3

2

1

0

3

2

3

3

3

2

3

2

3

2

3

3

1

3

3

3

2

3

1

2

0

3

9

9

3

1

2

3

3

2

0

2

2

2

3

2

2

2

1

3

3

2

2

3

3

1

2

2

3

1

2

2

1

3

3

3

1

3

0

3

2

3

2

3

1

3

1

3

1

3

3

3

Worcester County — Cont.

Berlin 23332222

Blackstone 3 3 3 3 2 3 1 2

Bolton 33222102

Boylston 21222212

Brookfield . . 2 3 3 13 2 3 2

Charlton 3 3 3 112 3 1

Douglas 2 2 113 2 2 1

Dudley 3 3 3 2 1 3 3 2

East Brookfield.... 3 3 2 3 12 3 2

Grafton 33221332

Hardwick 1 3 3 2 2 1 2 1

Harvard 32223202

Holden 31223222

Hopedale 3 12 3 2 3 3 3

Hubbardston 3 12 2 3 10 1

Lancaster 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 2

Leicester 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 1

Lunenburg 3 3 3 3 2 2 0 2

Mendon 32332212

Millbury 33332332

Millville 2 2 2 2 2 3 0 2

New Braintree. ... 3 3 3 3 1 1 0 1

Northborough 333322 12

North Brookfield .33331332

Oakham 3 2 3 2 3 1 0 1

Oxford 3 3 3 2 1 3 2 2

Paxton 3 2 3 3 3 1 0 1

Petersham 1 1 1 1 3 1 0 1

Phillipston 1 1 1 2 3 1 0 1

Princeton 32113131

Royalston 11113 111

Rutland 3 2 2 2 2 2 0 2

Shrewsbury 3 2 3 3 1 3 1 3

Southborough 2332 1333

Spencer 3 3 3 3 1 3 3 2

Sterhng 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 2

Sturbridge 3 2 112 2 2 1

Sutton 33322222

Templeton 2 1 1 1 3 2 2 2

Upton 3 2 12 3 2 11

Uxbridge 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 1

Warren 3 3 3 112 3 1

Westborough 3 3 3 3 13 2 3

West Boylston .... 3332 1203

West Brookfield ... 3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1

Westminster 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 2

Winchendon 3 1113 2 3 1

42 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

TYPES OF COMMUNITIES AND THE PROBLEMS ARISING
FROM THEIR PATTERNS OF LAND UTILIZATION

In the preceding discussion the classification of towns has been based on several
important factors in land utilization. The extent to which any one of these factors
is present in the community and the manner in which it is combined with other
factors largely determine the pattern of land utilization in that community.
To a certain degree every town in Massachusetts presents a land-utilization
picture where two or more land uses exist in some combination. Considering the
variety of natural conditions in Massachusetts towns and the diversity in the
character of the population present in various localities, it is only natural that
agriculture should be closely associated with other land uses. Whether this associa-
tion has developed in a harmonious and mutually beneficial manner depends on
a good many factors of which historical background, physical basis, and activities
of individuals are important. Where all these influences have not worked out
favorably the town has a definite land-utilization problem. Some of the difficulties
in these towns can be removed only over a very long period of time, but in the
main a considerable amount of work can be done in the elimination of some of the
maladjustments. This presents a real challenge to the various public agencies
working in rural areas and to local planning organizations. A great deal can be
accomplished towards general improvement by getting v/ell acquainted with the
fundamental assets and deficiencies of the community and the important forces
which tend to influence the type of land utilization in existence. The interrela-
tionship of various land uses should be thoroughly understood before any plan of
action is undertaken. In many communities, for example, with a combination
of various land uses, the position of agriculture may be considerably improved by
applying assessment and taxation based on an adequate system of land classi-
fication. Agricultural land should be taxed according to its productive capacity,
thus placing the existing farming on a more stable and permanent basis. This
must be clearly recognized because, in many communities where other uses are
also important, farming still remains the most basic and fundamental factor in
the proper utilization of local natural resources.

Under diverse influences each community in the course of time has developed
its own pattern of land utilization, and in order to give an adequate appraisal
of local conditions it is necessary to study each town in detail. There are, how-
ever, some outstanding characteristics which distinguish the types of communities
associated with the existing patterns of land utilization. On this basis, five differ-
ent types of communities are considered in the light of prevailing combinations
of land uses, their problems and needed adjustments.

A. Towns with a low level of agricultural land utilization and lacking other
more intensive land uses.

In the general decline of agricultural land utilization in the State, a considerable
number of towns that lost in farming never succeeded in regaining their balance
and former importance by evolving other land uses and compensating lines of
activity. These towns generally have a low density of population which in many
cases is scattered over wide areas. The land areas are predominantly under
wooded cover with some of them used for extensive recreational purposes. There
is only a limited amount of good land available for agriculture and even this
includes much that is either stony or sandy or too wet. The topography is mostly
rough, except in a few level sandy or marshy areas. Because of the absence of
any appreciable development of more intensive land uses, the. values of

LAND USES

43

land are at a low level and the rate of taxation is high. It is not difficult to
identify these towns b}' observing the above characteristics in the series
of maps classifying the major factors in land utilization. The main problems
in these towns are either connected with fiscal difficulties arising from the nec-
essity of maintaining local institutions, or related to the field of conservation of
natural resources. The difficulty in maintaining local institutions follows from
the insufficient aniount of productive taxable property and from large overhead
expenses in servicing a small local population. Examination of the town maps
prepared in connection with the land-use survey indicates that in many of these
towns there is a considerable amount of scattered settlement. That means high
costs for the maintenance of roads and for supplying all the necessary public
facilities. (Map 15)

^Jl-'^^^^^^^BHi !:^^M^

^'

fl^ll^^^^^B^- ^-^%;t£V^''''~l

Hfr^'^^fc

fc.

^

MASSACHUSETTS

^wfe

^

t

■"^

-^

Map 15. Towns with Smaller Population in 1940 than in 1880 (Black areas)

One of the most valuable contributions which can be made to some of these
towns by land-use planning committees is to work out the procedure for the
gradual elimination of scattered settlements and for the consolidation of public
services. By closing some roads which now service only a few isolated farms
and relocating the people involved, it will be possible to effect considerable
savings. Another possible means of" cutting expenditures will be found in co-
operative ownership or joint leasing by several adjoining towns of the equip-
ment needed for servicing roads and for other important town activities. In
some western states, effective use is being made of rural zoning, whereby' isolated
areas or those unfit for agricultural cultivatio.i are being gradually closed to agri-
cultural settlement. The application of this measure may be of great advantage
also in some rural areas in Massachusetts. It must be recognized, however, that
with variations in soil and other natural conditions even over ver^' small areas
and with diversity in the types of farming practiced side by side it may be difficult
to draw definite lines, except in a few well-determined sections. Any other
measures that may be adopted by the towns to reduce their expenditures will
relieve the pressure of heavy taxation on agricultural land in the better areas of
these towns.

44 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

On the positive side, to increase local sources of revenue, attention should be
drawn to the possibilities of new types of land utilization, primarily in the field
of recreation, for which these towns possess a fairly attractive background.
Something can be accomplished also through the promotion of inherited skills
of the local population, such as the handicraft industries which were so prominent
in the past and which have great promise, judging by the experience of certain
communities in Massachusetts and other New England states.

In some towns it is evident that even very thorough measures of economy
and search for new opportunities will not alleviate to any appreciable extent the
condition of the local farming population nor reduce the contribution from the
Treasury- of the Commonwealth to local needs. In such cases it may be to the
benefit of all concerned to discontinue the independent existence of the town
as a political unit, by merging or some other rearrangement.

Inasmuch as the predominant type of land use in the entire group of towns
under consideration is woodland, it is essential to secure the best results from the
utilization of local forest areas. In the past these woodlands provided substantial
returns both to the farmers by supplying their home needs and to the community
as a whole through the maintenance of local wood-working industries. At present
comparatively little is obtained in either of these directions and the forests in
these towns are generally neglected. In the interest of the conservation of natural
resources a managed system of forest practices is of primary significance for these
areas. Through public ownership some of the wooded areas in these towns have
become a part of the State forests and are receiving the benefit of better manage-
ment and protection. This is also being realized through the establishment of
town or community forests. A new hope for better conservation methods in the
extensive forest areas remaining in private own(;rship is a forest taxation bill
recently passed by the Legislature. Under this bill the taxation of timber is
postponed until actual harvesting, thus preventing the destructive practice of
premature cutting.

B. Communilies with favorable agricultural background but experiencing
difficulties in maintaining balanced conditions because of recent removal
of industrial or other enterprises. ,

The type of towns to be considered in this classification has retained a con-
siderable amount of its agricultural land utilization and, moreover, has been in a
rather prosperous condition until very recent years because of the presence of
industries or other supplementary enterprises. Most of the difficulties in these
towns have arisen within the last fifteen or twenty years and were caused largely
by a decline in industrial activity or by the disappearance of the industrial enter-
prises which were an integral part of their economy.

Communities of this type will be found mostly in the central part of the State.
From the standpoint of the adopted classification, they occupy an intermediate
position in their land suitability and the proportion of improved land, and have
a high position in the tax rate division. The most important factor, however,
that singles them out is the decline of population that has recently occurred,
mostly since the early twenties. In a way this type of town is undergoing the
same process as the first group in the early stage of their decline. Because of this
early historical start in the decline of the latter some important adjustments
have already taken place. For one thing, because of an early realization of the
dwindling resources, local expenditures if not radically curtailed at least were
not expanded, as was the case in towns more favorably situated.

The towns of this second group have yet to undergo the painful process of
readjustment unless new sources of income are found to help restore the former

LAND USES 45

balance. Failure to take decisive measures before the situation becomes critical
has a most distressing effect on local agriculture. With the decline of other
sources of taxable income and a dwindling population, local agriculture is called
upon to carry a heavier burden of taxation. As a result some farming is driven
out, thus placing the remaining farmers in a still less advantageous position. To
relieve the situation and restore the r.ecessary balance, careful and active planning
by all local interests is of vital importance. If new industries can be brought in
Vb use the existing facilities, the solution may be near at hand. These industries,
however, must be stable in character and blend well with local resources and
conditions. The situation will only be aggravated by attracting a type of business
which after a short period of activity' folds up and leaves in its wake greater
maladjustments than existed prior to its appearance. In addition to industrial
opportunities, attention should be turned to possible new land uses which will
supplement and fit into the local pattern of land utilization. These may include
part-time farming, residential, and recreational projects in conformity with the
local natural background.

C. Communities predominantly agricultural in character with favorable physical
background and fairly high utilization of agricultural resources.

In a number of towns with good soil and generally favorable physical conditions
agriculture has alwaj's been a primary activity, and even in the period of transi-
tion there has been no important diminution in the use of land for agricultural
enterprises. The only vital change that has occurred from time to time has
been in the character and type of farming adjusted to newly developed conditions.
On the maps presenting the classification of towns on the basis of several factors,
the communities under consideration will be found in the groups having a high
proportion of improved land and of land suitable for agriculture, while land
values will be found primarily in the intermediate group.

Industrial activity, if present at all in these towns, has never acquired a dom-
inant position in the local economy and whatever fluctuations have occurred
have not been potent enough to disturb seriously the predominantly agricultural
character of the communities. There has not been much increase in the local
population for a long time, nor has there been any appreciable decline. The
whole trend is characterized b}^ comparative constancy and stability.

With the main reliance on agricultural land utilization as a source of income,
local institutions have been generally maintained on a steady basis in conformity
with the productive capacity of the towns. Inasmuch as farming remains the
primary type of land utilization in these comm.unities, the kind of problem that
arises is in connection with the successful conduct of the farming business. This
involves efiiicient organization and operation of farming enterprises and con-
servation practices intended to preserve the productive capacity of the soil.
W hile the first has been given considerable attention over a period of years through
the educational activities of the agricultural extension service, soil conservation
as a systematic practice has come into prominence only recently. With wider
application of soil conservation practices these towns will have better assurance
of the continued existence and stability of their farming to the extent that it
depends on healthy conditions of local natural resources.

46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

D. Communities with a high or fair proportion of good land, but with declining

agricultural land utilization due primarily to high land values caused by
more intensive land uses, present or expected.

This group of towns is concentrated largely in the eastern densely settled
section of the State or in proximit\' to the coast where recreational land uses are
an important factor. At one time a considerable amount of profitable farming
was carried on in these towns in relation to the amount of land of suitable quality.
With the growth of large industrial centers and especially of the Boston Met-
ropolitan Area, there has been an increasing demand for land for residential
purposes in the nearby rural towns. This demand has been greatly accelerated
with the construction of new roads and the perfecting of automotive traffic.
While much of the land in these towns has alread}' been developed for residential
or recreational purposes, a considerable amount is being held as a potential area
for more intensive uses. Some of this land is still in farming, but a great deal
has gone out of farming and is now under predominantly wooded cover. As a
result of all this, whatever farming remains in these communities is under constant
pressure from high land values, high taxes, and the additional disadvantage of
the high cost of local labor. Much farming in these areas is waging a losing
battle against all these odds. It is true that these high-priced agricultural land
areas have some advantages. For onelhing, the market is near at hand, with
possibilities of higher prices and lower costs of transportation. But to take full
advantage of his location the producer must sell his output at retail. The most
logical and almost imperative channels for sale are routes of regular customers,
roadside stands, or similar direct approaches to the consumer. If advantage of
these possibilities is not taken or can not well be taken, the results are mostly
disastrous to the producer. It means that additional commer,,ial farming units
will be compelled to go out of business and former agricultural areas will either
be employed in more intensive types of land utilization or added to already large
sections of woodland. In general, fundamental econoniic and social forces are
working definitely against the feasibility of continuing commercial farming in
these areas. If agriculture here is preserved and continued it will be largely
on a part-time farming basis.

In the meantime, some of these towns face very difficult problems in agricultural
land use adjustments. Measures must be taken at once to alleviate the critical
position of the producers and at the same time to prevent waste in the utiliza-
tion of local natural resourcea. It is questionable in many cases whether the good
land withdrawn from agriculture and allowed to grow into brush will ever be
used for the more intensive purposes for which it is ordinarily held. A partial
solution of the problems in agricultural land utilization for these areas could be
achieved by a judicious classification of land, whereby the land actually used for
agriculture would have the benefit of lower assessment and taxation. This
would be an important step in alleviating the condition of local farmers and would
enable them to keep the land in agricultural production.

E. Communities with a fairly balanced system of land utilization, where decline

in agricultural land use has been accompanied by the development of
other land uses with favorable effects on local farming.

This type of community is found in various sections of the State and represents
a combination of agriculture with one or several other uses of land, such as recrea-
tional, part-time farming, industrial, and residential. As distinguished from the
preceding group, the more intensive use of land in these communities has pro-

LAND USES 47

ceeded in an orderly way favorable for agriculture and the entire system of local
land utilization. It provides a desirable supplement to local agriculture and has
added to rather than detracted from the stability of local farming and better
utilization of natural resources.

On the basis of the fundamental factors, the communities in this group will
be found largely in the intermediate class, where various characteristics are
present in a moderate degree rather than in extremes.

In the Berkshire region and the sections adjoining it on the east, the combina-
tion is largely agriculture, forestry, and water areas with various recreational uses.
In the central part of the State, it is mostly agriculture with part-time farming,
industrial, and residential land uses. In the eastern part of the State all these
combinations are repeated, strongly influenced by land uses other than agri-
cultural, with especial intensity of recreational factors in the vicinity of the
coast.

The presence of more intensive types of land utilization in these towns tends
to raise land values somewhat, but not to an extent that is definitely detrimental
or prohibitive to agriculture. On the other hand, the town benefits from the
existence of diversified sources of assessment which allows a more equitable
distribution of the taxes necessary to cover the expense of local government.
Without the necessity of paying too high taxes, local agriculture is provided with
superior services which are made possible by the economic conditions arising
from a high level of utilization of local natural resources. Additional advantages
accrue also to the farming population from better local markets provided by the
presence of the varied elements in the town population.

When a desirable balance of various land uses is present in anj' community
the main problem is to assure the stability of that condition and to prevent
serious disturbance of the existing pattern of land utilization. Such disturbance
may take place with the knowledge and encouragement of the local government
and people, if they do not sufficiently appreciate the necessity of maintaining
the established balance among the existing land uses. Some towns, for instance,
go out of their way to attract new industries or to foster the development of
residential or intensive types of recreational land uses. Even if the new enterprise
is of great benefit to the town at the time of introduction, this does not necessarily
mean that it will be beneficial in the long run. As a matter of fact, the experiences
of some towns with hastily projected new industries or residential and recreational
schemes, clearly indicate the necessity of applying a rigid test to any such under-
taking from the standpoint of the influence it may have on the economy of the
town and the utilization of its natural resources.

Some undesirable developments, however, take place in spite of the opposition
and resistance of local communities. A case in point is the recent experience of
certain communities, especially in the eastern part of the State, with land occu-
pancy for part-time farming and residential purposes by the unemployed and
other families in distress. In most cases such people have added heavily to local
expenditures for social services without contributing anywhere near the equivalent
to the town treasury. The results may be disastrous to the town economy and
to the established balance in the utilization of local natural resources. The
case of these people is a grave social problem to challenge our best effort. It can
hardly be left to the responsibility of individual communities with its threat of
total disruption of healthy and thriving rural towns.

48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 387

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1. The classification of land on the basis of soil and topography indicates
that half the total area of the State is suitable for agricultural utilization.

2. The percentage of agricultural suitability varies from nearly one-third in
Barnstable County to slightly less than two-thirds in Worcester County.

3. In 1880, before the decline in the agricultural land area set in, 41 percent
of the State area was represented by improved farm land. In 1940 this proportion
had declined to 15 percent.

4. The major local land-use factors responsible for the decline of improved
farm land relate in varying degrees to changing types and systems of farming;
soil erosion and deterioration; non-resident land ownership; disappearance of
town industries; and growth of residential, recreational, commercial, and other
more intensive uses of land.

5. Non-resident ownership of about one-third of all land in rural towns has
contributed to the increasing amount of land under wooded cover.

6. Of the total State area, nearly two-thirds is under wooded cover. The
highest proportion (nearly three quarters) is in Barnstable and Berkshire Counties;
the lowest (slightly more than half) in Essex and Middlesex Counties.

7. In the towns below 10,000 population, 89 have no existing local industries.
In 87 of the remaining 184 towns, local industries provide employment for less
than 100 persons in any one town.

8. The demand for more intensive uses of land has affected farming through
higher land values and taxes.

9. The average value per acre of farm land and buildings is $37 in the lowest
third of the towns below 10,000 population; in the highest third, the average is
$284 per acre.

10. From the standpoint of land-use pattern and land-use adjustments needed,
five types of rural towns are indicated in Massachusetts:

A. Towns characterized by predominantly poor land, declining population,
limited agricultural land utilization, and extensive areas under wooded
cover.

Major adjustments needed: Extension of public ownership of forest land,
elimination of isolated settlement, development of recreational facilities,
possible discontinuation of the town as an independent political unit.

B. Towns with a fair agricultural background experiencing recent dislocation
in local industries.

Major adjustments needed: Realignment of town expenditures, fuller utiliza-
tion of land resources for agriculture and other uses, rehabilitation of
industrial opportunities.

C. Towns with favorable physical background and with well-rounded agri-
cultural land utilization.

Major adjustments needed: Conservation of soil, better adaptation of
crops, and better care of woodlots.

D. Towns with declining agricultural land utilization as a result of expansion
in more intensive uses of land.

Major adjustments needed: Prevention of increase in area of idle land held
for speculative purposes, primarily by more equitable taxation of land
used in agriculture.

E. Towns with a balanced system of agricultural and other land uses.
Major adjustments needed: Maintenance and improvement of local condi-
tions through farsighted policies of local people and their planning agencies.

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

BULLETIN NO. 388 FEBRUARY, 1942

Annual Report

For the Fiscal Year Ending November 30, 1941

The main purpose of this report is to provide an opportunity for presenting
in published form, recent results from experimentation in fields or on projects
where progress has not been such as to justify the general and definite con-
clusions necessary to meet the requirements of Jbulletin or journal.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Trustee Committee on Experiment Station

Term Expires

Malcolm, Dav(d J., Charlemont, Chairman 1946

Casey, William, Commissioner of Agriculture

MoNAHAN, William C, Framingham 1943

McNamara, Mrs. Elizabeth L., Cambridge 1944

Hubbard, Clifford C, Norton 1946

Whitmore, Philip F., Sunderland 1943

Experiment Station Staff, December 1941

Hugh P. Baker, President of the College
SiEVERS, Fred J., Director Hawley. Robert D., Treasurer

Gaskill. Edwin F., Assistant to the Director Felton, F. Ethel, Editor

O'Donnell, Margaret H., Technical Assistant Church, Lucia G., Secretary

♦Alexander, Charles P., Entomology

Archibald, John G., Animal Husbandry
§ Bergman, Hfrbert F., Cranberries

Bourne, Arthur I., Entomology
*Bradley, Leon A., Bacteriology
*Cance, Alexander E., Economics

Colby, William G., Agronomy

DoRAN, William L., Botany
*Eisenmenger, Walter S., Agronomy
*Fellers, Carl R., Horticultural Man-
ufactures
*Frandsen, Julius H., Dairy Industry
t*FRANKLiN, Henry J., Cranberries

Freeman, Monroe E., Chemistry

Fuller, James E., Bacteriology
♦Gaskill, Edwin F., Station Service
tGuBA, Emil F., Botany
*Gunness, Christian L, Engineering

Haskins, Henri D., Agricultural Chem-
istry (Professor Emeritus)

Hays, Frank A., Poultry Husbandry

Holland, Edward B., Chemistry
§Kightlinger, Clifford V., Tobacco-
Disease Investigations
t*KooN, Ray M., Horticulture

Kuzmeski, John W,, Fertilizer Law
*Lentz, John B., Veterinary Science
♦Lindsey, Adrian H., Agricultural Eco-
nomics and Farm Management

McKenzie, Malcolm A., Botany

Morse, Fred W., Chemistry (Professor
Emeritus)

Olson, Carl, Jr., Veterinary Science
*Osmun, a. Vincent, Botany
*Parkhurst, Raymond T., Poultry Hus-
bandry
*Rice, Victor A., Animal Husbandry
♦Ritchie, Walter S., Chemistry

Rozman, David, Economics

Shaw, Jacob K., Pomology

Sibling, Dale H., Chemistry
♦Smith, Philip H., Dairy, Feed, and Seed

Laws
♦Snyder, Grant B., Olericulture
♦Thayer, Clark L., Floriculture
♦Van Meter, Ralph A., Pomology

Van Roekel, Henry, Veterinary Science
JWhitcomb, W.A.RREN D., Entomology

Wood, Basil B., Library

Bailey, John S., Pomology

Bennett, Emmett, Chemistry

Brown, Alfred A., Agricultural Economics
and Farm Management

Bullis, Kenneth L., Veterinary Science

Creek, Charles R., Agricultural Econo-
mics and Farm Management
tCROSS, Chester E., Cranberries
JDempsey, Paul W., Horticulture

DeRose, H. Robert, Feed and Fertilizer
Laws

EssELEN, William B., Jr., Horticultural
Manufactures

Flint, Oliver S., Veterinary Science

France, Ralph L., Bacteriology

GuTowsic\, Marie S., Nutrition

Jones, Carleton P., Chemistry
Jones, Linus H., Botany
Levine, Arthur S., Horticultural Manufac-
tures
McLaughlin, Frederick A., Seed Law
Mueller, Willi.\m S., Dairy Industry
Spelman, -Albert F., Feed and Fertilizer
Laws

JTiffany, Harold S., Nurseryculture

JWhite, Harold E., Floriculture

tYouNG, Robert E., Olericulture

Anderson, Edward E., Horticultural Man-
ufactures
Anderson, Jessie L., Seed Law
Becker, Willi.\m B., Entomology
JBemben, Peter, Olericulture
Clarke, Miriam K., Veterinary Science
Cooney, Marilyn R., Home Economics
Crosby, Earle B., Veterinary Science
Crowley, Leo V., Feed and Fertilizer Laws
{Donnelly, Edward B., Floriculture
JGarland. \Villi.\.m, Entomology
JGiLGUT, Constantine J., Botany
Howard, James T., Dairy, Feed, and

Fertilizer Laws
Jewett, Felici.\, Veterinary Science
tKELLEY, Joseph L., Cranberries
KuciNSKi, K.\ROL J., .Agronomy
Lubitz, Robert S., Horticultural

Manufactures
Martell, Joseph A., Dairy, Feed, and

Fertilizer Laws
McCoNNELL, John E. W., Horticultural

Manufactures
Miner, Gladys I., Botany
Moore, Edwin L., Horticultural Manufac-
tures
N.\iR, John H., hi, Dairy Industry
Neville, John D., Animal Husbandry
Pack, A. Boyd, Agronomy
Parkinson, Leonard R., Station Service
Powers, John J., Jr., Horticultural Man-
ufactures
Russell, Sargent, -Agricultural Ex:onomic3

and Farm Management
Sanborn, Ruby, Poultry Husbandry
Sherburne, Ruth E., Economics
Smith, C. Tyson, Feed and Fertilizer Laws
SouTHwiCK, Lawrence, Pomology
Spear, Arthur J., Station Service
Theriault, Frederic R., Horticultural

Manufactures
Tischer, Robert G., Horticultural
Manufactures
tToMLiNSON, William E., Jr., Entomology
Weir, Clar.\ E., Home Economics
Wenzel. Frederick W., Jr., Horticultural

Manufactures
Wertz, Anne W., Home Economics
White, W. Henry, Botany
JWiLSON, Harold A., Horticulture
Yegian, Hrant M., .Agronomy
YouRGA, Frank, Horticultural Manufactures
Zatyrka, Irene E., Pomology

*In charge

tAt East Wareham

jAt Waltham

§With U. S. D. A.

CONTENTS"

Page

Agricultural Economics and Farm Management 4

Agronom\- 7

Cooperative Tobacco Investigations 15

Animal Husbandry 18

Bacteriology 19

Botany 21

Chemistry .• 29

Control Service 34

The Cranberry Station 37

Cooperative Cranberry- Investigations 40

Dairy Industry 43

Economics 47

Engineering 49

Entomology 50

Floriculture 67

Home Economics Nutrition 69

Horticultural Manufactures 71

Horticulture 75

Olericulture 79

Pomology 85

Poultry Husbandry 95

Veterinary Science 99

VValtham Field Station 103

Publications 104

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

STATION -- 1941

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
AND FARM MANAGEMENT

A. H. Lindsey in Charge

Competitive Factors Influencing tlie Supply of Market Milk and Cream in
Massachusetts. (A. A. Brown and Alabelle Booth.) The manuscript on the
Production and Price of Milk in the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee Milkshed
has reached the final stages of editing. This report is the third in a series per-
taining to the shed and represents a tentative appraisal of the forces aifecting
the crigin of the milk supply. The principal one appears to be the system of
pricing f. o. b. the market. In secondary markets this type of pricing underlies
the inefficiencies in transportation which in turn are probably a cause of the non-
economic pattern of milksheds. A reasonable correction would seem to be a shift
to pricing f. o. b. the farm.

An Analysis of Selected Merchandising Practices in the Fruit and Vegetable
Industry. (A. A. Brown and Mabelle Booth.) A record of the operations on the
Boston Regional Produce Market in 1941 has been secured in addition to that of
1940. Cursory examination indicates that conditions were similar in both seasons.
Most of the farmers using the market are small operators. The majority of them
used it only a few times during the season. A few of them, however, are large
operators who supplied the bulk of the produce.

The financial situation of the market corporation is its chief obstacle to growth.
Because of this, the fixed plant remains undeveloped. Until a greater degree of
permanency is assured, improvements such as store and storage facilities are not
probable. Lack of these facilities keeps wholesalers and jobbers away from the
market; shipped-in produce is not generally available; buyers go to other markets
where complete supplies may be had.

Crop and Livestock Enterprise Relationships to the Farm Business in Massa-
chusetts, (C. R. Creek.)

Vegetable Growing in Bristol County, Massachusetts, in 1940. Records of the
farm business were obtained on 22 specialized vegetable farms and on 10 livestock-
vegetable farms for 1940. Since the season was more nearly normal than in 1939
in regard to yields and prices for vegetable crops, the 22 specialized farms showed
a net cash return over cash operating expenses ranging from a gain of $8,022 to
a loss of $270 per farm.

Average returns for the livestock- vegetable farms were lower than for the
specialized vegetable farms in 1940. The livestock enterprises showed a return
over costs but the important crops — potatoes, sweet corn, and cabbage — were
relatively unprofitable in 1940. On many farms income from the livestock enter-
prises prevented a loss in net returns.

Recommendations for improved practices and management were made on the
basis of results obtained from this study. Many small farms have incurred un-
necessary losses in recent years chiefly because of poor management and lack of
adjustment to changing conditions in vegetable growing and marketing.

Results of this study were published in Mimeograph FM8 in October 1941,
under the title, "Vegetable Growing in Bristol County, Massachusetts, in 1940."

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 5

Two Years of Vegetable Growing in Bristol County, Massachusetts — 1939 and
1940. The farm records for 1939 and 1940 on the specialized vegetable farms
were studied to determine the reasons for the increased returns in the latter year.
Net cash return averaged $1777 per farm in 1940 compared to a loss of $4 in 1939.
Records were obtained for 20 of these 22 farms in bath \ears.

Higher yields and higher prices for four important crops were chiefly respon-
sible for the higher returns. The acres of crops per farm were practically equal,
cash farm expenses increased only 20 percent over 1939, but sale? of produce
increased 60 percent. Yields and prices increased greatly in 1940 over 1939 for
iceberg lettuce, cucumbers, green beans, and early tomitoes. Yields were main-
tained for sweet corn, late tomatoes, cabbage, and potatoes, but prices were
lower particularly for cabbage and tomatoes.

Net cash returns for the livestock-vegetable farms were slightly lower in 1940,
with an average of $1399 compared to $1453 in 1939. Number of cows and acres
of crops for sale were the same in both years, but the average size of poultry
flocks increased slighth'. Unprofitable crops such as potatoes, cabbage, and
sweet corn were responsible for the lower returns in 1940.

Budget analyses were made for a small and a large specialized vegetable farm
and for a livestock-vegetable farm to show e.Kpenses, income, yields, and prices
for the two years. Diversification of the farm business on the latter farm was
discussed in relation to the more uniform returns in both years. Preliminary
recommendations for improving the farm business were made onthe basis of this
two-year study.

Results of this study were published in Mimeograph FM9 in October 1941
entitled, "Two Years of Vegetable Growing in Bristol County, Massachusetts-s-
1939 and 1940."

Diversification of the Farm Business. In response to a request from the Sub-
committee on Diversification, of the Essex County Rural Policy (Land Use
Planning) Committee, a summary was made of farm recorde from previous
studies to show the effect of various types of diversified farm businesses on farm
organization and net returns.

Diversity by the processing and distribution of farm products was shown to
be very profitable in the case of retail dairy farms from the 1936-37 study of
dairy farm management. With the same number of cows per herd, but receiving
7 cents per quart extra for milk, the retail farms had net cash returns four times
greater than the specialized wholesale dairy farms. In the case of poultry farms
for 1937 this method of diversification was not so profitable. The retail farms
had larger flocks, and more eggs were sold at a price 6.5 cents per dozen higher;
but net cash returns and farm income were almost equal to those on the spe-
cialized wholesale poultry farms. Cash operating expenses were too high and the
spread from wholesale to retail price was too narrow for extra profitable operation
of these retail farms.

Wholesale dairj- farms with a fruit or vegetable enterprise were generally more
profitable than the specialized dairy farms. Because of unfavorable price rela-
tionships in 1936, the combination of dairy and poultry enterprises was less
profitable.

Another method of diversification on poultrv farms was the selling of hatching
eggs or baby chicks in addition to market eggs, broilers, and fowl. The more
intensive of these hatchery farms with 30 percent of cash receipts from the sale
of baby chicks and pullets showed the highest net returns of any group in the
1937 study. The wholesale egg farms with some hatching egg and baby chick'
business were the next most profitable, although the price received for market
eggs was lowest. Largest size of laying flock, highest egg production per hen,

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

and a balanced farm business in the growing of flock replacements were con-
tributing factors to high farm returns.

A balanced or diversified farm business will tend to produce a net return year
after year in contrast to high returns and losses on specialized farms. In general
a diversified farm business is to be desired, although not all farms of this type
are profitable.

Labor Saving Methods and Practices on Massachusetts Farms. (C. R. Creek.)

Harvesting and Packing Iceberg Lettuce. The results of this stud}' on vegetable
farms were published in Mimeograph FM5, February 1941. Diagrams of packing
shed equipment and layout were included as well as descriptions and discussions
of various methods of harvesting and packing.

Harvesting and Packing Tomatoes. This stud>- was published as Mimeograph
FM6 in March 1941 and contained descriptions of methods and practices in har-
vesting and packing tomatoes in dififerent types of containers for ^■arious markets.
Diagrams of packing equipment such as conveyor belts, tables, and trays are in-
cluded, plus time data on the efficiency of dififerent methods.

Harvesting and Packing Celery. This study was published as Mimeograph
FM7 in May 1941 and supplements a previous description and analysis of packing
operations on farms producing celery. Information on equipment and practices
in the field work of harvesting celery and a diagram of the packing shed layout
for the handling of celery and carrots was included.

Rural Credit in Massachusetts. (A. H. Lindsey and Sargent Russell.) Dur-
ing the year, 273 survey records of 1940 farm operations were taken covering 10
towns in 5 counties of the State. Analysis has not been completed but pre-
liminary conclusions are as follows: (1) The best incomes can be obtained by
farmers when they combine non-farm work, such as retailing of their produce,
selling grain or machinery, or working off the farm, with their farm operations;
(2) In 1940 poultry paid better than dairy, and dairy better than vegetable; (3)
Farmers on the whole know where to borrow money at reasonable rates; (4)
Farmers borrow as little as possible and although many could use more capital
they have restricted their borrowing, not because the money isn't available, nor
because their credit standing isn't satisfactory, but because difficulties of repay-
ment outweigh the advantage of increased income due to the investment; (5) In
spite of what appears to many as a chronic lew income for farm operators, farmers
do continue to accumulate an estate in Massachusetts; (6) Tenancy (100 percent
rented farms) is low, part ownership and part rent occurs on more than a third
of the farms; (7) About two-thirds of the farms have mortgages, and on about
one out of every three mortgaged farms the mortgage amounts to over half of
what the farmer estimates his farm is worth; (8) The ability of the operator is
probably the most important variable in farm operation. The better operators
achieve greater success primarily because they have: (a) Good size of business,
(b) efficient use of labor, (c) above average crop and livestock production, and
(d) good balanced use of all resources (diversity).

Land Tenure in Massachusetts. (A. H. Lindsey and Edward Collins.) The
United States Census does not give a complete picture of land tenure in Massa-
chusetts. The 6 percent of tenancy reported by the Census refers to leased
whole farms. Our survey shows that another 31 percent of farm owners rent
land in addition to their own. This may be properly termed "field renting."

Six percent of the farms available for lease is not sufficient to provide oppor-
tunity for prospective owners to use farm tenancy as a "rung" in the agricultural
ladder in achieving ownership. The most popular way of earning an equity for
the purchase price of a farm was to work as an industrial laborer.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 7

The practice cf field renting enables Massachusetts farmers to enlarge their
farm business and thus to increase their family income. A loss of these areas
would reduce individual farm business to an uneconomic size. Rented fields
which are under cultivation usualK- are satisfactorily maintained but practices
are not equal to those on owned land. Conservation practices on rented hay and
pasture land were m^uch poorer than on owned land. Eighty-five percent of
rented fields were used for hay or pasture. Nine out of ten of the field-renting
leases were oral as compared to two out of three where whole farms were rented.
Of the part owners who were renting fields. 97 percent received no supervision or
direction from the land owners regarding the use of the land.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY
Walter S. Eisenmenger in Charge

Tobacco Projects. (Walter S. Eisenmenger and Karol J. Kucinski.)

Brown Root-Rot of Tobacco. Experience has shown that the presence of high
amounts of lignin in the crop preceding tobacco 's generally associated with the
presence of brown root-rot of tobacco. It is w-ell known that the lignin content
of plants increases from the seedling stage to maturity. With this in mind,
twelve crops — tobacco, artichoke, corn, oats, buckwheat, barley, rape, millet,
rye, wheat, sudan grass, and sorghum — were all sown at the same time, and one
third of the area of each was plowed under at three different stages of maturity
of the plants. Tobacco was planted on all areas the following year.

W hen those plants having a relatively high lignin content, such as sudan grass,
sorghum, corn, millet, rye, barley, and oats, were plowed under at maturity, the
tobacco grown on these plots the following year had lower yields and lower crop
indexes than tobacco grown following the same plants plowed under before they
reached maturity, ^^'ith those plants low in lignin, such as tobacco, artichoke,
and rape, the stage of maturity of the plant did not produce the same effects
as in the case of the high-lignin plants.

The Effect of Additions of Plant Tissue to Tobacco Land. A corn crop preceding
tobacco is injurious to the following tobacco crop. In order to find out whether
this injurious effect is due to the presence of abnormal amounts of fibrous tissue
or to the removal of nutrients consequent on the growth of the corn, corn stover,
in pieces about one inch long and in amounts comparable to that usually grown
on a given area, was applied to soil which was to be planted to tobacco. A de-
crease in both yield and quality of the tobacco crop resulted.

These results are no doubt traceable to the high lignin content of the corn
stover applied, because it is generally known that organic matter of this sort has
a tendency to lower the available nitrogen in the scil to which it is applied.

Tobacco Experiments with Application to Soil of Commercial Organic Materials.
It has been suggested that the source of organic compounds might possibly deter-
mine the yield and quality of the subsequent tobacco crop. Sugar, carbon (char-
coal), dr}- skim milk, and starch were the materials selected for comparison.
They were applied at the rate of two tons to the acre. A fifth plot, to which
nothing was added, was included as a check.

There was little difference in the action of these different materials. The
applications of charcoal or carbon gave the highest yield, as was anticipated from
the appearance of the crop in the field; but the quality of this tobacco lowered
the crop index value.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

The Absorption by Food Plants of Chemical Elements Important in Human
Nutrition. (Walter S. Eisenmenger and Karol J. Kucinski.) Some plants have
the ability to take up certain chemical elements from the soil in amounts greater
than normal, depending both on the ion involved and on the species of plant.

In previous trials, an increase in the amount of magnesium, sodium, potassium,
and chlorine added to the soil resulted in increased intake by the plant. In the
present experiments, sodium, potassium, and magnesium were compared with
calcium; and phosphate and sulfate were compared with chlorine, bromine, and
iodine, in this respect.

The increased intake of potassium, sodium, or magnesium, due to the addition
of these ions to the soil, was more pronounced than the increase in calcium re-
sulting from the addition of similar chemical quantities of calcium. Also, the
percentage increase of chlorine, bromine, and iodine in the plants when these
elements were added to the soil was higher than that of sulfur or phosphorus
when similar chemical quantities of these anions were added.

This indicates that those elements which are more abundant in sea water than
in soil water are the ones which can be introduced into plant tissue with little
difficulty. In some respects it would seem that our land plants have not fully
adjusted themse'ves to a land environment.

The Intake by Plants of Elements Applied to the Soil in Pairs Compared to
the Intake of the Same Elements Applied Singly. (Walter S. Eisenrnenger and
Karol J. Kucinski.) Cabbage, lettuce, beans, and celery were grown on plots
to which various elements had been added, in pairs, in quantities known to be
excessive but not toxic. Chemicals compounds, used in all possible combina-
tions of two, supplied calcium, potassium, and sodium at the rate of 250 parts per
million of soil and lithium at the rate of 100 parts per million. The exceeding
toxicity of lithium to plants necessitated application at the lower rate and at a
considerable time before planting. The calcium intake by cabbage, celery, and
lettuce was decreased when either sodium or potassium salts were applied with the
calcium. The potassium intake was increased in this combination. The lithium
intake was decreased when potassium was applied with the lithium. The potas-
sium intake was decreased somewhat when plants were grown on a combination
of potassium and sodium.

Magnesium Requirements of Plants. (Walter S. Eisenmenger and Karol J.
Kucinski.) Various species of plants have been grown on a plot known to be
deficient in magnesium. There is little evidence to indicate a reason for the varied
reactions of different plants to the scarcity of magnesium ions in the soil. Dif-
ferent members of the same family react differently. Sudan grass shows no
symptoms, nor does timothy; but regular field corn becomes chlorotic, and hybrid
sweet corn scarcely sets any seed. Pumpkin vines show distinct chlorosis; water-
melons do so only at maturity.

There is evidence now that plants ma\- suffer from the lack cf this element, yet
may not show any chlorosis or lack of chlorophyll formation. Strawberry plants
do not become chlorotic, yet new runners are formed more abundantly and the
strawberry row is wider where magnesium is applied, while the row becomes
narrow where no magnesium is applied. The very common garden weed, purslane
(Portulaca oleracea), called by the farmer "pussley," forms a thick mat where
magnesium was applied and ceases to grow, except in rare instances, where the
soil is deficient in magnesium. If a plant can be found, it is not chlorotic. Apple
leaves from trees on magnesium-deficient soils are not chlorotic, but areas of the
leaves become dark brown and eventualK' die, much like the leaves from a potash-
deficient plant.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 9

On areas of the plot where linae was applied, the sugar content of the fruits was
increased in some instances. This was true of blueberries and grapes, but not of
watermelons.

The Absorption and Excretion of Potassium and Calcium by the Roots of
Barley in Different Solution Media and Changes in pH. (Walter S. Eisenmenger
and George Wenzel.) Determinations were made of the absorption and excre-
tion of potassium and calcium, by (barley) plants and excised root systems of
barley, from and into one-salt solutions of different concentrations, and into
distilled water. A study of the changes in hydrogen-ion concentration of the
solutions was also included. The salts used were acid potassium phosphate
(KH2PO4), and calcium nitrate (Ca(N03)2). The length of the experimental
period was 72 hours in all tests.

The intensity of absorption and excretion increased with the length of the ex-
perimental period. In general the absorption increased rapidly after the first
24 hours, while the excretion increased slowly throughout.

The reaction of the media was never stable in the presence of live root systems.
The pH values increased during the daylight hours and decreased somewhat
during the night. The continual change of pH values was, undoubtedly, tied up
with absorption and excretion phenomena of electrolytes, but to state that the
degree of change was absolutely proportional to the rates of absorption and ex-
cretion would imply the exclusion of buffer action and other controlling factors.

The proportion of absorbable ions absorbed during a given period decreased
as the concentration of these ions in the solution decreased. In this way plants
can adapt themselves, to a considerable extent, to solutions of low concentration.

For the first two days potassium was more firmly held by the roots than calcium,
after which calcium was excreted in larger amounts, but no considerable excre-
tion of either was observed. The excretion of ions into salt solutions was greater
than into distilled water.

An equivalent absorption and excretion of calcium and potassium did not
take place, except for extremely short periods.

The results with excised roots show that roots alone are not capable of a uniform
absorption of ions.

Attention is called to the fact that energy exchanges are involved in the proc-
esses of absorption and excretion. Permeability and osmosis alone are inade-
quate to explain these phenomena in the living plant.

Sunflowers and Their Possibilities. (Karol J. Kucinski and Walter S. Eisen-
menger.) This year's growing season was an exceptionally good one for sun-
flowers, which grew to maturity and formed very large seed heads. Seedings
of one seed per hill every 18 inches in 36-inch rows produced a yield of over two
tons per acre of well-formed large seeds. This yield is much larger than that
obtained in past years, indicating that a good corn-growing season is also a good
sunflower season. At the current wholesale market price of sunflower seed the
value per acre is about $225 to $250. This crop would seem to have great pos-
sibilities if grown commercially, even on some of our lands which have a high
per acre valuation. Since it is somewhat difficult during this present national
emergency to import from abroad as much sunflower seed as is necessary, it
might be feasible for some of our farmers to grow the crop commercially.

The cil obtained from sunflower seed is very high in content of vitamins A
and D, but it is used in this country primarily as a drying oil in paints. In eastern
continental Europe the peasant population has always eaten the seed. It has
been thought by some scientists that this seemingly habit-forming practice of
eating the sunflower seed is an instinctive effort on the part of the individual to
supplement his usual deficient diet with the high nutritive contents of the seed.

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Soil Conservation Research Projects. (Karol J. Kucinski and Walter S.

Eisenmenger.)

A Study of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Wind-Blown Soils. Only
certain types of soil in Massachusetts are normally affected by wind. The object
of this study is to determine whether there is any relation between the physical-
chemical properties of these soils and their susceptibility to wind erosion. Soils
from wind-eroded and non-wind-eroded areas have been examined for their
physical and chemical properties, such as mineral and organic colloidal fractions,
plasticity, hygroscopicity, mechanical analysis, heat of wetting, heat of con-
ductivity, capacity of absorption, and such other soil properties as are deemed
cf value. The effect of chemical and physical charges in soil, brought about
by the addition of fertilizer, lime, or organic matter, has been studied by means
of a small wind tunnel. Preliminary tests were sufficiently satisfactory to warrant
the construction of a larger wind tunnel with certain modifications which should
make it more suitable for the purpose.

Experimentation with Topsail Removal. (In collaboration with Arthur B.
Beaumont.) In order to measure the effects of loss of topsoil on yield, the topsoil
(to plow depth) was totally removed from one plot with a bulldozer, while an
adjacent plot was left undisturbed as a check. Spring wheat and white sweet
clover were grown on fertilized and unfertilized portions of these two areas.

The increases in yield due to fertilization were significant on both areas. How-
ever, the decreases in yield due to topsoil removal are alarming. With spring
wheat, the decrease in yield where the topsoil had been removed was 63 percent
on the fertilized plot and 91 percent on the unfertilized. With white sweet clover,
the results were even mere extreme: where topsoil had been removed, there was
81 percent decrease in yield on the fertilized plot and total cr p failure (100
percent decrease) on the unfertilized plot. These results show the value of the
topsoil and the loss to the farmer if his topsril were totally removed at one time.
Under normal conditions only a small part of the topsoil is removed each year
by erosion, and the farmer is not so conscious of his loss..

Nature of Soil Erosion in Massachusetts. (Arthur B. Beaumont and Karcl
J. Kucinski.) Accelerated water erosion of Massachusetts soils is widespread
but of slight to moderate intensity. However, cultivation of steep slopes through
a long period has caused the removal of the entire original topsoil in places and
its accumulation at the foot of slopes within comparatively short distances from
the point of origin. The character of the soils is important as affecting the nature
of the erosion. Being of medium texture and low in colloidal matter, they have
low suspensibility in water. A preliminary examination of important soil types
gave dispersion ratios ranging from 9.3 to 15.3 with most of them below 11.0.
Because of the low suspensibility of the soils, they are deposited as soon as the
velocity of the water carrying them is slightly lessened. Streams in this section
rarely run muddy, and then only at times of high flood.

The pictures on page 53 illustrate (1) the difference in the suspensibility in
water of Merrimac fine sandy loam, an important soil of the Connecticut Valley,
and Memphis silt loam, an important soil of the Mississippi Valley; and (2) the
depth of topsoil accumulated by sheet erosion of a cultivated Massachusetts
slope.

Experimentation with Historical "Soil-Test Plots." (Walter S. Eisenmenger
and Karol J. Kucinski.) Fifty-one years ago a series of plots was inaugurated
to study the effects on the soil and crops of a long-time fixed-fertilizer program.
The purpose was to find out the fertilizer needs of the soil tested. Results of
these tests published about twenty years ago showed "that fertilizer needs are

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 11

determined as much by the farming system followed and the kind of crops grjwri
as they are by the tj'pe of soil being farmed."

Since that time these plots have been used for experiments with fruit trees,
following the original system of fertilization. The fruit trees have now baen
removed, leaving a field with limed and unlimed portions of plots which for the
past fifty years have had applications of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid,
singly and in various combinations. The check plots have been left unfertilized
during the entire period. Preliminary observations during the past year hive
shown that the fertility level of all the plots is much higher on the limed than on
the unlimed portions. The unlimed portions of the check plots showed crop
failures and indications of nutrient deficiences.

It is the intention to continue this study with the view of observing m )re
carefully the various nutrient deficiencies singly and in combination as they
appear in the various crops to be grown on this area.

Potato Variety Trials. (Ralph W. Donaldson, Walter S. Eisenmenger, and
Karol J. Kucinski.) Based on yields of marketable size, the ranking of potato
varieties grown in plots at the college during the season of 1941 were Sequsia,
Earlaine No. 2, Green Mountain, Russet Rural, Katahdin, Houma, Irish Cobbler,
Red Warba, Sebago, and Chippewa.

Soil Nitrates Lower pH Reactions. (Ralph W. Donaldson, Walter S. Eisen-
menger, and Hrant M. Yegian.) A marked depression of pH reactions which
occurred in potted soil as nitrates formed and accumulated was mentioned last
year in reporting "the effect of fineness of limestone on soil reaction."

Results of a similar trial in progress now, covering a 12-month period, sub-
stantiate the previous findings. In this later trial oats were successively grown
on a duplicate series of limed and unlimed soil, in an attempt to remove by plant as-
similation the nitrates which develop. Both the cropped and the uncropped soil
of any given treatment first exhibited similar reactions except for slight varia-
tions dependent upon ammonia development. When nitrates developed, how-
ever, the uncropped soils dropped about .7 of a pH below corresponding cropped
soils, depending upon the relative amounts of nitrates present. This situation
prevailed within limed and unlimed treatments.

Since the product of organic matter decomposition is ultimately nitrates,
whirh under seme conditions may accumulate in the soil solution and cause a
lowered pH reading, this factor may be important when recommending lime
for sensitive crops like potatoes and tobacco. A field sample which shows high
nitrates after harvest may give a pH reading about .5 lower than a sample taken
during the active growing period of the crop when nitrates are being absorbed.
For example, it is conceivable that a potato soil during the active growing period
of the crop may show low nitrates in the soil solution and test pH 5.5; yet when
tested after harvest, with nitrate accumulated, it may test pH 5.0, for which a
light lime application might (wrongly) be suggested. Whether such differences
occur under field conditions at least merits consideration.

Borax Trials on Several Crops. (Ralph W. Donaldson, Walter S. Eisenmenger,
and W. G. Colby.) Applications of borax to established stands of alfalfa have
been continued on more than 20 farms in the State. Both spring and fall applica-
tions at 25 and 50 pound rates have been compared, with no evidence at all of in-
jury from the higher rates. In fields where alfalfa "yellows" appeared this season,
borax applied prior to this spring effected marked control. This was evident also
in single treatments of 25 pounds per acre applied in the fall of 1939, indicating,
thus far at least, a two-season carry-over from treatment. The effect of borax
applied in the spring was less marked in controlling yellows on the crop which

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

followed. A marked deficiency of normal rainfall occurred following application
of the borax. Evidence that borax may contribute to longevity of alfalfa is
indicated by plant response t j two seasons' applications compared with the check
in two fields.

Borax was broadcast at 25 pound rates in strips on a variety of crops growing
on six market garden farms. The treatments were made early in May, without
regard to planting time and seedling stage. In no case did growers observe any
injurious effects from the borax.

Fertilizer containing 20 pounds of borax per ton was drilled in bands at a ton
rate on an acre of Cobbler potatoes planted by D. Wilson Smith, Scituate. There
were no symptoms of plant injury which could be attributed to the borax.

Oat Variety Tests. (W. G. Colby.) Eleven named varieties of oats, including
several of the recently developed, smut-resistant strains, were grown at Amherst
during the past season. The results are reported in Control Bulletin 111, Seed
Inspection (pages 92-93), where these named varieties are compared with a
number of lots of commercial seeds.

The Effect of Arsenious, Arsenic, and Antimony Oxides on Soil and Plant
Growth. (Walter S. Eisenmenger and Hrant M. Yegian.) Pot culture studies
under greenhouse conditions on the effect of arsenious, arsenic, and antimony
oxides on Merrimac fine sandy loam and subsequent crop growth are being con-
tinued. Six successive crops, barley and buckwheat alternating, were grown in
the same soil in pots during 1939 and 1941. On June 11, 1941, tobacco seedlings
were transplanted to these treated pots. The tobacco was harvested Novem-
ber 14, 1941.

Arsenious oxide, 500 p. p.m., retarded the growth of tobacco and prevented
blossoming; while 500 p. p.m. with organic matter produced a fully mature,
normal plant. Concentrations of 1000 p. p.m. or over of arsenious oxide were
very toxic even in the presence of organic matter.

Arsenic oxide, 750 p. p.m. reduced the growth of tobacco and prevented blos-
coming; 750 p. p.m. with organic matter, however, produced a fully maturCf
normal plant. Concentrations of 1000 p. p.m. or over of arsenic oxide, with or
without organic matter, were very toxic to tobacco.

The arsenic content of a few of the tobacco leaves, stems, and seeds was de-
terminedi by the micro Gutzeit method, modified according to C. C. Cassil.
The results of these analyses may be summarized as follows:

1. At the low concentration of arsenic (240 p. p.m. As) in the soil, the stems
and leaves contained 3 to 6 p. p.m. As, while none was detected in the seed.

2. At the higher concentration of arsenic (480 p. p.m. As) in the soil, the
stem and leaves contained 12 to 18 p. p.m. As, and no seeds were produced.

3. Indications are that the concentration of arsenic in the tobacco leaves
exceeds that in the stems. The number of determinations, however, was not
great enough to warrant definite conclusions at this time.

The tobacco plants in pots containing 1500 and 2000 p. p.m. arsenious oxide
made no growth during the five-month period. At the end of five months these
plants were transplanted to AsgOs free soil. While these plants have resumed
growth, it is not a norma! but a rosette growth. This may be due either to the
age of the transplants, short daylight conditions, presence of arsenic in the plant,
or to a combination of all these factors.

The antimony oxide treatment did not affect the growth of tobacco at any
concentration (250 to 2000 p. p.m. antimony oxide).

•By John W. Kuzmeski, Senior Chemist, Control Laboratory of the Massachusetts Agricultural
Experiment Station.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 13

Hybrid Field Corn. (Hrant M. Yegian.) There is a definite need for an early-
maturing hybrid field corn for the higher plateau regions of Worcester County and
the western counties of Massachusetts. Accordingly, 64 strains of hybrid seed
corn were planted for trial during the past season. A few of these strains, which
matured in 90 to 100 days, will be tested next season in Athol, Massachusetts,
against the local-grown varieties in that region. Last season 180 inbred lines and
single crosses were crossed with Wis. (CC4XCC8). Most of these crosses will
be tested for earlj- maturity and yield this coming season at the College Farm.

Onion Breeding. (Hrant M. Yegian.) Hybrids between Allium fistulosum
(type Nebuka) and A. cepa (type Ebenezer) were secured in the spring of 1940.
All the flowers of two umbels from Nebuka plants were emasculated twice daily
for about two weeks and dusted daily with pollen grain from Ebenezer. Of the
230 plants from one of the umbels 80 percent were hybrid between the two species.
Only 10 percent of the plants were hybrid from the second Umbel. Although there
were no apparent morphological differences between the hybrids and the Nebuka
at the seedling stage, the hybrid plants could be recognized in the field by their
vigor, the semi-circular leaves growing close together, and the color of the bulbs.
Some of these hybrids will be treated with calchicine in an effort to secure tetra-
ploids.

Sufficient seed for testing has been produced from a strain of Ebenezer selection
that will mature bulbs about two weeks earlier than the valley-grown varieties.
Final field tests will be made before the strain is recommended to the growers.

Data from a two-year preliminary experiment show that there is no significant
difference between the yield of set onions grown in double rows and those grown
in single rows 14 inches apart. Planting sets in double rows 4 inches apart and
placing the double rows 24 inches apart would greatly facilitate the use of power
cultivators.

Influence of Soil Fertility on Productiveness of Pasture Species. (Walter S.
Eisenmenger and Hrant M. Yegian.) It has long been observed that there is a
close relationship between the fertility of the so'l and the botanical composition
of the vegetation growing upon it. It would be of great interest, therefore, to
know whether there are specific levels of soil fertility which are required by
different species of pasture plants in order that they may thrive and maintain
themselves over an extended period.

The data covering one year of preliminary field plot experiment on the effect
of four levels of soil fertility on thirteen species of grasses in pure stand warrant
the following general statements:

1. That all the species responded to increase in soil fertility.

2. That the species which produced poorly at a low fertility level gave much
greater percentage increases in yield at higher fertility levels. Meadow foxtail,
for example, produced an average of 0.19 pounds of dry hay in the plots that had
no fertilizer, and 0.54 pounds (184 percent increase) in the plots treated at the
rate of 1600 pounds of 5-8-7 per acre. On the other hand, meadow fescue, which
averaged 0.48 pounds of dry hay in no-treatment plots, produced 0.76 pounds
(58 percent increase) at the highest fertility level (1600 pounds 5-8-7 per acre).
However, in each of the four levels of soil fertility, the species which produced
greater total dry weight in no-treatment plots outyielded the species which
produced poorly in no-treatment plots.

3. That the better-producing species were those well adapted to the climate.
Apparently temperature is one of the important factors influencing yield. Peren-
nial rye grass and fowl bluegrass did well in cool weather, but during the heat of
summer they dried out; whereas meadow fescue, reed canary grass, and orchard
grass maintained comparatively well-sustained growth throughout the season.

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Experiments at Amherst with Pasture Seeding Mixtures. (W. G. Colby.)
For the purpose of studying different strains of grasses and legumes under actual
grazing conditions, three series of plots were laid out in 1940, on land which had
been brought to a high state of fertility through the liberal use of lime, manure,
and commercial fertilizer. Two series of 19 plots each were seeded August 23,
1940, and a third series of 13 plots was seeded April 18, 1941. The same mixtures
were included in each series as far as possible. In several instances, limited seed
supplies prevented the use of certain mixtures in more than one or two of the
three series.

The object of the experiment was to compare a systiem of hay-pasture manage-
ment with pasturing alone and to test summer seeding of pasture mixtures against
spring seeding. During 1941, Series I was subjected to four periods of intensive
grazing by a small herd of dairy cows: in May, July, August, and October.
Series II was first cut for hay before being subjected to three periods of grazing,
which coincided with the last three grazing periods of Series I. The spring-seeded
series (III) was grazed only lightly at the same time as Series II. The following
observations and results deserve mention:

1. Brome grass and meadow fescue (Svalof's early) showed the most promise
as being desirable companion grasses for Ladino Clover. The cutting of an
early hay crop followed by several periods of intensive grazing appeared to be the
most desirable way of utilizing these grasses.

2. Hay t3'pes of orchard grass (Scandia and Commercial) as well as the less
vigorous pasture types (S26 and S143) did not combine well with Ladino Clover.
The orchard grass, irrespective of how it was managed, tended to crowd out the
clover even during the first season. This occurred partly because orchard grass
grows vigorously throughout the season and partly because it produces tussocks
or bunches. Animals grazing on Ladino Clover mixtures with this grass tended
to graze the clover growing between the bunches of orchard grass much more
closely than they did the clumps of grass, even though the orchard grass was kept
in a young, active vegetative growth stage at all times. As a result of preferential
grazing, the stand of orchard grass continually improved and the stand of clover
deteriorated.

These observations may explain why, in Massachusetts, orchard grass in
Ladino Clover seeding mixtures invariabl}- crowds out Ladino Clover, com-
pletel}^ after three or four years and results in a pure stand of orchard grass.

The most promising mixtures using orchard grass were those which included
alfalfa and which were cut for hay before being grazed. For this purpose, the
later-maturing pasture strains (S26 and S143) were much superior to the hay
strains. There is a real need for a hay strain which will mature from a week to ten
days later than do any strains now available.

3. The hay-pasture system of management rather than pasture alone appears
to have excellent possibilities as a way of utilizing a number of these early matur-
ing grasses (brome, meadow fescue, orchard) not only in producing a good early
hay crop but also in providing e.xcellent feed for midsummer grazing. In these
experiments, about two tons of dry hay were cut to the acre in the middle of June,
followed roughly by three quarters of a ton of dry herbage as grazing the latter
part of July, about the same quantity again late in August, and another half ton
early in October.

4. Observations on palatability indicated that timothy ranked first among
the grasses, followed in order by brome grass, meadow fescue, red top, orchard
grass, and tall fescue (Alta strain). Alfalfa, red clover, and alsike, although quite
palatable as young plants, became less palatable than Ladino Clover as the plants
became older and developed woody stems. The woody, unpalatable stem growth
of alfalfa is a serious handicap to the use of this plant for grazing purp&s;;s.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 15

5. A good stand of alfalfa was obtained in all of the hay-pasture mixtures
(Series II), but only weak stands were obtained when an early period of grazing
took the place of a crop of hay (Series I). Apparently alfalfa must be allowed
to become well established before grazing is begun.

6. Bird's-foot trefoil, under the condition of these experiments, showed no
promise whatsoever.

COOPERATIVE TOBACCO INVESTIGATIONS

Conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agri-
culture in Cooperation with the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment

Station

C. V. Kightlinger, U. S. D. A., in Charge

Black Root-Rot. (C. V. Kightlinger.) Black root-rot is one of the most com-
mcn diseases of tobacco, and probably the most important disease of Havana
Seed and shade tobaccos in the Connecticut Valley at the present time. The
disease is recognized generally as being highly impcrtant on the basis of losses
caused by moderate to heavy infections which are easily recognized as black
root-rot. Its importance is not so generally recognized when losses are caused by
light to moderate infections, largely because of the tendency to accept the low
yields as a matter of course instead of attributing them to specific causes, and also
because black root-rot is not always easily recognized in cases of light infections,
even though they may be sufficient to cause low yields. It is reasonably certain
that black root-rot causes light to moderate damage to tobacco in the Connecticut
Valley much more generally than is commonly recognized at the present time.

An effective and convenient method of controlling the disease would mean
much to the tobacco growing industry. The disease and the conditions under
which it occurs are of such a nature, however, as to make resistance to the disease
the most feasible control method after soil conditions favorable to the disease
have become established; and the use of resistant strains, even before soil condi-
tions favorable to the development of the disease have become established,
would permit greater range in fertilizing practices, particularly in the use of lime,
than is otherwise advisable, which would often promote the production of better
tobacco. Consequently the attempt to develop strains of Havana Seed which
are more resistant to black root-rot and more acceptable in type, quality, yield,
and certain other characteristics, is being continued. The importance of the
disease and the prospects of eventual success seem to justify the continuation of
the project.

The plan as it is being worked at the present time is two-fold. In the first
place, selections of Havana 211, which is itself moderately to highly resistant to
black root-rot under Connecticut Valley conditions but which is not entirely
acceptable in type, quality, and certain habits of growth, have been made to
improve the strain in type and date of maturity. In the second place, new strains
have been produced by crossing strains of Havana Seed which are resistant to black
ro3t-rot but not entirely acceptable in type and quality, with strains of common
Havana Seed which are not resistant to black root-rot but are acceptable in type
and quality, in the hope of obtaining new strains which embody the desirable
features of both parents.

Tests of the selections of Havana 211 and of the crosses have been made, and
are being made, in the greenhouse and in the field, to determine their value.
Some of the selections of Havana 211 show improvements over the original
strain in certain characferistics, but little if any improvement in resistance to

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

black root-rot or in habits of growth. Earlier maturity, which was greatly de-
sired, was not obtained in any of the selections of Havana 21L Some of the
selections from the crosses possess sufficient resistance to yield well under black
root-rot conditions in the Connecticut Valley, and also show distinct improve-
ments in important characteristics of type and habits of growth, including earlier
maturity. Some of these selections are as early maturing as the strains of common
Havana Seed which were used in making the crosses. They seem, also, to be supe-
rior to either parent in some important characteristics such as shape of leaf and
size of veins. These particular strains deserve more testing to determine their
full resistance to black root-rot and also to determine the permanency of the im-
provements in type and habits of growth which have been manifested so far.
It seems reasonably certain, however, that definite progress has been made.

Brown Root-Rot. (C. V. Kightlingcr.) Brown root-rot causes some damage
to tobacco in the Connecticut Valley at the present time and probably would
cause much more damage if it were not that the circumstances under which the
disease ordinarily occurs are now known and are avoided in large measure in
present practices of growing tobacco in the Connecticut Valley. The practices
of not rotating tobacco with crops known to produce soil conditions favorable to
the development of brown root-rot and of growing tobacco continuously after
tobacco for as long a time as may be possible are applicable in the control of the
disease where the acreage of tobacco is being maintained or reduced somewhat,
as has been the case in the Connecticut Valley during the last few years. This
method of control, however, is restrictive and is not always convenient to follow
even under present circumstances, but the rather dilligent application of the
practice has reduced the prevalence and severity of the disease so that it has been
of minor importance economically in the Connecticut Valley during the last
several years.

Brown root-rot may become more prevalent and injurious in the Connecticut
Valley in case of an increase in acreage of tobacco, because of the necessity of
using additional land which, on account of previous cropping, may be in a condi-
tion favorable to the development cf the disease. If this occurs, it will contravene
the only measure for the control of brown root-rot of tobacco which is generally
recognized at the present time as being applicable to field use. Thsrefore, a meas-
ure which would control brown root-rot of tobacco satisfactorily under varied
circumstances and which would be convenient to use on considerable acreages
would mean much to the growing of tobacco in the Connecticut Valley in the
event that the acreage is increased. Such a measure would be useful also under
present circumstances, especially if it would permit rotation of tobacco with other
crops in general.

With this situation in mind, experiments were begun in 1939 to obtain further
information on the relationship of soil fertility conditions to the development
and to the control of brown root-rot of tobacco. One purpose in particular is to
study the effect of certain soil treatments on the fertility levels of the soil and to
study the effect of different degrees of fertility of the soil on the occurrence of
brown root-rot of tobacco following the crops used in the experiment. It is
desired especially to learn whether brown root-rot will develop in tobacco which
is grown continuously after tobacco under low fertility conditions of the soil.
And finally, in case brown root-rot of tobacco develops as a result of these ex-
periments, another purpose is to study means of hastening recovery.

The arrangement and procedure of the experiments designed to determine
whether low fertility of the soil may promote the development of brown root-rot
of tobacco, consists of four sets of six one-twentieth acre plots in which tobacco,
corn, millet, rye, clover, and timothy-red top mixture are grown in the same

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 17

manner, except for differences in the use of fertilizers. On two sets of these
plots an application of 10-10-10 fertilizer has been made each spring at the rate
of 3000 pounds per acre to the plots planted to tobacco, and 2000 pounds per
acre to the plots planted to the other crops, in a manner suitable for fertilizing
each particular crop. On two other sets of plots no fertilizer has been used, except
nitrate of soda which has been applied to all plots alike at the rate of 400 to 500
pounds per acre, to aid in reducing the fertility level of the soil in these plots.
The crops were all harvested and removed from the plots each year according to
regular farming practices. In an additional experiment on a quarter-acre plot
considerably removed from the other experiments, tobacco is being grown con-
tinuously after tobacco without any fertilizer at all being used. No results can
be reported at this time.

The control phase of the experiment is contingent on the outcome of the other
phase; consequently the details of the control phase are not given here.

Soil Treatments for Tobacco Seedbeds. (C. V. Kightlinger.) Damping-ofif
diseases and weeds are troublesome in tobacco seedbeds in the Connecticut
Valley. Consequently treatments for their control are important.

Experimental work to test the effectiveness of spring and fall treatments of
seedbed soil by steaming and with formaldehyde, and of fall treatments with
chlorpicrin and with calcium cyanamid, was begun in 1940 and continued in 1941.
The seedbed used for these tests had been prepared especially for the purpose by
inoculating uniformly and heavily with damping-off organisms during the spring
of 1940. Evidence that the seedbed was abundantly infested with disease organ-
isms was shown by the damping-off of tobacco seedlings grown during the spring
and even into late summer of 1940. Care was taken also to make certain that
seeds of the more common weeds of tobacco seedbeds were disseminated evenly
throughout the soil.

The steaming was done by the pan method at a steam pressure of about 100
pounds applied for 20 minutes, with the pan kept in place for another 20 minutes
after steaming had been discontinued. The spring treatment with formaldehyde
consisted of a standard solution made of 1 gallon of formalin to 50 gallons of
water, applied at the rate of one-half gallon of solution to 1 square foot of soil
surface. The fall treatments were steaming, as described above; formaldehyde
solution of standard concentration and double the standard concentration,
applied in both cases at the rate of one-half gallon of solution to 1 square foot of
soil surface; chlorpicrin, applied at the rate of 2 cubic centimeters per square
foot of soil surface, and also at double this rate of application, to a depth of about
4 inches into the soil, by means of commercial applicator commonly used for the
purpose; calcium cyanamid, applied at the rate of one-half pound per square yard
of soil surface, and also at double this rate. In both cases, the calcium cyanamid
was worked into the soil thoroughly, three-fourths of the total amount to a depth
of 4 to 5 inches and cne-fourth to a depth of about 1 inch. The soil treated with
calcium cyanamid and chlorpicrin was of proper moisture content for effective
treatment at the time and was moistened daily for several days thereafter. The
soil temperature at the time formaldehyde, calcium cyanamid, and chlorpicrin
were applied in the fall was 67° F., and changed little for a considerable time fol-
lowing the treatments.

No damping-off of tobacco seedlings occurred during the season of 1941,
even in the untreated plots of the seedbed, in spite of the fact that tobacco was
seeded at double the usual rate and the bed was watered thoroughly every day,
and sometimes oftener, to promote damping-off. The unusually warm, dry weather
which occurred during the spring of 1941 was sufficient, apparently, to prevent
damping-off in spite of the effort that was made to promote its development.

18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Consequently the comparative value of the treatments for controlling damping-off
could not be determined.

The treatments all gave some control of weeds. There were wide differences,
however, in the different treatments and also in different replications of the same
treatment, except in the case of steaming, which gave consistently good control
in all replications of either the fall or the spring treatments. Some replications
of the treatments with calcium cyanam.id, chlorpicrin, and double-strength formal-
dehyde solution applied in the fall gave fairly good control of weeds; but these
were largely offset by unsatisfactory control in other replications of the same
treatments. Steaming was the only treatment that gave entirely satisfactory
control of weeds.

The experiment is being repeated.

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Victor A. Rice in Charge

A Study of the Mineral Elements of Cow's Milk. (J. G. Archibald and C. H "
Parsons.) During the winter of 1940-41 the possibilit\- of increasing the man-
ganese content of milk by feeding supplemental manganese was investiga.ted.
Eight cows in the college herd were divided into two groups of four each, and fed
manganous sulfate (1 ounce daily) by the double reversal system. Monthly
sampling and analyses of the milk of the individual cows from November through
April, showed that, regardless of group or individual, the feeding of the manganese
supplement definitely increased the manganese content of the milk. On the
average the amount of manganese in the milk of cows receiving the supplement
was just about double that in the milk from cows not receiving it. (46.1 gammas
of Mn per liter of milk as contrasted with 23.5 gammas per liter). Advance
announcement of this finding has been published in Milk Plant Monthly, Vol.
30, No. 9, September, 1941.

Investigation of the Merits of Legume and Grass Silage for Massachusetts
Agriculture. (J. G. Archibald and C. H. Parsons.) As a result of comparative
trials extending over three years with molasses and phosphoric acid as silage
preservatives, this station has discontinued the use of phosphoric acid as a pre-
servative. The reasons for this are:

1. Molasses silage has been definitely more palatable to milking cows than
phosphoric acid silage.

2. Molasses costs somewhat less, even when the much smaller amount of
phosphoric acid required is taken into consideration.

Work this past year with grass silage has centered chiefly around its effect on
milk flavor in contrast with the effect of corn silage. Part of the herd was fed
grass silage and another part corn silage, and the schedule was reversed at mid-
season. Individual milk samples from all cows milking at the time have been
taken for a period of three days in each month from November through April
and judged for flavor. There are some discrepancies among the results, and the
differences are not very marked, but in general the grass silage has produced milk
with a higher flavor score and with less incidence and persistence of the common
off-flavors. Individual off-flavors most reduced when grass silage was fed were
malt, bitter, rancid, and oxidized in the order named.

A Study of Urea as a Partial Substitute for Protein in the Rations of Dairy
Cows. (J. G. Archibald.) This project has been actively conducted throughout
the year. Results are available from two years of double reversal trials with eight

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 19

cows and from a full lactation period of continuous feeding of urea to eight other
cows in comparison with a similar group continuously fed the regular herd ration.
Final conclusions cannot be drawn until the second year of continuous feeding of
urea to the eight cows, just referred to, has been completed, and until at least a
year's results are available from a group of cows more recently put onto a control
ration containing no urea. This last phase of the investigation has been in-
cluded in order to check more closely the adequacy of basal protein levels in the
ration. All things considered, to date the urea ration seems to be producing
results similar to those obtained on the regular ration.

DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY
Leon A. Bradley in Charge

Nitrification in Soils Containing Plant Residues of High Lignin Content.

(James E. Fuller, cooperating with the Agronomy Department.) During the
growing season of 1940 thirteen plots were under observation. During the
growing season of 1939 one of these plots had remained fallow, and each of the
remaining twelve had been planted with a forage crop. There were no duplicates.
Then, in 1940, the whole area was planted with tcbacco, after the plant residues
of the preceding crop had been plowed under. Soil samples were taken in the
spring of 1941, in mid-season, and again after the harvest. The soils were studied
for their ability to nitrify their own nitrogen, added dried blood, and added
ammonium sulfate, respectively. The results of the nitrification studies were
compared with the quantity and quality of tobacco produced on the plots in
1940. There was some evidence, in the dried-blood study, that plots giving less
active nitrification gave poorer quantity and quality of tobacco.

The study was repeated on a second field in 1941. The set-up was replicated
six times, giving 78 plots instead of the 13 studied in 1940. Results of 1941 have
not been analyzed sufficiently to permit any statement at the present time.

Comparative Study of Certain Media Employed for Fecal-Flora Studies.

(James E. Fuller and Irwin Fried.) Much of the investigational work on fecal
bacteriology, in connection with nutritional studies, is based upon determining
the ratio of bacteria of the lactobacillus group to those of the coliform group,
because a predominance of lactobacilli is considered desirable for intestinal
health. It is desirable, also, to differentiate the members of the coliform group
present in order to make a useful interpretation of results.

The present study compared certain media commonly employed to enu-
merate coliform bacteria. Results were as follows: litmus-lactose agar, brom-
cresol-purple agar, and lactose agar with Andrade's indicator were not selective
for the coliform group of bacteria, and gave no differentiation within the group.
Endo's agar and E. M. B. (eosin-methylene blue) agar gave distinctive colonies of
the group and good differentiation, but both produced substantially fewer col-
onies than lactose agar when plates were made with these three media from pure
cultures of bacteria of the coliform group. This indicates that both Endo's and
E. M. B. media give low counts of coliform bacteria when they are used in fecal-
flora studies. Certain combinations of non-coliform bacteria produced reactions
on these media that could be confused with those of the coliform group. MacCon-
key's bile-salt agar inhibited growth of bacteria of the group to a greater extent
than did either Endo's or E. M. B. media, and did not give satisfactory differen-
tiation within the group.

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

The Bacteriology of Choc3late Syrups, Cocoa Powders, and Chocolate Milk.

(James E. Fuller and R. W. ^'wanson, in cooperation with W. S. Mueller of the
Department of Dairy Industry.) Bacteria counts showed wide variation in the
numbers of bacteria in the different syrups and powders. Most of the bacteria
identified were aerobic sporulating bacteria of the Bacillus subtilis group. No
Gram-negative bacteria of intestinal type were found, which would indicate
that the syrups and powders were free from intestinal contamination. Bacteria
of this type inoculated into solutions of the syrups and powders survived only
a few days.

Growth of bacteria was not as rapid, nor were the counts as large, in milk with
syrups or powders added as in the same milk supply without the addition. Thus,
it appears that the syrups and powders had some inhibitory effect on bacterial
growth. Further studies indicated that the tannins present in the syrups and
powders were responsible for the inhibition. Oxalic acid and theobromine, in
concentrations found in chocolate or cocoa, had no apparent effect on bacterial
growth. Molds and yeasts appeared to be more active than bacteria in causing
spoilage of chocolate milk.

Studies of Methods for Determining the Sanitary Quality of Drinking Utensils.

(Ralph L. France, W. E. Cas?idy, and James E. Fuller.) Work en this project
has been completed, with the following results: (1) A swabbing method is the best
for recovering bacteria from the lips of a glass. (2) A wet swab is more efficient
than a dry or moist swab. (3) The most satisfactory suspending fluid is one having
the following composition: 2.5 cc. of 0.04 M MgS04, 2.5 cc. of 0.01 M CaClg,
0.5 cc. of 0.001 M FeCla, and 1.25 cc. of Butterfield's buffered phosphate solu-
tion made up to 1003 cr. with distilled water. (4) The most satisfactory plating
medium was one with the following substances: Neopeptone, 10 grams; yeast
extract, 5 grams; de.>vtrose, 0.5 gram; NaCl, 5 grams; and agar, 15 grams. The
reaction of this medium is adjusted to pH 7.5. (5) Inoculation of a swab, or 1 cc.
of a 1/10 dilution of washings from the swab, into dextrose broth frequently re-
vealed the presence of mouth streptococci. This test has considerable sanitary
significance when used in conjunction with the count. The addition of potassium
tellurite to the dextrose broth failed to eliminate interfering organisms.

The Effectiveness of Certain Detergents and Procedures Employed for the
Cleansing of Eating and Drinking Utensils. (Ralph L. France.) Field studies
have been made of the methods employed in the cleansing and sanitization of
eating and drinking utensils in public establishments throughout this area. Bac-
teriological examinations indicate that these methods are not satisfactory. Work
is being continued on this project.

Laboratory Service. (Ralph L. France.) Following is a list of the types and
numbers of examinations made during the past year.

Milk (bacteria counts) 895

Ice cream (bacteria counts) 153

Water 124

Eating and drinking utensils 120

Miscellaneous 106

Butter fat: 71

Solids: 22

Mastitis: 12

Burlap: 1

Total 1,398

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 21

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY

A. Vincent Osmun in Charge

Diseases of Trees in Massachusetts. (M. A. McKenzie and A. Vincent
Osmun.)

The Dutch Elm Disease Problem. For several years in the cooperative program
for the study of the Dutch elm disease in Massachusetts, intensive effort has
been concentrated in Berkshire County as new stations for the causal fungus,
Ceratostomella ulmi (Schwarz) Buisman, were reported in nearby New York and
Connecticut. During recent years, the circulation of numerous false reports
that the disease was present in Massachusetts, and even the publication of
photographs of trees removed because they were affected by the disease have
sometimes confused and alarmed the public. At least a part of the confusion
has resuhed from the failure to distinguish between the fungus which causes
the Dutch elm disease and the principal carrier insect, Scolylus miiUistriatus
Marsh., which is a bark beetle infesting certain areas of Massachusetts, notably
southern Berkshire County and the region east of Worcester County.

The spread of the disease into Massachusetts was delayed for several years
by the eradication of diseased trees in the adjoining states, although early in
1941 it was pointed out^ that elms in southwestern Massachusetts were in im-
mediate danger from the encroachment of the disease on Berkshire County
from New York on the west and Connecticut on the south. However, in Septem-
ber 1941 the first Massachusetts elm in which the presence of the disease could
be officially established, was eradicated — a young tree about 20 feet in height
growing on private property in the town of Alford. Typical symptoms of foliage
wilting and streaking of the woody parts were present. The Scolytus beetle
was not found in the tree but has been observed in the town. In the vicinity
of the diseased tree and elsewhere throughout Massachusetts, hundreds of other
trees showing symptoms macroscopically indistinguishable from those of the
Dutch elm disease were checked in field and laboratory studies during the past
year, but no additional trees with the disease have been discovered. The work of
the organized project of this Station in collecting and studying specimens from
suspected trees has been supplemented by other public and private groups and
by individuals, including the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, the
United States Department of Agriculture, the Massachusetts Forest and Park
Association, town and city tree wardens, employees of other municipal and state
departments,- arboriculturists, public utilities, and private citizens.

The most constructive procedure in attempting to check the spread of the
disease is the removal of all elm material in such a condition as to be attractive to
carrier beetles. The quantity of such material present in any location may be
related to a number of factors, as in southern Berkshire County where drouth
injury and repeated attacks of leaf-chewing insects have seriously weakened
many elms in such a manner as to make them suitable for infestation by beetles;
and the destruction of this material will doubtless prove of inestimable value in
limiting the population of carrier beetles of the Dutch elm disease fungus.

Other Tree Problems. Sixty-nine diseases of thirty-four species of trees, in-
cluding eleven diseases of elm were identified from more than 500 specimens and
inquiries received during the year. The Cephalosporium wilt of elm was reported
from 21 municipal'ties in which no previous cases of the disease were reported,

'McKenzie, Malcolm A. The Dutch elm disease problem in Massachusetts. Published in
"Progress Report including Transcriptions of Certain Papers presented at the Eighth Annual
Five-Day Short Course for Tree Wardens and Other Workers with Trees," M. S. C, March 28,
1941.

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

making a total of 173 cities and towns in which the disease has been found in
Massachusetts. Also, a fungus, Verticilliuni sp., was isolated from elms in 8
communities in which it was not previously known, and reports show a total of
96 municipalities in which this fungus has been found in woody plants in Massa-
chusetts.

The extended period of dry weather during the summer of 1941 was a serious
cause of tree injury, and therefore, additional trouble associated with winter
injury may be expected from this source next year, especially in the case of ever-
greens, which commonly experience winter injury even in years of normal rainfall.

Because of outbreaks cf elm pests during the summer of 1940, a circular^ was
prepared this year and distributed to meet the demands for information on the
subject.

A disease known as bleeding canker of hardwoods has been reported to be
increasing in New England and, at least under certain conditions, the writers
have seen cases in which attempted remedies have caused more damage than
the fungus. A fungus, Phytophthora cactorum, has been described* as the cause
of the disease, and an organism believed to be the same fungus has been isolated
by the writers from elm, maple, beech and oak in Massachusetts, although
evidence of serious disease in the host was not always conspicuous. A possible
injection treatment emplojnng "Helione Orange" and requiring skilled tech-
nicians has been described^ following preliminary experimental work. Critical
evaluation of the results may be possible at seme later date; for the present,
however, specific recommendations cannot be made.

Current miscellaneous activities of the project included the preparation of
parts of the program of the annual Five-day Short Course for Tree Wardens,
the compiling of a progress report, ^ the discussion of wood-destroying fungi^ at
the Eastern Pest Control Operators' Conference, and the preparation of news-
paper press releases.

The Importance of the Investigatio7i of Tree Diseases in National Defense.
In this brief outline of phases of the project which have expanded in relation to
national defense, it should be pointed out that it is not possible to distinguish
sharply between basic and emergency activities. In fact, none cf the following
activities are completely new to the project, but increased demands on the part
of the public have been classified under three arbitrarily selected groupings
among which there is considerable overlapping.

1. Housing projects, new real estate developments, and increased prosperity
in general have resulted in increased interest in trees and tree diseases around
homes and along streets and highways.

2. As lumbering operations near the point of demand for wood have in-
creased, owing to the necessity for curtailment of transportation costs, supply
of labor, shortage of materials, etc., certain types of forest-tree diseases have
increased both in the forest and in nearby ornamental trees. The practice of
cutting only mature forest trees as a crop maintains a highly desirable, relatively
stable biological balance, but only about 5 percent of the nation's forests are
operated on this basis in normal times and no hope for an increase in yield-basis
operations can be held in the present emergency.

''McKenzie, M. A., and Becker, W. B. Timely spraying protects elms against midsummer
defoliation. Amherst, 1941.

'Howard, F. L., and Caroselli, N., Phytopathology 30:11. 1940.

^Howard, F. L. Science 94:2441 :345. October 10, 1941.

^Transcriptions of certain papers presented at the eighth annual five-day short course for tree
wardens and other workers with trees. Amherst, March 24-29, 1941.

'McKenzie, M. A. Wood decay fungi, published in the "Proceedings of the First .\nnual Eastern
Pest Control Operators' Conference," Amherst, January 13, 14, and 15, 1941.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 23

3. Fungus attack on trees does not end when the tree becomes lifeless wood,
although proper seasoning and protective treatment will greatly prolong the
life of wood in service. Because of the neglect to consider damage from wood
decay fungi and related factors, extensive damage to wooden structures has
already been observed and additional trouble may be expected.

For the most part, it is common knowledge that tree disease investigations are
essential for defense, but the importance of constant vigilance against tree dis-
eas s has been stressed^ in connection with work on tree problems during 1941.
Insidious inroads on public wealth by disease fungi would be rampant if the
prosecution of essential disease investigations were relaxed in favor of what,
for a thoughtless moment, might appear a greater defense priority need. Disease
investigation is primary, vital defense, and in retrospect it is basic to the strong
position which this nation holds today.

Damping-off and Growth of Seedlings and Cuttings of Woody Plants as Affected
by Soil Treatments and Modification of Environment. (W. L. Doran.) An Ex-
I)eriment Station bulletin on some of the more imniediatel)-' useful results of work
done under this project has been published^ and is now in considerable demand.

Work on the vej;etative propagation of white pine is being continued. Cut-
tings rooted in larger percentages and responded more to treatments with root-
inducing substances, if they were made with the basal cut at the base of the
current year's wood rather than at the base of wood two years old. They rooted
better in sand-peat or sand than in sandy soil, and, in one experiment, treated
cuttings rooted better in sand than in sand-peat. Best results with January
cuttings, 67 percent rooting, were obtained from treatment with indolebutyric \
acid (200 mg./l., 5 hr.), but there was 58 percent rooting of cuttings treated with
naphthaleneacetic acid (100 mg./l., 4hr.), and only 13 percent rooting of the
untreated cuttirgs. Results were less good if cuttings w^ere taken in summer,
fall, or earlier in the winter.

Much attention was given to the rooting of cuttings of hemlock and a paper
was published^ on that subject. Cuttings of hemlock, taken in November, rooted
best, 100 percent in fourteen weeks, after treatment with indolebutyric acid
(100 mg./l., 24 hr.), but naphthaleneacetic acid was also very effective and there
were indications that it is sometimes even more effective than indolebutyric
acid. Results obtained justify the suggestion that propagators working with
late-fall cuttings made of wood of the current year make some use of naphtha-
leneacetic acid although, with cuttings made with the basal cut at the base of
wood two years old, indolebutyric acid in relatively high concentrations was
very effective.

A note was published^ on the rooting of cuttings of umbrella-pine, another
species which is usually considered difficult to propagate in this way. They failed
to root or to root at all well, treated or not, if taken in September or October;
but if taken in January, they rooted 92 percent after treatment with naphtha-
leneacetic acid (100 mg./l., 2 hr.), decidedly less well if treated with indolebutyric
acid. Rooting of December cuttings of Poncirus trijoliata was also much more
improved by naphthaleneacetic acid than by indolebutyric acid, and lilac cut-
tings responded better to naphthaleneacetic than to indolebutyric acid. But

'McKenzie, Malcolm A. Municipal shade tree problems in national defense. Published in
"Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Mass. Tree Wardens' Assn.," February 13, 1941.

'Doran, William L., The propagation of some trees and shrubs by cuttings. Mass. .^gr. Expt.
Sta. Bui. 382, 56 pp. 1941.

-Doran, William L. Propagation of hemlock by cuttings. Amer. Nurseryman 74: 6: 18-19.
1941 (Contribution No. 413.)

^Doran, William L. Propagation of umbrella-pine by hormone-treated cuttings. Florists Ex-
change 97:9:9. 1941. (Contribution No. 414.)

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

indolebutyric acid gave much better results with cuttings cf Hinoki cypress than
did naphthaleneacetic acid.

Untreated cuttings of Clematis lanuginosa var. Candida and the Clematis variety
Ramona rooted at least 80 percent if taken in mid-July, less well if taken a month
earlier or later, and their rooting was not markedly improved by treatment with
indolebutyric acid.

Cuttings of Daphne Cneoriim, taken in July, rooted 75 percent without treat-
ment, more than 90 percent after treatment with Hormodin No. 1, and less well
than the checks if treated for several hours with solutions of root-inducing sub-
stances cr with water only.

Up to 24 hours' treatment with water, only, did not affect rooting cf hardwood
cuttings of Juniperus com munis var. stricta, Ilex crenata var. Helleri, hemlock,
or mock-orange.

Best results with these cuttings of mcck-orange (100 percent rooting in five
weeks) followed treatment with Hormodin No. 3. Cuttings which were given a
short (six hours') treatment with naphthaleneacetic acid rooted more slowly
although also to the extent of 100 percent, a decided improvement over results
with untreated cuttings for they rooted only 58 percent.

Cuttings of the Rhododendron variety Cunningham's White developed better
roots if treatment with a sugar solution (3.0 percent) followed treatment with
indolebutyric acid. But treatments with sugar solutions, whether applied before,
after, or with root-inducing substances, failed to increase the percentages of root-
ing of fall cuttings of that plant or of Gordonia and Daphne Cneorum.

Study of Diseases of Ornamental Herbaceous Plants, Caused by Soil-Infesting
Organisms, with Particular Attention to Control Measures. (W. L. Doran.)
Formaldehyde properly diluted may, it was found, be applied safely and effec-
tively to soil immediately after seeding without determining the e.xact rate of
application of the solution to each square foot of soil surface. That, however,
is most commonly 1 to 13^ pints per square foot. Formaldehyde, so applied to
soil immediately after seeding that each square foot received 2 cc. of it, controlled
damping-ofT of Delphinium, Viola, and sweet pea well and equally well whether
each square foot received 0.75, 1.25 or 2.0 quarts of the solution.

Formaldehyde, 4.9 cc. (1 teaspconful) in 1 gallon water or, what is the same
thing, 1 tablespoonful in 3 gallons, gave perfect and safe control of damping-oflf
cf Nemesia, columbine. Zinnia, China aster, hollyhock, Phlox, Nicotiana, Ver-
bena, Lobelia, and two species of Dianthus when it was applied to soil immediately
after seeding without determining exactly what volume of the solution was
applied per square foot. This method^ is noteworthy for its simplicity, .since
there is no working of chemicals, such as dusts, into soil, no waiting, and, because
soil must usually be watered immediately after seeding, not a single additional
operation is involved.

When formaldehyde 0.5 teaspoonful in 1 gallon of water was thus applied im-
mediately after seeding, it gave fair but less complete control. If this very
dilute solution of formaldehyde was applied more than once, that is immediately
after seeding and again once or twice or three times more at intervals of two
days, there was injury to Scabiosa by three applications, not by two, and to
China aster by four applications, not b\' three. But results with these repeated
applications were not promising, for damping-off was just as well controlled by
one application immediately after seeding.

Formaldehyde applied to soil not previously disinfected improved the growth
of Calendula, Zinnia, and China aster. But when formaldehyde (2 cc. per square

'Doran, William L. A simple control of damping-off. Florists Exchange 96:21:10. 1941. (Con-
tribution No. 408.)

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 25

foot) was applied to soil which had been steamed five days previously, there was
some injury, as compared with growth in steamed soil, and there was certainly
no improvement in growth as compared with growth in untreated soil. It is
concluded that the stimulatory effect of formaldehyde on growth is due prin-
cipally or wholh- to its freeing the plants of the retarding effects of parasitic soil
fungi, and it is concluded further that formaldehyde may be dangerous, as re-
gards its effect on some plants, if applied to soil recently steamed.

Spergon (2.7 gm. per square foot) gave fair control of a root-rot of sweet pea
seedlings when applied to soil one day before seeding, and there was no injury.
But it gave no protection if seeds were sowed thirty days after soil treatment.

Copper oxylate applied to the surface of soil after seeding failed to prevent
damping-off of any species.

Semesan (1.1 gm. in 1.2 quarts water per square foot), applied to the soil sur-
face before seeding but not worked into the soil, was not injurious, controlled
damping-off fairly well although not completely, and increased by 27 to 100
percent the numbers of seedlings of marigold, Scabiosa, pansy, and sweet pea
which lived. Results were less good when the dry Semesan was worked into the
soil, fcr it was then apparently not sufficiently concentrated near or at the soil
surface.

Chemical Soil Surface Treatments in Hotbeds for Controlling Damping-off of
Early Forcing Vegetables. (\V. L. Doran, E. F. Guba, and C. J. Gilgut.) Es-
pecial attention was given to the possible use of ammonium hydroxide and
ammonium sulfate as soil disinfectants.

Ammonium hydroxide, 12 cc. per square f'oot of soil surface, controlled damping-
off fairlj' well and without significant injury to seedlings of beet, although seeds
were sowed within five days after soil treatment. However, 16 cc. ammonium
hydroxide gave better control although, for safety', it was necessary to wait about
seven days before seeding.

Ammonium sulfate had little oi no fungicidal effect in acid soils, with pH values
of 5.0 to 6.0, but it had a decidedly fungicidal action in soil which, as a result of
the earlier use of hydrated lime, had a pH value of about 7.0.

When ammonium sulfate and hydrated lime, one part of the former and two
parts of the latter by weight, were intimately mixed and this mixture (at the
rate cf 10 gm. ammonium sulfate per square foot) was worked into moist soil,
there was a strong odor cf ammonia and damping-off was well controlled. It
was, however, necessary on grounds of safety to wait more than five days after
soil treatment before seeding.

Hydrated lime alone, applied to soil, usually increased the number of plants
which lived and reduced the severity of damping-off, but the disease was not
controlled to any such degree as it was by ammonium sulfate and hydrated
lime applied together.

Control of Greenhouse Vegetable Diseases. (E. F. Guba, Waltham.) Ap-
proximately 30 percent of the greenhouse tomato growing area in the fall crop-
ping season of 1941 was planted to the Bay State tomato, developed for resistance
to Cladosporium leaf mold from hybrids of Lycopersicum pimpinellifoliiimX L.
esculentum. The new tomato was released for trial in 1939. In the fall cropping
season of 1940 a new physiologic form of the fungus, to which Bay State is com-
pletely susceptible, was noted at Swansea, Bristol County. In 1941, other in-
stances of the complete susceptibility of Bay State to the new form of Clado-
sporium were observed. Globelle (Ohio) and Vetomold (Ontario) likewise de-
veloped for resistance to Cladosporium, and derived from red currant, have
shared the same experience. The new physiologic form of the fungus is infectious
to L. pimpinellijolium (Jusl.) Mill, and L. hirsutum Humb. & Bonpl., causing

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

yellowish infection flecks and ultimately necrosis. On the lower surface of the
spots, under moist conditions, the fungus sporulates rather freely, although it
is much less virulent on Bay State than the original prevalent form of the fungus.
Both L. pirn pin ellifolium and L. hirsutum show a high immunity reaction to the
original physiologic. form of Cladosporium. L. peruvianum (L.) Mill, is immune
to both physiologic forms but peruvianum will not hybridize with esculentiim.

Causes and Control of Decay of Squash in Storage. (E. F. Guba and C. J.
Gilgut, Waltham.) Gourds instead of squash were treated with various disin-
fectants and chemical coatings after harvest to determine to what extent these
treatments influence keeping. The organisms causing decay of squash similarly
attack gourds and the results from such treatments are generally applicable.

The merit of spraying gourds with Bordeaux mixture 4-4-50 and 1 pound
calcium arsenate during the growing season was investigated, although it is
recognized that the spraying of squash is difficult. The results indicate that
fungicidal field treatments result in less decay after harvest and that the progress
of decay is further inhibited by coatings of shellac. The value of disinfection
between harvest and storage is not clearly shown. A dry ventilated storage
following protection in the field with Bordeaux mixture and calcium arsenate
was definitely advantageous in the control of decay.

It is apparent, particularly as the result of this season's work with gourds,
that considerable infection responsible for decay in storage may take place in
the field, without being evident at harvest.

Gardenia Stem Canker. (C. J. Gilgut, Waltham.) It was determined from
a histological study of gardenia cankers that the hyphae of the infecting fungus,
Phomopsis gardeniae Hans. & Scott, are confined to the discolored bark and wood
of the cankered section of the stem. Cuttings taken from diseased plants and
from healthy plants did not become infected when propagated side by side in
clean sand, nor did plants from these cuttings become cankered when grown in
greenhouse benches.

Disease Resistance and Heredity of Carnations. (E. F. Guba cooperating
with H. E. White, Waltham.) Approximately 75 varieties of carnations have
been studied for their reaction to fungus wilt diseases. Also, growers have in-
dicated the performance of a long list of varieties in relation to these diseases
under their respective growing conditions. In a compilation of these reports
and tests, it is apparent that certain carnation varieties have rather consistently
maintained healthy growth. The wilt diseases under consideration in this study
are caused by Alternaria diantJii (blight), Rhizoctonia solani (stem rot), Fusarium
dianthi (branch rot) and F. avenaceum and F. culmorum (stem and root rot),
,and are not equally prevalent. Frequently, only one of these diseases may be
troublesome year after year in the same establishment. Twenty-six varieties
showing the greatest promise as sources of disease resistance under natural con-
ditions have been selected for further study. The reactions of these varieties
to each wilt disease in so far as available will be more carefully scrutinized under
more favorable conditions for disease and artificial methods of inoculation before
hybridization studies are undertaken. The results of this program should deter-
mine the nature, justification, and direction of further efifort in the development
of desirable disease-resistant types of carnations.

Miscellaneous Tests and Experiments. (E. F. Guba and C. J. Gilgut, Waltham.)

L Apple Scab Control. Ground and chemically prepared sulfurs of a max-
imum particle size of 50 and 3 microns respectively were compared on an equiva-
lent sulfur basis, and in combination with lead arsenate, and lead arsenate and

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 27

lime, for loss of sulfur by weathering, for scab control, and for chemical injury.
There were no apples to harvest from the untreated row because cf a complete
June drop caused by the plum curculio. In this row 20.3 percent of the leaves
were scabby and only a small amount of this was primary infection. In the
sprayed rows, irrespective of whether the sulfur was coarse or fine, there was
no scab.

The results confirm the work of previous years to the effect that sulfur particle
size and concentration of sulfur are not as important in scab control as good
spraying. Chemical determinations of the residues after spraying revealed that
the loss of sulfur by weathering was greater with Magnetic Spray Wettable Sulfur
than with dry wettable Flotation Sulfur, eaily in the season. In both cases more
sulfur was retained on the foliage when the combination of sulfur and lead arsenate
was used without lime. Fish oil added to Flotation Sulfur, lead arsenate, and
lime increased the deposit and retention of sulfur. No improvement was shown
by substituting So^-a flour for fish oil in the first and second cover spra^^s. No
consistent benefit in the deposit and retention of sulfur otherwise could be shown
with the t3'pes of sulfur used by the addition of Soya flour.

2. Copper Dusts for Cucumber and Muskmelon. Fifteen proprietary and two
home-mixed copper dusts containing different sources of metallic copper were
tested on cucumber and muskmelon planted in rows of 5 hills of 5 plants per hill.
The copper content of the dusts varied from 4.75 to 7 percent. Some contained
an insecticide (either 20 percent cryolite, 0.75 percent rotenone, or 5.75 to 10
percent calcium arsenate) added for the control of striped cucumber beetles.
The dry summer was unfavorable for the usual foliage diseases, but bacterial
wilt and mosaic were present on cucumber.

A proprietary dust containing 5 percent metallic copper and 20 percent cryolite
was injurious to both muskmelon and cucumber. On the basis of plant condition
and yield, the five best treatments on cucumber were:

6 percent Cu in tri-basic copper sulfate and 0.75 percent rotenone

6 percent Cu in tri-basic copper sulfate

5 percent Cu in copper oxychloride sulfate and 1 percent rotenone

7 percent Cu in tri-basic copper sulfate and 0.75 percent rotenone
5.16 percent Cu in red copper oxide and 0.75 percent rotenone
The best treatments on muskmelon were:

6.5 percent Cu in tri-basic copper sulfate and 0.75 percent rotenone

6.5 percent Cu in tri-basic copper sulfate and 10 percent calcium arsenate

6 percent Cu in tri-basic copper sulfate and 0.75 percent rotenone
5.16 percent Cu in red copper o.xide and 0.75 percent rotenone

5 percent Cu in copper ox) chloride sulfate and 7.5 percent calcium arsenate
4 percent Cu in copper hydroxide and 7 percent calcium arsenate
The differences between the best copper treatment combinations and a 0.75
percent rotenone dust on muskmelon were not significant in 1941.

3. Mercury Compounds for Control of Club Root of Crucifers. In a preliminary
exploratory experiment calomel and mercuric bichloride in varying amounts
were used for the control of club root of cabbage and cauliflower. Applications
were made to seed flats and in the field at different times and by various methods.
Because of uneven infestation in the experimental block, the results were in-
definite and no conclusions can be made.

4. Vegetable Seed Treatments for Damping-off Control. For the second suc-
cessive year cooperative tests of vegetable seed treatments were conducted under
the auspices of the committee for coordinated seed treatment research of the
American Phytopathological Society. Weighed amounts of treated seed (treat-

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

merit based on weight of seed) were furnished to the cooperators by the com-
mittee. Five repHcaticns of 100 seeds for each treatment and no treatment were
counted and planted in randomized blocks.

With cucumber, there was no significant difference between treatment with
0.25 percent red copper oxide, 0.75 percent Semesan, and no treatment. Treat-
ments with 2 percent red copper oxide, 2 percent zinc oxide, and 0.2 percent
Semesan showed no significant differences with celery; but with lettuce 2 percent
red copper oxide and- 2 percent zinc oxide were significantly better, in the order
given, than no treatment. With sweet corn, 2 percent red copper oxide, 2 per-
cent zinc oxide, and 0.2 percent Semesan Jr. were no better than no treatment.
Cabbage was distinctly benefited by 2 percent zinc oxide and 0.2 percent Semesan.
From seed treated with hot water and subsequently with chemical dusts, the
stands were reduced, yet they were better than stands from seed treated only with
hot water.

The value of a number of dry chemical powders in preventing pre-emergence
damping-off and seed decay of lima beans was determined. Spergon-treated
seed produced a larger number of seedlings and consequently a greater yield
of lima beans than seed receiving anj' other treatment or no treatment. The
second best treatment was red copper oxide, which held a slight advantage in
number of seedlings and yield over zinc oxide. Semesan was distinctly injuricus
to the seedlings, the injury persisted throughout the growing season, and the
yield was materially reduced. Although more seedlings grew from seed treated
with Semesan than from untreated seed, the total jield from untreated seed was
nearly twice that from Semesan -treated seed.

Effect of Vitamin Bi at Different Soil Temperatures on Gardenia Chlorosis.

(L. H. Jones.) Gardenia plants became chlorotic at soil temperatures of 55°,
60°, and 65° F. The soil was treated weekly with a solution of thiamin chloride
(vitamin Bi), one part in ten m-lUon, used at a temperature equal to the soil
temperature. The plants were replicated in sufficient containers so that the
thiamin chloride could be applied before, at the observable period when, and
after chlorosis appeared. There was no noticeable evidence that thiamin chloride
at this concentration could prevent chlorosis induced by low soil temperatures
or cure a gardenia plant so affected.

In a later test with chlorotic plants, soil treatment with 100 times the above
concentration (1 part in 100,000) did act as a mild remedial measure. New
leaves at the unfolding stage were dark green in color, old leaves had the yel-
lowing between the veins supplanted with a healthy green color, and basal shoots
developed with dark green foliage. Since this effect took place at about the
time of the vernal equinox, it appears that this concentration of thiamin chlor-'de
hastened what would have occurred normally a short time later. Since the tem-
perature of the solution when applied corresponded to the soil temperature, the
results must be ascribed to the use of vitamin Bj.

The Effect of Soil Temperature on Growth. (L. H. Jones and J. W. Hall.)
Corn, tomato, and rose were used as indicator plants. When soil temperatures
were altered to 55°, 60°, 70°, 80°, and 90° F., plants which were established in
the soil at 75° showed marked effects of temperature on development over a
period of 78 days. There was poor growth and no flowering of corn, tomato, and
rose plants at soil temperatures of 55° and 60°, but at 70°, 80°, and 90°, the plants
grew vigorously and flowered. Corn and rose plants did best at 90°, while the
tomato, John Baer, apparently was at its optimum environment at a soil tem-
perature of 80°. Intcrnode length in corn increased up to a soil temperature of
70°, while the internodes of the tomato plant were longest ?t 80°. The air tern-

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 29

perature was maintained at about 80° F. The resulting differences in vegetative
and reproductive development are, therefore, attributable directly to soil tem-
peratures.

The Effect of Root Media on Root Structure. (L. H. Jones and B. Eames.)
Soybean and corn plants grew equally well in either sand cr solution culture and
could be shifted from one medium to the other without any drastic effect en the
root system. Roots in sand cultures were thicker and kinked as compared with
the slender, smooth roots grown in solution. A study of the root structure before
and after transfer from one type of medium to the other did not disclose any
particular modification of root structure other than an increase in the amount
of cortex in roots developed in the sand medium.

Geranium cuttings, rooted in sand and transferred to a solution medium,
developed new roots at the callus above the level of the solution, the original
roots dying in the solution. On the other hand, chrysanthemum cuttings were
able to continue growth without the necessity of producing a new set of roots,
the original roots being able to function when transferred from sand to a so-
lution.

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

W. S. Ritchie in Charge

Analytical Service. (The Department.) Many of the analytical services,
formerly performed by the department, have been taken over by the Control
Laboratories.

The analysis of various blueberry bushes, particularly for iron and manganese,
from an "elemental" fertilizer experiment have been completed for the Depart-
ment of Pomology.

Samples of a lubricating oil and fungicides have also been examined.

Testing Analytical Methods. (E. B. Holland.) The work of several years on
a method for the determination of zinc in foodstuffs has been completed, and the
procedures appeared as a part of bulletin 379 of this Station.

A study of the method for the determination of fluorine in insecticides has
been started, and will receive additional attention during the coming year.

The Iron, Copper, Zinc, and Iodine Content of Fruits and Vegetables. (E. B.

Holland, C. P. Jones, and W. S. Ritchie.) During the past several years a large
number of foodstuffs for both man and beast have been collected, and analyzed
for the above elements, as well as for approximate analyses. The results have
been classified and tabulated, and published as bulletin 379 of this Station.

Lignin and Its Relation to the Absorption of Minerals by Plants. (Emmett
Bennett.) This project is being continued in much the same way as outlined
previously in other reports. Derivatives of lignin have been prepared. Attempts
are being made to fractionate these compounds and correlate such fractions with
certain properties of lignin. Limited data do not warrant conclusion at this time.

Hemicelluloses. A preliminary attempt is being made to obtain and charac-
terize the hemicellulose fractions of several different species of grass, with the
hope of being able to correlate such differences as may exist with differences in
species composition. Extractions have been completed and some fractions have
been isolated, but as yet no data have been obtained regarding species differ-
ences.

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Chemical Investigation of the Onion. (Emmett Bennett). One paper on the
effect of storage of the Ebenezer onion has been published in Volume 39 of the
Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science.

A preliminary examination of the soluble carbohydrates indicates that the
reducing sugars are probably glucose and fructose. This indication is substan-
tiated by the formation of osazones characteristic of these sugars and by the
products of oxidation produced by iodine. According to the latter test the non-
reducing sugars are composed of approximately one third aldose sugar and two
thirds ketose sugar. This general distribution is to some extent substantiated
by the polariscopic behavior of solutions of the mixed sugar fractions. Prior
to inversion the optical rotation is usually slightly negative. After hydrolysis
the optical activity is decidedly more negative. Such response is usually in-
dicative of an inulide fraction. Further identification of these carbohydrate
groups by means of definite derivatives has not been successful. Analytical meth-
ods for other compounds concerned with the several phases of the project have
also been evaluated.

Chemical Changes in the Cooking Quality of Vegetables. (Monroe E. Free-
man and W. S. Ritchie.) A new technique for estimating the texture of cooked
potato tissue was reported in the annual report for 1940. This technique has been
developed into a quantitative method based on the observation that mealy tissue
becomes porous on drying while waxy or soggy tissue becomes non-porous. The
pore volume of dried slices of tissue can be measured quantitatively by weighing
the samples under toluene when the pores are filled with air and when filled with
toluene. From these data the weight percent of toluene filling the pores can be
calculated and used as an index of texture. The samples were thoroughly dried
(in vacuo over P2O5), weighed in air and then under toluene. The weight of
the sample under toluene with all the pores filled with toluene was calculated
from the predetermined density of the potato dry matter and the density of the
toluene. Toluene indices ranged from 0.15 to values as high as 6.30 percent and
were easily reproduced within experimental error of ±0.05 to ±0.10 percent.

The method was carefully checked by determining the specific gravity of a
large number of tubers, baking them, estimating the mealiness by personal
judgment, and measuring the toluene index. In all cases there was very satis-
factory agreement among these methods for estimating texture. Specific gravity
and judging method for texture estimation are rapid but distinguish only four
or five grades of texture. Toluene index is a longer and more technical method
but it has the distinction of offering a quantitative measure of potato texture or
cooking quality and therefore offers a great advantage to research workers in
this field.

A storage experiment on potatoes is now under way to demonstrate the appli-
cability of this research tool. Samples of tubers are being stored at 35° and 50° F.,
and in commercial storage. Samples will be withdrawn at intervals and the tex-
ture measured by the three methods, as above.

Physico-Chemical Properties of Starches. (Monroe E. Freeman.) Very
little accurate information is available regarding the chemical and physical
properties of the different starches that control the properties of manufactured
dextrins, because the industry is operated largely as an art or a craft. The in-
troduction of precise scientific control can undoubtedly be facilitated bj^ the
accumulation of data on (a) the chemical and physical properties of the starches,
(b) the conversion process itself, and (c) the chemical and physical properties
of the dextrins.

Experimental apparatus has been designed, constructed, and tested that
intimately mixes a fine spray of acid with a dust cloud of starch. Moisture con-

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 31

tent, concentration, and rate of flow of acid and starch can be regulated. An
electrometric titration method for measuring small concentrations of acid in starch
has been satisfactorily worked out. Apparatus for heating the acidified starch
under thermostatic control, uniform agitation, and a controlled atmosphere of
air, carbon dioxide, or nitrogen has been designed and constructed.

There exists a real need for an adequate description or definition of the different
grades and types of modified starches. This problem has been approached by
studies on the physical and chemical properties of commercial dextrins. Analyses
for moisture, reducing sugar, copper-reducing power, alkali lability, solubility,
iodine color, ash, bound water are in progress on a series of commercial samples
and their fractions. Characterization of dextrins by the ratios of significant
fractions is also under investigation. Several dextrins have been fractionated by
alcohol and the dextrin acetates have been fractionated by organic solvents.
Characterization of the dextrin fractions is being carried out by end group assays
and viscosity-molecular weight determinations.

Studies of the physical and chemical properties of the starches have begun
with an examination of the phosphorus content of several starches. An electro-
dialysis technique was developed for quantitatively measuring the inorganic
and the organically bound phosphorus in natural starches and in phosphorylated
starches. Since size of starch grains is believed to be a factor influencing the
character of the manufactured dextrins, a grain size classifier for separating large-
grain and small-grain fractions has been designed. Since water relations play
an important role in the conversion of starch, studies have been continued on
the bound water and free water relationships.

Several methods for determining the bound and free water ratio in starch
have shown that potato starch suspensions contain about .3 gram of bound water
for each gram of dry starch. Canadian and Russian workers have reported
anomalous heat capacities for suspension of hydrophyllic colloids and these data
were interpreted as indicating a lower specific heat for bound water thus affording
a new method for measuring the bound water. Similar data were collected in this
laboratory for starch water suspensions. Careful analysis cf the data, however,
shows definitely that the above interpretation is erroneous. The anomalous
behavior of the starch water suspensions can be accurately described by linear
equations embracing a discontinuity at the point where all the water in the
starch suspension is bound. An explanation ol this phenomenon is awaiting veri-
fication by experiments on other systems of hydrophyllic colloids.

Investigations on the Nutritive Value of Fishery Products as Human and Animal
Food. (Monroe E. Freeman and W. S. Ritchie.) The Progressive Decomposition
of Fish Muscle. Studies on the first stages of protein decomposition in fish muscle
(Annual Report — 1940) were followed by investigation of more extensively de-
composed muscle tissue. About twenty-five different fractions were isolated as
p'crate derivatives from one large sample of haddock muscle. None of these
compounds nor their derivatives exhibited clearly defined melting points. Con-
sequently their identification depends on ultimate analyses for carbon, hydrogen,
and nitrogen; and determination of molecular weights. Since many of these
picrates are violently explosive, special techniques have been devised to facil'tate
semi-micro combustion and Dumas analyses.

The Influence of Base Exchange Capacity and of Exchangeable Ions in Massa-
chusetts Soils on the Availability of Potassium. (Dale H. Sieling.) As a fore-
runner to the actual investigation of soils collected for this study it seemed ad-
visable to use the soils most readily obtainable in large quantities for physiological

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

tests with plants. This was done by varying the base exchange capacity and the
calcium-hydrogen ratio of the soil artificially over the range of these values
observed for the other soils. It was thought that this method of approach would
establish certain facts that might then be confirmed by using the naturally oc-
curring soils for similar tests.

The basic soil used in these tests was classified as Agawam fine sandy loam.
It had a pH of 5.7, an exchange capacity of 7.13 M. E.* per 100 grams and an
exchangeable calcium content of 2.91 M. E. per 100 grams. The material added to
the soil to vary the base exchange capacity was electrodialyzed bentonite, an in-
organic colloidal material having a base exchange capacity of 73.5 M. E. per 100
grams. The calcium-hydrogen ratios of both the soil and the electrodialyzed
bentonite were adjusted to the desired values by liming with calcium hydroxide.
The base exchange capacity at any desired calcium-hydrogen ratio was varied
between the value for the soil and that for the bentonite by mixing the two con-
stituents.

Pot cultures were prepared by this method which varied in reaction from pH
5.7 to 7.15 and in base exchange capacity from 7.13 to 13.16 M. E. per 100 grams
of soil. Phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, and nitrogen were kept constant
in the various cultures bj' adding weighed quantities of the salts of these mate-
rials. Duplicate series of pot cultures, with and without added boron, were
prepared to check the influence cf calcium level and pH on the occurrence of
boron deficiency — a condition often associated with "over-liming."

Four tobacco seedlings (Kightlinger's No. 211), five weeks old, were trans-
planted in each culture. The cultures were watered daily with distilled water
and after two weeks three of the four plants of each culture were removed. The
remaining plants were grown for a total of eight weeks and then harvested by
cutting each plant ofT at the soil surface. The plants were dried at 60° C. and the
dry weight was recorded. The dried plants have been stored and will be analyzed
for potassium to see if there was any appreciable difference in the uptake of that
element.

During the growing season nitrogen deficiency developed in the plants of some
of the cultures even though this element was added from time to time. It seems
quite likely that insufficient nitrogen was supplied in the cultures. From the
appearance of the plants there was not a lack of boron in any of the cultures or at
least there was enough to prevent deficiency symptoms from occurring regard-
less of the reaction of the soil or its calcium level. The dry weights of the plants
were not greatly different although there was a tendency for the dry weight to
decrease at any pH as the exchange capacity and the calcium level increased.
This observation was most pronounced at pH 5.7. Since nitrogen deficiency was
observed in most of the cultures it seems logical to believe that variations in
growth or potassium utilization due to calcium-hydrogen ratio or base exchange
capacity would be minimized.

These same cultures will be used tc grow a second crop during the summer of
1942, with the hope of gaining more information about the influence of these
various factors on plant growth and the utilization of potassium by plants.

The Relationship of Base Exchange Capacity, Exchangeable Hydrogen, and
Soil Reaction to the Lime Requirement of Massachusetts Soils. (Dale H. Sieling.)
Samples of the varit>us soils obtained for determining the relationship between
lime requirement and the exchange capacity and exchangeable hydrogen were
limed with increasing quantities of calcium carbonate. Conditions of liming
were established to simulate the actual conditions in the field by placing the soils
on top of a layer of sea sand in lacquered metal cans perforated at the bottom.

*M. E.= milli-equivalent.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 33

This system allowed for drainage of the soils and also the actual determination
of the pH of the soils in place. The soils were limed at a rate of from 125 to 1000
pounds of calcium carbonate per acre-inch, based on previously determined vol-
ume weights of the soils as they were found in the field.

The reactions of the so'ls of each series, variously limed, were determined at
regular intervals. The soils were wetted with distilled water and allowed to stand
overnight to permit drainage of the excess water and the removal of nitrates
that may have accumulated as a result of bacterial action. The pH values were
determined in duplicate samples of soil dampened with water and with saturated
potassium chloride. The pH values obtained with the use of potassium chloride
were considerably lower than those obtained with water. The amount of lower-
ing of the pH value due to the presence of the salt showed a relationship to the
exchangeable hydrogen content of the soil. The indications are that, in general,
soils of higher exchange capacity require greater quantities of lime for neutraliza-
tion than do soils of low exchange capacity at the same initial reaction. The
data obtained have not been sufficient to establish any quantitative relationship
between the exchange capacity, the initial reaction, and the lime requirement.

Similar experiments set up under field conditions in the localities from which
the soils were obtained gave results parallel to those found in the laboratory,
except with the two soils which had received a large quantity of commercial
fertilizer for growing onions. It is believed that fertilizer produced a lowering
effect on the reaction similar to that observed when potassium chloride was
added to the soil under laboratory conditions.

Soils having higher base exchange capacities than those obtained originally
for these tests have been secured and will be tested in a similar manner.

The Effect of Orchard Mulches on the Plant Nutrient Elements in the Soil.
(Dale H. Sieling and J. K. Shaw.) The objectives of this experiment are to in-
vestigate the influence of mulching on the accumulation and movement of nutrient
cations and of phosphates in an orchard soil and to study the effects of mulching
on the trees.

Six mature Mcintosh apple trees which had been fertilized with complete
fertilizer for the past ten years and had been cultivated during that time were
selected for this study. Three separate plots consisting of two trees each were
treated as follows: Plot 1 received an application of 290 pounds of hay per 1600
square feet and will be mulched from time to time with hay of known mineral
composition; Plot 2 received Fiberglass wool of 2-3 inches in thickness; and
Plot 3 was left fallow and will be cultivated in the usual manner.

Soil samples were taken at two systematically located positions under each
tree before mulching was started. At each sampling location four samples were
taken at specified depths so that any movement of mineral nutrients resulting
from mulching might be detected when further samples are obtained and analyzed.

The samples of soil were stored in sealed glass jars to prevent loss of moisture
and the subsequent fixing of potassium and other mineral nutrients. After the
moisture in the soil had been determined, samples were extracted by the neutral
ammonium acetate method and the extracts were analyzed for the exchangeable
ions: hydrogen, calcium, magnesium, and potassium.

From the analysis it has been observed that the base saturation of this soil
was very low and conversely the hydrogen saturation was very high. In one
surface sample the base saturation was as low as 5.2 percent. The amount of
exchangeable potassium in the surface soils ranged from 100 to 200 pounds of
pocassium per acre for a 6-inch depth. This amount of potassium is usually
considered adequate for good crop production but may become a limiting factor
as the other elements are increased since the subsurface soils contain a much
smaller amount of this element. The exchangeable calcium was exceptionally

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

low, especially in the subsoils, where only 28 pounds of calcium were found per
acre for each 6-inch depth. The calcium level of the surface soils was higher
but in no case exceeded 270 pounds per acre for a 6-inch depth.

The exchangeable magnesium ranged from an amount too small to be meas-
ured by the niethod employed to 43.2 pounds per 6-inch layer of an acre. It
might be suspected that magnesium deficiency would occur on these trees under
certain growing conditions, since these amounts of magnesium are considered
inadequate for normal plant production.

Total and available phosphorus will be determined on the soils previously
collected and on those obtained in the future, to see if the addition of organic
matter has any mobilizing effect on phosphate. Mineral analyses will also be
made of the samples collected in the future to determine the influence of mulch
on the amount or mobilization of the various mineral nutrient elements.

The Fixation of Arsenic in Soils and the Influence of Arsenic Compounds
on the Liberation of Fixed Phosphates. (Dale H. Sieling.) Anion fixation in
soils is very important from the standpoint of the decrease in availability of phos-
phates added as fertilizers to the soil. This study was undertaken to see whether
arsenates were fixed in a similar manner to phosphates and would replace fixed
phosphates. If the arsenic from spray residues were fixed, it would show to some
extent the reason why such quantities of arsenic do not depress the growth of
plants in soils while growth cf plants is inhibited in cultural solutions containing
the same amount of arsenic. The fundamentals involved in anion exchange or
fixation by the soil can best be studied by using pure clay fractions found naturally
in soils.

Purified Kaolinite and Halloysite, clay minerals commonly found in soils,
have been investigated for their property to adsorb arsenates. It has been found
that these clay minerals, as they ordinarily exist in large deposits, do not fix
appreciable quantities of either phosphates or arsenates at pH 3.0. Grinding of
these minerals in a ball mill for a period of 20 days reduced the particle size to
more nearly that of soil clay particles and increased the activity of both minerals
in fixing arsenates and phosphates.

Five-gram samples of these minerals were shaken continuously for 24 to 72
hours in stoppered bottles containing measured quantities of a normal solution
of either phosphoric or arsenic acid adjusted to pH 3.0 with sodium hydroxide.
The fixation was measured by determining the decrease in concentration of the
ion in the solution after removal of the clay by centrifuging. Fixation was not
instantaneous but followed a pattern somewhat similar to th?t reported for
phosphate by other workers and confirmed in these tests. Arsenate was fixed
in quantities practically equivalent to phosphate by the Kaolinite clay but in
somewhat smaller amounts than phosphate by the Halloysite; however both
arsenate and phosphate fixation by pulverized Halloysite exceeded the amounts
of these ions fixed by Kaolinite.

Further study is being conducted to establish the relative ability of each of
these two negative ions to replace the other when it has been fixed by these clays.

CONTROL SERVICE

Philip H. Smith in Charge

The Fertilizer, Feed, and Seed Control Laws and the Dairy Law are all ad-
ministered as one service. In addition, a large amount of work is done not only
for other departments of the institution, but also for other State institutions
and for citizens as well.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 35

Fertilizer Inspection. Records for the year show that 118 firms have reg-
istered 501 brands of mixed fertilizers and fertilizing materials and 45 brands of
agricultural lime and gypsum. The gross receipts from the registration of the
fertilizer and lime products and from fertilizer tonnage fees were $14,711.41.

For inspection purposes 1,746 samples, representing 490 brands and 8,433
tons of materials, were drawn from stock found in the possession of 393 agents
or owners located in 144 towns and cities of the State.

The following summary shows the character of these substances, as well as
statistics with reference to their inspection.

Brands Brands Samples

Registered Collected Drawn

Mixed fertilizers 330 299 1,021

Ground bone, tankage and fish 35 35 190

Nitrogen products, mineral and organic 48 41 151

Phosphoric acid products 26 23 112

Potash products 24 23 85

Dried pulverized natural manures 23 22 73

Nitrate of potash 3 3 9

Peat products 3 2 2

Wood and cotton hull ashes 6 4 6

Emieo (30% magnesium oxide) 1 — —

Miscellaneous 2 1 5

Lime products 45 37 92

Totals 546 490 1,746

Feed Inspection. During the fiscal year 1,331 samples of feeding stuffs were
officially collected and examined in the control laboratcries. The gross receipts
from the registration of feeding stuffs in 1941 were $27,220, derived from 1,361
brands at $20 each.

Dairy Law. During the year ending December 1, 1941, 6,738 pieces of Bab-
cock glassware were tested; 107 certificates of proficiency were awarded; and
239 creameries, milk depots, and milk inspectors' laboratories were visited in order
to check methods and to pass upon equipment in use. As a result of this inspec-
tion, four machines were condemned. These will be either replaced or put into
condition to operate satisfactorily.

Miscellaneous Analytical Work. (Fertilizer and Feed Laboratory.) In addi-
tion to the work required by the several regulatory activities under its adminis-
tration. Control Service is interested in collaborative work with other depart-
ments of the Experiment Station and College; the examination of samples of
feeds, fertilizers, and other agricultural products submitted by citizens of the
State; the testing of feeds and fertilizer bought by State institutions; and in-
vestigational work on new methods of chemical analysis fcr the Association of
Official Agricultural Chemists.

In order to indicate the wide scope of the work, the following statistical data
are appended: —

Fruit spray residue 16

Feeds, from farmers and dealers 57

Feeds, from State institutions 892

Feeds and forage crops, Experiment Station 182

Fertilizer mixtures 12

Ice Cream 130

36 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Insecticides and fungicides 2

Limestone (AAA distribution) 12

Milk 362

Ore 8

Peat 1

Poultr}' feces (In connection with experiments) 9

Poultry grits 6

Referee and check samples, fertilizer and feed 11

Specimens for mineral poison 3

Superphosphate (AAA administration) 11

Water 4

Miscellaneous 19

Seed Control. From December 1, 1940, to December 1, 1941, the Seed Lab-
oratory received and worked 3024 samples of seed, of which 942 were collected
by the State Commissioner of Agriculture and 2082 were sent in by seedsmen,
farmers, and various State institutions. In addition, 209 samples of flower
seeds, for field tests only, were received from the State Commissioner of Agri-
culture.

Classification of these samples, with the total number of laboratory tests in-
volved, is shown in the following summary. It will be noted that 3998 tests were
required for the 3024 samples; 672 for purity, and 3326 for germination.

Number of Number of Tests

Samples Purity Germination

544 Field Crops for Purity and Germination 544 544

2 Field Crops for Purity Only 2 —

235 Field Crops for Germination Only — 235

81 Lawn and Other Types of Mixtures for Purity, Ger-
minations involving 393 ingredients 81 393

35 Lawn Mixtures for Purity Only 35 —

7 Lawn Mixtures for Germination Only, Germinations

involving 36 ingredients — 36

1926 Vegetables for Germination Only — 1926

46 Herbs for Germination Only — 46

16 Flower Seeds for Germination Only — 16

2 Flower Seeds for Purity Only 2

8 Flower Seeds for Purity and Germination 8 8

13 Tree Seeds for Germination Only — 13

109 Tobacco Seeds for Germination Only. . . .' — 109

3024 Totals 672 3326

Field tests to determine trueness to type were conducted in cooperation with
the Departments of Olericulture, Floriculture, and Agronomy, which tested
220 samples of vegetable seeds, 209 samples of flower seeds, and 30 samples of
oats, respectively.

The Seed Laboratory cleaned 90 lots of tobacco seed for Connecticut Valley
farmers. The gross weight of the tobacco seed was 131.28 pounds and the net
weight for the cleaned seed was 102.17 pounds.

Corn, oats, barley, and wheat, (162 samples), purchased by various State
institutions, were examined for conformity to grade purchased; and 98 samples
of ground cattle and poultry feed, collected by inspectors or sent in by dealers and
farmers, were examined microscopically.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 37

THE CRANBERRY STATION
East Wareham, Massachusetts

H. J. Franklin in Charge
Injurious and Beneficial Insects Affecting the Cranberry. (H. J. Franklin.)

Hill Fireworm {Tlascala finitella (Walker)). One and a half acres of the Summit
Cranberry Company's bog at Greene, R. I., replanted in the spring of 1941, were
seriously infested in the hills by this insect in mid-July. Vines planted there in
1940 were also attacked but less severely and mere along the runners lying on the
sand than in the hills. These infestations were curbed completely by spraying
and dusting heavily with rotenone materials.

About 50 acres of heavy vines of the Burrage bog at South Hanson, Mass.,
were found to be infested throughout by this insect from July 12 to August 12,
1941. The worms were everywhere rather plentiful there in the thicker clusters
of vines during the latter half of July, being mostly in their tubes of frass and
silk well down among the vines but considerably above the bog floor. They did
considerahle, but not severe, damage by devouring under leaves and blossoms.
The superintendent of the bog said it had been similarly attacked by this pest
in 1940.

Many of the worms were about full grown on July 19, 1941. A few were still
present in their tubes among the vines of the Burrage bog on August 12. The
largest were about thirteen sixteenths of an inch long, with the head black, the
cervical shield black with a much-broken pale yellow stripe along its front margin,
the body dark brown, striped lengthwise on the back and sides, except toward
the hind end, with about eight narrow and broken pale yellow stripes, these being
most conspicuous toward the front end. The first moths to appear in confine-
ment emerged August 8 and more came out from August 10 to 20. Many live
pupae remained on November 18.

Some of these worms were found in their tubes among the foliage of cultivated
swamp blueberry bushes at the station.

Cranberry Root Grub {Amphicoma vulpina). Some of these grubs were sent
to the Japanese and Asiatic beetle laboratory at Moorestown, New Jersey, in
January 1941, to have their susceptibility to the milky disease organism deter-
mined. Mr. C. H. Hadley, in charge of the laboratory, reported later as follows:

With further reference to my letter of January 10th regarding tests to
determine the susceptibility of the cranberry root grub, Amphicoma
vulpina, to the milky disease organism, we have completed the prelim-
inary tests with the material which you sent me in January. Negative
results were obtained both by injection tests and feeding tests with the
type A milky disease organism, Bacillus popilliae. No evidence of milky
disease development was observed either by macroscopic examination or
upon microscopic examination of the blood of the injected individuals.
Neither was there any indication of development of the organism in larvae
which had been given opportunity to feed in infected soil. We must,
therefore, conclude that this species of larva is not susceptible to milky
disease infection.

Late in the spring, one of the cranberry growers started further tests of paradi-
chlorobenzene as a control for this pest, applying the chemical with a fertilizer
spreader at the rate of 1200 pounds an acre and covering it at once with about an
inch of sand. His plots were examined late in August and nearly all the grubs
were found to have been killed, even where flooding foi frost protection and for
insect control had been done soon after the treatment was applied. This treat-
ment probably will be useful in special situations, as on bogs that cannot be
treated with cyanide because they drain into public water supplies, or perhaps
on bogs with a surface soil too dense to take in the cyanide solution readily.

38 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Quite a number of bogs were reflowed from mid-May to mid-July, 1941, to
check severe infestations of the root grub. This treatment was generally fairly
successful, as it usually has been heretofore, but it was found that in several
cases some grubs survived.

Cranberry Fruit Worm {Mineola vaccinii). Arsenate of lead, 8 pounds in 100
gallons of water with a casein spreader, applied at the rate of 400 gallons per acre
at the times when derris and cryolite are most effective, controlled this insect
very well on experimental plots, but less completely than derris or cryolite.
Xanthone, both in a spray and in a dust, failed to affect it appreciably.

Gypsy Moth {Porthetria dispar). Cryolite, 14 pounds in 100 gallons of water,
400 gallons an acre, failed to cause much reduction in the number of maturing
caterpillars on a bog, as did also dusting with 100 pounds of natural cryolite
per acre.

Cranberry Girdler {Crambtis hortuellus). Fifty pounds of 4 percent rotenone
derris dust (without activator) to an acre killed nearly all the moths of this pest
on a treated area, but was not quite so effective as pyrethrum.

Black-headed Fireworm (Rhopobota). An interesting development was the
use of a mixture of cryolite and impregnated pyrethrum dust. Treatments with
this mixture cost no more than those with clear pyrethrum dust and seemed to
have greater value, especially with the first brood. The cryolite provides a con-
siderable control after the pyrethrum ceases to act and so takes care of most of
the young worms as the eggs continue to hatch.

Prevalence of Cranberry Pests. The relative general abundance cf insect pests
on Massachusetts bogs in the 1941 season was as follows:

1. Gypsy moth more abundant and destructive in Plymouth County than for
many years, but much reduced on the middle and outer Cape, not giving much
trouble there.

2. Blunt-nosed leafhopper {Ophiola) reduced as in recent years, because of
general treatment.

3. Cranberry fruit worm only moderately troublesome and through working
early; much less prevalent than in 1940, less eggs being laid by the moths, and the
eggs being attacked by the Trichogramma parasite more severely and generally
than usual.

4. Black-headed fireworm less abundant than usual and less than in 1940.

5. Firebeetle (Cryptocephalus) generally very scarce, but abundant on lOacres
of a bog in Norton.

6. Spanworms about the same as in 1940.

7. False armyworm {Xylena) even more prevalent than in 1940; more trouble-
some than for many years. Blossom worm even less prevalent than in 1940.

8. Cranberry girdler more harmful than in 1940.

9. Cranberry weevil about as in 1940.

10. Cranberry spittle insect {Clastoptera) and tipworm (Dasyneura) rather
more troublesome than in 1940.

11. Spotted fireworms (Cacoecia) very few.

Control of Cranberry Bog Weeds. (Chester E. Cross.) Paradichlorobenzene,
naphthalene, ferric sulfate, ferrous sulfate, copper sulfate, borax, kerosene, and
a special petroleum oil, PD-428D, were tried on various kinds of bog weeds,
276 plots being treated. The results of many experiments have shown that many
cranberry weeds can be killed in May and early June by treatments largely in-
effective later in the season.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 39

Paradichlorohenzene. It was observed <n August 1940 that poison ivy {Rhus
Toxicodendron) growing on areas of bog treated with 1200 pounds of this chemical
to the acre and then resanded with half an inch of sand lost all its leaves, while
cranberry vines on the same ground showed no injury. Cranberry bog plots with
poison ivy were treated in September 1940, with amounts ranging from 800 to
5400 pounds per acre and then resanded with half an inch of sand. All these
plots, except that which received 800 pounds per acre, showed a kill of three
fourths of the ivy in the summer of 1941, with no injury to the cranberry vines
or their crop. Paradichlorobenzene applied in June, July, and August, 1941,
killed the ivy well, 1200 pounds per acre being as effective as greater amounts.
A cover of three quarters of an inch of sand seemed necessary for the best results.
Frost flooding two weeks after the chemical was applied did not seem to affect
the kill of ivy.

Paradichlorobenzene, 1200 pounds per acre applied in June, July, and August
and covered with three fourths of an inch of sand, killed 80 percent of consid-
erable growths of chokeberry {Aronia melanocarpa), this weed losing all its
leaves and its roots becoming brown and rotten in 12 days.

The following weeds endured paradichlorobenzene treatments as well as cran-
berry vines: Horse brier {Sniilax rotundifolia), saw brier (5. glauca), small bramble
{Riihus hispidus), coarse bramble {R. villosus), horsetail (Equisetum), asters
{A. spectabilis and A. multiflorus) , sphagnum moss, sensitive fern {Onoclea
sensibilis), shield fern (Thelypteris palustris), bayberry (Myrica caroliniensis),
sweet gale (Myrica Gale), wild bean {Apios tuherosa), red maple {Acer rubrum),
hardhack {Spirea tomentosa), three-square grass {Scirpus americanus) , spike rush
{E'eocharis tenuis), and partridge pea {Cassia chamaecrista) .

Naphthalene. Tests with naphthalene at 800, 1600, and 2400 pounds per acre
were made in June, Jul}', and August on poison ivy and other beg weeds. The
chemical was broadcast by hand and covered with sand as in the paradichloro-
benzene treatments. It failed to kill more than 10 percent of poison iv}' even
where it was applied in greatest quantity and had no effect on horsetail, hardhack,
soft rush, reed canary grass, three-square grass, royal, sensitive, and shield ferns,
or cranberry vines.

Ferric Sulfate. This year 32 plots with many kinds of cranberry bog weeds
were treated with ferric sulfate at various rates. A carpet of young royal ferns
on a peat-bottcmed bog with poor drainage was killed with a broadcast treatment
of 15 pounds per square rod, no cranberry vines or flower buds being hurt by it;
10 pounds per rod killed only 70 percent of the ferns and 20 pounds killed 8-10
percent of the cranberry branches.

One handful of ferric sulfate proved enough to kill 5-7 medium-sized cinnamon
ferns. The vines around ferns treated with this amount under dry conditions
showed no injury.

Ferric sulfate, 15 pounds per square rod, completely eliminated shield and
sensitive ferns.

Single handfuls of ferric sulfate killed 2-4 clumps of soft rushes {Juncus effusus).

Spike rush {Eleocharis) was killed easily with 15 pounds of ferric sulfate or
35 pounds of ferrous sulfate to the square rod, but ferrous sulfate needs rain or a
sprinkling of water to make it effective.

Ferric sulfate at 15-20 pounds per square rod must be used in late May or early
June to be effective on rice cut-grass. This weed when 6 or more inches high,
in July and August, tolerated a great deal of the chemical.

A little ferric sulfate at the base of each shoot was effective on wild bean.
A handful was enough for at least 6 shoots.

40 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Ferrous Sulfate. Dry ferrous su'fate, 40 pounds per square rod used early in
June, killed 90 percent of long-leaved asters {Aster spectahilis and A. Novi-
Belgii). The same treatment applied in July, when the asters were a foot high,
killed only 25 percent.

Spike rush {Eleocharis tenuis) was controlled well with ferrous sulfate broad-
casted at the rate cf 40 pounds per square rod, June applications giving nearly
complete kills while those made in July and August were less effective. Two
competent growers reported the treatment as 95-100 percent effective when
used in May.

Ferrous sulfate must be brushed off the cranberry vines when it is used in
broadcast applications of 30 or more pounds per square rod.

Kerosene. Repeated experiments with kerosene showed the least injury to
cranberry vines when it was applied before 10 a. m. or after 5 p. m. in June,
July, and August. Mid-day applications, even with the air temperature below
80° F., injured cranberry tips and runners considerably. Recent tests of kerosene
spraying in the early morning when the vines and weeds are wet with dew showed
no injury to the cranberry vines, while the weeds seem.ed as sensitive to the
kerosene as when sprayed under dry conditions.

Water white kerosene, 600 gallons per acre, gave 100 percent kill of loosestrife
{Lysimachia terrestris) when applied before this weed was 5 inches high. The
same kill was obtained later by mowing the taller loosestrife plants before spray-
ing with kerosene.

Borax. Commercial borax, applied in July, 100 pounds per acre, killed Joe-
Pye weed {Eupatorium purpureum) with little or no injury to cranberry vines.
Heavier applications injured the vines.

Root Grub Flooding and Bog Weeds. Nine bogs flooded from mid-May to mid-
July to kill grubs were examined in early September and late October to learn the
effect of this flood on bog weeds. It had prevented no annual weeds from growing
on the bogs but had shortened the season of several species so that they had
failed to flower; others, like summer grass {Panicum verrucosiim) and ragweed
{Ambrosia artemisiifolia) , had not attained normal growth but had flowered and
seeded profusely; the trailing bramble {Ruhus hispidus), rice cut-grass {Leersia),
and wild bean {Apios tuberosa) had been reduced 90 percent; and the coarse
bramble {Rubus sp.) and Jtinciis rushes had been killed entirely. Half the loose-
strife {Lysimachia) and three fourths of the hair-cap moss {Polytrickum) had been
killed where the water was over 18 inches deep, but these weeds had not been
reduced much where the water was shallow. As many as 28 other species of
perennial weeds grew more or less normally after the flooding.

COOPERATIVE CRANBERRY INVESTIGATIONS

Conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agri-
culture, in cooperation with the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station

H. F. Bergman, Senior Pathologist, Division of Fruit and Vegetable
Crops and Diseases, in Charge

Development of Strains of Cranberry Resistant to False Blossom. (H. F.

Bergman.) Nearly 1800 hybrid cranberry seedlings in pots were brought to
East Wareham from Beltsville, Maryland, early in June 1941. This lot is part of
the seedlings obtained from crosses made at East Wareham in 1938. They were
set out temporarily on the State Bog and are to be transferred in 1942 to an
area of new bog provided by the A. D. Makepeace Company of Wareham, Mass-

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 41

achusetts, under the terms of a memorandum of understanding drawn up with
that company. Several other lots of seedlings from crosses made at East Ware-
ham are set out in permanent locations on the State Bog where they will be al-
lowed to grow until final assessment of their worth for propagation can be made.

Oxygen Content of Winter Flooding Water in Relation to Injury to Cranberry
Vines. (H. F. Bergman.) Studies of the effects on cranberry vines of a lack of
oxygen in the water during the winter flooding period were continued, in an
attempt to correlate various types of injury with known low contents of dis-
solved oxygen over approximately known periods and to obtain additional data
as to the conditions under which injury occurs. Three cylindrical sheet-iron tanks,
about 5 feet in diameter, were placed on the State Bog, one each on sections
panted with vines of Early Black, Howes, and McFarlin varieties. The bog
was flooded on December 5, 1940, and froze over within a few days and remained
frozen continuously until about the middle of March. Covers to exclude light
and thereby prevent the liberation of oxygen by photosynthesis were placed on
the tanks on January 18, 1941.

The importance of photosynthesis in maintaining the dissolved-oxygen con-
tent of the water on a winter-flooded bog covered with ice is shown by the course
of this oxygen content outside and inside the tanks during the winter. The
amount of dissolved oxygen in the water outside the tanks on Howes, Early
Black, and McFarlin vines increased from 5.3, 6.4, and 6.8 cc. per liter, respec-
tively, on January 15 to 7.2, 7.9, and 8.3 cc. per liter, respectively, on January
24 as a result of photosynthesis in the cranberry vines. A heavy snowfall on
January 24 prevented photosynthesis by excluding light, while the consumption
of oxygen by respiration of the cranberry vines and of organisms which decom-
pose organic matter continued. As a result the dissolved oxygen in the water
outside the tanks decreased to less than 2 cc. per liter, although probably for not
more than 5 or 6 days. A heavy rain on February 7 removed most of the snow
and the remainder froze into the ice. Thereafter, the dissolved oxygen in the
water outside the tanks on Early Black and McFarlin vines increased rapidly,
and by February 12 it had come up nearly to the same content as on January 24.
The oxygen content of the water outside the tank on Howes vines remained near
2 cc. per liter until February 20 when it also began to increase.

The dissolved oxygen in the water inside the tanks on January 15 varied from
4 to 5 cc. per liter. Because of the exclusion of light by the covers, little or no
photosynthesis could take place and the oxygen content of the water decreased
steadily. By January 24 and from then until February 27 there was no dis-
solved oxygen in the water inside the tank enclosing vines of the Howes variety,
and not more than 0.4 cc. per liter from February 27 until March 20. In tanks
enclosing the other two varieties of vines there was less than 1 cc. of oxygen per
liter of water for about a month from February 1 to March 1 except in the tank
on Early Black vines where the oxygen content of the water increased to slightly
more than 2 cc. per liter for a few days around February 12. On February 28
nine inches more water was pumped onto the bog which brought the oxygen
content of the water up to more than 2 cc. per liter. Thereafter, e.xcept for a few
days about March 13, there was never less than this amount of oxygen in the
water. Soon after March 20 the ice went off the bog and the dissolved-oxygen
content again increased.

The water was taken off the bog on April 1, 1941, and the tanks were then
removed. Counts were made during the summer and autumn to ascertain the
average number of flowers and fruits per upright, the percentage of buas killed,
and the percentage of flowers that set fruit on vines of each of the three varieties
both inside and outside the tanks where the dissolved oxygen content of the water

42 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

during the winter flooding period was known. The yield of berries of each variety
inside the tanks and on measured areas outside was determined.

The effect of an insufficient supply or of complete deprivation of oxygen over
a period of a month or more during the winter flooding period is shown clearly
by the reduction in yield of berries from vines inside the tanks in comparison with
vines outside. Furthermore, the yield outside but near the tanks was very much
less than that from vines on slightly higher ground and therefore less deeply
flooded. The yields, in barrels per acre, were as follows: Early Black, inside
tank 28, outside near tank 34, on slightly higher ground 75; Howes, in the cor-
responding locations, 50, 72, and 110; and McFarlin, inside tank 39, outside on
higher ground 81.

Although the dissolved-oxygen content of the water on the less deeply flooded
areas during the winter was not determined, it has been found repeatedly that
the oxygen content of water is less in deep places than in shallow, even a few
inches making a significant difference,- particularly when there is ice over the bog.
It is probable, therefore, that the oxygen content of the water in the less deeply
flooded "high" places did not fall below 2 cc. per liter for more than one or two
days during the winter, if at all. This indicates that if the dissolved-oxygen
content of the water is less than 2 cc. per liter for even a few days the j'ield is
greatly reduced. A longer period of oxygen deprivation caused a further reduc-
tion in yield, but even within a variety the reduction was not proportional to the
length of time during nvhich the oxygen deficiency existed. Prolonged oxygen
deficienci' affected vines of different varieties differently. There was no oxygen
in the water inside the tank on Howes vines for nearly two months; yet these
vines yielded better than Early Black vines inside a tank in which the ox^'gen
in the water was less than 1 cc. per liter for not more than a month and approached
exhaustion for about two weeks only. This probably is because the Early Black
vines had been badly injured by a lack of oxygen in the water during the flooding
period of the Winter of 1939-40 and therefore were more susceptible to injury.

The first effect of an oxygen deficiency during the winter flooding period is to
reduce the number of flowers that set fruit. Injury of this kind apparently may
occur if there is less than 2 cc. of dissolved oxygen per liter in the water for as
short a time as 3 or 4 days. In all three varieties the percentage cf flowers setting
fruit was lowest on vines inside the tanks, where the oxygen deficiency was great-
est, and was lower on vines in slightly deeper water than on those most shallowly
flooded, although in some cases the difference was small.

A greater deficiency of oxygen or a deficiency over a longer time causes the
death of flower buds and then of the uprights on which the flowers are borne.
The percentage of dead buds on vines of all three varieties in the areas outside
but near the tanks was considerably greater than it was on vines on slightly
higher ground. In the Early Black and Howes varieties the percentage of dead
buds on vines inside the tanks was slightly less than on those outside, whereas
it should have been greater. One reason for this discrepancy may be that more
of the flower buds on vines inside the tanks than on those outside were killed at
such an early stage of development that they were not detected when the counts
were made. This is indicated by the lower average number of flowers per upright
for these varieties on vines inside than on those outside the tanks. Another
reason is that in making the counts only flowering uprights were taken; no atten-
tion was paid to sterile ones, a considerable proportion of which probably were
flowering uprights on which the buds had been killed at a very early stage of
development. For the same reasons the values for the percentage of flowers
setting fruit on vines of the Early Black and Howes varieties inside the tanks
are higher than they would otherwise have been.

The average size of berries from vines inside the tanks was smaller than that of

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 43

berries from vines just outside the tanlcs or from vines on slightly higher ground.
Berries of the Early Black variety showed the greatest difference. Those from
vines inside the tank averaged 158 to the cup (J^ pt.); from vines just outside,
118 (average of 93 counts); and from vines on slightly higher ground, 110 (20
counts). The average number of berries per cup for the other two varieties was as
follows: Howes, inside tank 115, outside near tank 105, outside on slightly higher
ground 100; McFarlins, inside tank 94, outside near tank 94, on slightly higher
ground 84. Many berries failed to grow to a size large enough to be picked. The
proportion of these berries was greater from vines inside the tanks or from vines
outside near the tanks than from vines on higher ground.

The reduction in the size of picked fruits and the failure of berries to grow
to a size large enough to be picked probably is due to an inadequate food supply
during the summer because of injury to the leaves of the preceding season which
reduced their capacity to synthesize carbohydrates. Vines of all three varieties
inside the tanks lost more of their old leaves than did vines outside. This was
true especially of Early Black which lost nearly all the old leaves from vines
inside the tank. Even when old leaves remained on the vines, many of them were
injured and probably their effectiveness in the formation of carbohydrates was
greatly reduced.

The following conclusions are drawn: Injury to cranberry vines occurs when
the dissolved-oxygen content of the water falls below 2 cc. per liter. This happens
apparently only when the ice on a winter-flooded bog is covered with snow,
which excludes light and thereby prevents photosynthesis and the resultant
liberation of oxygen which ordinarily keeps the oxygen content of the water
high enough to prevent injury. The injurious effect on cranberry vines of a lack
of oxygen for several days to a few weeks is shown ultimately in the reduction
of the crop. Reduced yields are the direct result of (1) reduction in the number of
flowers setting fruit, (2) death of flower buds and flowering uprights, and (3) re-
duction in the size of fruits, both those harvested and those too small to pick.

DEPARTMENT OF DAIRY INDUSTRY

J. H. Frandsen in Charge

Studies on Chocolate-Flavored Milk. (W. S. Mueller.) The study of choc-
olate-flavored milk, with especial emphasis on its nutritive value, continues to
be a major project in this department. For a long time it had been assumed
that the well-known nutritive properties of plain milk were also present in choc-
olate-flavored milk. In 1937 it was discovered that milk containing 2.5 percent
or more of cocoa was not equal in nutritive value to plain milk, when fed to white
rats. Since then experiments have been in progress to learn more about the
various constituents of cocoa and their possible effects upon the nutritive value
of the milk. In addition to the nutritional studies, investigations on improving
the method for processing chocolate milk are in progress.

1. The Effect of Cocoa Upon Digestibility of Milk Proteins. (L. D. Lipman
and W. S. Mueller.) The addition of cocoa to whole milk powder in quantity
equivalent to approximately 3.6 percent by weight on a fluid milk basis reduced
the digestibility of the milk protein 7.8 percent. The kind of cocoa, Dutch or
American-process, and the inclusion of 7.1 percent of cocoa fat in the ration,
did not significantly affect the percentage reduction. Proteins of the Dutch and
American-process cocoa were found to be 38.1 and 44.5 percent digestible, re-
spectively. The results of this study were published in the Journal of Dairy
Science 24, May 1941.

44 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

2. The Significance of Tannic Substances and Theobromine in Chocolate Milk.
(W. S. Mueller.) The relative toxicity of pure theobromine, pure tannic acid,
and two cocoa powders varying in content of tannic .substances was determined by
feeding these substances in a basal diet to white rats. Theobromine was non-
toxic to albino rats when the ration contained 0.27 percent of this alkaloid, and
tannic acid was toxic when the ration contained 2 percent of this substance.
These amounts of tannic acid and theobromine in the diets were equal to those
in a chocolate milk made with 3.6 percent cocoa powder which contained 12.15
percent tannic substances and 1.7 percent theobromine. A cocoa powder con-
taining 12.15 percent of tannic substances was more toxic than a cocoa powder
containing only 2.67 percent of tannic substances, but was less toxic than pure
crystalline tannic acid. A concentrated extract of cocoa was non-toxic to rats
when fed at the rate of 8 percent of the ration. The hemoglobin levels of the
blood of rats fed theobromine, crystaline tannic acid, and cocoa powder contain-
ing varying amounts of tannic substances did not vary from the normal enough
to be of any significance. Results from this study indicate that the toxicity from,
cocoa can be greatly reduced by selecting a cocoa or chocolate which is low in
tannic substances, or preferably by using an extract of cocoa as the flavoring ma-
terial when feasible.

3. The Availability of the Iron of Cocoa and of Additional Iron when Asso-
ciated with Cocoa. (F. Kinder, H. S. Mitchell, and W. S. Mueller.) This study is
reported by the Department of Home Economics Nutrition.

4. Effect of Adding Cocoa to Cow's Milk on the Utilization of Calcium and
Phosphorus. (M. R. Cooney and VV. S. Mueller.) This study is reported by the.
Department of Home Economics Nutrition.

5. The Bacteriology of Chocolate Milk, Chocolate Syrup, and Cocoa Powders
(R. W. Swanson, J. E. Fuller, and W. S. MueUer.) This study is reported by the
Department of Bacteriology.

6. Effect of Cocoa on the Vitamin C Content of Milk. (W. S. Mueller.) Vita-
min C is present in fresh raw milk to the extent of 12 to 20 mg. per quart. If
this could all be retained, milk would be a significant source of vitamin C, since
the higher figure is about half the daily requirements of an adult. Therefore, the
handling of milk from the time it is drawn until it is consumed, in a manner
which will conserve the vitamin C, is an important problem today.

If chocolate milk is substituted for plain milk, it is important to know what
effect the cocoa has upon the retention of vitamin C. Preliminary studies on the
relative retention of vitamin C in plain milk and chocolate milk have been made,
using the 2, 6-dichloro-phenol-indophenol in both visual and electrometric titra-
tions. Results of these studies indicate that the addition of cocoa to milk hastens
the destruction of vitamin C. When both milks were stored, under identical
conditions, the plain milk lost 22 percent of the original vitamin C, while the
loss for chocolate milk was 77 percent. This difference in loss of vitamin C is
typical of the results obtained. Studies are also being made to determine which
method is most suitable for measuring the vitamin C content of chocolate milk.

7. Effect of Cocoa on the Coagulation of Milk. (W. S. Mueller.) It has been
reported by a foreign investigator that cacao bean contains an enzyme with
rennet effect. Dry, it withstands heating to 248°-284° F. and may, therefore,
be found in cocoa powder. The optimum temperature of the enzyme is 149° F.
and the optimum pH is below 6.3. By heating a suspension of cocoa powder in
water (176° F.), the enzyme will be destroyed.

Since the knowledge of this enzyme may be of practical interest to the con-
sumer as well as to the manufacturer of cocoa, a study was undertaken to deter-

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 45

mine whether cocoa powders commonly sold in this country contain such an
enzyme. In preliminary studies 25 samples of cocoa powder have been investi-
gated. When one percent of cocoa powder, by weight, was added to good quality
milk (.16 percent acidity), only one cocoa powder coagulated the milk shortly
after heating at 149° F. for 30 minutes. Further investigation will be made,
using milk of higher acidity and of a low protein stability, and also adding a larger
amount of cocoa to the milk.

8. The Effect of Various Methods of Pasteurization on Chocolate Milk. (W. S.
Mueller and A. M. Shipley.) Further experiments in pasteurizing chocolate-
flavored milk by the Electropure process substantiate in a general way the results
of last year. However, in the latest trials, the Electropure method was more
efficient in the reduction of the bacteria count of highly viscous chocolate milks.

Cooperative Study with the American Dairy Science Association Committee
on Methods for Determining the Curd Tension of Milk. (W. S. Mueller.) The
final report of the committee on methods of determining the curd tension of milk
was published in the Journal of Dairy Science, 24, September 1941.

Improving the Flavor and Keeping Properties of Milk and Some of its Products.

(VV. S. Mueller and M. J. Mack.) A major flavor defect of orange or lemon ice
and sherbet is the development of terpene odors and flavors, as a result of the
oxidation of the oil in the flavoring material. It seems logical that this flavor
defect could be prevented or minimized by the addition of an antioxidant.
Therefore, the antioxygenic effect of oat flour and of a concentrated extract of
oat flour was studied by adding 0.5 and 0.1 percent of these substances, respec-
tively, to lemon and orange ices. Fresh orange and lemon juice were used as the
flavoring materials. The control samples developed a harsh flavor after four
days, while the samples containing the antioxidants had a typical orange and
lemon flavor for several weeks. In the concentrations used, the concentrated
extract of oat flour was slightl)- more effective than the powdered oat flour. A
protective action was also noted when a sugar which had been treated with the
oat flour concentrate was added to the orange and lemon ices.

Cocoa flour was found to be an effective antioxidant when added directlj' to
milk. Also cocoa flour and oat flour possessed antioxygenic properties when
used for treating paper milk-container stock.

Factors which may affect the solubility of the antioxidant oat flour in ice
cream mix and milk are being investigated. The effect of temperature of the milk
at the time the oat flour is added has been studied. No significant differences
were noted for temperatures ranging from 50° to 160° F.

The Use of Corn Syrup Solids in Ice Cream and Ices. (M. J. Mack and J. H.
Nair.) The use of dried corn s\Tup as a sweetener in frozen dairy products was
discussed in a previous publication. (Corn Syrup Solids Improve Frozen Dairy
Products. Lynn R. Glazier and Merrill J. Mack. Food Industries, June 1941,
p. 68.) The replacement of 20 to 25 percent of the sucrose ordinarily used in
ice cream by corn syrup solids was found to affect but slightly the sweetness of
the product and to improve somewhat the body and texture and melting charac-
teristics of the ice cream. Consumer acceptance of ice cream containing sucrose
and corn syrup solids seemed to be slightly greater than of that containing sucrose
as the only sweetening agent. During the first part of the study it became evident
that factors other than the sugar content of ice cream may affect the apparent
sweetness of the product. Therefore, the project is being continued to study
some of these factors.

Preliminary results indicate that the apparent sweetness of ice cream may be
affected by such factors as the source of butterfat, the ratio of fat to serum solids,

46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

the mineral salts present, and the melting characteristics of the product. Other
factors are also involved, such as the serving temperature, the type of flavoring
used, and the ratio of solids to sugar in the ice cream.

A Study of New Stabilizing Materials for Ice Cream. (M. J. Mack and A. M.
Shipley.) Several new stabilizers have recently been developed and already are
used to some extent in ice cream. The stabilizer employed affects a number of
properties, such as the viscosity, titratable acidity, and whipping ability' of the
mix, and the flavor, body and texture, and melting properties of the ice cream.
The object of this investigation is to compare the effectiveness of the new stabiliz-
ers with those already known to be desirable in ice cream.

Among six stabilizers thus far observed, two were as effective as gelatin or sodium
alginate in producing mix viscosity and firmness of body in ice cream. They
allowed satisfactory whipping of the mix and permitted normal melting of the
product. The chief difficulty thus far encountered is that some of the newer
stabilizers are somewhat lacking in solubility. The work will continue with a
study of the effects of each active material employed, with the object of finding a
combination of stabilizing materials more satisfactory than those now available.

The Appearance of Melted Ice Cream. (M. J. Mack.) The melting charac-
teristics of ice cream have recently received more consideration, as is evidenced
by the fact that the new score card approved for ice cream by the American
Dairy Science Association allots 5 points to this item. Severe defects in melting
appearance usually are due to loss of stability of the casein in the ice cream, while
minor defects ma)' be due to other causes.

Slight increases in the acidity of mixes cause ice cream to appear curdy or
"whey off" when melting, if normal homogenization pressures are maintained.
Standardization of the acidity by the addition of som.e suitable alkaline material
does not injure the melting appearance in ice cream of average composition
unless the original acidity is greater than approximately 0.24 percent. The
melting characteristics are affected to a lesser degree by such factors as the com-
ponents used, the percentage composition, the methods of freezing, and so on.

A Comparison of the Electric and Vat Methods of Pasteurization. (L. D.

Lipman, J. H. Frandsen, and H. G. Lindquist.) Split batches of raw milk were
pasteurized in an electric pasteurizer at 162° for 16 seconds, and in a spray vat
at 143° for 30 minutes. The following conclusions may be drawn.

1. The reduction in vitamin C content of milk was less rapid in the electric-
pasteurized milk than in raw or vat-pasteurized milks.

2. The electric method gave better, that is less, phosphatase units than the
vat method.

3. Vat-pasteurization decreased the cream volume, while the electric method
gave the same cream line as that of the raw milk. However, the difference between
the two methods of pasteurization was so small that no definite conclusions
should be drawn as to which of the two methods results in the smaller decrease
in cream volume.

4. There was no significant difference in the efficiency of bacterial reduction
between the vat and electric methods of pasteurization. With som.e milks the
electric method seemed to show the higher percentage kill, whereas with other
milks the vat method seemed to show the higher percentage kill. A probable
explanation for this is that the types of bacteria or bacterial flora present in the
milk will affect the percentage killed by pasteurization. For example, evidence
seems to show that thermophilic bacteria are killed by the high-temperature-
short-time pasteurization but survive and may grow at vat-pasteurization tem-
peratures. The reverse seems to be true with the thermoduric types of bacteria.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 , 47

5. Electric-pasteurized milk became oxidized less rapidly, less frequently,
and to a lesser degree than did vat-pasteurized milk. A cooked flavor was found
more often and more pronounced in vat-pasteurized milk than in electric-pas-
teurized milk.

6. Generally it can be said that electric pasteurization (high temperature-
short time) of milk will tend to prevent development of oxidized and cooked
flavors, and such milk will have a higher flavor score than vat-pasteurized milk
at the end of 48 hours.

A Study of the Efficiency of the McCormick-Deering Cream Separator (Stand-
ardizer.) (A. M. Shipley and J. H. Frandsen.) In 1938 a report was given of a
study of the suitability and practicability of the DeLaval Multipurpose Sep-
arator. In some further work on this project, tests have been made on the McCor-
mick-Deering Cream Separator. The following results were obtained:

Before After

Sediment 9.8 9.8

Flavor Score 22.5 23.25

Fat (percent) 3.0 4.0

Skim (percent) — .01

Total solids (percent) 11,395 12.35

Bacteria per c. c 1500 2400

Curd tension 60 57.5

■ Creaming (pint bottle) 2 inches 1)/^ inches

Standardization, in addition to providing a milk of desired fat content, seems
also to give milk of slightly better flavor. Standardization with a mechanical
standardizer is, in our judgment, more practical and economical than standardiza-
tion by siphoning or foremilking.

Some Factors Affecting the Wheying Off of Cultured Buttermilk. (L. R.

Glazier and H. G. Lindquist.) \\'hen cultured buttermilk is allowed to stand in
storage, it frequently separates into a layer of curd and whey. In this study it was
found that the higher the developed acidity, the less curd separation and wheying
off occurred. Pasteurization at a temperature of 200° F. was more desirable
for the milk to be used for culturing than was pasteurization at 180° F., and
temperatures below 180° F. should be avoided. Storage temperatures as high as
50° F. should be avoided. Storage at 33° F. gave the best results of any of the
temperatures used, in preventing wheying off of buttermilk in storage. The
longer the buttermilk is held, the more separation and wheying off there is likely
to be. Therefore, smaller batches should be made in order to eliminate long
storage periods. (Published in Milk Plant Monthly, 30 (5): 27-30, 1941.)

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS

Alexander E. Cance in Charge

Land-Use Problems in Massachusetts in Relation to a Balanced Program of
Land Utilization. (David Rozman.) The major phase of this project has been
completed and the results presented for publication as Experiment Station Bulle-
tin 387. This study deals with the interrelationship of major uses of land on a
State and local basis. To an analysis of the historical trend in agricultural and
forest land uses is added consideration of other important land uses such as
recreational, part-time farming, residential, and industrial. The summary and
main conclusions are as follows:

48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

1. The classification of land on the basis of soil and topography indicates
that 50.2 percent of the total area of the State is suitable for agricultural utiliza-
tion.

2. The percentage of agricultural suitability varies from 31 percent in Barn-
stable County to 62.7 percent in Worcester County.

3. In 1880, before the decline in agricultural land use set in, 41.4 percent of the
State area was represented by inaproved farm land. In 1940 this proportion had
declined to 15.4 percent.

4. The major local land-use factors responsible for the decline of improved
farm land relate in varying degrees to changing types and systems of farming;
soil erosion and deterioration; non-resident land ownership; the disappearance of
town industries; and the growth of residential, recreational, commercial, and
other more intensive uses of land.

5. Non-resident ownership of about one-third of all land in rural towns has
contributed to the increasing amount of land under wooded cover.

6. Of the total State area, 64.3 percent is under wooded cover. The highest
proportion is in Barnstable and Berkshire counties, 73.1 and 71.8 percent, re-
spectively; the lowest in Essex and Middlesex counties, 52.0 and 57.8 percent,
respectively.

7. In the towns below 10,000 population there are 89 with no existing local
industries. In each of 87 of the remaining 184 towns, local industries provide
employment for less than 100 persons.

8. The demand for more intensive uses of land has affected farming through
higher land values and taxes.

9. The average value per acre of farm land and buildings is $37.38 in the
lowest third of the towns below 10,000 population. In the highest third the
average value is $284.57 per acre.

10. From the standpoint of land-use pattern and land-use adjustments
needed, five types of rural towns are indicated in Massachusetts:

A. Towns characterized by predominantly poor land, declining population,

limited amount of agricultural land utilization, and extensive areas
under wooded cover.
Major adjustments needed: Extension of public ownership of forest land,
elimination of isolated settlement, development of recreational facilities,
possible discontinuation of the town as an independent political unit.

B. Towns with a fair agricultural background, experiencing recent disloca-

tion in local industries.
Major adjustments needed: Realignment of town expenditures, fuller utiliza-
tion of land resources for agriculture and other uses, rehabilitation of
industrial opportunities.

C. Towns with favorable physical background for well-rounded agricultural

land utilization.
Major adjustments needed: Conservation of soil, better adaptation of crops,
and better care of woodlots.

D. Towns with receding agricultural land utilization as a result of expansion

in more intensive uses of land.
Major adjustments needed: Prevention of increase of idle land held for
speculative purposes, primarily by moie equitable taxation of land used
in agriculture.

E. Towns with a balanced system of agricultural and other land uses.
Major adjustments needed: Maintenance and improvement of local condi-
tions through farsighted policies of local people and their planning
agencies.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 49

Problems of Rural Youth in Massachusetts. (David Rozman, Gilbert Mel-
tlrum, Ruth E. Sherburne.) This study was undertaken during the past year
in cooperation with the United States Department of Agriculture to determine
and analyze the most important problems of rural youth in Massachusetts.
Nearly 600 schedules were obtained in selected towns in four counties, including
young people, both in school and out of school, ranging in age from 16 to 25.
For 40 percent of the boys the main problem had to do with finding a job, making
a living, or getting started in farming. For one-fourth of the girls the major prob-
lems were also economic. Of the problems mentioned by both boys and girls,
25 percent concerned education and vocational guidance.

The results of this study have been analyzed and presented as E.xperiment
Station Bulletin 386.

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
C. I. Gunness in Charge

Cranberry Storage Investigation. (C. I. Gunness, H. J. Franklin, and C. R.
Fellers.) The storage of Earh Black cranberries in a modified atmosphere was
continued during the 1941 season. All the berries were picked and stored on
September 8 and removed from storage and screened on November 14. Three
lots of berries were stored at 35 degrees and three lots at 45 degrees. One lot
at each temperature was kept in normal atmosphere, one lot in an atmosphere
containing 5 percent ca"rbon dioxide and 2 percent oxygen, and one lot in an
atmosphere containing 10 percent carbon dioxide and 10 percent oxygen. The
berries stored in modified atmospheres were kept in sealed sheet iron cabinets
having a capacitN' of 2 barrels each. Means were provided for removal of excess
carbon dioxide by circulating the air from the cabinets through a solution of
sodium-hydroxide. Excess moisture was removed from the cabinets by circulat-
ing the air through calcium chloride.

Apparently this process was ineffective as the berries were covered with mois-
ture when the cabinets were opened at the end of the test.

Berries stored in normal air at 35 degrees and 45 degrees showed the usual
differences in storage loss which have been observed in former years. Those
stored at 35 degrees showed a storage loss of 4.7 percent, while those at 45 degrees
showed a loss of 11.6 percent. All the berries stored in the modified atmospheres
showed greater losses than those stored in normal air. It is not known, however,
whether this increased loss was due to the composition of the atmosphere or to the
excessive moisture in the cabinets. The experiment will have to be repeated
next year with more efficient equipment for removing excess moisture from the
cabinets.

Berries stored in normal air developed very much better color at 45 degrees
than at 35 degrees. Berries stored in modified atmospheres on the other hand,
developed no better color at 45 degrees than at 35 degrees; and berries stored in
modified atmospheres at 35 degrees were not as well colored as those kept in
normal air at 35 degrees.

Apple Storage Investigation. (C. I. Gunness in cooperation with Department
of Pomology.) A small room for the storage of apples in a modified atmosphere
was prepared during the summer of 1940 and filled with Mcintosh apples that
fall. The room had a small leak and it was not possible to reduce the oxygen
content to the desired 2 percent. Considerable variation in temperature in-
creased air circulation through the leak, and it was not possible to reduce the

50 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

oxygen below 11 percent. The results obtained with the storage were, therefore,,
unsatisfactory, the fruit on removal being in about the same condition as fruit
kept at 32 degrees in a normal atmosphere.

During the past summer the leak was stopped and a new cooling unit installed
with a sensitive thermostat. The room is now operating with an atmosphere
of 5 percent carbon dioxide and 2 percent oxygen. Results will not be available
until the room is opened in the spring.

Frost Protection on Cranberry Bogs. (C. I. Gunness.) The wind machine
used for frost protection was moved to a dry bog in the spring of 1941. It was
operated both in the spring and in the fall. The results were in general unsatis-
factory in that protection was given over too small an area.

Poultry House Investigation. (C. I. Gunness and \V. C. Sanctuary.) The
investigation on the operation of electric brooders in colony houses was con-
tinued during 1941. The purpose of the investigation was to see whether litter
could be kept dry in a brooder house through the use of soil heating cable. Very
wet sawdust litter was placed in the houses and while the litter in the house
equipped with soil cable was drier than in the others, it wa« not sufficiently dry to
be considered satisfactory. It was felt, however, that the litter was too wet at
the start to make a fair test of the effect of the soil cable. Good chicks were
reared in spite of the damp litter conditions. The test is being repeated this year.

Ceiling temperatures were taken during the winter months of 1941 in insulated
and non-insulated pens through the use of thermocouples. Ventilation was
adjusted so as to keep the same temperature in insulated and uninsulated pens.
It was found that on cold nights the ceiling temperatures in insulated pens would
run one degree lower than air temperatures within the pen, while in uninsulated
pens the ceiling temperature would run 4.5 degrees lower than the air temperature.
This would indicate that insulated pens are more comfortable for the birds even
though there ma> be but slight difference in air temperatures.

Observations taken during the late summer showed ceiling temperatures from
5 to 13 degrees higher in uninsulated pens than in insulated pens with equal air
temperatures. In sections where the black composition roof had been painted
with aluminum paint, the ceiling temperature in uninsulated pens was reduced
from 85 degrees to 82 degrees on the rear slope when compared with sections
which had not been painted. In insulated pens the aluminum paint produced a
difference of 3 degrees in ceiling temperatures on the rear slope. On the front
slope the black surface gave a ceiling temperature of 101 degrees in the unin-
sulated pens with a temperature of 92 under the aluminum paint. In the in-
sulated pen the black gave 88 degrees and the aluminum 85 degrees on the front
slope.

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY

Charles P. Alexander in Charge

Investigation of Materials which Promise Value in Insect Control.

Oil sprays for dormant applications. (A. 1. Bourne and W. D VVhitcomb.)
The early season of 1941 was unusual in many respects. March was character-
ized by cold, windy weather with the average temperature below normal and
snowfall above the average. April, however, was marked by abnormally high
temperature which persisted throughout the month and culminated in the peak of
90 degrees reached on the 20th. The transition from winter to spring was very

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 51

abrupt, and since it was not accompanied with the usual amount of rainfall the
snow and frost disappeared rapidly and the soil dried quickly, furnishing excellent
ground conditions for early spring spra\'ing. Plant and animal life responded to the
unusualh- warm weather. Seasonal development began early and progressed
rapidly. In most orchards the period for delayed dormant application of oil
sprays was very brief so that many growers were unable to complete this appli-
cation before bud development progressed to the pre-pink stage. In the college
orchards the delayed dormant period was passed in 4 to 5 days, and some blocks
received the pre-pink spray 3 days after the delayed dormant. In the experimental
blocks the trees had received the dormant, delayed dormant, pre-pink, and pink
sprays by April 28 in contrast to 1940 when in the same blocks the delayed dor-
mant spray was applied April 29. Verj' few instances of damage to fruit buds or
foliage by oil sprays were obser\'cd or reported in spite of the unseasonable tem-
perature. This was probably due in large measure to the relative!}' small amount
of oil spraying done.

In the cooperative project with the Dow Chemical Company on the investiga-
tion of DN .sprays, attention was focused on the relative tolerance of various types
of ornamentals (coniferous and deciduous) to dormant applications of DN-oil
sprays. In these tests different concentrations of dinitro-ortho-cyclo-hexylphenol
(DNOCHP) compounds were used. None of the common deciduous ornamentals
showed any ill effects from the application aside from a .slight retardation in some
cases. Moderate burning was noted on Irish juniper and more serious injury
resulted on rhododendron and laurel.

In strictly dormant application on apples for the control of overwintering eggs
of European red mite, 2 dry-mix DN compositions containing 40 percent
DNOCHP and DNOC (dinitro-orthocresol) respectively were combined with
2 standard types of commercial oil sprays. Application of a DNOCHP — oil
solution of 7.9 pH caused no injury to fruit or leaf buds nor retardation in de-
velopment. A DNOCHP-oil solution of 6.6 pH caused noticeable retardation in
development but no actual killing of buds. The DNOC-cil solutions of 5.8
pH and 4.8 pH both caused marked retardation of bud development. The
combinations containing the DN compounds were somewhat less effective against
red mite eggs than were the oils alone.

Counts of young mites on the test trees showed 1,660 mites per 100 spurs
following DNOCHP-oil emulsion; 675 following DNOC-oil emulsion; and 465
following the oil emulsion alone. Check trees showed 13,055 mites per 100 spurs.
Following DNOCHP-fmiscible oil, counts showed 20 mites, DNOC + miscible
oil, 80 mites; and miscible oil alone, 15 mites per 100 spurs.

In applications at Waltham en April 8, 1941, no noticeable injury resulted to
bark or twigs from DN-oil mixtures having a pH value of 8.0, 7.45, or 6.75.
All of the mixtures retarded bud development slightly, and when trees were in
full bloom there was slightly more retardation on Mcintosh and Wealthy from
the alkaline mixture than from the more acid mixture. It was also observed that
a dinitro-orthocresol-oil mixture retarded bud development slightly less than
dinitro-ortho-cyclo-hexylphenol in combination with either alkaline or acid oil
emulsion.

All of the sprays gave good control of the European red mite eggs and reduced
the average number of living mites per spur on April 30 by 90 percent or more.
No significant differences between the materials resulted, but the dinitro-ortho-
cresol-oil mixture, which is generally considered safer than the DNOCHP mix-
ture, gave very .satisfactory control of the red mite.

At the college, incidental records on the overwintering eggs of aphids, includ-
ing heavy infestations on birch and pine and moderate infestations on several
ornamentals, showed practically perfect kill following the use of DN compounds.

52 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

The contrast between spra\ ed and unsprayed specimens of \ iburnum was con-
spicuous. (See page 54.) The foHage of unsprayed checks was tightly curled
and distorted and the the plants were of little use as ornamentals, while on the
sprayed plants freedom from aphid attack allowed full and perfect foliage, a con-
dition that is rarely seen in this reg-'on.

Dormant application of a commercial oil emulsion at 5 percent dilution com-
bined with dry-mix DNOCHP gave excellent control of oystershell scale on lilac
and willow. Light to moderate infestations were eliminated. On heav}' infes-
tations with thick encrustation of the bark, some slight hatching took place but
from a commercial standpoint it was negligible.

Summer Treatments for the Control of European Red Mite. (A. I. Bourne and
W. D. Whitcomb.) Another abnormal feature of a very unusual season was the
comparative scarcity of European red mite in most orchards in midsummer
and late summer. The infestation was negligible in the college orchard. A heavy
outbreak in a Berkshire County orchard offered opportunit)- for checking the
efificiency of a DN dust (a L7 dicyclohexylamine salt of DNOCHP). The red
mite population before dusting amounted to 54.8 mites per leaf. Counts 24
hours after treatment showed an average of 9.6 mites per leaf, and similar counts
made 8 to 9 days after treatment showed an average of one mite per leaf — an
82.5 percent reduction in 24 hours and a 98.1 percent reduction after an 8- to
9-day period.

Tolerance tests of this dust and of a DN spra>' containing 20 percent of the
toxicant designed for summer use, on 28 different types of fruit and shade trees,
ornamentals, and garden plants subject to mite attack showed no injur\ follow-
ing either the dust or the spray.

In August, tests of new materials for the control of the European red mite
on apple were made both at a commercial orchard in Gleasondale and at the
Waltham Field Station. The most effective material was a dicyclohexylamine
salt of dinitro-ortho-cyclo-hexylphenol mixture containing 20 percent of the
toxicant together with dispersing and wetting agent. In four tests of this material
at the rate of 20, 24, and 30 ounces in 100 gallons of spray, the average reduction
of living red mites was 94.2 percent. There was no significant difference between
the dosages used, indicating that the smallest amount (20 ounces in 100 gallons)
was adequate. A 40 percent DNOCHP mixture used at 4 ounces in 100 gallons
gave 88.1 percent reduction and apparently' lacked sufficient wetting agent.
A DN dust containing 1.5 percent of the toxicant averaged 95.3 percent reduction
when applied from both sides of the tree and reduced the living mites 89.3 per-
cent when the tree was dusted from one side only.

Five tests of spray materials containing rotenonc averaged 88.5 percent reduc-
tion, including one moderately effective combination which gave only 78.7 percent
reduction. A pyrethrum spray containing an excellent spreading agent was one
of the most effective materials used and reduced an infestation of 20.04 red mites
per leaf to 0.69 live mites per leaf, a control of 97.05 percent. A mixture containing
ricin, the toxic ingredient in castor-bean, was the least effective material used.
None of the materials caused injury to the fruit, bark, or foliage which was ab-
normally "hard" following the summer drought.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941

53

Figure 2

Topsoil 3.5 feel deep, accumu-
lated al the foot of a short culti-
vated slope through the action
of sheet erosion. (Broken white
line separates topsoil and
subsoil.)

Figure 1

Left: Merrimac fine sandy loam.

Right: Memphis silt loam.

Equal weights of soil dispersed in
equal amounts of water and allowed to
settle the same length of time.

54

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Viburnum
L.pper Bran:.. Untreated: Leaves tight.y curled, twigs deformed.

c^ ^ ;.h nM ■ Free from aphids. leaves normal.

Lower Branch Sprayed with DN . tree irom i

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941

55

Defoliation of Rose by the Common Red Spider
Plant at left sprayed
Plant at right unsprayed

Injury to Ears of Sweet Corn from Oil — Pyethrum
applied for control of Corn Ear Worm

Left: Not treated
Right: Treated

56

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 338

Rooting of Cuttings of Canadian Hemlock
Top: After 10 weeks at 75" F.
Left : Not treated.
Riglit: Treated with Hormodin A, 30 BTI units for 24 hours.

Bottom: After 15 weeks at 65" F.

Treated with Indolebutryric Acid. 7.5 mg. 100 c. c. for 24 hours.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 57

Summer Sprays for Apples. (A. I. Bourne in cooperation with Departments of
Pomology and Botany.) Studies of the value of modifications of the standard
spray program were continued. The yield was light, and the prolonged drought
in the early season greatly influenced the prevalence of disease, particularly apple
scab. The standard spray program, involving lime-sulfur in all spra\s through the
caK X with wettable sulfur thereafter, was contrasted with a similar program with
the addition of a midbloom application of wettable sulfur, and an optional stand-
ard in which no lime was used in the cover sprays. The standard schedule was
also contrasted with a program of wettable sulfur throughout the season. Lead
arsenate was used in all applications except the pre-pink and midbloom sprays.
The dosage was 4 pounds to 100 gallons in the calyx, and 1st and 2d cover sprays;
3 pounds in the pink and .3d cover sprays, and 2 pounds in the 4th cover spray.
Liquid lime-sulfur was used at the rate of Ij^ gallons per 100 and wettable sulfur
at 8 pounds per 100 gallons.

The pathologist reported that scab infection was appearing on the foliage
of Mcintosh check trees in the period of May 23 to 26, and a few infected fruits
were observed May 31. On the sprayed trees the spur leaves and fruits were
evidently protected b>' the pre-blossom sprays and the infection was confined
to the shoot leaves. The record of Mcintosh fruit at harvest supported these
observations. The fruit from unsprayed trees showed 44 to 45 percent scab, while
on sprayed trees it varied from 0 to 1.8 percent.

The season also was not conducive to spray injury on cither leaves or fruit.
Distinct injury, however, occurred in all plots where liquid lime-sulfur was applied
although this was not of so serious a nature or extent as in years of more normal
rainfall. Russeting of fruit was noted in all plots where lime-sulfur was applied.

The control of insect pests was consistent throughout the entire orchard and
there was no significant difference between the standard program and the mod-
ified schedules. The record of unsprayed Mcintosh fruit was illuminating. Three
anplcs, or 0.6 percent were clean; 80 to 81 percent of the fruit was scarred by
curculio, and nearly 50- percent damaged by codling moth. Scab occurred on 44
to 45 percent of the apples (in a season very unfavorable for its development).
Detailed counts showed that on nearly 50 percent of the fruit there were injuries
by three or more insects or diseases on the same apple.

Control of Cabbage Maggot. (W. D. Whitcomb, W'altham.) Definite infor-
mation showing that one of the largest sources of cabbage maggot flies in the
spring is late-planted cruciferous crops was obtained by sifting the soil in a six-
inch square and six inches deep around roots of cabbage, broccoli, and turnip
which had remained in the ground over winter. These plants were apparenth-
infested by a third generation of the maggot in September. Soil examination on
April 18, 1941, showed a maximum of 51 pupae per plant, with an average of
19.9, on a small planting of yellow turnip; a maximum of 14 per plant with an av-
erage of 4.9, on a small planting of broccoli; and a maximum of 11 per plant, with
an average of 1.9, on a large planting of cabbage.

The first eggs of the cabbage maggot in the spring of 1941 were found on May 1,
which is five days earlier than the average date for the past ten years. The
normal field infestation was 85.72 percent commercial injury on the Golden Acre
variety. One application of corrosive sublimate solution on May 3 gave 92.04
percent commercial protection and yielded 78 percent large and medium heads.
Two applications of corrosive sublimate solution gave 96.67 percent commercial
protection and yielded 83 percent large and medium heads. Calomel-talc powder
containing 4 percent calomel applied at the rate of a teaspoonful around the stem
of each plant on May 3 was also satisfactory, giving 100 percent commercial
protection and yielding 75 percent large and medium heads.

58 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

In 1941 twelve varieties of cabbage were plaiilefl to fictermiiie their nntural
susceptibility to cabbage maggot injury. The results indicated that the early
maturing varieties such as Golden Acre and the Savoy types were most sus-
ceptible, and the red varietie*^ most resistant. Dry weather in the latter part of
the growing season interfered with the records on head development, but Red
Acre with 64.83 percent large and medium heads withstood the maggot injury
and drought the best, while Golden Acre, which suffered the most maggot injury,
gave the poorest yield with 7.69 percent marketable heads.

Susceptibility of Cabbage Varieties to Cabbage Maggot Injury, Wnlthum, Mass., 194L

l^ery Susceptible (80 percent or more commercial injur>). Golden Acre,
Enkhuizen Glory.

Susceptible (65 to 80 percent conmiercial injur>). Super Curled Savo\-,
Cornell Early Savoy.

Moderately Susceptible (40 to 65 percent commercial injury). — Premium
Flat Dutch, All Head Early, Danish Drumhead, Pearly Jersey Wake-
field, Pcnn State Railhead.

Slightly Resistant (25 to 40 percent commercial iiijur\). - Mammoth Red
Rock, Red Drumhead, Refl Acre.

Control of the Squash Vine Borer. (W. D. Whitcomb, Waltham.) The field
infestation of the squash \'ine borer was 7.52 borers per vine, which is one of the
greatest infestations vwr recorded in the experimental field of Blue. Hubbard
squash at Waltham. Experimental sprays and dusts were applied July 7, 14,
21, and 28. The sprats were applied at 275 pounds pressure with a small power
sprayer, and the dusts with a plunger t>'pe hand duster. The most effective
treatments were a rotenone-copper ox\'chloride sulfate dust, white oil emulsion
I percent with nicotine sulfate 1-500 spray, and nicotine sulfate 1-250 spra\'.
Rotenone -talc dust containing 0.75 percent rotenonc and a dust containing 20
percent cryolite with 5 percent metallic copper were moderatel}' effective. Lead
arsenate 3 pounds with fish oil 1 pint in 100 gallons of water as a spray was in-
effective, this plot having an infestation only 12 percent less than the untreated
check.

Yield records showefl a significant increase in favor of the dusted plants, re-
flecting the beneficial action of a fungicide on the production of fruit. The plants
receiving the rotenone-copper o.xychloride sulfate dust yielded 594 pounds more
than the untreated check, an increase of 80 percent. As in previous experiments,
there was no consistent direct correlation between yield and borer injury. The
1941 experiments also strengthened the theory that an infestation of 2 borers or
less per vine before August 1 does not greatly reduce the yield.

Control of Onion Thrips. (A. I. Bourne.) The early spring was characterized
by abnormally warm weather in April and was followed by more normal tem-
peratures in May with very little rain during that period. This was followed by
weather somewhat warmer than normal in June and rains which, although for
the most part small in amount, were so frequent that field crops such as onions
made an early start and grew rapidly.

Such weather conditions would normalh' favor the early appearance and rapid
development of thrips but this was not the case in 1941. In the experimental
plots of seed onions, thrips appeared late and developed slowly. There were
practically no thrips on the plants throughout June, and by July 14 the average
population per plant was only 10 thrips. Very high temperature in early July
induced a rapid increase to the peak of 40 thrips per plant on July 21. Following
a rainfall of nearly one-half inch on the 25th and a heavy downpour during the
28th (1.9 inches) the number of thrips was reduced to approximately 12 per

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 59

plant and remained at that low level until late August when the plants matured.
No blast was observed.

Throughout the Valley, fields of both set and .seed-grown onions were com-
paratively free from thrips. Results of tests of contact insecticides for thrips
control were inconclusive because of the scarcity of the insects even on the un-
sprayed plants. Fixed nicotine with a resin residue spreader gave good initial
control although its action was slower than that of nicotine sulfate, it was as
effective alone as when used with a spreader. A rotenone extract with resin
residue spreader had a high immediate effect and good residual action. Derris
powder (4 percent rotenone) gave excellent kill within 24 hours, and reinfestation
was slow. This was true regardless of the type of spreader used. Nicotine sulfate
and soap caused the usual high mortality of thrips within a few hours after appli-
cation but its residual effect was inferior to that of rotenone.

Predaceous insects were comparatively scarce during the early summer, but
by mid-August syrphid flies and predaceous thrips had increased to considerable
numbers and contributed very greath' to the rapid decline, in late August, of a
very light but long-drawn-out attack of thrips. No evidence of fungus disease
of thrips was observed.

The Spray Residue Problem. (A. I. Bourne.) The more liberal limits of
tolerance established in the late summer of 1940 continued in effect for the ship-
ping season of 1941. While the present limits are calculated to allow the growers
greater latitude in their pest control program, the prolonged drought from late
July until harvest and the uncertainty as to the permanency of the present
limits made growers reluctant to enlarge their spray program, and for the most
part very few changes were made. In the spray program recommended by the
college foi 1941 the only significant change was the suggestion of a 75-25 sulfur-
lead arsenate dust as an alternate for the 2d cover spray.

Through the cooperation of the Control Service, analyses were made for lead
and arsenic residue on samples of Mcintosh collected from the sprayed plots at
harvest. These analyses showed the amount of residue to be in all cases well
below the present limits.

PVuit which had received the standard sclietlule recommended for the State
showed residues of .031 grains of lead and .013 grains of arsenic per pound of
fruit. Samples from the optional standard schedule in which no lime was used
in the cover sprays gave .026 grains of lead and .009 grains of arsenic per pound.
In the plots where wettable sulfur was used throughout the season, the lead
residue ranged from .023 to .037 grains per pound and the arsenic residue from
.005 to .015 grains. Lead arsenate was applied in the 2d cover spray (June 10)
at 4 pounds per 100 gallons; 3 pounds in the 3d cover (July 2); and 2 pounds in
the 4th cover (July 29). The fruit was picked September 15. While the total
precipitation for July was nearly normal, approximately half of it occurred in
one shower on the 28th. Records showed that during August and September
little more than half the normal rainfall occurred, a deficiency of 3.67 inches.
Fruit encountered unusually favorable conditions for the retention of spray
deposits and normal weathering off could not take place.

Even under such a severe test as the past season offered, lead and arsenic resi-
tlues were so far below present limits that there was a substantial margin of safety,
which would indicate that if these limits are retained the growers will have more
latitude for stiffening their spray schedule for late summer pests than they have
enjoyed since spray residues became a problem of major importance.

Apple Maggot Control. (A. 1. Bourne and W. D. Whitcomb.) Apple maggot
proved to be of relatively minor importance in 1941, not only in Massachusetts
but throughout most of the Northeastern States. In well-sprayed commercial

60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

orchards the injury was negUgible, and even in the smaller home orchards which
received little attention the pest was not conspicuous.

This reduction is not believed to be due to any marked increase in energy on
the part of the growers or to any improvement in the handling of dropped fruit
or other precautionary measures. It is the general belief that adverse weather
conditions and especially deficient rainfall at the period of normal emergence
of the flies were the chief contributing factors.

In the emergence cages at Waltham the flies began to appear on June 19 which
is the earliest date since the observations were started. Although the cages were
operated in the same way as in the previous years, the emergence in the culti-
vated cage was greater than usual and that in the sod much smaller than usual.
This condition is apparently correlated with the deficiency of soil moisture this
year. The emergence record is as follows:

In Sun — Light Soil
Cultivated Sod

Degree of Emergence:

First fly June 19 June 24 '

25% June 30 July 3

50% July 7 July 9

75% July 12 July 15

100% August 7 July 27

Number of larvae in 1940 400 400

Number of flies emerged 1941 207 43

Percent emergence 51 .75 10.75

Insecticides for the Control of European Corn Borer. (A. I. Bourne and \V. D.
VVhitcomb.) The unsea.sonably warni weather throughout April promoted ab-
normally early pupation of the overwintering corn borer larvae. Seasonable
weather in May allowed development to progress normally and resulted in a
very early emergence of the spring brood of moths. On the other hand most of
the growers planted corn at the usual time, with the result that considerable
moth emergence took place before corn was above ground or at least when it was
too small to be attractive for oviposition. In addition, during much of the time
that the moths were present the temperatures at dusk were too low for moth
activity. As a result the infestation by first generation larvae was negligible
throughout the State. Growers harvested very clean corn even where no control
measures were practiced, and in fields which were sprayed or dusted there was
slight evidence of the borer.

In the experimental fields the plots sprayed with derris and Ultrawet showed
4 infested ears out of 660, 99.4 percent clean corn, 84.5 percent of which was
grade 1 or 2; in other words, 84 percent of the total yield was marketable grade.
A fixed-nicotine spray gave 97.1 percent clean corn, 84 percent of which was
marketable. In the plots dusted with derris there were 4 infested ears in a total
of 652, 99.4 percent clean corn, 90 percent of which was of marketable grade.
Dual-fixed nicotine dust gave 98.8 percent clean ears, and 84 percent of the total
yield was of marketable grade. The infested ears were so few that the grower
made no effort to salvage them. The unsprayed check plots yielded a total
of 682 ears, 48 of which were infested. In other words the infestation was so
light that 92.9 percent of the yield was free from borers. In the entire field, re-
gardless of treatment, only 83 ears out of 3,341 examined weve infested. No
attempt was made to spray late corn because of the scarcity of 2d brood larvae.

The infestation by the first generation of the European corn borer in the ex-
perimental planting at Waltham was so light that results of spray applications

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 61

were not significant. In the check plot there were 5 infested non-salable ears
and 5 infested but salable ears in a yield of 203 ears. Hills sprayed individually
with a mist nozzle showed 1 infested but salable ear in 219 ears, and the block
sprayed with a spray gun from the border showed 2 infested salable and 2 in-
fested non-salable ears out of 226. Powdered derris root 3 pounds and Ultrawet
}/2 pound in 100 gallons was used June 17, 24, 30, and July 7.

The second generation planting at W'altham was not sprayed because of the
light infestation, and an examination on August 21 showed 15 infested ears or
1.34 percent In 1,118 ears examined.

On August 12 a part of this corn was treated for protection against the corn
ear worm, by applying a standard lubricating oil-pyrethrum solution to the
dried silk of the ears. No corn ear worm infestation developed but the treatment
injured the ears by preventing pollination of the kernels in the terminal portion of
the ear, indicating that this treatment is not satisfactory under all conditions.
(See page 55.)

Potato Spraying Experiments. (A. I. Bourne.) The weather conditions during
spring and early summer furnished a ver\' favorable start for potatoes and al-
lowed them to keep this initial advantage. The plots were planted on May 9.
The plants appeared promptly and growth was steady and rapid throughout the
summer. The plants were slightly damaged by a light frost on the night of
September 19-20 and were killed by a heavy frost on September 29-30. The
crop was dug September 30 to October 2. In all of the plots sprayed with bor-
deaux the plants were alive, green, and thrifty until killed by frost.

Leafhoppers were very few and no outbreak occurred at any time during the
season. Potato aphids became abundant in early July but were controlled by
the addition of nicotine in the spray of July 16 and never threatened thereafter.
Flea beetles were abundant throughout June and early July; the late July infes-
tation was not so heavy. In the experimental plots 11 applications were made
between June 11 and August 27. A new method of determining flea beetle injury
was devised by which the number of feeding punctures was correlated with the
amount of leaf growth. The plan was designed to show the amount of injury from
week to week as well as the cumulative damage throughout the season. On this
basis the amount of flea beetle feeding in the plots given a commercial spray of
basic copper sulfate and sulfur was 103.1 feeding punctures per square inch of
leaf surface; plots which received a basic copper arsenate-sulfur compound
showed 45.1 feeding punctures per square inch of leaf surface; and the plot which
received a neutral insoluble copper fungicide (double copper) showed 88.6 punc-
tures per square inch.

In all the plots sprayed with home-made bordeau.x mixture the damage from
flea beetle feeding was very much less than that in the plots receiving commercial
sprays. There was a slight advantage in favor of the low-calcium bordeaux,
and the addition of calcium arsenate in every case furnished added protection.

The length of life of the plants in the different plots was in exact proportion
to this index of beetle activity. The plants sprayed with basic copper sulfate
and sulfur began to die early in August and by the end of the month practically
all were dead. Plants in the plot given the basic copper arsenate-sulfur compound
succumbed somewhat later. The plants given the neutral copper fungicide re-
mained alive until mid-September. In all of the bordeaux-sprayed plots most
of the plants were alive and green until the frosts of late September.

The summer was marked by a prolonged drought, and the lack of sufficient mois-
ture interfered very seriously with the growth of the tubers and yields were
proportionally reduced.

The yield records, however, showed a direct correlation with the amount of
flea beetle injur\'. In the plots which received the commercial sprays, yields

62 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

of 308 to 346 bushels per acre were recorded, while plots in the same field which
received bordeaux mixture yielded 420 bushels per acre. The plot which received
the low-calcium bordeaux plus calcium arsenate gave the highest yield — 474
bushes per acre, 76 percent of which was of number 1 grade.

Introduction of Parasites of Oriental Fruit Moth in Peach Orchards. (A. I.

Bourne.) The work of rearing parasites of the oriental fruit moth was con-
tinued in 1941. By agreement with the Department of Entomology of the
Connecticut Experiment Station, Mr. A. DeCaprio was again placed in charge
of the collection and shipment of breeding material for both institutions. Para-
sitism was comparatively high in the New Jersey strawberry fields in 1941 and
the season was early. Mr. DeCaprio, by benefit of his experience in past seasons,
was able to locate superb fields for collection. Cool weather during the shipping
period and rapid transit allowed the material to arrive at the laboratory in Am-
herst in very good condition.

The strawberry leaf roller larvae were very nearly full grown when collected
so that very little migration took place after arrival in the laboratory. Emergence
of the parasites was such that all the orders from growers were filled by June 30,
and within the next few days a sufficient number of parasites emerged to duplicate
all original orders, fill late orders, and in most cases duplicate these. The surplus
material for distribution was made possible by the very proficient work of Mr.
DeCaprio in collecting breeding material, the very accurate estimates of para-
sitism, and the improved technique in the laboratory. Fifty-eight growers in
9 counties received a total of 140 colonies. More than half the growers received
their orders in half colonies to facilitate more uniform distribution in large orchards
or for use in small, isolated blocks.

The warm weather, the unusually large number of hours of bright sunshine,
and the few rainy days during the period of liberation offered very favorable
weather conditions for the parasites.

Naphthalene and Similar Compounds as Greenhouse Fumigants. (W. D.

Whitcomb and Wm. Garland, Waltham.) A complete series of experimental
fumigations with a mixture of monochlor naphthalene oil 3 parts and commercial
flake naphthalene 1 part indicated that the vaporization of % to 1 ounce of the
fumigant in 1,000 cubic feet constitutes a lethal atmosphere which will kill 80
percent or more red spiders if they are exposed for three hours. These results
were obtained when the experiment was made at a constant temperature of
70° F. and a relative humidity of 50 percent, and also at 75° F. and 60 percent
humidity. At the higher temperature and humidity the mortality was about
3 percent higher, especially at the shorter exposures.

A mortality of 30 to 40 percent resulted when the spiders were exposed for
three hours to ^ to ^ ounce per 1,000 cubic feet, and an exposure of one or two
hours to a lethal atmosphere killed only 15 to 25 percent. Potted carnations heav-
ily infested with the common red spider mite supplied the. experimental material,
and the fumigant was vaporized at the rate of l-i ounce per 1,000 cubic feet each
hour for six hours. An infested plant was entered and removed each hour during
the fumigation.

Control of the Common Red Spider on Greenhouse Plants. (W. D. Whit-
comb, Wm. Garland, and W. E. Tomlinson, Jr., Waltham.) Life history studies
of the red spider on different host plants at constant temperatures were con-
tinued. Most of the studies were on potted snapdragon and showed that the
time required for development at 60°, 70° and 80° F. was approximately in a
3:2:1 ratio as follows:

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 63-

Average Number of Days at —

60° F. 70° F. 80° F.

From oviposition to hatching 14.48 7.71 3.81

From hatching to adult — male 15.70 9.46 5.35

female 19.17 11.00 6.25

From oviposition to adult — male 30 . 94 1 6 . 95 9 . 23

female 31.41 18.62 10. CO

Oviposition records showed that although the female spiders laid about a&
many eggs at 60° F. as they laid at 70° and 80° F. in this experiment, they re-
quired about ten times as long to lay them.

Studies of red spider development on various host plants continue to indicate
that there is some plant character which determines the rate of spider develop-
ment, and studies to determine this are planned.

Spraying experiments with eleven advertised insecticides recommended for
combating the red spider mites on roses were applied at weekly intervals in three
series, using a greenhouse power sprayer at 275 pounds pressure. Of these, one
material was very effective and outstanding; two were moderately effective
and satisfactory; and eight were unsatisfactory. (See page 55.)

The most effective material is described as Technical Mannitan Monolaurate
to which 1 percent rotenone and 1.8 and 2.6 percent other derris extractives have
been added. When diluted to 1-400 this was the only spray material which
reduced a natural infestation of 25 to 50 spiders per leaf to less than 5 live spiders
per leaf, and consistently killed 90 percent or more of the spiders without injury
to the plants. When diluted 1-600 this material was less effective but gave sat-
isfactory control.

The other satisfactory materials, which combined rotenone and emulsified
dispersing oils, reduced the infestation 60 to 80 percent and permitted 10-18
live spiders per leaf after treatment.

Unsatisfactory materials included rotenone combined with chlorinated hetero-
cyclic hex>'lamine, powdered derris root and sulfonated castor oil, a commercial
flour paste, monochlor naphthalene soap emulsion, a commercial preparation
containing castor bean extract (ricin), and rotenone combined with hydrous
aluminum oxide. Several of the rotenone sprays which gave unsatisfactory
control of the red spider mite on roses gave excellent control of the same pest
on potted carnations.

Three applications in March of a dinitro dust containing 1 percent dinitro-
ortho-cyclo-hexylphenol killed 90 percent of the red spider mites and reduced an.
infestation from 25 to 2.4 live mites per leaf without injury to the foliage.

Biology and Control of the Apple Leaf Curling Midge. (W. D. Whitcomb,
Waltham.) Although a strong northeast storm occurred on June 5 while the
midge flies were still plentiful and might have been blown a considerable distance
to the southwest, no new infestations outside of the previously known infested
area were discovered or reported. However, this midge was found within the
infested area in several orchards where it was not known to be present before 1941.

In the insectary the transformation to flies was 22.54 percent from maggots
collected in June 1941, 45.41 percent from maggots collected in July and 11.11
percent from maggots collected in August.

In the observation orchard at Westford the infestation was very heavy during
May and June but, because of the drought and absence of late summer growth
even on watersprouts, it was below normal in late July and August. Records
of 2117 bud tips on Baldwin trees examined at regular 3 and 4 day intervals
between May 9 and September 12 showed that eggs were laid on 1712 or 80.87
percent of them. Oviposition was concentrated in three distinct periods when.

64 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

eggs were found on every bud examined, namely May 27 to June 10, July 1 to 8,
and July 22 to August 5. During the first two periods 100 tips were examined
at each observation; but in the last period the number of tips available averaged
less than 10, contrasted with 1940 when a large number of tips was available
until about August 25. In 1941 the first eggs were found on May 9 which is 15
days earlier than in 1940.

Maturity of larvae and their emergence from rolled leaves was concentrated in
three definite periods on June 17 to 24, July 8, and July 29. These periods gen-
erally correspond with the rainfall rather than with the development of genera-
tions which was extended and overlapped by abnormal weather conditions.
The relative abundance of the midge throughout the summer is indicated by the
number of larvae collected in 5 bands as follows: June 17, 2280; July 8, 244; and
July 29, 790.

In a newly infested orchard at Waltham containing 96 trees of 7 varieties of
approximate equal exposure to infestation, 893 infested buds were collected on
June 12. The average number of infested tips per tree of each variety was:
Delicious, 42.00; Rhode Island Greening, 8.75; Baldwin, 7.58; Mcintosh, 4.54;
Gravenstein, 3.16; Northern Spy, 0.33; and Wealthy, none. In this collection
63.29 percent of the infested tips were found on the Delicious trees. Another
collection on July 9 yielded 532 infested tips on the same trees, making a reduc-
tion of 40.42 percent due to destruction of the maggots in the infested tips at
the previous collection. ,

Similar collections from a nearby orchard where 396 infested tips were col-
lected on 54 small trees showed an infestation of 11.94 tips per tree or 57.32
percent of the total on Starking; 6.00 per tree on Golden Delicious; and 3.58 per
tree on Baldwin. In a block of young trees, 2 Milton trees had an average of
24.5 infested tips, indicating high susceptibility. At the same time no infested
tips were found on 15 Macoun trees.

Continued experiments with naphthalene broadcasted at the rate of 2 pounds
per 100 square feet showed that the treatment reduced the number of midge
flies emerging from the soil and duff 79 percent at the first generation and 97
percent at the second generation.

Larvae and pupae in cocoons under the rough bark on the trunk of the trees
were killed by experimental spraving with dormant sprays. Applications to the
bark were made Apri! 1 1 and July 1 using Elgetol (Standard Agricultural Cheniical
Company) 1 percent, Spra-Cream (B. G. Pratt Company) 3 percent actual oil,
and Spra-Cream 3 percent plus DNOCHP (Dow Chemical Company) 15 ounces
per 100 gallons. Cages enclosing 3 feet of the tree trunk were built around the
sprayed trees. In these cages 84 flies of the first generation and 40 flies of the
second generation were collected from the unsprayed tree, while only 2 flies were
found in any of the cages on sprayed trees. Emergence of flies from mulch col-
lected under trees where the above dormant sprays were applied at the rate of
2 gallons per 100 square feet indicated that considerable mortality of the midge
resulted where Elgetol was applied but that the oil emulsion treatment was not
effective.

Control of Plum Curculio in Apples. (W. D. Whitcomb, Waltham.) In spite of
unseasonably' warm weather during the pre-blossom and blossom period of apples,
the critical period of curculio activity did not occur until May 20-23 which was
five to eight days after the petal-fall stage. This period was characterized by
maximum temperatures above 85° P., but it was apparent that the suitable
development of the fruit for feeding and oviposition was the most important
attraction to the beetles.

Blocks of eight trees each were sprayed with lead arsenate 4 pounds, wettable

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 65

sulfur 4 pounds, fish oil 1 pint in 100 gallons of water when the fruit was 4/16,
5/16, and 6/16 of an inch in diameter, as determined by the measurement of
200 apples with calipers.

Variety

Wealthy

Mcintosh

Diam

eter of Apples

Date
— Sprayed

Apples

Stung

(Percent)

Estimated
(Inches)

Actual Average
(Inches)

4

16"

4.10
16

May 20

18.72

5
16

5.10
16

May 22

8.12

6
16

5,94
16

May 23

18.70

4
16

3.84
16

May 20

11.53

5
16

4.99
16

May 22

3.88

6
16

5.92
16

May 23

5.42

These records, based on the examination of 57,835 apples, show least injury
by the plum curculio to apples sprayed when they measured approximately
5/16 of an inch in diameter. This difference is the more significant since the
"5/16" trees were located near a stone wall and fence row where much curculio
injury has occurred in the past. In the Wealthy apples the curculio injury was
1 percent greater on dropped fruit than on picked fruit; but in Mcintosh the
dropped fruit showed 3 to 12 percent more injury.

Biology and Control of the Grape Plume Moth and Grape Cane Girdler. (W. D.

Whitcomb and Wm. E. Tomlinson, Jr., Waltham)

Grape Plume Moth. A study of the parasitism of the grape plume moth yielded
two new species (undetermined), but the total parasitism in the larvae collected
was less than 1 percent.

The application of dormant sprays on April 10, just before the larvae hatched,
showed that dinitro compounds are more effective than oil emulsion. In one
experiment the addition of a DNOCHP compound at the rate of 15 ounces
in 100 gallons increased the control from 74 to 86 percent over oil emulsion at
the rate of 3 percent actual oil; and in another experiment the addition of DNOC
(15 ounces-100 gallons) to 3 percent oil emulsion increased control from 60 to
82 percent. The best control was obtained with a commercial sodium dinitro
cresylate 1 percent which gave 94 percent protection. When this material was
used at 3^ percent dilution the infestation was 12 percent or twice that follow-
ing the use of the 1 percent dilution.

Grape Cane Girdler. The first activity of the grape cane girdler was observed
on May 22 when the maximum temperature was 89° F. The average life of 26
individuals from egg deposition to adult in bagged canes in the vineyard was
60.8 days with most of the beetles emerging from August 15 to 25 but continuing
until September 22.

In the vineyard, beetles were reared from 28 percent of the girdled canes under
observation and this seemed to be a normal survival under the conditions.

66 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Measurement of 100 canes showed that the average growth from May 22 to
July 2 was approximately 1 inch per day, with Niagara and Fredonia making the
most rapid growth and Delaware the least.

Sprays applied when the average cane growth was 4 inches or less prevented
most girdling, but when the growth between sprays was about 8 inches the number
of girdled canes was 8 to 15 percent greater than on the unsprayed vines. Cryolite
at the rate of 3 pounds in 100 gallons was more satisfactory than lead arsenate,
which caused some foliage injury when c -mbined with sulfur or copper oxide in
frequent applications.

Insects Concerned in the Dispersal of Dutch Elm Disease. (W. B. Becker.)

The Smaller European Elm Bark Beetle, Scolytus multistriatus Marsham. Elm
logs in Alford, reported by the owner to have been cut just prior to April 1941,
were found to contain only large larvae of Scolytus multistriatus at the end of
September. No emergence holes could be found. If the time of cutting was given
correctly, the size of the larvae present would suggest that one generation a year
may be common in this region of the Berkshires. Logs of both American elm,
Ulnius americana L., and slippery elm, Ulmus fulva Michx., were heavily infested.
In an adjacent area, elm logs reported by the owner to have been cut at various
times from the early spring through late fall of 1941 showed the presence of brood
galleries in all stages of construction. Completed brood galleries containing large
larvae, galleries with small larvae, and incomplete galleries with only eggs and
active parent beetles were found.

The Native Elm Bark Beetle, Hylurgopinus rufipes (Eich.). At the end of
September 1941, other elm logs in Alford which were reported by the owner to
have been cut just prior to April 1941 contained larvae, pupae, and young adults
of H. rufipes and many emergence holes. These logs were adjacent to those cut
at the same time which were infested with 5. multistriatus. The evidence suggests
that in this vicinity H. rufipes beetles which develop from the first eggs laid in
the spring may complete their development sooner than S. multistriatus beetles.

Insects Observed in the First Tree in Massachusetts Found to have Dutch
Elm Disease. (W. B. Becker.) Numerous feeding or overwintering tunnels
of H. rufipes were observed in the tree, especially near the base. Adult beetles
were active in these tunnels in mid-September. Such tunnels, of course, are com-
monly encountered in live elm trees. No correlation was determined between the
occurrence of these tunnels and the presence of the fungus, Ceratostomella ulmi
(Schwarz) Buisman, in any part of the tree.

Scouting for Elm Bark Beetles. (W. B. Becker.) Brief scouting revealed the
presence of Scolytus multistriatus at three locations new to this office: Concord,
Alford, and Hancock, Mass.

At Alford, in the vicinity of the first tree in Massachusetts found to have Dutch
elm disease, this beetle was abundant in elm logs on an area being cut over for
cordwood. Hylurgopinus rufipes was also abundant in the vicinity of the diseased
tree.

The Effects of Solar Heat on the Subcortical Development of the Native
Elm Bark Beetle, Hylurgopinus rufipes (Eich.) at Amherst. (VV. B. Becker.)
Laboratory and field work on this problem was continued.

Insect Pests of Wood and Shade, Forest, and Ornamental Trees in Massa-
chusetts. (W. B. Becker.) Three hundred and one inquiries were received about
such insect pests. Eighty-four different kinds of insects were involved. Ants,
powder post beetles, termites, spruce gall aphids, elm leaf beetles, and secondary
tree-boring insects were received most frequently.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 67

DEPARTMENT OF FLORICULTURE
Clark L. Thayer in Charge

Breeding Snapdragons for Varietal Improvement and Disease Resistance.

(Harold E. White, Waltham.) Plants propagated vegetatively from Field Station
rust-resistant strains of commercial hybrid snapdragons have been tested two
summers under field conditions and in the greenhouse for two winters. These
strains were highly resistant to rust disease; a wide range of flower colors was
present, and growth and flowering habit were excellent. Many of these hybrids
are still segregating for rust susceptibility and are heterozygous for flower color.

A few selections from seeded lines look promising as material for developing
pure breeding forms for rust resistance and desirable flower colors. In earlier
breeding work with Main's hybrids considerable difficulty was experienced in
getting rust resistance bred into such selections and at the same time retaining
desirable flower colors, growth habits, and blooming period in the same strains.
It was anticipated that with the commercial variety hybrids this combination
might be more readily developed into desirable pure-bred lines.

These hybrids are available now, provided florists are interested in growing
snapdragons by propagating such strains from cuttings.

Cultural Requirements of Freesia. (Harold E. White, Waltham.) Records
on the pre-curing or drying of freesia corms (% to % inch size), for a period of
3 to 11 weeks prior to planting, show that by this treatment in 1939 corms lost
from 3 to 24 percent of their weight; in 1940, 3 to 20 percent; and in 1941, 7 to
21 percent. Corms of Golden Daffodil (5^ to 5€ inch) in the 1940 treatment
failed to sprout unless pre-cured for 3 weeks prior to planting. Corms of this
variety received the same pre-curing treatment in 1941 but responded normally,
which would indicate that, although the pre-curing treatments of the corms in
1940 overcame the growth inhibition factor, this same peculiarity was not present
in the 1941 stock.

Loss in moisture content of freesia corms through pre-curing treatments has
not been found to have any significant effect on the blooming or production
characteristics of the corms. At a temperature of 48°-50° F., corms grown in
benches flowered a week to ten days earlier than those grown in bulb pans. Early
and later planted corms in bulb pans, shifted in November from a temperature
of 50° F. to 60°F., flowered two weeks earlier on an average than those continued
at the cooler temperature.

Results of tests in pre-curing freesia corms for periods of 2 to 11 weeks prior to
forcing indicate that such treatments are not essential for successful forcing
of freesias in the greenhouse. It is concluded that seasonal and cultural treat-
ments given the freesia corms in the field are more likely to determine their
forcing performance.

The use of well-rotted manure in soil mixtures for freesias has not had any
harmful effect on the growth or flowering of the corms.

Foliage tip-burn of freesia plants may be caused by fumigants and by fluctua-
tions in temperature, soil moisture, and humidity. Contrary to general opinion,
freesias will take plenty of water when well rooted in properly drained soil and
growing normally.

Elder's Giant White was observed to be a much slower growing type than
Purity, Golden W'onder, or Golden Daffodil.

Soilless Culture of Florists' Crops. (Harold E. White, Waltham.) This system
of plant culture has been conducted primarily as a demonstration for growers
and to determine how much attention must be given to such a system to obtain
crop production comparable to results from soil culture.

68 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Carnation plants have responded equally well to some four to six nutrient
formulas which have been tested. It is apparent, at least with carnations, that a
considerable degree of adaptability to nutritional levels exists under soilless
culture conditions, which is likewise true for plants grown in soil.

Root rot and stem diseases of carnations can be just as prevalent and destruc-
tive under gravel culture methods as in soil, particularly soon after the plants are
set. Much of the danger lies in keeping the plants too wet rather than too dry.
Tobacco and naphthalene fumigants can be used on carnations in gravel, follow-
ing the same precautions necessary for successful fumigation of plants in soil.

New England growers have shown little inclination to grow flower crops in
gravel, even on a trial basis. One grower, who last year was favorably impressed
with the results from 350 square feet of soilless roses, has expanded to 2,500
square feet. At Waltham cinders, which for two years were used in growing roses,
are now being used for the culture of carnations.

Liming Carnation Soils. (Harold E. White, Waltham.) Data for two years
on the use of lime on carnation soils to determine the importance of soil acidity
as related to plant growth and flower production show that carnations have a
wide degree of adaptability to changes in soil acidity. The average acidity test
of soil used for carnations was pH 5.6; the final acidity readings over a period
of two years were 4.7 for unlimed and 6.4 for highly limed soils. While this
test does not cover extreme ranges in acidity or alkalinity, it does pertain to normal
variations of growers' soils as observed from soil testing records of five years at
the Waltham Field Station.

There were no significant differences in flower production, number of split
calyces, or vegetative plant growth between plants in unlimed soil and those in
soil receiving applications of lime at the rate of 1 to 3 tons per acre.

Plants of the variety Ward were used in these tests and the same cultural
treatments were given both years. Cultural and seasonal climatic conditions
were of greater importance than soil treatments in their effect on crop produc-
tion. The greater incidence of split calyces occurred between the months of
January and April. During the season of 1940-41 plants produced only 2 percent
more split calyces than during the previous season.

Field-grown plants produced four more flowers per square foot of bench area
than greenhouse-grown plants. Since liming of soils had no perceptible effect
on prevalence of root or stem rot diseases, the common practice of applying
lime to correct or inhibit the spread of these soil organisms may be considered of
little value for the purpose.

Disease Resistance and Heredity of Carnations. (Harold E. White, Waltham.)
This work is merely getting under way. Thirty-five varieties have been assembled
for study. The selfing of different varieties and experiments in germination of
pollen are in progress.

In some preliminary breeding work in 1939-1940 a cross between the varieties
Ward (pink) and Puritan (white) gave a progeny of 45.83 percent white flowers,
36.45 percent pink, 2 percent red, and 15.62 percent variegated flowers. The
flower types were 8.24 percent singles, 56.70 percent commercial (normal) doubles,
and 35.05 percent bursters or split calyx types. Short-calyx flowers were dom-
inant over long or intermediate types. Broad-leaved characters of plants were
dominant over narrow and medium leaf characters. These observations show,
as was expected, that the commercial types of carnations are heterozygous for
many of the plant characters to be studied in this project.

Coffee Chaff as a Soil Amendment. (Harold E. White, Waltham.) Inquiries
are frequently received from manufacturing concerns as to the possible use in

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 69

greenhouse soils of certain waste organic b>'-products; when convenient, these
materials are tested on the current-year crops at the Field Station.

Coffee chaff received from Wetmore and Company, Cambridge, Mass., was
incorporated into carnation and snapdragon soils at the rate of two inches of the
chaff to six inches of bench soil with no harmful effects to the plants. Also, it
appeared to be quite suitable for use in potting soils and as a filler and conditioner
in fertilizer mixtures.

According to the analyses of the Fertilizer Control Laboratory of the Experi-
ment Station, one ton of coffee chaff has a trade valuation in terms of plant food
of approximately $10 to $11.

Packet Seed Studies. (Clark L. Thayer.) For a sixth season the Depart-
ment of Floriculture has cooperated with the Seed Laboratory in a test to de-
termine the quality of flower seeds sold in retail seed stores, chain stores, schools,
and other retail outlets. The seeds were tested for germination and performance
under field conditions.

The test included 218 lots, representing 50 genera, packeted by 32 concerns,
and obtained from 80 retail outlets. Records on germination showed 124 lots
good; 55 lots, fair; 31 lots, poor; 8 lots, none. Records on performance showed
165 lots, satisfactory; 12 lots, fair; 41 lots, not satisfactory. Detailed results are
reported in Control Series Bulletin 111.

Floriculture Soil Testing Service. (Harold E. White, Waltham.) The following
tabulation shows the number of soils tested in 1941:

Roses 132

Carnations 508

Chrysanthemums 157

Gardenias 74

Snapdragons 106

Sweet peas 32

Miscellaneous 573

Total 1582

DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS NUTRITION
Helen S. Mitchell in Charge

Vitamin Requirements of Older People. (H. S. Mitchell and A. W. Wertz.)
Very little is known concerning vitamin requirements with advancing age. The
favorable reports of the clinical application of vitamins, particularly thiamin,
in geriatrics raise the question as to why such deficiencies exist. This study was
undertaken with the hope of arriving at a better understanding of vitamin me-
tabolism in older people. The project is partially sponsored by Standard Brands
Incorporated.

Work now in progress concerns the correlation between cardiac changes, blood
hemoglobin, red cell count, differential red cell count, and thiamin excreted in
the urine, with the intake of pure thiamin versus the entire vitamin B complex.
If possible the bisulfite-binding substances in the urine and pyruvic acid in the
blood will be determined also.

Thiamin and Pyrimidine Studies on Older Subjects. (A. W. W'ertz and H. S.
Mitchell.) (Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Med. 48: 259, 1941.) Four men and four
women between the ages of 65 and 75 years were used as experimental subjects

70 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

in this study. The yeast fermentation method was used to measure the urinary
excretions of thiamin and pyrimidine for each individual on graded levels of
thiamin intake. There appears to be a sex difference in the excretion of thiamin
which is not apparent in the excretion of pyrimidine. The response of people
in this age group to increased thiamin intake is similar to that of younger people
as far as excretion is concerned. Two out of eight subjects reported no subjective
reaction to increased thiamin intake, two noted definite improvement in chronic
constipation, four felt less fatigued or "peppier," two enjoyed improved appe-
tites, and one noted an increased thirst.

Cause and Control of Nutritional Cataract. (H. S. Mitchell, G. M. Cook, and
A. W. Wertz.) The experimental production of cataract in rats by feeding rations
containing galactose has become a means of studying the effect of various dietary
factors upon the lens. Since it has been well established by earlier work in this
laboratory that a deficiency of protein aggravates cataract development and that
a liberal supply delays it, the question naturally arose as to what factor in protein
is responsible for the protective action. Anti-cataractogenic action of certain
nitrogenous factors is being studied.

1. The Influence of Certain Diamino and Dicarhoxylic Amino Acids upon
the Cataracto genie Action of Galactose. (H. S. Mitchell and G. M. Cook.) Follow-
ing the lead suggested by work reviewed in the 1940 Annual Report, certain
individual amino acids are being investigated. It was reported that the enzymic
hydrolysate of deaminized casein was somewhat more protective than the deam-
inized casein from which it was prepared. Of the fractions, the diamino-di-
carboxylic acid fraction of the enzymic hydrolysate afforded as much protection
as the whole hydrolysate, while the monoamino and proline and peptide fractions
showed no protection. Since glutamic acid, histidine, arginine, and lysine are
present in the protein hydrolysate fraction found to be most protective, these
amino acids have been incorporated in a low-protein galactose ration in order
to study any protective action. One of these amino acids has indicated slight pro-
tection. It and related compounds are being studied further.

2. Time Factors in the Development of Galactose Cataract. (G. M. Cook and
H. S. Mitchell.) It has been observed in this and other laboratories that young
rats are more susceptible to galactose injury than older rats. An experiment de-
signed to investigate the question of this age factor is in progress. Rats from the
same litter are started on experimental rations at fortnightly intervals. The one
started later required a longer time for lenticular injuries to become evident. The
complete data are not yet available.

The injury due to galactose seems to persist in rats after they have been trans-
ferred to rations containing none of this sugar. The blood sugar returns to normal
within a few hours after the ratioij^ 'change is made. The apparent lag in the
galactose injury must be due to slow diffusion from eye fluids. The extent of this
lag is being investigated b}' discontinuing the galactose ration at four-day
intervals in a series of rats from the same litter.

The Nutritive Value of the Iron of Cocoa and Iron-Fortified Cocoa Mixtures.

(F. Kinder and H. S. Mitchell, with the cooperation of W. S. Mueller of Dairy
Industry.) Inasmuch as iron is precipitated in the presence of tannic acid and
from 2 to 15 percent of tannic acid is present in commercial cocoa, there arises
the question of the availability of the iron in cocoa and foods associated with it.
The current use of chocolate milk and chocolate-flavored foods makes the prob-
lem one of practical interest.

The nutritive value of the iron of cocoa and iron-fortified cocoa was determined
by biological procedure. The iron of cocoa was not so well utilized (approx-

ANNUAL REPORT 1941 71

imately two thirds as much hemoglobin regenerated) as an equivalent amount
of ferric chloride. The addition of pure tannic acid did not decrease the utiliza-
tion of iron added to a milk ration. Iron added to cocoa was completely available,
indicating that the factor which limited the nutritive value of the iron of cocoa
had no influence on added iron. Both cocoa and tannic acid retarded the growth
of rats, but the effect of the tannic acid was less severe than that of the cocoa.

It may be concluded from this study on rats that cocoa may be fortified suc-
cessfully with iron. However, the indiscriminate use of chocolate or cocoa milks
is not recommended because of the yet unexplained effect of cocoa on growth and
intestinal function.

Effect of Adding Cocoa to Cow's Milk on Utilization of Calcium and Phosphorus.

(M. R. Cooney, with the cooperation of W. S. Mueller of Dair\ Industry.) Inter-
ference with the solubility of calcium and phosphorus is a matter of concern when
cocoa is added to milk, since cocoa contains oxalic acid, which if present in large
enough amounts may prevent the absorption of calcium by the formation of in-
soluble calcium oxalate.

Accepted standard biologic and chemical procedures are being used to de-
termine whether or not the utilization of calcium and phosphorus is impaired
by the addition of cocoa to milk. Results are not yet available.

The Influence of College Life on the Physical Status and Food Habits of Massa-
chusetts State College Women Students. (M. S. Gutowska and E. B. EUms,
Department of Student Health.) In order to determine the physical and nutri-
tional status of the women students, a study is being conducted of the basal met-
abolic rate, the creatine output, and the urine and blood picture of the freshman
women students. A general medical examination is the starting point of this
study. The dietary habits of the girls as well as their daily intake of calories and
protein are recorded through individual computation. Sixty cases have been
investigated thus far.

These determinations provide material for an evaluation of the physical status
of the women students, and it is planned to continue them for the next three
college years.

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURAL MANUFACTURES
C. R. Fellers in Charge

Cranberry Research. (C. R. Fellers and A. S. Levine.) About 25 percent of the
cranberry crop is now used for canned or other manufactured products. Cran-
berry juice and cranberry sauce were shown to be definitely bacteriostatic for
many bacteria of the food-poisoning group. There were also indications that
these foods had a marked cleansing action in the mouth.

Cranberries contain small amounts of riboflavin, pantothenic acid, and thiamin
not previously reported.

In sauce manufacture, the extraction of the berries with water at 185°-195° F.
for 20-25 minutes resulted in increased yields of sauce over the usual short-time
extraction at the boiling point. The pectin is conserved and a sauce of improved
quality results.

A new concentrated sirup was prepared by first cold-pressing the juice, treating
with Pectinol to revive pectin, filtering, and concentrating in vacuum. This sirup
serves as a beverage base or as a pharmaceutical vehicle.

Apple Products Including Apple Juice. (W. B. Esselen, Jr., A. S. Levine, C. R.
Fellers, C. C. Strachan.) In view of the increasing interest in bottled and canned

72 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

apple juice, further studies have been made on this product. Ail of the com"
monly used methods of clarification were compared in order to determine which
would give the best-flavored juice. Flash pasteurizing the apple juice at 185°
to 190° F. followed by flash cooling with subsequent filtering, using 2j^ pounds
filter-aid per 100 gallons juice, was definitely superior to the gelatin-tannin and
pectinase enzyme methods. The bentonite method was preferable to the latter
two methods but inferior to the first-described method from the standpoint of
optimum flavor quality.

Flash pasteurization at 175° to 180° F. and filling hot into the containers, fol-
lowed by sealing and rapid cooling is recommended.

In Massachusetts the Mcintosh is the most important commercial apple crop.
Unfortunately the juice of the Mcintosh has a rather insipid flavor and must be
blended with other varieties to make a palatable apple juice. Tests were made to
determine the maximum amount of Mcintosh juice that could be blended with
Baldwin or Delicious juice to yield a satisfactory commercial product. It was
found that blends containing up to 60 percent of Mcintosh juice yielded a pleas-
ing product. In such blends it is not recommended that over 25 percent Delicious
apples be used owing to their strong aromatic flavor.

Apple juice, fresh or canned, contains little vitamin C regardless of the vitamin
content of the apple. Fresh apple juice actually destroyed added vitamin C.
However, after inactivation of the oxidizing enzymes by heat treatment, the
ascorbic acid remained biologically active in the canned or bottled juice. Ascorbic
acid is present in apple juice only in the reversibly oxidized form. It is entirely
feasible to fortify processed apple juice with crystalline ascorbic acid at the rate
of 20 mgm. or more per 100 ml. of juice. The crystals are first dissolved in the
deaerated juice which is then flash-pasteurized and canned or bottled without
delay. The containers are preferably sealed under vacuum or by displacement
with an inert gas such as nitrogen. Juice fortified by this method retains about
90 percent of the added vitamin C after 3 months.

Fruit Jellies and Jams. (A. S. Levine, S. G. Davis, and C. R. Fellers.) The
beach plum (Prunus maritima) has been used locally for jelly making. Rep-
resentative samples of the fruits from Cape Cod were collected and some were
frozen. Studies are in progress on improved methods of utilizing this fruit in
jellies and other products, as well as on composition and nutritive value. Beach
plums do not make firm jellies without the addition of pectin, but the added
pectin seems to injure the flavor. On the other hand, beach plums make excellent
jam without the use of added pectin. The aroma and pleasing astringency are su-
perior to those found in the jelly. It would appear, therefore, that more attention
should be centered on the jam and less on the jelly.

The Japanese quince, Chaenomeles japonica, a well-known ornamental shrub,
produces a considerable quantity of fruits of very pleasing aromatic odor. At-
tempts were made to utilize these fruits in jelly manufacture. The malic acid
content is 5 percent and while considerable pectin is present, the pure jelly lacks
character and is excessively acid. Unfortunately, the perfume-like aroma of the
fresh fruit is lost in the jelly and in the heat-e.xtracted juice.

Vitamin C Content of Catsup. (W. B. Esselen, Jr., and H. Fran.) A survey ha^
been made to determine the vitamin C content of tomato catsup. Samples
for analysis were obtained from the local markets and through the courtesy of
several catsup packers. The vitamin C content of nine different brands of catsup
varied from 0.05 to 0.12 mgm. per grani or from 28.3 to 68.0 1. U. per ounce.
This variation in the vitamin C content uf catsup is probably due to its air
content, possible copper contamination from equipment, storage temperature,
and length of time in storage.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 73

Change in Oxidation-Reduction Potential in Packaged Fruit Juice. (VV. B.
Esselen, Jr.) A preliminary study has been made on changes in oxidation-reduc-
tion potential in canned and bottled fruit juice. In glass-packed orange juice,
there was no correlation between the oxidation-reduction potential and flavor
changes which took place immediately after packing. The oxidation-reduction
potential of apple juice was much lower in plain tin cans than in enamel-lined
cans or bottles. Any beneficial efi^ect that the low oxidation-reduction potential
of the apple juice in plain tin cans might have in preventing deleterious oxidative
changes was ofi^set by an undesirable metallic flavor of the juice.

Glass Container Research. (C. R. Fellers, W. B. Esselen, Jr., W. H. Fitz-
patrick, E. L. Moore and J. J. Powers.) Because of the scarcity of tin plate,
there has been a marked renewal of interest in glass containers for food packing.
Extensive studies have been made on the problems of packing fruits and fruit
juices in glass packages. Earlier work on the efficacy of ascorbic acids in pre-
venting discoloration of glass-packed fruits has been confirmed. The use of 1 or 2
one-grain tablets of d-isoascorbic acid or d-glucoascorbic acid in pint or quart
jars of canned fruit or vegetables effectively prevented discoloration and off-
flavor due to oxidation.

After sealing, commercially packed foods in glass containers lose but little
vitamin A and C {Food Research 6: 135-141, 1941). Further studies have shown
that the total decrease in ascorbic acid is approximately proportional to the
enclosed oxygen. Thus, among the important factors influencing ascorbic acid
retention are: (1) volume of headspace, (2) degree of vacuum, (3) amount of
dissolved and tissue oxygen. Similarly, these same factors may also afi^ect color,
flavor, and other characteristics. Modern commercial packaging methods seek
to eliminate oxygen from canned foods. This study shows the efl^ect of varying
oxygen content on ascoibic acid retention. In fruits and vegetables with high
ascorbic acid content (citrus fruits, strawberries, broccoli, etc.), only a small
percentage of the ascorbic acid is lost in canning. However, in those initially
low in ascorbic acid (pears, peaches, apple juice, plums, carrots, beets, etc.), a sub-
stantial percentage, or all, of the ascorbic acid may be lost through reaction
with oxygen. Color and flavor of the latter fruits are also adversely affected.
High storage temperatures and exposure to light accelerate the ascorbic acid-
oxygen reaction in glass-packed foods, but the final total loss of ascorbic acid is
unaffected by these factors.

The No. 10 size (105-ounce) glass jar was used experimentally for frozen-packs
of strawberries, raspberries, and peaches, packed with and without vacuumiza-
tion. Results show that vacuum sealing is generally preferable and that this
large glass package is very satisfactory for frozen fruits. As in the case of canned
fruits, the use of ascorbic acid in small amounts resulted in decreased surface
discoloration due to oxidative changes.

Marine Products Research. (C. R. Fellers and J. Lubitz.) Cooperative with
Poultry Department. New England poultrymen are constantly searching for new
low-cost feeds. Recent developments in canning Atlantic coast crabs have made
available considerable quantities of crab meal. This product contains about 34
percent protein, 40 percent ash (mainly calcium), and 2-4 percent fat. The
riboflavin content is 3-4 gammas per gram. Pantothenic acid, thiamin, and
vitamin K are also present. The meal is an especially good source of calcium,
magnesium, iodine, manganese, iron, and copper.

In feeding experiments with rats 85 percent of the nitrogen was available, the
balance being present largely as unavailable chitin. Upon hydrolysis chitin
yields glucosamine, which proved to be entirely unavailable to rats and chicks

74 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

as a source of nitrogen. The biological value of crab protein was approximately
the same as that of good grade fish meal. Pigmentation in chicks was slightly
increased by feeding crab meal as compared with fish meal. In the New England
Conference Chick Starter ration the replacement of fish meal by crab meal on
either an equal-weight or equal-protein basis gave results highly complimentary
to crab meal. Crab meal sells at considerably lower prices than fish meal; it
would seem to be a very satisfactory ingredient of poultry rations.

Dextrose Investigations. (C. R. Fellers, A. S. Levine, and L. Tarkow.) Studies
have been concluded on the relative bacteriostatic and mycostatic properties of
sucrose, dextrose, and mixtures of the two sugars. Dextrose kills and prevents the
growth of bacteria, yeasts, and molds at lower concentrations than does sucrose.
That is, dextrose sirups (above 30 per cent) are far less liable to ferment or mold
than similar sucrose sirups. The use of dextrose in canned foods, in carbonated
beverages, and in soda-fountain crushed fruits and sirups is rapidly increasing.
The smaller molecule and the greater osmotic pressure exerted by dextrose in
solution are believed to contribute to the greater preserving value of this sugar.

Red Squill Research. (A. S. Levine, C. R. Fellers, and J. Lubitz.) Improved
methods for rat extermination are now more important than ever before in re-
ducing the nation's loss by waste.

Red squill was found to be harmless for chickens and rabbits. Guinea pigs
are more susceptible than rats to red squill poison. Some popular flavors have been
found to be of little value as rat lures. Among these are meat, cheese, anise,
caraway, cinnamon, and peppermint flavors. The composition of common baits
used as carriers for the squill had little effect on the toxicity of the poison to
albino rats.

On account of the war there is now no importation of red squill, and most
stocks of red squill still in this country are of low toxicity to rats. Through con-
centration and subsequent bioassay studies an attempt is being made to increase
the toxicity of the present supply.

Three papers have been published on red squill research.

Preservative Values of Organic Acids. (A. S. Levine, R. E. Morse, and M. G.
O'Connor.) The addition of small amounts of acetic acid (vinegar) does much
to improve the keeping qualities of soda fountain sirups and fruit juices with no
impairment of flavors. The addition of only 0.3 percent acetic acid inhibited
both yeast and mold growth in strawberry and raspberry sirups. This is es-
pecially favorable when compared with the high amounts of citric and lactic
acids required for complete inhibition. More than 6 percent citric acid or 5 per-
cent lactic acid was necessary to inhibit yeast growth in these sirups. Four per-
cent lactic acid prevented mold growth but the mold, Aspergillus tiiger, grew in
sirups containing over 7 percent citric acid.

Benzoic acid and especially sodium benzoate are still used extensively for the
suppression of yeasts in the preservation of fruit juices and sirups. A study is
now in progress to determine the effect upon yeasts when definite concentrations
of sucrose, dextrose, alcohol, and sodium chloride are used in conjunction with the
benzoates. In the preservation of apple juice as much benzoate was required to
preserve the clarified as was needed for the unclarified or cloudy juice.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 75

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
R. A. Van Meter in Charge
Propagation of Hemlock. (Harold S. Tiffany, Waltham.)

Canadian Hemlock, Tsuga canadensis. Cuttings of one-year wood were taken
from hedge trees approximately fifteen years old, in three series at five- week
intervals: December 9-14, 1940; January 13 18, and February 17-21, 1941.
The rooting medium was one-third peat and two-thirds sand, in open benches
under cheesecloth tents and whitewashed glass. Cuttings were kept fairly moist.
All treatments were run at constant temperatures of 65°, 70°, and 75° F. (main-
tained by electric cable), as well as in an unheated bench where the temperature
averaged about 60°. Each lot consisted of six cuttings.

Immersion treatments consisted of honey, 25 and 50 percent solutions for 24
hours; indolebutyric acid in the form of Hormodin A, at concentrations of 30
45, 60, 75, 90 BTI units for 24 hours (with additional treatments at certain tem-
peratures); indolebutyric, indcleacetic, and naphthaleneacetic acids, each at
concentrations of 7^, 10, 12)^, 15, 20, 30, 40, and 50 mg./lOO c. c. water for
24 hours (with additional tests for 16 and 40 hours); Roche 202, at 50, 100 200
unit solutions for 24 hours. Powder treatments consisted of Formula No. 66
and Hormodin Powders Nos. 2 and 3. An untreated or check lot was included.

Untreated lots rooted little or not at all: at 60° F., 16 percent; at 65°, 33 percent-
at 70°, 16 percent; and at 75°, none. Rooted cuttings of successful lots could have
been potted at ten to twelve weeks.

Outstandingly rapid rooting, as compared with other treatments, was shown
by Hormodin A, 30 BTI units for 24 hours at 75° F. This reaction checked
similar findings of the previous season (Hormodin A, 45 BTI units for 24 hours).
See photograph page 56.

Cuttings from Series I, taken in early December, gave much higher percentages
of rooting than those of Series II or HI. In the previous year mid-December
cuttings did not root as successfully as those taken in mid-January. This variabili-
ty can be at least partially explained by the early low temperature and snow fall
of November 1940 which brought the cuttings to a condition for satisfactory
rooting much earlier than was the case in the preceding year when such condi-
tions did not materialize until January.

Of the thirty-one treatments which gave 100 percent rooting, the most con-
sistently successful was indolebutyric acid 73^ mg./lOO c. c. for 24 hours. The
finest normal root systems were developed with this treatment at 65° F. (see
photograph, page 56), with good rooting at 70° and 60°. Of economic signifi-
cance is the fact that this treatment gave 83 percent good rooting in the unheated
bench at an average temperature of 60° (widest fluctuations in the bench tem-
perature were 57° and 63°). Consistency of the treatment at 65° is further shown
by 100 percent rooting from 73^ mg. upward through 40 mg., although as the
concentration increased the roots were shorter and some injury was apparent.

Hormodin A trials were consistently good with percentages of 100 on half the
lots. Best-developed root systems were from 90 BTI units, 24 hours at 65° F.
As would be expected, lower concentrations did best at higher temperatures and
vice versa. This was shown particularly well by the best 100 percent rootings
in the Hormodin A, 24-hour trials: 30 BTI at 75°, 60 BTI at 70°, 90 BTI at 65°
and 60° F.

Cuttings treated with indoleacetic acid gave 100 percent rooting at 60° and
65° F. with concentrations up to 10 mg./lOO c. c. In no instance did the condition
of the roots excel or equal the condition of those treated with indolebutyric acid.

All naphthaleneacetic acid treatments gave indication of injury by basal burn

76 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

and proliferation of roots. Roche 202 treatments gave variable results — from
0 to 100 percent rooting. As in the case of most treatments, best rooting was
at 65° F.

Hormodin Powder No. 2 brought 83 percent rooting at 70° P., but fell to 66
percent at 65°. Hormodin Powder No. 3 gave best rooting at 65° — 100 percent.
Root development with powder treatments was much inferior to that produced
by immersion treatments of indolebutyric acid. The results with Hormodin
Powder No. 3 were generally paralleled by Formula No. 66.

Tsuga canadensis vars. pendula and minima. Results of treatments suggest
these varieties propagate readih'. The records approximately parallel those for
T. canadensis.

Tsuga canadensis var. Beaujean. Preliminary tests of twelve lots suggest that
this variety does not propagate so readily as those mentioned above.

Generally, indolebutyric acid has shown definitely superior results to other
treatments in these trials and at low concentrations. A constant temperaure
of 65° F. appears optimum throughout the trials, with the exception of Hormodin
A at 30 BTI at 75°. Cuttings rooted best when taken soon after the first pro-
tracted cold weather of the season.

Tests will be continued in 1941-42 with indolebutyric acid in vaiious forms at
minimum concentrations and optimum temperatures.

Propagation of Mountain LaureL (Harold S. Tiffany, Waltham.) Preliminary
trials in 1940 gave indication of a low percentage of rooting from hardwood cut-
tings of mountain laurel, Kalmia latifolia, taken in mid-January. Treatment with
indolebutyric acid in the form of Hormodin A at 60 BTI units for 16 hours gave
20 percent rooting, while fairly high concentration of the salts gave only 10
percent. These roots developed in a sand medium; no roots developed in a
medium half sand and half peat, or in peat alone.

Since successful propagation of the best white and deepest pink variations of
mountain laurel would be of decided value, a program of winter propagation
trials was carried out during 1940-41. Three series of cuttings were taken:
December 19-26, 1940; January 30-February 6 and March 13-20, 1941. Thirty-
eight treatments (plus other varied trials) in lots of six cuttings each for 'each
series were duplicated at constant temperatures of 65°, 70°, and 75° F., and in
an unheated bed averaging 60°. These were as follows: honey, 25 and 50 percent
solutions; Formula No. 66 and Hormodin No. 3; Hormodin A at 45, 60, 75, 90,
120, 150 BTI solutions; indolebutyric, indoleacetic, naphthaleneacetic acid salt
solutions at concentrations of 10 mg./lOO c. c. through 80 mg./lOO c. c. (10 unit
progression); Roche 202 at unit strengths of 50, 100, 200, 300; and an untreated
lot.

While rooting percentages of the previous season's tests were perhaps slightly
bettered {33 percent), it appears from these results that the propagation of
mountain laurel from hardwood cuttings ma\' not be feasible.

The twenty-eight plants rooted did not continue root development after
transfer to pots, seeming to hold only growth that had been made in the rooting
medium. The cuttings rooted in 1940 also exhibit an equal lack of normal
vitality.

Propagation of Lilac. (Harold S. Tiffany, Waltham.) The time of taking cut-
tings of the common lilac, Syringa vulgaris var. Andenken an Ludwig Spaeth,
has been varied from May 28 to July 1. In no instance have rooting percentages
been as high as for those taken in late May at the time the flowers are about half
way into bloom. At this time the new growth is about 6 to 8 inches long, making
for good-sized plants when rooted. Rooting percentages of the 1200 cuttings
taken for test June 10, 1941, about two weeks after the optimum time, fell off

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 77

from 30 to 40 percent. Optimum temperature of the medium, one-third peat
and two-thirds sand, was found to be about 70° F. Hormodin A, 40 BTI units
for 24 hours, and Formula No. 66 each gave 95 percent good normal rooting.

Propagation of Juniperus virginiana var. glauca. (Harold S. Tiffan>', Waltham.)
Several varietal forms of Juniperus virginiana are propagated commercially by
grafting to understocks of this species, since no satisfactory percentage of rooting
has been obtained from cuttings. The variety glauca is one of these.

Preliminary trials in 1940 of wood of the current season and of two-year wood
gave high rooting percentages on the one-year wood and very low percentages of
rooting on. the two-year wood. Both sand and half sand, half peat appeared
satisfactory media, although cuttings in the sand-peat rooted satisfactorily in
11 weeks, while those in the sand consistently required 14 weeks.

A series of cuttings, twenty to each treatment, taken in late January 1941,
were put in sand-peat in open unheated benches at a temperature averaging 62°.
Thirty-four treatments with root-inducing substances were made for 16, 24, and
40 hour immersions.

Indications show successful rooting confined to indolebutyric acid treatments
with a range of rooting percentages up to 100. Untreated cuttings gave no
indication of rooting. A higher temperature of the rooting medium appears to
be necessary for best results.

Factors Increasing the Rapidity of Growth of Nursery Stock. (Harold S.
Tiffanj', Waltham.) To determine best cultural practices for rapid quality
growth of lining out stock, plots of various plant materials have been laid out from
1939 through 1941. These include plantings of Tsiiga caroliniana and canadensis,
Thuja occidentalis var. glohosa, and Syringa vulgaris var. Souvenir de Ludwig
Spaeth.

A series of fertilizer treatments was applied in duplicate, in 1940 and 1941, to
fourteen plots of Tsuga caroliniana. Treatments were based on 5-8-7 (one third
ton per acre) as a balanced fertilizer adequate in amount for the needs of young
evergreen trees. One-half the nitrogen was supplied b\' nitrate of soda and
one-half by suliate of ammonia. Phosphorus was supplied by superphosphate, and
potash by muriate of potash. Manure and peat moss represent two other treat-
ments.

Growth measurements in inches for each of the years 1940 and 1941 were se-
cured from plots treated with manure (15 cords per acre) and peat moss (annual
application of 2 inches hoed into the soil).

While other treatments also show measurements exceeding those of the un-
treated plots, further results are needed before conclusions can be drawn.

Study of Herbaceous Perennial Material. (Harold S. TifTany, Waltham.)
Records of the 1941 season have been included with material previously obtained,
giving the average time and duration of bloom, height, and color of the better
and enduring garden perennials. Averages for a period of five years are now
available for most of the plants.

Additions to the peony collection, chosen as representative of the best of their
types from a study made by the University of Illinois and the American Peony
Society, are as follows: Single — Catherine Parry, Departing Sun, Harriet Olney,
Le Jour, Marguerite Dessert, Mellin Knight, Mischief, Shirley Walker; Jap-
anese— Antwerpen, Cathedral, Fuyajo, Hakodate, Kukenu-Jishi, Margaret
Atwood, Mikado, Some-ganoko, Surugu.

Hardiness Trials of Clematis Varieties. (Harold S. Tiffany, Waltham.) A
limited number of three-\'ear plants was set in the nursery, from pots, in the

78 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

spring of 1940 and given a severe test the following winter without the benefit
of winter protection.

The only 100 percent survivors after a winter during which a lasting blanket of
snow offered good protection, were the varieties Mme. Edouard Andre, Elsa
Spath, and Duchess of Edinburgh. Over 75 percent of Comtesse de Bouchaud
lived; 66 percent of Henryi; and 50 percent of Romona and montana var. rubens.
The species ascotiensis, crispa, langiUica var. obttisiuscula, and the varieties Belle
of Woking, Gipsy Queen, Mrs. Cholmondeley, Nelly Moser, Ville de Lyon, and
Ville de Paris were entirely winterkilled.

While the number of plants was insufficient for a thorough test, and although
the test represents but a single winter, the hardiness of the plants of Mme. Edouard
Andre, Elsa Spath, and Duchess of Edinburgh is promising.

Powdery Mildew on Garden Phlox. (Harold S. Tiffany, Waltham.) A spray
control program of Bordeaux mixture 1-1-50, Hammond's Copper Solution
1-150, Basi-Cop 1-50, and Wettable Sulfur 23^^-50 was applied to plantings
of Phlox paniculata from May to the time of flowering. Applications were
made at intervals of 7 to 10 days.

Hammond's Copper Solution, with no residue, was again superior in both
control and appearance to Bordeaux Mixture, which left some residue on the
plants. Wettable sulfur gave better results than did Basi-Cop.

Factors Influencing the Hardiness of Evergreens. (Harold S. Tiffany, Waltham.)
Records of terminal growth averages on Taxiis haccata repandens after the first
season of cultural treatments showed a definite correlation of growth with treat-
ment. Sod with no cultivation afforded fairly normal growth, yet the plants lost
much of this growth by the next spring. Cultivation wath no fertilizer gave a
normal amount of growth, and these plants suffered least from winter injury.
The spring application of nitrate of soda at the rate of 300 pounds per acre gave
the most growth, yet the plants were not injured comparably. As expected,
greatest winter injury came from manure, 15 tons per acre applied in May and
in August.

Winter injury is calculated by (a) the number of terminals entirely winter-
killed, (b) terminals killed approximately two inches from tip down, (c) tip
injury to the bud with approximately ten needles killed, and (d) number of re-
tarded terminals after growth has started. After trying several methods of
measuring winter injury, this means appears to hold fairly constant.

In 1941 additional fertilizer was given with the late August application of
manure for still further contrasts. A cover crop of annual r^'e grass was planted
in August on the nitrate of soda plot to check growth early and encourage harden-
ing after a rapid early growth.

The dry 1941 season consistently lessened growth averages by approximately
25 percent. An exception to this was plants of Taxus canadensis stricta, which
showed more average growth than in the previous season in all plots. Explana-
tion may be that the plants had not become fully established at the end of the
first season of treatments, or that they withstand drought better than either
Taxus baccata repandens or Taxus cuspidata.

Propagation of Mugho Pine. (Harold S. Tiffany, Waltham.) A series of cut-
tings of Mugho pine, Pinus mugo var. Mughus, was given preliminary tests in
1939-40, and the work for 1941 was based on the results of these tests.

Lots of five cuttings each of one-year wood taken in January were placed in
open benches, in a rooting medium' of one-third peat and two-thirds sand, with
temperatures averaging 65° and 62° F. Dip treatments consisted of Formula
No. 66 and Hormodin No. 3; immersion treatments, of honey 25 and 50 percent

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 7^

solutions, Hormodin A at 30, 45, 60, 75 BTI units, indolebutyric, indoleacetic,
and naphthalencacetic acids at concentrations of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50,
and 60 mg./lOO c. c, Roche No. 202 at unit concentrations of 25, 50, 75, 100,
125, 150, 175, 200; and an untreated lot. Each immersion treatment was con-
tinued for 16, 24, and 40 hours.

A series of fifteen cuttings to the lot was taken in February and run in sand
and sand-peat at a constant temperature of 65° F. Treatments were Hormodin A
at 90, 105, and 120 BTI units, with additional test treatments of indolebutyric
acid. Results were slightly better from the sand-peat medium than from the
sand, and from a higher temperature of the rooting medium. Highest rooting
percentage was 80 with indolebutyric acid at 40 mg./lOO c. c. for 24 hours at
65° F. in sand-peat. Immersion treatments for 24 hours with Hormodin A at 90
BTI units (in sand) and at 120 BTI units (in sand-peat) gave 66 percent rooting;
and at 90 BTI units (in sand-peat) 65 percent rooting at 60° F. In the un-
treated lots a single 13 percent rooting occurred at 65° F. in the sand-peat
medium. Rooting from other lots was negligible.

DEPARTMENT OF OLERICULTURE
Grant B. Snyder in Charge

Variety Studies. (W. H. Lachman and G. B. Snyder.) These studies are con-
ducted each year to ascertain the adaptability and general usefulness of the
newer introductions in comparison with the standard vegetable varieties. The
weather conditions at Aniherst during the summer of 1941 were very near to the
average for the last 50 years and were ideal for proper growth and development.

Especially noteworthy was the new "Summer Pascal" celery which produced
a medium large plant weighing a little over two pounds and measuring about
20 inches in height. This variety produced a crisp, succulent stalk with an ex-
cellent nutlike flavor.

There were 62 strains and varieties of tomatoes included in the trials. Particu-
larly outstanding were "Stokesdale," an early mid-season variety which yielded
well and had good shape and size, and "Rutgers," a late, high-yielding, very
attractive tomato which is especially valuable for canning. The varieties "Vic-
tor" and "Bounty" which are earlj' varieties proved a little disappointing because
of poor fruit color and sparseness of foliage. "Pan American," a new introduction
of the U. S. D. A., is reported to be highly resistant to fusarium wilt. This
variety has excellent foliage, but from the experience gained by limited trial,
large plantings are not suggested because of only a moderate yield and variable
fruit shape and size when grown either pruned and trained or unpruned and
untrained.

During the summer, eight varieties of tomatoes were tested for vitamin C,
with the following results:

Ascorbic Acid
Variety and Source (mg. per gram of

tomato)

Bounty— N D. Agr. Expt. Sta 15

Early Rutgers— N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta 20

Gradwell — Scott 21

Marglobe — Landreth 17

Ohio Red— Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta 16

Pan American — U. S. Dept. Agr 21

Victor — Harris 17

Waltham Forcing — Waltham Field Station 23

80 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Also important among the newer vegetables was the "Yankee Hybrid" summer
squash. This variety is from three to seven days earlier than standard varieties.
It has a straight neck, good quality, uniformity, and gives an exceptionally high
yield over a long season. The "Delicious" and "Golden Delicious" varieties of
winter squash were outstanding in quality and store moderately well.

Shape Index Studies of Tomatoes. (W. H. Lachman.) Five years ago a quan-
tity of seed was obtained of eight varieties of tomatoes that displayed major
differences in the shape of their fruits. Each year small plantings have been made
from the original stocks of seed to determine the effect of the various weather
conditions in modifying the shape of tomato fruits. While considerable data
have been collected, it is felt that more information is necessary before the results
are summarized.

Tomato Breeding. (W. H. Lachman and G. B. Snyder.) The tomato breeding
project has been confined to the problem of incorporating the uniform ripening
gene into otherwise desirable tomato varieties. The uniform ripening character
is inherited in a simple manner and is dependent upon one pair of genes for its
expression. During the past season an F2 population of 293 individuals was
grown and the ratio was 3.37 normal green-shouldered individuals to one of the
uniform ripening. The uniform character appears to be a recessive, and these
results agree with the work of other investigators.

Many single plant lines have been established, some of which are in the Fe
generation. The main difficulty has been to obtain lines which have sufficient
foliage to provide an ample coverage for the fruits and thus prevent sunburning.
Many of the original lines were determinate in habit of growth; that is, the main
stem grew for a short distance and then was terminated by a blossom cluster.
Any subsequent growth was made by lateral branches.

Most of the more recent selections made have been indeterminate in habit
and thus the coverage of foliage is much better. Also, this type of plant can be
pruned and trained to a much greater degree of satisfaction. It is planned to
multiply the seed of the three best lines so that they can be sent out for trial
among a number of vegetable growers.

Sweet Corn Breeding. (W. H. Lachman.) The object of the corn breeding
program has been to develop a hybrid which would provide earliness, produc-
tivity, disease resistance, and quality. During the past five years a system of
inbreeding has been practiced in an effort to obtain superior inbred lines with
characteristics which are sought in the hybrid. Approximately 100 such inbred
lines have been obtained and the work now consists of testing the inbreds in
various combinations of crosses to ascertain which of the combinations are most
desirable.

During the past summer 40 such combinations were planted and carefully
studied during the growing period. Five of these performed especially well and
have been recommended for further trial. If they grow and produce as well in
another season, the seed stock will be multiplied and sent out for trial among a
number of vegetable growers. More combinations of the inbreds have been
made and will be tested further.

Hybrid Sweet Corn Trials. (W. H. Lachman.) Hybrid corn has taken the
country by storm. Many varieties have been introduced lately and the list
grows longer each year. It has been recognized, however, that each hybrid has
a narrow range of adaptability because they are susceptible to very small changes
in environment. Hence, regional tests must be made before any hybrid can be
recommended for production within very narrow limits or localities.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 81

Therefore, tests are conducted each year, particularly of the yellow varieties,
to observe earliness, yield, quality, disease resistance, and general adaptability
for this locality. Of the hybrids that have been tested for the past three years
four are especially noteworthy.

Spancross (C4XC13) is an e.xtra early, very productive hybrid, and matures
in about 70 days. It has good quah'ty, is very uniform and has a medium-sized
ear measuring about 634 inches in length. This variety is two or three days earlier
than Golden Early Market.

Marcross (C6XC13) has a large ear, about eight inches long and is an early-
maturing variety. It is only four or five days later than Spancross but not quite
so good in quality.

Marcross (P39XC13) also known as Carmelcross Is a mid-season variety
which matures in 80 to 82 days. This variety' produces a large ear and has ex-
cellent quality and appearance.

Golden Cross Bantam is a late market corn which matures in 85 to 89 days. It
produces a good crop of cylindrical, well-filled ears that are of exceptionally fine
quality. This variety is highly recommended.

The Effects of Mulching Tomatoes and Peppers. (W. H. Lachman and G. B.
Snyder.) Each season soil moisture becomes one of the most limiting factors in
the production of vegetable crop plants. Any treatment or practice which will
aid in conserving soil moisture for plant use during critical periods becomes es-
pecialh- significant to the vegetable grower.

Various mulches have been applied to the soil and compared with clean cultiva-
tion in the culture of tomatoes and peppers. Straw, banana fibre, and horse
manure were the materials used. Based on the results of the tests for two years,,
it is doubtful whether mulches have a significant influence on yield, cracking, or
quality of the fruit.

If mulching was continued for several years it is conceivable that the increase
in organic matter might e.xert a mere marked influence on growth and production.
The applications of banana fiber changed the soil pH from 5.7 to 7.0, but this
change was not reflected in the growth of the plants.

Samples of soil were taken from each of the plots and chemical analyses made
by Philip H. Smith of the Control Service. The results show that the various
treatments had a rather insignificant influence upon the mineral content of the
soil. The soil under the banana fiber mulch is considerably higher in potassium,
but other differences are cither lacking or not significant.

Cucumber Seed Treatment. (O. C. Boyd and W. H. Lachman.) Samples
of pickling cucumber seed were obtained and treated to control seed-borne diseases
as well as diseases caused by soil-inhabitating organisms. Dusting the seeds with
red copper oxide, whether they had been previously soaked in mercuric chloride
solution or not, just doubled the stand of seedlings. The principal benefit of this
treatment was the prevention of seed decay and pre-emergence damping-off,
rather than the prevention of post-emergence damping-off. There was no evi-
dence of injury to germination by any of the treatments.

Sources of Organic Matter for Greenhouse Tomatoes. (W. H. Lachman and
G. B. Snyder.) The scarcity of animal manures as a soil amendment has led to
a search for substitute materials. The main object was to find a cheap material
which would provide a good source of organic matter and support the growth of
greenhouse tomatoes. Straw and peat moss were the two materials best suited
for the problem. Straw has proved to be the better of the two materials and is
more economical. Both materials, however, must be supplemented with sufficient
commercial fertilizer to compensate for the nutrients supplied in manure.

82 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Tri-State Cooperative Vegetable Variety Project. (G. B. Snyder and W. H.
Lachman.) This project is conducted in cooperation with the Rhode Island
and Connecticut Experirnent Stations. The object is to ascertain the influence
of the various climatic and edaphic factors upon several strains of beans, sweet
corn, peppers, cabbage, celery, tomatoes, and carrots. The data for four years
are now being summarized.

Bean Culture. (W. H. Lachman and G. B. Snyder.) One of the limiting factors
in the culture of lima beans has been the sparse stand of plants obtained because
of poor germination. A rather comprehensive test was made of the value of
"Spergon," a commercial preparation used as a dust on the seed. The seed
treatment increased the germination about 25 percent and the treated plants
were more robust and healthy than the untreated lots.

A number of varieties of edible soy beans have been tested for two years.
The varieties "Giant Green" and "Willomi" performed especially well and have a
very pleasing flavor. One of the reasons why the public has hesitated to accept
soy beans as a vegetable is because they are so difficult to shell. It has been
found that the beans shell very easily if they are first boiled for about three
minutes. The beans can then be cooked and served much the same as lima beans.

Asparagus Investigations. (Robert E. Young, Waltham.) The yields of 450
plants in five different lines derived from previous selections were in a somewhat
different order from those of last year. The yields did not increase as would
be expected for asparagus plants that have been cut only two full cutting seasons.
The strain that produced the greatest yield last year was second in 194L

Although the production of the best strain was about double that of the poorest
strain and of plants from commercial seed growing alongside, the results of these
individual cutting records show that there is a wide variation in the performance
of the plants of even the best strain. That the yield can be doubled in one gen-
eration establishes great possibilities in asparagus breeding.

Increasing the yield gave a slight increase in the percentage of extra large stalks,
and a slight increase in the average weight. In checking the performance of the
25 highest yielding plants it was found that there was a great variation in the
type of spears produced. Some plants produced very few large spears but many
small ones, while others giving as much in total yield produced mostly large-sized
stalks, although when the strains were taken as a whole this difference did not
show to any great extent. In the best strain 24 percent of the plants produced
a bunch of asparagus (1.25 pounds), while in the commercial strain only 2.5
percent produced as much.

At the time of the fall stalk count, quite a number of plants had rust in varying
degrees of severity, including the commercial line of Mary Washington, sup-
posedly rust resistant. The percentage of rust present in the selected strains
in the order of their yield was 14.2, 17.0, 13.0, 5.0, 3.3, compared to 39.7 percent
for the commercial strain. This would indicate that progress can be made in
obtaining not only better yield but also better resistance to the rust disease.

The various characteristics of yield, size, bud shape, height of branching,
spreading of tips, and color are so variable that new selections will be made next
year to secure more uniformity.

Vegetable Breeding for Improvement of Quality. (Robert E. Young, Waltham.)

Trellis Tomato. The program of developing better internal and external fruit
quality in our two strains of trellis tonaatoes has been continued. For reasons not
wholly understood, the yield of the 1941 tomato crop was only about 50 percent
of last year's although the plants set and the care given were better. Poor tomato
crops were reported all along the eastern seaboard. The dry weather, no doubt,

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 83

had its effect, but our plants were irrigated and did not suffer for water. The
earliness was not affected but there was a general lack of vigor and insufficient
foliage.

A number of hybrids were made in the greenhouse last year in order to intro-
duce certain characters of quality, also to test other varieties as to their value in
combining with our strain to produce a satisfactory hybrid. One of the varieties
used was Victor, a new determinate type, early, with uniform ripening of the
fruit. At that time it was thought that the uniform ripening character was a
desirable one for our strains. The hybrids of this cross did not have the usual
vigor of the other tomato hybrids. The stems were weak and small. Insufficient
replicates were grown to make possible an accurate determination of yield but
the yield of early fruit was not so heav^^ as would be expected. During the season
observations were made of the way the fruit of the Victor, and other varieties
having uniform ripening character, colored and there is now a question whether
this character is desirable in our trellis types. A cross between Trellis No. 22 and
a late, vigorous Comet was much later than would be expected. This cross was
made to obtain more foliage for a tomato of the No. 22 tj'pe.

From the behavior of these and other hybrids, it would seem that our trellis
type tomatoes exert very little effect on the hybrids in which they are used.

It has recently been reported that the hybrid vigor of summer squash exhibited
in the Fi generation was carried over into the F2 population. This F2 lot of
plants, while showing segregation as to size and shape, still had earliness and yield.
If this fact should be true for tomatoes, it would be easy to produce the F2 popula-
tion from a few hand-pollinated hybrid fruits. To determine whether tomatoes
will behave in this way several plots were grown of the parents Fi and F2 of
Waltham Forcing X Early Rutgers. The poor crop made it difficult to evaluate
the results but it would seem that the F2 of this hybrid was about as good in
production as the Fi. Further study will be made of this factor and a rating of
the desirability of other varieties as parents in such a program.

During winter meetings with the growers the question has been asked as to
the value of using early started tomato plants. Certain growers felt that an older
plant will produce earlier. To test this contention seed of the Waltham Forcing
tomato was sown on February 15. The plants were carried along slowly and trans-
planted several times, but at setting time they were really overgrown. They
were not potted but dug out of the bed with a ball of soil. These plants had
%-inch fruits at setting time. The regular crop was started April 1 and trans-
planted in a bed in the greenhouse 2X2 inches, then to the coldframe 4 X4 inches.
These plants also were set with a ball of soil. It is true that the early started plants
had ripe fruits very early, but they were small; during the first three pickings
they produced an average of 8.5 fruits that weighed .92 pound per plant, com-
pared to 11.3 fruits weighing 1.6 pound per plant obtained fron the regular
crop. The total yield from the early started plants was 1.95 pounds compared
to 2.69 pounds from the plants started at the regular time, and from these results
it would seem that if plants are to be started early they must be grown in pots
or baskets. These plants were very slow to start growth after setting.

Greenhouse Tomatoes. During the year trials of various hybrid tomatoes have
been made to see which will combine with the Waltham Forcing and Bay State
to produce a good tomato with hybrid vigor. An F2 generation of a cross between
Waltham Forcing and Michigan State Forcing was also grown, and the results
indicate that the F2 plants are vigorous. The yield was very high although the
fruit was not very uniform.

A discovery that may make the production of hybrid seed much easier is that
the tall non-productive plants that have frequently been found in the Waltham
Forcing strain in the greenhouse are only partiall}' sterile. Pollen from good

84 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

plants will cause the sterile plants to set seed. If these plants can be used, there
will be no need of emasculating the flower to obtain hybrid seed.

Slimmer Pascal Celery. This year 20 different single-plant selections of Summer
Pascal celery were tested to determine whether a longer petioled strain could be
obtained; and no irrigation was supplied after the paper for bleaching was ap-
plied, in order to determine whether there were differences in the susceptibility to
heartburn. Some of the single-plant selections showed almost 100 percent heart-
burn, while the best had only 25 percent. This severe heartburn provided an
opportunity to make selections that did not heartburn for the supply of stock
seed.

The results of trials in past years have shown that seed from selected celery
plants grown in the fall cannot be raised in time for the next year's crop. Ex-
perimental work with light and heat has not hastened the seed stalk development
to any extent. A crop of seed was raised outside to provide ample supply of
stock seed for our growers. The demand for Summer Pascal celery is greatly
increasing.

Greenhouse Lettuce. The third generation of a cross between Bel-May and an
English variety, Cheshunt Giant, was grown at the Waltham Field Station and
in two growers' houses. Selections were made and seed produced of the most
promising. The hybrids have darker green color and better overlapping of leaves
on the bottom, and are slower bolting to seed. It will require another generation
or so to completely remove the off-type plants from the strain.

Rutabaga or Cape Turnip. A good crop of turnips was produced on the Field
Station grounds. As a result three distinct types have been selected, and sufficient
seed will be grown to enable the growers to try them on their own farms. Type
No. 1 has white flesh with white or light green shoulder, and the root is almost
uniformly colored from top to bottom. Type No. 2 has white flesh with a slight
purple shoulder. Type No. 3 has yellow flesh but is otherwise of the same charac-
ter as Type No. 2. Most yellow-fleshed turnips have a dark purple shoulder.

The t3'pe of soil at the Field Station is such that a good turnip crop is not
assured each year and if further work is needed it should be done in the turnip
sections such as Bristol County.

Wyman Crosby Beet. There seems to be a definite correlation between speed
of growth and color in beets. The larger roots of the Wyman Crosby strain of
beet always seem to be of poor color, while the small roots are usually a dark red
color. Twenty-five different selections of single and mass roots were grown and
several proved to be very uniform and somewhat of a compromise in that they
were of dark color and medium speed of growth. It will require time to build up
sufficient seed to try these out. on a large scale.

Greenhouse Cucumbers. About 30 different strains and varieties were grown
for self-pollination in the field. Some of the strains are approaching sufficient
uniformity to permit the hybridization program, to be undertaken. Some ex-
perimental hybrids tried during the year have been outstanding in yield. The
past year's crops have shown that there is a large difference in the vigor of the
various lots under trial. Only about 40 percent of the self-pollinated blossoms
set fruit, and further study will be made of the methods of pollination and also
the effect of homozygous conditions of fruit setting.

Green Sprouting Broccoli. Both the spring and fall crop have afforded an op-
portunity to make selections of the crosses made during the winter in the green-
house. Crosses were made between several quite widely different types. The

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 85

Fi generation has shown that there is a large difference in uniformity between
hybrids made between homozygous parents and crosses in which one or both
parents were from commercial strains. It will require considerabI>- more testing
before the real value of any of the lines can be determined.

Hutchinson Carrot. The F4 generation of a cross of Hutchinson X a Turkish
red carrot was grown during the fall. While many of the other vegetable crops
this season were poor, the carrot crop was the best in years. The hybrid material
was so promising that several lines will be increased for further testing on a larger
scale. These new lines have a ver)- uniformly colored root and have a pleasing
externa! color much darker than the Hutchinson.

The stock seed crop of Hutchinson carrot was very small. The plants blos-
somed profusely but only a small percentage of the flowers set seed. It is probable
that the dry weather was not conducive to proper fertilization. To meet the
demand for this seed from the seedsmen, a large crop of roots was grown and
placed in storage for next year's crop.

Lettuce, New York Type. Three crops of lettuce grown during the season have
shown that the strain of lettuce which, because of past performance, was thought
to be the most satisfactory' will not stand during hot weather without bolting to
seed. The early crop, in which plants are set, was small but satisfactorj'. Com-
parisons were made, and the better selections showed up well. The first crop in
which the seed was planted directly in the field, and which matured in early
July, indicated that the best selections definitely had resistance to tip burn.

In this planting was some of a newer selection about ready for release by the
U. S. Department of Agriculture which showed excellent heading characteristic,
but was small and so crisp as to make it questionable whether it would stand
handling in the market. The characters this lettuce has will be combined with
our bigger strain resistant to tip burn, which should combine all the desirable
characters needed to make a good lettuce for Massachusetts. The fall crop of
lettuce confirmed the results obtained in the summer crop.

Samples of the best selections now on hand will be given to a few growers for
trial next vear.

DEPARTMENT OF POMOLOGY
R. A. Van Meter in Charge

The past season was in strong contrast to that of 1940 in many respects. It
opened early and fruit trees bloomed earlier than in any other of the past twenty
years. Rainfall was very deficient in the spring of 1941, normal or above in June
and July, and low for the last of the summer. Rainfall was heavy in the spring of
1940 and light in the fall, while fruit bloom was late. The rainfall for the summer
of 1941 was less than three fourths of the normal amount in Amherst and still
less in some parts of the State. Yet tree growth was good at Amherst and apples
grew to normal size. The explanation may be largely in the good rainfall for June
and July. Trees came through the spring drouth on reserve water from the
winter. Soil water drained awa^' early, admitting air to the soil and favoring
early root activity and later leaf development. Summer rainfall was enough to
maintain growth. Dry weather in the spring is fa\orable to fruit trees provided
it does not continue too long.

Peach fruit buds survived the winter and a good crop was produced. Rasp-
berry canes winterkilled badly, with a consequent reduction of the crop.

86 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

The Influence of Various Clonal Rootstocks on Apple Varieties. (J. K. Shaw
and L. Southwick.) The new stock bed set last year made a good growth and
should yield several thousand rooted layers in 1942. Several new stocks from the
United States Department of Agriculture were added. No layers were taken
from this bed this year but the old bed yielded a crop of layers that were lined
out for budding. Layers from the more vigorous stocks can always be budded
the first season but the dwarfing stocks require good growing conditions if they are
to be suitable for budding in their first year.

The cooperative clonal stock orchards are as reported last year. Some are
doing well and should contribute to our knowledge of the interrelations of these
stocks with our American varieties; others are failures. One orchard that did
very poorly for the first three years has improved greatly in the last two years.
It is on a shallow soil with a high water table in the spring. During the past
two years it has been cultivated with a crop of string beans. The reason for
marked improvement may be that aeration of the soil has improved conditions
for root activity. An additional cooperative orchard of over 1000 trees on these
clonal stocks will be planted next spring.

AH the trees in our own five-year-old orchard continue to grow about alike.
They have been in cultivation and have borne few apples, yet they are now large
enough to bear a bushel or more each. The orchard will soon be seeded to grass
which should bring the trees into bearing promptly and show whether the trees
on the various stocks react differently. Two trees of Red Spy on the very
dwarfing Mailing IX, one with several apples, broke off, emphasizing the fact
that trees on this stock should have support.

The Mcintosh orchard planted in 1928 grew better than last year. Comments
on the mulched areas are made in the report on the Mulching Project. As meas-
ured by trunk diameter, Mcintosh trees on Mailing Xll, XV, and XVI and on
their own roots are now larger than the trees on seedling roots; trees on Mailing
X and XIII are somewhat smaller; and trees on Mailing I, V, and VI considerably
smaller. Trees on Mailing IV are almost as large in trunk diameter and spread
of top as those on seedling roots but are not as tall, indicating that this is a promis-
ing stock for fruit growers who wish to avoid tall trees.

The trees on various stocks in the 1939 orchard continue to grow about the
same; little indication of dwarfing effect of the stocks has yet appeared. A few
scattered trees bore apples. In midsummer leaf scorch and partial defoliation
appeared. The symptoms suggested magnesium deficiency and an analysis
of leaf samples supported this. The trees were given a liberal application of
potash (with nitrogen) in the spring of 1941 and it has been shewn that potash
applications bring out symptoms of magnesium shortage. The situation will be
studied further and steps taken to remedy it.

The diameter of the bulge or swell at the point of union and that above and
below the union were measured in June. The diameter above the union always
averaged smallest. The swell was larger with the stocks known to be dwarfing,
and was influenced also by the scion variety. It is doubtful whether the size of
the swell is of much significance in the performance of the trees. This work will
be more full)- reported elsewhere.

Lethal Incompatibilities between Clonal Stocks and Varieties of Apples.

(J. K. Shaw and L. Southwick.) The above project is concerned with stock-
scion combinations that may be useful in orcharding. There have appeared some
combinations that fail sooner or later. We have been unable to make some
of the flowering crabs grow on some of these clonal stocks. Cases are known in
which comestible varieties fail. Deeming this situation worthy of study, a new
project has been started in an effort to learn the reason for such failures.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 87

Tree Characters of Fruit Varieties. (J. K. Shaw, A. P. French, O. C. Roberts,
and L. Southwick.) This project has been carried on for many years. As new
varieties are constantly appearing there seems to be no end in sight of a need for
such work. Varieties of apple, pear, plum, cherry, and peach desired for observa-
tion are maintained in the nursery. The usual inspection of nurseries for trueness
to name was made, but certification under the auspices of the Massachusetts
Fruit Growers' Association was discontinued this year. If trees are kept true to
name in the nursery row, the chances of a grower getting trees not true to name is
sma!l; and it was felt that the relatively' expensive certification was not worth
while.

The Genetic Composition of Peaches. (J. S. Bailey and A. P. French.) Special
attention was gi\x*n to the inheritance of blossom characters. Results indicate
that blossom t^'pe (showy or nonshowy blossoms) is controlled by one pair of
genes (Shsh), with the nonshowy type dominant, and that blossom size is con-
trolled by one or more other pairs of genes. This work will be reported in the
Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultiiral Science.

Comparison of Cultivation and Sod in a Bearing Orchard. (J. K. Shaw.) This
project was continued as in the past but a new project referred to elsewhere was
started on one of the complete-fertilizer plots. Another plot is used for the
mulching experiment and is referred to under that project. The remaining five
plots continue to indicate that on this soil a balanced fertilizer is now necessary.
It suggests that the fruit grower who is using nitrogen alone as a fertilizer should
watch for indications of a shortage of other elements. As long as nitrogen alone
results in satisfactory performance of the trees it should be continued, but any
symptoms of shortage should be promptly diagnosed and the deficiency supplied.

Comparison of Cultivation and Heavy Mulching for Apples. (J. K. Shaw.)
The two small plots where heavy mulching was begun in 1922 continue as reported
last year. The mulch material decays rather slowly and bids fair to last several
years without additional applications. The trees continue to grow and bear
well although grass grows vigorously up through the mulch.

Additional mulch was applied to plot 3 in the cultivation-sod orchard. The
material was weighed this year. It amounted to 4225 pounds applied to 10
trees or about 5j^ tons per acre. Probably this amount applied annually is more
than is economical. Rootlets are much more abundant just beneath the mulch
than in surface areas under cultivation or sod. Doubtless there are three condi-
tions that would favor such root development: (a) better and more uniform
moisture supply, (b) more readily available nutrients, and (c) better aeration.
The growth on these trees this summer was remarkably good and the crop was
the largest of any of the seven plots in the orchard. When the mulching was
begun four years ago nitrogen must have been very low and the cover crop was
negligible. The mulch was applied to almost bare soil. Yet there never have
been any signs of nitrogen depression following these liberal applications of waste
hay. The trees immediately improved in vigor and production and continued
to do so in successive years. No fertilizer, other than the mulch, has been ap-
plied for twenty years.

The two plots in the Mcintosh clonal stock orchard received additional mulch
this second year. . The material weighed 13,300 pounds or about 6H tons per
acre. This again is an excessive amount and will be reduced in the future to see
if equally satisfactory results can be obtained. The rest of the orchard was seeded
in August 1940, to a mixture of red, alsike, and Ladino clovers. A good stand was
obtained and now consists mostly of Ladino clover. The clover areas (about two
acres) were fertilized with 150 pounds nitrate of soda and 200 pounds nitrate of

88 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

potash with an additional 2 pounds nitrate of soda per tree applied under each
tree, no clover growing there. The mulched trees received no other fertilizer.
The two lots of trees look about the same. Root development beneath the mulch
is similar to other mulched plots.

The Effect of Orchard Mulches on the Plant Nutrients in the Soil. (J. K.

Shaw in cooperation with the Chemistry Department.) This is a new project.
Previous work has shown that nitrates and replaceable potash abound in orchard
soils beneath a hay mulch. We wish to know whether this is also true of other
mineral nutrients and whether it is due solely to nutrients in the mulch or to soil
conditions brought about by mulching. Two 30-year-old Mcintosh trees grow-
ing in cultivation were mulched with hay, two with glass wool, which may be
expected to produce similar soil conditions, and two are continued in cultivation.
Two trenches were dug under each tree and soil samples at several depths were
taken. These are now being analyzed to determine total and available nutrients.
Similar samples will be taken one or more times each year and analyzed.

Studies of Varieties of Fruits. (J. K. Shaw and Staff.)

Apples. Milton trees bore a good crop this year. As trees get older the ir-
regular shape of the fruit is less pronounced than is that of young trees. Milton
is larger, of more attractive color, and later than Early Mcintosh; the tree is of
far better growing habit and begins to bear earlier.

Sweet Cherries. There are no commercial sweet cherry orchards in Massa-
chusetts; yet it would seem that growers in this State might compete with those
who ship in considerable quantities of fruit. Leaf spot and brown rot can be
controlled easily. The two most serious difficulties are winter injury to the trees
and depredations by birds. Proper choice of site and soil and suitable soil man-
agement will go far towards preventing winter injury and it is doubtful whether
birds would be very troublesome in orchards of an acre or more. Birds harvested
most of the blueberries in two small unprotected plots, but when two acres were
planted the mischief of birds became insignificant. It has been suggested that
captive hawks or even stuffed hawks might scare away birds. In a limited trial
in one of our small blueberry plots a liv^e hawk seemed to keep birds away. It
should be remembered that only certain species may legally be kept in captivity.

We have grown in the nursery about twenty-five varieties of sweet cherries
and most of them are also in our orchard though not all are in bearing. A few
notes on some varieties are here given:

Bing is a dark, red cherry often in our markets. It is meat>', of attractive
appearance and good quality, with a small pit. It is not very productive.

Black Republican is another dark cherry of good quality but not very large.
It is commonly used only as a pollinator.

Dikeman is small, rather sour and of not very good quality. It is not to be
recommended.

Giant is a large, dark cherry, inferior in quality to others of its class.

Napoleon is the yellowish Royal Ann of the Pacific Coast and our markets.
It is perhaps the best light colored sweet cherry but not as hardy to cold as other
varieties.

Schmidt is one of the best dark cherries, of very good quality and fairly hardy.
It is recommended to plant with Windsor as a pollinating variety. Nelson is
very similar to if not identical with Schmidt. Paul Rose is a yellow bud sport of
Schmidt with a red line down the suture. Neither is superior to Schmidt.

Windsor is the best sweet cherry for Massachusetts. It is dark red, hardy,
productive, and of very good quality.

Gold or Starks Gold was very productive and hardy at first. Later the trees
were killed apparently by winter cold. It is poor in quality.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 89

Sweet September is a late yellow cherry which 's now being advertised by some
nurserymen. It appears to be too tender to cold for Massachusetts.

Peaches. Duke of York. An old English peach recently brought to the atten-
tion of American peach growers. It is an early white-fleshed peach but is un-
attractive, poor in flavor, has soft-melting flesh, and is semi-cling. Its value
in Massachusetts is very doubtful.

Goldeneast. This is a fine, large, freestone, attractive, yellow-fleshed, mid-
season peach of very good flavor. It looks very promising.

Redrose is an attractive white-fleshed, late, freestone peach. Flavor was not
very good.

New Jersey 102. A medium-season, yellow-fleshed, freestone peach of good
quality but not outstanding.

New Jersey 105. A yellow, late, freestone peach; quality only fair.

New Jersey 108. A late, yellow-fleshed, freestone peach; quality poor. Prob-
ably ripens too late for Massachusetts.

New Jersey 109. A late, white-fleshed, freestone peach of fair flavor. Not
attractive. It may be a little late for Massachusetts in some years.

New Jersey 111. A late, yellow-fleshed, freestone peach, attractive but of
only fair flavor. Heavy crop for small tree.

Sungold. A medium-late, yellow-fleshed, freestone peach of very fine flavor
and attractive. It has a thick, tough skin and should ship well. The tree is
dwarfish and spreading like J. H. Hale.

Grapes. In recent years the New York Experiment Station has bred and the
New York Fruit Testing Association introduced many new varieties of grapes.
The following varieties are all of this origin:

Erie is a good, early blue grape. The bunch is poor and it is self-sterile. There
are better grapes of its season. It seems to be no longer offered b\' the Fruit Test-
ing Association.

Hanover, Sheridan, Urbana and Wayne all matured fairly well this year but
usually our season is too short for them. It is doubtful if any of them should be
planted here except under conditions most favorable for maturity.

Several varieties not yet named were fruited. Number 12236 (red) and 12238
(reddish blue) have received the most favorable comment and are regarded as
promising. Concord Seedless (blue) and numbers 9975 (blue), 11361 (reddish
blue), 11412 and 11679 (both green) appear less promising.

Raspberries. Marcy is still free from mosaic disease, of good quality but
rather soft for shipment. It is more desirable than Ta>Ior but it is doubtful if
it can replace Latham as a commercial variety.

Marion is a purple raspberry with the undesirable color of that type. It is
thought to be superior to Sodus and worth trying if one wants a purple raspberry.

Tahoma appears to be undesirable. The berries are small, soft and sour.

Taylor sufTers severely from Mosaic, and its quality is inferior to Marcy.

Among five numbered seedlings from Geneva, No. 13618 seemed most prom-
ising. Numbers 5371, 5548, 13108 and 14685 were, for various reasons, consid-
ered to be of doubtful value.

Blueberries. Concord. This variety produced very attractive, firm, fine-
flavored berries in 1941. There was no tendency to crack after rainy periods.
Most berries were large but size was somewhat variable. The scar is large and
watery with a tendency for the skin to tear.

Dixi is 3'et too young to give a good idea of the variety. Bush appears vig-
orous but yields have been light. Fruit late, large, of good flavor, picks easily,
but has a large watery scar.

90 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Jersey. Large, attractive berries make this look like a good variety. The
bush is vigorous and yields well. Flavor is excellent if the berries are allowed to
ripen well on the bush but very sour if picked a day or two too soon.

June. This variety has improved in growth since the soil was drained, but
growth is still weak in comparison with other varieties. Since it is earlier than
Cabot, it might have a place for home garden use or roadside stand trade.

Pemberton. This variety continues to look promising because of large size
and attractiveness of berries and good yield. Fruit has excellent flavor but the
scar is large. There was very little cracking after rainy periods.

Scammell. This variety is probably not adapted to this climate. Leaves are
small and growth is not vigorous. Berries are large during first of season but late
berries are small. Flavor is good. Berries are firm but they cracked after rainy
periods.

Stanley. The performance of this variety was disappointing this year. Growth
was poor and yield very light.

Wareham. Berry size was unusually large this year — 90 per cup at the start
of the season — and held up well. It has a distinctive wild blueberry flavor that
some people like. The bush is open and the fruit clusters are small and open,
making picking easy. The scar is small. It yields well, but the dark-colored
fruit lacks attractiveness. This year it became soft and cracked very badly after
rains, and kept poorly in storage.

Fruit Bud Formation in tlie Strawberry. (R. A. Van Meter.) DifTerential
mulching experiments brought this study to an end with the harvesting of the
1941 crop. Results are now being summarized.

Nature of Winter Hardiness in tlie Raspberry. (R. A. Van Meter and A. P.
French.) One of the serious difficulties of the raspberry grower in Massachusetts
is winter injury to the canes and buds. The occurrence is erratic and unpre-
dictable. Little seems to be known about the causal conditions. A study will
be made of the rest period, vegetative condition, and chemical composition of
the plants in their relations to winter injury. Several seasons' work are likely
to be necessary before definite results can be reported.

Storage of Apples in Modified Atmospheres. (L. Southwick and O. C. Roberts
in cooperation with Department of Engineering.) Experiments with 40-quart
milk cans as gas-tight containers were continued. Attempts were made to main-
tain definite atmospheres in the cans by daily flushing with nitrogen, by taking
out excess carbon dioxide, and by controlling ventilation. The cans were filled
on December 2, 1940, with about 35 pounds of rather mature, wrapped Mcintosh
apples and sealed immediately. These apples at 40° F. generated carbon dioxide
at the approximate rate of 2.5 milligrams per hour per kilogram of fruit. Where a
sodium hydroxide scrubber was used to wash out the accumulations of carbon
dioxide, the oxygen in the cans was reduced to below 3 percent in 8 to 10 days.
Complete oxygen depletion was greatly hastened when cans were flushed with
nitrogen every day or two.

It was difficult to maintain the desired constant atmospheres in these cans
by the methods employed. Since the apples occupied as much as 50 percent of
the total space in the cans, respiratory activity itself caused rather abrupt changes
in the composition of the atmosphere. Furthermore, a very brief washing period
reduced the carbon dioxide content to practically zero. The carbon dioxide in-
creased to an average of 10 percent in the cans between scrubbings. Oxygen
percentages varied much less widely around the desired 2 percent level. It was
somewhat difficult to keep the oxygen level sufficiently high to prevent anaerobic

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 91

respiration unless ventilation was provided. One tight can was left undisturbed
with a subsequent CO2 accumulation of over 60 percent of the total atmosphere.

Through controlled ventilation, one can was operated approximately on the
English system of 10 percent oxygen and 11 percent carbon dioxide. With an
open 3/8-inch vent near the base of the can, respiration at 40° reduced the oxygen
below the 10 percent level. By controlling the amount of leakage through a
similar hole at the top of the can, the desired atmosphere Was maintained fairly
well. Only a very small top opening was needed to allow sufficient air leakage to
counterbalance oxygen utilization.

On March 1, one can was opened. The atmosphere in this can had been
maintained at less than 1 percent of oxygen with the CO2 averaging around 12
percent. The apples were in poor condition with scald, skin ruptures, and some
internal breakdown. The more highly colored apples were in the best condition
both in appearance and eating quality. The flesh was rather soft. A slight
alcoholic taste was evidence of anaerobic respiration.

On May 1, another can was opened. The ox^'gen content of this can had
averaged about 2 percent with the CO2 ranging between 3 and 10 percent. Most
of the apples were in good condition with excellent color and no evidence of scald
or internal breakdown. There was some soft rot and mold where apples had
been injured. Quality was fairly good. A duplicate can was opened two weeks
later and here, also, the apples were in good condition though the quality was
mediocre. A rather high acidity was a contributing factor.

The can which was operated on the English s\'stem was examined on May 13.
The oxygen level had varied between 8 and 15 percent. With this system, the
sum of the oxygen and CO2 always equals about 21 percent. There was no scald,
core breakdown, or rot, but quality was rather poor.

Where flushing with nitrogen was utilized and a very limited amount of ventila-
tion provided, apples were still in good eating condition on May 13. The oxygen
in the can had varied between approximately 2 and 5 percent and the CO2 between
2 and 12 percent. Just why this treatment gave the best results is not clear
unless it was due to the frequent change of atmosphere in the can. The apples
(at 40° F.) were better than checks kept at 32°-33° F.

These tests indicate that more uniform control of the atmosphere in a modi-
fied-atmosphere storage room is a requisite to the successful operation of such a
room. Undoubtedly, the wide fluctuation in the composition of the atmospheres
in the cans was a determining factor in lowering eating quality.

The storage room which was "gas-proofed" in 1940 was not sufificiently tight to
allow respiration to reduce the oxygen to the desired 2 percent level. A contrib-
uting cause of this failure was the fact that brine coils and the shape of the room
allowed for only partial filling. This room was opened for inspection at 10 a. m.
on February 24 and closed again at 5 p. m., resulting in a total loss of the arti-
ficial atmosphere. The oxygen was again lowered to around 10 percent which
proved to be the minimum obtainable. The room was opened on March 24 and
the fruit placed in another room at 32° F. The Wealthy and Gravenstein apples
were past good eating condition; Cortland were fair to good; Delicious were very
firm and in excellent condition. Golden Delicious were also in excellent condition
and, where individually wrapped, these fruits showed no shriveling. Mcintosh
comprised the bulk of the apples. These were fairly ripe but not too much so for
immediate use. Quality was good and somewhat better than that of similar
apples stored as checks at 32° F. (Checks stored at 40° F. in normal air showed
internal breakdown.) There were considerable differences between different
lots of fruit. In general, the late picked Mcintosh had the best quality. High
color was associated with high quality. Some rot was in evidence on individual
fruits. Many apples did not hold up well at room temperatures, largely because

92 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

of overmaturity. Those kept at around 34° F. retained fair eating quality for at
least a month. A few fruits subsequently split open.

During the summer certain leaks in this room were corrected, the coils were
removed, and a small automatic blower system was installed. This arrangement
allowed for the storage of 100 additional boxes. With the 300 bushels, mostly
Mcintosh, this room is now considered sufficiently full and gas-tight for effective
operation as a modified-atmosphere storage room. It was filled and temporarily
sealed up in October but later the apples were removed in order that som^e altera-
tions might be made. It was again filled and sealed on November 27. Previous
leakage tests indicated less than 5 percent leakage per 24 hours. At the time of
this writing (December 20), this storage is performing satisfactorih-. The ox>'gen
level is now down to 2 percent.

It is entirely possible that modified-atmosphere storage, especially for Mcin-
tosh, ma\' shortly displace in some degree conventional cold storage methods.
It seems to offer advantages that are very desirable and perhaps necessary for the
continued prosperity of the industry.

Study of "Bud Sports" of the Mcintosh Apple. (J. K. Shaw and L. Southwick.)
Trees of 21 so-called "bud sports" were planted in the spring of 1941. Three
of these have been propagated for several years, while the others are selections
from orchard trees. Half of these are on dwarfing and half on vigorous stocks.
The purpose of this planting is to maintain the selections and to see what color
type of apples they bear. Most of them are supposed or known to be non-striped
strains.

Trees of six forms are ready for orchard planting next spring for the purpose
of measuring accurately not only the color type of the fruit but also the vigor,
productiveness, and other characteristics of both tree and fruit.

Nutrition of the High bush Blueberry, Especially in Relation to Soil Reaction.

(J. S. Bailey.) Mixing lime with the soil reduced the growth of blueberry plants.
Mixing 5 percent peat with the soil reduced slightly the bad effects of the lime.
This work was reported in the Proceedings of the American Society of Horticultural
Science 38, 1941.

An experiment was started in the spring of 1941 to compare the value of cow,
horse, and hen manure as fertilizer for blueberries. Manures have been thought
to be harmful to blueberries, especially when applied on soils with a pH above 5.
To date the plants look fully as good as those fertilized with mineral fertilizer.

Blueberry Culture. (J. S. Bailey.) During the summer a diversion ditch was
constructed around the experiment station blueberry planting so that trouble
from erosion should be reduced to a minimum.

The plantings yielded a little over 3000 quarts as compared with 2000 quarts
in 1940.

Experiments to control the cranberry fruit worm on blueberries by dusting
were continued. Because so few worms were present, even in the checks, the re-
sults were not conclusive.

The budding work of 1940 was a complete failure. The bud shields stuck to
the stocks but the buds died. This work was repeated in 1941. The buds were
set low and protected for the winter by piles of sawdust.

Since the war has cut off the supply of imported peat which has been quite
generally used for propagating blueberries, a substitute must be found. A com-
parative test of several domestic peats was started in the spring of 1940. Nothing
which is superior to the imported peat has been found. A leaf mold irom Massa-
chusetts and a sphagnum peat from Maine compare favorably with the im-
ported peat.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 93

A light supplementary application of ammonium sulfate about June 7 was
given all the blueberries except those in the manure test. The improved appear-
ance of the plants and the increased yield over previous years indicate that this
was a good practice.

Bulletin 358, Blueberry- Culture in Massachusetts, was revised.

Premature Dropping of Mcintosh Apples. (L. Southwick.) Work on this
project largely concerned investigations with "hormone sprays." Some chem-
icals such as naphthalene acetic acid and certain of its salts, naphthalene aceta-
mide and some others, have been shown to delay natural drop of apples at harvest
when applied in dilute spray solutions. These chemicals and several commercial
proprietary compounds employing these active ingredients were used in field
tests in 1940 and 1941. Bulletin 381, published in February, 1941, summarized
the results of experimental work conducted in 1940 and in it the authors at-
tempted to evaluate the method of "hormone spraying" especially in relation
to Mcintosh. Further tests in 1941 revealed no very different results. There
was some evidence that under certain conditions, drop-control sprays on Mcin-
tosh were not so effective as in 1940. Many check trees dropped comparatively
little this }'ear. In most cases, however, the prehar\est drop from sprayed trees
was less than that from check trees in the same block. Some typical percentage
drop comparisons, sprayed and unsprayed, follow: 3.7 and 14.5 percent; 12.9
and 20.2 percent; 2.3 and 7.5 percent; 10.2 and 13.4 percent; 11.6 and 21.4 per-
cent; 7.3 and 18.5 percent; 13.9 and 13.4 percent. It is apparent from these
figures that degree of control was not consistent.

There is some indication that the temperature at the time of application may
be important. Possibly fruit growers should wait for temperatures above 60° F.
before applying a drop-control spra}-. A more definite statement on this point
must await further experiments.

A limited test with Milton indicated little benefit from spraying. The sprayed
trees dropped 31 percent of the total crop compared with 34.6 percent from the
check trees.

Results again demonstrated the desirability of using standard strength sprays
with Mcintosh. Weaker sprays were usually less effective. Doubling the
standard strength increased the effectiveness of applications. How much im-
provement in drop control would be required to offset the increased cost of
stronger sprays is problematical and depends on several factors. It can be stated
with some assurance, however, that the so-called standard strength of "hormone
sprays" should not be reduced with Mcintosh in this State.

The use of special stickers or summer oil seems to merit some consideration.
Theoretically, these materials should tend to improve coverage. Actually, the
benefits from their inclusion in hormone sprays have been variable. Usually,
drop control has been somewhat better although in some cases improvement has
been negligible. It is at least certain that spreaders and stickers are not effective
substitutes for good coverage.

Dusts were tried this year for the first time. These were made up by two com-
mercial concerns and were compared with spra}' applications. In about half the
tests, dust was only slightly inferior to spray in lessening pre-harvest drop. In
the others, dusting was not effective. It is true also that spraying was prac-
tically ineffective in some cases. The heavier applications of dusts (4 pounds
per tree) seemed more effective than lighter dosages. Until further evidence
is at hand, the use of hormone dusts by growers is recommended for trial only.

94 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Miscellaneous Work

Soil Acidity in the Orchard. Lime was applied to a Sudbury orchard in which
aluminum toxicity was suspected, as mentioned in the report of last year. It
appears that both grass and trees were improved by the treatment. With the
increasing use of wettable sulfur the danger of injuriously high acidity becomes
greater. Not only is there danger of aluminum toxicity, but nitrification in
the soil decreases as the soil acidit>' increases.

Lime and Phosphorus in Planting Trees. We have as yet no evidence that
phosphorus is directly beneficial to apple trees on our soils; we know that it is
readily fixed in the soil and it follows that orchard applications may not pass
into the relatively deep-rooted apple trees. An orchard of 36 Mcintosh trees of a
single strain on three clonal stocks was planted in the spring of 194 L One third
of the trees were treated with 10 pounds dolomitic limestone, one third with
5 pounds triple superphosphate, and one third were untreated. The materials
were placed in the bottom of the planting holes and well mixed with the soil.
As measured by trunk diameter increase, the trees treated with lime grew most,
those treated with phosphorus least, while the untreated trees were intermediate.

Weed Killing. The attempt to get rid of wild cherries, particularly choke
cherries, around the peach orchards was continued. A new weed killer, am-
monium sulfam.ate, was tried. It looks very promising. Used at the rate of
^ pound per gallon water, one application was enough to kill small choke
cherries and kill or badly damage black cherries. Chlorate weed killers used at
the same strength were not so effective on choke cherries and were ineffective
on black cherries.

Ethylene Dichloride Emulsion for Control of Peach Tree Borers. Because
of reports of damage from the use of this material in other sections, it is being
thoroughly tested in the station orchards. It has been used in 1939, 1940, and
1941 in one orchard and in 1940 and 1941 in several others. Applications have
been made at 15-day intervals during the fall. The emulsion has been used (1)
according to directions, (2) at slightly higher concentrations, and (3) in slightly
larger quantities, than recommended. Only one case of injury has occurred;
some very vigorous late-growing suckers from the base of some trees were in-
jured when applications of the emulsion at the concentration for three-3'ear old
trees was applied. This was an overdose for the year-old suckers. Unseasonably
hot weather following the application may have had an effect. Injury has never
occurred when applications were made according to standard directions.

Sawdust Mulch. In the summer of 1938, a sawdust mulching program was
begun in a small block of bearing apple trees An average of about 4 inches of
sawdust was placed under alternate trees to determine the effect of sawdust on
subjugation of sod, on soil nutrients and acidity, and finally on tree growth and
production The sawdust had little efifect in subduing the grass, which pro-
ceeded to grow apace throughout the summer and fall. Unlike hay or straw,
which tends to mat down, sawdust does not tend to smother grass. No addi-
tional applications were made during the next three years. Neither deleterious
nor particularly favorable effects on soil or tree have been observed to date.

In November and early December of this year, a considerably greater amount
of sawdust was applied to the same trees. This time, however, the sod on half
of the area under the branch spread was taken up and the soil shaken out. The
other half was left in sod. Sawdust to an average depth of 6 inches was applied
over the whole area. It is intended to determine the comparative feasibility of
using a sawdust mulch on cultivated soil and on sod in a bearing orchard.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 95

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY
R. T. Parkhursl in Charge

Broodiness in Poultry. (F. A. Hays.) A number of specific facts have been
established in this study of the inheritance of the broody instinct in Rhode Island
Reds. Some of the most significant findings are the following. The length of
the non-productive period associated with broody behavior remains rather con-
stant at about fifteen days. Degree of broodiness as measured by the number
of broody periods is governed by inheritance. The time of appearance of the
broody instinct in the life of a female is highly variable. In flocks bred to eliminate
the broody instinct, the onset of broody behavior in individual females has been
about 57 percent in the first laying year, 34 percent not until the second laying
year, and about 8 percent not until the third laying year. These three classes
of females when used as breeders gave about the same percentages of broody
daughters. The selection of female breeders that did not exhibit the broody trait
during their first two laying years was effective in reducing the incidence of brood-
iness in the flock. There is no evidence of sex-linked inheritance.

At present efforts are directed toward the establishment of an entirely non-
broody line by applying all of the information now in hand.

Statistical Study of Heredity in Rhode Island Reds. (F. A. Hays and Ruby
Sanborn.) This project is devoted entirely to the preparation and analysis of
experimental data used for publication. During the year the following papers
have been prepared: The Importance of Length of Incubation Period in Rhode
Island Reds, Bulletin 384; Breeding for High Viability, a study covering seven
years, has not yet been published; A Preliminary Study of Molting Behavior,
covering three years, has not yet been published; and A Study of Variation in
Egg Weight, covering five years, is now in preparation.

A Genetic Study of Rhode Island Red Cobr. (F. A. Hays.) This study has to
do with the genetic complex concerned in the inheritance of Rhode Island Red
plumage and possible relationships between characters affecting fecundity and
plumage color. Two lines of birds are being carried, one breeding true for late
sexual maturity and the other selectively bred for early sexual maturity. There
is some evidence that one or both of the dominant genes for early sexual maturity
afi"ects plumage color. The relation between the red of the Rhode Island Red
plumage and the buff of the Orpington is also being studied.

Rate of Feathering in Rhode Island Reds. (F. A. Hays.) This experiment is
concerned primarily with the genetic aspects of rapid and slow chick feathering.
To study this problem three lines have been developed with respect to rate of
chick feathering; namely, a rapid-feathering line produced exclusively by the
use of breeding males that showed complete back feathering at eight weeks of
age; a slow-feathering line bred entirely from sires showing the absence of back
feathering at eight weeks of age; and a check line bred primarily for high fecundity,
with some of the sires rapid feathering and some slow feathering.

In the spring of 1941 the seventh generation was produced in the three lines,
and gave the following percentages of rapid-feathering sons at eight weeks:
line 1, 100; line 2, 10; and the check line, 84. The chicks were also classified
for the sex-linked gene for rapid feathering at twelve days of age. The males in
the three lines gave the following percentages with the sex-linked rapid-feathering
gene: line 1, 49; line 2, 0; and the check line, 6. An attempt was also made to
separate the rapid- and slow-feathered females by grading the feather growth in
the back region at four weeks of age.

All data available indicate that in Rhode Island Reds the sex-linked gene for

96 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

rapid feathering may or may not be present in rapid-feathered stock. There is,
however, a definite sex difference in the rate of feathering in the dorsal region.

The Effectiveness of Selective Breeding in Reducing Mortality in Rhode
Island Reds. (F. A. Hays.) This is a cooperative project with the Regional
Poultry Research Laboratory, East Lansing, Michigan. In the spring of 1934 a
project was begun to test in a small way the effectiveness of selective breeding in
reducing mortality in Rhode Island Reds.

The foundation stock consisted of pedigreed birds that had been bred for
characters associated with high fecundity since 1916. During the first five years
females alone were kept to the age of 18 months. Beginning with the sixth gen-
eration, hatched in 1939, both males and females were retained to the age of 18
months. An attempt has been made to establish two lines, one for low mortality
and the other for high mortality. Breeding males and females 24 months of age
were used as breeders and the sole basis of their selection was the mortality rate of
their sisters during their first laying \ear. A check line consisted of birds bred
for high fecundity. Inbreeding in both lines was avoided by the constant use of
males drawn from the check group but selected on the mortality basis. Limited
facilities available permitted the production of about 100 birds in each of the
mortality lines, and since 1939 about equal numbers of males and females have
been carried to 18 months of age. Complete mortality records have been kept
and post-mortem examinations have been performed by the Department of
Veterinary Science.

The limited data now available indicate in general that selective breeding was
effective in small groups in reducing the mortality rate from the miscellaneous
diseases and disorders appearing under our conditions.

Genetic Laws Governing the Inheritance of High Fecundity in Domestic FowL

(F. A. Hays and Ruby Sanborn.) Many phases of this problem have been studied
and reported upon. At the present time special attention is being given to the
genetics of intensity and winter pause. These two characters have a rather
complex inheritance and their interactions with other characters are very sig-
nificant. Possible interactions between genes affecting intensity and genes
affecting egg size are being given close study. The mortality problem as affected
by selective breeding is also being given constant attention.

Recent findings indicate that chicks emerging early from the shell are likely
to be superior from the standpoint of fecundity; that heavy body weight in both
males and females at six months of age is a significant criterion of future low
mortality; and that selective breeding for characters affecting egg production
has not reduced the viability of the stock. Reducing the variability in egg pro-
duction is a slow process because of the complex nature of inherited factors and
environmental interactions.

A Study of Fertility Cycles in Males. (F. A. Hays.) Histological studies of
testes from males in a wide age range, taken throughout a two-year period, in-
dicate that both age and season affect the rate of spermatogenesis. There is
definitely a cyclical behavior in males with respect to their fertility. Preliminary
breeding tests have not indicated that fertility is governed by inherited factors.
This problem of possible inherited factors is being studied further along with
environmental factors that may be in operation.

Physiological Relationships Between Molting Behavior and Fecundity Char-
acters. (F. A. Hays.) Bi-weekly individual molt records are being continued
on a fourth series of males and females from parents with known molt records.
The first breeding stage of this project began in the spring of 1941. Two lines

ANNUAL REPORT, 1Q41 97

were started, the first from females la\'ing but few eggs during molt and the
second from females laying for a relatively long period during the molt. Pre-
liminary studies over three years indicate that the ability to lay eggs and molt
simultaneously is a highly desirable trait. The change in body weight of males
and females during the annual molt is not very significant. Males already used
required an average of about 94 days to shed their wing primaries while females
averaged about 1 19 days. Some females lay very few eggs during this period while
others lay up to 40 or 50 eggs. Good females should shed at least three primary
wing feathers before laying stops. Completion of wing molt in December appears
to be desirable from the standpoint of first-year egg production.

Miscellaneous Genetic Studies. (F. A. Hays.) Linkage studies include genes
for shank feathering, comb form, and mottled ear lobes in Rhode Island Reds.
An effort is also being made to isolate the sex-linked gene for early sexual maturity.
A new method for separating sexes in Rhode Island Red chicks is being studied
and offers some possibilities. For auto-sexing, a gold-barred bird is being de-
veloped on a limited scale.

The Use of Crab Meal in Poultry Rations. (Raymond T. Parkhurst and
Marie S. Gutowska with C. R. Fellers of the Departnient of Horticultural Man-
ufactures cooperating.) In broiler production studies, Red-Rock cross chicks
were used and comparisons involved the 1940-41 New England College Con-
ference starter as the basal ration, the basal ration with 5.5. percent crab meal
replacing 2.5 percent fish meal, the basal ration with 5.5 percent crab meal re-
placing 5 percent milk and 2.5 percent fish meal, and the basal ration with 3
percent fish meal replacing 5 percent of dried skimmilk. The mineral contents
of the rations were adjusted. There were no significant differences in growth,
mortality, feed efficiency, feathering, or pigmentation.

When crab meal replaced fish meal on an equal-protein basis (4 pounds for
2.5 pounds) in the Massachusetts complete all-mash laying ration, there were no
significant differences in egg production, weight of eggs, feed efificiency, yolk
color, albumen quality, fertility, and hatchability. The egg production av-
eraged higher in the fish meal group, based on the birds that lived, but fewer
birds died in the crab meal group; with the result that total production, total
income, and the feed cost per dozen eggs were practically the same for the birds
on the two rations. The results to date show that crab meal is a satisfactory
ingredient in poultry rations and can replace fish meal on an equal-protein basis.
Further comparisons of these feeds are in progress.

The Manganese Requirements of Laying Hens. (M. S. Gutowska and R. T.
Parkhurst.) The effect of the addition of manganese to complete all-mash laying
rations was investigated from a practical standpoint. Forty-eight Rhode Island
Red pullets were kept on a basal all-mash ration for 12 lunar months (2 periods
each lasting 6 lunar months). The two high-manganese groups received in their
diets 76 and 61 parts per million of manganese; the two low-manganese groups,
17 and 24 p. p. m., respectively. The data showed no appreciable differences in
egg production, feed efficiency, fertility, hatchability, and livability between the
compared groups; but the shell-breaking strength of eggs laid by the pullets on
high-manganese rations was significantly greater than that of eggs laid by birds
on the low-manganese rations, although the shell texture was not unsatisfactory
in the latter groups. It was concluded, because all-mash lajang rations contain-
ing as little as 17 and 24 p. p. m. of manganese did not produce manganese
deficiency symptoms in laying hens in a period of 12 lunar months, that even
these levels in laying rations can be considered satisfactory from a practical
viewpoint.

98 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

The Effect of an Excess of Calcium in the Diet. (M. S. Gutowska and R. T.
Parkhurst.) The results of this experiment showed that an excess of calcium in
the ration of laying hens lowered the production value of the diet, and that 3.95
percent of calcium in the diet of laying hens having a normal dietary level of
phosphorus and ample vitamin D intake was excessive. However, there was no
significant difference in the egg shell breaking strength, the average egg weight,
and the fertility and hatchability of eggs between the groups of birds receiving
the varying levels of calcium.

The importance of a control of the mineral balance of laying rations by means
of chemical analysis at regular intervals is suggested.

The Value of Pulverized Calcite Flour as a Source of Calcium for Laying Hens.

(M. S. Gutowska and R. T. Parkhurst.) The object of this experiment was to
compare qualitatively two rations with different sources of calcium: pulverized
plain calcite and oyster shell meal, at the same quantitative level. The man-
ganese content of the rations was estimated to be close to the assumed optimum
for laying pullets.

The data obtained from two flocks of 24 Rhode Island Red pullets during 12
months showed no significant differences in production, body and egg weight,
feed efficiency, egg shell breaking strength, hatchability, and fertility. The egg
quality was equal in the two flocks.

It was concluded that pulverized plain calcite is as good a source of calcium as
oyster shell meal for lading pullets; but its biological value as a mineral supple-
ment for laying hens is not higher than that of oyster shell meal.

The Phosphatase Activity as a Factor of Calcium Deposition and Egg-Shell
Formation. (M. S. Gutowska and R. T. Parkhurst, with the cooperation of
E. M. Parrott and R. M. Verberg of the Chemistry Department.) Phosphatase
activity as a factor of shell formation is studied by the determination of plasma
and oviduct phosphatase activity. Four groups of hens, good and poor producers,
with good and poor egg shell, are being compared in this regard. The phos-
phatase activity is determined according to a modification of King-Armstrong
method.

Electric Brooding. (W. C. Sanctuary in cooperation with Professor C. I.
Gunness of the Engineering Department.) The use of soil cable under 4 inches
of sawdust litter materially reduced moisture content of litter, when used con-
tinuously, but at an excessive cost. The use of insulation plus restricted ventila-
tion also reduced the moisture content of the litter materially, but not so much
as the continuous use of the soil cable. The use of damp (40 percent moisture)
sawdust from the start of brooding produced no deleterious results except for a
large number of crooked toes thought to be due to cold floors. Because of high
moisture content, the litter froze into a solid block on cold nights.

Combining Meat and Egg Production. (W. C. Sanctuary and J. H. Vondell.)
The standardization of body weight in Barred Plymouth Rocks at 6 pounds by
December 1 has been well established. The 1938 generation had a mean weight
just below 6 pounds. The generations of 1939 and 1940 had a mean weight just
a trifle above 6 pounds. There has been some improvement in meat quality as
measured by fleshing upon the breasts at 8 weeks of age and later as adults.
One adult male of the 1941 generation has approached the extreme "broad-
breasted" type now produced in one variety of turkey. Egg production has
improved also, three 300-eggers having been produced in the last two years
largely because of improvement in intensity (rate) of production.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 99

Sexing by Down and Shank Color. (W. C. Sanctuary.) The sexing b\- down
and shank color of 948 College pedigreed Barred Rock chicks was done with
a 95.36 percent accuracy compared to a 95.15 percent accuracy by the vent process
method with the same chicks. The chicks were first judged by the down and
shank characteristics.

Restricted Feeding on Range. (J. H. Vondell.) At 10 weeks of age, one half
of the College Barred Rock chicks was placed on a restricted plan of feeding,
while the remainder continued on the free-choice feeding of mash, oats, and corn.

The restricted plan consisted of feeding mash and oats until 10 a. m., when the
hoppers were closed and no feed given until the 4. p. m. allotment of whole corn.
The pullets were housed September 12 and both lots were placed on full feeding.
The restricted plan resulted in a saving of 1.52 pounds of feed per chicken
during the 15-week period. At 6 months of age the restricted and full-feeding
lots weighed exactly the same, 5.85 pounds. There was no difference in maturity
as determined by age at first egg. The laying-house mortality to April 1 was
practically the same for the two lots. Also, egg production was quite close:
57.86 percent for the full-feeding and 62.88 percent for the restricted lot.

These studies are being continued.

DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SCIENCE

J. B. Lentz in Charge

Poultry Disease Control Service. (H. Van Rockel, K. L. Bullis, O. S. Flint,
and M. K. Clarke.)

1. Pidloru?n- Disease Eradication. During the 1940-41 season the laboratory
tested 309 chicken flocks representing 527,328 birds and 538,589 tests. The
percentage of reactors (0.09) was the lowest in the twenty-one-^-ear testing period.
Of the total 478 reactors, the bulk was identified in one flock.

Testing service was rendered to flock owners in 11 counties. Middlesex and
Worcester counties led in the number of birds tested. No reactors were found in
Barnstable, Essex, Hampshire, Plymouth, and Worcester counties.

Five flocks which were non-reacting the previous year revealed infection dur-
ing the 1940-41 season. In two instances a plausible explanation for the infection
was obtained. In all instances but one the percentage of reactors was verj^ low,
less than one-half of 1 percent.

Flocks tested for the first time revealed the highest percentage of infection.
Among the flocks (41) tested for two consecutive years, no reactors were found.
Among the 210 flocks tested for three or more consecutive years, representing
437,145 birds and 446,694 tests, 0.08 percent reactors was revealed.

Approximately 88 percent of the total birds tested was confined to 100 percent
tested, non-reacting flocks (256). Forty-three flocks were partially tested and
non-reacting, representing 28,874 birds. Ten flocks were classified as positive,
representing 34,853 birds.

Of the total birds tested, 490,759 were females and 47,830 were males. The
percentages of reactors were 0.08 and 0.17, respectively.

A total of 4,417 samples collected from fowl other than chickens was tested for
pullorum disease. The species tested included turkeys (4,259 tests), pheasants
(115), guinea fowl (22), geese (13), ducks (5), and quail (3). Reactors were de-
tected in three of the 32 turkey flocks, but in only one instance was 5. pullorum
isolated. No reactors were detected among the other fowl tested.

The testing results indicate that Massachusetts is making progress in elim-
inating pullorum disease from its chicken and turkey breeding flocks.

100

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

2. Diagnostic Service. During the year, 2,264 specimens were examined in
533 consignments. Personal delivery of specimens was made in 335 cases. The
specimens may be classified as follows: 1,878 chickens, 256 turkeys, 38 canine
feces, 24 pheasants, 11 each of foxes and goat feces, 7 pigeons, 6 trout, 4 bovine
semen, 3 each of crows, peafowl, and ruffed grouse, 2 each of bovine organs,
bovine skin scrapings, calves, canine, equine nasal swabs, mink, rabbits, and
sheep, 1 each of bovine rumen contents, canary, equine, and pork.

The incidence of the more common and important disease conditions observed
in chickens during the past five years is as follows:

1936-37 1937-38 1938-39 1939-40 1940-41 Total

Avian tuberculosis 1 1 3 1 1 7

Coccidiosis 35 64 97 82 63 341

Enterohepatitis 2 7 6 7 7 29

Epidemic tremor 8 35 22 19 12 96

Fowl cholera 11 3 16 12 13 55

Fowl coryza 5 2 1 3 11

Fowl paralysis 37 45 77 47 51 257

Fowl pox 8 30 21 7 9 75

Fowl typhoid 4 2 11 4 1 22

Infectious bronchitis 40 31 48 57 31 207

Infectious laryngotracheitis 12 9 19 14 13 67

Internal parasites 23 21 41 26 34 145

Kidney disorders 17 15 37 21 19 109

Leukemia 7 3 6 3 5 24

Nutritional encephalomalacia 1 7 13 8 6 35

Paratyphoid 1 2 3 1 7

Perosis 4 2 4 3 3 16

Pullorum disease 39 46 49 32 28 194

Reproductive disorders... . 22 14 20 21 17 94

Rickets 8 6 19 19 10 62

Tumors 53 46 79 53 66 297

Ulcerated gizzards 1 15 14 15 10 55

Unknown disease 9 11 24 26 3i 103

Unknown pullet disease. . . 6 6 11 9 14 46

The 256 turkeys were received in 44 consignments. Paratyphoid, coccidiosis,
enterohepatitis, and ulcerative enteritis were the conditions most frequently
encountered. Pullorum disease was observed only once for the second consecutive
year and these poults came from a source outside of the State. Pullorum disease
was, however, established in a Massachusetts flock through necropsy of a reacting
turkey. Swine erysipelas and fowl cholera were each identified once. This is
the first time that fowl cholera has been recorded in a Massachusetts flock. Cap-
illaria contorta was identified twice in one flock. This parasite produced symp-
toms in quite a number of birds in both instances.

Capillaria plica was observed in one fox. We are indebted to the Zoological
Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture
for identification of the parasites in the fox and in the turke>'s.

Listerellosis was identified in a canary. All females (eight) in the aviary died
within a two-week period. The males in a separate cage were not affected.

3. Flock Mortality Studies. These studies have been continued to obtain
additional data on causes of adult mortality and to furnish information for
genetics experiments. Necropsy examinations were made on 208 morbid and dead
birds from the flock which was hatched in the spring of 1940 at the Experimental

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 101

Poultry Farm. There were 147 females and 61 males. A wide variet\' of diag-
noses was made on these birds, but no unusual outbreaks of disease were noted.
The mortality in this \ear's flock was widely distributed over the year, whereas
the mortality in flocks hatched in previous \ears had a tendency to be con-
centrated in the late spring or just after the birds were more than ane year of age.
Cannibalism was materially reduced in this group of birds, whereas fowl paralysis
and staph\lococcosis were markedh' increased.

4. Salmonella Types Isolated. The identification of paratyphoid organisms
isolated from diseased specimens continued during the past year, and 21 were
added to those previously reported. Eighteen were S. typhi- murium, one was
5. anatum, and two (from different organs of the same specimen) appear to be a
new type. These 21 strains came from six flocks. One strain was isolated from
a pigeon and all others from turkeys (7 mature and 13 poults).

During the past year, 4104 turkey blood samples were tested for paratyphoid
infection by the macroscopic tube agglutination test. An autogenous antigen of
S. typhi-murium was used as a test fluid. While infected birds can be detected
by such a procedure, the method can not be relied upon to eliminate the infec-
tion to the degree accomplished in pullorum-disease testing. Owners of flocks
that are apparently free of this infection should investigate thoroughly the
history of the source from which stock may be introduced.

We are greath- indebted to Dr. Philip Edwards, Department of Animal Path-
ology, University' of Kentucky, Le.Kington, Kentucky, who identified these
strains as to type.

5. Avian Encephalomyelitis . The infective agent was passed through chicks
(intracerebral inoculation) 21 times during the past year and is now in its 125th
passage since its first isolation. Its characteristics do not appear to have under-
gone any permanent change during the twelve months. An attempt was made to
determine the presence of avian encephalomyelitis virus in the brain of adult
birds which had e.xhibited topical s\mptoms of the infection as chicks. Six hens
of this type were destroyed and brain suspension prepared from each for inocula-
tion intracerebrally into bab}' chicks. In no instance did the brain suspension
produce symptoms of avian encephalomyelitis. A suspension prepared from the
ovary of one of the six birds also gave negative results when inoculated into baby
chicks. The virus appears to lose its potency very slowly if stored at 10° C. ±.
This conclusion is based on inoculation of three brain suspensions prepared
10/8/38, 4/12/39, and 8/24/39 and stored until 1 21 41. The oldest (stored
837 days) produced t\pical symptoms in 50 percent of the chicks inoculated;
the next oldest (stored 650 days), in 67 percent of the chicks; and the most recent
(stored 517 da\s), in 86 percent of the chicks.

Additional data were obtained from inoculation of embryonated eggs and trans-
mission of infection to chicks hatched in the incubator at the same time with the
inoculated embryos. A total of 188 ten-day embryos was inoculated in six dif-
ferent settings of eggs. Of the 91 chicks hatched from these embryos, 23 showed
typical sAmptoms of avian encephalomyelitis. Seven of these chicks showed
symptoms before they were taken fromthe hatching tra>', and one chick showed
no symptoms until it was 29 da>s of age. All others showed symptoms at ages
between these extremes. None of the 107 chicks exposed in the incubator while
hatching developed s)'mptoms of avian encephalomyelitis infection. The elTect
of fumigation on brain suspensions of avian encephalomyelitis v^rus was in-
vestigated in three trials. Chicks inoculated with a virus suspension previously
fumigated by the standard formaldehyde gas method did not develop clinical
symptoms.

Consignn^ents of chick brains were received from Georgia, New Mexico,

102 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Ohio, and Wisconsin. Avian encephalomyelitis was definitely identified in three
of the four consignments.

6. Injectioits Bronchitis Studies. During the past year investigations were
undertaken in the control of infectious bronchitis, which is a widespread, highly
infectious, communicable respiratory disease of chickens causing serious losses
among \oung chicks and lading birds.

Field investigations were started with the objective of inoculating flocks dur-
ing the growing age in the hope of producing an immunity which would be of
sufficient duration so that the birds would pass through at least one laying season
without contracting the infection. Fourteen flocks, representing approximately
40,000 birds, were inoculated during the months of June, July, and August. The
inocula were prepared from laboratory birds inoculated with a known infectious
bronchitis virus. Preliminary observations re\'eal that birds ranging in age from
four weeks to four months can be inoculated without serious objectionable post-
inoculation results. However, the inoculation of birds six to ten weeks of age pro-
duced the most satisfactory results. Chicks under four weeks of age and laying
birds should net be exposed to the infection.

To date no definite evidence of the disease has appeared among the birds in the
inoculated flocks. Later in the season a critical test will be applied to the various
flocks to determine their resistance to infectious bronchitis virus.

Laboratory investigations are in progress to develop a practical and economical
method for the production and administration of the virus for flock inoculation.
The development of a practical and successful inoculation program to control
infectious bronchitis will mean a great economic saving to the Massachusetts
poultry industry.

7. Farm Department Brucellosis Control and Eradication. The laboratory
cooperated in this work by testing 639 bovine and 53 swine blood samples, by the
standard tube agglutination method.

Studies of Neoplastic and Neoplastic-like Diseases. (Carl Olson, Jr.) The
lymphoid tumor experimentally transmissible in chickens has been maintained in
serial passage during the past year. It has retained its fundamental character-
istics and in its later passages has shown no tendency to change its behavior.
Apparently the tumor has assumed a fixed pattern for its action in experimental
birds. The results of the first thirt> serial passages have been published in an
article "A transmissible hmphoid tumor of the chicken" appearing in Cancer
Research 1: 384-392, 1941.

The collection of 384 spontaneous tumors of chickens has been investigated and
much interesting information has been the result of this study. The collection
was derived from three sources; namely, cases of tumor submitted to the Diagnos-
tic Laboratory during a two->'ear period, cases of tumor occurring in a flock from
which nearly all birds found ill or dead were examined, and cases of tumor found in
birds from other miscellaneous sources. Twenty-three different types of neo-
plasia were found in the collection. The most common was lymphocytoma, as
slightly over half (55.5 percent) of the cases were of this variety. Six other types
(leiomyoma, embrxonal nephroma, myelocytoma, leukosis, epithelioblastoma,
and fibrosarcoma) collectively comprised about one-third (32.8 percent) of the
collection. Other varieties of neoplasia found were carcinosarcoma, neurogenic
sarcoma, hemangioma, fibroma, cholangioma, hepatoma, histiocytic sarcoma,
my.xoma, thymoma, rhabdomyoma, osteochondrosarcoma, fibrochondrosarcoma,
melanoma, lymphangioma, mesothelioma, and teratoma.

Three forms of lymphocytoma were found: diffuse, nodular, and combined
diffuse and nodular. A possible explanation for the existence of three forms was

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 103

developed from study of the material, and is based on the inherent resistance of
the individual bird to growth of the tumor. Thus in diffuse lymphocytoma the
host has but little resistance to growth of the tumor, allowing it to assume a
diffuse character. In nodular lymphocytoma the host has considerable resistance
to growth of the tumor, causing it to be restricted and nodular in form. The
combined diffuse and nodular form develops when there is but moderate resistance
of the organ or tissue in which the tumor is growing.

WALTHAM FIELD STATION

Waltham, Massachusetts

Ray M. Koon in Charge

The members of the research staff of the Waltham Field Station are assigned'
to the unit by the Departments of Botany, Entomology, Floriculture, Horticul-
ture, and Vegetable Gardening. Reports of these departments give results of
investigations conducted at this station.

Soil Testing Service. Testing soil for commercial vegetable growers, mush-
room growers, florists, nurserymen, greenkeepers, arborists, vendors of' loam,
and home gardeners has long been regarded as an important service which the
Field Station has rendered. More recently this program has been extended to
include service to the State Department of Public Works, the Metropolitan Dist-
rict Commission, Works Project Administration, and town and cit}' administra-
tions. There is no doubt that this effort is effective, particularly when the soil
test is followed by a personal interview between the client and the technician.
The total number of soil samples tested in 1941 was 6676.

Field Day. The twenty-third annual Field Day on August 6, 1941, attracted
the usual number of visitors, about 1200. Perfect weather made it one of the
most comfortable Field Days ever held. In an endeavor to increase the interest
in the vegetable contests a few more varieties were added to the list. Valuable
prizes were offered by the Boston Market Gardeners Association for the three
best market packages of Bunched Carrots, Summer Pascal Celery, White Celery,
Trellis Tomato, Straightneck Squash, Sweet Corn, and Cucumber. An auction
of the vegetables entered in the contests proved an interesting innovation.

104 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

PUBLICATIONS
Bulletins

378 Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ending November 30, 1940. 112 pp.
February 1941.

The main purpose of this report is to provide an opportunity for pre-
senting in published form, recent results from experimentation in fields
or on projects where progress has not been such as to justify the general
and definite conclusions necessary to meet the requirements of bulletin
or journal.

379 Trace Metals and Total Nutrients in Human and Cattle Foods. By E. B.
Holland and W. S. Ritchie. 31 pp. July 1941.

This information concerning the composition of various plant materials
is provided because of the very general interest in the nutritional function
of certain trace elements.

380 Pasture Culture in Massachusetts. B\- William G. Colby. 44 pp. Octo-
ber 1941.

Pastures are of great economic importance in Massachusetts agriculture,
and this study represents an attempt to organize such available informa-
tion as may have a bearing on their best management.

381 Spraying to Control Preharvest Drop of Apples. By Laurence Southwick
and J. K. Shaw. 16 pp. February 1941.

The use of "hormone sprays" to reduce preharvest drop is a new de-
velopment. This bulletin reports results of recently conducted tests in
an attempt to e\aluate the method, especially in relation to Mcintosh.

382 The Propagation of Some Trees and Shrubs by Cuttings. By William L.
Doran. 56 pp. March 1941.

The detailed information regarding recent developments in plant propa-
gation dealt with in this bulletin should be of significant economic impor-
tance, especially to nurserymen and foresters.

383 The Sanitary Evaluation of Private Water Supplies. By Ralph L. France.
11 pp. March 1941.

A safe water supply for rural homes is of prin;e importance. This is an
explanation of some of the problems involved, with special attention to
contamination and its detection.

384 The Importance of Length of Incubation Period in Rhode Island Reds.
By F. A. Hays. 12 pp. July 1941.

This represents an attempt to determine whether length of incubation
period may serve as a criterion of the future performance of chicks.

385 Natural Land Types of Massachusetts and Their Use. B\- A. B. Beau-

mont. 16 pp. May 1941.

This represents an attempt to supply certain technical information
regarding soils considered essential as a basis for sound land-use studies
and classifications.

386 Rural Youth in Massachusetts. By Gilbert Meldrum and Ruth E. Sher-
burne. 8 pp. December 1941.

National concern regarding the general welfare of our population deserves
some planning, fcr which studies of this sort may furnish a basis.

387 Interrelationship of Land Uses in Rural Massachusetts. By David Roz-
man. 20 pp. December 1941.

The extent and significance of the various land uses and their relation-
ship to each other is analyzed with a view to providing a balanced system
of land utilization.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 105

Control Bulletins

108 Twenty-First Annual Report on Eradication of Pullorum Disease in Massa-
chusetts. By the Poultry Disease Control Laboratory. 11pp. May 1941.

109 Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers and Agricultural Lime Products.
By Fertilizer Control Service Staff. 55 pp. September 1941.

110 Inspection of Commercial Feedstuffs. By Philip H. Smith. 64 pp. Octo-
ber 1941.

111 Seed Inspection. By F. A. McLaughlin. 93 pp. November 1941.

Meteorological Bulletins

625-636, inclusive. Monthly reports giving daily weather records, together with
monthly and annual summaries. By C. I. Gunness. 4 pp. each.

Reports of Investigations in Journals

Numbered Contributions

312 Retention of Vitamins C and A in Glass-Packed Foods. By C. R. Fellers

and R. E. Buck. Food Res. 6 (2):135-141. 1941.
365 The Effect of Cocoa upon the Digestibility of Milk Proteins. By L. D.

Lipman and W. S. Mueller. Dairy Sci. 24 (5):399-408. 1941.

369 Factors Affecting the Toxicity of Red Squill. By J. A. Lubitz, A. S. Levine,.
and C. R. Fellers. Jour. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 30 (3):69-72. 1941.

370 Anticataractogenic Action of Certain Nitrogenous Factors. By Helen S.
Mitchell, Gladys M. Cook, and Mary D. Henderson. Arch. Ophth. 24:990-
998. 1940.

375 The Effect of Dry Heat upon the Anticataractogenic Quality of Certain
Proteins. By Mary D. Henderson and Helen S. Mitchell. Jour. Nutr.
21 (2):115-124. 1941.

376 Transmitting Abiiit\' in Males of Genes for Egg Size. By F. A. Hays.
Poultry Sci. 20 {3):217-220. 1941.

377 The Effect of the Hydrolytic Products of Casein and Deaminized Casein
on the Cataractogenic Action of Galactose. By Edwin L. Moore, Mary D.
Henderson, Helen S. Mitchell and Walter S. Ritchie. Jour. Nutr. 21
(2):125-133. 1941.

379 Corn Distillers' Dried Grains with Solubles in Poultry Rations. I. Chick
Rations. By Kevin G. Shea and Carl R. Fellers and Raymond T. Park-
hurst. Poultry Sci. 20 (6):527-535. 1941.

380 Corn Distillers' Dried Grains with Solubles in Poultry Rations. II. Laying
Rations. By Fred L. Dickens and Raymond T. Parkhurst and Carl R.
Fellers. Poultry Sci. 20 (6):536-542. 1941.

381 Manganese Absorption in Fowl. By Marie S. Gutowska, E. M. Parrott^
and F. A. Slesinski. Poultry Sci. 20 (4) :379-384. 1941.

383 Research in Food Technology in the Development of Our Fisheries Re-
sources. By Carl R. Fellers. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc. 70 (1940):72-76.
1941.

384 Sex Ratio in Domestic Chickens. By F. A. Hays. Amer. Nat. 75:187-188.
1941.

386 Report on Zinc. By E. B. Holland and W. S. Ritchie. Jour. Assoc. Off.
Agr. Chem. 24 (2):348-350. 1941.

387 Laboratory and Business Relationships in Foods and Nutrition. By Carl
R. Fellers. Jour. Home Econ. 33 (2) :87-93. 1941.

106 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

388 Effect of Processing on the Vitamin A (Carotene) Content of Foods. By
C. R. Fellers. Proc. of the Food Conf. of the Inst, of Food Technol. held
in Chicago, June 16-19, 1940.

389 Toxicity of Red Squill Powder and E.xtract for Chickens, Rabbits, and
Guinea Pigs. By J. A. Lubitz and C. R. Fellers. Jour. Amer. Pharm.
Assoc, Sci. Ed. 30 (5). 1941.

390 Rat Lures. By J. A. Lubitz, C. R. Fellers, and A. S. Levine. Soap and
Sanit. Chem. February 1941.

391 A Simple Instrument for Mincing Tissue. By Carl Olson, Jr. Amer.
Jour. Vet. Res. 2 (4):295-297. 1941.

392 Carbon Dioxide-Oxygen and Storage Relationships in Cranberries. By
A. S. Levine, C. R. Fellers and C. I. Gunness. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 38 (1940):239-242. 1941.

393 Intake of Certain Elements by Calciphilic and Calciphobic Plants Grown
on Soils Differing in pH. By William H. Bender and Walter S. Eisenmenger.
Soil Sci. 52 (4):297-307. 1941.

394 The Effect of Methods of Growing and Transplanting the Plants on the
Yield of Peppers. By W. H. Lachman, Eleanor A. West, and Grant B.
Snyder. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38 (1940):554-556. 1941.

395 Budding Ornamental Malus on the Mailing Rootstocks. B\- J. K. Shaw.
Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38 (1940) :661. 1941.

396 The Effect of Hormone Spra>s on the Harvest Drop of Apples. (Abstract)
By Lawrence Southwick and J. K. Shaw. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38
(1940):121-122. 1941.

397 The Effect of Soil Temperature on the Growth of Cultivated Blueberry
Bushes. By John S. Bailey and Linus H. Jones. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort.
Sci. 38 (1940):462-464. 1941.

398 The Effect of Lime Applications on the Growth of Cultivated Blueberry
Plants. By J. S. Bailey. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38 (1940):465-467.
1941.

400 Fruit Juice Concentration by Freezing and Centrifuging. By Lowell R.

Tucker. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 38 (1940):225-230. 1941.
402 A Transmissible Lymphoid Tumor of the Chicken. By Carl Olson, Jr.

Cancer Res. 1 (5) :384-392. 1941.

404 Some Factors Affecting Wheying Off of Cultured Buttermilk. By Lynn R.
Glazier and H. G. Lindquist. Milk Plant Monthly 30 (5):27-30. 1941.

405 Corn Syrup Solids Improve Frozen Dairy Products. By Lynn R. Glazier
and Merrill J. Mack. Food Indus. June 1941.

407 Effect of Freezing on the Available Iron Content of Foods. Preliminary
Contribution. By W. H. Hastings and C. R. Fellers and G. A. Fitzgerald.
Presented at Annual Meeting, Amer. Inst. Refrig., Washington, D. C,
May 12-13, 1941.

408 A Simple Control of Damping Off. By William L. Doran. Florists' E.xch.
96 (21):10. May 24, 1941.

409 Non-Toxic Character of Ursolic Acid. Preliminary Study. By J. A. Lubitz
and C. R. Fellers. Jour. Amer. Pharm. Assoc, Sci. Ed. 30 (8). 1941.

410 Homogenized Milk. By J. H. Frandsen. Milk Plant Monthly, June 1941.

413 Propagation of Hemlock Cuttings. By William L. Doran. Amer. Nursery-
man 74 (6):18-19. 1941.

414 Propagation of Umbrella-Pine by Cuttings. By William L. Doran. Flor-
ists' Exch. 97 (9):9. 1941.

415 Thiamin and Pyrimidine Studies on Older Subjects. By Anne Wertz and
Helen S. Mitchell, with the technical assistance of F. Catherine Higgins.
Soc. for E.xpt. Biol, and Med. Proc. 48:259-263. 1941.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1941 107

Unnumbered Contributions

Grass Silage for Poultry. B}- J. G. Archibald. New England Homestead,

April 19, 1941.
Cull Apples for Dairy Cows. By J. G. Archibald. The Rural New Yorker,

June 14, 1941.
Manganese in Cows' Milk. By J. G. Archibald. Milk Plant Monthh", Septem-
ber 1941.
Coin Mats for the Microscopist. By Linus H. Jones. Science 94 (2445):446. 1941.
Wood Decay Fungi. By Malcolm A. McKenzie. Proc. First Ann. Eastern Pest

Control Operators' Conference, Amherst, January 13-15, 1941.
Municipal Shade Tree Problems in National Defense. By Malcolm A. McKenzie.

Proc. Ann. Meeting, Mass. Tree Wardens' Assoc, February 13, 1941.
Progress Report, including Transcriptions of Certain Papers Presented at the

Eighth Annual Five-Day Short Course for Tree V\'ardens and Other Workers

with Trees, March 24-29, 1941:

Poisonous Plants. By A. Vincent Osmun. pp. 28-35.

The Dutch Elni Disease Problem in Massachusetts. B\ Malcolm A. McKen-
zie. pp. 54-55.
Timely Spraying Protects Elms Against Midsummer Defoliation. By
Malcolm A. McKenzie and William B. Becker, p. 56.
Methods of Determining the Curd Tension of Milk. Cooperative Study with

American Dairy Science Association Committee. Final Report in Jour.

Dairy Sci. 24. September 1941. (W. S. Mueller.)
What About Foreign Type Cheese? By H. G. Lindquist. Natl. Butter and

Cheese Jour. 32 (5):16-18. May 1941.
Ice Cream — It's Better Than You Think. By J. H. Frandsen. Ice Cream Field,

October 1941.
Pasteurization — How Can the Small Milk Producer Meet the Requirements?

By J. H. Frandsen. New England Homestead, March 22, 1941.
Insect Pests of 1940 and What to Expect in 1941. By A. I. Bourne and W. D.

Whitcomb. Mass. Fruit Growers' Assoc. Ann. Rept. 1941:L20-132.
Orchard Insects in 1940. By W. D. Whitcomb and A. I. Bourne. Mass. Fruit

Growers' Assoc. Ann. Rept. 1941:20-22.
The Elm Leaf Beetle. By W. D. Whitcomb. Proc. Ann. Meeting, Mass. Tree

Wardens' Assoc, February 13, 1941.
The Damage Done by Bark Beetles. By Wm. E. Tomlinson, Jr. Horticulture

(New England edition), p. 176-A. April 1, 1941.
The Practical Aspects of Polyploidy in Floricultural Crops. B\- Harold E. White.

Amer. Nat. 75:326-328. 1941. Biological Symposia 4:130-132. 1941.
Sanitation of Glassware and the Utilization of Paper Cups. By Arthur S. Levine.

Internatl. Steward 41 (2):12-13. 1941.
The Amazing Progress of Frozen Foods. By Carl R. Fellers. Forecast 57 (10):

34-35 and 69-71. 1941.
College Research Aids the Canner. By W. W. Chenoweth. Canning Age 22 (7):

344-345. 1941.
Role of Ascorbic Acid in Glass-Packed Foods. By W. H. Fitzpatrick, J. J.

Powers, and C. R. Fellers. Canner 93 (16):18. September 1941; also Glass

Packer 20 ( 1 2 ) : 748 . December 1 94 1 .
Vitamin C Is Affected by Amount of Headspace in Glass Containers: Oxidation

Features. By C. R. Fellers, J. J. Powers, and W. H. Fitzpatrick. Canning

Age 22(11):529. October 1941.
What Apples Are Best for Pie? By W. A. Maclinn and R. A. Van Meter. Hotel

Monthly pp. 48-50. September 1941.

108 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 388

Fruit and Vegetable Juices. By C. R. Fellers. Internatl. Steward pp. 9-10.

June 1941.
Vitamin B Complex — The Members of This Group and the Status of Methods of

Assay. By H. T. Scott, F. D. Baird, E. M. Nelson, W. C. Russell, C. R.

Fellers and C. A. Elvehjem. Yearbook 1940-41. Supplement to Amer. Jour.

Pub. Heahh 3 (3):95-100. March 1941.

Mimeographed Series

FM3 Costs and Returns — Snap Beans for Canning in 1940. By Charles R.

Creek. 24 pp. January 1941.
FM4 A Farm Management Study of Vegetable Farms in Bristol County,

Massachusetts, in 1939. By Charles R. Creek. 27 pp. February 1941.
FM5 Harvesting and Packing Iceberg Lettuce on Farms in Massachusetts. By

Charles R. Creek and Richard Elliott. 12 pp. February 1941.
FM6 Harvesting and Packing Tomatoes on Farms in Massachusetts. By

Charles R. Creek and Richard Elliott. 12 pp. March 1941.
FM7 Harvesting and Packing Celerx' on Farms in Massachusetts. By Charles

R. Creek and Richard Elliott. 14 pp. May 1941.
FM8 Vegetable Growing in Bristol Count}', Massachusetts, in 1940. By

Charles R. Creek. 20 pp. October 1941.
FM9 Two Years of Vegetable Growing in Bristol County, Massachusetts.

1939 and 1940. By Charles R. Creek. 14 pp. October 1941.
Farm-Management Problems and Suggested Adjustments on Vegetable Farms in

Bristol County, Massachusetts. By Normal R. Urquhart and Charles

R. Creek. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Agr. Econ. in Cooperation with Mass.

Agr. Expt. Sta., Dept. Agr. Econ. and Farm Mgt. 27 pp. June 1941.

(Washington, D. C.)

Extension Publications

The following Extension Leaflets were prepared wholly or in part by Experiment
Station men during the year ended November 30, 1941.

Home Canning of Vegetables, Fruits and Meats. By C. R. Fellers, \V. W. Chen-
oweth, and W. R. Cole. Mass. State College Ext. Leaflet 142. 24 pp. 1941.

Control Calendar for Vegetable Pests. By E. F. Guba and W. D. Whitcomb.
M. S. C. Ext. Leaflet 116 (revised). 24 pp. April 1941.

Pest Control in the Home Garden. By A. I. Bourne and O. C. Boyd. M. S. C.
Ext. Leaflet 171 (revised). 12 pp. March 1941.

Publication of this Document Approved by Commission on .Administration .-^nd Finance
3m-4-42-9278

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

Bulletin No. 389 February 1942

Production and Prices

of Milk in the

Springfield-Holy oke-Chicopee

Milkshed in 1935

By Alfred A. Brown and Mabelle Booth

A comprehensive understanding of the productive organization and the market-
ing disposal facilities of the fluid milk industry is a necessary basis for sound
marketing regulation. To this end, the investigation reported here was under-
taken.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

PRODUCTION AND PRICES OF MILK
IN THE SPRINGFIELD-HOLYOKE-CHICOPEE MILKSHED IN

1935*

By Alfred A. Brown, Assistant Research Professor, and Mabelle Booth,
Technical Assistant, in Agricultural Economics and Farm Management

INTRODUCTION

In the spring of 1934 the people of Massachusetts through their General Court
adopted, in the interests of local dairymen, a program which was certain to cause
an increase in the consumer price of milk. There was nothing subtle in the presen-
tation of the program to the public. The facts and assumptions were simply
stated. They appeared reasonable.

In general the prices which farmers were getting for milk were exceptionally
low; the prices which they were paying for goods or services were not propor-
tionately so. Both had been declining since the middle or late twenties. During
the early phase, the balance had been fairly well maintained between the price
for which milk sold and the cost of goods and services used on the farm. The
severe disturbance to finance and industry in 1929 touched off a sharp decline
in prices. Milk prices dropped faster and lower than did prices of some items
which farmers bought. The lack of balance between farm costs and farm prices
became so severe both in degree and duration that many farmers were faced with
the loss of their farms.

This course of events was characteristic of the capitalistic system. By it those
individuals who by errors of judgment were caught in the backwash were normally
forced out of business; by it the most competent producers, whether of milk or of
mousetraps, were selected to serve society. Circumstances were such, however,
that the public could ill afford to give the system free rein. Some farmers would
be included in the purifying process because of factors beyond their control. Of
more importance, however, was the threat to the fluid milk supply.

Since the latter part of the 19th century, adequate supplies of wholesome milk
have been regarded as necessary to public welfare. Many measures have been
taken during the past fifty years to protect the quality of the supply. The op-
erations of the market, however, have been relied upon to safeguard the quantity
of the supply. Threats of serious shortage had occasionally occurred under this
method, and in the spring of 1934 direct aid by the government in pricing was con-
sidered necessary if the supply was to be maintained. Assistance to the dairy
industry was facilitated then by the national program to revive all agriculture in
the effort to stimulate business. Under the circumstances, though, it is probable
that some sort of governmental aid would have been given to the producers of
fluid milk even in the absence of a general program.

Sound regulation of marketing depends in part on a comprehensive under-
standing of the productive organization and the marketing disposal facilities of
the industry. To this end, data on the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee milkshed
have been gathered, tabulated, and analyzed. Studies on Milk Cartage and

*Data for this study, like those preceding it. were secured with the cooperation of dairy farmers,
producers, cooperative associations, distributors, and public agencies having an interest in the
milk industry. Many persons in the Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Manage-
ment contributed to the study.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED 3

Dealers' Product Costs for this milkshed have already been published: Massa-
chusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins 363 and 365, respectively.

The present study is made up of two parts: the first a description of the milk-
shed; the second an analysis of producers' farm prices.

Table 1. — Ratio of Wholesale Milk Prices Received by Massachusetts

Farmers to Prices Paid by Farmers

1910-14 = 100

Milk Price Index*

Prices Paid Index*

Ratio

1925

125

157

80.2

1926

130

155

83.8

1927

128

153

83.6

1928

134

155

86.4

1929

138

153

90.1

1930

138

145

95.1

1931

113

124

91.1

1932

93

107

86.9

1933

87

109

79.8

1934

97

123

78.8

1935

113

125

90.4

1936

116

124

93.5

1937

111

131

84.7

1938

108

123

87.8

1939

108

121

89.2

♦Index Numbers of Massacliusetts Farm Products. 1910-1940 M. S. C. Extension Service 1940.

PART I
SPRINGFIELD-HOLYOKE-CHIOPEE MILKSHED

Geography

The farms from which the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee market area draws its
supply are located in the towns and counties shown in figure 1. Boundaries
of municipalities, however, meant little as far as location of the supply was con-
cerned. Roads, topography, relative prices, and alternative enterprises were for
the most part the determining factors. The grouping of producers as shown in
this figure, partially illustrates the influence of natural conditions. Since no
particular attention was given to ascertaining the cause for the individual farmer's
selling in the market, the effect of dealer influence can only be surmised. The
grouping of producers also illustrates the influences of alternative enterprises.
The sparseness of large-scale dairy units in the river bottom land is no surprise
to anyone familiar with the high cost land (the burden of which is being met by
the intensive cash cropping currently of onions, potatoes, and tobacco). The
concentration of production in other areas was the result of natural conditions
which are more favorable to livestock production than any other enterprise and
of economic advantages arising from priority in and nearness to the market.
(Viz. Area 2.)

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

Figure 1. Shippers in the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee Milkshed, 1935
Located by Markets*

*Springfield shippers living in New York and Vermont were not located.

In developing the study, the clusters of producers were given an identity desig-
nated as "competitive area." A very common observation had been that a
particular geographical group of producers was selling milk to a number of dealers.
From this it seemed logical to assume that in a relatively small area a degree of
competition for the supply might exist. Or if the dealers exhibited no com-
petitive spirit due to the existence of a "buyers' " market, then the producers
might have been expected to express a measure of competition for the market.
Competition would have existed when either the standardized 3.7 prices or the
actual prices to producers were practically uniform. No competition existed. ^
The identity of the areas, however, has been retained as a convenient means of
describing the productive characteristics of the shed. (Figure 3.)

Exclusiveness of the Shed

Overlapping supply areas with additional transportation costs is one of the
characteristics of the quasi competitive — quasi public-utility system of milk

'See section on Prices to Producers.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED

Figure 2. Location of Farms in the Springfield-Holyoke Chicopee Milkshed
in Relation to Roads, 1935

marketing. The region from which Springfield and contiguous municipalities
draw their milk supply is on the east a source for Worcester; on the south, for
Hartford, Connecticut; on the north, for Boston; and throughout, for the small
markets within the larger shed. The overlapping is shown in figure 1.

Disposal of Commercial Production

Based on the shipments of 1853 full-time dairy farmers, the commercial produc-
tion within the Springfield-Hohoke-Chicopee milkshed was apportioned among
the several markets as shown in table 2. Of the annual commercial^ production
within the shed in 1935, local markets^ took 13.9 percent, Springfield 59.5 percent,
and outside markets* 26.6 percent. No attempt has been made to determine the
extent of seasonal variation in shipments to the market groups other than Spring-
field. Factors other than seasonality of production were probably generally
responsible for producers' market outlets.

The quality standards prevailing in the various markets were in all practical
details similar. Inability of producers to meet the standards for a particular
municipality could scarcely have been a factor creating supply-market ties.

^That sold off the farm.

'Greenfield, Northampton, Amherst, Ware, and Palmer

< Boston, Worcester, Hartford.

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

Table 2. — Allocation of Production* of Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee
MiLKSHED Among Its Markets

Market

Percent

Volume

Producers

Annual

Per Day

Per Day
Per Dairy

Number Percent

76,598,361

230,718

195.0

1183 63.8

17,934,396

49,135

225.4

218 11.8

34,221,199

93,757

207.4

452 24.4

128,753,956

377,309

203.6

1853 100.0

Springfield 59 . 5

Local 13.9

Outside 26.6

Total 100.0

*Full-time Grade B Shippers.

Table 3. — Average Volume of Milk Handled Daily in April* 1935 by
Distributors Operating in the Chief Loc.\l Markets

Volume of Milk Handled

Local Market

By Producer By Merchant
Distributors Dealers

Total

Number of

Producers

Distributors

Amherst 5,221 1,664 6,885 14 10

Greenfield 1,700 9,686 11,386 71 13

Northampton 5,146 16,179 21,325 91 21

Palmer 3,421 2,151 5,572 24 12

Ware 4,390 247 4,637 18 15

Total 19,878 29,927 49,805 218 71

*Data available only for month of April.

Table 4. — Distribution to Outside Markets

Market

Deliveries
Per Day
Per Dairy

Pounds

Number

Daily

Annually

Shippers

Worcester ....

. . . 202 . 1

*18,799

** 6,861,635

93

Boston

. .. 169.2

37,219

***13,584,829

220

Hartford

... 271.5

*37,739

**13,774,735

139

Total

. .. 207.4

93,757

34,221,199

452

♦Summation of Average Dairy E>eliveries.
**365-Day Year Calculated.
***Sum of yearly deliveries of full-time producers.

Number and Distribution of Producers

Program planners for the dairy industry have to decide, among other things,
whether their interest is the commercial dairyman or all herd owners; whether
their concern is the existing pattern of commercial productive organization and
activity or the potential productive organization and capacity of a milkshed.
The decisions are not easily made because of the arbitrary element involved in
defining the commercial dairyman.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED 7

The Agricultural Census for 1935 records 5677 farms reporting "cows and
heifers milked" in those Massachusetts towns comprising the bulk of the shed.
Regular shippers to the various markets would account for 27.6 percent, part-
time shippers for 9.4 percent of this total.

On the basis of reasonable assumptions and estimates^ the herds of the full-
time and part-time shippers had- 74.4 percent of the milking cows and likewise
accounted for the same proportion of the productive activity of the shed. The
balance of the reporting farms would have had two rows or heifers and combined
would have produced one-fourth of the total produced in the shed.

Table 5. — Milk Production in Massachusetts
Monthly* 1935

Pounds per Cow
Month Per Day

January 16.0

February 15.9

March 16.8

April 17.9

May 17.4

June 19.1

July 19.0

August 17.8

September 16.8

October 16.7

November 16.8

December 16.2

Total 206.4

Average 17.2

*From Monthly Issues of Crops and Markets U.S.D.A.,
1935.

The producers were spread among the market groups on the following basis:
Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee 63.8 percent, outside markets 24.4 percent, and
local markets 11.8 percent.

Distribution of Producers Throughout the Milkshed

The heaviest concentration of producers was in the northwestern part of the
milkshed, the area in which the Shelburne Falls plant of the H. P. Hood & Sons
Company is located. The smallest concentration, almost diametrically opposite,
was in Area 3 in the southeastern part of the shed. The ratio of the extremes was
five to one.

Variation in the density of production was also very pronounced. The extremes
in production, however, were in adjacent areas. In Area 2, the Enfield-Somers

^It has been assumed, on the basis of the average production per cow per day as reported by the
Crop Reporting Service, and the dehveries per day per dairy as determined in the study, that the
herds of "commercial" dairymen averaged 12 milking cows. Applying this estimate to the so-called
commercial herds, gives them 25,212 cows and heifers or 74.4 percent of the number tabulated from
the Agricultural Census data.

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

Figure 3. Location of Competitive Areas
Springfield Holyoke-Chicopee Milkshed, 1935

Table 6. — Density of Production Throughout the Springfield-Holyoke-
Chicopee Milkshed, 1935
(Based on Shipments into the Market Area)

Pounds Per Square Mile

Average Daily

Per Day

Area

Deliveries Per Area

Square Miles

181

2

16,160

89

165

11

13,199

80

161

7

18,136

113

121

6

18,731

- 155

118.4

8

. 11,485

97

118

10

8,591

73

112.5

1

13,394

119

112

14

9,949

89

83

5

9,776

118

77

9

5,649

73

52

12

3,885

75

51

4

6,764

132

37

13

3,577

96

34

3

4,210

124

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED 9

(Connecticut)-Longmeado\v (Massachusetts) section, the density of produc-
tion for the Springfield Market as measured by daily deliveries was 181 pounds
per square mile. In Area 3, the Stafford-Stafford Springs (Connecticut)-Munson-
Wales (Massachusetts) section, the density was 34 pounds per square mile. These
differences can be largely attributed to differences in natural conditions, mainly
the soil.

It is interesting to compare the production per square mile in the overlapping
parts of the milkshed for the larger markets.

Table 7. — Density of Production in the Overl.a.pping Parts of the Milk-
sheds Supplying the Larger Markets, 1935

Production per Average Daily Deliveries Area

Section of the Square Mile per in

Milkshed per Day Section Square Miles

Northwest* 218 62,708 287

Northeast** 262 44,724 171

South*** 337 70,013 208

*The sum of Areas 10, 11, and Shelburne Falls.
**The sum of Areas 4, 6, and Worcester.
***The sum of Areas 1, 2, and Hartford.

The parts of the milkshed are probably better related to each other. This
comparison probabh' reflects more accurately the relative importance of the
several sections of the milkshed from the standpoint of production.

Premium Milk

It is not without consideration for accepted practices that a slightly uncommon
definition of premium milk is used herein. Many producers and consumers alike
believe and have believed that fat (cream) content was the determinant of quality.
So far as this study is concerned, resort is made to a less debatable characteristic.
"Premium Milk" is that product which commands a price differential on some
basis other than butterfat. Some of these bases are bacteria count, vitamin
content, medical supervision, advertising, dealer preference, etc.

Relative Importance Throughout the Milkshed

The number of shippers^ of premium milk was fairly large. Practically 13
percent of all full-time sellers were in this class. The bulk of them, however,
sold to dealers outside the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee market.

Table 8. — Shippers of Premium Milk

Number
Market of Shippers

Shelburne Falls 220

Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee 19

Total 239

Percent of All Full-time 12.9

^Full Time.

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

Relative Importance in the Springfield- Holyoke-Chicopee Market

The handling of premium milk is a very minor activity. The volume was
equivalent to 4 percent of the full-time Grade B supply. The number of shippers
was but L61 percent of the Grade B group. Even these ratios overestimate the
situation, since the data on premium milk include a few shippers who switched
from B to A and vice versa. There is little question but that the shippers of
premium milk were a select group. The average daily deliveries of the full-time
Grade A shippers were 399.0 pounds compared to 195.0 for the Grade B group.
Average fat content (a minor factor) was 4.03 compared with 3.91. Variation in
deliveries'' was confined to narrow limits, from a low of 92.5 percent in February
to a high of 107.2 percent in August; while for the balance of the shippers in the
shed, the extremes were 90.2 in November and 114.2 in June. Data on bacteria
count were available only for the deliveries made by shippers of Grade A and
Vitamin Milk.^ Comparisons of this characteristic are therefore not possible.

So far as value is concerned, the product which the group of premium shippers
sold had an average net price of $3,110 per hundredweight, compared with $2,462
for the deliveries of the Grade B group; a difference of 1.39 cents per quart. The
extreme prices received by individuals in the premium group were $2.50 and
$3.84 per hundredweight; a difference of 2.8 cents per quart. Although there
were several kinds of premium milk, the shipper receiving the highest price shipped
Grade A without the furbelows of added vitamins.

The existence of a premium market within the general market introduces several
interesting questions. There is in the first place the effect of such a market on
producer-distributor relationships. Does such a market operate as an additional
check on (Grade B) producers by being a false incentive? In a previous study
we have shown the wide spreads between dealers' product-costs^ for the Grade B
supply. Producers who supply the low-cost dealers are anxious to move up the
ladder to supply the high-cost dealer since high dealer product-costs generally
mean high producer prices. It is natural to wonder whether a similar ladder
exists with the dealers who handle premium milk? Are the shippers of Grade B
eager to be on the premium list? Without exception, in unequalized markets,
progress up the pathway of higher prices for milk is by invitation. Under such
circumstances, do shippers for the most part become subservient to the dealers?
The border between subserviency and common sense is probably a very narrow one.

There is in the second place the relationship between the prices paid to shippers
of premium milk and the costs involved in meeting the requirements. Whereas
under State Statutes Grade B or Market Milki" may have a bacterial count of
400,000 colonies per cc. Grade A-Raw may not have more than 100,000. The
lower maximum bacteria count is for the most part the important quality standard
of cleanliness around the cattle, barns, milk houses, and pens and must be lower
than is necessary in Grade B production. Achievement of these standards^i

'Seasonality of production in terms of the daily average for the year.

8"It is difficult to determine exactly what bacterial standards are pertinent to Grade B producers.

(Laws and Regulations Governing the Production of Grade B Milk in New England, R. G. Bres-

sler, Jr., N. E. Research Council on Marketing and Food Supply, June 1938.)

^Average price of all milk bought from dairy farmers.

'""Rulesand Regulations " Milk Reg. Board, May 8, 1935. . r n

"The standards which must be met in the production, distribution and composition ot milk
before it may be offered to the public are many. They are subject to state regulation, local regula-
tion, and dealer regulation. In the absence of local regulations, those promulgated by the state
apply. These state laws and regulations, therefore, may be thought of as minimum requirements
to which producers in any town must comply. (Bressler, op. cit. p. 1) The dealer may require
shippers selling to him to meet even more stringent regulations than those in force by state or local
ordinance.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED 11

varies and frequently does entail additional costs. Determination of the cost-
price relationships is not within the scope of this study. It is not, however, to be
overlooked in a consideration of the organization of supply.

In contrast with these somewhat dismal possibilities due to grade differentials,
is a more optimistic one based on the known fact that a market exists which will
and can pay a premium for a higher quality product. The market may be small;
the quality characteristic, frills so far as a healthful supply is concerned; but
buying power is there and the dealer in his desire to increase his net income, to
provide outlets for shippers that will enhance the value of the product, or to
create good will, endeavors to satisfy the market.

To that end, the dealer will of necessity be the promoter and in turn extend to
his shippers the opportunity of filling the requirements. Such problems as might
arise would be due to the selection of producers to whom the opportunity is ex-
tended. To avoid charges of favoritism or discrimination, presumably the
differential paid for premium milk should be no more, in the long run, than
sufficient to cover the additional costs of producing and getting it to the market.
Whether or not such a nice adjustment has developed can scarcely be determined
from analysis of cost data. In substitution for cost analysis, therefore, one might
ascertain whether shippers of Grade B are anxious to switch over to the Grade A
list, whether Grade A shippers would prefer to change to the Grade B list, or
whether both groups are apparently satisfied. Shifts in both directions took
place. Since only a few shippers were concerned, no effort was made to determine
the causes reponsible for the shift.

Significance of Scale of Production

State regulation of various aspects of milk marketing came into being to protect
the Commonwealth's milk supply. In the mandate, however, nothing is said as
to whether the state is to protect the commercial milk supply or all who wish to
become dairy farmers. The granting of assistance from the state to a special
group should be and presumably is based on the assumption of certain respon-
sibilities by the group so favored. Does any difference exist, however, in the
desire, the capacity, or the ability of the dairy farmers on varying scales of pro-
duction to assume responsibihty? If so, are the benefits derived by the dairymen
individually or in groups commensurate with the degree of responsibility assumed?

What is the nature of the dairy farmers' responsibility? Is it similar to that of
distribution? The distributors have maintained, for example, for years that their
responsibility was to assure the public wholesome supplies of milk in the quan-
tities desired, at the time and place designated. This obligation was self -assumed;
taken on, to be sure, as a matter of self -protect ion, but none the less taken on.

Under this sort of an arrangement, the dairy farmer had obligations to no one
but himself. He met the requirements of the handler who took the daily produc-
tion from the farm. Failure to meet those standards generally meant that the
dairyman lost his market. His was the greatest loss.

Milk control has changed the relationships which prevailed during the past 20
years between the dairy industry and the public. The industry gave signs,
reaching a climax in 1932 and 1933, of failing in its obligations to maintain without
legal aid an adequate supply of high quality milk. It is sufficient to point out that
the returns from the sale of milk had been and were far from sufficient to enable
dairymen to maintain their herds. As conceived by the proponents of milk
control and agricultural reform and as inferred by the state, not only were the
herds and related productive appurtenances to be maintained, but some means
should be provided that would keep the present farm operators in business;

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

that is, management in the person of the dairy farmer was also essential to the
public welfare.

The problem was simple to state. 1 he objectives of control were likewise
simple to phrase and were about as follows: Returns to the dairy farmer should
be such as to (1) enable him to maintain the productive operations on his farm,
(2) enable him to have a living from his farm operations that would keep him on
the farm or keep the farm a desirable source of livelihood.

The methods by which the objectives were to be fulfilled were not so easily
determined. There was general agreement that prices which handlers were to
pay dairymen should be artificially controlled. There was much disagreement
as to the necessity of controlling prices which handlers should charge consumers.
There was an appreciation of the importance of marketing arrangements between
dairyman and handler and some provisions were made for minimizing the un-
desirable practices.

Much of the regulatory effort has been of the preventive variety. This sort
was expedient since the industry and presumably the public'- were very anxious
to stamp out certain pernicious practices. The negative approach to conditions
within the industry' has, however, continued, presumably for two reasons. In
the first place, control by regulatory agencies is of the "must-not" type. In the
second place, it is much easier to indicate the things or practices which are not
wanted and take steps to get rid of them than it is to visualize the things which are
desired and devise a plan to assure their attainment. The essential difference
between the two approaches is that under the negative, someone is constantly
being frustrated and the industry- kept in turmoil; whereas under the positive,
emphasis is placed on the goal and on the means indispensable to its attainment.
Frustration of a sort still exists but alternatives are at least indicated. Tinley'^
says it this way — "Considerations of general welfare indicate the necessity for
positive public regulation designed to promote greater efhciency in the distri-
bution of fluid milk." One might also add "and in the productive organization
of the fluid milk industry."

When the public, through the legislature, indicated that it wished to adopt a
program which upped its fluid milk prices 30 to 50 percent, it did so on the as-
sumpticn that it was assuring itself of an efficient milk supply — production and
distribution. The granting of a pri\'ilege, which in this instance is the freedom
to charge an arbitrarih' high'^ price — a fair price, one determined by judgment
rather than by competition — imposes upon the industry the responsibility of
providing the consumer with that supply in the most efificient manner possible.
Since the dairy farmers themselves are presumably the chief beneficiaries of this
public assistance, it behooves them to take the initiative in formulating a program
towards this end.

To many persons efificienc\' in the dairy industr}- means efficiency in distribu-
tion. The somewhat obvious "make-work" characteristics of distribution which
have developed in the milk business have overshadowed the gaps elsewhere in
the industry; gaps which are becoming increasingly important. A program in
which the public welfare is the paramount consideration needs to be concerned
with greater efficiency throughout the entire industry. For example —

1. In the operation of the production facilities as well as the distribution
facilities.

i^It is difficult to understand how the public could be persuaded to adopt a policy that was going
to cost it a 30 to 50 percent increase in price for a commodity that is "bought every day.

"Public Regulation of Milk Marketing in California, p. 46, J. M. Tinley, University of California.
'*In reference to the competitive market price under current conditions.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED 13

2. In the operations of the price-making process.

3. In the administration of the control law.

4. In the designation of broad objectives and in the formulation of
policies designed to assure their attainment.

The public welfare concept must be kept paramount so long as the dairy in-
dustrj- is the recipient of special privileges from the public. When the interests
of special groups crowd out the general welfare, then the privilege should be
withdrawn.

Milk Transportation in the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee Milkshed

Importance of Transportation

Under competitive conditions efficiency' of operations by the entrepreneur is
highly significant. Such operations tend towards relatively low unit costs;
business changes are effected on that basis and users of the service can and will be
charged relatively low rates.

Competitive conditions do not exist in the hauling of milk. Efficiency of opera-
tions is at least secondary to the objective of securing a supply of milk. The
charge that producers pay for service under such conditions supersedes service
in importance.

Conclusions regarding the efficiency of service in the Springfield-Holyoke-
Chicopee milkshed may be drawn frcm the detailed study of conditions in the
Southwick-Agawam Area.i^ Other areas adjacent to the market would tend
towards similar conditions. Areas more distant from the market would tend to
have more efficient transportation operations although the service from the view-
point of individual producers may not be so satisfactory. It can be assumed
almost without qualification that the efficiency of milk transportation in the
competitive areas varies inversely' with the number of dealers operating in the
areas.

The savings which producers might enjoy as the result of a transportation
service organized from the standpoint of efficiency rather than from the view-
point of market arrangements, are probably insufficient to stimulate more than
passing interest. A uniform reduction in the cartage rate of fifteen cents per
hundredweight on the basis of average daily deliveries of 182 pounds would save
producers only twenty-seven cents per day or in a 365-day year, $98.55. Com-
pared to the annual average market value of $1876.83, the potential saving is
small and the producer's first interest is to protect his $1800 outlet.

Since 1933 the Federal Government and many of the state governments have
been concerned about the stability of their milk markets. The interest of the
governmental units is based on the assumption that (1) an adequate milk supply
is essential to public health and (2) that unstable markets are a threat to such
a milk supply.

One factor contributing to market instability is the unevenness of dealers'
buying prices. The control agencies sought to overcome this factor by establish-
ing (1) uniform class prices and (2) proportionate sharing of the fluid and by-
product uses. Another factor tending toward unstable markets is the variation
in rates charged for transporting milk from the farms to the dealers' plants.

'"Massachusetts Experiment Station Bulletin 363.

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

As yet state control has not seriousl}' attempted any corrective program in this
direction.

Rate variation becomes a source of market instability in two ways. In the
country, the existence of it tends to create a feeling of skepticism if not distrust
among shippers. An attitude of this sort makes the relationship between pro-
ducer and dealer vulnerable, which in turn is not conducive to permanency.

The extent and incidence of rate- variation influences its force as an element of
instabilit^^ The range in rates is significant but chiefly w^hen associated with other
factors. Should the variation arise between groups fairly well separated, the
result would not be so disrupti\e as if the ^"ariation existed between routes within
an area or among producers on the same route supplying the same dealer.i^

Some of the skepticism pertaining to the cartage-rate situation is doubtless
due to the location of the rate-making authority. It is difficult if not impossible
to determine the extent to which dissatisfaction with cartage rates is due to the
carriers' or dealers' exclusive authority over them. It does not seem unreasonable
to infer, however, that since the shipper has no voice in the selection of the service
he might chafe a bit at also being deprived of the privilege of participating in
the making of rates for that service.

In the market, the volume of milk handled at the various pick-up rates largely
determines the significance of rate-variation as a factor in market stability. The
net revenues derived from hauling operations are available for concessions which,
with price discounts now illegal, may be equally satisfactory in the form of
superior service; the direction taken by this eflfort being limited chiefly by the
operator's imagination.

Cartage Rates Applicable Throughout the Milkshed

Varying amounts were paid for milk-cartage service by 973 full-time producers;
sales were made to 40 dealers; shipments were made over 64 routes.

Rates apparently were set for the most part on a per quart basis with the
actual rate rounded off^ to the nearest five-cent interval. The frequency distri-
butions in table 9 tend to illustrate the existence of the practice. The most
co«imon rate was 35 cents per hundredweight. Occasionally the total deduction
for Control Board assessments and hauling was 35 cents per hundredweight,
in which event the actual trucking levy was calculated to be i'i cents.

Although rates ranged from 8 to 80 cents per hundredweight, 78.8 percent of the
producers paid from 23.4 to 46.5 cents or 3^ to 1 cent per quart. In the group,
34.9 percent of the producers paid from 30.1 to 35.0 cents per hundredweight or
approximately % cent per quart. The proportion of producers who paid more
than 35 cents per hundredweight, 15.2 percent, was relatively low. Twenty-
two difi^erent rates''' were effective for this group.

Six of the 40 dealers regularly used more than one truck or carrier in collecting
their supplies. (Table 10.) These handlers made purchases from 491 farmers;
accounted for 30 of the routes; and altogether used 17 different rates in figuring
cartage charges. On 12 out of the 30 routes, a rate of 25 cents per hundredweight
was effective; on 10 of them a rate of 30 cents per hundredweight was used. The
number of rates applied per route ranged from one to five. Most of the routes
had only one or two rates in effect. Only four of the routes used five rates. The
distribution is shown in table 11.

i^Due to absence of one criterion of a competitive maiket; that is, all sellers are not equally in-
formed about conditions in the market.
"Whole numbers.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED

15

Table 9. — Frequency Distribution of Cartage Rates Applicable
Throughout the Springfield Milkshed, 1935
(Various Class Intervals)

Class

Interval

}ic. per quart

f

Class

Interval

5c. per cwt.

f

Class

Interval

10c. per cwt.

f

0-.115

5

0-.05

0

O-.IO

3

.116-. 233

176

.051-. 10

3

.101 -.20

105

.234 -.348

334

.101 -.15

60

.201-30

375

.349 -.465

433

.151-. 20

45

.301 -.40

392

.466+

23

.201 -.25

183

.401-. 50

95

Unknown Rate

2

.251 -.30

192

.501 +

1

.301-35

340

Unknown Rate

2

Total

973

.351-40

52

.401 -.45

54

Total

973

.451-. 50

41

.501 +

1

Unknown Rate

2

Total

973

Table 10. — Distribution of Dealers According to the Number of Col-
lection Routes Serving Them, 1935

Number of Routes

Number
of Dealers

Number
of Producers

Number
of Rates

Per Dealer

Per Group

1
2-3*

5-7*

34

5
25

34
2
4

482

73

418

18
8

14

64

40

973

*Combined so as to prevent identification of any individual dealer.

Table 11. — Distribution of Truck Routes According to Number of Rates"

Applicable Per Route

Number of
Rates Applicable
Per Route

Number
of Routes

1

2

3
4
5 or more

40

13

4

3

4

64

16

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

Among the handlers who used only one truck in the collection of their supplies,
a great variety of rates existed. The surprising fact is perhaps that there was not
even more variation. There were 34 routes in this group and only 18 different
rates. A situation of this sort might suggest either the absence of any attempt to
determine cartage rates based exclusively on cost, or the impossibility of so doing.

Deoler Buying Plan
Based on Usage of

_ 1 _ '__._

1

1

Fluid of
Class I Price

Product
Cost

Cream ot
Class I Price

Producers 37 Price at the Market
according to Settlement Plon

I Producer's Ust 37 Price |

iButterfot DifferentioF]

Quality Differential
I

I Producer's Net Price |

Figure 4. Schematic Diagram Showing Methods by Which Producers' Prices Are Determined

PART II
VARIATION IN PRICES RECEIVED BY DAIRYMEN

As part of the general appraisal of the Springfield milk supply, a study was made
of the characteristics of prices received b>- farmers. The objectives were several.
In the first place, it seemed desirable to systematize the prices with which farmers
had to deal. Secondly, it was essential that some appraisal be made of the relative
importance of price per se. Thirdly, if variation was a markedly apparent charac-
teristic there was need of determining, so far as possible, the extent, the effect,
and the probable causes of it.

The cash value at the farm per hundred pounds of milk is, in the final analysis
the price in which the farmer is interested. That is the actual return per hundred-
weight for the product which he has to sell; from it his income is derived and
out of it his expenses are met.

This assertion is not made with any intent to minimize the importance of trans-
portation charges, market-service charges, class prices, butterfat differentials,

Acknowledgment: Mr. Alfred H. Planting, a former graduate student, assisted materially with
the planning and development of this aspect of the study.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED 17

or market utilization of the product. Prices including any one of these elements,
however, may present a slightly incomplete picture so far as the dairyman is
actually concerned. They do, of course, at any particular point in the marketing
or pricing process provide a basis for making comparisons having particular
applications.

The several routes by which the farm value of milk is derived are shown in
figure 4.

The importance of price may be an indeterminable matter. If a difference of
50 cents per hundredweight is reasonable and if the additional income secured
thereby would have paid a grain bill or left a cash margin, then price is extremely
important. Even with an example of this sort, however, it is impossible to ignore
the income implication.

Of the two elements determining the income of 1174 full-time shippers, which
had the greater effect on it — price or deliveries? A theoretical application of prices
to the volumes actually delivered by two dairymen will serve to illustrate the
magnitude of the forces involved. Extremes in price and volume have been used,
in order to emphasize the relationships. First, consider the shipper who had the
largest volume of deliveries. Had he received the lowest farm price in the group,
his annual income would have been $3557.24 lower than it was (a reduction of
45.1 percent). Then consider the shipper having the smallest volume of sales.
Had he received the highest farm price in the group, his income from milk would
have been $506.06 higher (a gain of 82.0 percent).

The average shipper with annual sales of 74,000 pounds faced the possibility
of a variation of over $1000 in annual income depending upon whether circum-
stances, mostly beyond his control, permitted him to receive the highest or the
lowest price applicable in the shed. Differences of this magnitude in an industry
devoted, to, dependent on, and protected by the public cannot be indifferently
dismissed. It is also, perhaps, well to remember that probably all shippers at
some time and some shippers all the time have figured and do figure their milk
checks at some price other than the one received. The potential paper losses or
gains may have caused renewed pledges of appreciation or of determination. If
more positive action has been lacking, despite the effect of such variation on in-
come, it has been due to the mollifying influence of Milk Control.

Sample areas were selected as a basis for determining the geographical pattern
of certain price characteristics. They were chosen so as to allow for as many
probable causes of variation as possible. Area 2'* is contiguous to the Spring-
field-Holyoke-Chicopee market and on the fringe of the Hartford milkshed.
Area 12 is on the western fringe of the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee shed and
somewhat isolated from any other sizable market or supply. Area 6 is on the
eastern edge of the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee shed and is also a part of the
Worcester supph .

The experience of sample groups of shippers was used in evaluating price charac-
teristics on a dealer basis. The producers' settlement plan in the Springfield-
Holyoke-Chicopee area was and is of the familiar "dealers' choice" and the effect
of ratings and seasonality are more susceptible to analysis if treated in this man-
ner. Since the larger dealers operate throughout the entire shec^ in the procure-
ment of their supplies, a respresentative group of shippers was chosen from each
one cf them for study. Except for errors of "omission" or "commission," the
records of these shippers would probably provide the widest and most varied
experiences.

"Figure 6.

18

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

Table 12. — Proportion of Total Purchases Taken by Four Dealers

By Areas, 1935

Area

Purchases
by Four
Dealers

Purchases as

Percentage of

Commercial

Production

20

1

56

9

58

9

77

3

16

2

96

0

16

5

17

3

86

5

100

0

83

3

64

8

83

2

12

6

Actual
Price

(Area Average)

$2

404

2

469

2

218

2

466

2

693

2

503

2

659

2

590

2

784

2

644

2

573

2

495

2

576

2

600

1 968,283

2 3,163,025

3 850,256

-4 1,847,556

5 524,756

6 5,974,252

7 1,079,379

8 744,607

9 1,782,294

10 3,071,989

11 3,994,184

12 909,198

13 1,081,548

14 444,246

Combined areas. 26,435,573*
Milkshed 36,184,460

47.2

♦Represents 71.9 percent of the combined purchases of the four dealers.

Abird's-e>e viewof the actual prices received b>' Massachusetts shippers through-
out the milkshed can be had from figures 5 and 6. Dairymen in Area 9 were ap-
parently the best off and those in Area 3 the poorest. As would be expected an
extreme comparison of that sort presents a lop-sided view of the situation. Varia-
tion existed among all the areas to be sure, but for all that there existed a tendency
towards uniformity'.

Uniformit\- might or might not be a desirable characteristic of shippers' prices,
depending on the particular t>pe of price that was being considered; e.g., F.O.B.

3

PRICE

2

1
0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 20
AREA

Figure 5. Average Area Price (Dollars per Hundredweight) of Millt, 1935, Actual Basis

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED

19

the market, 3.7 net, actual net, etc. Uniformity of actual prices throughout a
milkshed might be as much of an abnormality as variation in prices at the market.
If there is objection to differences in shippers' prices, it should be directed at the
degree, the incidence, and the cause.

The difference in prices among the areas was tested for statistical significance
by making an analysis of variance among three sample areas. It was essential
that an attempt be made to determine whether the differences were small enough
to have been due to chance, or whether large enough to have been caused by
forces other than chance. Tenable conclusions could be formed on the relation-
ships among the sample areas, whereas were the anahsis to be applied to all the
areas the number of combinations would be so large as to be unwieldy.

A comparison of shippers' returns on a sample geographical basis brought out
the relatively great amount of variation which existed within areas rather than
between areas. The range in mean prices between the areas was only 19.6 cents
per hundredweight. In contrast, the smallest difference between shippers' prices
in any particular area was 74 cents per hundredweight found in Area 12; the
greatest, 122 cents per hundredweight in Area 6. The general price situation,
however, in Area 6 was more favorable to the shippers, the average being approx-
imately 20 cents higher (19.6), the standard deviation slightly lower, and sub-
stantially more shippers being included in the modal group.

Figure 6.

Average Net Prices Throughout the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee Milkshed,
1935, By Areas

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

The cause of variation in the average area price can be gleaned from table 13.
The number of dealers operating in each of the areas varied and their product-costs
differed noticeablv — differences due mostlv to variations in utilization.

Table 13. — Average Prices F. O. B. Market for 3.7 Percent Grade B Milk
Paid by Dealers in Three Selected Areas of the Springfield-Holyoke-
Chicopee Milkshed in 1935.

Mean of prices paid
Dealer for 3.7 percent milk. Number of

per hundredweight producers

Area 2

79 $2.23 11

52 2.50 13

70 2 . 64 5

67 2.81 35

60 2 . 86 3

61 3.24 1
78 3,26 5
59 3.26 2

75

Area 6

03 2.49 10

70 » 2.64 8

67 2.86 47

64 2 . 95 3

57 3.25 3

71

Area 12

03 2.44 7

70 2,54 15

25 2.83 9

31

No definite relationship existed between area prices and physical factors. The
dealers in the market who had the larger volume of business almost of necessity
had to operate throughout the entire shed to secure their supplies. If they were
not subject to that necessity then they had over-all operations because of other
advantages. Regardless of the cause, the net result was the same. Each sub-
division of the milkshed, i.e., area, represented the results of the particular com-
bination in which the dealers were associated. Apparently distributors paying
the higher price took their choice of shippers and their associates successively
moved in according to the price that could be paid.

Further light on the geographical relationships between prices may be had
from the data in table 14. The average price received by the shippers of each

Mean of

Dealer's

Difference

Producer's 3.7

Product-

Between

F.O.B. Prices*

Cost

Prices

Area 2

THE SPRINGFIELD IMILKSHED 21

handler in an area was compared with the mean price ^^ of all the shippers to that
handler to determine whether or not a tendency towards uniformity existed.

T.A.BLE 14. — Comparison of Weighted Aver.\ge of Producers' 3.7 F. O. B.
Prices Adjusted for Charges*, with Dealer's Product-Cost

Dealer

79
52
70
67
60
61
78
59

03
70
67
64

57

03
70

25

12.30

$2.31

-$

.01

2,57

—

-

—

2.71

2.71

.00

2.88

2.93

—

.05

2.93

3.25

-

.32

3.24

3.25

—

.01

3.26

3.26

.00

3.26

3.26

.00

Area 6

2.56

2.57

—

.01

2.71

2.71

.00

2.93

2.93

.00

3.02

2.71

+

.31

3.25

3.25

.00

Area 12

2.51

2.57

—

.06

2.61

2.71

—

.10

2.84

2.56

+

.28

♦Adjusted, except in the case of flat-plan dealers and cooperatives, by the addition of a 6 cent
charge made by the N.E.M.P.A., plus, except in the case of flat-plan dealers, a 1 cent charge for
the Milk Control Board.

In most of the arrangements characterized by practically identical prices, the
dealer had only a few shippers and all were located in the one area. Relationships
among shipper groups selling to dealers ha\'ing more than ten patrons were
variable. In Area 2 three groups were involved and each handler sub-group had
a mean price identical or nearly so with the milkshed average for the handler.

Except for one small group a similar relationship existed in Area 6. The
shippers whose prices were substantially above average had an average ratio of
ratings to deliveries of 95.8 percent. As a consequence of this rather "ideal"
relationship between rating and deliveries, the average price received by this
group tended to approximate that paid for rated milk rather than that paid for
all milk.

The situation in Area 12 was the most variable. Each sub-group differed
appreciably from the over-all average; two below and one above. Data were not
complete for each of the dealers. If it were, analysis would probably show that
the advantages and disadvantages, as the case might have been, were also asso-
ciated with ratings.

*'The dealer's product-cost.

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

The tendency for uniformity throughout the milkshed in the prices paid by
any particular handler is further borne out by the analysis on a dealer basis of
differences in prices received by shippers.

The pronounced variation in prices received by shippers would tend to dampen
any notion that chance could have been a substantial contributory cause of the
differences. On the other hand, however, one could not necessarily assume that
the variations were predetermined in some clandestine fashion. One might
suspect, if he were familiar with the market, that the organization of the market
and the arrangements between handlers and shippers would be a basic considera-
tion. Testing the assumptions by analysis of variance gave results which indicated
a high degree of validity.

Analysis showed upon systematizing shippers' prices that^

1. Adjusting values to a comparable 3.7 percent test removed about half
of the variation in the prices;

2. Adjusting next for trucking charges removed a slight amount of the
remaining variation;

3. Adjusting further for seasonality had practically no effect on the
variation remaining at this stage.

The effect of ratings on price depended upon whether or not the dealer planned
on having the sum of his shippers' ratings approximate — •

1. His sales,

2. His purchases.

When ratings approximated sales, the effect of ratings was a significant cause
of variation in shippers' prices. (Table 16A.)

When ratings did not approximate sales (and therefore probably approximated
purchases), ratings had no effect on variation in price. (Table 16B.)

The effect of these variables should not cloud the importance of differences in
dealers' product-costs (based on use) as a major cause of differences in shippers'
prices. In arriving at the effect of butterfat, trucking charges, seasonality, and
ratings on shippers' prices, dealers' product-costs were held constant. The
importance of dealers' product-costs as a cause of variation is well emphasized
by the data in table 15.

The prices received by 1174 full-time shippers of Grade B milk were used in
making the analysis of variance. The results were highly significant with each
type of price used. Not only was the variation in prices on a dealer basis mathe-
matically significant for each type, but with progressive refinement of the prices
the significance of the dealer classification became increasingly pronounced.

With the variance ratio "F" 1.61 or greater, there was one chance in a hundred
that differences in dealer classification were not a major cause of price variation. 20

Since the value of "F" was 78.6 with unrefined prices, the probable importance
of dealer grouping was immediately emphasized. Standardizing prices to a com-
mon 3.7 F.O.B. basis raised the value of "F" to 210.0 (Table 15). Removal of
these causes of variation, by expanding "F", helped clarify and accentuate the
probable influence of forces which were peculiar to dealer groups.

From an inspection of the Mean Squares in table 15 one can also draw some
conclusions concerning the relative effects of butterfat test and of trucking charges
on shippers' prices. The amount of variation in shippers' prices within dealer
groups was reduced nearly 50 percent after adjusting the prices to a comparable

2»Snedecor— p. 177, Table 10.2— Statistical Methods.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED

23

3.7 percent basis and only slightly more upon further adjusting for trucking
charges. In other words, for the shippers selling to any given dealer the differ-
ences in butterfat are a much more significant cause of variation in the actual
prices received than are differences in trucking rates.

As the amount of variation in shippers' prices within dealer groups declined
with progressive refinement, the amount of variation between dealer groups
increased. The mean squares between dealer groups increased slightly when
prices were adjusted for butterfat and rather noticeably after further adjusting
for trucking charges. This result is probably to be expected. It simply means
that there are scarcely noticeable differences in the butterfat content of the pur-
chases of milk made by dealers; that the amount of variation became slightly
more pronounced when the butterfat was adjusted to a common standard of 3.7
percent.

Table 15. — Anwlysis of Variance in Milk Prices Received by 1174 Pro-
ducers IN the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee Milkshed in 1935

Source of
Variation

Sum of
Squares

Degrees

of
Freedom

Mean
Square

Significance

Actual Net Price

Between dealers

992,500

41

24,207

F = 24207/308 = 78.6**

Within dealers

348,441

1,132

308

For ni=40and n2 = 1000

Total variation

1340,941

1,173
3.7 Net

1,143
: Price

1%F = 1.61**

Between dealers

1,084,222

41

26,447

F = 26447/157 = 168.5

Within dealers

177,363

1,132

157

For ni =40 and na = 1000

Total variation

1,261,696

1,173
3.7 F.O.B.

1,076
Net Price

1%F = 1.61**

Between dealers

1,334,641

41

32,552

F =32552/155 =210.0

Within dealers

175,179

1,132

155

For ni=40 and n2 = 1000

Total variation

1,509,820

1,173

1,287

1%F = 1.61**

A comparison of the mean squares before and after adjusting for trucking
charges brings out the relatively greater amount of variation in trucking charges
between dealers compared to that existing within dealers.

In addition to fat, trucking charges, and dealers' product-costs, other probable
causes of variation in shippers' prices could have been seasonality and the ratio
of ratings to deliveries (i.e., for those shippers selling on a rating plan). Size of
rating means little except when expressed in relationship to deliveries or when
considered with due regard for the handlers' use of the plan. With due regard for
these items, shippers to dealer A were grouped on the basis of having shipped
more than their ratings or having shipped just their ratings. Shippers selling less
than their ratings would be in the same price position as those having ratings and
deliveries in adjustment.

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

Summary data are given in table 16A. The three basic shippers' prices were
used in the comparison, and with each type there were highly significant differ-
ences between the group means. Differences of this size then could be caused
by variation in the ratio of ratings to deliveries. Since the removal of other
possible causes of variation by systematizing was associated with an expansion
of "F," the significance of ratings as a cause of price differences was very pro-
nounced.

Whereas ratings had a decided influence on the prices received by shippers
selling to dealer A, they had no common effect on the prices received by the
shipper to dealer B. The results of the analysis are given in table 16B. In no
instance did "F" equal 1 percent or 5 percent values which would indicate ratings
as a basic cause of price variation. Additional weight was afforded this con-
clusion by the irregular adjustments in the value of "F" as prices were systemati-
cally refined. For all practical purposes, dealer B might as well have been on the
straight use plan so far as the prices to his shippers were concerned.

Seasonality of production under the conditions which prevailed in the Spring-
field market had no significant effect on producers' prices. The adjusted data
were not subjected to any test other than that of observation. The data for all
three groups, table 17, were so nearly' comparable that apparently little could
be gained by an extended analysis.

Frequency distributions of the prices received by grade B shippers are given
in table 18. The mid-point of the modal price class was 5.5 cents per quart for
both the actual and the 3.7 standardized fat basis; the mid-point of the modal
price class on a 3.7 standardized F.O.B. basis was 6.25 cents per quart, indicating
an average trucking charge of 35 cents per hundredweight.

A summary of the characteristics of the various types of prices is given in
table 19.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED

25

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26

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

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27

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28

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

Table 19. — A Comparison of Prices Received by Shippers in Three Sample
Areas of the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee Milkshed in 1935

Price
Characteristic

All
Areas

Area

2

Area
6

Area
12

Range

Between

Areas

.Actual Net Price

Highest $3 . 24 $3 . 24

Lowest 1 . 64 1.78

Mean 2.49 2.47

Standard Deviation 26 .28

Modal Group* Limits 2.15 2.15

to to

2 . 84 2 . 84

Percentage in Modal Group. 83.6'^f 81.3%

Range within Areas $1.60 $1.46

3.7 Net Price

Highest $3 . 24 $3 . 24

Lowest 1.70 1.92

Mean 2.45 2.45

Standard Deviation 25 .28

Modal Group* Limits 2.15 2.15

to to

2.73 2.84

Percentage in Modal Group 78.5% 80.0%

Range within Areas $1.54 $1.32

3.7 F.O.B. Price

Highest $3 . 29 $3 . 29

Lowest 2.05 2.19

Mean 2.73 2.71

Standard Deviation 26 .30

Modal Group* Limits 2.38 2.38

to to

3.08 3.08

Percentage in Modal Group 83.6% 73.3%

Range within Areas $1.24 $1.10

$3.04

$3.10

$0.20

1.64

2.03

.39

2.50

2.49

.03

.23

.27

.05

2.26

2.15

to

to

2.73

2.84

71.8%

74.1%

$1.40

$1.07

$2.82

$2.77

$0.47

1.70

1.92

.22

2,50

2.32

.18

.20

.23

.08

2.26

2.03

to

to

2.73

2.61

83.0%

80.6%

$1.12

$ .85

$3.27

$3.01

$0.28

2.05

2.27

.22

2.80

2.61

.19

.20

.21

.10

2.49

2.38

to

to

3.08

2.84

87.3%

70.9%

$1.22

$ .74

♦Established clas^-es within which the Mean plus the Standard Deviation falls.

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED 29

REVIEW

This stuch' is the third of a series pertaining to the supply of milk for the
Springfield-Hohoke-Chicopee area. The first^i was a detailed analysis of milk
hauling from one section of the milkshed to the market. The second^^ was an
analysis of dealers' product-costs.

The three studies thus far completed offer some basis for making changes which
it seems would improve for the farmer and for the industry the general conditions
and returns from the sale of milk. AnA'one familiar with milk marketing rec-
ognizes the conflicting interests of buyer and seller; of the individual and the
group; of general welfare and personal power; of individual weaknesses and group
strength; of individual strength and group weaknesses.

Our attitude has been one of moderation. Our feeling has been that changes
should be gradual; that even though injustice exists care should be taken in
eliminating it, lest it be merely shifted from cue person to another.

A program of this sort is of course dependent upon a common appreciation of
the problems facing the industry, a general desire for their removal, and con-
certed determination directed towards that end.

To date the Milk Control Board has felt that prices should be fixed F.O.B.
the market. The studies indicate that a change in the policy to one of pricing
F.O.B. the farm for secondary markets has much in its favor. A move of this
sort is in a sense a major operation. It is one which offers the patient the pos-
sibility of a healthy existence.

Any proposed pricing technique should be examined in the light of its objective.
Fortunately for most fluid markets, these objectives are fairly well stated in the
legislative briefs supporting the state milk control laws. The basic assumption
around which the network of milk control developed is that an adequate supply of
high quality fluid milk is necessary to the public welfare. In order to assure the
public an adequate supply of milk, the state and the federal governments have
decided that the dairy industry, i.e., farm production, should be protected against
the more undesirable aspects of competitive pricing. Accordingly, most control
laws have stipulated that buyers should own their purchases of milk at the same
class prices at the market. Additional refinements have been incorporated into
milk control laws or regulations, but pricing on a uniform basis is generally re-
garded as the one principle that is indispensable. Originally uniform prices
meant uniform class prices and applied to the dealers' purchases F.O.B. the
market, with the result that in some milksheds there still existed under state
control a noticeable variation in the blended prices received by shippers. With
the development of federal orders and the introduction of the market pool,
uniform prices F.O.B. the market became a reality to shippers and the uniformity
of price to dealers was extended from class prices to the blended price or product-
cost.

Many markets, especially the secondary intrastate ones, use the dealer-pool
with prices on a class basis F.O.B. the market. Trucking, with few exceptions,
is the only assembly facility needed and the arrangements for it are generally
made by the dealer. The costs of getting the milk from farm to city plant are
mostly met by the farmer. The costs are defrayed by charges based on rates which
are set by the dealer. This sort of organization and arrangement has provided
the public with an ample supply of milk and has given the farmer a dependable
outlet for his farm production.

■''Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Station Bulletin No. 363.
^^Massachusetts Agr. Exp. Station Bulletin No. 365.

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

The growth in the independent pricing of the various processes involved from
the moment the milk leaves the farm until it reaches the consumer is probably
a basic fault. Specific allowances for trucking, for receiving, for pasteurizing and
bottling, for paper containers, for wagon delivery in place of store sales must
inevitably either increase the total cost of the product to the consumer or lower
the returns to the producer. A combination is possible but improbable.

Pricing milk F.O.B. the farm rather than F.O.B. the city under the condi-
tions enumerated, i e.,

L Direct Haul,
2. Dealer— Pool,
could improve conditions considerably. The primary objection to this method,
i. e., discrimination to nearby shippers, is untenable under current conditions.
Actually the present system is exceedingly unfair to the nearby producer. Handlers
operating throughout several of the sheds have a single cartage rate; a few of
them have several rates but only one rate is apt to apply to a particular route
even though distances and volumes on any particular route vary noticeably.

There might be some objection to pricing F.O.B. the farm on the ground
that such a practice would defeat one of the essentials to market stability; namely,
known and uniform prices for milk having the same use. Such a deduction does
not necessarily follow. It should, upon a moment's reflection, be apparent that
the point in the marketing process at which prices are to be uniform should bear
some relationship to the objectives sought. Because pricing F.O.B. the market
seems desirable for primary markets served by common carriers having published
transportation rates and a variety of applicable rates, one should not necessarily
conclude that the market is the point at which uniform prices should be set for
direct-haul areas. In markets characterized by a dealer-pool, product -costs vary
even though class prices are uniform. In fact pricing F.O.B. the city in direct-
haul areas and with a variety of trucking rates tends to defeat the instrument
of control, "known and uniform prices."

With class prices set F.O.B. the farm, a number of improvements might take
place. It is reasonable to assume that, if handlers are to "bear the expense" for
getting their supplies to the plant, they will do it as efficiently as possible; i. e., if
assembling costs are an important consideration. If other considerations are
more significant, their true worth will become apparent.

Farm pricing might normally cause some adjustments that could be expected to
exist in a so-called ideal situation. In markets having dealer-pools and dealers'
choice of price plans, the handler settling with his producers on a flat basis is in
a preferred competitive position. Handlers owning their purchases on the use-
plan would find themselves ranked according to the proportion of purchases in
fluid sales. Since the objective of each handler would be low aggregate costs
per unit, each one would endeavor to secure his supplies as near the plant as
possible; quality and volume per stop being considered. In practice, the flat plan
dealers would operate in nearby territory; just beyond them dealers having a
high proportion of purchases in fluid sales would be favored; and the handlers
having the larger proportion of purchases in Class II would secure their supplies
on the outer edge of the milkshed. This progression is certainly desirable and
therefore more or less inevitable. Dairy farmers are interested in the value per
hundredweight of milk sold as well as in class prices. The ability, generally
speaking, of handlers to secure supplies would vary with the blended prices,
which in turn depends largely on sales of Class I milk.

The flat plan dealer, having 100 percent of his purchases in fluid sales, could
and would pay the top price and presumably could buy from any shipper in the
shed. He might be expected to confine his operations close to the market. Gen-

THE SPRINGFIELD MILKSHED 31

erally his volume of business is not large; his size of load accordingly small, and
unit transportation charges high. In order to keep aggregate costs at a minimum,
he will then operate in a nearby area.

Handlers on the use-plan who have the highest ratio of fluid sales to purchases
do a larger volume of business than the flat-plan dealers but considerably smaller
than the average of all dealers. With a similar desire to keep aggregate costs
down, they will operate their trucks in areas adjacent to and on the outer side
of the flat-plan territory. Although the length of haul for this group will be
greater, the larger load will keep the unit costs down.

Finally, on the outer fringe will be found the handlers with the larger volume
of business. Here, also, long hauls will mean higher total transportation costs.
Large loads, however, will tend to keep unit costs low so that the average cost
or the class cost per hundred pounds of purchases will be kept down. From an
industry point of view, these are desirable changes.

Introduction of pricing F.O.B. the farm might and probably would disturb
seme producer-handler arrangements. So far as the Springfield-Holyoke-
Chicopee market is concerned, these changes would probably take place among
the handlers buying on a flat plan and among handlers buying only a relatively
small volume of milk. No immediate changes other than these would necessarily
occur.

So far as handlers are concerned, the results should be generally beneficial.
Advantages now enjoyed by a few would be removed and a more nearly com-
petitive situation would exist in product-costs. The method would enable them
to retain whatever benefits were inherent in an efficient collection system. They
could utilize without question their truckmen as good-will men. In contrast
with the rather positive effects are the unpredictable reactions. Handlers might
object to pricing F.O.B. the farm on the grounds that they might have to pay
the same Class prices in the country as they now pay in the city. Some might
try to require producers to bring in their shipments without due allowance for the
service. For the most part, however, the difficulties could be readily overcome,
if the industry were sincerely interested in bringing about conditions which would
be generally desirable rather than the various groups seeking individual advan-
tages.

There is an even more significant question facing the industry than that of
harmonizing the present elements. Practically all the legislation underlying
state and federal control is based on the premise that an increased consumption
of fluid milk is indispensable to public welfare. There has been little questioning
of the premise even though some might cast doubt on its validity. Since the
public seems willing, however, to accept the recommendation, the objective of
milk control at least becomes specific.

A low per capita consumption of milk is caused by a number of factors; some
people dislike it, some people think it isn't worth the price, and other people
haven't the income to buy it at any price. For the most part, unfortunately, the
limiting elements are economic and as such are not easily influenced by the
recommendations of nutrition experts. If milk is indispensable to public health,
the needs of the public should be determined and a program devised which would
facilitate attaining that goal. If the use of milk generally is only desirable, like
fruit juices, but not indispensable to the welfare of the state, then the efforts to
maintain farm income and farm production should perhaps be reestablished.

People in many of the states have had sufficient experience with milk control to
appreciate the necessity of clear designation of the premises underlying it. Rather
superficial examination of the record would indicate that the control agencies
have concentrated on maintaining the supply, overlooking, perhaps, the fact that

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 389

under some conditions consumers in exercising their free choice would not be
particularly interested whether the supply were maintained or not.

As a matter of public policy- the maintenance of a healthy people is of major
concern. It would seem that as a matter of common sense steps necessary to
the achievement of such a condition would be taken without hesitation. If one
of those steps is the inclusion of a minimum quantity of fluid milk daily in the
diet, a program should be devised toward that end.

Just as price has been made an inducement to production, so should it be an
inducement to consumption. The consumer may be less sensitive to price than
the producer, but it is a certainty that he is not insensitive.

Remunerative prices to producers and simultaneously attractive prices to
consumers are incompatible under our present method of pricing and organization
in the fluid milk industry-. Between the producer and the consumer some services
must be and many services are performed in assembling and distributing the
commodity. The costs incident thereto are legitimate and amount to approx-
imately half the retail price. In addition to absorbing this sizable proportion
of the price to the consumer, the servicing costs are fairly rigid and under state
control have become more sc, with a tendency to increase. Adjustments in con-
sumers' prices are reflected consequenth' in producers' prices and an\- significant
revisions to consumers would be intolerable to producers.

If prices are to be sufficiently low to actively induce consumers to use more
milk, the costs of servicing must be reduced. Several alternative methods of
bringing this about are available to the public. The present pattern of distribution
may be maintained and the cost borne by the local municipality as a subsidy in
the interest of public health. The pattern of distribution may be revised along
any one of numerous lines with the elimination of some services and the per-
formance of others by the consumer himself. The most comprehensive reorgani-
zation would still recognize processing, packaging, and wholesale deliveries as
essential functions; functions which might be expected to cost about two cents
per quart. It seems unlikely that anything but outright public support of dis-
tribution will encourage the increase in consumption that nutritionists say is
desirable. The price received by the producer would then be the price paid by
the consumer, and there is the possibility that these two might be compatible.

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

Bulletin No. 390 March 1942

The Composition and Nutritive

Value of Potatoes

with Special Emphasis on Vitamin C

By William B. Esselen, Jr., Mary E. Lyons, and
Carl R. Fellers

Potatoes enjoy a prominent position in the American diet. It is the purpose
of this study to evaluate the nutritive properties of this popular vegetable, with
special emphasis on the value of the cooked potato as a source of vitamin C.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

THE COMPOSITION AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF
POTATOES WITH SPECIAL EMPHASIS ON VITAMIN C

By William B. Esselen, Jr., Assistant Research Professor, Mary E. Lyons,i

Research Fellow, and Carl R. Fellers, Professor, Department of

Horticultural Manufactures

INTRODUCTION

From colonial times potatoes have been one of the major vegetable crops and
have enjoyed an important position in the American diet. Their mild flavor,
which makes them an ever-pleasing part of a meal, their low cost as a source of
energy, and their ease of preparation have contributed to make potatoes a daily
constituent of our meals. However, most people overlook the fact that potatoes,
in addition to being a pleasant tasting vegetable and an economical source of
energy, possess also other important nutritive qualities. It is the purpose of this
bulletin to evaluate the potato nutritionally, particularly in respect to vitamin C.
In view of the present national emergency it seems particularly timely to empha-
size the true value of this important food stuff.

POTATOES AS AN IMPORTANT FOOD CROP

The large food value that can be produced on a sm.all area of land, the ease
and low cost of production, and the good storage qualities of potatoes are respon-
sible for their value as an agricultural crop. According to Stewart (45), potatoes
rank first among the vegetables in quantity produced and used in the United
States. Since 1900 it has been one of our largest commercial vegetable crops.

The commercial potato crop (51) for 1939 was 364,016,000 bushels which was
harvested from 3,027,000 acres of land. The average yield per acre for the 10-year
period 1929-1939 was 111.5 bushels. In Massachusetts alone, the commercial
crop in 1939 was 2,635,000 bushels with many more grown in unreported small
plots and gardens. The principal potato-producing areas are the northern and
northeastern states. Although almost all of the states produce some potatoes,
the most important potato-producing states are Maine, Minnesota, New York,
Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Aroostook County in Maine is partic-
ularly well known for its fine potatoes.

THE COMPOSITION OF POTATOES

In order to evaluate a foodstuff from the standpoint of its nutritive value
it is necessary to know its chemical composition. This is approximated for the
edible portion of potatoes in Table 1.

Potatoes are essentially a good source of energy because of their high carbo-
hydrate content. For many years the evaluation of potatoes in the diet was
based on this fact. Recent advances in nutrition have shown the importance of
minerals and vitamins. Today foods are evaluated on a basis not only of carbo-
hydrate, fat, and protein content but also of mineral and vitamin content. Pota-
toes have been found to contribute important amounts of essential minerals to

^Present address: School of Home Economics, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES 3

the diet. In Table 1 it is shown that potatoes contain approximately 1 percent
of ash or minerals. This important 1 percent may be further broken down and
analyzed as presented in Table 2.

Table 1. — Aver.a.ge Chemical Composition of Edible .Portion of the

Potato* (7)

Water 77 . 80 percent

Protein 2 . 00 percent ■

Fat 0.10 percent

Ash (minerals) 0 . 99 percent ' '

Carbohydrate (starch, sugars, etc.) 19. 10 percent

Fuel or energy value 385 calories per pound or

85 calories per 100 grams
Approximate potential reserve alkalinity 9.0cc. normal alkali per 100 grams

♦Additional data on the composition of potatoes and other vegetables may be found in a recent
bulletin by Holland and Ritchie (20).

Table 2. — The Mineral Content of the Edible Portion of the Potato

Mineral Percent Authority

Calcium 0.013 41

Magnesium 0.027 41

Potassium 0.496 41

Sodium 0.024 41

Phosphorus 0.053 41

Chlorine 0.035 41

Sulfur 0.029 41

Iron 0.0011 41

Copper 0.000164 41

Manganese 0.000173 41

Nickel trace 4

Cobalt trace 4

Barium trace 34

Zinc 0.0004 3

Iodine 85-226 p.p.b. of 14, 18, 33

dry matter

Aluminum 0.00097 50

FACTORS INFUENCING THE COMPOSITION OF POTATOES

Fertilization, Soil, and Variety

The composition of plant material is subject to variation according to variety,
soil, and fertilization. Potatoes are no different from other plant materials in
this respect. Considerable work has been published dealing with the composition
of potatoes as influenced by variety, soil, and growing conditions. Metzger and
co-workers (35) have summarized a 'comprehensive study on the composition of
potatoes as follows:

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 390

Potatoes from one locality may differ significantly in starch, dry matter,
protein and ash from those of another locality. Varieties may differ
significantly in starch, dry matter, protein and ash. A significant differ-
ence in dry matter, protein and ash between years has also been obtained.
Irrigated potatoes are higher in starch and dry matter, but lower in pro-
tein than dry-land potatoes.

It has been reported by Hayne (17), McClendon, Barrett, and Canniff (33),
and Freas (14) that there is a marked variation in the iodine content of potatoes,
which appears to vary with the iodine present in the soil in which they are grown.
The iodine content of potatoes and other vegetables in relation to its presence
in the soil is of particular interest in considering the incidence of goiter.

Storage

The temperature at which potatoes are stored has a marked effect on their
relative starch and sugar content. Cool storage temperatures favor the con-
version of starch to sugar in the potato tuber, and warm storage temperatures
favor the reverse reaction. In a recent study Wright et al. (57) found that the
sugar and starch content of potatoes stored at 50°-60° F. remained practically
unchanged, whereas the sugar in potatoes stored at lower temperatures progres-
sively increased and the starch decreased. Denny and Thornton (10) reported
large differences in the amount of reducing sugar present in different varieties of
potatoes both before and after storage at different temperatures. Low storage
temperatures caused an increase in the reducing sugar.

In a discussion of the storage of potatoes Barmore (2) believes it probable
that there are only two reactions which are responsible for their sugar content:
respiration, or the oxidation of sugar to carbon dioxide and water; and second,
the transformation of starch to sugar and vice versa. When the temperature of
storage is reduced, respiration is retarded and this effects a shift in the starch-
sugar equilibrium so that the sugar concentration is increased. At higher storage
temperatures these reactions are reversed and the sugar is slowly decreased with
an increase in starch.

The question of sugar content is particularly important from the standpoint
of making potato chips from stored potatoes. The presence of reducing sugar is
responsible for objectionable brown colors in pota'-o chips (10), and when potatoes
are to be used for this purpose, storage conditions should be controlled so as to
keep the sugar content low.

THE CARBOHYDRATE, PROTEIN, AND MINERALS OF THE POTATO

Carbohydrate

As mentioned in the introduction, potatoes are generally thought of as an
important source of energy. The caloric or energy value of potatoes is due almost
entirely to their carbohydrate content. McCance and Lawrence (32) have
reported a comprehensive investigation to distinguish between the available and
unavailable carbohydrate of cooked foods. Their information is important in
that it actually evaluates the available carbohydrate content of foodstuff's as
they are served. The data for potatoes are summarized in Table 3. "Total
Reducing Sugars" includes starch, sucrose, and other carbohydrates which may
be hydrolyzed with acid to reducing sugars, as well as reducing sugars them-
selves. Practically all of the carbohydrate of the potato is available as a source
of energy.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES 5

Table 3. — The Carbohydrate Content of Cooked Potatoes as Served (32)

New Old

Carbohydrate Fraction Potatoes Potatoes

Percent Percent

Total reducing sugars 16.1 19.9

Pentose sugars 0.2 0.37

Non-fermentable sugars — 1.2

Available Carbohydrate 15.6 19.2

Pectin

The pectin present in the potato differs in its physical and chemical properties
from that found in most fruits. The methoxyl content is low and the viscosity
of aqueous solutions is less than that of fruit pectins. Potato pectin is useless
in jelly making.

Some investigators have suggested that mealiness in potatoes is caused by
the separation of cells brought about by the solution of pectic materials. In
studies conducted at this station, Freeman and Ritchie (15) determined the pectin
content of four varieties of potatoes and observed its change during storage and
as a result of baking. They found that raw potatoes contained from 20.0 to 26.8
milligrams of calcium pectate per gram of dry sample. No loss in pectin occurred
during six months' storage at 1.7° to 4.4° C. (35° to 40° F.). In most cases there
was a small loss of pectin as a result of baking. These authors suggest that potato
pectin can be adequately defined by two fractions:

1. A fraction that is soluble in ammonium citrate (or oxalate) and
insoluble in hot water. This fraction may be pectic acid or insoluble
salts of the acid.

2. A fraction that is easily dispersed by hot water but not by cold
water. Since this fraction is so easily removed, it is possible that it is
not the postulated cellulose-pectin complex of protopectin but rather a
lyophilic gel that is readily peptized by warm water.

They conclude:

Analyses of water-soluble pectin fractions of raw and cooked potatoes
offer additional evidence that the solution or degradation of pectic material
does not determine mealiness in potatoes.

Protein

The protein of the potato is chiefly a plant globulin known as tuberin (24).
The potato is not an important source of protein because it contains only a small
amount and even that is of relatively low biological value. Potato protein is
78 percent digestible and has a biological value of 67 and a protein value as a
food of 0.8 (36).

The White House Conference of 1932 (54) suggested that sources of protein
be grouped according to the percentage of the total calories that presumably
should be provided by them if these proteins are to be the only ones in the diet.
On this basis potatoes rate as a fair source, providing 12-20 percent of the total
calories. However, the proteins are adequate for maintenance but not for growth.

I

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 390

Minerals

In addition to being a good source of energy, potatoes are an important source
of certain essential minerals. The ash of potatoes is particularly rich in potassium
and contains significant amounts of many of the other minerals (Table 2). In
evaluating potatoes on the basis of minerals furnished, one must consider the
relatively large amounts of this vegetable usually included in the diet as well as
the actual composition of the ash per se.

Potatoes are considered one of the cheapest sources of iron and an economical
source of calcium (46). They also contain significant amounts of iodine in many
instances, depending upon where they are grown (17).

In order for a foodstuff to be of value as a source of minerals they must be
present not only in significant amounts, but also in a form that can be utilized
by the body. This is particularly necessary in the case of iron. "Many of the
vegetables known to contain appreciable amounts of iron cannot be considered
good sources of this element because it is not available. In potatoes the iron is
almost 100 percent available (43).

THE VITAMIN CONTENT OF POTATOES

During the past ten years many studies have been made of the vitamin content
of potatoes, particularly vitamin C. Potatoes have been found to be a good source
of vitamins Bi and C. They also contain measurable amounts of the other vi-
tamins. The vitamin content of potatoes is subject to variation according to
variety, length of storage, and growing conditions. In a general consideration of
potatoes as a source of vitamins in the diet, it is necessary to deal with average
values which have been determined by many workers. These values represent
the amount of vitamins that the consumer can expect to be present in potatoes.
In Table 4 potatoes are evaluated as to their vitamin content.

Table 4. — Vitamin Content of Potatoes per 100 grams Edible Portion

Vitamin A 30-50 international units (41)

Vitamin Bi (Thiamin) 95-165 micrograms (41)

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) 40-80 micrograms (41)

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) 7-15 milligrams (41)

Pantothenic Acid 650 micrograms (23)

Vitamin Be (Pyridoxine) 40 rat units (40)

Vitamin K small amount (9)

Biotin small amount (25)

STUDIES OF THE VITAMIN C CONTENT OF POTATOES

The present investigation was conducted to determine the vitamin C content
of Massachusetts potatoes in comparison with potatoes grown in other sections
of the country. Differences in vitamin C content due to variety, storage, and
cooking were observed. A preliminary report on this investigation has been made
by Lyons and Fellers (29).

Difi'erences in the vitamin C content of different varieties of potatoes have been
reported by Smith and Paterson (44), Mayfield, Richardson, Davis, and Andes
(31), Ijdo (22), and Wachholder and Nehring (52). Fixsen and Roscoe (13) have
summarized the available data on varietal difference. Up to 10 percent variation

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES 7

in ascorbic acid content between individual potatoes within the same variety
has been found by Ijdo (22). Effects of cooking on the ascorbic acid content
vary from a gain (Richardon, Davis, and Mayfield, 37), and a very slight loss
(Thiessen, 48; Armentano, 1; and Levy, 27) for potatoes boiled in the skins,
to a large loss for baked or fried potatoes (Levy, 27). Ijdo (22) reported that
the amount of ascorbic acid present is but little affected by the locality of pro-
duction, and is independent of tuber size; that there is uniform distribution
throughout ithe potato; and that there is practically no oxidized ascorbic acid
present. H^ygaard and Rasmussen (21) found that the addition of 1 percent
sodium chloride to the cooking water increased the retention of ascorbic acid.
Thiessen (48), Mayfield, et al. (31), Smith and Paterson (44), and Zilva and Barker
(58), found a decrease in ascorbic acid after storage. Woods (56) states that new
immature potatoes contain twice as much vitamin C as mature potatoes, and
that common storage of the mature potato for three to eight months does not
change the vitamin C content to any marked degree.

Methods

The method of Tillmans, Hirsch, and Hirsch (49), as modified by Bessey
and King (5) and Mack and Tressler (30), was used for the determination of
ascorbic acid in potato tubers. Twice normal sulfuric acid and 2 percent met-
aphosphoric acid were used in the extraction of the potatoes. The method of
Buck and Ritchie (6) was used to standardize the 2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol
dye solution.

At the start of this investigation the accuracy of the dye titration method for
determining vitamin C in potatoes was checked against the biological method.
Raw, baked, and boiled potatoes were assayed for vitamin C using the guinea
pig method of Sherman, LaMer, and Campbell (42) as modified by Eddy (12).
The results of the two methods were in close agreement in all cases, thus indicating
the accuracy of the chemical test for this purpose. For example, 4.5 grams of
raw potatoes or 5.3 grams of boiled potatoes had an antiscorbutic value in the
guinea pig assay of 0.5 milligrams of ascorbic acid, that is 10 international units
of vitamin C (28). When these same samples of potatoes were examined by the
indophenol titration procedure, identical values were obtained. Hence, through-
out this investigation the dye-titration method was used.

Eight varieties of potatoes, which were grown under similar conditions on
experimental plots at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, were
used. These were compared with identical varieties obtained from several other
state agricultural experiment stations very soon after harvest. All of the Massa-
chusetts potatoes were dug at the same time the first part of October.

Dehydroascorbic Acid in Potatoes

Since an oxidized, but still physiologically active form of ascorbic acid, called
dehydroascorbic acid, is sometimes present in plant tissues, eight samples of raw
potatoes were treated with hydrogen sulfide for 30 minutes after extraction in
order to reduce any oxidized ascorbic acid which might be present. This was
followed by a two-hour treatment with carbon dioxide to remove all traces of
hydrogen sulfide. An ascorbic acid value of 0.20 milligram per gram, both
before and after this treatment, indicated that there was no dehydroascorbic
acid present in the raw potato. These findings are in agreement with those
of Ijdo (22) and Rolf (39).

8

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 390

Wolf (55), in a study of the distribution of vitamin C in potatoes, concluded
that the outer tissues are 8 to 46 percent richer in total ascorbic acid than the
inner, but that in the skin 19 to 55 percent of the total is dehydroascorbic acid.
In the inner part only 0 to 20 percent of the total ascorbic acid was in the dehydro
form.

Table 5. — Effect of Geographical Origin of Potatoes on Their
Ascorbic Acid Content

Ascorbic Acid — mg, per gm.

Variety and Source

Average

for 8
Tubers

Average
for
Variety

Irish Cobbler

Massachusetts 0 . 157

California 0.122

Virginia* 0.059

Kentucky 0.200

Maine 0.072

New York 0.107

Rural Russet

Massachusetts 0.161

Idaho 0.062

New York 0.108

Katahdin

Massachusetts 0.120

New York..., 0.155

Maine 0.101

Green Mountain

Massachusetts 0.132

Maine 0.095

New York 0.136

California 0.107

Chippewa

New York 0.099

Massachusetts 0.096

Triumph

Idaho 0.132

Louisiana** 0.051

White Rose

California 0.121

Virginia* 0.073

*In storage 2 months before being shipped — not considered in average.
**In storage 5 months before being shipped.

0.13J

0.110

0.125

0.117

0.09/

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES 9

Effect of Variety and Origin

The results of the tests on the vitamin C content of different varieties of Massa-
chusetts potatoes and a comparison of these with potatoes from other states are
presented in Table 5. The ascorbic acid content of the same variety grown in
different geographical areas was not significantly different. The general average
shows that the Irish Cobbler variety was highest; Katahdin, second; Green
Mountain, third; and Chippewa lowest. In general, it cannot be said that
potatoes from any particular region were either high or low in ascorbic acid
content. In many cases, differences between varieties were less than differences
within a single variety.

Effect of Storage

Eight varieties of Massachusetts potatoes were held in storage for five months
One set of each variety was kept in cold storage at 36° F. (2.2° C). A second
set was kept in a dry, underground storage where the temperature was controlled
by climatic conditions and averaged 40°-50° F. (4.4°-10° C). This would be
similar to cellar, or common, storage on a farm. The effect of these storage
conditions on the ascorbic acid content of potatoes is presented in Tab'.e 6.

In two varieties the ascorbic acid content of the potatoes was higher in cold
storage than in common storage; in four varieties the reverse was true; and in
two varieties there was no difference. However, in every case the tubers held in
cold storage were more desirable for eating purposes.

Storage seemed to cause a leveling off of the differences between varieties in
ascorbic acid content. For instance, in October, freshly dug Houma potatoes
contained 0.104 milligrams per gram more ascorbic acid than Warba potatoes
dug at the same time. After five months of storage the difference in ascorbic
acid content of these two varieties was only 0.032 milligrams per gram.

Table 6. — Effect of Five Months in Storage on Ascorbic Acid Content

OF Eight Varieties of Mass.\chusetts-Grown Potatoes
Cold storage, 36° F. (2.2° C); common storage, 40°-50° F. (4.4°-10° C.)

Ascorbic .\cid* — mg. per gm.

Variety

October
1938

When Dug

March 1939

Cold
Storage

Common
Storage

Loss due to Storage —

percent

Cold
Storage

Common
Storage

Green Mountain 0.167 0.114 0.120 31 28

Katahdin 0.120 0.130 0.117 0 2.5

Chippewa 0.181 0.085 0.066 53 63

Irish Cobbler 0.157 0.078 0.107 50 32

Houma 0 . 250 0 . 099 0 . 093 60 63

Warba 0.146 0.067 0.088 54 40

Russet 0.161 0.087 0.110 47 31.5

Golden 0.131 0.079 0.072 39.5 45.0

♦Mean value of 8 different tubers of each variety.

10

MASS/EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 390

Distribution of Vitamin C in the Potato Tuber

Three separate sets of tests were made to study the distribution of ascorbic
acid within potatoes. Raw, boiled, and baked potatoes were used. The results
are presented in Table 7. There was an even distribution of ascorbic acid in the
raw tuber itself, with a lesser amount in the skin. In boiled potatoes there was a
greater amount of ascorbic acid in the area between the central and epidermal
portions. The skin and the part just beneath it were about equal in ascorbic
acid content. With baked potatoes, the skin and the pulp adhering to it were
considered the epidermal portion. The concentration of ascorbic acid was greatest
in the central portion of the baked potatoes with the amount decreasing pro-
gressively toward the skin.

Table 7.-

—Distribution

OF Ascorbic Acid in the Flesh of
.\ND Baked Potatoes

Raw, Boiled,

Ascorbic Acid — mg. per gm.

Potato

No.

Central

Portion

(18% of whole)

Medial Epidermal
Portion Portion
(55% of whole) (20% of whole)

Skin
(7% of whole)

1
2
3
4
5
6

0.129
0.134
0.120
0.136
0.147
.. 0,120

Raw Green Mountain Potatoes

0.120 0.115
0.124 0.138
0.129 0.128
0.134 0.134
0.147 0.152
0.124 0.138

0.071
0.117
0.107
0.098
0.135
0.099

Mean

Mean

0.131 0.129 0.134

Boiled Green Mountain Potatoes

0.049 0.051 0.037

Baked Irish Cobbler Potatoes

0.104

1

0.055

0.046

0.023

0.029

2

0.018

0.055

0.032

0.029

3

0.050

0.032

0.027

0.029

4

0.050

0.039

0.042

0.047

5

0.059

0.072

0.046

0.047

6

0.064

0.064

0.054

0.047

0.038

1

0.203

0.149

0.130

2

0.140

0.110

0.080

3

0.210

0.120

0.073

4

0.130

0.126

0.063

5

0.102

0.073

0.084

6

0.100

0.105

0.097

7

0.089

0.110

0.073

8

0.150

0.120

0.110

Mean

0.140

0 114

0.086

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES 11

The above findings show that, whereas in the raw potato the ascorbic acid is
evenly distributed, during the cooking process something happens to change
this distribution. Possibly the outer part of the potato, which is in direct contact
with the heating medium, maintains a higher temperature throughout the cook-
ing process than the inner portion. This probably results in a greater destruction
of the ascorbic acid in the epidermal portions and greater retention in the center.
Also, in the case of boiled potatoes some ascorbic acid is lost through the leaching
action of the cooking water.

Relation of Size of Tuber to its Ascorbic Acid Content

Both large and small mature raw tubers of the Green Mountain variety grown
on experiment station plots were carefully examined for ascorbic acid content.
Marked variations existed in both small and large tubers, but there was no cor-
relation between the ascorbic acid content and the size of the tubers.

The Effect of Cooking on the Ascorbic Acid Content of Potatoes

Baking and Boiling

Baked potatoes have long been considered preferable to boiled potatoes because
of their better retention of water-soluble minerals and vitamins. As ascorbic
acid is water soluble it seemed as though baking would be the ideal method of
cooking to retain the maximum antiscorbutic value of the tuber. In order to in-
vestigate this point eight varieties of potatoes were both baked and boiled in
the customary manner. The boiled potatoes were cooked whole in the skin in
water containing 1 percent salt. From Table 8 it may be seen that, contrary
to expectations, there was in general less loss of vitamin C in boiled potatoes
than in baked potatoes. Baked potatoes showed an average loss of 49 percent

Table 8. — Effect of Variety and Cooking Methods on the Vitamin C
Content of Potatoes
(Eight tubers tested for each value)

Ascorbic .A.cid — mg. per gm. Loss — percent

Boiled Boiled

Variety Raw Baked Whole Baked Whole

in Skin* in Skin*

Katahdin 0.110 0.108 0.080 2 27

Chippewa 0.181 0.096 0.086 45 53

Houma 0.250 0.085 0.165 66 34

Irish Cobbler 0.157 0.064 0.083 59 47

Golden 0.131 0.061 0.061 53 53

Warba 0.146 0.071 0.101 51 31

Green Mountain 0.132 0.069 0.113 48 14

Russet 0.161 0.094 0.102 42 37

Average 0.158 0.081 0.099 49 37

♦Boiled in water containing 1 percent salt.

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 390

of their ascorbic acid as compared to a 37 percent loss for boiled potatoes. Rolf
(39) has also reported a slightly greater loss of ascorbic acid in baked than in
boiled potatoes.

Boiling in Salted and Unsalted Water

According to Lanman and Minton (26), the texture and the flavor of vegetables
are improved if salt is added to the water during the cooking process rather than
after it has been completed. In this work six potatoes were tested before and
after boiling in salted and unsalted water. After a 25-gram portion had been re-
moved horizontally across the center to determine the ascorbic acid content of
the raw potato, one-half of the tuber was placed in boiling water containing
1 percent salt and the other half in boiling unsalted water. As may be seen in
Table 9 the percentage of ascorbic acid lost varied with the individual tuber.
However, there was a 4 percent difference between the average percentage of
retention of ascorbic acid in favor of the salted water. These findings are in
agreement with those of H0ygaard and Rasmussen (21) who found that the addi-
tion of 1 percent sodium chloride to the cooking water of potatoes appeared to
aid in the retention of their ascorbic acid.

Table 9. — Losses of Ascorbic Acid Due to Boiling Green Mountain
Potatoes in Unsalted or Salted Water

Ascorbic Acid — mg. per gm. Loss — percent

Potato Raw Boiled in Boiled in Boiled in Boiled in

No. Unsalted Salted Unsalted Salted

Water Walter Water Water

1 0.126* 0.050* 0.059* 63.1 53.1

2 0.092 0.050 0.055 45.6 40.2

3

0.092

0.050

0.050

45.6

45.6

4

0.099

0.050

0.055

49.4

33.3

5

0.120

0.055

0.059

54.1

50.8

6

0.099

0.050

0.055

49.4

33.3

Mean

0.104

0.051

0.055

51.0

47.1

*The same tuber was used for each test of a series.

Various Common Methods of Cooking

Further tests were conducted on the effect of cooking on the vitamin C content
of potatoes. These tests included various methods of preparing potatoes that are
commonh- used in the home such as frying, mashing, and holding boiled potatoes
overnight in a refrigerator to be used in potato dishes the following day. These
data are all summarized in Table 10. All values are based on an average of ap-
proximately eight tubers. The values obtained in this investigation are generally
lower than those reported in a similar study by Richardson, Davis, and Mayfield
(37). This difference may be accounted for by the fact that the potatoes used
in this study had been in cold storage for six months as compared with thirty
days' storage in the case of the above authors. It is felt that the data obtained

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES

15

in the present study represent average conser\"ati\e figures which may be used
in evaluating the potato nutritionally throughout the winter.

All methods of cooking caused some destruction of the ascorbic acid of potatoes.
The amount of destruction, which varied with the cooking method, ranged from
31 to 80 percent. It appears that the speed with which the internal temperature
is raised, which in turn determines the activity of the oxidizing enzymes, may
be a controlling factor. Boiling whole in the skin, baking, and French frying
appear to be the best methods of cooking potatoes from the standpoint of \'ita-
min C retention.

Table 10. — Effect of Various Cooking Methods on Vitamin C Content

OF Potatoes*

Cooking Method

Ascorbic
Acid

Loss of

Ascorbic

Acid

Vitamin C in an

Average Serving

(5 14 ounces)

Mg. per gm. Percent Mg. LU.**

Raw 0.100 — 14.88 297

Baked 0.069 31 10.26 205

Boiled whole, salted water 0.073 27 10.86 217

Boiled peeled, cut in half 0,053 47 7.88 157

Boiled peeled, sliced 0 . 040 60 5 . 95 119

Boiled peeled, salted water 0.055 45 8. 18 163

Boiled peeled, unsalted water 0.051 49 7.58 151

Boiled whole, salted water; held 24

hours in refrigerator 0.026 74 3.86 77

Boiled, salted water, mashed 0.046 54 6.84 137

Boiled, unsalted water, mashed 0.031 69 4.61 92

Boiled, creamed 0 . 020 80 2 . 97 59

Boiled, fried 0.021 79 3.12 62

Scalloped 0.036 64 5.35 107

French-fried 0.067 33 9.96 199

Boiled whole, cold— salad 0.026 74 3.86 77

*The Green Mountain potatoes used had been stored at 38° F. for 180 days.
♦♦International Units.

In the fall and early winter approximately one fourth of man's dail\- requirement
of ascorbic acid can be obtained from one average serving of boiled, baked, or
French-fried potatoes. In the spring it would be necessary to eat approximately
one and two thirds average servings to obtain the same amount of vitamin C.
The daily requirement of vitamin C for an adult is estimated at approximately
75 milligrams of ascorbic acid or 1500 international units (46). Warmed-over
potatoes and potato salad contained so little ascorbic acid that they cannot be
considered a source of vitamin C.

Tests have recently been conducted at this laboratory^ on the effect of re-
frigerator storage on the vitamin C and moisture content of foods. The foods

'McConnell, J. E. W., and Fellers, C. R. Mass. State College. Personal communication, 1942.

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 390

were stored in covered and uncovered dishes in home electric refrigerators at a
temperature of 40°-42° F. After two days mashed potatoes had lost 40 percent
of their vitamin C in covered dishes and 50 percent in uncovered dishes. After
four days they had lost 90 percent of their vitamin C in both covered and un-
covered dishes. The loss of moisture was negligible in covered dishes and in-
creased regularly with the length of storage in uncovered dishes. These results
indicate the advisability of keeping mashed potatoes and other vegetables in
covered dishes when stored in a refrigerator in order to conserve their vitamin C
and to prevent them from drying out.

Other Effects of Cooking on Potatoes

, Weibull (53) found no appreciable loss of minerals and solids when white
potatoes were cooked in the peel, but there was a definite loss when potatoes were
peeled before boiling. Griebel and Miermeister (16) conducted similar experi-
ments on boiling and steaming whole and peeled potatoes. The smallest loss in
mineral matter occurred in the steaming of whole potatoes. The losses in total
mineral matter were: — from steaming, whole potatoes 1.4 and peeled potatoes
7.1; from boiling, whole potatoes 5.8 and peeled potatoes 17.0 percent. When
peeled potatoes were boiled in salted water the mineral loss was reduced to about
10 percent. Hill (19) reported that in discarding the water in which peeled
potatoes are cooked about 70 percent of the minerals and antiscorbutic constit-
uents were lost. These losses of water-soluble constituents of the potato during
cooking are due to the leaching action of the cooking water. For this reason it is
to be recommended that potatoes be boiled or steamed with their skins on,
baked, or fried in order to prevent an excessive loss of minerals.

In discussing physicochemical changes produced by the cooking of potatoes,
Sweetman (47) reported that cooking is characterized by partial gelatinization
of the starch, solution of some of the pectin substance, increased digestibility of
the cellulose, coagulation of most of the protein, and more or less caramelization
of the sugar.

Diemair (11) reported that the flavor of baked or roasted foods is largely due
to the formation of histidine bases from the decomposition of proteins. With
baked potatoes the optimum temperature for the formation of these flavoring
constituents was 175° C. (347° F.)

THE PLACE OF POTATOES IN THE AMERICAN DIET

From the above discussion on the composition and nutritive value of potatoes
it is evident that they are a particularly good source of certain of the essential
nutritive elements of the diet. This is particularly true in the case of low-cost
diets where potatoes enjoy a prominent position. Potatoes are primarily important
as a source of energy, vitamin Bi, vitamin C, and iron. Their low cost and the
relatively large amount eaten make potatoes a very economical source of these
elements.

In classifying winter vegetables as sources of vitamin C, Richardson and
Mayfield (38) consider stored potatoes which have been boiled as a good source.
One average serving contained 10 milligrams of ascorbic acid.

According to Stiebeling and Clark (46), the percentage of total specified nu-
trients contributed to the diet by potatoes when 5 percent of the food money was
spent for them, based on families of city workers. East North Central region,
spring 1936, is:

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES

15

Percent

Calories 13.9

Protein 10.5

Calcium 8.4

Iron 28.4

Vitamin Bi 35 .0

Vitamin Bg (G) 17.5

Vitamin C 53.9

They consider potatoes one of the cheapest sources of iron, vitamin Bi, and
vitamin C; one of the next cheapest sources of calories, protein, and vitamin
B2 (G); and an economical source of calcium. Potatoes, which were formerly
considered only as a pleasant-flavored vegetable included in most menus, are of
very definite importance to the nutritional well-being of the individual.

In Table 11 the amount of nutrients supplied by an average serving of potatoes
is presented. Many people doing active physical work or on low-cost dietaries
would ordinarily include at least two servings of potatoes in their daily ^ meals.
Potatoes are very good sources of vitamins Bi and C and of iron, for one^serving
supplies over 10 percent of the daily requirement of these nutrients.

Table 11. — Amount of Nutrients Supplied by One Average Serving of
Potatoes (5J^ ounces or 150 grams)

Nutrient

Daily
Requirement*

Amount Supplied
In One Serving

Percent of

Daily Requirement

In One Serving

Energy 3000 calories 127.5 calories 4.2

Protein 70 grams 3 .0 grams 4.3

Calcium 0.8 gram 0.019 gram 2.4

Iron 12 milligrams 1 .65 milligrams 13.7

Vitamin Bi 1.8 milligrams 0. 195 milligram 10.8

Vitamin B2 (G) 2.7 milligrams 0.090 milligram 3.3

Vitamin C 75 milligrams 10 milligrams 13.3

*Man (70 Kg.), moderately active. Recommended daily allowance for specific nutrients. Com-
mittee on Foods and Nutrition. National Research Council. (8).

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 390

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

It is the purpose of this bulletin to analyze the published information on the
composition and nutritive value of potatoes and make it available in a con-
venient form for the use of nutritionists, home economists, extension workers,
and other interested persons. In addition, research work carried on in this de-
partment on the vitamin C content of potatoes is reported.

Potatoes should enjoy an important place in the diet because they are good
sources of vitamins Bi and C and of iron. Furthermore, they can be considered
a very economical source of these nutrients and of energy. Most important of
all, perhaps, potatoes possess a pleasing flavor and are eaten with relish by almost
everybody. They lend themselves well to the culinary arts and can be prepared
for the table in many attractive waNs.

The vitamin C content of potatoes seemed to be dependent upon variety.
The amount of this vitamin contained in one variety of potatoes bore the same
relationship to that contained in other varieties whether the samples under con-
sideration were from a single geographical region or a composite from several
states. In general, there was no significant difference in the vitamin C content
of the same variety of potato grown in widely separated states in the United
States. Varietal differences became less significant during storage. Common
and cold storage for 6 months caused the loss of from 16 to 50 percent of the
ascorbic acid of potatoes. Boiling potatoes whole and unpeeled in salted water,
steaming, baking, and French-frying provided the best methods of cooking
potatoes insofar as retention of vitamin C is concerned.

All methods of cooking potatoes caused some destruction of ascorbic acid.
The amount destroyed varied from 3i to 80 percent, depending upon the method
of cooking used.

Nutritionists are in general agreement that many American diets are low in
some important nutrients, including those of which potatoes are good sources.
For this reason the generous use of potatoes is to be recommended, particularly
because of their low cost. During the present emergency every effort is being
made to improve the health of the nation and to economize on all things, includ-
ing foodstuffs. It would thus seem that potatoes have a definite role to play in
our state and national nutrition program.

NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES 17

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18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 390

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NUTRITIVE VALUE OF POTATOES 19

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Publication of this Document Approved by Commission on Administration and Finance
5m-3-42-9104.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 391 April 1942

A Survey and Study of

Spontaneous Neoplastic Diseases

in Chickens

By Carl Olson, Jr., and K. L. Bullis

Neoplastic diseases (tumors) cause much loss to the poultry industry. This
collection of cases of neoplasia gives information of the characteristics and
relative incidence of the different types.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

A SURVEY AND STUDY OF SPONTANEOUS NEO-
PLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS

By Carl Olson, Jr.,' Research Professor, and K. L. BuUis, Assistant Research
Professor of Veterinary Science

CONTENTS

Page

Introduction 2

Source of material and methods 3

Descriptions of specific forms of neoplasia

observed 5

Lymphocytoma 5

Myelocytoma . . . \ 18

Fowl leukosis 20

Fibroma 21

Myxoma 22

Fibrosarcoma 23

Osteochondrosarcoma 24

Fibrochondrosarcoma 24

Histiocytic sarcoma .24

Neurogenic sarcoma .25

Epithelioblastoma .27

Hepatoma. . .50

Cholangioma 30

Thymoma . . 31

Page

Hemangioma 32

Lymphangioma 34

Leiomyoma 34

Rhabdomyoma. 36

Mesothelioma. . . 37

Melanoma 38

Embryonal nephroma 38

Carcinosarcoma 30

Teratoma 42

Discussion 43

Incidence 4.5

Distribution of lesions 4")

Correlation between tentative and final

diagnoses 49

Concomitant tumors 54

Summary and conclusions 55

References 55

INTRODUCTION

Neoplastic diseases among animals take their greatest toll from the domestic
chicken, where they represent a serious economic problem. This fact has led
to the development of many research programs seeking a solution to the prob-
lem. A number of types of neoplasia may occur in the chicken, although it is
generally recognized that those involving the cells of the hmphoid system are
the more common and, therefore, the more serious to the poultry industry. Such
recognition, however, tends to overemphasize the importance of the hmphoid
type of tumor and to minimize the significance of the other tumors. Even though
the other types are relatively infrequent in chickens, they should not be dis-
regarded, because as a group they are responsible for a share of the loss. Another
important rea.son why all types of tumors should be considered is the problem
of differential diagnosis. Modern science is devoting much time and energy to
the study of the causes, cure, and prevention of neoplastic diseases in animals,
as well as in man. The study of spontaneous cases of neoplastic diseases in chickens
is an important phase which has perhaps suffered from lack of attention and
careful investigation. The usual practice of investigators has been to collect
and describe a group of cases dealing with a specific neoplastic disease. Such
data do not give information on the relative frequency of different types of tumors
in chickens. The reports of Schneider (29) and Curtis (3) provide some informa-
tion on the general incidence of neoplasia, but they lack details as to the specific
types of disease encountered. Eber and Malke (4) have reported on 371 cases
of neoplasia found in 11,903 chickens submitted to the University of Leipzig
for examination over a period of 32 years. In the survey made by Goss (11) on
six flocks of chickens totaling approximately 24,000 were 1446 tumors. The
majority of tumors (991) were classified as "leucotic" tumors and no attempt
was made to further subdivide this large group into cases of lymphocytoma,
leukosis, myelocytoma, etc.

'The authors wish to acknowledge the aid of other members of the Department of Veterinary
Science in various phases of this study, particularly Drs. J. B. Lentz and H. Van Roekel, Mr.
O. S. Flint, and Miss M. K. Clarke.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 3

Cases of tumors have been collected here for a period of several years. This
accumulation has now reached a size sufficient to merit collective study and
constitutes the basis for this bulletin. This study may be expected to contribute
to the knowledge of the morphological characteristics of the various types of
neoplasia as well as to provide information on the relative incidence of the specific
types. No attempt is made to provide a comprehensive review of the literature
since this was adequately done by Heim (12), with reports up to about 1930.

SOURCE OF MATERIAL AXI> METHODS

The cases of tumor were derived from three general sources. The principal
source was the laboratory of the Poultry Disease Control Service maintained
at the Massachusetts State College. Commercial poultry flocks of Massachusetts
submit chickens suspected of disease to this laboratory for examination and
diagnosis. During a two-year period from December 1, 1937, to December 1,
1939, all specimens received by the diagnostic laboratory and suspected of neo-
plastic diseases at the time of necrops>- were examined histologically. Those
cases found to be neoplastic were included in Collection A. A second source of
material was a flock of chickens maintained at the college by the Department of
Poultry Husbandry for genetic study. Some of the chickens that became ill or
died were submitted for e.xamination, and cases of neoplasia observed between
December 1, 1937, and December 1, 1940, were included in Collection B. A
third source of material (Collection C) consists of cases of neoplasia collected at
random from various sources, such as cases found in birds serving as controls
for experimental work and cases studied prior to December 1937 on which ade-
quate information was available.^

A tentative diagnosis of the neoplasm was made at the time of necropsy ia
the majority of cases. These diagnoses were later correlated with the final diag-
nosis, which was arrived at with the aid of histological examination. This was
done in an effort to determine the accuracy of a diagnosis made as a result of a
gross examination only. This phase of the work should be of importance to those
doing diagnostic work who have neither the time nor the facilities for histological
study o'f material submitted to them for diagnosis.

Chickens suspected of neoplasia at the time of necropsy were carefully ex-
amined and sections of organs involved or suspected of involvement were pre-
pared for histological examination. Smears of the blood were prepared when
possible from chickens suspected of a blood dyscrasia. The routine procedure
for histological e.xamination was to use a hemotoxylin and eosin stain of formalin-
fixed material. Special methods were used in some instances when required to
establish a diagnosis.

A stud\' of neoplastic diseases must necessarily have a scheme for naming
and classifying the various forms of tumor encountered. In this connection
much use was made of the standard books dealing with oncology. The works
of Ewing (5), Feldman (7), and Jackson (13), particularly, have been of invaluable
assistance in this respect and they, together with the contributions of other in-
vestigators mentioned in the text of this article, have served as guides for the
stud\' of the tumors encountered in chickens. The scheme of classification
adopted is presented in Table 1. In general it follows the commonly used, simple
scheme of classifying tumors according to the tissue from which they are derived.
In the schematic classification are listed only those varieties of neoplasia which

^The authors are indebted to Dr. W. A. Hagan, New York State Veterinary College, Ithaca,
N. Y., tor permission to use certain material collected while one of them (CO.) was associated
with that institution.

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

were found in the group of cases studied. Other varieties found in the chicken
by others could be readily fitted into the general scheme as outlined.

Table 1. — Schematic Classification of Neoplasms Found in Chickens,

L Tumors of hemoblastic origin.

A. Lymphocytoma

B. Myelocytoma

C. Leukosis

II. Tumors of connective tissue

A. Benign

1. Fibroma

2. Myxoma

B. Malignant

1. Fibrosarcoma

2. Fibrochondrosarcoma

3. Osteochondrosarcoma

4. Histiocytic sarcoma

C. Special forms of connective tissue tumors

1. Neurogenic sarcoma

in. Tumors of epithelial tissue (Epithelioblastoma)

A. Benign

1 . Papilloma

2. Adenoma

a. Hepatoma

b. Cholangioma

B. Malignant

1. Adenocarcinoma

2. Carcinoma

C. Special forms of epithelial tumors

L Th>'moma

IV. Tumors forming blood and lymph spaces

A. Hemangioma

B. Lymphangioma

V. Tumors of muscle tissue (Myoblastoma)

A. Leiomyoma

B. Rhabdomyoma

VI. Tumors of serous membranes

A. Mesothelioma

VII. Tumors of pigmented tissue

A. Melanoma

VIII. Mixed Tumors

A. Embryonal nephroma

B. Carcinosarcoma

C. Teratoma

Despite the apparent simplicity of such a classification certain difficulties arise.
For example, thymoma has been placed under the general heading of "Tumors of
epithelial tissue" and might with equal justification be placed in the group of
connective tissue tumors or in the group of mixed tumors. In general the termi-
nology is that commonly accepted for the various types of neoplasia, although

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 5

some exceptions will be apparent upon examination of the list. The terms
"neurogenic sarcoma" and "carcinosarcoma" are specific examples and their
use is discussed in the sections dealing with those tumors.

Some discrepancy may be noted in the relative space allotted for the descrip-
tion and discussion of the different types of neoplasms. Justification for this
apparent overemphasis of certain t\pes of less common tumors may be sought
in the fact that the study has added relatively more to our fund of information
concerning these particular types.

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC FORMS OF NEOPLASIA OBSERVED

Lymphocytoma

Comments and Classification

More than half (213) of the cases in the collection fell into the classification
of lymphocytoma. Such a high frequency for this type of tumor in chickens is
not surprising. Despite the fact that lymphocytoma is such a common form of
neoplasia, however, there has been no satisfactory method or criterion offered
for separating the different manifestations of the disease. Some cases are asso-
ciated with lesions of the nervous system; some cases have a diffuse distribution
of the neoplastic lymphoid cells; and in other cases the foci of neoplasia are
nodular.

For the purpose of study, the cases of hmphocytoma were separated into
groups with particular emphasis on the characteristic behavior of the neoplastic
tissue as observed from both gross and microscopic examination. Minute cyto-
logical details such as the size of the lymphoid cells, the ratio betw^een size of
nucleus and size of cell, and the relative num.ber of mitotic figures were not consid-
ered in the subdivision of the lymphocytomas although these features were taken
into account at the time the individual cases were designated as lymphocytoma.
The degree of involvement of the various organs or tissues was classified in four
grades at the time of histological examination. In Grade 1 the tumor was con-
fined to a few areas; in Grade 2, there were several areas of neoplasia; in Grade 3,
a moderate amount of parenchyma was replaced by tumor cells; and in Grade 4,
the majority of parenchyma of an organ or tissue was overgrown or displaced by
the tumor. Classification of degree of involvement of such tissues as the mus-
culature, skin and subcutis, and peritoneum was based on the local invasiveness
at the site of the tumor. Such a procedure is not necessarily recommended for
routine classification of lymphocytomas.

A preliminary survey indicated that the lymphocytomas could be separated
on the basis of their morphological characters into six groups according to the
following scheme:

Those with nerve tissue involved
L Diffuse lymphocytoma

2. Nodular lymphocytoma

3. Combined diffuse and nodular lymphocytoma

Those with no nerve tissue involved

4. Diffuse lymphocytoma

5. Nodular lymphocytoma

6. Combined diffuse and nodular lymphocytoma

Diffuse Lymphocytoma. — The common characteristic of the group classified
as diffuse hmphocvtoma was a diffuse infiltration of the involved organ or tis-
sues with neoplastic lymphoid cells (Plate II, Figures 1, 2, 3; Plate III, Figure 1).
The majority of the lymphocytomas (118 cases) were of this type. In 51 cases

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

nerves, as well as other tissues, were infiltrated with lymphoid cells (Plate III, Fig-
ure 2 and Table 2). The gross appearance of organs affected with diffuse lym-
phocytoma varied with the extent of infiltration. When the organs were severely
affected, they were enlarged and the normal color was interspersed with the
gray-white of tumor tissue. In some instances the organ was almost completely
replaced by tumor and the color was then gray-white. Occasionally the foci of
tumor were localized and had irregular indiscrete margins. Some organs showed
infiltrations upon histological examination when there was no evidence of tumor
from the gross examination (Plate II, Figure 1).

Table 2. — Classification qf 213 Cases of Lymphocytoma.

Form of Tumor

No Nerves
Involved

Nerves
Involved

Total

67

51

118

38

2

20

45

30

75

Diffuse

Nodular

Diffuse and "Nodular

Total 130 83 213

Nodular Lymphocytoma.- — The group of nodular lymphocytomas comprises
those cases in which the neoplastic lymphoid tissue was in the form of nodules
more or less encapsulated by a wall of connective tissue (Plate II, Figures 2, 4,
5; Plate III, Figures 3, 4). Only 20 cases of nodular lymphocytoma were found;
in 2, the process also involved nerve tissue. The nodular character of the tumor
was usually apparent from gross observation, although in some instances what was
suspected to be a diffuse lymphocytoma was found to be nodular upon histological
examination (Plate 11, Figure 2). Generally the nodular arrangement was more
pronounced in the liver and spleen than in other sites.

Diffuse and Nodular Lymphocytoma. — Cases of hmphocytoma in which the
neoplastic tissue had characteristics of both diffuse and nodular forms were
fairly common (75 instances among the series of 213 lymphoc>tomas). In some
cases the organs were affected with both forms of neoplastic infiltration, and
in other cases one form of tumor was found in some organs and the other form
was found in other organs. The gross appearance of organs and tissues of the
cases included in this group was a combination of the appearance of organs
affected with diffuse lymphocytoma or nodular lymphocytoma (Plate II, Figure
2. Although actualh' nodular l\mphoc\'toma, the process in the liver resembles
the combined diffuse and nodular form).

Characteristic Features

The six groups of cases were studied by comparison with each other to find an
explanation for the different manifestations characteristic of each group. Al-
though the data do not provide clear-cut results, some things are suggested which
lead to interesting speculation.

Age at Necropsy. — The youngest chicken found to be affected with hm-
phocytoma was a 6-week-old female which was killed for examination and found
to have a Grade 4 diffuse lymphocytoma of the ovary and a Grade 1 nodular tumor
of the spleen. The oldest bird found to be affected was a 104-week-old female
that had a diffuse lymphocytoma infiltrating the lumbar and ischiadic nerves
and adjacent musculature on one side. The average age of the 114 birds killed

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 7

for examination was 32.8 weeks, and most of these were moribund. Birds
with lymphocytoma involving nerves were significantly younger when killed
(Table 3). This is no doubt due to the fact that birds with nerve involvement
showed symptoms (caused by the nerve lesions) earlier than birds with no nerve
involvement, and the chickens were submitted for examination because of the
symptoms. There was no significant difference between the six groups in age
of birds that died (Table 3).

Table 3. — Age of Birds at Necropsy in 213 Cases of Lymphocytoma.

Age is expressed in weeks with standard error of the mean. Figures in parentheses
are number of cases in group.

of Tumor

Died — Age in

Weeks

Killed — Age

in Weeks

Form

No Nerves
Involved

Nerves
Involved

No Nerves
Involved

Nerves
Involved

Diffuse.

.. 36.7+2.6

36.2 + 7.6

39.4+3.4

29.4 + 2.0

Nodular

(44)
.. 36.6 + 5.1

(12)
32

(23)
41.5+3.8

(39)
23

Diffuse and Nodular. . . .

( 8)
.. 35.8 + 4.2
(23)

( 1)
31.2 + 5.1

(11)

(10)
33.9+3 6

(22)

( 1)

26.8 + 2.7

(19)

Sex. — The effect which the factor of sex ma\- have on lymphoc\'toma is some-
what difficult to determine from the data. There were 193 females and 20 males
represented in the 213 cases, which is a ratio of 9.7 to 1. A similar ratio of 9.7
to 1 existed in the 118 cases of diffuse lymphocytoma; but the ratio dropped to
4 to 1 in the 20 cases of nodular lymphoc\toma and increased to 14 to 1 in the
75 cases of combined diffuse and nodular lymphocytoma. There was a slight
and perhaps insignificant difference in the sex ratios of the cases of lymphocytoma
with nerve infiltration and those without involvement of nerves. The ratios
were 12.8 to 1 (83 cases) and 8.3 to 1 (130 cases), respectively. These results
suggest that a male is more apt to have the nodular form of the disease than a
female and that a female is more apt to have the diffuse and nodular form of the
disease than a male. The incidence of lymphocytoma in male and female chickens
is covered miore fulh under incidence in sexes in the general discussion.

Seasonal Occurrence. — More cases of lymphocytoma were encountered during
the first and last quarters of the year than during the second and third quarters
(Table 4). Such frequency of incidence during these periods must be correlated
with the ages of the birds aS the majority of chickens in commercial poultry
plants would be about 35 weeks old during the first and fourth quarters of a
year. This subject is covered in more detail in the discussion on incidence of
neoplasia. An interesting feature was the shift of high incidence of lympho-
cytoma in which nerves were involved from the fourth to the third quarter. This
fact must also be correlated with the observation that such cases occurred in
birds slightly younger than those in which no nerves are affected. When all 83
cases of lymphoc\toma with involvement of nerves are considered, there were
two peaks of high incidence, these being in the first and third quarters of the year.
This finding has not been explained. The various types of lymphocytoma (diffuse,
nodular, and diffuse and nodular) were essentially similar with respect to their
incidence in the different quarters of the year.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 39 L

Table 4. — Lymphocytoma: Correlation of Quarter of Year at Necropsy

AND Type of Disease.

Figures represent percent of cases occurring in the respective quarters of the year.
Figures in parentheses are number of cases in the group.

No Nerves Involved Nerves Involved Total

Form of

Tumor 1*

Diffuse and

Nodular.

35.5

8.9

6.7

48.9

(16)

(4)

(3)

(22)

Diffuse.... 23.9 22.4 25.4 28.3 33 3 11.7 27.5 27.5 28.0 17.8 26 2 28.0

(16) (15) (17) (19) (17) (6) (14) (14) (33) ,21) (.31) (33)

Nodular... 33.3 22.2 16.6 27.9 — — 50.0 SO.O 30.0 20.0 20.0 30.0

(6) (4) (3) (5) — — (1) (1) (6) (4) (4) (6)

30.0 16.6 36.8 16.6 33 3 12.0 18 7 36.0

(9) (5) (11) (5) (25) (9) (14) i27)

Total... 29.2 17.7 17.7 35.4 31.4 13.2 31.4 24.0 30.0 16.0 23.0 31.0

(38) (23) (23) (46) (26) (11) (26) (20) (64) (34) (49) (66)

*1 indicates first quarter of year including months of January, February, and March;
2 indicates the following three months: and so on for 3 and 4.

Distribution of Lesions. — In the group of cases studied, lymph&c\ toma was
found to affect nearly every organ or tissue in the chicken. The order in fre-
quenc\- of involvement was as follows: liver, gonad, kidne\', spleen, nerve, peri-
toneum, adrenal, intestine, marrow, lung, pancreas, heart, bursa of Fabricius,
proventriculus, skeletal musculature, skin and subcutis, thymus, thyroid,
parathyroid, and oviduct (Table 5).

The arrangement of lymphocytomas into groups according to type led to
interesting results in connection with the distribution of lesions. The tumor,
when nodular in form, was found to be confined to fewer organs and to affect
certain organs more frequently than others. In the 20 cases of nodular lympho-
cytoma, the liver was involved in 18 (90 percent) and the spleen in 17 (85 per-
cent). The kidney, gonad, lung, thymus, adrenal, intestine, and proventriculus
were more frequently affected in cases of combined diffuse and nodular lympho-
cytoma than in the other forms of the disease. The marrow, peritoneum, skin
and subcutis, musculature, heart, pancreas, and bursa of Fabricius were involved
about as often in the diffuse type of lymphocytoma as in the combined diffuse
and nodular lorm. (Chart 1.)

Certain differences in the frequency of organ involvement were apparent
between those cases in whi.^h nerves were also affected and those in which nerves
were not affected. The liver, spleen, kidney, marrow, and bursa of Fabricius
were more frequently affected in those cases of lymphocytoma with no nerve
infiltration. The lung, peritoneum, skin and subcutis, musculature, adrenal,
heart, and proventriculus were more commonly affected when nerves were in-
filtrated. In some instances (liver, spleen, and adrenal) the difference was marked.
Essentially similar differences were noted when the respective types of lympho-
cytoma with and without nerve involvement were compared as when the entire
group of cases was separated on the basis of infiltration of nerves only and com-
pared as is done in Tables 5 and 6.

The nerve tissue most commonly involved with Ismphocytoma was that in.
the region of the anterior mesenteric plexus. Other sites frequently infiltrated
with the tumor are listed in Table 5.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS

PER CENT

too 60 60 ¥0

20

I

20

i__

^O

_j

60 SO fOO

LIVER
SPLEEN
KIDNEY
GONAD
PERITONEUM
ADRENAL
INTESTINE
MARROW
LUNG
PANCREAS
HEART .
BURSA OF fABR/CIUS
PROVENTRICULUS
SKIN AND SUBCUTIS
MUSCULATURE
THYMUS
THrPOIb
PARATHYPOIO
OVfDUCT
BLOOD

All * COMB/NCD FODM (7^)
NOOULAR (20)

N£ fives NOT tNVOLVCD (fjo)
AJ£H\/£S IN VOL VED f6^)

Chart 1. The Relative Frequeno' of Organ Involvement in 213 Cases of Lymphocytoma.
The cases are listed twice: on the right-hand side, on the basis of nerve involvement; and on
the left-hand side, on the basis of form of disease. The number of cases in each classifica-
tion is indicated in parenthesis in the kev.

10

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

Table 5. — Frequency of Organ Involvement with Lymphocytoma.

Figures represent percent of cases in which the respective organs or tissues were
involved. Cases are grouped twice: according to form of tumor and on the basis
of nerve involvement. Figures in parentheses are number of cases in group.

Form of Tumor

Organs or

Tissues

Involved

Diffuse

(118)

Diffuse
Nodular and
Nodular
(20) (75)

Nerve Involvement

No

Nerves Nerves

Involved Involved
(130) (83)

Total
(213)

Liver 37.3

Spleen 22.9

Kidney 47 . 5

Gonad 53 . 4

Marrow 11.9

Lung 17.8

Peritoneum 32 . 2

Skin and Subcutis 9.3

Musculature 10.2

Thymus 4.2

Adrenal 28.0

Heart 11.9

Pancreas 11.0

Intestine 17.8

Bursa of Fabricius 6.7

Proventriculus 5.9

Thyroid 3.4

Parathyroid 1.7

Oviduct 2.5

Blood 22.9

Nerves —

Anterior mesenteric. ... —

Brachial —

Lumbar —

Ischiadic —

Vagus —

of Remak —

90 0
85.0
40.0
30.0
30.0
5.0
15.0

5.0
20.0

10.0

72.0

65 5

58.7

57.4

29.3

25.3

30.7

8.0

8.0

8.0

37.4

12.0

17.3

26.7

16.0

20.0

6 7

2.7

21.4

70.7

56.1

55.4

50.8

25.4

15.4

23.8

4.6

4.6

6.1

19.2

9.2

10.7

19.2

15.4

7.7

2.3

24.6

30.1

24.1

43.4

55.5

10.8

25.3

33.8

13.3

14.5

3.6

44.6

14.5

14.5

20.5

4.8

14.5

7.2

4.8

2.4

15.7

60.2
56.6
51.8
27.8
27.8
24.1

54.5

43.6

50.7

52.5

19.7

19.3

30.0

8.0

8.4

5.2

29.1

11.3

12.2

19.7

11.3

10.3

4.7

1.9

1.4

21.1

23.4
22.0
20.2
10.8
10.8
9.4

The disease was found to involve more organs or tissues when diffuse or nodular
and diffuse in character. Nodular lymphocytoma was usually confined to few
organs (Table 6).- Lymphocytoma was confined to only four or less organs
(exclusive of the various nerves and blood) in 61.9 percent of the 213 cases studied.
The extent of lymphocytoma was about the same irrespective of whether or not
nerves were involved, when the nerve tissue itself was left out of consideration.

The different combinations of organs or tissues that might be affected with
lymphocytoma were studied. In this study involved nerves and blood were
excluded. Actually 152 such combinations were found. As mentioned above,
the liver, spleen, kidney, and gonad were the organs most frequently affected
with lymphocytoma, and there were only 28 of the 213 cases in which none of
these four organs was involved. Of these 28 cases, 25 were dift'use lymphocytoma
(representing 21.2 percent of the group of 118 cases of dift'use lymphocytoma)

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS

11

and the other 3 were of the combined diffuse and nodular form (4 percent of the
group of 75 cases of combined diffuse and nodular lymphocytoma). In 31 cases
of lymphocytoma, one organ only was involved with tumor. Lymphocytoma was
confined to the ovary in 10 cases, the peritoneum in 5 cases, the liver in 3, mus-
culature in 3, the spleen in 2, the kidney in 2, the lung in 2, the bursa of Fabricius
in 2, the skin and subcutis in 1, and the adrenal in 1. Single-organ involvement
with lymphocytoma was distributed among the forms of disease as follows:
diffuse, 24 cases; nodular, 4 cases; and diffuse and nodular, 3 cases. In 14 cases,
lymphocytoma was distributed in one of two combinations: liver, spleen, kidney,
gonad, and marrow (7 cases) ; and liver, spleen, and kidney (7 cases). The next most
frequent combination was liver and spleen only (5 cases).

Table 6. — Number of Org.ans or Tissues Involved with Lymphocytoma.

Figures represent percent of cases with the respective number of organs or
tissues involved. Cases are grouped twice: according to form of tumor and on the
basis of nerve involvement. Figures in parentheses are number of cases in group.

Form of Tumor

Nerve Involvement

Number of

Organs or

Tissues

Involved*

Diffuse

ai8)

Nodular Diffuse and
Nodular

(20) (75)

No Nerves

Involved

(130)

Nerves
Involved

(83)

Total
(213)

1

20.3

20.0 4.0

13.1

16.9

14.5

2

17.0

15.0 17.3

13.8

21.7

16.9

3

18.6

20.0 8.0

16.1

13.3

15.0

4

17.0

20.0 12.0

16.2

14.5

15.5

5

14.4

15.0 21.4

20.8

10.8

16.9

6

7.6

5.0 9.3

7.7

8.4

8.0

7

2.5

5.0 14.7

6.9

7.2

7.1

8

1.7

— 5.3

2.3

3.6

2.8

9

.9

— 4.0

2.3

1.2

1.9

10

—

— 2.7

—

2.4

.9

11

12

13

a

— —

—

—

—

—

— 1.3

.8

—

.5

♦Organs or tissues considered are those listed in Table 5, with the exception of the various nerves
and the blood.

Degree of Involvement. — In over half of the cases where either the gonad,
skin and subcutis, musculature, or bursa of Fabricius was affected with lympho-
cytoma, the degree of involvement of these structures was Grade 4 (Table 7).
Organs less severely infiltrated were the liver, spleen, kidney, lung, peritoneum,
pancreas, and intestine, although in over half of the cases in which they were
affected the degree of involvement of these tissues was classified as either Grade
3 or Grade 4. The marrow, thymus, and proventriculus were not often severely
involved, as more than half of the cases in which they were affected were of either
Grade 1 or Grade 2. The 64 cases in which the adrenal was involved were dis-
tributed almost equally in each of the four grades. Nerve tissue when affected
usually had a Grade 3 involvement. The blood was considered to be affected
when cells similar to those of the tumor were found in the blood of the vessels.
This condition was different from the leukemic state found in fowl leukosis.
The blood when involved usuallv fell into the classification of Grade 1 or 2.

12

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

Table 7. — Degree of Involvement of Organs and Tissues in 213 Cases of

Lymphocytoma.

Figures express percent of affected organs or tissues having the respective
degree of involvement. Figures in parentheses are the number of cases in which
the organs or tissues were affected with lymphocytoma.

Organs or Tissues
Involved

Number

of
Cases

Grade 1

Degree of Involvement*'

Grade 2

Grade 3

Grade 4-

Liver

Spleen

Kidney

Gonad

Marrow

Lung

Peritoneum

Skin and Subcutis. . . .

Musculature

Thymus

Adrenal

Heart

Pancreas

Intestine

Bursa of Fabricius. . . .

Proventriculus

Blood

Nerves

Anterior mesenteric.

Brachial

Lumbar

Ischiadic

Vagus

of Remak

116)
93)
108)
112)
(42)
41)
64)
17)
18)
11)
62)
24)
26)
42)
24)
22)
45)

50)
47)
43)
23)
23)
20)

9
23

21
5
35
15
13

17
27
24
17
8
14

14
44

24
21
12

4
5

16
21
26
11

24
22
23
6
II
27
24
17
12
19

41
40

16

11
16
13
17
20

27
28
35
16
17
39
22
29
17
19
28
53
38
28
13
31
16

30
30

47

44

•48

45

48
28
18
68
24
24
42
65
55
27
24
13
42
39
87
14

30
38
25
43
31
30

*Graded from 1 to 4, with Grade 1 representing a small amount of tumor and Grade 4 heavjr
infiltration.

Estimation of the degree of inv^olvement of the blood was difficult to make
and subject to considerable error. The recognition of a neoplastic lymphoid
cell in the blood stream represents a problem in itself. Most of the observations
on the condition of the blood were made by noting the blood contained in the
vascular bed of the sections of tissue at the time of histological examination.
The presence of lymphoid cells resembling those found in areas of lymphocytoma
in the lumen of blood vessels was taken to represent involvement of the blood
stream. In some instances actual erosion of a vessel wall located within a mass
of tumor was found and obviously such an erosion would permit a mechanical
washing of tumor cells into the circulation. It was necessary to exercise consid-
erable care in some cases to distinguish between a leukocytosis of heterophils
or lymphocytes and abnormal numbers of tumor cells in the blood.

There were only slight differences in the degree of involvement of the different
forms of lymphocytoma (Table 8). Grade 4 involvement was noted more fre-
quently in cases of nodular lymphocytoma and least often in the combined diffuse

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 13

Table 8 — Degree of Involvement in 213 Cases of Lymphocytoma
Figures represent percent of affected organs or tissues having the respective

degree of involvement. Cases are grouped twice: according to form of tumor

and on the basis of nerve involvement.

Number of Degree of Involvement**

Organs and

Tissues Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4

Involved*

Form of Tumor

Diffuse 387 12.9 16.5 26 9 43 7

Nodular 66 18.2 19,7 15. i 47 0

Diffuse and Nodular.. . 369 16.8 21.7 29.8 31.7

Nerve Involvement

No nerves involved. .. , 517 15.2 17.4 27.8 39.6

Nerves involved 305 15.1 22.0 26.2 36.7

Total 822 15.1 19.1 27.2 38.6

♦Affected nerves and blood not included.

**Graded from 1 to 4, with Grade 1 representing a small amount of tumor and Grade 4 heavy
infiltration.

Table 9. — Weight of Organs Affected with Lymphocytoma,

Mean weights expressed as percent of body weight, with standard error of the
mean. Figures in parentheses indicate number of observations in group.

Mean Weight as Percent of Body Weight

Liver Spleen Kidney Ovary

Form of Tumor

Diffuse 12.46± .92 .71±.06 1.19+14 1.48+.40

(27) (21) (43) (17)

Nodular 10.61± .94 .65±.23 .85 + . 12 .70 + .1S

(11) (7) (10) (4)
Diff use and Nodular. . 9.75 + 1.20 .89+29 .79+06 .94+. 27

(27) (21) (36) (8)
Nerve Involvement

No nerves involved 11.82+ .68 .83 + .15 .93+09 .97+28

(53) (41) (60) (19)

Nerves involved 7.68 + 1.22 .51+12 1.12 + .22 1.69 + .45

(12) (8) (29) (10)

Total 11.02+64 .78+13 .99 + .08 1.22+25

(65) (49) (89) (29)

Organs not affected with

Lvmphocvtoma 3.80+ .40 .30 + .05 .35 + . 01 .46 + . 21

(9) (11) (5) (4)

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

and nodular form of the disease. Practically no difference was noted in the
various grades of involvement between the group of lymphocytomas in which
nerve tissue was affected and the group in which the nerves were free of tumor.

The organs of some of the cases of lymphocytoma w'ere weighed at the time
of necropsy. The weights of the organs most commonly found affected with
lymphocytoma are listed in Table 9. They are expressed as percentage of carcass
weight so that comparisons ma\- be made between the different groups. No
attempt was made to distinguish between the weight of organs with different
degrees of involvement, although those with Grade 4 infiltration were usually
heavier than those with less infiltration. The relative number of different grades
included in the various groups is approximately comparable. In a few instances
weights were obtained on unaffected organs of birds with lymphocytoma. These
are indicated in Table 9 and serve for comparison with weights of affected organs.
The standard error of the mean was calculated for each group. The mean values
for the liver, kidney, and ovary when affected with diffuse lymphocytoma were
larger than when they were affected with either of the ether two forms of lym-
phocytoma. In the case of the spleen, the differences were not significant. A
comparison of the group with nerves affected and the group with nerves not
affected indicates a smaller liver and spleen and a larger kidney and ovary in
cases in which the nerves were also involved, but only in the case of the liver was
the difference statistically significant.

Egg Production. — Data on the egg production of chickens that developed
lymphocytoma were available for only 15 cases (Table 10). These data are
meager yet they suggest certain features on which more information is needed.
All of these cases came from one flock on which careful records were kept. The
productive life, that is, the interval between the first and last egg produced,
varied from 3 to 333 days (average, 104' days). During this time the birds laid
from 2 to 176 eggs (average, 60 eggs). The productive index as used is an arbi-
trary value obtained by dividing the number of eggs laid by the productive life
in days. This factor varied from 0.074 to 0.863 and averaged 0.584. A similar
production index was calculated from the records of the flock in which these
cases were found. Inasmuch as the average productive life of the diseased birds
was the first 108 da>s of production, a comparable set of figures was obtained
from the flock records. The production of the flock during the first 150 days
of the laying period averaged 80 eggs per hen, which provides a production index
of 0.534 that may be compared with the findings in the cases of lymphocytoma.
Ten of the hens with Ij-mphocytoma had laid 25 or more eggs before developing
the disease; and of these, eight had a production index higher and two a produc-
tion index lower than the average for the flock. These results, compared with the
slightly higher average production index for the group that developed lympho-
cytoma suggest that those hens which developed the disease were average to good
producers.

Another point of interest in connection with egg production was the interval
between cessation of egg laying and necropsy. It seems obvious that the presence
of a disease condition such as lymphocytoma would have an effect on egg pro-
duction. It is generally recognized that many acute diseases of chickens, such as
respiratory infections, will cause a sudden decrease or cessation of egg production.
The interval between the last egg laid and necropsy of a case of lymphocytoma
may give some indication of the duration of the disease. In the cases reported,
this period was relatively short, averaging 38 days and ranging from 4 to 73 days
(in eight of the cases the interval was from 30 to 40 days). The extremely short
interval of 4 days noted in Case T 1743 may have been due to the fact that the
tumc of the bursa of Fabricius caused sufficient obstruction to preclude laying

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS

15

of an egg, as a misshapen egg was found in the oviduct. The period between the
last egg laid and necropsy did not seem to be affected either by the type or by the
extent of the disease.

Table 10. — Dal-^ on Egg Production of Chickens with Lymphocytoma.

Productive life is the interval between first and last eggs laid. Production
index is the factor obtained by dividing the number of eggs laid by the productive

life in da vs.

Case

Age at

Pro-

Number

Pro-

Interval

No.

Necropsy

ductive

of Eggs

duction

from Last Organs Affected and Degree

(Days;

Life

(Days)

Laid

Index

Egg to of Involvement
Necropsy
(Days)

T 2104

T 13 75

T 124

T 43
T 168

Form of Tumor — Diffuse

T 35

*K

314

47

T 66

D

480

210

T 169

D

316

3

T 246

K

550

^ii

T 3 743

D

409

204

T 117

K

315

108

K 306

D 379

D 354
K 253

K 345
D 338

K 268

28
116
2
173
176

63

.596
.552
.667
.520
.863
.074

39

73
44
44
4
13

Liver 4, intestine 4

Peritoneurn 4

Ovary 3, heart 3. marrow 3

Skin and subcutis 4

Bursa of Fabricius 4

Ovary 4, liver 2, kidney 2,
lung 3, adrenal 2, periton-
eum 1, nerve in 4 sites

Ovary 4, peritoneum 4, ad-
renal 4, pancreas 3, intes-
tine 2, nerve in 2 sites

108

Form of Tumor—

67 .62C

Nodular

40

Liver 4, spleen 4, kidney 2,
marrow 1

Form of Tumor — Diffuse and Nodular

122
34

79
129

89
16

52
43

.730
.470

.659
.333

.678

21

47
35

T 155

K 299

28

19

.679

T 164

D 313

45

26

.578

30

Liver 1, kidney 1, peritoneum
1, Bursa of Fabricius 4

Liver 3, kidney 4, marrow 2,
adrenal 1

Liver 4, spleen 3. kidney 3

Ovary 4, kidney 4, adrenal 4,
musculature 3, heart 3,
lung 2, spleen 1

Ovary 3, skin and subcutis 4,
thymus 4, adrenals 2, peri-
toneum 2, lung 3, proven-
triculus 2, intestine 4.
spleen 1, kidney 1, one
nerve

Liver 3, peritoneum 4, one
nerve

Liver 3, lungs 3, peritoneum
4, adrenal 2, proventricu-
lus 1, one nerve

Average

38 Four organs per case

*K indicates that bird was killed for examination; D, that it died.

Discussion

Deposits of neoplastic lymphoid tissue in nerves of chickens are the subject
of controversy as to whether they represent foci of lymphocytoma or are a part
of the disease known as fowl paralysis. A consideration of this controversy
naturally leads to the question of whether or not a distinction should be drawn
between fowl paralysis and lymphocytoma. In other words, should each of these
conditions be considered as a separate entity? During the last fifteen years this
subject has been argued pro and con. The results of attempts at experiniental
transmission of the conditions have not led to a conclusive answer. The results
and conclusions as set forth in the excellent monograph on fowl paralysis by
Pappenheimer, Dunn, and Cone (24) pilblished in 1926 are most modern and are

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

comparable with more recent results obtained by experiments indicating a trans-
missible character for fowl paralysis and a possible etiological relation with lym-
phocytoma. Opposed to the results indicating experimental transmission of
fowl paralysis are experiments of other investigators who obtained negative
results.

The present study, being confined to observations on pathological anatomy of
lymphocytoma, does not permit conclusions on questions concerning etiology.
Deductions, therefore, must be considered in this light without regard to the
results of transmission experiments.

The pathology of the nerve lesions seen in fowl paralysis has been described
as both inflammatory and neoplastic in character. The inflammatory lesions
consist of an infiltration with polyblasts (lymphocytes, histiocytes, and plasma
cells), oftentimes associated with a proliferation of Schwann sheath cells and de-
generation of neurons in the ganglia. The infiltration may be mild and con-
fined to perivascular areas or diffuse; or dense and diffusely scattered in the nerves.
The inflammatory lesions are usually confined by the nerve sheath, although in
some instances a similar perineural infiltration may be observed. The neo-
plastic lesions difTer from the inflammatory in that the infiltrating lymphoid cells
have a neoplastic character, are actively multiplying, and m,ay be so aggressive
as to almost entirely replace the nerve elements within the nerve sheath. Such
neoplastic areas may readily encroach upon and penetrate the nerve sheath with
infiltration of the adjacent tissue. It would be a simple matter to separate cases
of fowl paraKsis into a group with inflammatory lesions and a group with neo-
plastic lesions if it were not for those cases in which one type of process seems to
merge into the other. Such a separation would, therefore, have to be made on a
purely arbitrary basis.

The primary purpose was the study of a group of lymphocytomas and not of
fowl paralysis, which meant that it was necessary to establish certain criteria
for the cases to be included. Such a plan is based on the premise that lympho-
cytoma and fowl paralysis are different disease processes. In view of the tact
that lymphocytoma may be found in almost any tissue of the body, it did not
seem reasonable that nerve tissue would be immune or resistant to such a tumor.
The plan developed and followed for this study, therefore, was to include all
cases in which any organ or tissue, including nerve, was suspected of being in-
volved with neoplasia. Those cases of fowl paralysis in which gross examination
made it reasonably certain that the lesions were confined by the nerve sheath,
leaving the visceral organs free of neoplasia, were not included. The plan would
thereby exclude many cases of fowl paralysis in which the nerves were infiltrated
with neoplastic lymphoid cells, for these cannot be distinguished on gross exam-
ination from the cases in which the lesions are inflammatory in character (Plate
III, Figures 5 and 6).

Among the 213 cases of lymphocytoma were 83 in which nerves were involved
(Table 2). Of this number (83), there were 23 cases in which the nerve lesion
or lesions were confined to an area in which the adjacent e.xtra-neural tissue was
likewise infiltrated with lymphocytoma. The question arises of whether or not
such cases represent an extension of the process from within the nerve to without
or the reverse. As judged from this material, it would seem that both would
occur. There were 19 cases in which nerve lesions were confined to either the
nerve of Remak* or the anterior mesenteric plexus and immediate nerve radical,
and lymphocytoma was found in the adjacent tissue of the gonad, peritoneum,
or adrenal. In the majority of these the pathology suggested that the tumor

The main trunk nerve of the mesentery arising from both the anterior and posterior mesenteric
plexuses of the autonomic nervous system.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IX CHICKENS 17

invaded the nerve from without, for the nerve was the more lightly infiltrated
(Plate III, Figure 2). In 3 cases, lymphocytoma was confined to the soft tissue
surrounding nerves in the regions of either the brachial or lumbosacral plexuses
and immediate radicals.

An interesting finding in this collection of lymphocytomas was the relatively
small number of cases of the nodular type in which nerves were involved (Table 2).
A ratio of about 2 to 3 existed between the cases with and without nerve involve-
ment when lymphocytoma was either diffuse or diffuse and nodular in type.
This ratio changed to 1 to 9 in nodular lymphocytoma. Actually only two cases
of nodular lymphocytoma were observed in which nerves were involved. One
of these was an extension of lymphocytoma of the adrenal and ovary into an
anterior mesenteric nerve ganglion and might easily have been overlooked.
The significance of this finding is obscure. The number of cases is small, and it is
possible that the observation may be due to chance.

The explanation of the group of 60 cases with nerve involvement at a site re-
moved from lymphocytoma of other tissue is subject to a difference of opinion.
A number of conceptions are possible. They may represent instances of metas-
tasis of the tumor to a nerve from a primary focus situated in a visceral organ.
They maN' have developed in the nerve in response to a hypothetical causative
agent of lymphocytoma. They may be lesions of fowl paralysis existing ccinci-
dentally with lymphocytoma, assuming that there are separate agents respon-
sible for each disease. Or a single agent may be responsible for both lymphocytoma
and fowl paralysis and the response in nerve or other tissue depend upon factors
as yet unknown. These questions cannot be answered from the data, and a satis-
factory explanation must await settlement of the problem of etiology of the
diseases.

No satisfactory explanation has been advanced for the existence of different
types of lymphocytoma. Nodular and diffuse lymphocytoma have been rec-
ognized and described by Feldman (7) and Mathews and Walkey (19), as well
as others; and another manifestation — combined diffuse and nodular lympho-
cytoma— has appeared in this study. A possible explanation for these different
types has developed as a result of this study, based on the theory that the host
exerts a variable degree of resistance against growth of the tumor. Thus, diffuse
lymphocytoma is a disease in which little resistance is offered on the part of
the host, and the nodular form develops when considerable resistance to growth
is offered. The diffuse and nodular form results when the resistance is moderate
in degree. The data do not provide conclusive evidence for such a theory, but
do offer some support. On the basis of such a contention, one would expect that
the type of disease in which most resistance was offered by the host would be
the least widespread, and this was the finding in the case of nodular lympho-
cytoma (Table 6). One might also expect that the degree of individual organ
involvement would be least in the nodular form, and it was found that 37.9
percent of the affected organs were Grade 1 or 2 in cases of nodular lympho-
cytoma as compared to 29.4 percent Grade 1 or 2 in cases of diffuse lymphocytoma
(Table 8). Although data with respect to organ weights indicated no statistically
significant difference between the three forms of lymphocytoma (except in the
case of the kidney), the suggestion remains that the relative weights are greater
in diffuse lymphoc\toma. A larger series of cases in which the organs have com-
parable grades of involvement should be examined to settle this point. The
histology of the different types also lends itself to support of the theory of re-
sistance on the part of the host. A nodular, circumscribed focus of lympho-
cytoma surrounded by a connective tissue wall of variable thickness suggests an
attempt on the part of the host to localize and wall off the tumor from the rest
of the body (Plate III, Figure 4). Reactions of this type have been noted in

18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

the later stages of regression of implants of a transplantable hmphoid tumor
of the chicken (Olson 22).

The results of the study seem to indicate that lymphocytoma is a systemic
disease affecting the widely distributed lymphoid cell system. The histogenesis
of lymphocytoma, therefore, does not conform with the commonly accepted
theory of histogenesis of neoplasia in which it is believed that tumors arise as the
result of a single cell or localized focus of cells assuming a state of neoplasia. In
spite of this feature, the invasiveness and apparently purposeless progressive
growth of lymphocytoma seem sufficient to characterize the disease as a neo-
plasm. Lymphoid tissue capable of becoming transformed into the malignant
cells of a lymphocytoma probably exists in nearly every part of the body, yet
certain organs were more often affected with the disease than others. These
organs are not necessarily those rich in lymphoid tissue, for the bone marrow,
thymus, and bursa of Fabricius in which such tissue is abundant were not found
affected as often as other organs relatively deficient in this respect. It is reason-
able to believe that the lymphoid tissue of such organs as the liver, spleen, kidney,
and gonad, in which lymphocytoma was more commonly found, is more sus-
ceptible to the action of the hypothetical causative factor or factors of lympho-
cytoma. This susceptibility may be due to some particular functional state of
the lymphoid tissue in those organs in which the disease occurs.

Myelocytoma

PentimaUi (25) described two cases of this disease and applied to it the term
"myelocytoma." Mathews (17) later gave an excellent description of the gross
and microscopic characteristics of 37 spontaneous cases to which he applied the
term "leukochloroma," adopted from a similar tumor of man which often has a
green color that is lacking in myelocytoma of the chicken. This fact together
with the prior application of the term "myelocytoma" would seem to be ample
justification for the use of the latter term. Twenty cases of myelocytoma were
encountered in this collection of neoplastic disease of the chicken. These cases
fit into the descriptions given by Mathews and, therefore, only a dursor\- resume
is necessary.

The average age at necrops}- of 8 birds that died was 35.2 weeks, with the
oldest 55 weeks and the youngest 16 weeks. The average age of 12 birds that
were killed for examination was 32.7 weeks, with a maximum of 56 and a minimum
of 5 weeks. The age of birds with myelocytoma was more nearly like that of
birds with lymphocytoma than that of birds with leukosis (Tables 3, 11, 13).
The sex distribution was 15 females and 5 males, or a ratio of 3 to 1. Two cases
of myelocytoma were found to be associated with leukosis and are discussed in
the section dealing with leukosis. One case was found to be associated with
embryonal nephroma, and one with fowl paralysis.

The liver was involved with the tumor in 16 instances. The amount of in-
filtration varied considerably but in general was moderate and usually confined
to the periportal areas. In two cases there was a rather marked hyperplasia
of lymphoid elements in the periporta' areas in addition to infiltration with neo-
plastic myelocytes. Since myeloid metaplasia may, occur in the periportal areas
of the liver in chickens without myelocytoma, it becomes necessary to establish
an arbitrary standard for the diagnosis of myelocytoma in the liver. The stand-
ard set in this work was that the myelocytes of a myelocytoma were to be at the
same stage of development; that is, there should be no evidence of transitional
forms from the lymphoid elements of the periportal areas to mature granulocytes.
When such a condition was found, the process was regarded as myeloid meta-
plasia and not myelocytoma. Myeloid metaplasia may be noted frequently

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 19

in the liv^er of the chicken and was a secondar\' finding in the livers of two cases
of myelocytoma. The livers affected with m\elocytoma were usually not so large
as those affected with lymphocytoma (Plate IV). The average weight of eight
affected livers was 5.65 percent of the body weight, with extremes of 14.6 and
3.2 percent (Table 11). The figure for average size is slightly high, for the value
in six of the eight cases was less than 5.65 percent.

Table 11. — Summary of Data on Twenty Cases of Myelocytoma.
Figures in parentheses indicate number in group.

Age at Necropsy Weight of Organs Expressed

(Weeks) as Percent of Body Weight

Died Killed Liver Spleen Kidney

(8) (12) (8) (8) (4)

Maximum 55 56 14.6 .86 .80

Minimum 16 5 3.2 .37 .39

Average 35.2 32.7 5.65 .55 .622

Additional Notes: 2 cases were associated witli granuloblastic leukosis.
1 case was associated with embryonal nephroma.
1 case was associated with fowl paralysis.

The spleen was involved in 12 of the 20 cases. The average size was 0.55
percent of the body weight in eight instances. Diffuse infiltration of the pulp
with neoplastic myelocytes was the characteristic finding.

In eight instances the kidneys were affected. The degree of involvement varied
from a slight intertubular infiltration to almost complete replacement of paren-
chyma with solid masses of myeloc\tes. The average weight of four affected
kidneys was 0.622 percent of the body weight. This figure is not a fair example,
for it represents the findings on only two cases.

Other organs and the number of times they were found affected are as follows:
gonad 13, parathyroid 8, thymus 6, lung 5, thyroid 5, adrenal 4, pancreas 3, and
heart 2. Histological examination was made of the lung and thymus in only
6 cases. The nerve ganglia of the anterior mesenteric plexus were infiltrated by
extension from the adrenal in 4 cases (Plate V, Figure 1). In 12 cases, there
were either sheetlike or nodular masses adjacent to the visceral or parietal peri-
toneum. A common finding was the arrangement of soft white nodular tumor
tissue near the ribs, concentrated at the costochondral junctions or on the sternum
(Plate IV). In one instance the tumor was spread along the spinal column of
the trunk, tending to infiltrate the bodies of the vertebrae, as in two cases de-
scribed by Mathews. The bones of the skull were affected with myelocytoma
in two instances (Plate V, Figures 3 and 4). In one, the process was confined to
the region of the nasal sinus; and in the other, the disease affected the dorsal aspect
of the cranium and was also found on the ventral aspect of vertebral column in
the region of the testis.

A variable number of m,>eloc>'tes was noted in the lumens of the blood vessels
of tissues at the time of microscopic examination. Smears of the blood obtained
before death were available for study in only four cases. In several cases imprint
preparations of tumor nodules were prepared by staining with May-Grunwald
and Giemsa solutions for comparison with the myelocytes found in the blood
stream. The myelocytes comprising the tumor were found to be identical with
those in the blood stream and were at a nearly com.parable stage of development.

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

Many myelocytes contained round polychromatophilic granules and some spindle-
shaped acidophilic granules (Plate V, Figure 2). Mathews (17) stated that bone
marrow taken from any part of the skeleton in his series of cases of myelocytoma
showed some neoplastic-like hyperplasia. The bone marrow of the femur was
examined in 15 of the cases in this study (in 5 cases no marrow was preserved),
and in all there were areas considered to be identical with the extrameduUary foci
of neoplasia. In many of the cases examined, the granuloblastic e'ements of the
marrow were almost entirely converted to a tissue resembling myelocytoma.

An infiltration of the mucosa of the intestine, especially in the duodenum, was
apparent upon gross examination of two cases. These consisted of small gray
masses representing villi swollen with an infiltration of myelocytes. In three
other cases, infiltration of the intestinal mucosa was found upon histological
examination.

Data on egg production were available on only three cases of m\'eloc\toma
(Table 12). Two of the birds could be considered good producers of eggs and the
third was a poor producer. The average production index was 0.610, or slightly
higher than that found in cases of lymphocytoma. Egg production ceased, on an
average, 21 da\s preceding necropsy of the three cases.

Table 12. — Data on Egg Production of Chickens with Myelocytoma.

Productive life is the interval between first and last eggs laid.
Production index is the factor obtained by dividing the number of eggs laid
by the productive life in days.

Age at Productive Number of Production Interval from

Case No. Necropsy Life Eggs Laid Index Last Egg to

(Days) (Days) Necropsy

(Days)

T31 *K 319 133

T 2426 D 389 105

T681 D 308 90

Average 339 109 67 .610 21

76

.571

20

89

.847

16

37

.412

28

*K indicates that bird was killed for examination; D, that it died.

Fowl Leukosis

The collection of neoplasms of the chicken contains 19 cases of fowl leukosis
(Plate X, Figures 5 and 6). Both erythroblastic (17 cases) and granuloblastic
(2 cases) forms of the disease were found. Since the general pathology of spon-
taneous fowl leukosis is well discussed elsewhere, no attempt is made to describe
the general pathological findings. The pathology was similar to that of cases
previously described (Feldman and Olson 8).

The average age at necropsy of chickens with leukosis was appro.ximateh' 47
weeks, or slightly older than in cases of lymphocytoma (Table 13). The sex
distribution was 17 females and 2 males, or a ratio of 8.5 to 1. The average
percentage of bod\' weight for the liver, spleen, and kidne\- in 12 cases of leukosis
is indicated in Table 13. This value is lower than in cases of hmphocxtoma for
the li\"er and kidne\', and slightly higher for the spleen.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IX CHICKENS 21

Table 13. — Summary of Data on Nineteen Cases of Fowl Leukosis.
Figures in parentheses indicate number in group.

.\ge at Necropsy Weight of Organs Expressed

(Weeks) as Percent of Body Weight

Died Killed Liver Spleen Kidney

(10) (9) (12) (12) (8)

Maximum 114 99 9.12 1.87 1.18

Minimum 16 24 3.75 .39 .54

Average 47.7 47.5 6.71 .99 .76

A fibrosarcoma of the musculature in the region of the scapula was found in
one case of erythroblastic leukosis. The tumor measured appro.Kimately 3X
3.5 X 2 cm. and was infiltrative in character. It represents an interesting finding
because of the potentiality of some strains of the leukosis agent to induce fibro-
sarcoma (21). Lymphocytoma of the kidney and proventriculus was associated
with one case of erythroblastic leukosis. In one case of leukosis, a slight en-
largement of the posterior portion of the nerve of Remak was noted, which proved
to be due to an infiltration of erythroblastic cells. This may have been caused by
escape of leukotic cells from the blood and their local proliferation in the tissue.
Hermorrhage had occurred in six cases. In four of these, capillar}- hemorrhage
was found in either the intestinal mucosa or subcutaneous tissue; and in the
other two, hemorrhage came from rupture of the liver and spleen capsule re-
spectively.

Both cases of granuloblastic leukosis were associated with myelocytoma. In
one, foci of myelocytoma were found in the liver, kidneys, ovary, bone marrow,
thymus, pancreas, and under the parietal peritoneum of the sternum. In the
other, the myelocytoma was not so widespread, involving only the liver, kidneys,
ovary, and bone marrow. The diagnosis of leukosis in both of these cases may be
open to question. The pathology of the marrow may be regarded as the most
significant feature in support of the diagnosis of leukosis. Both erythropoiesis
and granulopoiesis were stimulated far beyond normal limits and the foci of
myelocytoma found upon histological examination were confined to localized
areas.

Encroachment of the marrow by infiltration of any tumor tissue will affect the
normal function of bone marrow but this does not lead to leukosis as indicated
by the findings in cases of hmphocytoma or other cases of myelocytoma, where
replacement of myeloid tissue may cause an aplastic anemia or leukopenia. In
some instances immature blood cells may enter the circulation because of a mech-
anical disturbance b\- the tumor in the marrow.

Fibroma

The diagnosis of fibroma was made on five tumors in the collection. In these
cases the type cell of the tumor was a neoplastic fibroblast more mature in char-
acter than that observed in fibrosarcoma. A brief description of the five cases
follows.

1. T 40. A 4-week-old male chicken was found dead with a growth in the
subcutis immediately below the left eye. The tumor mass measured 4 X 2 X 1.5
cm. and weighed 13 grams. There was no evidence of metastasis and the cause
of death was not determined.

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

2. T 25 L Swelling of the right eye and excessive lacrimation was noted
in a 32-week-old hen. The bird was killed for examination. A tumor mass in
the right nasal passage and sinus was found to be responsible for the swelling
of the eye. The tumor was irregular in outline, firm, and contained several
small cysts. The cysts were lined with columnar epithelium and probably rep-
resented portions of the respiratory mucosa pinched off by growth of the fibroma.

3. T 253. A 28-week-old pullet was noted as slightly dull and submitted
to the laboratory for examination. Upon necropsy, a large tumor weighing 190
grams was found in the wall of the large intestine about 2.5 cm. from the vent.
The tumor encircled the intestine, though the lumen was eccentric in position
(Plate \T, Figure 1). The substance of the tumor was very tough and fibrous
(Plate VI, Figure 3).

4. T 293. A male, killed for examination at the age of 15 weeks, was found
to have a slight swelling of the region over the right nasal sinus. A tumor meas-
uring 20 X 12 X 10 mm. was found in the nasal sinus displacing the structures
lateral to it.

5. T 1327. A one-year-old pullet died from cannibalism. In the left ventricu-
lar wall of the heart was a firm, gray mass measuring approximately 3X2X1
cm., which proved upon section to be a fibroma (Plate VI, Figure 2). A Van
Gieson's preparation was made of a section of the tumor to eliminate the possi-
bility of the tumor's being of muscular origin. The reaction was characteristic
of fibrous tissue. A record of the egg production of this bird was available.
It had laid only 32 eggs during a productive life of 98 days, which gives a produc-
tion index of 0.326. This is lower than the average for the flock. (See section
on Lymphocytoma for discussion of the production index.) The last egg was
laid 80 days previous to the death of the bird.

It is of interest to note that in two of the five cases, the fibromas were located
in the nasal sinus. In one case of fibrosarcoma, also, the tumor was in the nasal
sinus. These facts suggest that the nasal sinus is a likely site for the develop-
ment of fibroblastic tumors, although a survey of the literature on avian tumors
does not bear out the suggestion.

Although fibromas are ordinarily considered benign, the tumor was the primary
reason for examination in four of the cases and represented the principal path-
ological finding.

Myxoma

Two cases of m}"xoma were found in the collection. A short description of
each follows.

1. T 81. A 6-month-old Rhode Island Red male was found dead. Its ab-
domen was filled with a 717-gram tumor attached to the left kidney. The surface
of the tumor was smooth, glistening, and yellow-white in color. On cross section
the tissue of the tumor was spongy and cystic and much distinctly mucinous
fliuid could be pressed from the cut surface. Most of the left kidney was de-
stroyed by the tumor. The tumor was composed of a ver}- loose arrangement
of small stellate cells with anastomosing processes. No metastatic or implanta-
tion nodules of tumor could be found.

2. T 197. A 7-week-old Barred Plymouth Rock male was submitted for
examination because of swelling in the region of the left eye. The bird was killed
and examined. A yellow-white, irregularly lobulated tumor was found in the
orbital cavity, which caused protrusion of the left eye. The histology of the tumor
was similar to that of case T 81. No other pathology was found.

The morphology and mucin production of the type cell of these two tumors
clearly indicates their embryonal character (Plate VI, Figures 4 and 5). Although
myxosarcomas (malignant tumors of the same t\pe cell) ha^e been found in
the chicken by different observers (Olson 20), no additional cases were found in
the present sur\ey.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS

23

Fibrosarcoma

Tumors found in 16 chickens were diagnosed as fibrosarcoma. These cases
art listed in Table 14 together with pertinent data.

Table 14. — Dat.a. on Sixteen Cases of Fibrosarcoma.

Case Age

No. (\\'eeks"l

Sex

Primary Site

Extension or Metastasis

T 18

*K 36

Female

Muscle of left leg

None

T 60

K 52

Female

Muscle of left leg

Gizzard and duodenum

73

D 60

Male

Muscle of left leg

Peritoneum

T 112

K 26

Female

Muscle, near scapula

None

616

K 69

Female

Muscle, right pectoral

Brain

T 44

D 79

Female

Muscle, cervical region

None

T 134

K32

Female

Peritoneum

Multiple

T 62

K 12

Male

Peritoneum, pelvic cavity

None

T65

D 52

Female

Peritoneum

Multiple

T 191

D52

Female

Lungs, bilateral

None

154B

D 51

Female

Kidney

None

T 102

K 20

Female

Liver

Peritoneum

T 818

K 54

Male •

Liver

Kidney

T 271

K 28

Female

Subcutis of leg

Kidney

T 214

K 16

Female

Pharyngeal region

None

T 99

K32

Female

Nasal sinus

Peritoneum, muscle of leg

*K indicates that bird was killed for examination; D, that it died.

Fibrosarcoma was found most often (six cases) as a primary tumor of skeletal
muscle. In two cases metastasis to the visceral organs had occurred, and in
another case there was metastasis to the brain.

The peritoneum was considered the primary site of the tumor in three cases.
In two of these the tumors were multiple, small nodular masses scattered over
the serosal surface of the mesentery and some of the visceral organs. In one
of these cases the entire intestinal tract and mesentery were drawn into a tight,
compact mass by a dififuse covering of the peritoneum with fibrosarcoma. In
case T 62, a 530-gram encapsulated tumor found in the pelvic cavity, where it
displaced the cloaca and rectum to the right, was considered to have originated
from peritoneum although its precise point of origin could not be determined.

Bilateral fibrosarcomas were found in the lungs of one chicken and in no other
site. These may represent multicentric points of origin or a spread from one lung
to the other.

In the remaining six cases of fibrosarcoma the primary site of the tumor was
the kidney, the liver, the subcutis of the leg, the region of the pharnyx, and the
nasal sinus.

Although there was some A'ariation in the histology of the different cases of
fibrosarcoma, the type cell of the tumors was a neoplastic spindle-shaped fibro-
blast (Plate VII, Figure 1).

The majority of birds with fibrosarcoma were killed for examination, but there
were onl\- two in which the tumor could be regarded as an incidental finding.
In other words, the tumor was usually responsible for the disturbance in health
that led to necropsy. The age of birds affected with fibrosarcoma ranged from

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

12 to 79 weeks with an average of 42,0. Thirteen of the birds were females and
three were males.

Data on egg production were available for only one bird, case T 44. This bird
laid 168 eggs during a production period of 328 days. The production index of
0.512 was only slightly lower than the average (0.534) for the flock from which
the bird came. The last egg was laid only 41 da\'s before the bird died.

Osteochondrosarcoma

Only one example ot osteochondrosarcoma was found. This developed on the
skull, dorsal and posterior to the external canthus of the left e\e.

1. Case T 234. The owner had noted a swelling on the head of the hen and
submitted it for examination at the age of 5 months. The tumor did not seem to
discommode the bird. The mass measured approximatel)' 3X 2.5 X 2 cm. It
was firmly attached to the bone of the skull and on cross section many small yellow
bony foci were found scattered throughout the substance of the tumor. The
major portion of the tumor was faintly blue-gray in color and had a glassy ap-
pearance. Microscopically the tumor was composed principally of immature
chondroblasts which had produced much intercellular chondromucin. There were
scattered areas in which the chondroblasts assumed a more adult form resembling
cartilage cells, and in these areas were deposits of calcareous material indicating
the formation of bone (Plate VII, Figure 3). The liver, spleen, and bone marrow
of the femur were found to be negative for pathology upon both gross and his-
tological exmaination.

Fibrochondrosarcoma

Only one case of fibrochondrosarcoma was encountered.

1. Case S 2630. This tumor was found in the subcutis of the back, in the
pectoral muscle, in muscles of the thigh, and in the tendinous, aponeurotic at-
tachments of muscles to the sacrum and patella of a year-and-a-half-old hen
that was killed for examination. The visceral organs and the bone marrow were
essentially negative for pathology. The cellular morphology of the tumor was
somewhat variable in different areas. In genera! it was a mixture of immature
fibrcblast-like cells and immature, neoplastic cartilaginous cells. The latter type
of cell was usually predominant. The cartilaginous cells were more or less closely
related in a syncitial arrangement. The nuclei were sometimes double and in
differentiated areas quite similar to those of adult cartilage cells. The cytoplasm
of the cells was a slate-blue color with hematoxylin and eosin stain and as men-
tioned above the cell borders were sometimes indistinct. The fibroblast-like
cells were spindle-shaped with faintly blue staining cytoplasm and had relatively
large vesicular nuclei. Transitional forms between the two types of cells were
apparent.

The primary site or point of origin of the tumor could not be determined. The
tumor of the subcutis manifested itself as areas of thickening of the skin, one of
the largest of which measured 35 mm. in diameter. The tumor tissue was gray
in color, very firm and fibrous. In the muscles, the tumor had a similar color
and appearance and tended to infiltrate and destro>' the muscle tissue.

From the data on egg production by this bird a production index of 0.463 was
calculated (93 eggs in 201 days of productive life). The last egg was laid 247
days previous to necrops}-.

Histiocytic Sarcoma

The term histiocytic sarcoma has been introduced by Jackson (13) to include
those tumors which take their origin from the histiocyte. The diagnosis of
histiocytic sarcoma lequires careful microscopic study of the complex structure of
such tumors. Neoplastic histiocytes may assume the form of macrophages,
fixed stellate cells, and fibroblasts, in addition to intermediary forms between
these cell types. Usually all forms of neoplastic histiocytes may be found to a
variable extent in different parts of a typical histiocytic sarcoma.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 25

Three examples of this tumor were found. A brief description of each of these
cases follows:

1. T 5. A 7-month-old pullet was killed for examination because of symptoms
of general debility. A tumor mass weighing 217 grams was found in the region
of the pancreas. Histological section revealed that although it did not actually
invade the pancreas this organ was markedly compressed by encircling growth
of the tumor. In some areas the tumor was distincth' fibroblastic in character.
In other areas the tumor was composed of large, round cells possessing a relatively '
large vesicular nucleus with a large, distinct nucleolus. In still other areas the
arrangement was much less compact and the cells were stellate with anastomosing
cell processes. Areas of necrosis were found in the tumor with a polyblastic
reaction composed of lymphocytes, plasma cells, and granulocytes on the serous
surface of the tumor mass. A marked lymphoc\tic h\'perplasia was observed
in the liver, kidney, and proventriculus. Hyperplasia of the myeloid elements
of the bone marrow was present in which the development of granulocytes was
largely definitive.

2. T 52. A somewhat emaciated hen, one year old, was killed by the owner
and submitted for examination. There was an e.xcess of cloudy, \'ellow peritoneal
fluid containing masses of rather dry, yellow debris. The visceral serosa was
distincth- thickened and the mesentery was shortened causing the intestinal
tract to be contracted into a small, firm mass from which it was impossible to
separate individual loops of intestine. The liver was enlarged and contained
numerous, variable-sized foci of white tissue the largest of which measured 1 cm.
in diameter. The centers of these foci were depressed giving them a crateri-
form appearance. Many of the masses were confluent and others had a sharp,
discrete border. The ovary appeared normal and non-functioning yet on section
a rather large mass of tumor was found replacing the parench\'ma. The tumor
covering the serosa and in the liver and ovary was variable in its histological
aspect and resembled that found in the case previously described.

3. T 280. This case was a 7-month-oId pullet which was killed for examina-
tion. A moderate swelling was noted over the left pectoral region. The swelling
was found due to a tumor mass in the subcutis overlying the left breast muscle
and extending the length of the sternum. The tumor tissue was gray-\ellow in
color and enclosed cavities some of which were filled with dark brown fluid, while
others contained brown or red, gelatinous, fibrinous material. The tumor was
intimately associated with the underlying muscle. Both lungs were quite firm
and almost completely infiltrated with gray-\ ellow tissue. The tumor in the region
of the breast was composed of a mixture of fibroblastic and large macrophage-like
cells (Folate VII, Figure 2). Debris of engulfed cells was evident in the cytoplasm
of the large macrophages. In some areas the cytoplasm of the fibroblast-like
cells had become fused to form a relatively solid mass of tissue. The histologx'
of the tumor in the lungs was similar to that in the breast region. An incidental
finding in this case was a small benign hemangioma occurring as a small nodule
in the liver.

Jutlging from experience with these cases, considerable study is required to
make a differential diagnosis between histiocytic sarcoma and fibrosarcoma;
yet essential difterences occur which indicate that these tumors ma>' be regarded
as separate and distinct forms of neoplasia.

Neurogenic Sarcoma

Five neoplasms aniong the collection of chicken tumors were classified as

neurogenic sarcoma. One of these (Case 447) has been previously described

(Olson 23) and the others are new to the literature. The salient features of the
five cases are as follows.

1. Case 447. A pullet was killed for examination at the age of 23 weeks after
having shown symptoms resembling those of fowl parahsis for about a month.
A firm, encapsulated mass was found attached to the elements of the right brachial
nerve plexus. Some of the tumor was growing in the vertebral canal and com-
pressed the spinal cord. The greater mass of the tumor extended toward the base
of the heart and the thyroid gland, being connected with the part in the vertebral

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

canal by a slender stalk. Histologically the tumor was composed of spindle-
shaped neoplastic fibroblasts. The visceral organs and other parts of the nervous
system were normal.

2. T 312. A 14-week-old female chick, weak and pale from coccidiosis,
was killed for examination. No symptons of paralysis were noted. At the apex
of the left lung was a smooth, white nodukir mass about which the adjacent
lung tissue was molded. Upon dissection the nodule was found to arise from the
first thoracic dorsal root gangUon on the left side (Plate I, Figure 1). The tumor
extended outward from its origin and infiltrated the adjacent musculature to some
extent. It had to be separated from the periosteum of the first rib by cutting.
The lung was not infliltrated by the tumor. The entire mass was irregular and
measured approximately 3X 2.5 X 2 cm. The first thoracic nerve and the small
branch from the ganglion to the brachial nerve plexus were not involved. The
tumor consisted of fairly well differentiated fibroblastic cells which were ar-
ranged in bands and had a tendency to assume whorl-like arrangements. The
brain and other portions of the nervous system were examined histologically
and found to be normal.

3. T 97. A 29-week-old pullet was killed for examination. The bird was in
poor flesh and somewhat inactive. An irregular mass of firm, white, glistening
tumor tissue was found in the subcutis of the coccygeal region to the left of the
mid line. The mass measured appro.ximately 4.5 X 3.5 X 2.5 cm. The tumor
infiltrated the adjacent soft tissue to a slight extent. A stalk of tumor, 2.5 mm.
in diameter, passed through an opening in the underlying bone and connected
with a large mass of similar tissue spread irregularly in the left sublumbar and
subsacral region. The tumor enveloped two posterior dorsal root ganglia of the
left lumbosacral nerve plexus. The left psoas muscles were infiltrated b)' the
tumor which also partially encircled the left kidney without invasion. A portion
of the tumor extended between the left kidney and vertebral column and formed
a large mass medial and caudal to the posterior pole of the left kidney. The
histological appearance of the tumor was somewhat variable in different locations.
In some areas there was a dense, compact arrangement of plump, spindle-shaped
cells with oval nuclei. In other areas the cells were less numerous and arranged
in strands with anastomosing processes. In the less dense areas there was con-
siderable amorphous intercellular material and clear, fissurelike spaces. The
cells also tended to form whorl-like structures in the less dense portions. A sec-
tion cut through one of the dorsal root ganglia of the sacral region showed the
complete replacement of the fibrous capsule by tumor. Focal accumulations
of lymphocytes were found in the dorsal root ganglia of the brachial plexuses
and in one of the ganglia of the lumbosacral plexus. These lesions were similar
to those seen in fowl paralysis. The peripheral nerves and the nerve ganglia of
the anterior mesenteric plexus were normal. The visceral organs were essen-
tially negative for pathology.

4. T 288. A 24-week-old pullet was found dead. Previous to death it had
been lame on the left leg. The dorsal root ganglia and radicals to the left lumbo-
sacral plexus were embedded in an irregular mass of dense fibrous tumor tissue
(Plate I, Figure 3). The tumor was intimately associated with the periosteum
of the vertebrae. On side view cylindrical projections of tumor could be seen to
coincide with the location of radicals from the lumbosacral plexus. The tumor
extended from the left nerve plexus into the left ischiadic nerve. It was con-
stricted in its passage through the ischiadic foramen and became larger again
in the region of the thigh. The anterior portion of the right lumbosacral nerve
plexus was surrounded by a similar neoplastic tissue which also followed the path
of the nerves through the obturator foramen and into the region of the thigh,
where it formed a mass about 5 cm. long and 1.5 cm. in diameter. Both kidneys,
both lungs, the ovary, and bone marrow were affected with lymphocytoma.
The tumor involving the nerves was fibroblastic in character (Plate I, Figure 4).
The cells were arranged in irregular strands and tended to form whorls. In some
parts of the tumor were found peculiar formations resembling imperfecth' formed
nerve endings. In a few instances nerve trunks were included in the section ot
the tumor and the nerve tissue itself appeared to be normal although the capsule
was replaced by tumor. The dorsal root ganglia of the brachial plexus and ganglia
of the anterior mesenteric plexus were normal.

5. Case 425. The finding of a tumor in this case was incidental to the prin-
cipal reason for examination. The bird was a 78-week-old hen and was killed
after being tested for susceptibility to a respiratory disease. The anastomosing

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 27

nerve branch between the spinal cord and sympathetic ganglion which arises
at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra was distinctly enlarged at a point an-
terior to the vertebral articulation of the fifth rib. The enlarged nerve joined an
irregular firm mass situated in the region of the anterior mesenteric and coeliac
nerve plexuses. Nerve radicals extending from the tumor mass were normal.
The posterior portion of the left ischiadic nerve was enlarged to a diameter of
7 mm. in the femoral region. The enlargement extended for a distance of 3.5 cm.
along the course of the nerve. The histology of the enlargements in both loca-
tions was similar and consisted of a mass of proliferating fibroblastic cells tending
to form whorls and fissures (Plate I, Figure 2). Except for a cystic thyroid gland
no other pathology was found.

A type of connecti\e tissue tumor situated either in or about nerves was a
common characteristic of the neurogenic sarcomas. In two cases the tumor was
single and aflfected dorsal root ganglia in the brachial region. In one case the tumor
was found in two widely separated nerve trunks. In the remaining two cases
the tumors were not localized but rather tended to be widespread and to in-
filtrate the adjacent tissues as well as the nerves which they surrounded. The
association of one case with lymphocytoma and of another case with lesions of
fowl paralysis has been regarded as merely incidental and without significance.
The fibroblastic elements of the tumors appear to be of low malignancy and in
most of the cases ha\e a distinct tendency to form a whorl-like arrangement.
Jackson (13) has described a case of multiple neurofibromatosis in a chicken.
The histological appearance of the neurofibromas of Jackson's case is similar to
that observed in most of the cases of this series. The pathogenesis of the tumors
classified as neurogenic sarcoma is obscure. Most if not all may have had their
origin from the fibrous sheath covering the nerves. The origin of the neoplasia
could not be ascertained in Cases T 97 and T 288, in which the tumor was wide-
spread and involved several nerves in a localized area along with adjacent tissue.
Although these two cases differ in this respect from others of the group their
histology was similar.

Selection of a term to be applied to these tumors was difficult. Neurogenic
sarcomas encountered in human pathology often show a palisading of nuclei
which was absent from these cases. The tendency for the tumor cells to form
whorls was similar to that noted in multiple neurofibromatosis, although the
localization and, in two cases, invasiveness of adjacent tissue are features not
noted in multiple neurofibromatosis. For the present it seems logical to classify
the tumors as neurogenic sarcoma with the hope that future study of a larger
group of similar cases will clarify their identity.

Epithelioblastoma

Although this section is headed epithelioblastoma, two types of neoplasia
falling under this classification are discussed separately. These are hepatoma
and cholangioma.

Epithelioblastoma was found in 24 cases. The tumor was believed to have
originated fron: the ovary in 8 cases, from the liver in 7, from the pancreas in
5, and from the gizzard, esophagus, skin, and thyroid in the remaining 4 cases.
The salient data on 17 of the cases are set forth in Table 15.

The neoplasms originating in the ovary were with one exception of an un-
differentiated type. One adenocarcinoma was found. In four instances the
tumors were represented by small pedunculated masses attached to the ovary.
These are listed in Table 15 as solid adenomas. Although they did not show the
acinar arrangement typical of adenomas, they seemed to be benign tumors of
undifferentiated epithelial cells (Plate IX, Figure 3). The remainder affected the
entire organ. In one case the ovarian mass weighed 177 grams. Five of the
tumors were confined to the ovary and the other three had spread by extension

28

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

to the peritoneal surfaces (Plate VIII, Figure 1). In one case there were metas-
tases to the lung and in another there were metastases to the heart and para-
thyroid.

Three of the tumors believed to have originated in the pancreas were com-
posed of undifferentiated epithelial cells (Plate \ III, Figure 4), and two of these
had spread by extension to the serosa of the viscera. One adenocarcinoma of
the pancreas was found which had extended to the peritoneum, ovary, and
adrenals (Plate VIII, Figure 3). A small adenoma was found in the pancreas
of a chicken which also had a large fibrosarcoma of the pelvic cavity.

A papillary cystadenoma was found on the lining of the posterior portion of
the gizzard and consisted of a cauliflower-like protuberance measuring 17 mm.
in diameter.

Table 15. — Data on Seventeen Cases of Epithelioblastoma.

Case

Age

Sex

Types

Organ Prim-

Extension to other Organs

No.

(Weeks)

arily Affected

T 16

*D 36

Female

Carcinoma

Ovary

Peritoneum,
thyroid

heart, para-

T 58

K 104

Female

Carcinoma

Ovary

Peritoneum,

lungs

644

D 24

Female

Carcinoma

Ovary

Peritoneum

T 74

D 228

Female

Adenoma**

Ovary

—

T 202

K 28

Female

Adenoma**

Ovary

—

T 236

K28

Female

Adenoma**

Ovary

• —

T 294

K32

Female

Adenoma**

Ovary

—

T 116

D 27

Female

Adenocarcinoma

Ovary

— .

T 29

K 104

Female

Carcinoma

Pancreas

Peritoneum

T 63

KS2

Female

Carcinoma

Pancreas

Peritoneum,

lungs, ovary

T 123

K31

Female

Adenoma**

Pancreas

—

T62

K 12

Male

Adenoma

Pancreas

—

758

K 258

Female

Adenocarcinoma

Pancreas

Peritoneum,
adrenals

ovary.

T 130

K 87

Female

Papillary cystadenoma

Gizzard

—

T 148

K44

Female

Multiple papillomatosis

Esophagus

—

T 260

K 23

Female

Feather matrix adenoma

Skin

—

T 101

K 24

Female

Foetal adenoma

Thyroid

—

*D indicates that bird died; K, that it was killed for examination.
**These adenomas were composed of solid masses of cells without acinar arrangement,
are tentatively called adenoma to indicate their benign character.

They

Legend for Plate I

Figure 1. T 312. Neurogenic Sarcoma. Ventral view of spinal cord and nerves. Note the
large, fairly well encapsulated tumor mass apparently arising from the dorsal root ganglion of the
first thoracic spinal nerve.

Figure 2. Case 425. Neurogenic Sarcoma. The tumor was located in the region of the an-
terior mesenteric and coeliac nerve plexuses. Note the whorl-like arrangement of cells and also
the irregular fissures. Magnification X 100.

Figure 3. T 288. Neurogenic Sarcoma. Dorsal aspect of dissected specimen of spinal column
exposing the spinal cord. The tumor is evident as the mass surrounding both the left lumbosacral
nerve plexus and the left ischiadic nerve and the anterior portion of the right lumbosacral nerve
plexus. See Figure 4 for histology of the tumor.

Figure 4. T 288. Neurogenic Sarcoma. The sheath of the nerve cut in cross section is in-
volved with the surrounding neoplasm. The nerve itself appears normal. Magnification X 60.

Figure 5. T 307. Teratoma of the testis. A small projection of normal testicular tissue extends
from the lower aspect of the tumor mass. The tumor weighed 606 grams and was composed
of connective tissue and epithelial elements.

PLATE II

Figure 1. Case 1865. Diffuse Lympfiocvloma. Liver, both kidneys, lateral and cross section view of spleen, and
ovary. The appearance of kidneys and ovary was normal, but microscopically they were affected with lymphocytoma.
The liver and spleen were much enlarged and diffusely infiltrated with lymphocytoma. A photomicrograph of this
liver is shown in Figure 1, Plate III. j , Ko

Figure 2. Case 1846. Nodular Lymphocytoma. Liver, kidneys, spleen, and ovary. The kidneys seemed to oe
affected with the diffuse form of disease, and the liver with the combined diffuse and nodular form. Histologically
the liver, kidneys, and ovary were affected with nodular lymphocytoma. The spleen, shown in cross section, wasi

Figure 3. Case 299. Diffuse Lymphocytoma. Liver, cross section through gall Madder fossa; spleen w|ith mesen-
tery, cross section; and ovary, with adrenals, cut in cross section to show infiltration of the adrenals. This case il-
lustrates the localization of the neoplasia sometimes observed in the diffuse form of lymphocytoma.

Figure 4. Case 1871. Nodular Lymphocytoma. Lower intestinal tract, including terminal intestine and Dotn
cecums, liver, and cross sections of the kidney and spleen. The nodular character of the neoplasm is quite evideni
in these organs. . , , u<, r,t

Figure 5. T 80. Nodular Lymphocytoma. Liver and ovary. The almost complete destruction of one loDe oi|
the liver was a rather unusual feature of this case. The ovary was only moderately enlarged by the neoplasm.

PLATP III

gure 1 Case 1865. Liver with di fuse lymphocytoma. Only a few compressed islands of liver cells remain Th«>
se extravascular growth of the tumor is apparent. Magnification X 300. remam. I he

a"Dsule i^ PviVpn. RTh^fP"^'"*" of anterior mesenteric plexus being intiltrated with lymphocytoma. Penetration of
Xn X 35. '''"''■ ^'''■'^"^'s adjacent to the ganglion were affected with di f use lymphocytoma Mag-

fnes'u nf\}^^r^h^:?r'^ affected with nodular lymphocytoma. No ovarian tissue can be seen in the illustration but only
l,Zl ! "V^y^ °"i'V"""^ ^'^''^ surrounded by connective tissue. Magnification X 45. usirui.on. out only

^PrL^»„i f .K- ^P'^^" showmg a single well-encapsulated focus of neoplastic lymphoid cells. The liver kidnevs
peritoneum of this bird vvere also affected with lymphocytoma. Magnification X 180. Kianeys.

nrPvi,;„cV^**' .u'"u?'j''"^'* and both brachial plexuses of a bird which had paralysis of the right wing. For twelve

>VJ^.. 1 "ecropsy the bird was unable to stand and sat on its hocks, with symptoms of a transverse mveli is The rTcht
c Ipl?n ^'^ "^^'^ markedly atrophic. The bird was nearly dead when killed for necropsy MacrSpic and mkrol
will Tn?.n'^?.l^.T'^"^'* '" '^^ "^^' brachial nerve plexus and radicals which were affected byThes^XgrnusHted
was'not tncTudld ilTfhP ^^ ^^^rHJ^^ed of neoplastic lymphoid cells indistinguishable from those of lymphocytoma This
serves as in Pv.pn f ^ "" ?^ 'v^Phocytomas since it failed to meet the criterion of involving tissue other than nerve-
_ serves as an excellent example of what may be regarded as lymphocytoma originating in nerve ti.ssue.
Jeer. ?lp<t;,t L K ■ f.uf^ sec ion of spnal cord from region indicated by inked line in Figure 5. Much of the cord

Und vemril nervVna h? The^m'^rrpT'^'V' 'r"^?'^ """.• '^^^ L"^'^^'°" P^"'^^^''^ about the vessels and along ?he
lification X 6. marked destruction of nerve tissue no doubt explains the symptoms of transverse myelitis.

PLATE IV

Case 345. Myelocytoma. Liver slightly enlarged: ovary. ^a^Kedly enlarged : enlarged spl^een.cross^^^^
duodenum and pancreas covered with tumor; and kidneys norma s.ze y«V'^''r'''T?nr.!toi and laid back to show
ventral view of spinal column and adjacent portion of trunk. Part of the ribs have been cut ort and laid back to snow
cumulations of tumor tissue under the serous lining.

»Tva^rv and ;,^H,lr^!^*if!e''^'*'"V';K '^"'^l^'*'' "mesenteric nerve ganglion which is iniltrated with neoplastic mvelocvtes
:grgiron MSficItion T75 '^^"'" ""^"^ ^"^"^ ^'*^''^''- "^"^ '"'"^"'""' """™"^ "" ^"" ^^ "'^'in/u'shed in

^Ih"^^ "■ J^y^'ocyfoma. Imprint of tumor stained with May-Grunwald and Giemsa stain Note both rnnnH ar.H ^r.i„Hi„
?aSK!rc/"^^^g:iSrx ?^'^^' '"""' ^"^""'^^ "^'^ "^"''"'^ ^"'^ '^^ pale rund''a"n'd^ sptdrshlpe"d''g?an"ut;
/'Irlpht^^ V!i^ '* -^ ?^' ^'yelocytoma. An unusual case in which the tumor was confined to the skull and neriomeiim
ffo-i^t^;^ iSraUoK refdTdnUl^nTe th'J Zntgl"'^ "^"^ ^"^ ""^^'' ^-^ "— ^ on^h1",j:ar„'',reTStt"t21

T^t*

.Cf^

c^l

1 ^\?^1-^'k'^^.

• »

r#

^ 5 • '^

•I

^i<«

PLATE VI

Figure 1. T 253. Fibroma encircling intestine. Figure 3 is a ptiofomicrograph of this tumor. |

Figure 2. T 1327. Fibroma in ventricular wall of tieart. vtort^ifi-ati^r. v IfiO I

Figure 3 T 253. Fibroma. Figure 1 illustrates ttie macroscopic appearance of tfiis tumor '^.ajt"'*'""?" .^-^J^j^-an
F gure t U 2408. Myxoma. This tumor was found in the abdominal cavity, attached to the k.dney^ rLVf^l} ^'^i
This case was encountered after the material for the survey had been collected : hence it '« not discussed in the text. |

Figure 5. T 197. Myxoma. Note the very loose matrix in which he stellate cells. Magnihcation X -/u. |

2^^ mM^'rrnmi^x^i 3 ^%^.: -.-^^-^f^o.^:.----.-

PLATE VII

Figure 1. T 81S. Fibrosarcoma affecting the liver. The neoplasm was probably primary in this site and also metastasized
the kidney. Only a few compressed islands of liver cells remain. Magnification X 160.

Figure 2. T 280. Histiocytic Sarcoma. The varied character of the tumor is portrayed, showing transitions from sheet-
e masses of cells to spindle-shaped cells and finally a very loose arrangement of tissue in which are only a few round tumor
lis. Magnification X 100.

Figure 3. T 234. Osteochondrosarcoma. The tumor cells with considerable intercellular collagenlike material surround
area of bonelike material developing in a matrix which resembles cartilage. Magnification X 100.
Figure 4. T 101. Melanoma. The majority of tumor cells are heavily laden with melanin. Magnification X 500.

PLATE VIII f

Figure 1. S 601. Adenocarcinoma of the ovary. This case, not included in the discussion, illustrates involvement of tin,
ovary with an adenocarcinoma and multiple implants on the serosa of the oviduct and mesosalpinx. f

Figure 2. T lUI. Foetal adenoma of the thyroid. Small acini of epithelial cells with no colloid in their lumens charac-f
terize this tumor. Magnification X 260.

Figure 3. Case 7.58. Adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. The section was prepared from a mesenteric implant of the tumot'
and shows both small and large acini. The latter are filled with cellular debris and pink staining material, probably a se-
cretory product of the lining cells. Magnification X 140.

Figure 4. T 123. Adenoma of the pancreas. Lateral and cross section views of tumor and adjacent duodenum. .

.>^

».

^:^

PLATE IX

"igure IT 148. Multiple t^apilloma of the esophagus. The small tufts of epithelial cells are cut in cross sections and

>w a tendency to form epithelial "pearllike" structures. Magnification X 350.

^igure 2. T 306. Thymoma. Numerous thymocytes and epithelial cells are shown embedded in an irregular framework

reticulum tissue. Magnification X 400.

ngure 3. T 236. Undifferentiated adenoma of the ovary. Although the tumor cells show no tendency to dilferentiate

3 any recognizable structure, the neoplasm was confined to the ovary and, therefore, was benign. A single mitotic figure may

noted. Magnification X 1500. » s s j^

'igure 4 T 1.57. Mesothelioma. Note the sheetlike arrangement of cells and compression which causes polygonal shape

cell outline. Magnification X 600.

HEtlllC' SYSTtM

Figure 1. T 69. Bilateral Embryonal Nephroma. Lateral view of tumors ari.sing from the kidneys. Hypertrophy of th

unaffected kidney tissue is evident. , . ,. „ ,„ ^u^^ ih<. nolvcvsfi

Figure 2. T 273. Embryonal Nephroma. The tumor mass of the kidney is cut m cross section to show the poiycys

and variable character of the neoplasm. ..„ ^ e n.^ «or.r.i9cm illustrated i

Figure 3 and 4. T 69. Embryonal Nephroma. Sections prepared rom d.^erent areas «/ '''e. "^"P'^*.'" '""ectfve
In Figure 3 many 'pearls" of keratinizing epithelium are evident. Figure 4 shows a mixture of connective d

Figure 1.
landular
Figure .S.

glandular tissue. Magnification X 30, ^^.^ Note the distended sinusoids filled with immature ery

throblastic cells. Only a small amount of extravascular tissue surrounds the Isolated clear spaces formerly occupied y

T 131. Bone marrow of the femur in fowl leukosis. Note the

"""tgur^rcate 6"22. 'Liver in fowl -eukosis. The sinusoids are filled with immature blood cells which tend to stagna.
and cause compression of the cords of liver cells. Magnification X 270.

PLATE XI

I igure 1. Case 438. Hepatoma. Note ftie tendency of ttie tumor cells, wtiich are very similar to normal liver cells to
m rows leavmg smusoid-like spaces. Magnification X 300. v^ =.. n,

ii'fn'ifi ~A ^ ^^^; ■ H.f.manS'oma of the liver. The distinctive arrangement of the tumor cells in the form of small thick-
lied blood vessels is illustrated. Magnification X 200.

ign'^ficaHon^x'^^300^''*''^"^'"'"^' ^^^ neoplasm found in the liver was composed of irregular acini of bile duct epithelium.
-Igure 4. T 264. Lymphangioma. This unusual tumor was attached to the ovary. Large spaces filled with pink amor-
)us ma erial (hmrji) were lined with flattened endothelial cells. Smaller empty vessels may be noted. Masses of endo-
iiai cells without definite arrangement compose the rest of the neoplasm. Magnification X 120.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 29

In the case of niultiple papillomatosis, numerous small gra\- nodules, some
hemorrhagic, were found on the mucosa of the crop and esophagus adjacent to
the crop. The wall of the crop was somewhat thickened, about 6 mm. across
in the thicker portions. The lesions consisted of papiUar\- projections covered
with stratified squamous epithelium (Plate IX, Figure 1). There was in addition
a polyblastic infiltration in the submucosa. The chicken was in fair flesh and the
only symptom of disease was a slightly distended crop.

A feather follicle adenoma had been noted as a swelling on the head of a chicken
for one month before the bird was killed. The swelling had been breaking open
and bleeding at different times (during the interval between the time it was
first noted and necropsy). On section, the swelling was found due to a mass of
well-vascularized, encapsulated, gelatinous tissue measuring 10 mm. in diameter
by 6 mm. thick, which was confined to the subcutis and attached to the skin.
Histologically the mass was composed of cells arranged in a syncitium and re-
sembled very much the cells found at the base of feather follicles.

A foetal adenoma of the thyroid was found in a chicken killed because of
infection with infectious laryngotracheitis. The left thyroid measured 40 X
35 X 25 mm. and contained a few cysts filled with dark green semi-fluid material.
The bulk of the affected thyroid was foimd to be made up of foetal thyroid tissue,
small, compressed acini of cells with no lumen (Plate VIII, Figure 2). There
were a few dilated acini whose lumen contained pink-staining colloid mixed with
much cellular debris. The right th\roid was normal. A small melanoma was also
found in this case near the base of the tongue.

In the majority of cases of epithelial neoplasia examined, the chickens were
killed. The average age was 67.1 weeks at the time of necropsy although there
was considerable variation (range from 12 to 258 weeks). Neoplasia was an in-
cidental finding in seven cases, the majorit> of which were relativcK' \outig
birds. One bird in this group was 228 weeks old at the time of examination;
but if this bird is disregarded, the average age of the birds in which neoplasia
was an incidental finding was only 28 weeks. In 10 birds the tumor was the
principal reason for examination, and the average age of this group was consid-
erably older (54.2 weeks, with elimination of one bird which was 258 weeks old).

Legend for Plate XII

Figure 1. S 2,5.'{. Carcinosarcoma. A loop of intestine has been spread out to show the heavy,
diffuse implantation of tumor on the serous surface of the mesentery.

Figure 2. Case 1898. Leiomyoma in mesosalpinx. The entire oviduct and ventral mesosal-
pinx together with the nodular tumor mass is so arranged as to illustrate their relationship. This
specimen is a relatively small tumor.

Figure 3. Q 1621. Carcinosarcoma. The histological section was prepared from an implant
of the tumor on the serosa of the mesentery of the pancreas. Many irregular acini of epithelial
cells are apparent. The malignant appearance of the stroma of the connective tissue elements is
also obvious. Magnification X 8.5.

Figure 4. T 141. Rhabdomyoma in muscle of thigh. Both loose and compact arrangement
of the tumor cells is evident. Several giant cells of the Plasmodium type are scattered about in
the loosely arranged portion. The tumor metastasized to the wall of the intestine. Magnification
X 140.

Figure 5. T 170. Leiomyoma of mesosalpinx. The cells of a single bundle are arranged in
a parallel fashion. The pale staining elongate nuclei with rounded ends may be noted. Mag-
nihcation x 285.

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

Data on egg production were available on onl\ three of the eases. The bird
of case T 74, afTected with carcinoma of the o\ar\-, laid 518 eggs in 1244 da\'s
of production. Her production index was 0.416 or slightly below the average
of the flock. Her last egg was laid 116 days before necrops\-. The hen of Case
758 laid 720 eggs in 1600 days of production for a production index of 0.450,
also slighth' below average. The last egg was laid 205 days before necropsy.
The bird affected with papillary cystadenoma of the gizzard (case T 130) laid 235
eggs in 363 days of production. The production index of 0.648 was rel.\tivel>'
high. Her last egg was laid 54 days before necrops\ .

Hepatoma

Small hepatomas were noted in the livers of three chickens as a finding incidental
to other unrelated pathology. These islands of slowK proliferating liver cells
were regarded as neoplastic because of their solitary occurrence and because of
lack of evidence for liver damage that might have stimulated focal regeneration
of the liver.

1. T 210. A 53^-month-old pullet died showing acute focal necrosis of the
liver. A pendunculated nodular mass measuring 25 X 20 X 15 mm. was found
attached by a broad base 15 mm. in diameter to the visceral aspect of the left lobe
of the liver. The mass was darker than the liver and somewhat hemorrhagic.

2. T 301. A 7-month-old pullet suspected of pullorum disease was killed
for exan;ination. A firm, rounded tumor mass approximately 2.5 cm. in diam-
eter was found near the surface of the left lobe of the liver.

3. Case 438. A 5-month-old pullet was killed for examination because of
symptoms of fowl paralysis. LIpon necropsy a gray-white nodular mass 18 mm.
in diameter was found in the mid portion of the right liver lobe. Lesions of fowl
paralysis were present.

The histologx- of all three cases of hepatoma was similar (Plate XI, Figure 1).
The neoplastic liver cells closely resembled normal Vwer cells. The arrangement
of the cells varied in different portions of the tumor. In some areas they were
without definite arrangement; in other areas they formed distinct cords, parallel
to an empty channel re.sembling a liver sinusoid. The liver substance adjacent
to the hepatoma was compressed and not infiltrated by the tumor.

From these data hepatoma of the chicken appears to be a rather uncommon
neoplasm. Its benign character is indicated by the fact that all of the cases were
incidental findings.

Cholangioma

The diagnosis of cholangioma or adenoma of the bile duct was a problem m
several cases. The difficult}- arose because of the marked connective tissue and
polyblastic response that occurred in many of the cases diagnosed as cholangioma.
Instances of cirrhosis, hepatitis, and cholangitis were seen in which there was an
active fibrosis in the periportal areas coupled with a proliferation of the bile
ducts. In some, the proliferation was so extensive as to suggest a neoplastic
state. One case of a fibrosarcoma of the liver is described in another section with
a similar reaction of the bile ducts. The basis upon which a pathologist may
separate a neoplastic from a granuloblastic process is rather arbitrary under such
conditions. It is, of course, "possible that the neoplastic condition might arise
from a process that in the beginning was only a granuloma. Except for the
reports of Goss (11) and Eber and Malke (4), biliary carcinoma of the chicken is
not often discussed in the literature. Unfortunately no description is given of
the cases mentioned in these reports. It is worth while, therefore, to present a brief
description of the four cases of cholangioma found in this collection.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 31

1. T 143. An 8-month-oId pullet affected with chicken pox was killed for
examination. The liver was moderatel}' enlarged by the presence of numerous
areas of hemorrhage, particularh- common in the right lobe. The hemorrhages
were not fresh and were only partl\- organized. The largest area of hemorrhage
was approximately 2 cm. in diameter. In the substance of the right lobe of the
liver was an oval mass of firm, gray tissue measuring 9X5 mm. Histologically
this mass was composed of numerous irregular acini of bile duct epithelium
between which were arranged bundles of fibroblasts and irregular areas of myelo-
cytes and "polyblasts. The other necropsx' findings were essentially negative
except for a few shallow, chronic ulcers in the ileum. No explanation for the
hemorrhages in the liver could be found. Fowl leukosis was suspected but the
bone marrow though somewhat scant in amount was in a hyperplastic and not
neoplastic state.

2. T 286. A 33-week-old pullet was found dead. In the right lobe of the
liver was a gray-red-brown mass rather sharply defined and somewhat firmer
than the adjacent hepatic tissue. The mass measured 20 X 22 X 25 mm. and
consisted of irregular acini and tubules of low cuboidal epithelium between which
were niany lymphoid cells and a few connective tissue fibers (Plate XI, Figure 3).
There was a rather marked degree of fatty metamorphosis in the neighboring
hepatic cells.

3. Case 283. This bird died at the age of 61 days with erythroblastic leukosis
induced by inoculation with material of a transmissible strain of the disease.
A small gray nodule of tumor tissue was found in the substance of the right
liver lobe. The tumor was composed of epithelial cells, which for the most part
were without definite arrangement, although in some areas irregular acini were
formed.

4. T 242. A 12-month-old pullet with fowl pox was killed for examination.
The pox lesions involved a rather extensive area over the abdomen and sternum.
Pathology of the visceral organs was limited to the liver in which were several
irregular areas of gray tissue scattered in both lobes. Only one mass in the
right lobe was apparent in the intact specimen. The others were found upon
cross section. The tumor masses were intimately associated with the larger
blood vessels. The largest mass was 10 mm. in diameter. Numerous acini and
irregular tubules of bile duct cells were found in the tumor. Between the epithelial
elements was a dense infiltration with lymphoid cells and a light, scattered in-
filtration with heterophils. A rather marked fatty metamorphosis of the liver
cells was found.

Cholangiomas in these cases were either single or nmlliple. All were found In
female chickens but the number is so small that this fact has little significance.
The ages of the birds at the time of examination ranged from two months to a
year. From the data, it would seem that cholangiomas are benign neoplasms.
Although the cholangioma found in Case 4 must be considered an incidental
finding, its multiple nature suggests that with more time for development it
might have been a primary cause of death.

Thymoma

Two cases of tumor were diagnosed as thymoma. There was a distinct sim-
ilarity of the macroscopic and microscopic features in both cases.

1. T 19. A 9-month-old pullet was found dead with a marked swelling of
the throat in the region of the crop. Upon necropsy the swelling was found to be
due to an irregular tumor mass at the base of the neck on the left side. The
mass measured approximately 8X5X3 cm. and was relatively firm and grayish
pink in color. The tumor lay in the left jugular furrow, infiltrated the adjacent
soft structures, and closely enveloped both the trachea and esophagus. In
general the tumor seemed to grow upward in the neck although there was a small
projection beginning to enter the thoracic aperture. Deposits of urate crystals
were found in the pericardial sac, and both kidneys were slightly swollen and pale
in color, suggesting that death may have been due to a kidney insutificiency rather
than to the tumor. Other visceral organs were essentially normal. Microscopic
study indicated that the principal components of the tumor were polymorphous
cells larger than the thymic lymphocytes seen in a normal thymus. These cells

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

were round, ov^al, or polyhedral and possessed a relatively large vesicular nucleus
in many of which nucleoli could be distinguished. The polymorphous cells were
supported by a well-developed framework of anastomosing reticulum cells similar
to those seen in a normal thymus. Scattered throughout the tumor were peculiar
large cells with an opaque acidophilic cytoplasm and relatively small vesicular
nuclei. Their appearance was that of giant cells, although multinucleated forms
could not be found. In a few places the reticular stroma cells clumped them-
selves together in such a manner as to suggest an attempt to form a structure
like a Hassell's corpuscle.

Although the tumor was well supported by fibroblasts, it was not confined
by a capsule. It readily infiltrated the adjacent soft tissues including the mus-
culature. The muscles of the trachea were infiltrated but the annular cartilages
seemed to be an effective barrier to further invasion of the structure.

2. T 306. A very fat year-and-a-half-old hen was found dead. Death was
apparently due to hermorrhage from rupture of the liver capsule, the cause of
which could not be determined. A tumor mass was found in the right jugular
furrow in the mid-cervical region and was apparenth' derived from the thymic
node of that location. The tumor measured 3X ^ X 2.5 cm., was reddish gray-
white in color, and was relativeh' firm. On cross section, small cysts filled with
clear fluid were noted. Other nodes of the thymic chain were fairly well de-
veloped and a representative node anterior to the tumor measured 10 X 5 X 2
mm. No other significant pathology was found. The histology of the tumor
was similar to that described in the first case (Plate IX, Figure 2). The cyst-like
structures were interpreted as obstructed and distended hmph channels.

A thymoma of the chicken has been described by Feldman (6) and the two
cases above seem very similar to his. These tumors of the chicken show a gran-
ulomatous character coupled with the invasiveness of a neoplasm, which leads
to the question of whether or not they should be considered as a neoplasm.
Ewing (5) discusses this question uith regard to thymomas ol man and comes to
the conclusion that they should be regarded as infectious granulomas.

Hemangioma

Neoplasia classified as hemangionia was found in five instances. The t\pe
cell of a hemangioma is the angioblast, whiih teiuls to lorm new blood spaces
or channels. Sometimes the channels formed b\- the tumor are ol capillary size
and the term "capillary hemangioma" is descriptive. At other times the tumor
tends to form large blood spaces, for which condition the term "cavernous heman-
gioma" is used. Some authors favor the term "hemangio-endothelioma" in pref-
erence to hemangioma (Feldman 7). Both capillary and cavernous forms of
hemangioma were found in this collection. Although certain data on the cases
are presented in Table 16, a brief description of each will provide a better con-
ception of the cases.

1. Case 444. Some details of this case have been described previously
(Olson 23). The chicken was found dead in its pen. Examination of the blood
made 46 days previously had shown no significant changes. A slight relative
eosinophilia was noted 39 da\s previous to death; and 25 da>s preceding death a
moderate, relative, heterophil leukocytosis was observed. A swelling of the
left foot pad was noted about a week before the bird died, and on the day before
death the chicken was wealc, dull, and listless. The carcass was emaciated. The
swelling of the left foot pad was soft and fluctuating and on section was found to
be composed of clotted blood and what appeared upon gross examination to be
granulation tissue. The liver was slightly swollen, was red brown in color, and
contained numerous foci of clotted blood under the capsule and deep in the sub-
stance of the organ. Similar foci of accunmlated blood were present in the kidneys,
lungs, heart, and spleen. The spleen was enlarged (2 cm. diameter) and consisted
principally of an ancient blood clot. Splenic tissue was confined to a narrow
crescentic border along one edge of the mass representing the spleen. The foci
of blood in the heart muscle and in the kidney seemed to have a thin though
distinct surrounding membrane. The blood in the heart chambers was not
clotted. No pathological changes could be noted in a smear prepared from the

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IX CHICKENS

33

heart's blood. The histology of the tumor was portra\ed best in foci in the heart
and lung. The t\pe cell was the angioblast. In some areas these were compact
and in others they tended to form small spaces which were filled with blood.
The lining of the larger blood spaces was stretched thin. In many of the larger
blood spaces the blood was coagulated and varying degrees of organization were
apparent. Although no section was made of the tissue surrounding the blood
clot in the left foot pad it is possible that this lesion represented a focus of tumor.

2. Case T 291. The bird was thin and inactive when killed for necropsy. The
liver was markedh" enlarged, with a somewhat greater relative enlargement of
the right lobe. Numerous areas of coagulated blood of variable size were scat-
tered throughout the substance of the organ. A few similar masses of clotted
blood were found in the anterior pole of the right kidney. Sections prepared
from the liver revealed a histology so altered that the tissue could scarcely be
recognized as liver. The bulk of the parench\ma was replaced by neoplastic
cells which tended to form walls enclosing masses of blood. In some areas the
tumor cells were in a sheetlike, s^ncitial arrangement without definite order.
An irregular, patchy granulocytic infiltration was evident throughout the liver.
Neoplastic angioblasts were found around the blood clots in the kidney. The
bone marrow and spleen were found negative upon histological examination.

3. Case T 46. A tumor mass was found in a bird which the owner had killed
and dressed for food. The carcass was in good flesh and the bird had shown no
symptoms of disease. The tumor mass, which measured 35 X 25 X 20 mm.
and weighed 150 grams, was found attached to the ovary. The ovarian tissue
itself was inactive and appeared normal. The tumor was dark red with irregular
yellow areas. The colors were obviously due to coagulated masses of blood in
v^arious stages of organization. Upon section, the masses of blood were found
surrounded b\' a membrane formed of a thin, stretched angioblast type of cell.
Between the large masses of blood, the tunTor cells tended to form small capil-
laries, some of which did not contain blood in the lumen. Histological section
of the normal-appearing part of the ovar\- revealed no pathology.

4. Case T 98. A bird with a respiratory infection was killed for examination.
An incidental finding was a small (2 mm. in diameter), gra\' nodule beneath the
capsule of the left lobe of the liver. This nodule was made up of imperfectly
formed capillaries, a few of which contained blood cells in their lumens. Inter-
spersed between the vessels were many granulocytes.

5. Case T 280. The bird providing material for this case was affected with
histiocytic sarcoma and is described in the section dealing with that form of
neoplasia. The histiocytic sarcoma was confined to the subcutis of the pectoral
region and both lungs. A small gray mass was noted beneath the capsule of the
liver. On section, this proved to be an area composed of angioblasts forming
fairly well developed capillaries (Plate XI, Figure 2).

Three of the five cases of hemangioma described may be considered as the
cavernous form and the other two as the capillary form (Table 16). Only two
of the cases (Cases 444 and T 291) were malignant as indicated by extent of the
tumor growth. Both of the cases regarded as malignant were of the cavernous
form, and in these birds the lesions were responsible for serious illness. The small

Table 16. — Dat.\ on Five Cases of HEMANG:ci:A.

Case

No.

Age
(Weeks)

Location of Tunic

Form of Tumor

444 *D 22 Female Li\er, kidne\s, lungs, heart, spleen Cavernous

T 291 K 28 Female Liver, kidney Cavernous

T 46 K 52 Female Ovar)- Cavernous

T 98 K 32 Female Liver Capillary

T 280 K 28 Female Liver Capillary

*D indicates that bird died; K, that it was killed for examination.

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

lesion in the liver of two of the cases might easily have been overlooked. It is
of interest to note that the liver was affected in four of the five cases studied,
which suggests a predilection of the liver of the chicken for development of
hemangioma.

Lymphangioma

Only one case of lymphangioma was encountered. A descripton of the case
follows.

1. Case T 264. An 8-month-old, cross-bred female was sent to the lab-
oratory for examination. It was dead upon arri\'a), and the carcass was in poor
flesh. A considerable e.xcess of fluid was found in the peritoneal cavity, together
with fibrinous, yellow debris. Yellow debris and albuminous material were found
in the lumen of the oviduct. A tumor mass measuring 5X4X4 cm. was found
attached to the ovary by a long (5 cm.) narrow stalk. The tumor consisted of
soft, moist tissue, mottled gray and red in color. The more superficial part con-
tained many small cysts filled with clear fluid. Histologically the tumor was
composed of somewhat spindle-shaped cells with anastomosing cell processes.
In some areas they lined rather large spaces filled with faint pink staining material
(Plate XI, Figure 4). In other areas the}' exhibited a tendency to form small
capillary-like structures. The serous aspect of the tumor and some of the vis- ~
ceral organs showed changes of a chronic fibrinous peritonitis. Illness and death
of the bird were probably due to the salpingitis and peritonitis, and the tumor
Avas an incidental finding disclosed only by necropsy of the bird.

The histology of the tumor was very similar to that obser\ed in some of the
cases of hemangioma, except that no blood cells were found enclosed in spaces
formed b>- the neoplastic cells.

Leiomyoma

Thirty-four leiomyomas or tumors composed of smooth muscle cells were found.
They were firm, tough, and fibrous in consistency, and on cross section appeared
to be made up of interlacing bundles of tissue (Plate XII, Figure 5). The tumors
were usually somewhat encapsulated, were spherical or oval in shape, and varied
in size from a few millimeters to several centinieters in diameter. The largest
leiomyoma in the collection weighed 368 grams.

The smooth muscle tumors were found onh' in female chickens. The most
common site for the tumor (27 cases) was the ventral ligament of the oviduct
at approximately the mid-portion (Plate XII, Figure 2). In five cases the tumor
was in the wall of the oviduct; in one case tumor was found in both the mes-
osalpinx and the oviduct ; and in one case the location could not be determined
as the specimen consisted of a tumor mass which had been "found in the abdom-
inal cavity of a hen." In only one case was there spread or metastasis of the tumor.
In this instance the primary tumor was in the ventral ligament of the oviduct
and metastatic foci of the tumor were found in the liver and breast muscle.

Leiomyomas are classified according to the time of year they were observed,
as follows: first quarter, 6 cases; second quarter, 10 cases; third quarter, 13 cases;
and fourth quarter, 5 cases. The average age of birds with leionnoma was 61
weeks (range 26 to 107 weeks) for 15 birds that were killed for examination, and
71 weeks (range 37 to 106 weeks) for 19 birds that died.

In practically all cases, the leiomyoma was an incidental finding at the time
of necropsy. In no instance was such a tumor reponsible for specific symptoms
of the disease.

Egg production records were available on 18 of the birds affected with
leiomyoma. These data are given in Table 17 and indicate that the birds were
well above average in their ability to produce eggs. The average production

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IX CHICKENS

35

index for the entire flock from which these chickens came was, as previously in-
dicated, 0.534 for the first 150 days of productive life. For the group with leio-
myoma, the index was 0.615, with a range from 0.418 to 0.810, and only five hens
had an index below the average of the flock. These figures become even more
significant when it is considered that the production index for the group with
leiomyoma was calculated for a period extending beyond the first 150 days of
production, which is the period of heaviest egg production. The interval between
the last egg laid and necropsy averaged only 12 days, with a range from 1 to 73
days. Such a short interval would seem to indicate that the slow-growing leio-
myoma interfered but little with egg production.

Table 17. — Data on Egg Production of Chickens with Leiomyoma.

Productive life is the interval between first and last eggs laid.
Production index is the factor obtained by dividing the number of eggs laid
by the productive life in days.

Case No.

Age at

Necropsy

(Days)

Productive
Life

(L^ays)

Number

of Eggs
Laid

Production
Index

Interval

from Last

Egg to

Necropsy

(Days)

Size of

Tumor

Average

Diameter

(mm.)

T59

*K457

270

198

.734

1

15

T 68

K479

318

133

.418

4

15

T S3

D 523

334

205

614

1

30

T 84

D 511

290

167

.576

11

35

T86

D 524

320

223

.697

22

12

T89

D534

310

138

.445

29

35

T 174

D 743

567

302

.533

3

20

T 212

D 487

291

149

.512

8

12

T258

D549

346

217

.627

1

10

**T 493

K449

264

191

.724

2

35

T854

K450

276

202

.732

4

12

***T 2207

D442

249

158

.634

3

28

T 667

D435

246

152

.618

1

30

T 1606

D 364

195

158

.810

1

10

***S 1129

D 743

472

233

.494

73

10

T283

D 606

3S3

270

.705

4

22

S 253

K 747

510

249

.488

33

20

T 95

D557

326

231

.709

12

25

Ax-erage

533

331

199

615

12

21

*K indicates that bird was killed for examination; D, that it died.
**Tumor located in both ligament of oviduct and oviduct.
***Tumor located in oviduct only.

In all other cases, tumor located in ventral ligament of oviduct.

The location of leiomyoma in the ligament of the oviduct and the heavy egg
production of chickens with this tumor lead to speculation of a causal relationship.
The report of Curtis (2) outlines well the musculature of the ligaments of the ovi-
duct, which is greater in amount in the ventral ligament than in the dorsal liga-
ment. Curtis indicated that the smooth muscle fibers of the ligaments were
directly connected with the muscle fibers of the wall of the oviduct and that
musculature in the ligaments must contribute to the physiological motility of the
oviduct. Greatest activity would occur during periods of egg production and

36 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

when persistent might reasonably lead to hypertrophy of the muscles. Jackson
(13) has called attention to the predisposition of smooth muscle in the ovary and
oviduct for proliferation. Sometimes this hypertrophy appears to progress
beyond functional requirements, thus leading to the development of a benign
neoplasm. Other factors must also be involved, for all hens with prolonged,
heavy egg production do not necessarily develop a leiomyoma of the mesosalpinx
and there was no direct correlation between the size of the tumor and production
index in this series.

Two birds with leiomyoma also had carcinoma of the ovary, and four others
with smooth muscle tumors had mixed tumors (carcinosarcoma) of the ovary.
The latter four cases are discussed in more detail in the section dealing with
carcinosarcoma.

Rhabdomyoma

Tumors derived from voluntar\- muscle tissue are usually considered rare,
and indeed but few cases in the chicken hav^ been described. Eber and Malke
(4) mentioned finding multiple rhabdomyoma in a poorly developed breast muscle
of a hen, and Reitsma (28) described a case in which multiple tumors were found
in the muscles of the maxilla, thorax, and abdomen. Peyron and Blier (26)
described a malignant myoma the size of an apple found in the leg of a rooster.

Two cases of neoplasia were diagnosed as rhabdomyoma in this study.

L T 303. An 8-month-old male, lame on the right leg, was killed by the
owner and submitted for examination. Isolated multiple tumors were found en-
closed within the sheaths of several muscles. These were found in the flexor
and extensor muscles in both thighs, in both pectoral muscles, and in muscles on
both sides of the thorax at the level of the second and third ribs. The largest
tumor measured 25 mm. in diameter and 35 mm. in length and was found in an
extensor muscle of the left thigh. The tumors were spindle-shaped, conform-
ing in general to the shape of the affected muscle. A striking feature was the
bilateral symmetry of location of 'the individual tumor masses. The visceral
organs and peripheral nerves were normal. The tumors were of a similar histologi-
cal composition. Malignant spindle-shaped cells replaced the muscle tissue
although bundles of degenerating muscle fibers were scattered in some areas.
The tumor cells were relatively long with tapering ends when viewed in longi-
tudinal section, and a very fine fibrillary character of the c\toplasm was noted.
On cross section, the cells were round and, when cut through the nucleus, the
latter occupied approximate!},- one-fourth the space of the cell. Longitudinal or
cross striations were not noted in sections stained with the routine hemato.xylin
and eosin combination. The nuclei of the tumor cells were elongate and some-
what vesicular. Mitotic figures were infrequently noted. The cells lay in rows
parallel to each other but did not tend to arrange themselves in compact bundles
although in some instances the cell processes seemed to anastomose with adjacent
cells. A fibroblastic stroma with well-developed collagen fibers formed a sup-
porting framework for the tumor. A Van Gieson's preparation of sections of the
tumor indicated the myogenic character of the tumor cells, as the cjtoplasm
had the staining property of muscle tissue.

2. T 141. The bird providing material for this case was a 10-month-old
pullet which had given a suspicious reaction to a test for puUorum disease and
was killed for examination. An irregular tumor mass measuring 20 X 15 X 7
mm. was found in the posterior edge of the semitendinosus muscle at about the
middle of the thigh. The tumor was white and relatively firm. Another small
tumor nodule was found on the wall of the small intestine opposite its mesenteric
attachment. In cross sections of the muscle tumor the connective tissue forming
the sheaths of the secondary and tertiary bundles was increased in amount and
restricted lateral growth of the tumor. At the edges of the affected secondary
and tertiary bundles were degenerated muscle fibers, the majority of which had
been replaced by the tumor. The tumor tissue itself was variable in different
areas (Plate XII, Figure 4). In some areas the cells were rather plump and
widely separated by amorphous intercellular material. In other areas the cells
were more compact. In general the cells were elongate and had a fine character-

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IX CHICKENS 37

istic fibrillary structure of the cytoplasm which tended to fray at the ends so that
the extreme ends of the cells were indistinct. Cells in the more compact areas
lacked the fibrillary character of the cytoplasm. Man\- of the tumor cells were
grouped in small parallel bundles, and oftentimes were noted to be concentrically
arranged about an atrophic bundle of muscle fibers. Numerous giant cells were
scattered about. These were not the usual form of giant cell noted in the reaction
to a foreign body. Instead the multiple nuclei were similar to those of the elon-
gate tumor cells and the cytoplasm had the fine fibrillar\- structure noted also
in the other tumor cells. These cells appear to be similar to the Plasmodium t},pe
of giant cell described in some cases of rhabdomyoma found in the human (Rakov
27). Section of the tumor in the wall of the intestine revealed it to be composed of
cells similar to those in the more compact part of the muscle tumor. They tended
to arrange themselves in a s\'ncitium with anastomosing cell processes. At the
edge of the tumor they seemed to join and blend themselves with the musculature
of the wall of the intestine, a considerable portion of which they actualh' re-
placed. \'an Geison's preparations were made of both tumors and a definite
reaction of the tumor cells could not be obtained to identify them as of muscular
origin. No striations could be identified in the ce'ls of either tumor.

The diagnosis of these two cases as rhabdomyoma requires some comment.
Tumors derived from muscle tissue are commxnly grouped under the term m,\-o-
blastoma in a simple classification of tumors. The group is further subdivided
into leiomyoma for those tumors derived from smooth muscle tissue and rhab-
domyoma for those tumors derived from \oluntary or striated muscle tissue.
It is generally recognized that longitudinal and cross striations are a character-
istic of voluntary muscle and their presence in tumor cells derived from muscle
provides a simple, easy means of diagnosing a rhabdomyoma. These cannot
alwa>s be demonstrated; for example, in 17 malignant rhabdomyoblastomas
of man studied h\ Rakov (27) cress striation of the cells cculd not be dem.on-
strated in 9. Cappell and Montgomery (1) discuss this difficulty and suggest
that tumors derived from striated muscle be classified as rhabdomyoma when
cross striations can be demonstrated and as myoblastoma when they cannot
be shown. This conception would not permit classification of leiomyomas under
myoblastoma as is commonly done.

The two cases of tumor described above seem quite clearly to have originated
from voluntary- muscle tissue. In one case the morphology of the cells and their
staining reaction were characteristic. In the other case the txpical staining
reaction could net be demonstrated, >et the morphology of the ribbonlike cells,
the fibrillary appearance of the cytoplasm, and polymorphism were very similar to
that described in rhabdom\oma found in man. Both cases might be considered
simply as myoblastomas; > et in view of their probable derivation from striated
muscle, the term rhabdomyoma is applied to conform to the more simple classi-
fication of tumors.

Mesothelioma

One case of the series was considered a mesothelioma.

1. Case T 157. This was an active, 9-month-old pullet whose only symptom,
of disease was distension of the abdomen. The bird was killed for necropsy.
Approximately 700 ml. of green-tinted yellow fluid was responsible for the ab-
dominal distension. Two tumor masses were found in the abdomen. The smaller
mass was situated en the serosa of the posterio-ventral aspect of the abdomen and
attached by a stalk to a larger mass which in turn was connected by another
stalk to the body wall in the vicinity of the ovary. Both stalks consisted prin-
cipally of blood vessels. The larger tumor measured 5.5 X 4 X 3 cm. and weighed
37 grams. The smaller tumor weighed 12 grams. Both tumors were vascular and
gray-white in color. They were irregular in shape, relatively soft, and contained
small areas of necrosis. A few small cysts filled with clear fluid were noted in the
smaller tumor, to which were also attached some pendulous cysts filled with
organized blood clots. The visceral serosa was somewhat thickened and the

38 MASS. EXPERIiMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

intestinal loops were attached to each other by firm adhesions. The ovary was
inactive and the visceral organs otherwise normal.

The histology of the tumor was somewhat variable. The bulk of the mass
was made up of sheetlike masses of moderate-sized oval or polyhedral cells with
rather pale, round nuclei (Plate IX, Figure 4). In some parts the cells assumed
a cuboidal form and arranged themselves in rows, and in other areas they were
compressed to a spindle form. Areas of hemorrhage and necrosis were found.
The visceral serosa was thickened by a fibrinous covering in which some organ-
ization had taken place.

Melanoma

As mentioned in the section dealing with epithe'ioblastoma, a small melanoma
was found at the base of the tongue in a bird which also had a foetal adenoma of
the thyroid. Both of these tumors were incidental findings in a bird killed for
examination because of laryngotracheitis infection.

1. Case T 101. The bird was a 6-month-old female. The melanoma con-
sisted of a small, encapsulated mass situated in the loose areolar tissue on the
ventral surface of the h\oid bone at the base of the tongue. It attracted atten-
tion because of its black color. The tumor was round and somewhat flattened,
measuring 5 mm. in diameter and 2.5 mm. in thickness. Histologically it con-
sisted of a rather compact mass of cells which appeared to be arranged in the
form of a syncitium. The nuclei varied in size, but in general they were relatively
large, vesicular, and contained distinct nucleoli. There was a variable amount
of black pigment in the cytoplasm of the cells. In some cells this was arranged
in the form of very fine dustlike particles; and in others the granules were coarse,
in some instances entirely obliterating the cell structure (Plate VII, Figure 4).
In general the tumor did not appear to be actively growing and it may be re-
garded as a benign tumor.

Embryonal Nephroma

Embryonal tuniors of the kidneys of the chicken are usually composed of a
mixture of epithelial and connective tissue elements and probably arise as result
of a defect in development of the kidney. There were 21 cases of embryonal
nephroma in this series of tumors of the chicken, 11 of which were females and
10 were males; a sex ratio of 1 to 1. The average age at necropsy was 27.2 weeks
(the youngest case died at 7 weeks and the oldest case was killed for examination
at 50 weeks). Eight of the group were killed at an average age of 19.4 weeks
and the remaining 13 died at an average age of 32.1 weeks. These cases were
somewhat younger than those reported in the literature. For example, Mathews
(18) described a series of 12 cases, 9 of which were in birds between 9 and 24
months old.

The tumor masses were all confined by either the capsule of the kidney or a
well-developed capsule of their own. The size and shape of the tumors varied
considerably (Plate X, Figures 1 and 2). In two instances, no tumor was ap-
parent at the time of necropsy and its presence was revealed only by histological
examination of the kidney. The largest tumor weighed 299 grams and had com-
pletely replaced the kidney. Embryonal nephroma was associated with cysts
of the kidney in four instances. The histological appearance of the cases was
likewise variable, although both connective tissue and epithelial constituents
were present in all. The variations were principally in the relative amounts of
these elements (Plate X. Figures 3 and 4). Keratinization and epithelial pearls
were found in si.x tumors, although in none was this process as well developed
as in the case described by Feldman and Olson (9). In one instance of a unilateral
mass arising from the left kidney, there were many areas of cartilaginous tissue.

The embryonal nephromas were unilateral in 16 of the cases, affecting the left
kidney in 7 instances and the right kidney in 7; while in 2 cases the site was

NEOPLASTIC DISEx\SES IN CHICKENS 39

unknown, as onh' a tumor mass described as coming from the abdominal cavity
was available for examination. Both kidneys had foci of embryonal nephroma
in 5 instances. It is of interest to compare these findings with those of Mathews
(18), for the left kidney only was the site of tumor in the 12 cases described by
him. All of the cases studied by Mathews had shown symptoms of paralysis of
the left leg as a result of pressure on the nerves caused by the tumor mass. Similar
symptoms were noted in three of the cases in this study.

Lymphoc}toma was an associated findmg in four cases of embryonal nephroma,
myelocytoma was present in one case, and fowl paralysis in one. One bird with
embryonal nephroma was found to be also affected with a hormonal disturbance
in which a change in plumage from female to male type had occurred. An ovario-
testis was foimd which was probably responsible for the condition, as described
by Lips^hiitz (15) under the subject of intersexuality of birds. Friedgood and
Uotila (10) have studied such cases of virilism and believe the term "arrheno-
blastoma" should be used when this type of tumor is encountered in the chicken.

Carcinosarcoma

Neoplasms composed of both malignant epithelial and malignant connective
tissue elements, or mixed tumors have been diagnosed as carcinosarcoma in this
survey. These interesting tumors offer much more material for study and com-
ment than can be adequately covered in this brief discussion. The pathogenesis
of carcinosarcoma would be an interesting subject for detailed study.

The diagnosis of carcinosarcoma was made in seven cases of neoplasia en-
countered during the course of this survey. A short description of the pertinent
pathology of each will give a better picture of the disease than a general dis-
cussion.

1. T 95. A 20-month-old hen was found dead. Numerous small, firm, gray-
white nodules a few millimeters in diameter were scattered over the peritoneal
surfaces of the viscera, particularly concentrated about the pancreas. A firm,
tough, fibrous tumor mass was found in the ventral ligament of the oviduct and
proved to be a leiomyoma. A cross section through the pancreas showed the
pancreatic tissue to be m.arkedly compressed and reduced by an encircling mass
of neoplastic tissue consisting principally of fibroblasts and a few well-defined
epithelial elements which tended to form tubules and acini. At one point the
musculature of the duodenum was penetrated and the tumor infiltrated the sub-
mucosa. Epithelial elements of the tumor were much more in evidence in the
peritoneal implants of the tumor. Van Gieson's picric acid fuchsin method for
differentiating between connective tissue and muscle fibers was applied to the
tumors. The tumor of the mesosalpinx was made up entirely of muscle fibers.
The mixed tumors of the serosa contained a small amount of muscle fibers in
addition to the connective tissue and epithelial elements.

2. T 239. A hen died at the age of 19^ months. A firm, tough, fibrous
mass measuring 50 X 30 X 30 mm. was found in the ventral ligament of the
oviduct. The mass was well encapsulated and consisted of n,eopla9tic smooth
muscle cells. On the visceral surface of this tumor was a small area of carcinoma.
The serosa of the viscera was covered with many small, white, firm nodules that
tended to become confluent in man\' areas, especially over the pancreas and
duodenum and in the ileocecal ligaments. These nodules represented mixed
tumors composed of epithelial cells and connective tissue with varying amounts
of each in different locations. A Van Gieson's preparation indicated the absence
of muscle tissue in the mixed tumor.

3. T 283. The hen was about 22 months old at the time of its death. A
marked ascites was present (approximately 450 ml.) consisting of slightly turbid
straw-colored fluid. A rounded, firm mass, 22 mm. in diameter, was found in the
ventral ligament of the oviduct, which proved to be composed of smooth muscle
cells. There were two small nodules about 5 to 7 mm. in diameter on the visceral
aspect of the oviduct 2 cm. from the cloacal orifice. The serosa of the visceral
organs was covered with many small, firm nodules, confluent in some areas and

40 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

particularly common about the duodenum and pancreas and ileocecal ligaments.
The smaller nodules of tumor on the oviduct and serosa were composed principally
of epithelial elements, varying in different sites from undifferentiated carcinoma
cells to fairly well organized glandular structures. Another element of the
smaller nodules was compressed spindle-shaped cells. The majority of these
spindle-shaped cells gave the chemical reaction of connective tissue with the
Van Gieson method. Scattered throughout and intermingled with the connec-
tive tissue fibers were a few cells which had the distinctive yellow color of muscle
cells.

4. S 253. A hen, 27 months old, was killed for examination because of a large
pendulous abdomen. The enlargement of the abdomen was found to be due to
the accumulation of approximately 800 ml. of ascitic fluid. Numerous small,
firm nodules were scattered on the visceral peritoneum (Plate XII, Figure 1).
The ovary was represented by an irregular mass of firm nodules. The tumors on
the peritoneum and the ovarian tumor were found to be made up of both epithelial
acini and connective tissue cells, among which were scattered a few cells with the
tinctoral properties of muscle tissue. A leiomyoma, 20,mm. in diameter, composed
of muscle cells only was found in the mesosalpinx.

5. S 36. A 26-month-old hen was killed for examination because of general
symptoms of debility. A marked ascites was found. The mesentery was covered
with nodular, firm, gray-white tissue and the o\ary was represented by a mass
of similar tissue. The neoplasm consisted of epithelial cells forming small im-
perfect acini supported by a framework of compressed spindle-shaped connective
tissue cells, among which were scattered small irregular collections of smooth
muscle cells.

6. Q 1621. The hen died at the age of 55 months. The carcass was emaciated .
An irregular tumor mass of the mesentery and thickening of the wall of the in-
testine had caused an almost complete obstruction to the lumen of the duodenum.
The ovary was involved with a similar tissue and measured approximateh'
50 X 45 X 30 mm. The neoplasm was made up of carcinoma cells forming irreg-
ular tubules and acini, connective tissue cells, and a few smooth muscle cells
(Plate XII, Figure 3).

7. Case 922. A 31 -month-old hen with a distended abdomen was killed for
examination. A marked ascites was present. Two multilocular cysts were found
in the abdominal cavity, which seemed to be attached to the mesentery. Many
small, firm nodules were scattered on the serosa of the viscera. Both adrenals
were enlarged and infiltrated with gray tissue. The tumor consisted of a mixture
of adenocarcinoma and spindle-celled sarcoma tissue. Van Gieson's preparations
indicated scattered collections of muscle cells among sarcoma cells of the con-
nective tissue framework. This case has been previously described (23), and at
that time the possibility that the tumor had arisen from displaced embryonic
mesonephric tissue was considered. The character of the tumor and the involve-
ment of the adrenals cause the case to be different from the other carcinosarcomas
described above.

Information on egg production was available on five cf the cases of carcino-
sarcoma. The data are listed in Table 18. The hens were good producers, the
average index of production being 0.575 which is higher than the index of 0.534
for the flock from which these birds were derived.

All of t*he birds affected with carcinosarcoma were of advanced age, ranging
from approximately 78 to 220 weeks at the time of examination, and averaging
about 115 weeks in age. As a group they are the oldest represented among the
various forms of neoplasia. The next oldest group was those birds affected with
carcinoma, with an average age of 75.5 weeks.

These tumors which have been grouped as carcinosarcomas may be regarded
as an entity for the purpose of classification. A feature common to all the cases
was the widespread implantation of the mixed tumors on the serosal covering of
the viscera, as well as the marked proliferative activity of the sarcomatous ele-
ments. The ovary, pancreas, and adrenal were the only visceral organs affected
by the tumor and it would appear that the epithelial elements of the tumor must
have been derived from these organs. In three cases the ovary alone was affected

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS

41

Table 18. — Data on Egg Production of Chickens with Carcinosarcoma.

Productive life is the interval between first and last eggs laid.
Production index is the factor obtained by dividing the number of eggs laid
by the productive life in days.

Case No.

Age at
Necropsy

(Days)

Productive

Life

(Days)

Number of Production
Eggs Laid Index

Interval from

Last Egg to

Necropsy

(Days)

S36

*K 730

528

255

483

24

Q1621

D 1542

1197

584

488

149

**T 283

D 606

383

270

705

4

**S 253

K 747

510

249

488

33

**T 95

D 557

326

231

709

12

Average. .

836

589

318

575

44

*K indicates that bird was killed for examination; D, that it died.
**Also leiomyoma in mesosalpinx.

and must be regarded as the primary site of origin; the same applies for the
pancreas in two cases and the adrenal in one. In the remaining case both the
ovary and pancreas were involved. An interesting and complicating factor
was the finding of a leiomyoma of the mesosalpinx in four of the cases. For con-
venience the distribution of lesions is arranged in tabular form (Table 19).

Table 19. — Distribution in Seven Cases of Carcinosarcom.\.

Case No.

Ovary

Pancreas

*T95

**Mi.Ked

M ixed

T 239

Mixed

*T283

Mixed

*S253

Mixed

*S36

Mixed

*Q 1621

M ixed

922

Organ or Tissues -Effected
Adrenal

Mixed

Serosa

Mesosalpinx

Mixed

Leiomyoma

Mixed

Leiomyoma

Mixed

Leiomyoma

Mixed

Leiomyoma

Mixed

Mixed

♦Smooth muscle cells intermingled with connective tissue in substance of tumor.
**Tumor composed of a mixture of epithelial and connective tissue.

Jackson (13) has given an excellent description and discussion of a type of
disease which he terms "carcinoma leiomyomatosum." Four such cases were
found in the collecti.Jn which he studied. One of Jackson's cases is of particular
significance with respect to the pathogenesis of mixed tumors. In this case the
adenomatous tumor was believed to have originated in the wall of the oviduct,
spread by direct extension to the serous surfaces of the visceral organs, and
invaded the substance of the ovary and pancreas. In these locations there was an
abundance of neaplastic-like smooth muscle tissue suppK ing the stroma for the
epithelial elements. Tumor foci were also found in the liver, but they were com-
posed only of epithelial elements. On the basis of this case Jackson came to the

42 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

conclusion that the epithelial fraction of carcinoma leiomyomatosum was the
primary element of neoplasia which was capable of stimulating a local prolifera-
tion of pre-existing muscle tissue. Thus the mixed tumor did not spread as such,
but only the epithelial part was capable of growing when transplanted to a new
site. Nodular foci on the serosa composed of muscular tissue only as well as
nodules of mixed tissues were found in another case by Jackson. He explaine:!
the presence of pure muscle tumors b\ endowing the muscular elements with a
greater growth energy to the extent that the epithelial elements although orig-
inally present were later overgrown and destro\ed.

The seven cases of carcinosarcoma here described are different from the cases
discussed by Jackson in that the smooth muscle in the mixed tumors was small
in amount. The leiomyoma of the mesosalpinx in four of the cases appeared to
be identical with that found in old hens with a history of heavy egg production.
It does not seem logical to explain their origin as due to a stimulus from an im-
plant of carcinoma which later regressed, for other nodules of pure muscle tissue
did not occur. Although in two instances a small amount of epithelial tumor
was found at the edge of the leiomj'mas of the mesosalpinx, these can not be re-
garded as mixed tumors but would appear to represent implants of the carcinoma
on the serous covering of the leiomyoma. Leiomyoma of the mesosalpinx in
birds also affected with another type of tumor is not unusual. Among the 14
cases of carcinoma in this collection were two such instances (T 16 and T 294,
Table 15). Two similar cases are listed in Appendix C of the monograph by Jack-
son (13).

Use of the term carcinosarcoma for this group of tumors may be open to ques-
tion. The presence of smooth muscle and connective tissue in an apparent stage
of neoplasia would exclude the cases from the classification of scirrhous car-
cinoma. The more abundant amount of connective tissue elements does not
permit application of Jackson's term "carcinoma leiomyomatosum." Joest and
Ernesti (14) described a case which may be similar to these as "sarcoma car-
cinomatodes." For the present at least the term carcinosarcoma seems to be
appropriate t3 indicate a tumcr made up of mixed elements in which the epithelial
part as well as the connective tissue and muscular parts have assumed a state
of malignancy.

Teratoma

One case of teratoma was found.

1. Case T 307. A year-and-a-half-old male was killed for examination,
and before death had been noted to be weak, depressed, and inactive. The
posterior half of the left testis was represented by a large mass measuring 13 X
10 X 7 cm. and the entire structure weighed 606 grams (Plate I, Figure 5). The
tumor was well encapsulated and had a glistening irregular surface roughened
by nodules. The cut surface of the tumor showed many small scattered areas of
dry necrosis. In general the color was gray-white. Many small cysts up to
2 mm. in diameter were noted. Small patches of cartilagenous tissue could be
felt when the finger tips were rubbed over the cut surface. The left vas deferens
and epididymis could not be located in the region of the tumor. The right gonad
was normal. The histolog>' of the tumor was extremely variable with a bizarre
mixture of various types of tissue. There were many small islands of well-de-
veloped cartilage, numerous irregularly formed acini lined with columnar epi-
thelium. Some of these were distended with granular material and the cells
lining such areas had vacuoles (probably secretory) in their cytoplasm. A con-
siderable portion of the tumor was made up of connective tissue cells varying
in form from slightly differentiated stellate cells to spindle-shaped fibroblasts.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS

43

GENERAL DISCUSSION

Incidence

The material studied provides some information on the incidence of tumors.
A number of variable factors influence statistics on this subject, and it is obvious
that very few factors likely to affect the rate of neoplasia can be recognized and
controlled in material such as that with which we were dealing. Despite these
limitations the data are sufficient to merit examination.

Table 20. — Relative INCIDE^"CE of Neoplasms in Collections A, B, and C
Correlated with Source.

Type of
Neoplasia

A and B Combined C

Entire Series

Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent Number Number Percent
of of Birds of of Birds of of Birds of of of Total

Cases Examined Cases Examined Cases Examined Cases Cases Neoplasms
(1781) (523) (2304) Found

(384)

Lymphocytoma 112 6.29

Leiomyoma.... 11 .62
Embryonal

nephroma. . . 13 .73

Myelocytoma . . 14 .78

Leukosis 14 .78

Epithelio-

blastoma. ... 10 .56

Fibrosarcoma. . 12 .67

Carcinosarcoma 2 .11
Neurogenic

sarcoma. .... 3 .17

Hemangioma... 4 .22

Fibroma 3 .17

Cholangioma. . . 3 .17

Hepatoma 2 .11

Histiocytic

sarcoma 3 .17

Myxoma 2 .11

Thymoma 2 .11

Rhabdomyoma 2 .11
Osteochondro-
sarcoma 1 .055

Fibrochondro-

sarcoma 0

Melanoma 1 .055

Lymphangioma 1 .055

Mesothelioma.. 1 .055

Teratoma 0

Total 216 12.1

36

6. 89

148

6.41

65

213

55.5

21

4.02

32

1.39

2

34

8.9

1

.19

14

61

7

21

5.5

3

.57

17

.74

3

20

5.2

3

.57

17

.74

2

19

4.9

7

1.34

17

.74

0

17

4.4

2

.38

14

.61

2

16

4.1

5

.96

7

.30

0

7

1.9

0

3

.13

2

5

1.3

0

4

.17

1

5

1.3

1

.19

4

.17

1

5

1.3

0

3

.13

1

4

1.0

0

2

.09

1

3

.79

0

3

.13

0

3

.79

0

2

.09

0

2

.52

0

2

.09

0

2

.52

0

2

.09

0

2

.52

0

1

.04

0

1

.26

1

.19

.04

0

.26

0

.04

0

.26

0

.04

0

.26

0

.04

0

.26

1

.19

.04

0

.26

The relative incidence of the different varieties of neoplasia is indicated in
Table 20. In addition to the numbers of different types of neoplasia found in
collections A, B, and C, the frequency of incidence is calculated according to the
source of material. Since collection C was derived from miscellaneous sources,
data on relative frequency were not available. In order to provide a larger sample
from which to obtain information on incidence as related to breed, sex, age, and
season, the data for collections A and B were pooled. The distribution of all
chickens over six weeks of age examined in the material providing collections
A and B is given in Table 21, with respect to breed, age, and season of necropsy.
Comparable data on the neoplastic diseases f round in collections A and B are
given in Table 22.

Only a few varieties of neoplasia are represented in sufficient numbers to justify
an attempt at judging their rate of incidence in birds examined for disease. These
are lymphocytoma, embryonal nephroma, myelocytoma, leukosis, and fibro-

44

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 39i

sarcoma. The rate of incidence of these tumors was essentially similar in col-
lections A and B. Leiomyoma, epithelioblastoma, and carcinosarcoma seemed
to be relatively more common in chickens from the source of collection B and
may be regarded as types of neoplasia associated with advanced age (the average
ages of birds in which such tumors were found were 66.5, 67.1, and 114.1 weeks,
respectively, Table 22). The greater incidence of these tumors in collection B is
probably due to the different proportion of old birds examined. More than twice
as many birds over 12 months of age were examined from the source of collection
B (237 birds) as from the source of collection A (1 10 birds). Embryonal nephroma
appeared to be more common in birds of collection A, but the addition of one or
two more cases to collection B would have raised the incidence rate to a level
comparable with that of collection A.

Therefore, collections A and B were essentialK' similar with respect to the
incidence of the commoner forms of neoplasia.

In considering all forms of neoplasia, lymphocytoma was the most common
(55.5 percent of 384 tumors studied). Although none of the other types of neo-
plasia were of striking frequency, six other varieties (leiomyoma, embryonal
nephroma, myelocytoma, leukosis, epithelioblastoma, and fibrosarcoma) ac-
counted for 3i percent of the tumors.

Table 21. — Distribution of Chickens over Six Weeks of Age Examined

FOR Disease. Arranged x-Xccording to Age, Breed, Sex, and Quarter of

Year When Necropsied.

Collections A and B of Neoplasms were obtained from these birds.

Distribution by Breed

,

Distributi

on

Distribution by

by Sex

Quarter of Year

£

•s

u
o

05

o

o
Pi
s:

a
o

4-»
C

o

2

o

0)

T3
D

•a
o

12 3 4

W

^

—

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3 3

a

3
O

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11

<

6

•z

"ca
o
H

3i

a!

03

o

U

>>

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IS
>

u

-J
11

>

5
X

t
2

Vj o
.2 2

"a

V

13

1^

o
c

X

11

2— 3

555

285

86

103

9

9

4

59

137

102

316

94* 226 161 74*

4— 6

409

272

41

49

16

10

6

15

323

54

32

14* S3* 247 95

7— 9

567

413

70

47

13

7

15

2

509

44

14

103 8* 109* 347

10—12

426

303

38

19

16

14

3

3i

324

72

30

247 103 25* 51*

13—15

145

127

10

7

4

2

120

17

8

2* 93 50 0

16—18

79

65

5

4

3

->

74

5

0

0 0 58 21

19—21

46

43

1

2

33

13

0

14 0 0 32

22—24

34

32

2

26

7

1

20 13 0 1*

254-

43

40

1

1

1

29

14

0

7 15 12 9

Total

2304

1580

251

226

59

48

28

112

1575

328

401

501 511 662 630

*No chickens from Collection B are represented in these groups.

Breed

Neoplasia was found in only three breeds to an extent sufficient to warrant
detailed study of the data. The difficulty of dealing with small figures again
presents itself. A preliminary examination of the data in Tables 21 and 22 in-
dicated that comparisons should be made of the incidence of lymphocytoma,
myelocytoma, fibrosarcoma, and leukosis. The comparison was drawn and the

-0&

11

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f. — 0!N — — c — ccccoccc

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CCtNCCCC — ccccc — —

O' r^ iTi in f^^ rf-, r
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tSm « ■* tN Tf — (

S[BUJ

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(DOS 1)

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2 ^5 5 S'll «

46

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

results tend to indicate a relatively high incidence ot lymphocytoma in cross-
bred birds, the majority of which were the progeny from mating Rhode Island
Reds with Barred Plymouth Rocks (Table 23). Several factors would influence
this result ; for example, the age group of birds examined and the number of flocks
and breeding strains represented would be of significance. When the com-
parison between breeds was drawn and the frequency of incidence of lympho-
cytoma was based upon the cases found in the age group of from 7 to 12 months,
the figures obtained were 9.9 percent for Rhode Island Red, 10.4 percent for
Barred Plymouth Rock, and 13.6 percent for crossbred chickens. The difference
was still apparent, and became more significant when the source of material was
considered. The 103 cases of lymphocytoma in Rhode Island Red chickens
came from not more than 48 sources (flocks or breeding strains) or an average of
2.14 cases per source. The 22 cases of hmphocytoma in crossbred birds were
obtained from not more than 10 sources averaging 2.2 cases per source. The
14 cases in Barred Plymouth Rock chickens came from not more than 8 sources
or an average of approximately 1.7 birds per source. Since the cases in Barred
Plymouth Rock birds came from relatively fewer sources, it seems that the figure
for incidence in the breed may be slightly too high. The result at least indicates
need of more data.

T.\BLE 23. — Incidence of Neoplasia with Respect to Breed.
Data from Collections A and B.

Rhode Island

Barred

Cross Bred

.All Breeds in

Red

Plymouth Rock
Number Percent

A and B

Type of

Number Percent

Number Percent

Numbet

■ Percent

Neoplasm

of

of Group

of

of Group

of

of Group

of

of Group

Cases

Examined

Cases Examined

Cases

Examined

Cases

Examined

(1580)

(251)

(226)

(2304)

Lymphocytoma

103

6.52

14

5.58

22

9.74

148

6.42

Myelocytoma. .

12

.76

5

1.99

0

0

17

.74

Fibrosarcoma. .

7

.44

4

1.59

3

1.33

17

.74

Leukosis

9

.57

4

1.59

•7

.89

14

.61

All neoplasms*.

214

13.55

33

13.15

34

15.0

297

12.9

♦Includes all those listed in Table 22.

The results for myelocytoma, fibrosarcoma, and leukosis, indicating a lower
relative incidence in Rhode Island Red chickens, are based on too few examples
to be regarded as definitely significant.

Age at Necropsy

The averages together with the low and high values for age at necropsy of
chickens affected with the various tumors are listed in Table 22. It may be
noted that certain tumors were more apt to be found in birds of a given age group
than others. For example, lymphocytoma, embryonal nephroma, and myelo-
cytoma appear to have been more common in birds 8 to 10 months of age; fibro-
sarcoma in a slightly older age group; and leukosis in birds about one year of
age. Leiomyoma, epithelioblastoma, and carcinosarcoma were characterized
by their occurrence in older birds.

Mathews (17) stated that the myelocytoma cases studied by him were found
principally in birds less than one year of age; whereas Ij'mphocytoma was found
in birds of all ages. The present data support his claim, for the oldest bird in
which myelocytoma was found was aged 56 weeks. The average of one year for
the age of 12 birds with spontaneous leukosis found by Feldman and Olson (8) is

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 47

substantiated b}' the present study. Gass (11) as well as others had prev^iously
noted the tendency for epithelial tumors to be found in birds over one year of age.

The small number of cases of other varieties of neoplasia does not permit definite
conclusions on the subject of age. However, nearly all of the other types were
found in birds less than one year of age.

Sex

Tumor incidence becomes quite difficult to correlate with the factor of sex for
several reasons. Although approximately equal numbers of male and female
chickens are obtained at the time of hatching, a variety of conditions immediately
enter to cause a change of the 1:1 ratio. Some commercial hatcheries separate
the chicks into male and female groups immediately upon hatching and may sell
either according to dem.ands of the buyer. Some poultrymen raise only males,
which are disposed of as broilers at a comparatively early age. Others raise only
females, which are held for varying periods in egg-producing flocks. Still other
poultrymen raise both males and females to broiler age or to sexual maturity
(4 to 6 months). The flock may then be reduced to a point where only a rela-
tively few males are retained for breeding purposes. The ratio of males to females
may vary greatly in such flocks from 1:4 to 1:10. These factors and probably
others influenced the relative numbers of males and females e.xamined in the
laboratory and in turn would influence the results obtained in the survey. While
a ratio of 1 male to 4.8 females may be calculated for all birds examined in the
laboratory, the ratio varied markedly (from 1:1.4 to 1:14) in the dift'erent age
groups (calculated from data in Table 21).

Despite these diflficulties some conclusions seem warranted from examination
of the data on sex in Table 22. Leiomyoma was found only in females,- and
epithelioblastoma was found 16 times in females and only once in a male, strongly
suggesting a tendency for these diseases to occur principally in females. Both
tumors were often found in female reproductive organs and the preponderance of
females with these tumors was, therefore, not surprising.

Embryonal nephroma was found relativeh" more often in males (6 cases) than
in females (8 cases). The sex ratio of 1 male to 1.3 females for this tumor may be
compared to the ratio of 1:4.8 among birds e.xamined whose ages were from 2
to 12 months (272 males and 1293 females, Table 21). Such a comparison is
logical, for such tumors were found in birds of this age group (Table 22).

The sex ratios in m3'eloc\toma, leukosis, and fibrosarcoma were not greatly/
different from that of all birds examined in the comparable age group.

The question of sex in relation to lymphocytoma presents a problem in analysis.
Most investigators commenting on the subject have stated that lymphocytoma
appears as often in males as in females when the relative number of each sex in the
general poultry population is taken into account. A similar conclusion could be
drawn from the present study if one considered only the entire group of 213
cases among which were 20 males and 193 females, a ratio of 1 :9.7. This ratio of
approximately 1:10 is perhaps not greatly dissimilar from what might be ex-
pected to exist in the population of many general poultr\' farms. However, the
question cannot be dismissed so lightly, for among 148 cases of lymphocytoma
in collections A and B only 5 males were found with the disease as compared to
143 females, a ratio of 1 :29. No such disproportionate ratio existed in any of
the age groups of birds examined (Table 21). This was indeed a surprising result.
Although the number of males e.xamined (328) was small, 30 cases of lympho-
cytoma should have been found among males if the rate of 9.1 percent incidence
for females (143 cases among 1575 examined) could be applied to males. The low
rate of incidence for males in collections A and B indicates the need for careful
analysis. For example, the addition of cases from collection C completely changed

48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

the sex ratio in lymphocytoma and led to an entireh' different result. Collection
C could not logicalK' be included, however, for the group was drawn from sources
entirely dissimilar from collections A and B. The literature contains no data
with which to compare these findings save the general comment previously
mentioned which has often been made, to the effect that no evidence suggests
a difference between male and female in incidence of lymphocytoma. These
statements are not accompanied by figures and hence provide no basis for com-
parison. The data from this survey suggest that the question should be ex-
amined and satisfactory information accumulated to provide a definite answer.

Seasonal Occurrence

Schneider (29) observed an increase in frequenc}' of tumor between Ma>' and
October and a decrease between November and Apri', which she associated with
the increased ovarian function of egg laying during the spring and summer. Dif-
ferent authors have discussed an apparent relation between season of the year
and the occurrence of leukosis in chickens (21). Other than these comments,
there is little information in the literature on seasonal occurrence of spontaneous
neoplasia in chickens.

The distribution according to age and quarter of year at necropsy of 2304 birds
examined in the laboratory is given in Table 21. Comparable data on birds
affected with tumors are given in Table 22. The year was divided into four
quarters in which the first quarter included January, February, and March,
the second quarter the following three months and so on to the fourth quarter
which included October, November and December. Computations to determine
the significance of the findings become involved with many factors.

Since the factor of age is of importance with respect to the incidence of the
various types of tumors, it must be considered in attempting to determine the
effect of season upon rate of incidence of tumors. The data on quarterly inci-
dence of seven types of neoplasia together with the total number of neoplasms
are given in Table 24. An attempt is made to compensate for the factor of age,
bv estimating the incidence of the respective types of neoplasia in only the age
group in which each type of tumor was actually encountered. Since the borders
of the age groups of birds examined do not exactly coincide in all instances with
the oldest and youngest ch'cken affected with tumor, the incidence rate is not pre-
ciselv accurate. The number of cases of neoplasia and number of birds examined

Table 24. — Correlation Between Quarter of Year and Incidence of
Neoplasms Among the Chickens Examined.

Incidence Expressed in Percent of
Age Group Group Examined and Found Affected

Neoplasm of Birds

Examined First Second Third Fourth

(Months) Quarter Quarter Quarter Quarter

Lvmphocvtoma 2-25+ 8.4 3.7 5.9 7.6

Leiomyoma 7-25+ 1.28 3.9 5 1 1.08

Embryonal nephroma . . 2-12 .22 .27 .92 1.23

Myelocytoma 2-15 .87 .62 .85 .88

Leukosis 4-25-f .49 2.10 .60 1.08

Epithelioblastoma 2-25 -f .80 .59 45 1.11

Fibrosarcoma 2-21 .21 1.03 .46 .81

All neoplasms* 2-25+ 13.1 10.0 12.1 15.9

♦Includes all those listed in Table 22.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 49

are too small to be regarded as a representative sample indicative of the true
condition for all chickens. In view of these facts, the results are suggestive only.

The quarterly incidence for all tumors in birds examined varied from 10 to
15.9 percent, indicating little effect of season upon incidence of tumors. However,
when the seven types of tumor on which usable information was available were
considered, there was only one (myelocytoma) in which season seemed to have no
effect. Season or quarter of year seemed to have an irregular effect on the inci-
dence of other neoplasms. Thus the incidence of lymphocytoma was high in the
first and fourth quarters, leiomyoma high in third quarter, embryonal nephroma
high in the fourth quarter, leukosis high in the second quarter, epithelial tumors
high in the fourth quarter, and fibrosarcoma high in the second quarter. The
similarity of incidence b}' quarters in leukosis and fibrosarcoma is of interest, for
these two neoplasms were the only ones to show comparable rates of incidence.

These findings cannot be regarded as conclusive and merely suggest the need
for further information.

Distribution of Lesions

The data on all cases of neoplasia were compiled to give information on two
items; namely, the frequency of involvement of organs and tissues and the
varieties of neoplasia found in different organs and tissues. These data are given
in Table 25. The greatest variety (nine different kinds) of tumors was found
in the musculature. The liver, gonad, and skin and subcutis each were affected
with eight varieties of tumor; and the kidney, peritoneum, and intestine with seven.
Six kinds of tumor were found in the lung and five in the heart. Four varieties
were found in the spleen, adrenal, and pancreas. Three varieties were found
affecting the blood, bone marrow, oviduct and its ligament, thymus, thyroid,
parathyroid, and nerve tissue. The relative frequency of involvement of organs
and tissues is indicated in Table 25 where they are listed in the descending order
of frequency of involvement. The large number of cases of lymphocytoma had
a marked effect on this arrangement since it was the most common type of tumor.

The distribution of lesions in the collection of neoplasms provides material that
may be a useful guide in diagnosis. For example, the liver was the organ most
frequently affected with new growths and although eight varieties of neoplasia
were found, the most common type was lymphocytoma. This suggests that
a neoplastic process in the liver is quite apt to be lymphocytoma and the sug-
gestion can be tested b\- further consideration of the gross characteristics of the
process and involvement of other tissues and organs. A similar analysis may be
made with respect to other organs or tissues found affected with neoplasia.
Obviously, of course, such generalizatioas are subject to error; yet they provide
a basis for a rational method of arriving at a tentative diagnosis of a neoplasm
as discussed in the next section.

Correlation between Tentative and Final Diagnoses

In order to obtain information on the reliability of diagnoses of neoplasia
based only upon macroscopic examination, a plan to test this point was followed
during the collection of most of the cases included in the survey. A tentative
diagnosis was given each case at the time of necropsv- and this was later correlated
with the final diagnosis made after histological examination.

The results of this phase of the study are given in Table 26. The principal
factors utilized in making the tentative diagnosis were the situation of the tumor
and the consistency, texture, color, general character, and distribution of the le-
sions. Such factors as age of the bird and length of illness were given minor con-

50

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

Table 25. — Distribution of Lesions in 384 Cases of Neoplasia Found in

365 Chickens.

Organs or Tissues
Involved

E -5

::: Bj ^ —

•7- — O

a E

:£ nJ <Lj (u

■f. S E E
o c c ^

E E

n ni M o

O XI -c

(D 'Z. JZ

V ^j

3 n

SB

1— (U

(1) >

nl

n

F

o

c c

Total Number

of Cases 213 34 24 21 20 19 16

Liver 116 1 7 16 19 2

Kidney 108 21 8 9 3

Gonad 112 10 13

Spleen 93 12 19

Peritoneum 64 6 12 6

Blood 45 20 19

Bone marrow 42 15*19

Adrenal 62 1 4

Intestine 42 2 5 3 1

Lung 41 2 5 1

Musculature 18 1 6 17

Oviduct 3 34

Pancreas 26 5 3

Heart 24 1 2

Skin and Subcutis .17 1 11

Bursa of Fabricius. 24

Proventriculus. ... 22

Thymus 11 6

Thyroid 10 1 5

Parathyroid 4 1 8

Upper respiratory

tract 2

Skull 2

Miscellaneous It

Nerves:

Anterior

Mesenteric. . . 50 4

Brachial 47

Lumbar 43

Ischiadic 23

Vagus 23

of Remak 20

It

2 2 2 1111

It

*Examined in only 15 cases.

tBrain.

JDorsal root ganglia of thoracic nerve.

^Tongue

45.

5

41.

6

1 39

,2

34.

3

26,

8

23,

0

20

8

18

6

15

.1

14

.0

10

.4

10

.4

10

.1

7

.9

6

.6

6

.6

6

.0

5

.2

4

.4

3

.6

15.1

13.1

12.3

6.8

6.3

5.5

sideration. The characteristics of some types of neoplasia overlap so that dif-
ferentiation is difficult. Many tentative diagnoses based on macroscopic observa-
tions were considered questionable when made and were later found to be erron-
eous. Accurate identification of some cases of neoplasia from gross examination
is particularly difficult when the lesions differ considerably from those character-
istic for the tumcr. It is pertinent to mention that no attempt at correlation of
tentative and final diagnosis was made until the entire collection had been studied,
thereby eliminating the possibility of the earlier experience influencing the
tentative diagnoses made during the subsequent period of collection. This
experience would unquestionably lead to more accurate tentative diagnoses.
Several of the incorrect diagnoses appearing in the table were not actual errors
in interpretation, but were the result of concomitant tumors, the lesions cf which
were not given sufficiently serious consideration. In other instances, neoplasms
which were not suspected on macroscopic examination at the time of necropsy
were detected later by microscopic examination. This suggests that unrecog-
nized neoplasms may have been present in some birds considered negative for

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>^'53 c jl" oj C:S rt oj a^ -^ j:: o .2 -'■^'^ V "-' 5, ^ o"

52 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

tumors. The number of cases of neoplastic disease which passed unobserved in
the present survey cannot be estimated, j'et some may have occurred. Careful
consideration was given to all material at the time of necropsy before it was re-
jected as non-neoplastic. Many suspicious cases which later proved to be other
than neoplastic in character were included for histological study. Differentiation
between neoplastic and non-neoplastic conditions from macroscopic examination
is usually considered fairly simple. It will be noted, however, that some errors
were made in such differentiation in the present survey. Bacteriological and other
examinations to determine the etiology of lesions will sometimes assist in dif-
ferentiating between neoplastic and non-neoplastic conditions. However,
since neoplasia and granuloma may exist simultaneously in the same bird, the
diagnosis of a granulomatous process does not necessarily eliminate the exis-
tence of neoplasia in a given chicken.

The degree of accuracy of tentative diagnoses as shown in Table 26 represents
two correlations calculated from the data. One correlation indicates the per-
centage accuracy of recognition of cases actually found to be the respective types
of neoplasia. For example, 108 of 153 lymphocytomas were recognized on
macroscopic examination as lymphocytoma (71 percent). The other correlation
indicates percentage accuracy of all tentative diagnoses. For example, 127
tentative diagnoses of lymphocytoma were made and 108 cases proved to be
lymphocytoma (85 percent). Correct tentative diagnoses were made in 182 of
301 instances of neoplastic and non-neoplastic diseases thus indicating a degree
of accuracy of 60.4 percent. The degree of accuracy varied considerabl}-. To
illustrate, leiomyoma and embryonal nephroma were usually correctly recog-
nized, whereas epithelioblastoma and fibrosarcoma were not.

A rather high degree of accuracy was obtained in the tentative diagnosis of
lymphocytoma, since 108 of the 153 cases of lymphocytoma were correctly
identified. The -45 which were not correctly identified were confused with a
wide variety of conditions (Table 26). The differentiation between lymphocytoma
and myelocytoma on macroscopic features alone should not as a rule be difficult
(Plates II and IV). In an occasional lymphocytoma with an extremely diffuse
character, relatively soft texture, and unusually white color, the absence of
periosteal involvement should be of assistance in differentiation. When this
characteristic of periosteal involvement is not present in cases of myelocytoma,
differentiation may be difficult. Although only eight of the fifteen myelocytomas
(53 percent) were recognized at the time of necropsy and eight of the seventeen
tentative diagnoses of myelocytoma proved correct (47 percent), this type of
tumor usually has distinguishing characteristics and should be more readily
identified on gross examination. Eleven of the sixteen cases of leukosis were
identified (69 percent) and the same proportion of tentative diagnoses of leukosis
proved to be correct. Leukosis may at times be difficult to differentiate from
lymphocytoma if blood smears are not examined. The three cases of leukosis
which were called lymphocytoma were quite similar. A brief description indicates
the lack of differential features in these cases. In each the moderately enlarged
liver was reddish-brown in color with a diffuse gray stippling, the bone marrow
grayish red, the spleen slightly or moderately enlarged, and the kidne>s uniformly
swollen. Such a description might obtain for either disease and the correct differen-
tial diagnosis of such cases may be extremely difficult without the aid of histologi-
cal examination. Leukosis was confused also with granulomatous and inflammatory
liver changes in a limited number of cases. Texture and consistency are important
factors in the differentiation between lymphocytoma, epithelioblastoma, and
fibrosarcoma, particularly in cases involving the abdominal organs such as the
peritoneum, pancreas, and ovary. Epithelioblastoma and fibroblastoma are
usually very firm and may be particularly difficult to differentiate from each

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 53

other. Histiocytic sarcomas and carcinosarcomas may also be included in this
group which may require microscopic examination for accurate identification.

A nodular type of tumor found widespread over the peritoneum, usually in-
volving abdominal organs and associated with considerable ascites, proved to
be either carcinosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, or carcinoma (Plate VIII, Figure 1;
Plate XII, Figure 1). Satisfactory criteria for distinguishing these tumors on
macroscopic examination could not be established. Fibrosarcom.a proved partic-
ularly difficult to identify accurately on macroscopic examination. Only five
of the twenty-five diagnoses proved correct (20 percent), and five of the eleven
fibrosarcomas were recognized on macroscopic examination (45 percent). Of the
inaccurate tentative diagnoses, eleven proved to be lymphocytoma and the
remainder were principally other neoplasms of connective tissue origin.

Leiomyomas involving the ventral ligament of the oviduct usually were prop-
erly recognized (Plate XII, Figure 2). Leiom\omas occurring in the wall of the
oviduct, in the intestine, and in other locations might be more difficult to identify
from macroscopic examination.

The gross character of embryonal nephroma is quite variable and might lead
to incorrect interpretation (Plate X. Figures 1 and 2). However, encapsulated
tumors arising from the kidney or its vicinit\-, even though the base be narrow
or the attachment rather loose, can be reasonabh' correctly identified as embryonal
nephroma, particularly in the absence of lesions in other organs. No tentative
diagnosis of embryonal nephroma proved to be incorrect. Three of the four
embryonal nephromas which were not recognized as such were classed as fibro-
sarcoma o 1 gross examination and one was considered to represent a cystic kidne}'.

The incorrect tentati^'e designation of neurogenic sarcoma in seven cases of
lymphocytoma was based largely on location of the lesions. The neurogenic
sarcomas were in general of a more glistening white color and of firmer con-
sistency. Those neurogenic sarcomas which are encapsulated should be more
readily recognized than those which invade and infiltrate adjacent tissues (Plate
I, Figures 1 and 3).

To differentiate neoplasia from granulomatous and inflammatory reactions
may be difficult, particularly when necrosis occurs in the substance of a tumor.
Marked post-mortem changes may lead to confusion. Likewise the concomitant
existence of both a granulomatous process and neoplastic disease in the same
bird may give trouble in correctly identifying a tumor. Inflammatory and
neoplastic processes in the proventriculus may be particularly difficult to differen-
tiate. Cholangioma, cholangitis, and cirrhotic liver changes may have many
points of resemblance. The differentiation between lymphocytoma in the kidney
and chronic nephritis may occasionally be difficult, but in general the kidney in
chronic nephritis has a firmer texture.

The identification of tumors is often considered a difficult problem. In many
laboratories engaged in the diagnosis of poultry diseases, histological examina-
tions are not made of all neoplasms, and instances of neoplastic disease encount-
ered in such laboratories are apt to be relegated to the doubtful category of tumors.
It would seem desirable to improve this situation and designate the type of
tumors observed as accurately as possible. Considerable accuracy and confi-
dence in identification of tumors upon macroscopic examination can be attained
by application of knowledge gained from a correlation of a series of diagnoses
tentatively based on macroscopic and checked by microscopic examination.
Such a study would not be impractical for most diagnostic laboratories. After
completion of such a series, occasional check examinations could be made to
maintain accurac\' and confidence. Histological examination should always be
resorted to in doubtful cases.

54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

Although it is not to be inferred that the identification of tumors from mac-
roscopic examination only is a recommended procedure, it must be recognized
that routine histological examination may not be practical in laboratories estab-
lished only for the examination of poultry specimens. Even though there may be
considerable error in such tentative diagnoses, the laboratory records would,
however, be more understandable and usable if such identification were available.

Perhaps the accurate diagnosis of the less common neoplasms is not of economic
importance since they are observed only infrequently. At the present time,
heredity in relation to neoplastic disease is receiving much emphasis. Many
flock owners are selecting families for their breeding flocks on the basis of tumor
incidence. If heredity is of importance in certain types of tumors and not in
others, there ma\' be unnecessary- elimination of families unless the types of
tumors are identified.

Concomitant Tumors

Two different types of neoplasia were found in the same chicken in nineteen
instances. These ha,ve been mentioned in the sections dealing with the various
types of neoplasia, and only a brief comment will be made here to summarize
the findings.

Lymphocytoma was found to exist with embryonal nephroma in four cases,
with neurogenic sarcoma in one case, and with leutosis in one case. Leukosis was
associated twice with myelocytoma and once with fibrosarcoma. Myelocytoma
and embryonal nephroma were both found in one bird. Both histiocytic sarcoma
and hemangioma occurred in one chicken. The diagnosis of both leiomyoma and
carcinosarcoma was made in four cases, and leiomyoma of the oviduct was
found with epithelioblastoma of the ovary twice. Adenoma of the thyroid and
melanoma of the tongue were coexisting tumors in one case, and in another case
an adenoHTa of the pancreas was found in a bird which also had a large fibro-
sarcoma in its pelvic cavity.

Such concomitant neoplasia excites interest in the possibility of an etiological
relationship. Only two combinations of concomitant neoplasia were found in a
sufficient number of cases to attract attention. The explanation of the com-
bination of lymphocytoma. and embryonal nephroma, found four times, on an
etiological basis does not seem logical. Embryonal nephroma is usualK- regarded
as a neoplasm which results from a derangement of tissue during embryonic life;
whereas the hypothetical agent (if such exists) of lymphocytoma may be as-
sumed to exert its action in post-embryonic life. Thus the two diseases seem to be
initiated at different periods of life and it appears unlikely that an etiological
relationship exists.

The association of leiomyoma with tumors of epithelial origin, especially car-
cinosarcoma, is discussed in the section dealing with carcinosarcoma. Both
epithelioblastoma and leiomyoma were more common in birds of the older age
group and this would tend to increase the possibility of both occurring in the
same chicken. The number of cases in the study is small and for the present
the association of leiomyoma and epithelioblastoma should probably be re-
garded as merely incidental.

NEOPLASTIC DISEASES IN CHICKENS 55

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A collection of 384 cases of spontaneous neoplastic disease found in 365 chickens
has been studied. Since most of the material was submitted to the diagnostic
laboratory of Massachusetts State College, some information was gained on the
relative incidence of neoplastic disease among birds submitted for necropsy.
An incidence rate of 12.9 percent for neoplastic disease was found in 2304 chickens
over six weeks of age that were examined in the laboratory.

Twenty-five different kinds of neoplasms were found. Lymphocytoma was
the most common and accounted for 55.5 percent of the 384 cases. Six other
varieties (leiomyoma, embryonal nephroma, myelocytoma, leukosis, epithelio-
blastoma, and fibrosarcoma) accounted for 33 percent of the tumors. Each of
the varieties of neoplasia is described and the data compiled for study. The
incidence of neoplasia was studied in relation to various factors, such as age at
necropsN', sex, seasonal occurrence, and breed. Each of these appeared to be of
significance in one or more types of tumor.

In some of the cases tentative diagnoses, based on m-acroscopic examination
onh', were later correlated with the fina' diagnoses in an eflfcrt to determine the
accuracy of such tentative diagnoses. The results, together with sources of
error, are discussed.

The data on lymphocytoma provided a basis for a possible explanation of the
different forms of this disease. Other neoplasms on which new information of
significance was found were leiomyoma, neurogenic sarcoma, and carcinosarcoma.

It may be concluded that spontaneous neoplastic disease in the chicken is
relatively common and that, although hmphocytoma is the most common and
causes the most loss, the other kinds are responsible for a significant share of the
loss due to neoplasia.

REFERENCES

1. Cappell, D. P., and Montgomery, G. L.: On rhabdomyoma and myo-

blastoma. Jour. Path, and Bact. 44:517-548, 1937.

2. Curtis, M. R.: The ligaments of the oviduct of the domestic fowl. Maine

Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 176, 1910.

3. Curtis, M. R.: The frequency of occurrence of tumors in the domestic

fowl. Jour. Agr. Res. 5:397-404, 1915-16.

4. Eber, A., and Ma'ke, E.: Geschwiilstbildungen beim Hausgefliigel. Ztschr.

f. Krebsforsch. 36:178-192, 1932.

5. Ewing, J.: Neoplastic diseases. Philadelphia, VV. B. Saunders Company,

Third Edition, 1934, 1127 pp.

6. Feldman, W. H.: Thymoma in a chicken (Callus domesticus). Amer.

Jour. Cancer 26:576-580, 1936.

7. Feldman, W. H.: Neoplasms of domesticated animals. Philadelphia, W. B.

Saunders Company, 1932, 410 pp.

8. Feldman, W. H., and Olson C: The pathology of spontaneous leukosis of

chickens. x\mer. Vet. Med. Assoc. Jour. 82:875-900, 1933.

9. Feldman, W. H., and Olson C: Keratinizing embryonal nephroma of the

kidneys of the chicken. Amer. Jour. Cancer 19:47-55, 1933.

10. Friedgood, H. B., and Uotila, U. U.: Occurrence of ovarian "tumors" in

spontaneous virilism of the hen. Endrocrinology 29:47-58, 1941.

11. Goss, L. J.: The incidence and classification of avian tumors. Cornell

Vet. 30:75-88, 1940.

12. Heim, Fr.: Huhnergeschwulste. Ztschr. f. Krebsforsch. 33:76-125, 193i.

56 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 391

13. Jackson, C: The incidence and pathology of tumours of domesticated

animals in South Africa. Onderstepoort Jour. Vet. Sci. and Anim. Indus.
6:1-460, 1936.

14. Joest, E., and Ernesti, S.: Untersuchungen uber spontane Geschwiilste bei

Vogeln. Ztschr. f. Krebsforsch. 15:1-75, 1915.

15. Lipschiitz, A.: The internal secretions of the sex glands. Baltimore, Wil-

liams and Wilkins Company, 1924. Pp. 390-397.

16. Makower, L.: Les tumeurs spontanees les oiseau.x. Etude critique. Rev.

de Path. Compar. 31: 703, 825, 925, 1931.

17. Mathews, F. P.: Leukochloroma in the common fowl. Arch. Path. 7:442-457,

1929.

18. Mathews, F. P.: Adenosarcomata of the kidneys of chickens. Amer. Vet.

Med. Assoc. Jour. 74:238-246, 1929.

19. Mathews, F. P., and Walkey, F. L.: Lymphadenomas of the common fowl.

Jour. Cancer Res. 13:383-400, 1929.

20. Olson, C. : Primary myxosarcoma of chickens. Amer. Vet. Med. Assoc.

Jour. 84:112-115, 1934.

21. Olson, C: Transmissible fowl leukosis. A review of the literature. Mass.

Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 370, 1940.

22. Olson, C: A transmissible lymphoid tumor of the chicken. Cancer Res.

1:384-392. 1941.

23. Olson, C: A study of neoplastic disease in a flock of chickens. Amer. Jour.

Vet. Res. 3:111-116, 1942.

24. Pappenheimer, A. M., Dunn, L. C, and Cone ,V. : A study of fowl paralysis

(neuro-lymphomatosis gallinarum). Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui.
143, 1926.

25. Pentimalli, F.: LTeber die Geschwiilste bei Huhnern. I. Mitteilung AU-

gemeine Morphologic der spontanen und der transplantablen Hiihner-
geschwulste. Ztschr. f. Krebsforsch. 15:111-153, 1915-16.

26. Peyron and Blier: Sur un nouveau cas de tumeur transplantable chez les

oiseaux. Myome malin un coq. Bui. de I'Assoc. Franc, p. I'Etude du
Cancer 16:516-523, 1927.

27. Rakov, A. I.: Malignant rhabdomyoblastoma of the skeletal musculature.

Amer. Jour. Cancer 30:455-476, 1937.

28. Reitsma: Cited by Makower (16).

29. Schneider, M.: On the frequency of spontaneous tumors in the domestic

fowl. Jour. Expt. Med. 43:433-441, 1926.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 392 April 1942

Blooming Dates

of Some

Selected Hardy Perennials

By Harold S. Tiffany

A flower lover's ambition is to have some blooms available in the garden
at all times during the growing season. This bulletin should be of service in
the selection of perennials for that purpose.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

BLOOMING DATES OF SOME SELECTED HARDY
PERENNIALS

By Harold S. Tiffany
Assistant Research Professor of Nurseryculture

Introduction

A study of the garden value and hardiness of herbaceous perennial material
was begun at the Waltham Field Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
Experiment Station in 1931. Evaluation of the material continued until 1936
when a recording of the time and duration of the flowering, heights, and color
of some 2,000 perennials was begun. These records were continued through 1941
for the purpose of securing sufficient data from which to determine the average
time and duration of bloom during these five years. From this study are drawn
the conclusions which follow.

Although several very excellent works on this subject have been written, it
appears that the broad scope of material included has in itself tended to confuse
and baffle the average gardener. Therefore, a limited list of superior selections
of tried and proved material has been drawn up for the purpose of a more useful
and workable reference.

The question of what plants are most desirable has as many answers as there
are difi^ering and varying landscape developments in which certain plants are
more suitable than others. Included are such hardy species and varietal forms
as are generally adapted to perennial borders, formal and informal gardens,
and a few which are at home in meadow or wild garden plantings. Most of these
are readily obtainable in the trade. All the plants are of simple culture.

It must be kept in mind that blooming dates, particularly of early flowering
plants, are very irregular because of climatic conditions bringing either an earl^^
or a late spring. While, in some cases, early flowering plants have differed in
their flowering period in certain years by as much as three weeks, this variability
gradually decreases as the season progresses and little variation is found after
June in fairly normal years. For Cape Cod, average bloom dates would be ad-
vanced approximately one week, and for the area north of Boston and the Berk-
shires retarded a like period. The lateness of flowering of the early bulbs as given
in the lists is due to a mulch covering over winter. Neither very early bud break-
ing nor late sparse continuation of bloom has been included, the aim being to give
the period of bloom when the flowering is at its height for best garden value.

It has been the policy to test the plants under average conditions in order to
determine which would best survive with ordinary care rather than to work for
maximum horticultural excellence. While this attitude has been adopted more
because of economic necessity than for other reasons, the plants have thus been
given a fairly severe test. The gardens have the benefit of full sun and are not
closely protected by hedges or windbreaks.

BLOOMING DATES OF PERENNIALS 3

The plants are listed in t-hree sections in the order of their appearance of bloom
from day to day: Spring (April-Ma^'-June); Summer (July-August); and Fall
(September-October) .

Scientific names are given in italics, with stress on the proper syllable of the
Latin name, while common and varietal names^ are given in boldface. Syn-
onyms are indicated on the plates and in the index by parentheses which im-
mediately follow a genus, species, or varietal name. Such synonyms are given
either to aid in identification in instances when the accepted name has recently
been changed, or because the plant may appear in nursery catalog lists under
either name. The words "Horticultural variety" have been shortened to "Hort.
var."

Color designations have been made as simple as possible. In such descriptions
as, for example, violet-blue, the second word (in boldface) represents the dom-
inant color of the flower, while the modifying color tone preceding aids in giving
a more exact description. All blooms have been checked against "Color Stand-
ards and Color Ncmenclature" by Robert Ridgway.

Appreciative acknowledgement is made to Harlan P. Kelsey for the privilege
of checking nomenclature with the proof sheets of the 1942 edition of "Stand-
ardized Plant Names" and for h's constructive criticism; to Winthrop Thurlow
for suggestions and assistance in the selection of the peonies for the bulletin;
to Howard and Clifford Corliss for checking the lists of garden phlox; and to
other members of the Massachusetts Nurserymen's Association who have co-
operated so generously.

Suggestions for a Succession of Perennial Bloom from April to October

For a continuation of bloom throughout the season, it is essential first to know
fairly definitely when each plant can be depended upon for its flowering period.
Secondly, for an eff^ective floral display each month, it is obviously necessary that
an equal garden area be reserved for the plants which are to furnish the bloom
for each of the months of the season.

Perennials have probably been selected more for their individual appeal than
for a strict continuation of bloom from spring to fall. Were the average garden
to be checked over from this point of view, it is probable that the area given over
to June flowering plants would prove greater than that given to those blooming
in May, July, August, September, and October combined. This condition can
be bettered by selecting a few basic plants for flowering each month. After this
has been done, elimination of the only partially successful, and restriction of the
area occupied by June bloomers, will provide space for the inclusion of material
needed for other periods. Best results will be gained by the use of such material
as will provide bloom for intervals of every two weeks.

'The 1942 edition ot Standardized Plant Names was used as reference for stress and approved
common and scientific names. Varietal names of irises are given in the lists as in the "Alpha-
betical Iris Check List" (1939 edition) of the American Iris Society.

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 392
Notes on Some of the Perennials Included

Aster

Over 400 species and varieties of this genus have been studied and evaluated
at Waltham since 1933 by Professor Ray M. Koon. All available material from
North America and Europe has been collected and grown. From this study 50
asters have shown outstanding garden value and hardiness, and of these, 14
have been selected as the finest.

While the major'ty of asters are fall blooming, the variety Star of Eisenach
blooms in June and it is a superior aster for rock garden and border uses. Particu-
lar mention might well be made of Mt. Evetest, the best of the whites; Harring-
tons Pink and Survivor as the cnly true rose-pinks; Violetta which supersedes all
others in blue tones; Burbanks Charming and Campbells Pink, which, w'th-
stand'ng frosts, offer color m the garden later in the season than any others

The height of asters differs considerably with varied soils and available moisture,
while their blooming dates ere influenced by the age of the plants and climatic
factors.

Chrysanthemum

The variable climatic conditions of Massachusetts winters are particularly
trying to fall-blooming chrysanthemums. Generally, it would be well to locate
them in as protected exposures as possible, covering them over winter with cran-
berry clippings, salt marsh hay, or similar material. Excellent early-blooming
types are rapidly being produced, assuring both an earlier and a longer blooming
season. In this bulletin the earliest bloomers are listed.

Confusion is general as to the common name of Chrysanthemum maximtim.
The approved name is Pyrenees Chrysanthemum and not Shasta Daisy which
designates a particular variety or clonal form of this species.

Iris

The American Iris Society divides the irises herein listed into two main divi-
sions: (1) Bearded and (2) Beardless Irises.

The Bearded group (incorrectly known as German Iris) is distinguished by
the beard on the lower petal or fall and by the broad rhizome growing at the
surface of the soil. Forms of this group are designated in the lists as TB (Tall
Bearded, 30 inches or over); IB (Intermediate Bearded, 18to 28 Inches, inclusive);
and DB (Dwarf Bearded, up to 17 inches, inclusive).

The Beardless Irises included In the lists are Siberian (sibirica) blooming
shortly after the bearded group, and the Japanese (kaempferi) blooming in early
July. Characteristics of this group include: the lack of the beard on the lower
petal or fall; narrower, more grasslike leaves; and a fibrous root system.

The tall bearded irises herein listed do not include a representation of the entire
color range which is now included In the test gardens, for In 1940-41, through the
efforts of Mr. Harold T. Bent, the iris plantings were thoroughly revised, in co-

BLOOMING DATES OF PERENxMALS 5

operation with the New England Division of the American Iris Society. Further
reports will include these newer varieties, which are entirely within the price range
of the average purse.

Peony

All commonly cultivated herbaceous peonies come from the species Paeonia
albiflora sinensis. They might be divided roughly into three groups: (1) the
Single type, with one or two rows of guard petals and numerous pollen-covered
stamens; (2) the Double type, which may be fully double without stamens or
semi-double with stamens intermingled with the petals (there are many grada-
tions from semi-double to the fully double in which the seed pods or ovaries
also have become petals); and (3) the Japanese type, which appears quite like
the single type in the singleness of the guard petals but differs in the effect pro-
duced by the stamens, which have been bred into quite narrow, thickened petals
or petaloids almost devoid of pollen. This characteristic results in a cushion-
like effect of multiplied stamens which often take on the color of the guard
petals, giving the entire flower a single tone of color. They have become the
favorite of the Japanese, who have developed them exclusively, and it is for this
reason that the group is known as the Japanese type. Their flowers, having less
weight than the double types, are not so likely to remain prostrate after storms;
the blooms last well when cut and are particularly desirable for their decorative
effect.

Following the varietal name of the various peonies in the lists is the numerical
rating given each by the American Peony Society. The highest possible rating
is 10.

Summer Phlox

Phlox, which contributes more generously to July-August garden color than
any othei genus, is well represented here. Time of bloom (early, mid-season, or
late), dwartness and tallness, good branching habit, size of floret, and color have
all been considered. With the exception of a few newer forms of particular prom-
ise, those listed represent the best of the standard phlox which are generally
available in Massachusetts.

Tulip

Only the best of the tulip species for use in the rock garden have been included
in the lists. While these are not now generally available on account of inter-
national conditions, they have been included because of the early, crisp brilliance
with which their vivid colors open the season. For a succession of vivid ver-
milion-scarlet, as few as three bulbs each oi fosteriana, praestans, eichleri, wilson-
iana and greigi will create a surprising effect. Plant them near blue-flowering
plants such as Grape Hyacinth and delight in the sparkle their color brings to
the blue masses.

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46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 392

INDEX TO CHARTS

Achillea filipendulina, Femleaf Yarrow

Hort. var. Parkers 29

Achillea millejolium roseum, Pink Common Yarrow 17, 24

Achillea ptarmica, Sneeze wort Yarrow

Hort. var. Perry White 33, 40

Aconitum napellus, Aconite Monkshood 27

Hort. var. Sparks 36

Actinea herbacea, Ontario Actinea 10

Actinea, Ontario See Actinea herbacea

Aethionema warleyense, Warley Stonecress. . . . .• 10

Ajuga genevensis, Geneva Bugle

Hort. var. Rose (rosea) 11

Allium flavum, Yellow Onion 34

Allium moly, Lily Leek 19

Allium montanum glaucum 38, 40

Allium stellatiim, Prairie Onion 27

Alyssum argenteum, Yellowluft Alyssum 20

Alyssum saxatile, Goldentuft Alyssum

Hort. var. Dwarf {compactum) 8

Silverqueen 9

Alyssum, Goldentuft. See Alyssum saxatile
Alyssum, Yellowluft. See Alyssum argenteum
{Anchusa myosotidifiora). See Brunnera macrophylla
Anemone Pulsatilla, European Pasqueflower

Hort. var. Red {rubra) 9

Anthemis tinctoria. Golden Camomile

Hort. var. Moonlight 27

Anthericum liliago, St. Bernardlily 29

Aquilegia, Columbine

Hort. var. Crimsonstar 14

Aquilegia flabellata nana alba, Double Whitefan Columbine 12

Arabis albida florepleno, Double Wall Rockcress 8

Arabis alpina, Alpine Rockcress

Hort. var. Rose {rosea) 8

Arabis mollis. Downy Rockcress 8

Aster amellus elegans. Low Italian Aster 38, 40

Aster cordifolius, Heartleaf Aster

Hort. var. Silverspray 45

Aster laevis, Smooth Aster

Hort. var. Helen Durward 45

Aster novaeangliae, New England Aster

Hort. var. Harringtons Pink 44

Survivor 45

Aster novibelgi, New York Aster

Hort. var. Acme 45

Alderman Vokes 44

Charles Wilson 44

Mt. Everest 45

Skylands Queen 45

Violetta 45

Aster oblongifolius. Aromatic Aster

Hort. var. Campbells Pink 45

Aster subcoeruleus, East Indies Aster

Hort. var. Star of Eisenach 19

Aster, Aster

Hort. var. Burbanks Charming 45

Aster, Aromatic. See Aster oblongifolius
Aster, East Indies. See Aster subcoeruleus
Aster, Heartleaf. See Aster cordifolius
Aster, Low Italian. See Aster amellus elegans
Aster, New England. See Aster novaeangliae
Aster, New York. See Aster novibelgi
Aster, Smooth. See Aster laevis

BLOOMING DATES OF PERENNIALS 47

Astilhe, Astilbe

Hort. var. Avalanche 28

Fanol (Fanal) 27

Gloria a

Irene Rottsieper a

Aubrieta deltoidea, Common Aubrieta

Hort. var. Henderson {hendersoni) 8

Aubrieta, Common. See Aubrieta deltoidea
Avens, Chile. See Geum chiloense

Babysbreath. See Gypsophila paniculata
Balloonflower. See Flatycodon grandiflorum

Baplisia austrahs, Blue Wildindigo 16

Beebalm, Oswega. See Monarda didyma
Beebalm, Ramaley. See Monarda ramaleyi

Belamcanda chi?ietisis, Blackberrylily 36

Bellflower, Carpathian. See Campanula carpatica
Bellflower, Dahurian. See Campanula glomerata dahurica

Bergenia cordifolia (Saxifraga cordifolia), Heartleaf Bergenia 8

Bergenia, Heartleaf. See Bergenia cordifolia
Blackberrylily. See Belamcanda chinensis
Bleedingheart, Common. See Dicentra spectabilis
Bleedingheart, Fringed. See Dicentra eximia
Bluebells, Virginia. See Mertensia virginica

Boltonia latisquama, Violet Boltonia 43

Boltonia,, Violet. See Boltonia latisquama

Brunnera macrophylla {Anchusa myosotidiflora) , Heartleaf Brunnera

(Siberian Bugloss) 8

Brunnera, Heartleaf. See Brunnera macrophylla
Bugle, Geneva. See Ajuga genevensis
(Bugloss, Siberian). See Brunnera macrophylla

Camas, Leichtlin. See Camassia leichtlitii

Camassia leichtlini, Leichtlin Camas 12

Camomile, Golden. See Anthemis tinctoria

Campayiida carpatica, Carpathian Bellflower 34

Campanula garganica 23, 24

Campanula glomerata dahurica, Dahurian Bellflower 29

Campion, Clammy. See Lychnis viscaria

Campion, Rose. See Lychnis coronaria

Cardinalflower. See Lobelia cardinalis

Centaurea macrocephala, Globe Centaurea 32

Centaurea montana, Mountainbluet 12

Centaurea, Globe. See Centaurea macrocephala

Chelone lyoni, Pink Turtlehead 39, 40

Chionodoxa luciliae, Gloryofthesnow 6

Hort. var. Rose {rosea) 6

Chrysanthemum amaliae, Amalia Chrysanthemum 43

Hort. var. Amalia Bronze 43

Amalia Red 43

Amalia White 43

Dean Kay 44

Chrysanthemum coccineum, Florists Pyrethrum

Hort. var. Buckeye 15

D. C. Bliss 15

Pinkbouquet 15

Victoria 17

Chrysanthemum maximum, Pyrenees Chrysanthemum

Hort. var. Admiral Byrd 31

Victor 29

Whiteswan 15

Chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum

Hort. var. Algonquin 44

Clara Curtis 43

Early Bronze 45

My Lady 44

48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 392

Chrysanthemum — continued

Hort. var. Pygmy Gold 43

Roberta Copeland 43

Seminole 43

Tasiva (Tasvia) 44

Chrysanthemum, Amalia. See Chrysanthemum amaliae

Chrysanthemum, Pyrenees. See Chrysanthemum maximum

Cinquefoil, Warrens Sulfur. See Potentilla recta warreni

Cinquefoil, Wineleaf. See Potentilla tridentata

Clematis integrijolia, Solitary Clematis 20, 24

Clematis, Solitary. See Clematis integrijolia

Columbine. See Aquilegia

Columbine, Double Whitefan. See Aquilegia flabellata nana'alba

Coneflower, Cutleaf. See Rudbeckia laciniata

Coneflower, Showy. See Rudbeckia speciosa

Coralbells. See Heuchera sanguinea

Coreopsis grandiflora, Bigflower Coreopsis
Hort. var. Sunburst 23, 24, 40

Coreopsis tripteris, Atlantic Coreopsis 37

Coreopsis verticillata, Threadleaf Coreopsis 32

Coreopsis, Atlantic. See Coreopsis tripteris

Coreopsis, Bigflower. See Coreopsis grandiflora

Coreopsis, Threadleaf. See Coreopsis verticillata

Crocus sieberi, Sieber Crocus 6

Crocus susianus, Clothofgold Crocus 6

Crocus, Clothofgold. See Crocus susianus

Crocus, Sieber. See Crocus sieberi

(Daisy, Shasta). See Chrysanthemum maximum

Daylily. See Hemerocallis

Daylily, Lemon. See Hemerocallis flava

Daylily, Manyflower. See Hemerocallis multiflora

Daylily, Orange. See Hemerocallis aurantiaca

Daylily, Tawny. See Hemerocallis fidva

Deervetch. Birdsfoot. See Lotus corniciilatus

Delphinium grandiflorum chinense, Slender Siberian Larkspur 28

Dicentra exiynia, Fringed Bleedingheart 10

Dicentra spectabilis, Common Bleedingheart 9

Dictamnus albus, Gasplant Dittany 14

Hort. var. Ruber (purpureiis) 14

Digitalis ambigua, Yellow Foxglove 17, 24

Dittany, Gasplant. See Dictamnus albus
Doronicum, caucasiciini, Caucasian Leopardbane

Hort. var. Mme. Mason 8

Doronicum clusi, Downy Leopardbane 9

(Draba repens). See Draba sibirica

Draba sibirica {repens), Siberian Draba 7

Draba, Siberian. See Draba sibirica
Dropwort. See Filipendula hexapetala

Echinacea, Purple. See Echinacea purpurea
Echinacea purpurea, Purple Echinacea

Hort. var. The King 36, 40

Echinops ritro. Small Globethistle 35

Eranthis hyemalis cilicica, Cilician Winteraconite 6

Erigeron caucasicus, Caucasian Fleabane 23, 24

Eryngium planum 34

Eupatorium coelestinum, Mistflower Eupatorium 44

Eupatorium, Mistflower. See Eupatorium coelestinum

Euphorbia corollata, Floweringspurge Euphorbia 37

Euphorbia, Floweringspurge. See Euphorbia corollata
Filipendula hexapetala, Dropwort

Hort. var. Double (florepleno) 19

Fleabane, Caucasian. See Erigeron caucasicus
Foamflower, Allegany. See Tiarella cordifolia
Foxglove, Yellow. See Digitalis ambigua

BLOOMING DATES OF PERENNIALS 49

Gaillardia aristata, Common Perennial Gaiilardia 31, 40

Hort. var. Barnes Ruby 19, 24

Mr. Sherbrook 21, 24, 40

Gaillardia, Common Perennial. See Gaillardia aristata
Gayfeather, Kansas. See Liatris pycnostachya
Gayfeather, Spike. See Liatris spicata
Gayfeather, White Tall. See Liatris scariosa alba
Geiim chiJoense, Chile Avens

Hort. var. Fireopal 11

Princess Juliana 11

Red Wings 12

Globeflower, Common. See Trolliiis europaeus
Globeflower, Ledebour. See Trollius ledebouri
Globethistle, Small. See Echinops ritro
Gloryofthesnow. See Chionodoxa luciliae
Grapehyacinth, Common. See Muscari botryoides
Grapehyacinth. White Common. See Muscari botryoides album
Gypsophila paniciilata, Babysbreath

Hort. var. Double (florepleno) 31

Gypsophila repens, Creeping Gypsophila 12

Hort. var. Bodger (bodgersi) 28

Rosy (rosea) 15

Gypsophila viscosa. Sticky Gypsophila

Hort. var. Bristolfairy . . 39, 40

Gypsophila, Creeping. See Gypsophila repens
Gypsophila, Sticky. See Gypsophila viscosa

LLelenium aiitumnale, Common Sneezeweed
Hort. var. Chipperfield Orange 38, 40

LLelenium bigelovi, Bigelow Sneezeweed 38, 40

LLelianthemum numniulariiim
Hort. var. Buttercup 16

Lleliopsis scabra. Rough Heliopsis

Hort. var. IncomparabiUs 23, 24

Zinnia {zinniaeflora) 31

Heliopsis, Rough. See LLeliopsis scabra

Llemerocallis aurantiaca, Orange Daylily 16

Llemerocallis flava. Lemon Daylily 16

LLemerocallis fiiha, Tawny Daylily 28

Hort. var. Maculata 36

LLemerocallis midtiflora, Manyflower Daylily 43

LLemerocallis, Daylily

Hort. var. Apricot 15

August Pioneer 39, 40

Aureole 16

Bagdad 29

Bijou 29

Boutonniere 39, 41

Burgundy 31

Donald Wyman H

Festival 34

Goldendream 34

Goldeni 34

Hyperion 34

Mikado 29

Modesty 15

Rajah 36

Rose Queen 36

Serenade 31

Soudan 31

The Gem 32

Winsome 20, 24

LLeuchera sanguinea, Coralbells

Hort. var. Blooms 12

Cathedral Bells 12, 24

Garnet 13, 25

Jubilee 13, 25

50 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 392

Heuchera sangiiinea — continued

Hort. var. Light of Allah 16,25

Pluie de Feu 13,25

Sanglant 23, 25

Snowflake 13, 25

Hyacinthus azureiis {Muscari azureus) 6

Iris dichotoma, Vesper Iris 35

Iris kaempjeri, Japanese Iris

Hort. var. Akafukurin 31

America 31

Carleton Childs 31

Fanny Hamlet Childs 31

Goldbound 29

Lester Lovett 32

Mahogany 32

Norma 32

Painted Lady 30

Purple and Gold 30

Redridinghood 32

Shinso-kajin 32

Violet Beauty ii

Wister's Favorite 30

Iris sibirica, Siberian Iris 15

Hort. var. Caezars Brother 18

Turquoise Cup 18

Iris, Iris (DB)

Hort. var. Black Midget 11

Canary Bird 11

Dillon Purple 10

Huron Imp 11

Marocain 10

Mogador 11

Orange Queen 10

Reflection 10

Tony 10

Iris, Iris (IB)
Hort. var. Aphylla Osiris 11

Iris, Iris (TB)

Hort. var. Ambrosia 14

Buechley Giant 15

Coronation 13

Dauntless 14

Dolly Madison 13

Ethelwynn Dubuar 16

Gloriole 14

Gudrun 16

Indian Chief 14

Jerry 15

King Tut 16

Lady Gage 14

M. A. Porter 13

Mary Geddes 16

Mount Royal 14

Mrs. Valerie West 16

Princess Beatrice 14

Purple Giant 15

Rameses 16

Venus de Milo 16

Iris, Japanese. See Iris kaempferi

Iris, Siberian. See Iris sibirica

Iris, Vesper. See Iris dichotoma

Ironweed, New York. See Vernonia noveboracensis

Larkspur, Slender Siberian. See Delphinium grandiflorum chinense

Lavandula officinalis, True Lavender 28

Lavender, True. See Lavandida officinalis

BLOOMING DATES OF PERENNIALS 51

Leek, Lily. See Allium 7noly

Leopardbane, Caucasian. See Doronicum caucasicum

Leopardbane, Downy. See Doronicum clusi

Liatris pycnostachya , Kansas Gayfeather 34

Liatris scariosa alba, White Tall Gayfeather 44

Liatris spicata, Spike Gayfeather 35

Lilium canadense, Canada Lily 30

Lilium columbianum , Columbia Lily 30

Lilium dauriciim, Dahurian Lily 22

Lilium elegafis, Thunberg Lily 23, 25

Hort. var. Shedd 28

Lilium hansoni, Hanson Lily 23, 25

Lilium henryi, Henry Lily 37

Lilium regale, Regal Lily 30

Lilium speciosum, Speciosum Lily

Hort. var. Speciosum Magnificum 39, 41

Lilium speciosum kraetzeri, Greenstripe Speciosum Lily 39, 41

Lilium speciosum rubrum. Pink Speciosum Lily 39, 41

Lilium testaceum. Nankeen Lily 32

Lilium tigrinum. Tiger Lily 37

Hort. var. Tiger Double {floreplejio) 38

Lilium umbellatum, Western Orangecup Lily 21, 25

Hort. var. Feu Brilliant 23

Umbel Incomparabile 23, 25

Lily, Canada. See Lilium canadense

Lily, Columbia. See Lilium columbiajium

Lily, Dahurian. See Lilium dauricum

Lily, Greenstripe Speciosum. See Lilium speciosum kraetzeri

Lily, Hanson. See Lilium hansoni

Lily, Henry. See Lilium henryi

Lily, Nankeen. See Lilium testaceum

Lily, Pink Speciosum. See Lilium speciosu?n rubrum

Lily, Regal. See Lilium regale

Lily, Speciosum. See Lilium speciosum

Lily, Thunberg. See Lilium elegans

Lily, Tiger. See Lilium tigrinum

Lily, Western Orangecup. See Lilium umbellatum

Lionsheart, Virginia. See Physostegia virginiana

Lobelia cardinalis. Cardinal flower 37, 41

Loosestrife, Clethra. See Lysimachia clethroides
Loosestrife, Spotted. See Lysimachia punctata

Lotus corniculatus, Birdsfoot Deervetch 13, 25

Lotus siliquosus 13, 25, 41

Lupine, Washington. See Lupinus polyphyllus

Lupinus polyphyllus, Washington Lupine 13

Hort. var. Blush (roseus) 12

Russell Hybrids 16

Lychnis coronaria, Rose Campion 23, 26

Lychnis viscaria. Clammy Campion

Hort. var. Double Rosepink (splendens florepleno) 17

Lysimachia clethroides, Clethra Loosestrife 35

Lysimachia punctata. Spotted Loosestrife 17, 26

Mallow, Hollyhock. See Malva alcea
Mallow, Musk. See Malva moschata

Malva alcea, Hollyhock Mallow 30

Malva moschata, Musk Mallow 23, 26

Meadowrue, Columbine. See Thaliclrum aguilegifolium
Meadowrue, Dusty. See Thalictrum glaucum

Mertensia virginica, Virginia Bluebells 7

Monarda didyma, Oswego Beebalm

Hort. var. Cambridge Scarlet 30

Salmon (sabnonea) 34

Monarda ramaleyi. Ramaley Beebalm 29

Monkshood, Aconite. See Aconitum napellus
Mountainbluet. See Centaurea montana

52 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 392

{Muscari azureus). See Hyacinthus azureus
Muscari botryoides, Common Grapehyacinth

Hort. var. Heavenly Blue 7

Muscari botryoides album, White Common Grapehyacinth 7

Narcissus minor 6

Nepeta mussini, Persian Nepeta 11

Nepeta, Persian. See Nepeta mussini

Oenothera fruticosa, Common Sundrops

Hort. var. Youngs (youngi) 21, 26

Onion, Prairie. See Allitim stellatum
Onion, Yellow. Allium flavum

Faeonia, Peony

Hort. var. Ama-no-sode 20

Aureolin 22

Avalanche 21

Cherry Hill 17

Cornelia Shaylor 21

Currant (Currant Red) . 21

Dog Rose 22

Edward VII 21

Elsa Sass 21

Festiva maxima 19

Frances Willard 19

Helen 18

Isani Gidui 22

Jules Calot 20

Karl Rosenfield 19

Katharine Havemeyer 19

King of England 20

Lecygne 18

Mme. Emile Galle 22

Monsieur Jules Elie 17

Nick Shaylor 22

Pride of Essex 18

Primevere 20

Reine Hortense 19

Richard Carvel 18

Soshi 22

The Bride (Lafiancee) 15

Therese '. 19

Tokio 21

Walter Faxon 19

Fapaver orientate, Oriental Poppy

Hort. var. Enfield Beauty 18

Fairy 15

Flanders 17

Gold of Ophir 18

Goliath 20

Henri Cayeux 18

Hercules 16

Mrs. H. G. Stobart 18

Mrs. John Harkness 17

Perfection 18

Princess Ena 17

Sass Pink 21

Papaver schinzianum , Schinz Poppy 13, 26

Pasqueflower, European. See Anemone Pulsatilla

Penstemon barbatus, Beardlip Penstemon

Hort. var. Pink Beauty 2 3,26

Penstemon torreyi, Torrey Penstemon 28

Penstemon, Beardlip. See Penstemon barbatus

Penstemon, Torrey. See Penstemon torreyi

Peony. See Paeonia

Phlox arendsi, Arends Phlox

Hort. var. Inga 22, 26

BLOOMING DATES OF PERENNIALS 53

Phlox frondosa

Hort. var. Vivid 9

Phlox glaberrima, Smooth Phlox

Hort. var. Miss Lingard 28

Phlox lilacitia, Lilac Phlox 9

Hort. var. Bluehill 9

Phlox nivalis, Trailing Phlox.

Hort. var. Camla 10

Phlox ovata, Mountain Phlox 13

Phlox paniculata, Summer Phlox

Hort. var. Antonin Mercier 33

Augusta 36

B. Comte 38, 41

Border Gem 37

Cameron 35

Charles B. Merrill 38, 41

Columbia 29

Czarina 38,41

Dr. Klemm 37

E. I. Farrington 36

Eva Foerster 32

Flash 34, 41

Graf Zepplin 33

Harvest Fire 38,41

Hauptmann Kohl 34

Jules Sandeau 29

Lemahdi 36

Mary Louise 33

Mia Ruys 35, 41

Mrs. Milly Vanhoboken 34

Painted Lady 35

Rosenkavalier 35

Ruth May 37, 42

Salmon Glow 35

W. C. Egan 37

Widar 36

Phlox subulata, Moss Phlox

Hort. var. Atropurpurea 9

Heather 9

Maysnow (Maischnee) 10

Rhonsdorf Beauty (Rhonsdorfer Schone) 11

Samson 10

Schneewittchen 10

Phlox, Arends. See Phlox arendsi
Phlox, Lilac. See Phlox lilacina
Phlox, Moss. See Phlox subulata
Phlox, Mountain. See Phlox ovata
Phlox, Smooth. See Phlox glaberrima
Phlox, Summer. See Phlox pa^iictilata
Phlox, Trailing. See Phlox nivalis

Physostegia virginiana, Virginia Lionsheart 38

Hort. var. Summer Glow 43

Vivid 44

White {alba) 33

Platycodon grandiflorum, Balloonflower 33

Hort. var. White (album) 33

Poppy, Oriental. See Papaver orientale
Poppy, Schinz. See Papaver schinzianum

Potentilla recta warreni, Warrens Sulfur Cinquefoil 17, 26

Potentilla tridentata, Wineleaf Cinquefoil 13

Prunella webbiana, Webb Selfheal 22, 26

Puschkinia scilloides libanotica, Lebanon Puschkinia 6

Puschkinia, Lebanon. See Puschkinia scilloides libanotica
Pyrethrum, Florists. See Chrysanthemum coccineum

Rockcress, Alpine. See Arabis alpina

Rockcress, Double Wall. See Arabis albida fiorepleno

54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 392

Rockcress, Downy. See Arahis mollis
Riidbeckia laciniata, Cutleaf Coneflower

Hoit. var. Goldenglow (florepleno) 37, 42

(Rudbeckia newmanni). See Rudbeckia speciosa
Rudbeckia nitida

Hort. var. Autumn Sun 36, 42

Rudbeckia speciosa (newmanni), Showy Coneflower 37, 42

Sage, Pitchers. See Salvia pitcheri

Sage, Violet. See Salvia nemorosa

{Salvia azurea grandiflora). See Salvia pitcheri

Salvia nemorosa, Violet Sage 20, 26

Salvia pitcheri {azurea grandiflora), Pitchers Sage 44

Saponaria ocymoides. Rock Soapwort 14

Satureia alpina, Alpine Savory 14

Satiireia montana, Winter Savory 39, 42

Savory, Alpine. See Satureia alpina
Savory, Winter. See Satureia montana
{Saxifraga cordifolia). See Bergenia cordifolia

Scabiosa caucasica, Caucasian Scabious 23, 26

Scabious, Caucasian. See Scabiosa caucasica
Scilla nonscripta. Common Blue Squill

Hort. var. Caerulea 12

Scilla sibirica, Siberian Squill 6

Hort. var. Azurea 6

Spring Beauty 6

Sedum album. White Stonecrop 28

Sedum spectabile, Showy Stonecrop 39, 42

Sedum spectabile atropurpurenm. Purple Showy Stonecrop 39, 42

Selfheal, Webb. See Prunella webbiana
Sneeze weed, Bigelow. See Helenium bigelovi
Sneezeweed, Common. See Helenium autumnale
Soapwort, Rock. See Saponaria ocymoides
Speedwell, Clump. See Veronica maritima subsessilis
Speedwell, Hungarian. See Veronica latifolia
Speedwell, Pink Spike. See Veronica spicata rosea
Speedwell, Spike. See Veronica spicata
Speedwell, White Spike. See Veronica spicata alba
Speedwell, Woolly. See Veronica incana
Spiderwort, Virginia. See Tradescantia virginiana
Squill, Common Blue. See Scilla nonscripta
Squill, Siberian. See Scilla sibirica
St. Bernardlily. See Anthericum liliago
Stokesia laevis, Stokesia

Hort. var. Big Lilac {lilacina grandiflora) 32

Stokesia. See Stokesia laevis

Stonecress, Warley. See Aethionema warleyense

Stonecrop, Purple Showy. See Sedum spectabile atropurpureum

Stonecrop, Showy. See Sedum spectabile

Stonecrop, White. See Sedum album

Sundrops, Common. See Oenothera fruticosa

Thalictrum aquilegifolium, Columbine Meadowrue

Hort. var. White {album) 14

Thalictrum glaticum. Dusty Meadowrue 28

Thermopsis caroliniana, Carolina Thermopsis 22, 27

Thermopsis, Carolina. See Thermopsis caroliniana
Thyme, Mother-of-thyme. See Thymus serpyllum
Thymus serpyllum, Mother-of-thyme 35

Hort. var. White {albus) 20, 27

Tiarella cordifolia, Allegany Foamflower 9

Tradescantia virginiana, Virginia Spiderwort

Hort. var. James C. Weguelin 14

James Stratton 28

Pink {rosea) 14

Trillium grandiflorum. Snow Trillium 8

Trillium, Snow. See Trillium grandiflorum

BLOOMING DATES OF PERENNIALS 55

Trollius europaeus, Common Globeflower

Hort. var. Eleanor 11

Trollius ledehoiiri, Ledebour Globeflower

Hort. var. Golden Queen 21

Tulip, Clusius. See Tiilipa clusiana
Tulip Ducvanthol. See Tulipa suaveolens
Tulip, Eichler. See Tulipa eichleri
Tulip, Florentine. See Tulipa sylvestris
Tulip, Foster. See Tulipa fosteriana
Tulip, Greig. See Tulipa greigi
Tulip, Kuenlun. See Tulipa dasystemon
Tulip, Leatherbulb. See Tulipa praeslans
Tulip, Marjolett. See Tulipa marjoletti
Tulip, Persian. See Tulipa patens
Tulip, Slimleaf. See Tulipa linifolia
Tulip, Waterlilly. See Tulipa kauftiianniana
Tulip, Wilson. See Tulipa wilsoniana

Tulipa clusiana, Clusius Tulip 11

Tulipa dasystemon, Kuenlun Tulip 8

Tulipa eichleri, Eichler Tulip 8

Tulipa fosteriana, Foster Tulip 7

Hort. var. Red Emperor 7

Tulipa greigi, Greig Tulip 10

Tulipa kaufmanniana, Waterlily Tulip 6

Hort. var. Primrose 7

Tulipa linifolia, Slimleaf Tulip 11

Tulipa marjoletti, Marjolett Tulip 12

Tulipa patens, Persian Tulip 12

Tulipa praestans, Leatherbulb Tulip 7

Tulipa sauveolens, Ducvanthol Tulip

Hort. var. White 7

Tulipa sylvestris, Florentine Tulip 9

Tulipa wilsoniana , Wilson Tulip 10

Tunica saxifraga. Saxifrage Tunicflower 35, 42

Tunicflower, Saxifrage. See Tunica saxifraga
Turtlehead, Pink. See Chelone lyoni

Vernonia noveboracensis. New York Ironweed 39, 42

Veronica incana. Woolly Speedwell 23, 27

Hort. var. Rose {rosea) 30

Veronica latifolia (teucrium), Hungarian Speedwell

Hort. var. Rupestris 30

(Veronica Ion gifolia). See Veronica maritima
Veronica maritima {longifolia)

Hort. var. Blue Spire 30

Veronica maritima {longifolia) subsessilis, Clump Speedwell 38, 42

Veronica spicata, Spike Speedwell 22, 27

Veronica spicata alba, White Spike Speedwell 20, 27

Veronica spicata rosea, Pink Spike Speedwell 23, 27

(Veronica teucrium). See Veronica latifolia
Viola cornuta. Horned Violet

Hort. var. Fragrance 7, 27, 42

Viola odorata. Sweet Violet

Hort. var. Rosina 11

Violet, Horned. See Viola cornuta
Violet, Sweet. See Viola odorata

Wildindigo, Blue. See Baptisia australis
Winteraconite, Cilician. See Eranthis hyemalis cilicica

Yarrow, Fernleaf. See Achillea filipendulina

Yarrow, Pink Common. See Achillea millefolium roseum

Yarrow, Sneezewort. See Achillea ptarmica

Publication of this Document Approved by Commission on Administration and Finance
9m-5-42-9S57

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

Bulletin No. 393 June, 1942

Bay State,

A Red Forcing Tomato

Bred for Resistance to Leaf Mold

By E. F. Cuba

Leaf mold is a devastating disease of tomato in greenhouses and its control
is difficult and expensive. This bulletin describes a new greenhouse tomato
which combines resistance to certain strains of the fungus with desirable com-
mercial fruit type.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

BAY STATE, A RED FORCING TOMATO
BRED FOR RESISTANCE TO LEAF MOLD

By E. F. Guba, Research Professor of Botany

INTRODUCTION

Approximately 1400 tons of greenhouse tomatoes are produced annually in
Massachusetts for nearby wholesale markets. About 76 percent or 1070 tons,
known locally as the spring crop, are harvested during April to August, inclusive,
representing a value of $257,000. The remaining 24 percent or 336 tons, known
in contrast as the fall crop, are harvested from September to February ami
represent a value of approximately $101,400.' This production represents a value
or gross income to the greenhouse tomato growing industry of about $358,400
annually. It is estimated conservatively that production for the spring and fall
crops could be increased by 8 and 30 percent respectively were not the tomato
leaf mold disease, caused by the fungus Cladosporium Julvum Cke., a deterring
factor. This would represent an increase of about 85 tons or $20,400, and 100
tons or $30,100 for the spring and fall cropping seasons respectively, or approx-
imatelj' 185 tons and $50,500 annually. Losses in greenhouse tomato production
as the result of this disease occur in the same general proportion all over the world
where tomatoes are grown under glass.

Since 1925, the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station has been en-
gaged in a study of the tomato leaf meld disease, and several bulletins and
scientific journal articles describing the results of these studies have been issued.
Since 1933, all of the effort has been directed toward the study of the reaction of
tomatoes to the fungus parasite, and the breeding of a commercially acceptable
resistant type. The serious nature of the disease and the inability of growers to
control it at reasonable expense and within the limits of usual greenhouse practice
have encouraged and justified this long effort.

As a result of this study, a new tomato resistant to certain physiologic forms
of this prevalent and devastating fungus has been developed. The tomato has
entered commercial production under glass and has proved acceptable to many
growers. Therefore, an account of the development and a description of the
tomato is now considered desirable.

SOURCE OF RESISTANCE TO CLADOSPORIUM LEAF MOLD

The resistance of the Red Currant tomato to Cladosporium fulviim Cke.
was first recorded by Sengbusch and Loschakowa-Hasenbusch (10) in 1932 from
Germany and confirmed by Guba (6) in Massachusetts and Alexander (1) in
Ohio in 1934. This immunity leaction has been reported only for Lycopersicon
pimpinellifolium (Jusl.) Mill, and derivatives from it. Langford (9) in Ontario
found that, although no macroscopic symptoms ordinarily followed inoculation
of this species, the fungus penetrated the stomata and developed in the eaf tissue
to a very limited extent and in a few instances necrotic non-sporulating infection
flecks were produced from which the fungus was readily recovered. Bond (5)
in England found no external symptoms on the Red Currant tomato and
observed necrotic isolated cells only in immediate contact with the hyphae. On
inany other Solanaceae classed as immune, the course of infection after penetra-

■Compiled from statistics furnished by the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, Boston.

THE BAY STATE TOMATO 3

tion by the fungus was essentially the same; and among other species in other
families an extensive mycelium was never developed after penetration, even
under favorable conditions. This historical background is offered to rail atten-
tion to the consistency of reports showing the high degree of resistance of the
Red Currant tomato to the Cladosporium fungus, and the definite lack of
sporulation even in those rare instances where the fungus was observed to cause
a yellowish area about the point of infection.

This new tomato was developed from cresses of Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium
(Jusl.) Mill, and L. esculentum Mill., two distinct species of tomato respectively
highly resistant and highly susceptible to tomato leaf mold. Three varieties of
esculentum tomatoes — Success, Belmont, and Break O'Day — were selected for
the first crosses after a comparative trial of varieties on outdoor trellis in 1933 at
Waltham. They are early maturing and bear large red tomatoes. Red color,
large fruit, and earliness were considered desirable, since the pimpinellifolium
tomato bears red fruits of extremely small size and because only red tomatoes are
wanted in the Boston market area.

COMBINING RESISTANCE WITH DESIRABLE COMMERCIAL TYPE

The entire population of the first generation was alike for all plant characters
and for resistance to leaf mold. The population o" the second generation was re-
solved into various unlike, desirable and undesirable characters, and resistance
and susceptibility to the disease. Selections for desirable characters and for le-
sistance to the disease were continued for two further generations. There ap-
peared to be nothing significant offered by the progenies cf one hybrid not also
offered by those of the other two; but the fruit, being only ^ to 1 inch in di-
ameter, was wholly inadequate fcr size.

The varieties Success, Belmont, and Break O'Day under greenhouse culture
show many undesirable characters and, therefore, were considered unsuitable lor
further crossing with desirable types from the latest generations of the original
hybrids. For this purpose, and for a desirable greenhouse forcing type, an im-
proved selection of the Field Station Comet, now known as Waltham Forcing,
was employed. A large proportion of the greenhouse tomato production in the
Boston area is devoted to Waltham Forcing or s'milar types. Accordingly, this
type was judged to have the qualities most desirable for a greenhouse forcing
tomato. The objective then was to develop a type comparable to Waltham
Forcing and resistant to leaf mold.

Three successive backcrosses were made with Waltham Forcing, each after
selection for three or four generations from disease-resistant and desirable types,
and without regard for their original pedigrees. After the third backcrossing the
progenies were satisfactory for fruit size and yield, and seed of the second gen-
eration of the third backcross was distributed to a few growers for limited trial
and selection purposes for the 1939 spring cropping season.

In the fall of 1939, a larger F3 population was grown in several greenhouses.
The performance and the quality of the tomato were unusually promising, but
there were also some inherently bad features, notably an hereditary breakdown
manifested by yellowing, rusting, spotting, and necrosis of the foliage. Other-
wise, about 80 percent of the individuals in these plantings were highly resistant
to leaf mold and the foliage remained green and healthy throughout the entire
growth from the ground to the tops of the plants, or almost 7 feet. In contrast,
the remaining 20 percent of these plants and Waltham Forcing growing in the
same greenhouse were "burned up" by the disease. Several growers who met at
the greenhouses of Mr. Russell Eisenhaure, Concord, in the fall of 1939, to observe

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 393

this leaf mold resistant tomato were greatly impressed by its peiformance. This
demonstration furnished convincing evidence that there could be no mistake in
the choice of this tcmato where a crop failure or loss from leaf mold was feared
or existed. Therefore, it was decided not to wait until the tomato was perfected
before distributing more seed samples. This plan made available commercial
plantings from which further selections for resistance and desirable commercial
types could be made both by the writer and by the growers.

In the interval which has since elapsed, the tomato was made pure for
resistance to Cladosporium leaf mold, and was given the name Bay State (7).
The tomato has performed in a highly acceptable manner for many growers, and
approximately 25-30 percent of the greenhouse area producing tomatoes in the
fall cropping season of 1941 in eastern Massachusetts was planted to Bay State.

A loss of two-thirds of the yield of leaf mold susceptible varieties in the fall
cropp'ng season is not uncommon. A loss of 17 percent of the yield associated
with 45 percent of infected foliage has been recorded for the spring cropping season
(8). A comparison of the yields of resistant Bay State and susceptible Kondine,
both artificially inoculated with a spcre suspension of Cladosporium when 2 feet
tall, revealed an incieose of 54 percent in favor of Bay State. ^ One Bedford
(Massachusetts) grower who had been harvesting 10 to 12 tons of tomatoes of a
susceptible variety under devastating attacks of leaf mold in the fall cropping
season, reported increases of 2 tons and 6 tons for the fall cropping seasons of
1940 and 1941, respectively, with Bay State. A Concord grower, with a smaller
growing area, reported increases of IJ^ tons and 23^ tons for the fall cropping
seasons cf 1940 and 1941, respectively, as the result of substituting the Bay State
tomato.

Without destructive occurrences of leaf mold, which is possible particularly in
the spring cropping season, Waltham Forcing is definitely superior to Bay State
in yield, and under such conditions no encouragement has been given to the
culture of the Bay State variety. Where destructive occurrences of the disease
have been experienced, or are feared, many growers have chosen and accepted
Bay State. The variety is still subject to improvement in the direction of a con-
sistently high yield and more uniformity in plant growth, but these are faults
which can be corrected by further selecting. Growers who are planting the Bay
State tomato are encouraged to make selections for further growing in their own
greenhouses from the most promising and desirable types. Such selections are
likely to show better adaptability to local conditions than those from outside
sources grown under different and variable conditions.

DESCRIPTION OF BAY STATE TOMATO

This tomato has been grown only in greenhouses to a single or double stem
trained to string or cane supports. The botanical characters ofTered here apply
to the variety under that system of culture only.

The Plant

Stem usually 4 feet long when first trusses mature. Growth period (from medi-
um sized plants that have not reached blossoming stage to first harvest in green-
house) 60-70 days. Habit rather rank, with both leaves and fruiting trusses
long and coarse.

^By correspondence, Plant Disease Division, Dept. Scientific and Industrial Research, Auck-
land, New Zealand, February 28, 1941.

Figure 1

Lower Surfaces of Tomato Leaflets, sfiowing diseased, dead areas overgrown with Cladosporium
mold. The entire foliage is ultimately destroyed.

Courtesy. Dr. G. T. Wchcr.

Figure 2

Inflorescence of the Red Currant Tomato, Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium ( Jusl.) Mill., showing
racemose and apical furcate habit and mature fruits averaging one half inch in diameter. X 1/6

Si

4*2

Figure 4

F3 Progeny of Original Esculentum ~^' Pimpinellifolium Hybrid, showing segregation for siiscepli-
bility (left) and resistance (right). X 1 8

Figure 5

SiiscepSibilily and Kesislance to Cladosporium Leaf Mold.
Upper: Wallham Forcing (lefl), susceptible; Bay Slate (right), resistant.
Lower: Hay State X Clobelle (left), liiglily resistant; Michigan State (right)
susceptible.

highly

Figure 6. Bay State Tomato.
Upper: Fruiting types in first commercial trial growing, fall cropping season mV)
'^''^^^ir^Tiyv^^AutZ rsT^^^'^' '"'-''"' '-'""-^ after^ars^eTecZ^for desir-

Figure 7
Bay State Tomato — fruiting performances under commercial growing conditions, November 1941

Figure 8

Bay Slate Tomato Fruits, sliowing stem and stylar ends (approximately lialf size), stem end cavity
(ttiree fourths size), and cross section stiowing interior structure.

^m ""w '4i ^m^'-' W- ' W T" '"'f "f

Figure 9. Bay State Tomato
Upper left: Common, oblong desirable type of fruit , u- ••

Upper right : A deeper, occasional type permissible for basket pack and not too seriously objection-
able for 5, fi, and 15 pound carton packs.
Center: Six pound carton pack.
Lower: Fifteen pound carton pack.

THE BAY STATE TOMATO 5

Foliage

Leaves typically 4-6 inches apart along the stem; under good cultural condi-
tions 17-20 inches long X 15-22 inches wide; upper surface usually dark green,
lower surface pale green. Largest leaflets numbering 7-9, coarsely and deeply
lobed and irregularly dentate; bladelets 4-6 X 2-3 inches. Medium leaflets
9-13, typically 2 J^ X 234 inches long, slightly lobed, and coarsely and irregularly
dentate. Small leaflets usually 8-10, entire, slightly dentate, 134-1 H inches long
and wide, ovate. Smallest leaflets 7-10, ovate, 3^ inch long and wide. Petiolules
from 3/16 inch long for smallest leaflets to 3 inches for largest leaflets.

Flower Cluster

Flower cluster racemose, simple or furcate, usually with 6-14 or more^flowers;
the greater number associated with the furcate racemose habit; developing and
maturing usually 4-7 fruits per cluster. Corclla lobes usually 6, and generally
3,'g inch long; calyx lobes or sepals usually 6 or 7, narrow, linear, usually 5/16
inch long. Connivent anthers usually ^g inch long, concealing the whole pistil.

Peduncles often 12 inches long, racemose, simple or branched, spreading; dec-
linate, or vertical with the axis or stem in the late fruiting stage from an excessive
weight of fruit, and sometimes constricted near the stem therefrom; pedicels
1-1 J^ inches long, rarely up to 2 inches.

Fruit Exterior

Sepals

Rather long, 1-13^ inches; 1^-3/16 inch wide at base, acuminate, frequently 6
or 7, rarely 8, equal and distinct, or 5 distinct and 1 furcate, or 6 distinct with 1
broader than the other 5; straight or slightly curved, erect or divergent, and en-
veloping the coarse, short pedicel which is about 3^ inch long. Sepals and pedicel
light bice green^ or of slightly darker or lighter shades.

Immature Fruit

Uniformly apple green, mineral green, callisle green, sometimes slightl}- darker
about the stem end.

Mature Fruits

Medium size, firm, weighing 13^-6 ounces, typically 33^-5 ounces each (first
grade) and running a high percentage to first grade; oblate or oblong in polar
section, round in transverse section, sometimes flattened or oblong when viewed
from the side, measuring typically 1\^-1Y^ inches transverse diameter, and IJ^-
ly^ inches polar diameter, the typical form established before fruit is half grown.
Cavity Y^T^i i"ch deep, broad, sloping gradually; side of cavity slightly lobed
with 3 or 4, rarely 5, somf times prominent creases radiating from the corky ring.

Corky scar tissue (stem abscission layer) circular, shallow, concave; cork^'
ring not prominent, usually 3,-^-7/16 inch in diameter, stem adhering rather firm-
ly. Stylar end flattened, smooth, usually a slight depression or shallow basin
piesent about stylar scar in ripened fruit. Stylar scar small, 1/16-1/8 inch in
diameter, 3 o. 4 pointed, not too conspicuous or objectionable, often a mere dot.
Streaks radiating from the points of stylar scar but relatively inconspicuous in
mature fruit (dark green streaks boidered by pale green in green immature fruit).
Flavor mildly subacid

Comparative susceptibility to circumferential and radial cracking not known
or observed. Fruit stems snapping off easily at the first node. Color scarlet to

'Color Standards and Color Nomenclature; Ridgway.

6 MASS.'^.EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 393

scarlet red, uniform at maturity but progressing toward the stem end; during the
ripening process yellow green or chrysolite green about the stem end and ochraceous
orange or ochraceous buff below, changing to flame scarlet, and finally to a uniform
brilliant scarlet. Skin yellow.

Fruit Interior

Outer and inner walls medium thick, typically 34 inch in thickness and uniform,
light coral red or peach red to scarlet red. Coloring cf inner walls retarded. Cells
3 or usually 4, regular in shape and arranged as segments of a circle. Central
mass well-defined and firm; the core medium, palei , slightly green or retarded
in coloring.

Lobes of placentae opposite each other and usually 4, 1 to each cell; cells
large, moderately filled with pulp and seed. Seeds medium in numbers per
fruit and per un"t weight of fruit.

Miscellaneous

In Massachusetts resistant to certain forms of tomato leaf mold caused by the
fungus Cladosporium fulvum Cke. For commeicinl market use and considered
to be a good shipper and keeper.

ANOTHER FORM OF CLADOSPORIUM LEAF MOLD

In the fall of 1940 a serious attack of leaf mold occurred on the Bay State to-
mato in a Swansea (Massachusetts) greenhouse. Previously in this place and
elsewhere Bay State had been highly resistant.

Earlier in 1940, Alexander-'(3) reported Bay State, Vetomold, Glcbelle, and
Red Currant susceptible to another physiologic form of leaf mold. Vetomold
is a red fruiting, leaf mold resistant type originated by Langford (9), and Globelle
a pink fruiting resistant type originated by Alexander (1, 2). Both were derived
from Z. pimpinellifolium (Jusl.) Mill, which originally was found tc be highly
resistant or for all practical purposes immune to the Cladosporium fungus.

Material of the leaf mold from Swansea was used for artificial infection pur-
poses at Waltham. Bay State, Vetomold, Globelle, and Red Currant, which
had always been highly resistant in previous performances, were in this test
susceptible. On Red Currant, necrotic foliage infection areas were numerous
and were covered on the lower surface with a considerable growth of leal meld.
Heretofore, such a phenomenon en Red Currant had not been observed. The
progress of the disease was, however, much less serious on Red Currant than on
Bay State, Vetomold, and Globelle. The new form of Cladosporium has appeared
in other locations in Massachusetts. It is less virulent and destructive on Bay
State than the prevalent, normal form of leaf mold on Waltham Forcing and
other locally grown varieties.

The disease caused by this new form advances slowly from points of infection,
giving rise to yellowish infection flecks between which the normal green color is
retained for a time, producing the eflfect of a checkerboard. Molding and spcr-
ulation on the lower surfaces of the leaves is less abundant, or is delayed at least
for some time where desirable watering, heating, and ventilating practices are
followed. Where excessively damp conditions are encouraged or disregarded,
the tomato plants ultimately become seriously affected. The fact that the new
form of leaf mold is not now generally prevalent, and seems less virulent than the
original form, would appear to render the status of these derivatives of "pimpi-
nellifolium" X "escule.'itum" crosses encouraging.

'Correspondence, February 16, 1940.

THE BAY STATE TOMATO 7

It is interesting to note here that Langford (9) originally repotted four distinct
physiologic forms of leaf mold to which Vetomold is resistant. Bay State and
Globelle share the same measure of resistance to these forms, since each derived
its resistance to the fungus from Red Currant which in widely scattered centers
throughout the world has shown a high degree of immunity. The new form to
which Vetomold and other derivatives of Red Currant are susceptible is regarded
by Bailey and Langford (4) as a fi^th physiologic form.

VARIABILITY OF REACTIONS OF LYCOPERSICON TO INFECTION

Alexander (1) recognized five arbitrary classes of resistance: excellent and good
grouped together as resistant; and fair, poor, and none grouped together as sus-
ceptible. These pathological reactions to infection on various species and va-
rieties of tomatoes were used by Langford in the classification of five strains of the
fungus. Cultural studies also have revealed numerous strains of the fungus which
produce different pathological reactions.

A completely susceptible type of infection is characterized by a progressive
browning and necrosis of the foliage and profuse molding and sporulation when
humidity is relatively high. Infected foliage Is destroyed progressively and
comparatively early. Under relatively dry conditions, the progress of infection
is characterized by slowly expanding brown necrotic spots with only a limited
amount or no sporulation on the lower surface. Reactions within this range are
found on Ailsa Craig, Potentate, VValtham Forcing, Kondine, Comet, Michigan
State.

In contrast, a partial resistance or less virulent type of infection is manifested
on other varieties. Infections are restricted to a smaller area and they are con-
spicuously yellow on the upper surface. Both necrosis and sporulation occur
eventually but to a comparatively slight degree, and they are restricted to the
center of the spots. The surrounding yellow areas are more conspicuous above
than below. In a continued moist atmosphere the final reaction may be com-
parable to complete susceptibility, but under conditions of relatively low humidity
there is little or no sporulation. This type of infection is shown by Norduke,
Maincrop, Up-to-Date, Stirling Castle, Bay State, Vetomold, Globelle.

A similar reaction expressing a still greater degree of resistance or extreme re-
sistance is manifested by progressively enlarging 3'ellowish infection areas. The
centers ultimately become necrotic and sporulation occurs in and from the centers
only in a moist atmosphere. This resistance is manifested by Lycopersicon hir-
sutiini Humb. and Bonpl. and L. pimpinellifolmm (Jusl.) Mill.

Immunity or complete resistance to the fungus is offered by L. peruvianum (L.)
Mill. The macroscopic symptoms of infection are of an expanding yellowish
type, indefinitely outlined, extremely rare, and non-sporulating. This type of
reaction was originally exemplified by Red Currant, L. pimpinellifolium (Jusl.)
Mill., to all of the known forms of Cladosporium fulvum Cke. Attempts to hybrid-
ize L. peruvianum and L. esculentum have failed completely. Pollination of
"esculentum" flowers with pollen from L. peruvianum gives rise to tomato fruits
of good size but no seed is ever produced.

Langford (9) described a kind of partial resistance manifested by progressively
enlarging, necrotic, non-sporulating infection areas developing under high atmos-
pheric moisture conditions and resembling symptoms following inoculation with
the commc>n virulent strain of the fungus on susceptible varieties under con-
ditions of relatively low humidity.

Confirmation of the identity of the several reported strains of Cladosporium
fulvum Cke. is desirable. In view of the difficulty and uncertainty ol providing
and maintaining at Waltham pure culture atmospheres for infection purposes,

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 393

a study of strains or physiologic forms of the fungus was not undertaken. It is
evident, however, that in addition to pathological reactions manifested by
Lycopersicon, cutaneous responses of persons allergic to the fungus should also
be extremely useful in differentiating physiologic forms.

SUMMARY

Bay State, a new tomato for greenhouse forcing, is described and illustrated.
It was developed for resistance to Cladosporium leaf mold from crosses of Lyco-
persicon pimpinellifolium (Jusl.) Mill, and L. esculentum Mill., respectively highly
resistant and highly susceptible.

The new tomato was released for commercial trial in 1939, and approximately
one-fourth of the greenhouse tomato area in Massachusetts was planted to this
variety in the fall cropping season cf 194L

In the fall cropping season of 1940, however, the Bay State tomato growing in
a greenhoLse in Swansea , Bristol County, experienced a severe attack of leaf mrld,
caused by a new physiologic form of Cladosporium. In the fall of 1941 other
instances of the susceptibility of Bay State to the new physiologic form of the
fungus were observed. The Globelle and Vetomold varieties of tomato, likewise
developed for resistance to Cladosporium fulvnm Cke. and derived from L. pim-
pinellifolium, have shared the same experience in Massachusetts and elsewhere.

The new physiologic form of the fungus is infectious to L. pimpinellifolium ,
causing yellowish infection flecks and ultimately necrosis. On the lower leaf
surface of the necrotic areas and under moist atmospheric conditions, the fungus
grows and sporulates rather freely. This form of the fungus is considered to be
less virulent on the Bay State tomato than the normal devastating physiologic
form on Waltham Forcing; and with some degree of proper greenhouse manage-
ment should ja'eld more readily to control.

LITERATURE CITED

1. Ale.xander, L. J. Leaf mold resistance in the tomato. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta.

Bui. 539. 1934.
2 A new tomato variety resistant to leaf mold. Phvtopath. 28:1.

1938.

3 A new strain of the tomato leaf mold fungus Cladosporium

fulvum. Ph3'topath. 30:1. 1940.

4. Bailey, D. L., and Langford, A. N. One hundred percent leaf mold infec-
tion reported on Vetomold. Canad. Plant Dis. Survey, Ann. Rpt. 20 (1940):
57. 1941.

5. Bond, T. E. T. Infection experiments with Cladosporium fulvum Cke. and
related species. Ann. Appl. Biol. 25:277-507. 1938.

6. Cuba, E. F. Control of greenhouse vegetable diseases. Mass. Agr. E.xpt.
Sta. Bui. 305 (Ann. Rpt. 1933. ):18. 1934.

7 A new red forcing tomato resistant to Cladosporium leaf mold-

[Phytopath. 29:9. 1939.

[S Control of tomato leaf mold in greenhouses. Mass. Agr. Expt-

Sta. Bui. 361. 1939.
9. Langford, A. N. The parasitism of Cladosporium fulvum Cke. and the
genetics of resistance to it. Canad. Jour. Res. (Sect. C) 15:108-128. 1937.
10. Sengbusch, R. V., and Loschakowa-Hasenbusch, N. Immunitatsziich-
tung bei Tomaten. Ziichter 4:257-264. 1932.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 394 June 1942

The Control of Damping-off

of Vegetables by

Formaldehyde and Other Chemicals

By W. L. Doran, E. F. Cuba,
and C. J. Gilgut

Damping-off is one of the most serious problems of the vegetable grower, and
the results here reported should provide safer and more effective control of the
disease in hotbeds and greenhouses.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

THE CONTROL OF DAMPING-OFF OF VEGETABLES
BY FORMALDEHYDE AND OTHER CHEMICALS

By W. L. Doran and E. F. Guba, Research Professors, and C. J. Gilgut,
Research Assistant, in Botany

CONTENTS

Page Page

Treatments of seeds 3 Pyroligeneous acid 8

Treatments of soil 4 Oxyquinoline sulfate 8

Chlorpicrin emulsions 4 Calcium cyanamide 8

Acetic acid and vinegar 4 Ammonium hydroxide and ammonium

Copper, mercury, and zinc compounds. 6 sulfate 9

Sodium hypochlorite 7 Formaldehyde 11

Salicylic acid 7 Summary 19

Formic acid 8 Literature cited 20

The original object of this work was to determine the relative merits of certain
chemicals for the control of damping-off of vegetables in hotbeds and cold frames.
There has been a gradual change in practice, however, and most vegetable grow-
ers in Massachusetts now start plants in plant houses or greenhouses. The con-
trol of damping-off as here considered is, therefore, not limited to hotbeds and
cold frames, but conclusions are unaffected. Whether in greenhouses or under
glass elsewhere, at least 90 percent of the damping-off of vegetables in this State
is caused by Pythium spp., with Rhizoctonia important on cabbage and other
crucifers and Aphanomyces euteiches Drechsler often the pathogen in the case of
celery.

It is, of course, a common practice to treat seeds of vegetables with red cuprous
oxide, Semesan, or zinc oxide. These seed treatments give good results with
some vegetables; but with other vegetables, seed treatment is inferior to certain
soil treatments for the control of post-emergence damping-off.

Damping-off, as is well known, may also be severe in steamed soil, especially
if the soil is exposed to reinfestation by fungi before seeding.

There is need of a safe and effective chemical treatment which can be applied
to soil shortly before germination, that is, immediately after seeds are sowed and
covered with soil; and special but not exclusive attention is here given to that
phase of the problem. Some chemicals have been thus used in a limited way by a
few earlier investigators, and that work is referred to below, but such results
have not as yet had much effect on the practice of growers.

Some of the chemicals here used can be and are recommended to growers.
Others are mentioned because they are apparently good substitutes for a possibly
more effective material if or when the latter is temporarily unavailable. Still
others are discussed briefly because they show sufficient merit to warrant further
investigation.

Grouped by families, the vegetables with which most of this work was done
are as follows: Chenopodiaceae or goosefoot family — beet, spinach, and Swiss
chard; Compositae or composite family — chicory, dandelion, endive (escarole),
and lettuce; Cruciferae or mustard family — broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage,
cauliflower, collards, cress, water cress, kale, and kohlrabi; Cucurbitaceae or
gourd family — cucumber, muskmelon, and summer squash; Liliaceae or lily
family — onion; Solanaceae or nightshade family — eggplant, pepper, and tomato;
Umbelliferae or parsley family — celery and celeriac; Leguminosae or pulse fam-
ily — pea.

Results are usually expressed in terms of stand or number of plants which
lived, escaping damping-off. Most of the experiments were repeated and each

CONTROL OF DAMPING-OFF 3

figure in most of the tables (e. g., Table 10) represents the average of the results
in several experiments. Such a tabulation can hardly bring out all the facts
which would be evident if each experiment were reported upon separately; but
they were thus brought together to save space, and conclusions are in each case
stated in the text.

TREATMENTS OF SEEDS

Spergon^ was used only for the treatment of the seeds of Lima bean and gave
very good results. The number of plants which lived was increased 76 percent
by it, only 21 percent by red cuprous oxide or zinc oxide, and some injury was
caused by Semesan.

Treatments of seeds of vegetables with red cuprous oxide, Semesan, and zinc
oxide were, in many experiments, compared with one another and with certain
treatments of the soil. The results, averages for each of the treatments investi-
gated, are recorded in Table 10.

'A product of the United States Rubber Company.

Table 1. — Recommended Seed Treatments for Vegetables

Beet Semesan or red cuprous oxide

Broccoli Semesan or zinc oxide

Brussels sprouts Zinc oxide or Semesan

Cabbage Semesan or zinc oxide

Carrot Red cuprous oxide or zinc oxide

Cauliflower Semesan or zinc oxide

Celery and celeriac Zinc oxide

Chicory Semesan or zinc oxide

Collards Semesan oi zinc oxide

Corn Semesan

Cress, water Red cuprous oxide

Cucumber Semesan or red cuprous oxide

Dandelion Red cuprous oxide or Semesan

Eggplant Semesan or zinc oxide

Endive Semesan or zinc oxide

Kale Semesan or zinc oxide

Kohlrabi Semesan or zinc oxide

Lettuce Red cuprous oxide or Semesan

Muskmelon Red cuprous oxide or Semesan

Onion Semesan

Parsnip Zinc oxide

Pea Semesan

Pepper Semesan or red cuprous oxide

Radish Semesan or zinc oxide

Spinach Red cuprous oxide or Semesan

Squash, summer Semesan or red cuprous oxide

Swiss chard Semesan or red cuprous oxide

Tomato Zinc oxide or red cuprous oxide

Turnip Semesan or zinc oxide

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

Table 1, based on that work and on other observations, especially as regards
safety or freedom from chemical injury, consists of a list of vegetables together
with the materials which, when used for the treatment of their seeds, resulted in
the least damping-ofif and the best stands of each. Some show a decided prefer-
ence for one chemical, e.g., celery and parsnip for zinc oxide. In the case of other
vegetables, differences between results with two chemicals were not great enough
to prove that there are preferences.

Treatments of seeds of beet, spinach, Swiss chard, tcmato, endive, lettuce,
cucumber, summer squash, and muskmelon usually gave results inferior to those
secured by formaldehyde treatment of the soil; either method satisfactorily pro-
tected pepper, celery, and chicory; and seed treatments often gave better results
than formaldehyde treatment of the soil with eggplant, onion, dandelion, and
especially crucifers.

Treatment of the seeds of such vegetables is important, especially where there
is a scarcity of seeds, where seeds are sown in the field, or where soil disinfestation
is not feasible. As far as possible, growers will do well to keep in stock all of the
chemicals^named in Table 1 and to follow the recommendations which are therein
made.

TREATMENTS OF SOILS
Chlorpicrin Emulsions

Chlorpicrin is sometimes injected into soil for the prevention of damping-off
but, because of the danger of injury to plants, such applications must be made
long before seeding. As used here, Larvacide chlorpicrin emulsion^ and Seido-
rin chlorpicrin emulsion^ were applied to soil (0.64 to 1.0 cc. in 0.8 quart water
per square foot) Immediately after seeding. Seidorin, 1 cc. per square foot, gave
good results with beet, cabbage, lettuce, pea, pepper, and spinach (see Table 2).
Damping-off of these vegetables, and of broccoli and cucumber, was also well
controlled by Larvacide chlorpicrin emulsion similarly used. Thus applied,
immediate!}' after seeding, best results were generally obtained, however, by the
use of Larvacide chlorpicrin emulsion 0.64 cc. or Seidorin chlorpicrin emulsion
0.76 cc. per square foot, greater concentrations or heavier applications being
often injurious.

When applied at the rate of 1 gallon to 30 feet of row after sowing seeds of pea
but before covering them, Larvacide chlorpicrin emulsion 1:1000 markedly im-
proved the stands (see Table 9), g'ving as good results, in fact, as did formalde-
hyde.

Used in these ways, chlorpicrin emulsions are certainly effective against damp-
ing-off. But, on grounds of convenience and practicability, they are not pre-
ferred by the writers for the control of this disease. It is difficult to secure uniform
dilutions and, hence, to make uniform applications; and the fumes of chlorpicrin
are, moreover, decidedly unpleasant.

Acetic Acid and Vinegar

Acetic acid, worked into soil before seeding, has been successfully used for the
control of damping-off (4)^.

Applied to the surface of soil after seeding, glacial acetic acid, 1.5 to 2.5 cc. in
0.8 quart water per square foot, gave good results with lettuce, pepper, spinach,
beet, chicory, dandelion, endive, cabbage, and cauliflower (see Tables 2 and 10).

-From Innis Speiden and Co. It contains 70 percent chlorpicrin.
^Frorn Japan Seed Co. It contains 45 percent chlorpicrin.
'Numbers in parentheses refer to literature cited, page 20.

CONTROL OF DAM PING-OFF 5

Table 2. — Relative Number of Plants Which Lived in Soil Treated
Immediately After Seeding

Soil Treatment'

No treatment (check) 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 ICO 100

Formaldehyde 2 cc 133 109 83 135 108 338 295 123 101 341 102

Acetic acid 2 cc Ill ... 109 106 102 136 116 124 97 214 101

Seidorin 1 cc 118 163 108 62 95 269 295 135 88 275 101

Chlorox30cc 91 103 100 90 89 227 101 50 85 145 106

Copper zeolite2 5.67 gm. .. 113 76 79 109 92 175 106 108

Vasco3 5.67 gm 110 95 100 97 103 147 106 121 101 89 82

Cuprocide 544 5.67 gm 106 86 84 91 94 220 164 123 88 93 98

Semesan 5.67 gm 55 97 44 96

Bordeaux 1.5:1.5:50 94 98 135 117 118 100 72 92

'In 0.8 quart of water per square foot.

^Containing 25 percent copper.

'A zinc compound for seed treatment, made by Virginia Smelting Co.

^A red cuprous oxide, product of Rohm and Haas.

Thus used, it often gave results which were somewhat inferior to those obtained
by formaldehyde; but, lacking the latter, acetic acid or vinegar is a good sub-
stitute.

Vinegar as commonly sold contains 4 to 5 percent acetic acid. Damping-off
was usually well controlled, and without injury to most plants with which it was
used, when vinegar (a little less than one-half pint per square foot) was worked
into soil before seeding (4).

Vinegar, 215 cc. (0.45 pint) in 1 quart water per square foot, completely pre-
vented damping-off when applied to soil immediately after seeding. Thus used,
it increased by the following percentages the number of plants which lived: beet,
427; cucumber, 112; cabbage, 56; lettuce, 24; and pepper, 106. Applied without
additional water, this quantity of vinegar interfered with the growth of cabbage
but did not affect beet and cucumber.

When applied from below, by setting pots or flats of soil in the solutions until
soil was saturated, vinegar 1.5 quarts in 1 gallon water or acetic acid 1:55 gave
good results, although net so gcod as did formaldehyde.

The soils with which vinegar was used in the experiments referred to above
had pH values of about 5.8. In one case, vinegar (215 cc. in 1 quart water per

Table 3. — Effect of Soil Reaction on Vinegar as a Soil Disinfestant

Soil Treatments

Soil pH
Values

Relative Number of
Plants Whicii Lived

Beet

Cucumber

Percentages
Whicfi Damped-off

Beet Cucumber

None (check) 5.8

Vinegar 5.8

None (check) 7.1

Vinegar 7.1

100
435

100

137

100
725

100

148

0
16

84

0

45

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

square toot) was applied, immediately before seeding, to a soil having a pH value
of 5.8 and to the same soil after its pH value had, by the earlier use of hydrated
lime, been changed to 7.L There was no injury to growth of beet or cucumber
and vinegar was effective in both soils; but, as may be seen by reference to Table
3, it was considerably more effective in improving stands in the acid soil than it
was in the soil with a high pH value.

Copper, Mercury, and Zinc Compounds

Red cuprous oxide 1 pound or yellow cuprous oxide 12 ounces in 50 gallons
water is sometimes used (13, 14) as a seedbed spray, applied first when seedlings
emerge and later at weekly intervals although, for better results, such treptment
should be supplemented by treatment of seeds. Earlier investigators (15), re-
porting good results after spraying with red cuprous oxide, obtained better con-
trol with Bordeaux mixture 2:1:50, 1 quart per square foot, two applications at
intervals of 3 days, beginning upon the first appearance of damping-off.

But Bordeaux mixture is sometimes injurious (13), seedlings of crucifers are
susceptible to injury by red cuprous oxide used in this way, and, in the work of
the writers, neither Bordeaux mixture nor a spray of red cuprous oxide controlled
damping-off as well as did seed treatments. Nor did these copper sprays, includ
ing copper zeolite, control damping-off as well as did treatment of soil with for-
maldehyde (see Table 2).

Cuprocide, 0.2 ounce in 0.8 quart water per square foot, gave good results only
with lettuce, pepper, and pea, not with the other eight vegetables with which it
was used; and stands of all of them except cauliflower were more improved or
less injured by formaldehyde.

Bordeaux mixture was also of some benefit to lettuce, pea, and pepper, but
stands were more improved by formaldehyde and even by red cuprous oxide.

When red cuprous oxide was dusted on to seedbeds, first (at the rate of 0.9
gm. per square foot) as seedlings emerged and again (at the rate ol 2.9 gm. per
square foct) a week later, cabbage was injured but stands of lettuce seedlings
were improved. In another experiment, however, stands of lettuce and celery
were more improved b> seed treatment with red cuprous oxide than they were
by that treatment supplemented by soil treatment with red cuprous oxide.

Semesan, 1 ounce in 3 gallons water (1 to 1.5 quarts for 10 square feet), has
been advocated as a supplement to seed treatment with Semesan. A much
heavier application, as used on seedbeds, was somewhat injurious and certainly
of no benefit to tomato, eggplant, radish, and spinach (see Table 2).

Dusted on to a lettuce seedbed immediately after the seeds were covered and
again a week later, Semesan, Calochlor, Corona P. D. 7, and corrosive sublimate
were injurious. Thus used, calomel (0.47 and 1.8 gm. per square foot for the
first and second applications, respectively) caused no injury and improved the
stands, but red cuprous oxide (0.85 and 2.95 gm. per square foot) gave better
results. These materials were all somewhat injurious to cabbage.

Blackleg and black rot of some crucifers have been controlled, although not
without some chemical injury, by a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1:1000, ap-
plied three times to the seedbed (2); and dilutions of 1:1280 or 1:1600, applied
directly to plants in the seedbed, have controlled Rhizoctonia wire stem (8, 9).
These results have been the basis for recommending the application of corrosive
sublimate solutions to cabbage and cauliflower seedbeds at weekly intervals be-
ginning when seedlings emerge, using 1 ounce to 10 gallons for cabbage and 1
ounce to 15 gallons for cauliflower. But this method is not widely used for the
control of damping-off. Preference is more generally given and, it seems, with

CONTROL OF DAMPING-OFF 7

good reason, to seed treatment with Semesan or zinc oxide and to soil disinfesta-
tion by other chemicals or by steam.

The use of corrosive sublimate on soil immediately after seeds of crucifers are
sown is, in any case, no guarantee of good stands. A solution, 1 :1000, sometimes
gave good results with Brussels sprouts, but the number of seedlings of coUards
and kohlrabi which lived was increased more by seed treatment with Semesan
than by soil treatment with corrosive sublimate.

Zinc oxide 0.5 ounce per square foot, applied as a dust to the surface of seed-
beds immediately after seeds are covered, has been recommended more as a
supplement to seed treatment than as a substitute for it (13). But zinc oxide so
used b}' other investigators was not very effective (15), and as used here with
lettuce was of no benefit.

In another case, zinc oxide and Vasco, a zinc compound, were twice dusted
upon seedbeds, once immediately after the seeds were covered and again a week
later. This did not improve stands of lettuce at ?11, but it did improve stands of
cabbage more than did copper-lime dust.

Zinc oxide, 0.2 ounce in 0.8 quart water per square foot of soil, improved the
stands cf lettuce and pepper less than did other treatments similarly applied
immediately after seeding; and Vasco thus used with the vegetables named in
Table 2 was not of significant benefit to any except lettuce and pepper. Zinc
oxide applied in water tends to cause the surface of the soil to cake and become
hard, and on the basis of results obtained by the writers, it is not recommended
for use in this manner.

Useful as red cuprous oxide, Semesan, and zinc oxide are for the treatment of
seeds ot seme vegetables, it does net appear that there is much to be said for
them as soil disinfestants for the control of damping-cff. Then too, when applied
in water they settle out of suspension unless continually agitated. This makes
uniformity of application difficult and probably accounts for some of the injury
on the one hand and some of the failures to control en the other.

Sodium Hypochlorite

Chlorox and Oxol, each containing 5.25 percent sodium hypochlorite, did not
in most cases give as good results as other treatments of soil or seed. That is in
line with the results of Horsfall (13) in whose work Chlorox caused some injury
and failed to control damping-off satisfactorily.

Stands of pepper seedlings were much less improved by Oxol (38cc. in 0.8 quart
water per square foot) than by formaldehyde. As may be seen by reference to
Table 2, Chlorox did not significantly improve the stands of nine out of the eleven
kinds of vegetables named. It did improve stands of lettuce and spinach but not
so much as did formaldehyde or Seidorin cr, in the case cf spinach, acetic acid.

In controlling damping-off, solutions of Chlorox thus applied to soil were no
be*^ter than standard dry treatments of seeds of pepper and endive, and decidedly
less effective than standard dry treatments of seeds of beet, chicory, cabbage,
cauliflower, eggplant, and tomato.

Salicylic Acid

Salicylic acid can be used as a soil fungicide. When worked, without water,
into soil immediately before seeding, it usually increased the number of plants
which lived and there was no injury to beet or cucumber by applications up to
10 gm. per square foot (4). Damping-off was well controlled (See Table 4) by
5 or 6 gm. salicylic acid thus applied to soil immediately before seeding. There
was some injury to cress but not to beet or pepper.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

Table 4. — Effect of Salicylic Acid on Control of Damping-off

Salicylic Acid'

Relative Number ol Percentages Which

Plants Which Lived Damped-off

Beet Cress Pepper Beet Cress

None (check) 100 100 100 16 13

5.0 gm per square foot 410 157 136 3 0

6 0 gm. pel square foot 416 157 165 0 C

7.5 gm. per square f of t 521 ... ... 0

*In 1 quart of water.

Formic Add

Formic acid is sufficiently effective as a soil fungicide to warrant turther in-
vestigation, but it is not safe enough to be recommended to growers until more is
learned about hew to use it. When a dust containing 9 cc. formic acid (in 38 gm.
powdered charcoal) per square toot was well worked into soil immediateh' before
seeding, lettuce and beet were uninjured and the number of seedlings which lived
was increased 98 percent in the case of beet and 117 percent in the case of lettuce.
Formic acid 9 cc. (in 1 quatt water) per square foot, applied immediately before
seeding, improved the stands of lettuce but caused some injury to cabbage and
cucumber.

Pyroligneous Acid

Except for a temporarily retarding effect on early growth of cauliflower, pyro-
lignecus acid, 155 cc. per square foot, gave gccd results with several vegetables.
Worked into soil immediately before seeding, the undiluted acid improved the
stand of beets 367 percent and of lettuce 135 percent. Applied to soil (in 1 quart
water per square foot) immediately' after seeding, it improved the stand of tomato
by 149 percent, of cauliflower by 100 percent, and of lettuce by 98 percent.

Oxyquinoline Sulfate

Oxyquinoline sulfate is known to have fungicidal properties (6, 7). Applied in
solutions (1.25 quarts water per square foot) immediately alter seeding, 2 gm. per
square foot was safe with all vegetables with which it was used, except cabbage.
Damping-off was well controlled by this application and the number of plants
which lived was increased as follows: beet, 120 percent; cabbage, 62 percent;
cucumber, 107 percent; lettuce, 34 oercent; and pea, 53 percent. Beet and cu-
cumber seedlings damped-off to the extent of 43 and 21 percent in untreated soil.
In treated soil, these figures fell to 3 and 2 percent, respectively. Oxyquinoline
sulfate is, it is evident, effective as a soil fungicide.

Calcium Cyanamide

Dam.ping-off is controllable by calcium cyanamide, 10 to 12 gm. per square
foot, but it is unsafe to sow seeds until at least 2 weeks after soil treatment (4).
This is, however, a good material to use if, for any reason, soil must be tieated
long before seeding and then exposed to recontamination: tor soil treated with it
's not so promptly reinfested with damping-off fungi as is soil treated with for-
maldehyde. When calcium cyanamide, 12 gm. per square foot, was worked into soil

CONTROL OF DAMPING-OFF 9

30 days before seeding, the number of plants which lived was increased as follows:
beet by 176 percent, cabbage by 18 percent, cucumber by 450 percent, and lettuce
by 55 percent. It should be noted, as a basis of comparison with these results,
that damping-off was more severe in soil treated with formaldehyde 2 cc. per
square foot) 30 days before seeding than it was in untreated soil, for the treated
soil had, by that time, become heavily reinfested with soil fungi. Such treatment
with formaldehyde applied to soil before seeding gave good protection for about
5 days, some protection for about 11 days, but practically no protection if seeds
were sowed 11 days or more after soil treatment.

Ammonium Hydroxide and Ammonium Sulfate

Ammonium hydroxide and ammonium sulfate reduced Icsses caused by a root-
rot ot sugar beet if applied to soils having sufficiently high pH values (3); and
ammonium sulfate, with lime, has been successfully used in the protection of
cotton against a root-rot (16).

Ammonium hydroxide was applied to a soil having pH values ot 6.0 or 7.1, the
latter value resulting from the earlier use of hydrated lime. Seeds were sowed
10 days after the application ol ammonium hydroxide, with the results shown in
Tables.

Table 5. — Effects of Ammonium Hydroxide and Soil Reaction on the
Control of Damping-off

Ammonium
Hydroxide'

Relative Number of Plants Which Lived

Percentages
Which Damped-off

Beet Cabbage Cress Cucumber Pepper Beet Cress Cucumber

pH Value of Soil Before Treatment, 6.0

Nsne (check) 100 100 100 100 100

10 cc 227 140 157 120 128

16 cc 268 187 155 225 140

20 cc 240 160 150 214 125

pH Value of Soil Before Treatment, 7.1

None (check) 100 100 100 100 100

10 cc 237 163 182 158 128

16 cc 260 139 156 172 145

20 cc 218 133 158 209 153

'In 1 quart of water per square foot.

40

17

66

8

0

7

0

0

0

0

0

0

21

18

18

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

The only injury to growth was caused by 20 cc. and that was confined to cress
and cucumber in the scil with a pH value of 7.1. Ammoniuin hydroxide this
used controlled damping-off practically as well and improved stands practically
as much in a soil which, before treatment, had a pH value ol 6.0 as it did in a soil
which had a pH value of 7.1, although control of damping-off by the lightest
application, 10 cc, was slightly less good in the acid soil.

In another experiment (see Table 6), ammonium hydroxide, 12 cc. (in 1 quart
water) per square foot, gave good results in soil with a pH value of 7.1, even when
seeds of beet were sowed immediately after soil treatment ; but for best results
with 16 cc, it was necessary to wait a few days before seeding.

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

Table 6. — Effect of Ammonium Hydroxide, and Interval Between
Soil Treatment and Subsequent Seeding, on Stand of Beet Seedlings

Relative Number of Plants
Time Interval Between Which Lived

Soil Treatment and
Seeding

0 days. .
3 davs. .
5 days. .
7 days. .
10 days.
12 days.
14 days.

There was a strong odor of ammonia when ammonium su'fate was worked into
a relatively moist soil which had previously been limed. Ammonium suUate, 8,
10, or 12 gm. per square foot, thus applied to soil 24 hours before seeding, gave
good results in soil with an initial pH value of 7.0 but had little or no effect on
damping-off in scil with an initial pH value of 5.9 (see Table 7). Growth of cu-
cumber and cress, but not ot beet and lettuce, was, in this case, somewhat retarded
by 12 gm., not by the lighter applications.

Table 1. — Fesults With Ammonium Sulfate in Soil of the Different

pH Values Named

Ammonium Sulfate

Untreated

Soil

(check)

Ammonium

Hydroxide

12cc.

Ammonium

Hydroxide

16cc.

100

250

87

100

332

134

100

158

127

100

132

167

100

189

228

100

160

224

100

253

306

Beet

Cress

Cucumber

pH pH
7.0 5.9

Lettuce

pH pH
7.0 5.9

pH pH
7.0 5.9

pH pH
7.0 5.9

Relative Number of Plar»ts Which Lived

None Ccherk) 200 100

8 gm. per square foot . . .
10 gm. per square foot . .
12 gm. per square foot. .

None (xhetrk) 29

8 gm. per square foot. .
10 gm. per square foot.
12 gm. per square foot.

200 100

284

100

316

100

185

100

325 138

258

110

300

132

197

100

413 124

267

137

375

147

196

109

229 ...

267

284

190

Percentages

Which Damped-off

29 46

42

72

17

66

18

25

5 11

0

Zl

I

IS

5

17

2 43

0

51

0

22

3

12

0 .,

0

0

0

In other experiments, a mi.xture of one part (by weight) of ammonium sulfate
and two parts of hydrated lime was prepared. Both were dry and there was-
practically nc trace of the odor cf ammonia. The mixture was stored in tightly
stoppered glass containers and, after 1 week, worked into soil at such a rate that
each square foot of scil received 10 gm. ammonium sulfate and 20 gm. hydrated
Hme. There was a strong odor of ammonia when this mixture was applied to
slightly moist soil. This treatment, applied immediately before seeding, slightly
retarded the growth ol all species and interfered with the germination of seeds
of cabbage, eggplant, and tomato; but it lessened the severity rf damping-oflT

CONTROL OF DAM PING-OFF SJ

and Improved the stand of beet, 52 f)ercent; of cress, 70 percent; and of cucurrlB^f^
175 percent.

In another case, lime and ammonium sulfate were similarly applied to-soi4-
together and seeds were not sowed until 24 hours later Here again, growth of all
species was somewhat retarded, but all damping-ofT was prevented and the num-
ber of plants which lived was increased as follows; beet by 42 percent, cabbageJiy.
29 percent, cress by 45 percent, cucumber by 34 percent, and lettuce by 100
percent

In still another case, seeds were not sowed until 2 and 5 days after soil'Wks
treated. Even then, growth of all species was a little retarded in soil into wHIch
ammonium sulfate (10 gm.) and lime (20 gm.), together, had been well woirfced,
but damping-off was well controlled and the number of plants which livec^^vj^as
considerably increased (seeTable 8). For complete safety it is evidently neces-
sary to wait more than 5 days after such treatment of soil before seeding.

Table 8,— Results with Ammonium Sulfate and Hydrated Lime Applied
Together to Soil, Two and Five Days Before Seeding

Interval Relative Number of Percentages Which

Between Plants Which Lived Damped-pffjV]

Treatment Treatment

and
Seeding
(Days)

and iio'^l

Seeding Beet Cress Cucumber Beet Cress Cucumber

No treatment (check) 100 100 100 25 20 54

Lime only 125 140 166 6 4 ""'^9

Ammonium sulfate and lime 2 342 177 257 0 0 '^'^^

Ammonium sulfate and lime 5 200 ... 286 0 ., G —

biupiJ'

Formaldehvde

r 'in n,,i!

Formaldehyde has long been used as a soil dislnfestant but much is stiilbteihg
learned about better, more convenient, or more economical ways to use it'in <iOrii
trolling damping-off. Examples are the formaldehyde dust method (l,'20)f'4'ri(l
the use of relatively light applications before seeding (10, 11). Neither^aff>tltfe"fe'e
methods Is, however, wholly safe in the confined air and sometimes cold''^€?lt of
sash-covered frames, and both methods make use of more formaldehyde thaiFi':!^
really needed for the control of damping-ofT. Using 0.75 or 0.8 quart of the sblll'-
ticn per square foot of soil, Haensler (12) controlled damping-off of beet'wit'h
3.5 cc. fcrmaldehyde per square foot; and Ogilvie et al. (17) were able toiiltlprove
the emeigence of pea seedlings by 3.75 cc. to 1.25 cc. formaldehyde per* gqikat^e
foot. • '[f' "-fifl'

Formaldehyde, 2 cc. per square foot, gave good results with pea wheb'tl^^^ as
described in Table 2. Onion smut has long been controlled by dripping forWiaWt-
hyde into the drills with the seeds (19), and It has been similarly and suoid^fuUy
used with pea (13) and with spinach (18). Formaldehyde solutions (1 gall^fi to
30 feet of row) and formaldehyde dust were applied in the rows after seed* df'p^
were sowed in the field but before they were covered. There was no injury byafty
tieatment and theie was an improvement of about 40 percent In stands' floUoA^Itig
treatment with a 1:400 solution (see Table 9). That was true also of 'f drJftalde-
hyde dust but seed treatments gave even better results. rijiv/ jij.--

In the experiments the results of which are summarized In Table lOj^^iekmoM^
hyde 1.25 to 3.8 cc. (In 0.8 quart water) per square foot was applied 'C^Jsoiiisj-
mediately after seeding. "i 'J^iv/ od

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

Table 9. — Results of Applying Soil Disinfestants to Pea Seed in the
Row at Time of Planting

Relative Number
Treatment of Plants

Which Lived

Soil Treatments

Liquid Treatments'

Water only (check) lOO

Acetic Acid 1:300 113

Formaldehyde 1 :200 136

1 -.300 134

1:400 140

Larvacide 1 :500 136

1:700 , 129

1 :1000 141

Dry Treatments

No treatment (check) 1 00

Formaldehyde, 6-percent dust, 0.25 pound to 30 feet of row 138

0.33 pound to 30 feet of row 141

Seed Treatments

Semesan 215

Red cuprous oxide 203

'Liquids were applied at the rate of 1 gallon to 30 feet of row.

Stands of beet, spinach, Swiss chard, and onion were improved by an applica-
tion of 1.5 to 2.5 cc; those of eggplant, tomato, pepper, celery, and celeriac by
2.0 or 2.5 cc. per square foot; and 1.5 or 2.0 cc. was effective with chicor>^ dande-
lion, endive, and lettuce. Lettuce is more likely to be injured by formaldehyde
than are beet and spinach but it is less susceptible to such injury than are the
crucifers.

Stands of cabbage and Brussels sprouts were sometimes improved by formalde-
hyde 1.25 to 2.0 cc, those of kohlrabi by 1.5 cc. per square foot; but formalde-
hyde did not give good results with collards, cauliflower, and water cress. Cruci-
fers are more susceptible to injury by formaldehj-de (also by acetic acid, salicylic
acid, pyroligneous acid, and o.xyquinoline sulfate) than are most other vegetables;
and it is safer to protect crucifers by seed treatment with Semesan or zinc oxide
than by soil treatment with formaldehyde.

Cucurbits, on the other hand, are relatively tolerant of fomialdehyde, and
stands of summer squash, cucumber, and muskmelon were much improved by
formaldehyde, 1.5 or 2.0 cc. per square foot.

Table 11, based on these and other experiments, contains suggested rates of
application for most of the vegetables other than crucifers, 1 fluid ounce (2 table-
spoonfuls) of formaldehyde in 2.5 to 3.5 gallons water being enough to cover 12
to 17 square feet of seedbed.

Rates of application suggested in Table 11 are based rather more on what is
safe with different vegetables than on what is required to kill the fungi which
cause damping-off. They are to be considered more as maximum rates of appli-
cation than as absolute minima; although, in heavily infested soil, it would not
be wise to go far below them.

CONTROL OF DAM PING-OFF

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14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

Table 11. — Suggested Rates of Application of

Formaldehyde Immediately After Seeding, for the

Control of Damping-off of Vegetables

Formaldehyde
Vegetable (In 0.8 Quart Water

per Square Foot)*

Beet 2.5 cc.

Celery and celeriac 2.0 cc.

Chicory 1 .75 cc.

Cucumber 2.0 cc.

Dandelion 1 .75 cc.

Eggplant 2.5 cc.

Endive 1.75 cc.

Lettuce 1.75 cc.

Muskmelon 2.0 cc.

Onion 2.0 cc.

Pepper 2.0 cc.

Spinach 2.5 cc.

Squash, summer 2.0 cc.

Swiss chard 2.5 cc.

Tomato 2.0 cc.

*2.5 cc. formaldehyde thus applied = 1 fluid ounce in 2.5 gallons of
water on 12 square feet of seedbed; 2.0 cc. formaldehyde = 1 fluid ounce
in 3 gallons of water on 15 square feet; and 1.75 cc. formaldehyde
— 1 fluid ounce in 3.5 gallons of water on 17 square feet.

Formaldehyde, properly diluted, may be applied to soil immediately after
sowing seeds of some vegetables without determining the exact rate of application
of the solution. Damping-off of a number of species was well and safely con-
trolled by 1 teaspoonful (4.9 cc.) formaldehyde in 1 gallon water (1 tablespoonful
in 3 gallons) when soil, after seeding, was watered with it without determining
the exact quantity of the solution applied per square foot (5). It is likely, how-
ever, to be 1.5 pints to 1.5 quarts of the solution, or about 0.9 to 1.8 cc. formalde-
hyde per square foot, and, at least with seme vegetables, the exact quantity of
water applied is not very important. As may be seen by reference to Table 12,
damping-off was well controlled by formaldehyde, 2 cc. per square foot, applied
immediately after seeding, whether 0.75, 1.25, or 1.75 quarts of the solution was
applied per square foot. The soil was moderately dry and there was some injury
to cress but not to cucumber, lettuce, and pea.

Table 12. — Control of Damping-off by Formaldehyde, 2 cc. per Square
Foot, Applied in Different Quantities of Water

Relative Number of Plants Percentages

Treatment Which Lived Which Damped-ofT

(Per Square Foot) Cress Cucumber Lettuce Pea Cress Cucumber Beet

Check (water 1.25 quart) . . 100 100 100 100 31 31 14
Formaldehyde, 2 cc.

In 0.75 quart water 123

In 1.25 quart water 215

In 1.75 quart water 174

211

139

320

0

0

0

156

118

397

0

0

3

178

153

236

0

0

0

CONTROL OF DAM PING-OFF

15

Table 13. — Results with Different Concentrations of Formaldehyde,
THE Rate of Application per Square Foot of Soil Being Undetermined

Treatment

Relative Number of Plants Which Lived
Beet Cabbage Cress Cucumber Pepper Tomato

Check (water only) 100

Formaldehyde — teaspoonfuls in
each gallon of water

1.0 275

1.5 332

2.0 288

100

100

100

100

100

141

142

247

118

146

50

47

189

142

0

13

216

120

134

Thus used, the concentration of formaldehyde known but the rate of applica-
tion (immediately after seeding) not accurately' determined, 0.5 teaspoonful in
1 gallon water did not give complete protection against damping-off but 1 tea-
spoonful did, and the latter improved the stands (see Table 13) as much as did
greater concentrations. Crucifers were injured by 1.5 teaspoontuls formaldehyde
per gallon, but 2 teaspoonfuls did not injure beet, cucumber, pepper, and tomato.

When a solution containing 1 teaspoonful tormaldehyde in each gallon of water
is applied to soil at the rate of 1 quart per square foot, each square foot receives
1.2 cc. formaldehyde. This is probably safe with all vegetables, unless it be the
crucifers; but some of the non-crucifers will stand, and may well receive, som.e-
what heavier applications. Up to 2 quarts of the solution (2.4 cc. tormaldehyde)
per square foot did no harm to beet, cucumber, pepper, and tomato.

With the object of determining the lightest applications of formaldehyde which
are or may be effective against damping-off when applied to soil immediately
after seeding, it was so used in the quantities named in Table 14.

Table 14. — Results of Soil Treatments with Formaldehyde in Light

Applications

Formaldehyde
(Per Square Foot)

Relat

ive Number of Plants Which Lived

Percentages
Which Damped-off

Beet

Cress

Cucumber

Eggplant

Lettuce

Beet

Cucumber Lettuce

None (check)

100

100

100

100

100

26

62

43

0.2 cc. . .

29

118

47

100

105

47

67

33

0.4 cc

223

144

510

114

120

8

12

7

0.6 cc

237

173

612

130

132

3

0

4

0.8 cc

325

163

703

132

120

3

0

0

1.0 cc... .

330

156

800

140

138

2

2

0

1.2 cc... .

272

827

125

0

0

0

1.4 cc... .

247

812

132

0

0

0

1.6 cc. . .

294

714

146

0

0

0

1.8 cc. . .

276

829

140

0

0

0

2.0 cc. . .

330

743

133

139

c

0

0

3.0 cc. . .

247

845

131

0

0

0

There was no control by formaldehyde, 0.2 cc. per square foot, but there was
fair control by 0.4 cc, good control by 0.6 cc, and very good control by 1.2 cc.
per square foot, the last named giving quite as good results as did heavier applica-

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

tions. It is evident that very light applications may be effective, but even 1.5
to 2.5 cc. are light applications compared with those commonly used in the past.
Growers should follow the suggestions made in Table 1 1 unless formaldehyde is
difficult to obtain in the amount desired. In that case, lighter applications, down
to about 1.0 cc. per square foot, may be made with the expectation that, even if
damping-off is not eliminated, at least its severity will be materially reduced.

The application of formaldehyde after seeding is an effective and, except with
crucifers, a safe method of preventing damping-off. It is also convenient, for
water must usually be applied at this time anyway. There are, however, a few
simple precautions to be remembered. Soil so treated should not be covered,
as with burlap, or the formaldehyde fumes may.be held in the soil long enough
and in sufficient concentration to injure seeds. Seeds shculd not be soaked in
water before planting, for soaking makes them more susceptible to injury by
formaldehyde used in this way. Very cold water, water at a temperature below
50° F., ought not to be used in preparing the solutions of formaldehyde. A colder
soil delays both germination and the release of formaldehyde fumes. Formalde-
hyde in very cold water kills damping-off fungi but, for the reasons above stated,
it is more dangerous to seeds.

It should be understood, of course, that onh' soil treatment with formaldehyde
or seed tieatment, not both, is to be used.

Soil reaction does not appear to have an important effect on the efficacy of
formaldehyde used in this way. When formaldehyde (2 cc. in 1 quart water per
square foot) was applied to soil the pH value of which had been earlier adjusted
with hydrated lime, damping-ofT of beet, cucumber, and lettuce was equally well
controlled in soils having pH values of 5.5, 5.9, 6.1, and 7.0.

It is interesting to note in this connection that, although soil acidit> is not a
sufficiently important factor affecting damping-off to make the disease ordinarily
ctntrcllab'e by the adjustment of soil reaction (4, 15), damping-off was usually
less severe in limed than in unlimed soil. Each line, horizontally in Table 15
represents a separate experiment. Soils without lime had pH values cf 5.9 to 6.1.
The same soils after treatmer t with hydrated lime had pH values of 7.0 to 7.2.
Damping-off was by no means entirely prevented by liming, but the average num-
ber of plants which lived was greater in limed soils than in unlimed soils by 51
percent in the case of beet, 163 peicent in the case of cress, and 258 percent in the
case of cucumber.

Table 15. — Stands and Damping-off as Affected by Liming of Soil

Relative Number of Plants

Which Lived

Percental

ges Which Dam

ped-off

Beet

Cress

Cucumber

Beet

Cress

Cucumber

Lime No
Lime

Lime No
Lime

Lime

No
Lime

Lime

No
Lime

Lime

No
Lime

Lime

No
Lime

200 100

284 100

366

100

29

46

42

73

17

60

127 100

109 100

352

100

10

10

18

17

18

62

125 100

150 100

186

100

6

25

0

20

29

50

100 100

125 100

170

100

8

7

4

12

33

56

204 100

151 100

217

100

3

10

5

5

0

6

As is well known, the application o* formaldehyde to soil, in quantities sufficient
to be fungicidal but not injurious, often results in improved growth of plants.
That was true in many cf the experiments referred to above. With the object
of determining whether or not formaldehyde also improves growth if applied to

CONTROL OF DAM PING-OFF 17

soil already ^reed of soil fungi, formaldehyde was applied immediately altei
seeding, to previously untreated soil and to soil which had been steamed five
days earlier.

As may be seen in Table 16, formaldehyde improved the growth cf all veg-
etables in soil not previously treated and, except with lettuce, steaming had a
similar effect. But in no case did formaldehyde applied to steamed soil ''mprove
the growth of plants as compared with their growth in soil which was steamed
and received no formaldehyde. It seems probable that the stimulatory effect of
formaldehyde is due principally or wholly to its freeing the plants of the retarding
effect of soil fungi. It is noteworthy, too, that formaldehyde when applied to
steamed soil often interfered with growth although it had quite the opposite
eflfect on soil not steamed. There is not much likelihood of formaldehyde's being
applied tc soil recently steamed; but if, for any reason, it is, the results may
apparently be unfortunate.

Table 16. — Effect of Formaldehyde, in Steamed and Unsteamed Soil,
ON Green Weight of Plants

Ave

:rage Green Weight per Plant, Expressed as Relative
Numbers

Soil Treatment

Formaldehyde Diluted
1.25 Teaspoonfuls per Gallon

Formaldehyde D:
1 Teaspoonful per

Beet Cress Cucumbi

iluted
Gallon

Beet

Cress Cucumber

Pea

sr Lettuce

None (check) .

. 100

. 118

. 141

141

100

108

125

25

100

110

124

60

100
166
162
160

100 100

117 237

115 269

80 50

100

133

135

83

100

Formaldehyde
Steam only. . .
Formaldehyde

only

and steam

114
51

42

To learn how many times it is safe to water with very dilute formaldehyde
(4.9 cc, one teaspoonful, in 2 gallons water) after seeding, and to learn how this
controls damping-off, soil was treated at the time cf seeding and again once or
twice mere at intervals of 2 days. Results are recorded in Table 17.

Table 17. — Effect of Dilute Formaldehyde Applied to Soil More Than
Once After Seeding

Number of Relative Number of Percentages Relative Green Weight

Treatments Plants Which Lived Which Damped-ofif per Plant

with ■ —

Formaldehyde'

Beet Cress Cucumber Beet Cress Cucumber Beet Cress Cucumber

None (check) 100 100 ICO 30 11 12 100 100 lOO

One 323 233 131 0 2 0 121 143 141

Two 326 158 124 0 10 135 114 105

Three 292 141 122 0 3 0 114 86 74

'One teaspoonful in 2 gallons water.

Three applications did not injure growth of beet (nor, in another experiment^
growth ot pepper) but three applications retarded the growth of cucumber and
cress seedlings. Growth of all was improved or unaffected by two applications,
but the number of plants which lived was. in all cases, increased as much by one
application as by more. It is of interest to note that, although 0.5 teaspoonful
formaldehyde per gallon (and about 1 quart of the solution per square foot) gave

18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

good protection, it failed in this experiment as in earlier ones, to increase stands
as much as did 1 teaspoonful formaldehyde per gallon similarly applied.

It is sometimes desirable to water soil from below as, for example, after sowing
small seeds which might be buried or washed out if soil were watered from above
in the usual way. If soil does not already contain too much water, formaldehyde
may be effectively applied at the same time and from below.

Immediately after seeding, formaldehyde was applied by subirrigation to a
relatively dry and sandy soil (abcut 4 inches deep) in flats and pots, by setting
them into shallow pans of the solution until the soil was saturated. Damping-off
in soil which received only water killed 50 percent of the beet, 28 percent of the
lettuce, and 37 percent of the cucumber seedlings. There was no chemical injury
to these vegetables and all damping-off was prevented by formaldehyde, 3 tea-
spoonfuls per gallon of water. This treatment increased the number of plants
which lived by 176 percent in the case of beet, 100 percent in the case oi lettuce,
and more than 400 percent in the case o' cucumber. Formaldehyde 2 teaspoon-
tuls per gallon may be enough, for, thus used only with beet, it greatly reduced
the severity ol damping-off and increased by 225 percent the numbers of seedlings
which lived.

In the experiments represented in Table 18, a dry soil was brought to several
different percentages of saturation with water before treatment with formaldehyde
(3 teaspoonfuls per gallon), applied from below after sowing seeds of beet. This
treatment was effective if soil before treatment was no more than 25 percent
saturated, but it was ineffective if soil before treatment was already 50 percent
saturated.

Table 18. — Effect of Soil Moisture on Control of Damping-off of Beet
BY Formaldehyde Applied From Below

Soil Moisture Relative Number Percentages

Before Treatment of Plants Which

Treatment Which Lived Damped-off

Water only(check) 100 54

Saturated Formaldehyde^ 500 50

50% Saturated. . Formaldehydei 840 31

25 % Saturated . . Formaldehydei 1233 0

Air Dry Formaldehyde^ 1075 0

' 3 teaspoonfuls per gallon of water.

Formaldehyde solutions were, immediately after seeding, also applied by sub-
irrigation to relatively dry soil in metal flats^ so made, with double bottoms, that
soil can be watered from below. The volume of soil was small, only about 2
inches deep, and the application of the solution, equal to more than 1.5 quarts
per square foot of soil surface, was heavy. Under these conditions, 1 teaspoonful
formaldehyde per gallon gave good and best results, increasing the number of
plants which lived by 31 percent in the case of lettuce, 130 percent with cabbage,
and 85 percent with tomato. More than 1 teaspoonful formaldehyde per gallon
injured cabbage and lettuce but not tomato.

It should be noted that in all the experiments mentioned in this bulletin, soil
after treatment was watered from above, not below. In the few experiments in
which the comparison was made, formaldehyde, acetic acid, vinegar, and salicylic
acid were less safe if, after fungicidal treatment, soil was watered from below.

'Waterite seed flats.

CONTROL OF DAMPING-OFF 19

SUMMARY

There is no one best standard dry chemical treatment for the seeds oi all veg-
etables. Red cuprous oxide is to be preferred for some, Semesan for others, and
zinc oxide for still others. A list of vegetables (Table 1) together with the seed
treatments which most improved the stand of each is included in this bulletin.

Applied to soil after seeding, chlorpicrin emulsions controlled damping-off
very well but, because of their too unpleasant fumes and the instability of the
emulsions, they are not preferred by the writers for this purpose.

Damping-ofT was more effectively controlled by vinegar in an acid soil than in
one with a high pH value. Acetic acid and vinegar are good substitutes for
formaldehyde but they did not, in general, and as applied to soil after seeding,
give results equal to those obtained by formaldehyde.

Spraying seedbeds and seedlings with Bordeaux mixture, red cuprous oxide,
or zinc oxide proved to be less effective and satisfactory in controlling damping-off
than soil treatments with formaldehyde or certain seed treatments. Applied to
soil after seeding, mercury compounds were often injurious to cruciters and,
even at best, results were no better than those which followed seed treatments.

Substance? containing sodium hypochlorite gave results inferior to those se-
cured by formaldehyde, acetic acid, and chlorpicrin emulsions.

Salicylic acid, pyroligneous acid, and oxyquinoline sulfate gave good results
with the vegetables with which they were used and they could be substituted for
formaldehyde in controlling damping-off of these vegetables.

Formic acid gave results which justify its further investigation but not, for the
present, its recommendation.

For the control of damping-off calcium cyanamide has its uses, more especially
if, for any reason, soil must be treated long before seeding.

Ammonium hydroxide, applied before seeding to soil of an initial high pH value,
controlled damping-off very well, and treated soil did not become promptly re-
infested. Ammonium sulfate was effective in a soil with a high pH value bat it
had little protective effect in a too acid scil. Damping-off was prevented by
ammonium sulfate and hydrated lime applied together, but seeds or plants may
be injured unless seeding is deferred until more than 5 days after soil treatment.

Stands of pea were much improved by formaldehyde applied in the rows at
the time of seeding.

Foimaldehyde solutions, from 1 pint to about 1 quart water per square foot,
usually gave excellent results when applied to soil immediately after seeding.
Very light applications, down to about 0.6 cc. formaldehyde per square foot, were
fairly effective, but suggested rates of application of formaldehyde (see Table 11)
vary from about 1.75 cc. per square foot for more easily injured seeds such as
those of lettuce and other composites to 2.5 cc. per square foot for less readily
injured seeds such as those of beet and spinach. In practice, this means that 1
fluid ounce of formaldehyde is enough for 12 to 17 square feet of seedbed. A less
discriminating method but one effective and safe with the few vegetables, except
crucifers, with which it was used consists in applying a solution of formaldehyde,
1 teaspoonful in 1 gallon of water, immediately after seeding without determining
the exact rate of application of the solution.

Repeated applications of very dilute formaldehyde, after seeding, interfered
with growth in some cases and gave no better results than one application

Formaldehyde gave good results when applied to soil from below, by subirri-
gation, provided that the soil did not already contain too much water

Growth of plants was usually improved by formaldehyde applied to soil not
previously sterilized, but this was not the case when it was applied to soil which
had been recently steamed.

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 394

Applied to soil before seeding, formaldehyde, as used, gave good protection
against damping-off for about 5 days after soil treatnient; little or no protection
after 11 days.

LITERATURE CITED

1 Alexander, L. J., Young, H. C, and Kiger, C. M. The causes and control
of damping-off of tomato seedlings. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 496,
38 pp. 1931.

2. Clayton, E. E. Investigations ol cauliflower diseases en Long Island.

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 506, 15 pp. 1924.

3. Davey, A. E., and Leach, L. D. Toxicity of compounds of ammonia to

Sclerotium rolfsii (Abst.). Phytopath. 25:9:895. 1935.

4. Doran, William L. Germination of seeds and damping-off and growth of

seedlings of ornamental plants as affected by soil treatments. Mass. Agr.
Expt. Sta. Bui. 351, 44 pp. 1938.

5 A simple control of damping-off. Flor. Exch. 96:21:10.

1941.

6. Durham, H. E. Powdery mildew of vines under glass. Gard. Chron.

96:2480:13. 1934.

7. Fron, G. Nouveau essais de lutte centre la maladie du pietin du ble.

Comptes Rendus Acad. d'Agr. de France 20:19:644-650. 1934.

8. Glasgow, Hugh. Control of the cabbage maggot in the seedbed. N. Y.

(Geneva) Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 512, 112 pp. 1925.

9. Gloyer, W. O., and Glasgow, Hugh. Cabbage seedbed diseases and Del-

phinium root rots. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 513, 38 pp. 1924.
10. Guterman, C. E. F., and Massey, L. M. A liquid formaldehyde treatment

to control damping-off of flower seedlings. (Abst.) Phytopath. 25:1:18.

1935.
11 and Massey, L. M. An improved formaldehyde

treatment for damping-off control. Flor. Exch. 84:16:11. 1935.

12. Haensler, C. M. Formaldehyde does well in controlling damping-off. N. J.

Agr. 17:1:4. (Jan.-Feb.) 1935.

13. Horstall, J. G. Combatting damping-off. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Expt. Sta.

Bui. 683, 46 pp. 1938.

14 and Suit, R. F. Spraying greenhouse seedlings. N. Y.

State Veg. Growers Assoc. Bui. 16:4:5. 1937; and Farm Res., N. Y.
(Geneva) Agr. Expt. Sta., p. 9. Jan. 1939.

15. Kadow, K. J., and Anderson, H. W. Damping-off control: An evaluation

of seed and soil treatments. 111. Agr. E.xpt. Sta. Bui. 439:291-348. 1937.

16. Neal, David C, and Gilbert, W. W. Cotton diseases and methods of con-

trol. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. 1745, 34 pp. 1935.

17. Ogilvie, L., Hickman, C. J., and Croxall, H. E. The control of damping-off

fungi by means cf chemicals applied to the soil, with special reference to
weak formaldehyde solutions. Ann. Rpt. Agr. and Hort. Res. Sta. Uni-
vers. Bristol 1938:98-114. 1939.

18. Pirone, P. P., Newhall, A. G., Stuart, W.W., Horsfall, J. G.,and Harrison,

A. L. Copper seed treatments for the control of damping-off of spinach.
N. Y. (Cornell) Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 566, 25 pp. 1933.

19. Selby,A. D. Prevention of onion smut. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 131. 1902.

20. Wilson, J. D., and Tilford, P. E. The use of formaldehyde dust in growing

vegetables. Ohio Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 520, 40 pp. 1934.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 395 July 1942

Preparation and Use of
Artificial Manures

By Karol J. Kucinski

The real or assumed dependence of crop production upon animal manures
has encouraged this attempt to provide an artificial substitute.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

Illustrating the use of a snow fence in building neat-appearing, circular, artificial manure piles.
A similar homemade fence can be constructed using 4 -fool wooden laths nailed 2 to 3 inches apart
to two wires.

PREPARATION AND USE OF ARTIFICIAL MANURES
By Karol J. Kucinski.i Research Assistant in Agronomy

Introduction

The Soil's Need for Manure

In the economy of nature, the most productive soils are those rich in organic
matter or humus. Land which has been farmed for many years is apt to be
seriously deficient in organic matter.

The incorporation of organic matter into the soil is beneficial in several ways.
It improves sandy soils by acting as a binder and increases their water-holding
capacity; loosens and lightens heavy loams and makes them easier to work; serves
as an important source of plant food; improves biological conditions of the soil;
checks leaching of plant food and erosion of soil; and helps in many other less
tangible ways. Manure has long been used as a source of organic matter for
soil improvement.

In England, experiments at Rothamsted Experimental Station, covering from
seventy to eighty years, showed that when commercial fertilizers replaced organic
manures soil deterioration was eventually observed. Organic manures, on the
other hand, maintained production at a higher and more uniform level over
this long period, and practically no soil depletion was evident.

These facts are of prime importance in gardening and in special intensive crop-
ping systems in which definite rotations with green manures cannot be, or are not,
employed. Unfortunately, natural manure has one drawback — there has never
been enough of it. This scarcity has perhaps been one of the reasons for the use
of non-organic chemical fertilizers.

The rapid replacement of horses by steam- and gas-driven machines on farms
and in cities during the last twenty-five years has made the problem of obtaining
natural manure more difficult. When it is realized that each year of farming
tends to decrease the organic matter already in the soil; that comparatively
fewer animals, especially horses, are kept on the farm to supply organic material
by way of manure; and that more intensive cultivation is required to supply the
needs of an ever-increasing population, the seriousness of the organic-matter
problem is easily seen.

The Possibilities of Artificial Manures

It was to meet these conditions that work was started on the production of
artificial manures. England was one of the first countries to feel the scarcity of
barnyard manure, and it was at Rothamsted in 1919 that the process of preparing
artificial manure chemically was first developed.

The biological principle underlying the preparation of artificial manure is
quite simple. The process of natural decay of organic material rich in carbona-
ceous compounds such as cellulose, lignin, starches, and sugars can be greatly
speeded up by the addition of readily available nitrogen and some phosphorus
compounds. In other words, the microorganisms which are the true agents of
decay need a balanced food ration in order to continue their activities and in-
crease in numbers. In any plant material the ratios of carbon to nitrogen and
carbon to phosphorus are very wide. The addition of available nitrogen and

^Acknowledgment is made to A. B. Beaumont and W, S. Eisenmenger, who helped in outlining
the project and assisted in the work by their interest and many helptul suggestions.

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 395

phosphorus compounds narrows the ratios and establishes more favorable con-
ditions for rapid growth of the microorganisms responsible for the process of
decay. In the making of artificial manures, the addition of nitrogen and phos-
phorus to the organic materials is most essential. Potassium is generally added
to make the chemical composition of the finished artificial manure more compar-
able to that of the natural manure. Today anybody can make excellent manure
out of almost any kind of plant refuse by following simple directions.

Experimental

These experiments with artificial manure are supplementary to a series run
previously at this Station, but not published. The earlier experiment dealt with
the preparation of manure from various kinds of organic matter. Very small lots
of manure were prepared, and vegetation tests showed some signs of toxicity due
probably to the reagents used. In these small lots of manure, the temperature
did not rise during preparation as it does when larger masses are made.

In the present experiments, larger quantities of manure were prepared from
different types of organic materials, in order to study the method of preparation,
rate of decomposition, heat and moisture relationships, and volume and appear-
ance of the finished product. Detailed chemical and vegetation tests were run
on the prepared manures to compare the different organic materials and the
different nitrogenous supplements used.

Method Used for the Preparatioii of Artificial Manure

Chopped corn stover, mixed deciduous leaves, and oat straw were the organic
materials used, in lots of one half ton on the dry basis for each pile. Two nitro-
genous supplements, used to aid decomposition of the organic matter, were com-
pared — Cyanamid (supplied by the American Cyanamid Company) and am-
monium sulfate. Enough limestone was added to the piles built with ammonium
sulfate to equal the calcium in the piles made with Cyanamid. The nitrogenous
supplements were used in sufificient quantity to supply 0.7 percent nitrogen,
based on the dry weight of the original organic material. Other supplements
added to make the finished product approach natural manure in chemical composi-
tion were the following: 16 percent superphosphate, at the same rate as the
ammonium sulfate; muriate of potash, at one third the rate of the superphos-
phate; fresh horse manure, 100 pounds per ton of dry organic material; and gar-
den soil, at the same rate as the manure. The garden soil and horse manure were
added as bacteriological inoculating agents.

In building the stacks, a circular snow fence^ bin about nine feet in diameter
was used as a form. The snow fence was taken down and used over again each
time a new pile was built. The piles were made indoors on ground covered with
tarred roofing paper, and were built up in layers consisting of about six inches of
compacted organic material. The chemical reagents were sprinkled on, layer by
layer; and each layer was also sprinkled with water as it was being packed down.
Enough water was used to wet the material, but not enough to leach out at the
bottom of the pile. A half ton of dry organic material was about 350 cubic feet
in volume and made an initial circular stack about nine feet in diameter and six
feet high. A thermometer was placed in the center of each heap, enclosed within
an iron pipe so that the thermometer could be pulled up by a string to take the
readings.

''The snow fence was similar to those used along roads by the Highway Department for the pre-
vention of snow drifting during the winter. The fence can be made of 4-foot wooden laths (like
those used in plastering), nailed 2 to 3 inches apart to two wires, thus making the fence flexible
and easily rolled up.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES 5

The heating within the piles commenced almost at once, and the heaps had to
be reforked and sprinkled with water to lower their temperature. During the
entire time of decomposition the heaps were either sprinkled with water or re-
forked when the temperature rose to the vicinity of 65° Centigrade (149° Fahren-
heit). The rates of decomposition of the different organic materials were not the
same, thus making it necessary to water or refork the heaps on different dates,
but the total number of waterings and reforkings was the same for each heap.
The temperature readings taken in the center of each heap are shown graphically
in figure 1. It is to be noted that the temperatures of the manures differed greatly
only with the types of organic material and differed only very slightly with the
different chemical treatments. Higher temperatures were obtained for a longer
time with the corn stover. The piles made from leaves were very slow in heating
and never attained the high temperatures of the corn stover or straw piles.

Water was added as needed to keep the mass saturated but below the point
of excessive leaching. The sprinkling of the straw and leaf heaps had to be per-
formed with care, for these materials had a tendency to shed water at first. After
each sprinkling the temperature made a decided drop and then came up again
within a day or two, but never to the previous high temperature reading.

The leaves decomposed much more slowly than the corn stover or straw. The
corn stover piles were the first to take on the appearance of rotted manure, while
the piles from leaves took twice as long before they began to appear decomposed.
It was this slow rate of decomposition of the heaps made from leaves that pre
vented the use of this manure in the vegetation tests.

At the end of 135 days the temperature in the centers of the heaps made from
straw and corn became constant and equal to the outside air temperature, which

Table 1. — Pl.^nt Nutrients in Organic M.\terials Used in Making
Artificial Manure and in the Finished Product — Moist Basis

Weight Moisture Nitrogen Phosphoric Potash Calcium Magnesium Total
Material Pounds Percent Percent Acid (K„0) Oxide Oxide Insoluble

(P.Oj) Percent (CaO) (MgO) Matter
Percent Percent Percent Percent

Analysis of Organic Materials

Corn stover.. 1,702 41.2 ,49 .22 1.02

Odt straw 1.185 15.6 1.00 .26 2.03

Mixed leaves 1.513 33.9 .60 .17 .13

.49

.32

2.15

.63

.52

1.60

1.28

.31

3.60

Analysis of the Artificial Manures

Corn Stover with
Ammonium sulfate 2,965
Cyanamid 3,033

Oat straw with
Ammonium sulfate 2,880
Cyanamid 2.723

Leaves with
Ammonium sulfate 2,671
Cyanamid 2,513

Leaves and garbage
With Cyanamid 71.5

80.8

.36

.30

.48

78.3

.43

.37

.55

81.2

.42

.30

.52

80.4

.51

.31

.49

72.8

.50

.33

.31

1.55

.46

4.48

71.2

.50

.45

.35

2. IS

.52

5 03

The author was assisted by the Control Service in making these analyses.

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 395

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ARTIFICIAL MANURES

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Figure 1. Temperatures During Period of Decomposition. Taicen at center of manure heaps
made of different organic materials.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 395

showed the end of rapid decomposition. The finished product, which looked like
well-rotted manure, was weighed and samples were taken for moisture and chemi-
cal analyses. The manure from leaves was weighed and sampled at the end of
170 days. Tables 1 and 2 show the chemical composition of the different manures,
both on the "oven-dried" basis and on the wet-manure basis, also the chemical
composition of the organic materials before any chemicals were added or de-
composition started. It will be noted that the manure made from straw con-
tained much more nitrogen than the manure made from corn stover or leaves.
The original straw was somewhat higher in nitrogen than the other organic mate-
rials.

To study further the reason for the slow rate of decomposition of the leaves,
lignin and cellulose determinations were made, with results listed in table 3.
The percentage of lignin was greater in the leaves than in the corn stover or straw.
The percentage of cellulose, on the other hand, was greatest in straw and least
in the leaves. The analyses of the finished manures show that the cellulose de-
composed much more rapidly than the lignin.

Table 3. — Lignin and Cellulose Determinations*

Percent Percent

Lignin Cellulose

Original leaves alone 19.16 26.37

Manure from leaves, garbage, and Cyanamid 16.16 8.88

Manure from leaves and ammonium sulfate 31.00 12.57

Manure from leaves and Cyanamid 29.60 10 20

Original corn stover 13.10 37.58

Manure from corn stover and ammonium sulfate 17.58 22.24

Manure from corn stover and Cyanamid 16.91 18.34

Original straw alone 15.76 44.41

Manure from straw and ammonium sulfate 24.03 21.83

Manure from straw and Cyanamid 23.08 19.70

*CelIulose was determined by the Cross and Revan method. Tests were made in duplicate
and the ash correction was made.

Lignin was determined by the sulfuric acid method and is corrected for lignin nitrogen. These
figures then are the results of four crude lignin determinations corrected by duplicate ash and
lignin nitrogen corrections

The analyses were made by John N. Everson, Department of Agronomy.

Manure Made from Leaves and Garbage

After it was found that the piles made of leaves were slow in decomposing,
another pile was built using half leaves and half kitchen garbage, with Cyanamid
as the nitrogen supplement. The odor of the decomposing mixture when stirred
was none too pleasant, but the rate of decomposition was very rapid. The pres-
ence of the garbage seemed to speed up the slow decomposition of leaves when
they were used alone. The manure made from the garbage and leaves suggests a
possible way of getting rid of, and at the same time putting to good use, refuse
which is plentiful in every household. From the chemical analyses in tables 1
and 2, it will be seen that the garbage-leaves artificial manure was richer in plant
foods than any of the other manures.

ARTIFICIAL MANURES 9

Pot Experiment with Artificial Manure

A series of tests was run in order to compare the different artificial manures.
Oats were seeded in three-gallon crocks, filled with a mixture of one part of sandy
loam topsoil and three parts of fine sand. These sand cultures were treated with
dried artificial manure and inorganic fertilizers as indicated in table 4. A few
days after the oats had germinated and when they were about three inches tall,
the plants grown on the heavier treatments of artificial manure made with Cyana-
mid began to show signs of toxicity which continued throughout the experiment,
both height and yield of oats being less on this treatment. Analysis showed a
greater percentage of nitrogen in the oats grown on manure made with Cyana-
mid than in those grown on manures made with ammonium sulfate, but this may
have been due to the abnormality of the injured oat plants. This apparent
toxicity should not be considered a serious objection to the use of Cyanamid, for
the oats were grown in sand cultures and when trials were made under field con-
ditions no such injurious effects were noticed. At the Geneva Station, Collison
and Conn* experienced similar results when they worked with sand cultures.

Table 4. — Pot Experiment with Artificial Manure.

Rate of Application Yields per Pot Nitrogen Content
per Acre of Oat Plants

Manure Made from — Manure Superphos- Height Dry Weight

Tons phatc of Oat of Oat Percent Grams

Pounds Plants Plants
Inches Grams

10* 500 9.0 3 93 .74 .0291

Corn stover with ammonium sulfate. . . "I 20 7.S0 9.0 4.22 .79 .0,?33

30 1,000 9.0 4.55 .84 .0382

10* 500 11.6 5.85 l.n .0649

Corn stover with Cyanamid -120 7.10 10.8 4.75 1.32 .0^27

30 1.000 9.7 4.55 1.^5 .0751

10* 500 110 6.91 .75 .0518

Straw with ammonium sulfate ■! 20 750 1 1.5 7.85 .77 .0605

30 1,000 14.0 8.66 .77 .0667

10* 500 12.5 T.07 .89 .0629

Straw with Cyanamid {20 750 10.5 5.87 1.13 .0663

30 1.000 10.0 6.05 1.14 .0690

Check— no manure None None 11.5 7.30 .84 .0613

*On bas;s of manure containing 0.5 percent nitrogen (N), that is, 100 pounds of N per acre, or
0.442 grams N per pot. The amount of dried artificial manure added to each pot was determined
by the actual N content of the respective artilicial manures.

Field Experiments with Artificial Manure

Field corn was planted on one hundredth acre plots, to which the different
artificial manures had been applied at the rates of 10, 20, and 30 tons per acre.
Yields were compared with yields from plots to which natural manure was applied
at equal rates. The growing corn on plots treated with 20 and 30 tons of manure
per acre was superior in growth and color to that on plots treated with 10 tons of
manure per acre. There was no great difference in yield of corn between plots

^Collison, R. C, and Conn, H. J. Artificial manure from straw. N. Y. State Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 573. 1929.

10

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 395

treated with artificial manure and those treated with natural horse manure,
except on the plots receiving the 30-ton application, where the artificial manures
gave higher yields than the natural manure. (Table 5). It may be concluded
that the artificial manure as prepared here is comparable to and slightly better
than ordinary natural horse manure when used at high rates of application.

Table 5. — Yields of Corn Grown on Artificial Manure.

Manure Made trom

Kate of

Application

per Acre

Tons

Yields per Acre — Pounds

Field Green Field Dry Field Dry

Weight of Weight of Weight of

Corn Whole Ear Stover

10* 16.023 3.620 4,135

Corn stover with ammonium sulfate. .. . "120 19,023 4,858 5,199

30 20,966 5,495 5,028

10* 15,614 3,225 4,261

Corn stover with Cyanamid -120 20,625 4,688 5,352

30 22,432 5,625 6,007

10* 17,386 3,876 4,763

Straw with ammonium suliate -j 20 21,239 5,154 5,206

30 24,307 6,989 6,221

10* 18,750 4,176 4,988

Straw with Cyanamid -j 20 21,921 5,414 5,666

30 22,261 6,136 6,096

10* 16,466 3.705 4,575

Natural Manure -120 17,898 4,176 5.574

30 18,170 4,261 5,318

4-8-4 Fertilizer 1,250 pounds 17,727 4,558 4,677

*On basis of manure containing 0.5 percent nitrogen (N), that is, 100 pounds of N per acre.
The amount of dried artificial manure added to each plot was determined by the actual N content
of the respective artificial manures.

Experiments with Artificial Manure as Top- Dressing

A one-year-old field of mixed grass was top-dressed with the prepared artificial
manures after the first crop of hay had been harvested The second crop of grass
was not harvested, but from observation looked much superior to that on the
surrounding untreated plots. The following year the hay contained a greater
percentage of clover than the crop from the untreated plots. The yields per
acre, on the dry basis, are listed in table 6.

Table 6. — Yield of Hay Grown on Plots with Artificial Manure

• Top Dressing

Manure made froni- Yield on Dry Basis

Corn stover with Pounds per Acre

Ammonium sulfate 5281

Cyanamid 5227

Oat straw with

Ammonium sulfate 4541

Cyanamid. ..." 5101

Leaves and garbage with

Cyanamid 6265

Untreated plot 3363

ARTIFICIAL MANURES 11

General Directions for the Preparation of Artificial Manures

Materials That May Be Used

Any non-woody plant material may be used in the preparation of artificial
manure, such as leaves, weeds, straw, corn stover, garden and cannery refuse,
lawn clippings, and even kitchen garbage if the greasy portions are disposed of
in some other manner.

The manure pile may be made outdoors. A shallow pit about a foot deep can
be used to advantage, but any level place will be satisfactory. Since the pile is
not attractive, it should be placed in some inconspicuous spot and should be pro-
tected from the wind.

Small-Scale Preparation

Home gardeners who are going to prepare artificial manure on a small scale
from the various refuse materials which they are able to collect throughout the
spring, summer, and fall seasons may find it more convenient to use a ready-
mixed commercial fertilizer. Any garden fertilizer, such as a 6-8-6 or 5-8-7 fertil-
izer, will be satisfactory and 100 pounds will be sufficient to make a pile of approx-
imately' 125 cubic feet, or a pile having dimensions of 5 feet by 5 feet by 5 feet.
If higher grade fertilizers are used, the amount used should be proportional.

About 25 pounds of ground limestone can be used to advantage with each 100
pounds of fertilizer to produce a better end product and to insure against loss of
plant nutrients (nitrogen) during the process of decomposition.

The pile should be built in layers, with a few handfuls of the fertilizer scat-
tered on each new supply of organic material that is added. One or two shovel-
fuls of garden soil sprinkled on each layer will aid in inoculating the pile with the
necessary decomposition bacteria. If the organic material is dry, it should be
dampened with enough water to wet it well but not enough to leach out of the
bottom of the pile. If the materials are green, such as grass clippings, no water
need by added. During a dry season when rainfall is not sufficient to keep the
pile fairly moist, hand watering of the pile will be necessary to produce natural
decay. Shoveling the material from one pile to another two or three times during
the season will tend to hasten decay and give a better decomposition.

The artificial manure is ready for use when decomposition has stopped and
the plant material has lost its original structure or characteristics. Tree leaves^
used alone, usually take a longer time to decompose and may retain their general
outline, which, however, crumbles easily when handled.

Large-Scale Preparation

In general, the same procedure as outlined above is followed in the preparation
of larger quantities of manure. The method differs mainly in more economical
use of chemicals to aid the decomposition and in the fact that the whole pile is
usually built at one time.

The raw materials needed are: one ton of any of the organic materials previously
mentioned, 75 to 80 pounds of Cyanamid or ammonium sulfate or its equivalent
from any other source of readily available nitrogen, about 70 pounds of super-
phosphate (16 percent), 25 pounds of muriate of potash, and 75 to 80 pounds of
ground limestone. If Cyanamid is used as the source of nitrogen, no limestone
is required because Cyanamid contains a large amount of calcium. For general
work, the amounts do not have to be too exact. If smaller amounts of organic
material are used, the chemicals should be reduced proportionately.

It is desirable to start with enough raw material to make a pile 5 to 8 feet high
— about a ton of dry matter. The organic matter is piled and tramped in layers
either in a circular bed about 9 feet in diameter or in a 10-foot square. The

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 395

layers should not be over 6 inches thick. The chemicals are scattered over each
layer of organic material, and a shovelful or two of garden soil or barnyard manure
sprinkled on each layer as the pile is being built will serve as an inoculating
agent. Each layer of organic material should be sprinkled with water as it is
packed down by tramping. Care should be taken that not enough water is used
to leach out of the bottom of the pile. If the pile is built outdoors, the top may be
left flat so as to retain rain water instead of shedding it. If the pile bgins to
heat up greatly in two or three days, the temperature should be lowered by
sprinkling on more water, but not an excessive amount.

After four or five weeks, the whole pile should be forked over into another pile,
throwing the outside portion into the center of the new pile and adding more
water. The forking-over process is repeated once more at the end of about eight
weeks, and the pile is then allowed to stand until the organic material is decayed,
or until the heating stops. The product may then be used in the sam? manner
as stable manure.

Summary

Artificial manure was prepared from corn stover, mixed deciduous leaves, oat
straw, and mixed leaves and garbage, in order to study the method of preparation,
rate of decomposition, heat and moisture relationships, and volume and appear-
ance of the finished product. Chemical analyses were made of the various pro-
ducts and they were used .in both pot and field experiments.

Both chemical and vegetation tests showed that when Cyanamid or ammonium
sulfate was used in the preparation of manure from corn stover, oat straw, or
leaves and garbage, a finished product resembling well-rotted farmyard manure
was obtained. Leaves used alone decomposed to form artificial mmure very
slowly, while corn stover decomposed most rapidly.

Field tests showed that artificial manure can be used satisfactorily in growing
corn, and hay yields were increased considerably where it was applied.

Detailed general directions are given for both small- and large-scale preparation
of artificial manure.

MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION

Bulletin No. 396

September 1942

Breeding Rhode Island Reds
for Rapid Feathering

By F. A. Hays and Ruby Sanborn

Rapid chick feathering, particularly over the back region, is a very valuable
character in general purpose fowls. This study was carried on over a long period
to discover a reliable method for fixing this character in Rhode Island Reds.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

BREEDING RHODE ISLAND REDS FOR
RAPID FEATHERING

By F. A. Hays and Ruby Sanborn

Introduction

Rapid chick feathering is considered to be a very valuable character in flocks
bred for high egg production. Cockerels sold for broiler purposes command a
significantly higher price if they exhibit complete feathering. Rapid feathering
is also thought to offer some protection against feather pulling and cannibalism
during the early growing period. During the last two decades poultry breeders
have given much attention to fixing this trait in the general purpose breeds

The fact has long been known that such breeds as Rhode Island Reds, Ply-
mouth Rocks, Wyandottes, and Orpingtons show a sex-dimorphism in the rate
of feathering. Females of these breeds usually develop complete feather cover-
ing at an earlier age than males. Saharova (1926) called attention to sex differ-
ences in the rate of feathering of the general purpose breeds, to the slow feather-
ing in the Asiatic breeds, and to the rapid feathering in the Mediterranean breeds.
He indicated that the dimorphic type of feathering was dominant over rapid
feathering, was not sex-linked but was partly sex-limited. Danforth (1929)
crossed White Leghorns, Barred Plymouth Rocks, and Rhode Island Reds and
grafted skin from one breed to another. He concluded that there are two factors
producing slow feathering. One of these factors is sex-linked and occurs in Rhode
Island Reds. A second factor produces an inhibitory effect through the soma.
Both the sex-linked and the inhibitory factor occur in Barred Plymouth Rocks.

Warren (1925) reported on the mode of inheritance of a single sex-linked re-
cessive gene for rapid chick feathering in White Leghorns when crossed with
Jersey Black Giants. Kinugawa (1927) reported the existence of a sex-linked
recessive gene for rapid chick feathering in Leghorns, Hamburgs, Minorcas, and
Nagoyas.

Considerable attention has been given by a number of investigators to the
relation of rate of chick feathering to other important characters in laying flocks.

Martin (1929) studied the rate of chick feathering in both exhibition and pro-
duction-bred Barred Plymouth Rocks. He noted that the rate of feather de-
velopment over the back was closely related to rate of growth, the heavier chicks
feathering the more rapidly. Barring was superior in the slow-feathering and
slow-growing chicks. No linkage was found between genes for rate of back
feathering and the gene M for winter pause or either sex-linked gene E or auto-
somal gene E' for early sexual maturity.

Gericke and Piatt (1932) investigated the effect of varying amounts of protein
in the ration on feather growth in Barred Plymouth Rock chicks from hatching
to 8 weeks of age. Their data indicated that higher levels of protein increased
the rate of feather growth. These workers noted further that the growth of
feathers was slower in the dorsal tract than in any other region except on the
head and the wing bow. A high correlation was also observed between body
weight and feather development. Rapid feather development offered consider-
able protection against feather picking.

Jaap and Morris (1937) studied the variation in body weight and rate of
feathering at 8 weeks of age in six general purpose breeds and crosses. Their
data indicated some association between rate of growth and rate of feathering.
They found, however, that reciprocal crosses between rapid- and slow-feathered
stocks gave a more or less intermediate feather development.

RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS 3

Radi and Warren (1938) presented rather extensive data on chick feathering
in Rhode Island Reds. They reported that thyroxine injections definitely stim-
ulated feather development; that brooding under either high humidity or low
temperature improved feathering; that selection was efTective in producing strains
genetically different in degree of feathering at seven weeks; that superior feather-
ing was incompletely dominant to poor feathering but the number of genes in-
volved was not determined; and concluded that the genetic differences established
were probably due to modifying factors acting upon the sex-linked dominant
late-feathering gene for which the birds were known to be homozygous.

Lloyd (1939) made a study of feathering in Barred Plymouth Rocks, Rhode
Island Reds, Cambars, and White Leghorns. He observed varying degrees of
feathering at 4, 6, and 8 weeks of age and expressed the opinion that it is probably
possible to produce uniform rapid feathering in Reds and Rocks. He believes
that rapid feathering behaves as a dominant in inheritance.

At the present time there is considerable confusion regarding the mode of
inheritance of rate of chick feathering. There is general agreement, however,
that the general purpose breeds are normally slow in feathering and that there
is a sexual dimorphism in rate of feathering. Through selective breeding in
recent years considerable progress has been made in establishing rapid chick
feathering in many flocks but the problem is not a simple one. A study of several
phases of the problem should add important information.

Data Available

Beginning in 1931 all birds were classified at 12 days of age for the sex-linked
early feathered type only, and a study was begun at the Massachusetts Station
in 1933 on the mode of inheritance of rate of chick feathering in Rhode Island
Reds. The primary objective was to develop a method of breeding to produce
complete back feathering at 8 weeks of age. Ten generations of chicks have
been examined for back feathering at 8 weeks making a total of over 30,000
examinations.

In 1934 selective breeding was begun to develop three lines with respect to
chick feathering. Line 1 was bred for complete back feathering at 8 weeks.
Line 2 was bred for absence of back feathering at 8 weeks. A control line included
birds bred for high fecundity without regard to rate of feathering.

Throughout the experiment there was considerable difficulty in separating
pullets at 8 weeks of age into rapid and slow types with respect to back feather-
ing. In males no difficulty was experienced. Line 1 was always reproduced by
sires that had complete back feathering at 8 weeks and line 2 was always repro-
duced by sires that had no back feathering at 8 weeks. After the first generation,
female breeders were selected within their respective lines.

Records were also secured on many of the chicks at 10 days to discover the
presence of the recessive sex-linked gene by the development of tail feathers.
Rate of feathering in nine feather tracts was studied weekly in a number of
chicks. Complete trapnest records were secured on many females to study the
relation between rate of feathering and fecundity characters.

Character of the Foundation Stock

A preliminary study was made on the flock hatched in 1933 to get information
on the presence or absence of the sex-linked gene for rapid feathering and the
presence or absence of back feathering at 8 weeks of age. The presence of a
tail at 12 days of age is produced by the recessive sex-linked gene si. Males with
tails were therefore marked slsl and males without tails were marked SI. In a
similar manner females with tails were si and those without tails were SI. At 8

4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

weeks of age the birds were graded into + and — groups, depending upon the
development of some back feathering or the lack of any back feathering.

A total of 1494 males was examined at 12 days and again at 8 weeks of age.
At the same time 1436 females were examined and classified. The summary
appears in table 1.

Table 1.— Chick Feathering at 12 Days and 8 Weeks of Age.
Foundation Flock— 1933.

Males Females

At 12 Days SI slsl SI si

At 8 Weeks -+-+ - + - +

Totals 1275 83 92 44 505 666 63 201

Of 1494 males examined, only 136 or 9.1 percent carried the sex-linked gene
si in homozygous condition, and 92 of these (67.6 percent) failed to develop back
feathering at 8 weeks. Out of 1358 males in which there was no tail development
at 12 days, 83 had back feathering at 8 weeks.

In the female population 18.3 percent carried the sex-linked gene si, and 23.8
percent of these failed to develop back feathering at 8 weeks. Out of the total
of 1172 that lacked tail growth at 12 days, 56.8 percent showed back feathering
at 8 weeks.

Only 127 or 8.5 percent of the males in the foundation stock carried complf te
back feathering at 8 weeks, while over 60 percent of the females had complete
back covering at 8 weeks. Furthermore, out of 1358 males that were not homo-
zygous for gene si, 6.1 percent developed back feathering in comparison with
32.4 percent in males carrying recessive gene si.

Opportunity is given for study of the relations of the gene for early tail growth
and genes for back feathering later on in this report.

Development of Feathers in Different Body Regions

Observations were made weekly for 8 weeks, on 419 chicks in lines 1 and 2
hatched in 1934 and 1935. The feather tracts studied were head, neck, breast,
shoulder, back, abdomen, thigh, leg, and. tail. In table 2 the sexes are recorded
separately and the mean age when feather growth started and when it was com-
pleted is indicated for line 1 , bred for complete back feathering at 8 weeks, and
line 2, bred for absence of back feathering at 8 weeks.

Table 2. — Mean Age in Weeks When Feathering Started and was
Completed. 1934 and 1935 — 419 Chicks.

Age in Weeks

Age in

Weeks

Feather

when Feathering Started

when Feathering

was Completed

Tract

Males

Females

Males

Females

Line 1

Line 2

Line 1

Line 2

Line 1

Line 2

Line 1

Line 2

Head . . .

5.08

5.49

4.81

5.23

8.00

6.00

8.00

7.00

Neck . . .

3.65

3.80

3.17

3.43

6.96

6.83

6.74

6.77

Breast . .

2.90

3.30

2.26

2.53

7.33

7.46

6.52

6.82

Shoulder

. 2.61

3.05

1.78

2.11

6.15

6.34

4.38

5.30

Back . . .

4.92

5.88

3.41

4.41

7.27

7.50

7.10

7.13

Abdomen 4.19

4.51

3.92

4.28

7.70

7.75

7.51

7.59

Thigh ..

3.01

3.48

2.40

2.70

6.29

6.40

7.08

7.17

Leg

3.39

3.67

3.15

3.21

8.00

8.00

7.92

7.84

Tail ....

2.54

2.87

1.95

2.31

7.00

8.00

5.86

6.57

RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS 5

The head and the back tracts were slowest in developing feathers; the abdomen,
neck, and thigh regions were also rather slow in developing; and the shoulder,
breast, and tail developed feathers rather early. Males feathered more slowly
than females, and there was a significant difference in age when feather growth
started between lines 1 and 2.

When the age at which feathering was complete in the different feather tracts
is considered, it will be noted that head, leg, and abdomen were slowest to com-
plete feather development; the back, tail, and breast were next in order; and the
shoulder and thigh regions completed feather development rather early. In
almost all tracts studied, the males of line 2 were slower than those of line 1.
Females in the two lines did not differ greatly in time required for complete
feather development in the different feather tracts. This is in line with the previ-
ous observation that feathering phenotypes are difficult to distinguish in females.

Percentage of Chicks Completely Feathered in the Different
Tracts at Eight Weeks of Age

It is desirable to learn something about stages of feather growth in the differ-
ent tracts at the age of 8 weeks. Since selective breeding had just begun when
these observations were made, it is self-evident that the fast and slow lines would
be less diverse than in later generations.

Table 3 indicates that both lines were rather poorly feathered at 8 weeks of
age when the experiment began. In line 1 only 9.91 percent of the males had
complete back feathering, while in line 2 the percentage was even less, 2.94
percent.

Table 3. — Percentage of Chicks Completely Feathered in the
Different Tracts at 8 Weeks of Age. 1934-1935.

Males

Females

Line 1

Line 2

Line 1

Line 2

Head

.. 1.74

1.10

3.45

1.03

Neck

.. 61.21

46.15

79.31

61.86

Breast

. . 43.97

30.77

78.45

61.86

Shoulder . . .

. . 56.03

38.46

99.14

83.51

Back

. . 9.91

2.94

72.41

41.67

Abdomen . . .

. . 34.48

8.79

70.69

42.27

Thigh

. . 6.03

5 49

31.03

18.56

Leg

.. 39.66

31.87

51.72

46.39

Tail

. . 8.62

3.30

81.90

38.14

In the females, the percentages were 72.41 and 41.67 respectively for lines 1 and
2. These data indicate that at the beginning of the experiment both lines in-
cluded some rapid-feathering birds.

Relation Between Feathering at Twelve Days and Back Feathering

at Eight Weeks

Records on tail development at 12 days and on feathering over the back at 8
weeks were taken on all chicks in the control group and in lines 1 and 2 for the
generations hatched in 1938 and 1939. It seemed particularly desirable to study
the relation between the sex-linked recessive gene si which produces tail growth
during the second week and the presence or absence of back feathering at 8
weeks of age. Since there is a sex-dimorphism, the sexes were considered sep-
arately. The chicks were classified as either rapid or slow feathering at 12 days

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

and the same chicks were again classified as + or — for back feathering at 8
weeks. The particular point of interest in these data is the percentage of +
and — birds in the si and SI groups, respectively. Table 4 presents the data.

Table 4. — Relation of Chick Feathering at 12 Days to Back
Feathering at 8 Weeks. 1938 and 1939.

Chick Back Males Females

Feathering Feathering

at 12 Days at 8 Weeks Number Percent Number Percent

Control Line

+ 21 95.4 108 74.5
si,

1 4.6 37 25.5

+ 274 23.9 117 12.3
SI,

873 76.1 838 87.7

Line 1, Bred for Complete Back Feathering at 8 Weeks

+ 39 97.5 70 78.6
si.

1 2.5 19 21.4

+ 117 49.2 58 34.3
SI.

121 50.8 111 65.7

Line 2, Bred for Absence of Back Feathering at 8 Weeks

f + 0 0.0 0 0.0

si i

[- 0 0.0 1 100.0

+ 6 8.3 1 1.8
SI.

66 91.7 55 98.2

Almost 24 percent of the males in the control line that had not exhibited rapid
feathering at 12 days of age showed back feathering at 8 weeks of age. In line 1
about half of the males that were classified as slow feathering when 12 days old
developed back feathering when 8 weeks old. Only 8 percent of the males in
line 2 showed back feathering when 8 weeks old. These facts suggest that the
presence of the recessive gene si in heterozygous condition causes the develop-
ment of some back feathering in males at 8 weeks. The fact that almost all of
the male chicks that had shown themselves to be homoz^'gous for gene si at 12
days later developed some back feathering, points to the sex-linked gene si as of
major importance in the development of back feathering at 8 weeks.

About 75 percent of the females showing rapid feathering at 12 days had
complete back feathering at 8 weeks of age. As has been previously pointed out,
every female will show some feathering on the back at 8 weeks, making a classi-
fication for back feathering difficult and of questionable reliability. For this
reason, more stress has been laid on the male side of the population. Since
females can carry gene si in simplex state only, its influence on back feathering
may be less in this sex. In all lines, females that lacked gene si were much less
likely than males of the same line to develop back feathering at 8 weeks.

These earlier data point to the importance of the sex-linked gene si in its re-
lation to feathering in the back region. Careful attention is given later to its
relation to degree of feathering and to other inheritance phases of the problem.

RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS 7

Relation Between Feathering at Twelve Days and Degrees of Back
Feathering at Eight Weeks

In the last two generations, hatched in 1941 and 1942, the chicks were all
classified for the sex-linked gene at 12 days of age. At 8 weeks of age all chicks
were again classified for back feathering into grades 0 to 4. Since there were so
few chicks in grade 4, which implies complete feather growth on the back without
any pin feathers, this grade is scarcely worth considering in these studies. Males
particularly are known to vary widely in the degree of feathering over the back.
The data in table 5 show how the presence or absence of the sex-linked gene si
for rapid feathering affects the degree of back feathering in Rhode Island Reds
in the three lines.

There appears to be an important relationship between the recessive sex-
linked gene si for rapid feathering and the degree of feathering over the back at
8 weeks. In the control line males, slightly over 10 percent that carried gene si
in homozygous condition had no back feathering at 8 weeks of age. This fact
indicates that such males must have lacked the necessary autosomal genes to
produce rapid back feathering. In line 1, slsl males all had some back feather-
ing at 8 weeks. In line 2, the sex-linked gene was not present in the males.

Since sex-linked gene si shows its effect in females in the hemizygous or single
dose stage, a greater percentage of the females than males in all three lines was
observed to have tail growth at 12 days of age. Only one si female produced in
two generations, failed to develop some back feathering at 8 weeks. All other
females that had tails at 12 days fell into grades 2, 3, or 4 when 8 weeks old.
One very significant fact should be noted in this connection; in the control line
58 percent of si females were graded 3 or 4 at 8 weeks, while in line 1 , 96 percent
were given these two grades. In other words, the si females in line 1 after seven
years of selection for early back feathering must have approached a homozygous
condition for autosomal genes concerned.

Males lacking tails at 12 days may be of two genotypes, Slsl or SlSl, as far as
the sex-linked gene is concerned. Table 5 shows that about 22 percent of such
males lacked back feathering completely at 8 weeks in the control line and that
most of the others fell in grades 1 and 2. In line 1 there were no SI males com-
pletely lacking in back feathering and about 97 percent fell in grades 2 and 3.
The SI males of line 2 were mostly in the 0 grade for back feathering, with about
7 percent in grade 1. In line 1, selection on the basis of back feathering had been
effective in the absence of the sex-linked gene. It is very probable also that the
SI males in line 1 were all heterozygous for gene si. In the control line fewer
males were heterozygous for gene si and probably none were heterozygous for
this gene in line 2.

Females that failed to develop tails at 12 days must have completely lacked the
recessive sex-linked gene si. In this group, any differences in rate of back feather-
ing between the three lines must have been due to the effects of selection on auto-
somal genes. The SI females in the control line fell mostly into grades 2 and 3
for back feathering at 8 weeks; the SI females of line 1 fell only in grades 2 and 3;
and the SI females of line 2 were mostly in grades 1 and 2. Females of line 1
were definitely superior to the controls and those of line 2 were decidedly inferior
to the controls.

Breeding Results Concerned with the Sex-Linked Gene and Other
Possible Genes Affecting Back Feathering

Table 6 shows the character of the progeny produced in ten generations from
eighteen different types of matings. Progeny where grouped into either -(- or —
classes with respect to back feathering at 8 weeks of age.

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

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RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS 9

Mating 1 was between parents both geneticalh' pure for the sex-linked recessive
gene si, and the sires were + for back feathering. In the control line this mating
gave 25 + to 5 — sons and 31 + to 16 — daughters. In line 1 all sons and all
daughters showed back feathering at 8 weeks.

Mating 2 included Sisl and SlSl sires mated to si dams. In the control line
equal numbers of feathered and non-feathered cockerels appeared. The daugh-
ters showed equal numbers also. In line 1 there were twice as many + as —
sons and the proportions of daughters were the same as for the sons.

Mating 3 differed from mating 1 only in that the sires used lacked back feather-
ing. The number of progeny- was very small but only 1 out of 12 sons had back
feathering. The daughters all lacked back feathering. Here is further evidence
of autosomal genes affecting back feathering.

Mating 4 may be compared with mating 2 for genes influencing back feather-
ing. The data definitely indicate the same proportions of -f and — daughters
from both matings 4 and 2 in the control line. In line 2, however, essentially all
of the sons lacked back feathering at 8 weeks, while the daughters showed 1 +
to 8 — . Very likely most of the sires used in the control line were heterozygous
for gene si, while in line 2 the sires must have been SlSl.

In mating 5 the dams lacked the sex-linked gene si for rapid feathering. When
these were mated to sires pure for the sex-linked gene si and also carrying rapid
back feathering, equal numbers of -}- and — sons appeared; while if the sex-
linked gene si were alone responsible for back feathering, there should be no sons
with back feathering. If the sires used in this mating carried a dominant auto-
somal gene X for rapid back feathering that the dams lacked, equal proportions
of + and — sons and daughters would result. This type of mating m line 1 gave
41 + to ] 2 — sons or about 3 to 1. In the daughters the proportions were about
5 to 1. In this line both sires and dams may have been heterozygous for gene
X which would give a 3 to 1 ratio. The excess of + females may have been due
to faulty classification for back feathering.

Mating 6 was between sires that were either heterozygous for gene si or lacked
this gene entirely and were -f for back feathering and dams that lacked gene si.
In the control line this type of mating gave equal numbers of + and — malts
and females. Very likely the sires were heterozygous for gene X and the dams
lacked gene X. In line 1 the proportion of + and — sons was about 1 to 2 and
the daughters showed proportions of 3 to 2. It is probable that some sires in
line 1 lacked gene X.

Legends for Plates

Plate I. Chicks at 12 Days of Age.

1. Presence of gene si — Female W2808 from line 1.

2. Absence of gene si — Male W3148 from line 1.

3. Presence of gene si — Female W2809 from line 1 male on line 2 female.

4. Heterozygous for gene si — Male W310,5 from line 1 male on line 2 female.

5. Absence of gene si — Female W2796 from line 2.

6. Absence of gene si — Female W3126 from line 2 male on line 1 female.

Plate II. Chicks at 4 Weeks of Age.

1. Grade SI 2 — Male W3148 from line 1.

2. Grade si 3 — Female W3116 from line 1.

3. Grade SI 0 — • Male W3I05 from ine 1 male on line 2 female.

4. Grade si 3 — Female W3104 from line 1 male on line 2 female, sister to No. 3.

5. Grade si 0 — Female W2797 from line 2.

6. Grade SI 0 — Female W3199 from line 2 male on line 1 female.

Plate III. Chicks at 8 Weeks of Age.

1. Grade SI 3 — Male W1037 from line 1. His dam evidently carried an inhibitor of sl gene.

2. Grade sl 3 — Male W1070 from line 1.

3. Grade SI 3, carries gene sl — Male W1140 from line 1 male on line 2 female.

4. Grade sl 3 — Male W1123 from line 1 male on line 2 female.
.5. Grade Sl 0 — Male W823 from line 2.

6. Grade Sl 0 — Male W947 from line 2 male on line 1 female.

7 . Grade SI 2 — Male W1094 from hne 2 male on line 1 female.

10

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

Plate I. Chicks at 12 Days of Age.

RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS n

Plate I. Chicks at 12 Days of Age.

12

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

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MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

Table 6. —

Character

OF Progen-v

' Produced From Different Types of

Matings.

1934 -

- 1942.

]VT(itiniz Sii'G

Dam

Progeny Classified According to B;
Feathering at 8 Weeks

ick

No. '

Control Line

Line

-r-

: 1

Lii

re 2

+

-

z

1 sLsI +

si

Sons
Daughters

25
31

5
16

78
86

0
0

2 SI +

si

Sons
Daughters

80

77

75
78

115
HI

55
55

3 slsl -

si

Sons
Daughters

1
0

11
16

4 SI -

si

Sons
Daughters

71
63

73

72

1

5

53
40

5 slsl +

SI

Sons
Daughters

21
20

18
12

41

47

12
9

6 SI +

SI

Sons
Daughters

391

348

364
319

36

72

65

52

7 slsl -

SI

Sons
Daughters

1

1

36
18

8 SI -

SI

Sons
Daughters

204
241

553
539

7
59

198
125

9 SI

SI

Sons
Daughters

13

50

183
132

10 slsl +

+ or -

Sons
Daughters

19

13

0
0

33
33

0
0

11 SI +

+ or -

Sons
Daughters

123
163

19
0

12 SI -

+ or -

Sons
Daughters

42
65

84

48

3
43

42
1

13 +

si

Sons
Daughters

5
3

9

12

76
62

5
34

14 -

si

Sons
Daughters

6

12

6

1

15 +

SI

Sons
Daughters

8
8

28
20

37
34

28

22

16

SI

Sons
Daughters

8
15

0
0

17 +

+ or -

Sons
Daughters

400
329

580
556

260

252

351
319

18

+ or -

Sons
Daughters

163
149

513
463

58
68

154
152

Mating 7 made use of slsl — sires on SI dams. The progeny here of both sexes
was essentially all — in back feathering. Gene si carried pure by the daughters
failed to give back feathering, and gene X must have been absent.

RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS 17

Mating 8 was between sires that lacked both early tail growth and back feather-
ing and females lacking gene si for early tail development. In the control line,
this mating gave 204 + to 553 — males and 241 + to 539 — females; in line 2,
the males were essentially all without back feathering. This difference between
the male progeny from the two lines was apparently traceable to the presence of
sex-linked gene si in heterozygous condition in some sires used in the control
line and its absence from sires used in line 2.

Mating 9 was made in 1932 and 1933 between birds classified only for the tex-
linkedgeneat 12 days of age. This early generation produced 13 + sons to 183 — -.
The daughters showed the proportions of 50 + to 132 - — at 8 weeks. Back fea-
thering in the sons could not appear if produced by the sex-linked gene si unless
an inhibitor to rapid feathering such as pointed out by Warren (1933) had been
present in some of the dams. It seems more likely that an autosomal gene affect-
ing back feathering was present in a few birds.

Mating 10 included sires pure for gene si and having back feathering at 8 weeks
mated to unclassified dams. A small number of such matings gave only 14 sons
and daughters both in the control line and in line 1. The number of matings
was too small to give conclusive results.

Mating 11 was made between sires either heterozygous or homozygous for
gene SI for slow feathering but showing back feathering at 8 weeks and unclassi-
fied dams. From such matings almost all of the sons and all of the daughters
had back feathering, probably due to autosomal genes concerned.

In mating 12, sires not homozygous for the sex-linked gene for rapid feather-
ing and lacking back feathering at 8 weeks were mated to unclassified dams. In
the control line one-third of the sons had back feathering, probably inherited
from their dams. More than half of the daughters showed back feathering. These
results are in marked contrast to those of mating 11 where J4 sires were used.
In line 2, the sons were essentially all slow in back feathering while the daughters
showed back feathering.

Mating 13 should be a superior mating from the standpoint of combining
genes for back feathering with the sex-linked gene for rapid feathering in the sons.
In the control line the progeny w'ere too few to give accurate information. In Hne
1, however, the feathering behavior of the sons indicates the desirability of com-
bining sex-linked gene si with other genes affecting back feathering. The daughters
from these matings lacked gene si and were rather poorly feathered.

Mating 14 need not be considered because of the very few progeny produced.

Mating 15 shows the results from mating males with back feathering to females
lacking the sex-linked gene si for rapid feathering. In the control line only a small
percentage of both sons and daughters was feathered at 8 weeks. In line 1 this
type of mating gave about equal numbers of feathered and unfeathered sons and
daughters at the age of 8 weeks. This is in contrast with mating 13 where most
of the sons were feathered when they received the gene si.

Mating 16 need not be considered because of very limited data.

Mating 17 was an important type of mating and was used extensively. Sires
were selected for back feathering at 8 weeks and these were mated to the general
run of dams in the flock. In the control line about two-fifths of the sons had
back feathering while about three-eighths of the daughters were similarly classi-
fied. In line 1, about two-fifths of both sons and daughters were feathered.
These proportions suggest that the sires did not breed true for rapid back
feathering, which might seem to indicate a heterozygous condition for a single
dominant autosomal gene.

Mating 18 may be compared with mating 17. In mating 18 the sires lacked
rapid back feathering. In the control line this type of mating gave one-fourth
of the sons with rapid back feathering and about the same proportion of daughters

18

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

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RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS 19

with rapid back feathering. In line 2 there was a very similar classification of
sons and daughters. While mating 17 was more effective than mating 18 in
increasing the percentages of sons and daughters with rapid back feathering, it
could not be considered to be a very rapid method.

Progress in Breeding for Rapid Back Feathering — 1934 and 1942

This project was begun in the spring of 1934 with the primary objective of
developing line 1 for complete back feathering at 8 weeks of age and line 2 for
complete lack of back feathering at 8 weeks of age. This was the basis used in
selecting both sires and dams throughout the experiment. As previously pointed
out, a classification of female chicks at 8 weeks of age is difificult and uncertain
because of sex-dimorphism in rate of feathering in the general purpose breeds.

In table 7 the gross data are presented for the three lines and may be used as a
measure of progress through this system of breeding.

The sons and daughters in the control line were rather similar in percentage
of rapid back feathering in respective years. In the first generation about 34
percent of males and about 50 percent of females exhibited rapid back feather-
ing. In the control line there was no significant change through seven genera-
tions. In the last two generations, however, there was a very marked increase
in the percentage of rapid back feathering in both sexes. This remarkable in-
crease appears to have been due to a more extensive use of -\- sires to produce
these generations.

Line 1, bred for complete back feathering at 8 weeks, shows rather consistent
though not rapid progress in the desired direction. In the last two generations
the desired goal appears to have been reached, with all males and females marked
positive at 8 weeks of age.

In line 2, reproduced entirely by sires lacking back feathering at 8 weeks, a
small percentage of males and a greater percentage of females generally showed
some back feathering. This fact can be explained only by assuming that some
dams must have transmitted rapid back feathering.

In general, the data in table 7 indicate that the selection of breeding sires on
the basis of rapid back feathering is an effective though rather slow method of
establishing rapid back feathering as a flock characteristic.

Breeding Progress with the Sex-Linked Gene for Rapid Feathering

Records were taken at 12 days of age for the presence of the sex-linked gene si
on five generations throughout the experiment. It should be borne in mind that
no selective breeding was practiced to establish this gene in the flock. Selective
breeding was based solely on back feathering at 8 weeks of age. In table 8 the
percentages of males and females of the two possible phenotypes in the three lines
are recorded in five generations.

In the foundation stock 9 percent of the males carried gene si in homozygous
condition and 18 percent of the females carried gene si in hemizygous condition.
In the control line there was no increase in the percentage of males or females
exhibiting this gene in ten generations.

In line 1 there was a regular and consistent increase in the percentage of males
and females showing the sex-linked rapid feathering gene in five generations.
In the last generation, hatched in 1942, over 69 percent of the males and about
95 percent of the females showed this character. The fact is very evident from
these data that males selected for superior back feathering at 8 weeks were males
that carried gene si in homozygous condition. It seems very probable that
complete rapid back feathering could have been fixed in a very short time if
males selected for sires had been required to show the sex-linked gene at 12 days

20

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

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RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS 21

and complete back feathering at 8 weeks and had been mated exclusively to fe-
males having the sex-linked gene at 12 days.

In line 2 a small percentage of females showing the sex-linked gene si appeared
in 1939 and again in 1941. These may have come from sires heterozygous for
gene si. The fact is also important that every single male in this line failed to
develop a tail at 12 days of age.

Since females can carry the recessive sex-linked gene si for rapid feathering
only on their single sex chromosome, it is easy to discover such females at 12
days of age by tail development. Records were taken on a number of females
hatched in 1938 and 1939. These females were divided into two groups, si for
rapid feathering and SI for slow feathering. Only those individuals that completed
a full laying year were included. Table 9 gives the summarized data.

Table 9. — Relation Between the Sex Linked Gene for Rapid Chick

Feathering and Characters Affecting Fecundity, Egg

Production, and Mortality Rate in Females.

Number of birds

Age at first egg Days

Weight at first egg Pounds

Winter pause Days

Winter clutch Eggs

Winter production Eggs

Egg weight to Jan. 1 Ounces per dozen

Persistency Days .

Annual production Eggs.

Laying house mortality Percent

si Group SI Group

24

211

188

186

6.0

5.9

8

12

3.6

3.7

102

100

23.7

23.4

345

347

231

231

35

29

The two groups of females were almost identical in such fecundity characters
as age at first egg, weight at first egg, winter pause duration, winter clutch, and
annual persistency, as well as in winter and annual egg production. The mean
egg weights up to January first were not significantly different. Mortality rates
for 365 days in the laying houses were essentially the same. In general, these
data appear to indicate that the sex-linked gene for rapid chick feathering is
independent of genes associated with high fecundity in Rhode Island Reds.

Relation of Chick Feathering to Body Weight and Mortality Rate in Males

All males on which the feathering record was taken at 12 days were divided
into rapid and slow groups. All other males had their feathering record taken
at 8 weeks of age and are grouped as + or — for back feathering. The body
weight was taken on each individual at 5 months of age and the mortality rates
up to 5 months were recorded for each of the four groups.

The data on the sex-linked gene SI were secured in 1938, 1939, and 1941 and
only a very small number of the slsl cockerels was retained up to 5 months of
age. The data on back feathering were collected each year beginning in 1934.
In table 10 the records on back feathering for 1938, 1939, and 1941 were omitted
because all of these cockerels were included in the slSl classes for those years.

Unfortunately the number of males in the slsl class that were retained to 5
months of age was too small to permit an accurate evaluation of this class as
compared with the SI class. The data show, however, that the slsl cockerels
were of about the same body weight at 5 months of age as the SI cockerels

13

6.29

12

0.00

532

6.28

549

3.10

275

6.08

281

2.13

561

6.11

580

3.28

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

Mortality rates were low in both groups, but the data are not adequate to show
differences.

A comparison of the + and — groups with respect to back feathering at 8
weeks shows the two groups to be very similar in body weight. In mortality
rate the + group was somewhat lower than the — group, although the rates
were low in both classes.

Table 10. — Relation of Chick Feathering to Body Weight and
Mortality Rate in Males. 1934 - 1941.

Number Body Number Mortality

Feathering Class of Weight at of Rate to

Birds 5 Months Birds 5 Months
Pounds Percent

Chick feathering at 12 days

Rapid (slsl)

Slow (SI)

Back feathering at 8 weeks

Feathered ( +)

Bare (-)

The data in table 10 do not in general indicate superior growth in rapid feather-
ing cockerels up to 5 months of age. There is some evidence, however, to indicate
a lower mortality rate in the rapid feathering groups.

Special Results of Matings in 1942

In addition to the regular complement of females from line 1, three females
from line 2 were mated to the line 1 sire to study the inheritance of the sex-linked
gene si and other genes affecting degree of back feathering. In these matings
each bird was classified for the recessive sex-linked gene si by the presence or
absence of tail growth at 12 days. All individuals were also graded for degree
of back feathering at 8 weeks of age into grades 0, 1,2, 3, and 4. For example,
slsl 4 means that the male had a tail when 12 days old and also had complete
back feathering at 8 weeks of age.

The first mating of the slsl 4 male and a si 3 female gave only slsl 3 sons and
daughters. A second mating of the slsl 4 male to a SI 1 female gave 2 SI 0 sons,
3 SI 1 sons, 9 SI 2 sons, and 4 SI 3 sons. This is a ratio of 12 intermediate
(grades 1 and 2) to 4 grade 3 to 2 grade 0. It seems probable that the sire was
slslXx in genetic makeup and that the dam was SlXx. Such a mating should
give all male progeny heterozygous for gene si, of which 25 percent should be
SIslXX, 50 percent SlslXx, and 25 percent Slslxx. The actual proportions were
4-12-2. The 11 daughters were all placed in grade 3 (si 3). A third mating was
made between the slsl 4 male and a SI 2 female. This mating gave 14 sons, all
heterozygous for gene si. In back feathering there were 3 grade 3, 10 inter-
mediate, and 1 grade 0. The expectation was 1-2-1 or 4 2/3 to 7 to 4 2/3. From
this last mating there were 9 grade 3 daughters and 1 of grade 2, all carrying
recessive gene si.

A cross was also made between line 1 and line 2, using an si 3 dam from line
1 mated to the line 2 sire which was SlSl 0 in makeup. This sire was homozy-
gous for gene SI and gave 13 sons, all graded SI 2. The 19 daughters were also all
graded as SI 2. As was to be expected on the basis of a smgle autosomal factor,
all sons and daughters were intermediate in back feathering. All 32 progeny failed
to exhibit the recessive sex-linked gene for rapid feathering.

RAPID FEATHERING IN RHODE ISLAND REDS 23

Types of matings made in line 1 for 1942 may be briefly considered. Two
sires, both graded slsl 4, were used for breeding. These males were mated to
five dams graded si 3. The type of mating must have been slslXX sire and
slXX dam. From these matings 32 sons and 41 daughters were recorded. All
sons were graded slsl 4 as would be expected. All daughters were graded si 3,
except two which were graded si 2. It is very evident that these sires and dams
bred true for rapid back feathering as well as for the sex-linked gene si.

Types of matings in line 2 may also be examined. A single sire was mated to
a number of different dams. Mating the SlSlXx sire to SI 1 females gave 9 51
0 sons and no other types. There were 4 SI 1 daughters and 4 SI 2 daughters
from this mating. The dams were probably SlXx in genetic makeup. The
slow feathering sire of line 2 was mated to one dam graded SI 2. All sons pro-
duced were SI 0 in grade. Out of 4 daughters, 3 were medium in back feather-
ing and 1 graded 0. All lacked the sex- linked gene si.

The mode of inheritance of rapid back feathering appears to be somewhat
involved. The sex-linked recessive gene si appears to play an important role
in relation to the degree of back feathering. Specific matings made in 1942 to
test the relation between the sex-linked gene for rapid feathering and possible
autosomal genes for rapid back feathering point definitely to the sex-linked gene
si as essential to secure complete back feathering at 8 weeks of age. This reces-
sive gene si need not be in homozygous condition to produce complete back
leathering in an individual male, but from the standpoint of his breeding ability
it is highly desirable that he be homozygous for gene si.

Evidence seems to point to a single dominant autosomal gene X which has a
cumulative effect and must be supplemented by recessive gene si to give complete
rapid back feathering. Sexual dimorphism in the rate of back feathering in
Rhode Island Reds renders the grading of females for back feathering an un-
certain procedure. On the basis of these studies, it seems evident that in breed-
ing for rapid back feathering two procedures will quickly accomplish the desired
end. (1) Both breeding males and females should be selected at 10 to 12 days
of age for the presence of the recessive sex-linked gene si. (2) The same birds that
showed tail development on the first examination should be graded for back
feathering at 8 weeks of age, and only those with complete back feathering should
be placed in the breeding pens.

Males of different grades with respect to back feathering at 8 weeks appear
to have the genetic composition indicated below:

Grade

Genotype

0

SlSlxx

SISlXx

1

SlSlXX

sl&lxx

Grade

Genotype

2

slslXx

SlslXx

3

slslXX

SlslXX

Representative photographs of the 1942 generation are shown in Plates I,
II, and III.

Summary

This report covers the period from 1931 to 1942 during which a study was
made on the mode of inheritance of rapid feathering in Rhode Island Red chicks.
Some of the more important deductions are:

1. Rhode Island Reds are normally sexually dimorphic with respect to rate
of feathering in chicks. Under continued selection for rapid feathering, this sex-
dimorphism almost completely disappears.

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 396

2. Rapid chick feathering was not consistently associated with greater weight
at sexual maturity.

3. There was some evidence that rapid feathering in males is associated with
a lower mortality rate to the age of 5 months.

4. The presence of the gene si for rapid feathering, at least in heterozygous
condition, in males is essential for the development of complete back feathering
at 8 weeks of age.

5. Complete feathering required a longer period for development in the back
region than in any of the other major body regions.

6. A dominant autosomal gene X exerts a cumulative effect with recessive
sex-linked gene si to produce complete feathering over the back at 8 weeks and
to essentially eliminate sex-dimorphism in rate of feathering.

7. Either gene X alone in homozygous condition or gene si alone in homozygous
condition may produce slight back feathering in males at 8 weeks.

8. Progress in breeding for rapid back feathering was slow when breeding males
were selected solely on the basis of feather development at 8 weeks of age.

9. No relation was found between the se ^-linked gene for rapid chick feather-
ing and several important inherited characters affecting egg production.

10. Results from a number of special matings indicate two procedures in select-
ing breeding stock that will establish gene si, the recessive sex-linked gene for
early tail growth, and gene X, the dominant autosomal gene for back feather-
ing, in a short period.

(A) Classify all prospective breeding males and females when 10 to 12
days of age for gene si.

(B) At 8 weeks of age definitely select both males and females that
showed gene si at 10 to 12 days and have complete back feathering
at 8 weeks of age.

12. There was no indication that selective breeding for rapid back feathering
will produce undesirable effects from the standpoint of egg production.

References

Danforth, C. H. 1929. Two factors influencing feathering in chickens.

Genetics 14:256-169.
Gericke, A. M. M., and C. S. Piatt. 1932. Feather development in Barred

Plymouth Rock chicks. N. J. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 543.
Jaap, R. G., and L. Morris. 1937. Genetic differences in eight-week weight and

feathering. Poultry Sci. 16:44-48.
Kinugawa, Y. 1927. On the sex-linked inheritance of tail feathering in chicks

and their sex-identification. Proc. Fourth World's Poultry Cong. pp.

105-111.
Lloyd, E. A. 1939. Breeding for meat and egg production. Proc. Seventh

World's Poultry Cong. pp. 483-487.
Martin, J. H. 1929. Rate of feather growth in Barred Plymouth Rock chicks.

Poultry Sci. 8:167-183.
Radi, M. H., and D. C. Warren. 1938. Studies on the physiology and inherit-
ance of feathering in the growing chick. Jour. Agr. Res. 56:679-705.
Saharova, L. N. 1926. Genetics of the rate of feathering. Mem. Anikowo Sta.

edited by Koltzoff p. 130.
Warren, D. C. 1925. Inheritance of rate of feathering in poultry. Jour. Hered.

16:13-18.
Warren, D. C. 1933. Retarded feathering in the fowl. Jour. Hered. 24-431-434

Publication of this Document Approved by Commission of Administration and Finance
4M 10-42-10406P

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

Bulletin No. 397 December 1942

A Civilian Program for
Tree Protection

By Malcolm A. McKenzie

Public appreciation of shade trees in Massachusetts is evidenced by the
extensive and varied planting throughout the State. This bulletin, prepared
primarily to promote municipal tree management, also suggests methods of
tree care in general.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

View of Massachusetts State College campus taken about 1880, illustrating how starkly build-
ings stand out when tree cover is absent.

View of Massachusetts State College campus 1942. taken from approximately the same spot
as the earlier photograph and showing how tree cover obscures outlines of buildings and renders
target indistinct.

A CIVILIAN PROGRAM FOR TREE PROTECTION

By Malcolm A. McKenzie, Research Professor of Botany i

INTRODUCTION

The appreciation of shade trees, widespread in the life of the American people,
is of paramount importance in Massachusetts, and in the spring of 1942 there
was a marked increase in the number of requests for the investigation of tree
casualties. Trees were reported to be afflicted with diseases and other defects
and the urgency of the demand for the completion of field and laboratory studies
was promptly recognized.

Healthy trees should be highly prized by all communities, but seriously weak-
ened trees may be dangerous liabilities. A tree or limb which falls on a highway
(Fig. 1) may injure a pedestrian, delay the transportation of troops and war
materials, damage an automobile, or destroy electric light, telephone, fire alarm
and telegraph services. During normal times the temporary incapacity of the
injured person may not be a serious loss, damage to an automobile may be covered
by insurance, and the public utilities' supply of replacements may be ample for
all demands. During wartime, however, delay in movement of men and material
and the loss of man hours is tragic, a destroyed automobile is irreplaceable and
the loss of electric light, telephone, fire alarm and telegraph service may mean
failure in transmission of air-raid and fire alarms and in mobilization of aid. Air
bases, air fields, defense centers, and military or naval defense areas may be
isolated and unable to function. Therefore, these investigations were undertaken
with the twofold purpose of learning what significant defects were present in
trees and what treatment might be given to prevent damage to persons and
property. From one point of view the objectives are closely related. A tree
which is or can be made reasonably sound can be a reasonably safe tree. The
cruxes of the problem are the recognition of various tree defects and the timing
of their discovery and treatment.

The Massachusetts law (G. L. chap. 87) provides that each municipality be
officered by a person responsible for "all trees within a public way or on the
boundaries thereof"; in towns, a tree warden; in cities, a forester or corresponding
official. In section 1 of chapter 41 of the General Laws, the term of offic" for
tree wardens in towns was limited to one year. If, however, a town adopts the
amendment passed by the General Court in 1939, the tree warden may ha^■e a
term of three years, thereby providing for a measure of continuity for municipal
tree programs. Very serious consideration should be given to the matter of
providing adequate appropriations for tree work, and as an emergency measure
a supplementary program for tree protection under the direction of the tree war-
den or other responsible officer appears necessary and is recommended.

1 The writer is indebted to Professor A. Vincent Osmun, Head, Department of Botany for
valuable assistance, suggestions and criticisms during tlie preparation of this bulletin. Acknowl-
edgment is also made to Dr. S. J. Ewer, Technical Assistant in Botany, for criticism of the manu-
script and the preparation of certain of the illustrations. The helpful interest of the Massachusetts
Tree Wardens' and Foresters' Association, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the Massa-
chusetts Forest and Park Association, the New England Telephone and Telegraph Company the
Western Massachusetts Companies, the Boston Edison Company, the Municipal Lighting Associa-
tion of Massachusetts, the New England Power Association, the New England Gas and Electric
Association and the New England Section of the International Municipal Signal Association has
played an important part in completing this work; particular credit should be given to Mr A
Warren Stewart, President of the Massachusetts Tree Wardens' and Foresters' Association

4, MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

TREES IN WAR

In time of peace the annual value of the tree crop in the United States, prin-
cipally in manufactured forest products, approaches $800,000,000 and in war-
time this figure may be more than doubled. Therefore, the itrportance of wood
and other tree products is widely recognized. The essential value of shade tree
programs durmg wartime, however, has not been universally appreciated. The
use of trees and other plants has always been important for the concealment of
unsightly areas and for securing privacy about dwellings. Since the battleground
of modern war is limitless, including the homes in cities and towns throughout
the world, any increased obscurity associated with native tree plantings is of
significance as supplementary protection against aerial attack.

The decentralizing of municipalities or the expansion of communities into
subdivisions has been a matter of research involving many considerations, es-
pecially in recent years. When the decentralizing of C'ties began in the United
States it was not with any thought of making the communities less vulnerable as
targets, but rather for the constructive benefits of peaceful pursuits including
convenience, health, safety, and general welfare. Fortunately, civic planning,
perhaps unwittingly but nevertheless genuinely, anticipated the future and
materially contributed to the present-day war effort. Recently, R. P. Brecken-
ridge,2 Major, Corps of Engineers, Fort Belvoir, Virginia, published this hearten-
ing-descript'on under a photograph: "Aerial view of a well-planted city. Trees
screen this area and render it practically immune to aerial attack." A second
photograph bore this gloomy prediction: "A city where tree planting has not been
considered important. Note the vulnerability and visibility to aerial attack."
Major Breckenridge pointed out in particular that trees and natural foliage are
obviously of prime importance in any camouflage scheme.

The development of war housing projects has added heavy duties to some muni-
cipal tree. programs, and there is not time for all municipalities to provide addi-
tional tree canopies, but all towns and cities can make judicious use of the trees
already planted on streets and roadsides. Spraying for the prevention of attacks
by destructive pests will aid materially in enabling trees to render important ser-
vice and every community should provide for tree protection. The dangers of
the policy of "too little and too late" were never more clearly apparent than in
the war on plant pests. Let no one be lulled into complacency concerning the
imminence of attack by disease fungi and insects. Too often, ground lost to
these invaders can never be recaptured. The economic loss sustained by unwar-
ranted curtailment of pest control programs finally reaches every individual in
the nation. The danger of winning the war only to lose the peace was never more
real than in relation to the control of plant diseases and insect pests, and the
importance of unbroken continuity in a pest control program cannot be empha-
sized too strongly. The ample scientific basis for this statement, although some-
what involved, may be visualized as the pattern from which "blitzkrieg" tactics
were copied.

Trees protected from pests are in turn a safeguard to life and property. More-
over the sprayers, trucks, hose lines, and storage tanks employed in shade tree
protection may serve other use in an emergency. The tree wardens were among
the first public officers to make specific study and provisions for a revision of
local programs in cooperation with public service agencies. In fact, on November

2 The Use of Trees in Camouflage. Trees, Sept.— Oct., 1941. pp. 7 and 15.

TREE PROTECTION 5

15, 1941, they published recommendationsS which should materially facilitate
the operation of the war emergency work of tree programs.

In brief, then, in view of the camouflage value of shade trees (Frontispiece),
municipal tree planting and protection programs previously developed for the
promotion of peaceful pursuits may nOw enable communities which were inter-
ested in living better, also to live longer.

INVESTIGATIONS

The present studies included forest and shade trees in all sections of the State,
with special attention to street plantings. The principal types of troubles found
are analyzed briefly.

Fungus Diseases and Insect Pests. Insects'* contributing to tree injuries have
been found to include insects causing initial injury to healthy tissues, insects
associated with secondary injury to tissues previously weakened, and insects
which serve as vectors or carriers of other pests. Fungi and bacteria related to
tree injury include organisms which may kill trees promptly, induce ch onic
disease, or cause disintegration of portions of weakened trees.

Dutch Elm Disease. The Dutch elm disease has been found in only seven trees
in Massachusetts, but mention of it is included here to call attention to the im-
portance of keeping this disease in check in any program concerned with the
elimination of hazardous trees. Extensive spread of the disease would doubtless
result in greatly increasing the number of dangerous street trees. (For additional
information see tailpiece.)

Wood-destroying Fungi. It often happens that a limb broken from a tree dur-
ing a wind storm had been previously weakened as a result of decay following
invasion by wood-destroying fungi (Fig. 2). Sometimes evidence of this weakness
prior to the break may be completely lacking, but in many instances it might
have been detected had the tree been inspected. If a tree shows extensive signs
of decay, limbs which may be broken by the wind should be removed, as in the
case of the tree shown in figure 3.

Physiological Disorders. Trees, like all other green plants, require water,
nutrients, sunlight, and air in order to function as living organisms. The lack
or excess of some of these essentials may result in injury or death. Thus, trees
sometimes suffer from drought, flood, alteration of water table, winter conditions,
shade, evaporation, non-availability of nutrients, and other inherent or induced
soil conditions.

Chemical Injury. Calcium chloride and other chemicals stored or applied in
locations which permit contact with the soil about trees may cause injury to
roots. In the atmosphere, some of these materials may cause the burning of
foliage.

Smoke Injury. Smoke and fumes frequently contain sulphur compounds or
other toxic substances which may injure trees with which they come in contact.

^ Recommended Principles and Practices of Massachusetts Tree Wardens' and Foresters'
Association and Public Service Agencies.

■* Inquiries concerning specific insect pests or their control should be addressed to the De-
partment of Entomology, Massachusetts State College, Amherst, Massachusetts.

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

Similar injury^ was observed on foliage exposed to sulphur dioxide fumes from a
defective electric refrigerator.

Fire. The huge losses resulting annually from forest fires are already known
to most persons, but the knowledge of how a fire injures individual trees is ap-
parently not so well understood. Extensive injury to the trunk and branches of
shade and ornamental trees often results from the burning of rubbish nearby, and
scorching of the bark is sometimes the prelude to invasion by fungi.

Injury from Illuminating Gas. Many trees have been killed from the effects
of illuminating gas in the soil. Usually by the time the gas injury shows in a
tree, no remedial treatment is practical. In recent years considerable progress
has been made in detecting gas leaks by means of surveys conducted by gas
companies, and tree casualties have been reduced and human lives saved by the
prompt repair of leaks.

Site. Tree troubles maj' originate at the site in which the tree is growing. The
basic nature of a possible site may be such as to make the planting of a particular
type or individual tree unwarranted. After the selection of a suitable species or
specimen, planting should be done in such a way as to avoid air pockets in the
soil, which often prove a source of trouble later. Careful planting in a well-
chosen site is the best insurance for the future growth of the tree. Sometimes
after an area has been planted, new buildings or other factors may necessitate
the removal or transplanting of the trees. Turf grading operations which fail to
piovidc a needed brick- or rock-lined wall around trees are a common .'•ource of
trouble. The installation of curbing, hard-surfaced roads, and sidewalks may
result in root injury. Erosion of soil during these operations and under a variety
of other conditions may dangerously undermine trees. Weakening of anchorage
should be guarded against in all locations.

Narrow Tree Belts. In most communities, public shade trees are ordinarily
planted in the space between the hard surface road and the sidewalk. In some
instances this area is extremely narrow, but widening is often precluded by exist-
ing conditions. Trees restricted in this way are under a severe handicap and in
most cases have been observed to do better than one would reasonably expect.
Extended periods of drought or other tests of vigor, however, sometimes take a
heavy toll of weak trees in narrow planting belts.

Storm Damage. Ice storms, lightning, high winds, hail, hea\'>- rain, and snow-
result annually in severe damage, and btorm injuries accumulated o\er any
extended period of time may result m trees becoming serious hazards in the
community. Injury initiated by the hurr'cane of 1938 has served as a basis for
subsequent extensive damage and, in some cases, ultimate death of trees.

Girdling Roots. In planting a tree, if care is not taken to provide a hole of
adequate size in which to spread the roots, there is danger that they may become
wrapped around the trunk in such a manner as to choke the normal growth (Fig.
4). The ill-advibed application of a fertilizer close to the base of trees may cause
excessive root development and girdling about the trunks. Girdling roots are
not necessarily harmful, particularly if root grafting results. When a girdling
root above or below ground is detected as the cause for tree weakening, it ma}' be
severed and the constriction of the trunk somewhat relieved.

^ McKenzie, M. A. and L. H. Jones. Injury to trees from sulphur dioxide fumes of electric
refrigerators. Science 91:239-240. 1940.

TREE PROTECTION 7

Other Girdling. Wire guards, fences, and supports in contact with trees may
girdle the trunks and cause permanent scars, injury, or death.

Injury by Animals. In former days the gnawing of the bark of street trees
by horses was often cited as a source of injury and possibly wounds caused in
this way may again become common. At present, however, damage by horses
is not a serious problem although limited injury to tiees may be caused directly
or indirectly by some other animals.

Frost Cracks. A sudden drop in temperature may result in the withdrawal of
water from the cells of the wood in a tree trunk and its fixation as ice crystals.
The resulting cell shrinkage lacks uniformity and creates a tension within the
woody tissue. With the development of sufficient stress, rending occurs along
the grain of the wood. An accompanying loud report may be the first warning
of this type of injury. The sharp lengthwise clefts commonly seen on the south
and southwest exposures of trees are the ultimate wounds of this sequence. Frost
ridges in which splitting of the wood results without rupturing the bark differ
only in the degree to which the shrinkage of woody tissue takes place or sufficient
tension develops. Many frost cracks close and heal readily (Fig. 5, A) when the
shrunken tissues thaw and absorb a sufficient amount of water. Sometimes,
however, a frost crack may become a permanent weak spot (Fig. 6) which will
reopen each winter and may be effectively closed only by mechanical aid, such
as screw rods inserted through the tree trunk at right angles to the fissure.

Slime-flux. Wet yellowish streaks e.xtending down the limbs and trunks of
trees are frequently observed to originate at an injured crotch (Fig. 6), the cut
at which a branch has been severed, or in some other wound. A slimy ooze in
which fermentation organisms become active may continue to flow down the
surface of the bark for a considerable period of time and in persistent cases where
the bark and growing tissue are continually wet, extensive injury may result.

Lost Protection. Some trees requ're protection from drying winds or excessive
heat or cold. Since the hurricane of 1938 in which such protection was sometimes
lost, resultant injury has been particularly conspicuous. Tree owners reasoned
that sheltered trees survived the hurricane, but failed to evaluate critically the
post hurricane exposure of these trees resulting from lost protection.

Branch Wounds. Friction resulting from the rubbing of branches or the con-
tact of public utility wires with branches often causes wounds which may later
directly or indirectly result in the death of certain parts of trees. Utility compan-
ies have long since learned that where wires are in direct contact with trees there
is not only the immediate prospect of interrupted service from burning as a result
of contact of the energized wire and grounded tree, but also the later penalty of
the killed branch crashing through the wires.

Trunk Woimds. It is not uncommon to find the trunks of trees debarked by
automobiles, snowplows, or lawnmowers. Such injuries may be the beginning
of serious trouble, serving as points of entrance for decay organisms and the
ultimate weakening and collapse of trees.

Unusual instances of trunk wounding, as those associated with the Connecticut
Valley flood of 1936, are sometimes difificult to explain after the conditions caus-
ing them no longer prevail. For example, trees situated In locations which now
appear to be at a safe distance from flooding waters show bark injury known to
have been caused bv ice floes.

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN J 97

Root Injuries. The most conspicuous root injuries are those resulting from
excessive root pruning; especially the type shown in figure 7, upper. The almost
certain sequel to such pruning is shown in figure 7, lower.

Neglected Pruning. Most trees require a minimum of pruning for health,
appearance, disease control, safety, utility line clearance, or other considerations.
Delay in pruning or failure to prune correctly may prove to be a costly mistake,
especially in municipal shade tree management. Severe damage to neglected
trees, injury to citizens or their property, as well as the interruption of the service
of wire-using agencies, may result.

Branch Stubs. Careless pruning or storm injuries sometimes leave jagged
branch stubs as an invitation to wood-destroying fungi. Probably tree deteriora-
tion starts in this way more often than in any other.

Exposed Wounds and Cuts. Many tree casualties are found to result from un-
treated wounds and cuts. Prompt treatment of wound: and immediate attention
to cut surfaces following the removal of branches are constructive preventives
useful in checking early deterioration.

Cavities. Extensive cavities in trees represent the advanced stages of pro-
gressive decay following injuries. The best treatment for them is to prevent their
occurrence, or check their progress.

Dangerous Trees. Trees seriously weakened by disease or decay at a large
crotch (Fig. 2), and skeleton trees which have ceased to serve communities for
purposes of shade not only are frequently a blot on the landscape but may actually
constitute a serious menace. Sometimes failure to appreciate the need for the
prompt removal of such trees or the lack of responsibility for this work may cause
serious delay in the removal of a dangerous tree. The result of this delay may
prove injurious, fatal, or costly to someone.

Evergreen Failures. Coniferous evergreens may be injured by the weight of
snow on branches or tree tops. When parts of trees are broken, the same treat-
ment accorded wounds of deciduous trees may be given or may be altered as
necessary. In all cases, branch stubs or rough jagged edges of wounds should be
cut back smoothly. The resin coating which usually covers cut surface b of
evergreens suffices as a dressing. When trees are broken during a wind or wind-
and-rain storm, the entire tree or most of it commonly falls (Fig. 1). The guj--
ing of evergreens in certain locations will sometimes prevent accidents of this
type.

Trees and Utility Wires. Trees and wires both serve society in war as in
peace. Adequate tree maintenance and maximum service from wire-using agen-
cies ,do not represent fundamentally divergent policies. Certain conflicts between
trees and wires are inevitable, however, and the results of some of these conflict?
and the mechanical devices adapted to overcome or minimize them are shown in
figure 8. Shade tree maintenance has benefited materially from the joint use
of poles by uulities, as well as in other progressive utility programs. The almost
forgotten overhead w're mazes (Fig. 9) which have been compacted (Fig. 10)
and in many cases placed underground, foretell even better conditions for ."^hade
trees in the future. Placing utility wires underground, however, should not be
considered a panacea. In certain instances this practice is desirable and practical,
but at other times the cost to consumers would be prohibitive. Nor should it be

TREE PROTECTION 9

supposed that wires underground may be forgotten, since tree roots and wires
may sometimes conflict. For the present, however, the equipment of wire-using
agencies is not likely to be changed materially, and there should be opportunity
for additional study of problems concerned with overhead wires and trees.
During wartime, extra vigilance is necessary to insure the fullest measure of un-
interrupted service from both trees and wires, and accidents resulting from the
falling of weakened trees should be prevented.

The following data prepared independently by L. B. Shepherd, Division Toll
Service Supervisor, New England Telephone and Telegraph Company, indicate
the nature of tree troubles encountered by wire-using agencies. A total of 35
percent of toll open wire troubles is associated with trees, principally sugar
maple, poplar, elm, birch, spruce, beech, and oak.

Sugar Maple — Failure occurs at the crotch, and at the time the limb is in leaf.
To all appearances, the tree may be a healthy one. It is suggested that crotches
of old maples be checked for decay, and that ends of limbs be examined for indi-
cations of dj'ing branches.

Poplar — Failure occurs by trunk breaking off either at base or near top of
tree, after tree has reached 8 to 10 inches in diameter.

Elm — Failure occurs in large elms at the crotch or midway in limb, probably
on account of the resistance to the wind when the tree is in full leaf. Crotches
should be checked as suggested under "Sugar Maple", and crotch reinforcementb
should be provided for those limbs considered hazardous. Experience has shown
that limbs of elms are brittle, and snap easily under pressure.

Birch (White or Yellow) — Failure occurs during period of hea\y wet snow.
Trees become laden with snow and ice and lie over into wires.

Spruce or Pine — Failure occurs during violent wind, and trunk snaps ofif about
15 or 20 feet from ground line. It is suggested that attention be given to trees
that are leaning (probably result of hurricane), shallow rooted, and have dying
foliage.

Beech and Oak — Failure occurs when trees are leaning into wires, particularly
on sidehills.

Cutting Wood for Home Use. The fuel shortage has brought an increase in
the number of inexperienced persons chopping wood for home consumption.
In order to accomplish the most for their efforts, persons will do well to consult
their county agricultural agents and inform themselves on time-saving methodf
in the cutting and use of fuelwood. Careless chopping has in some instances
resulted in serious damage to utility service. Fuel conservation of this type is
indeed attained at a high cost in other critical materials and service. The felling
of trees on wires should always be avoided, and in doubtful cases, chopping in the
vicinity of wires should not be attempted. Extended luelwood programs organ-
ized to save other types of fuel serve a valuable need if dangers of spreading the
Dutch elm disease and damaging service of wire-using agencie.- are carefully
guarded against. With certain limitations on the disposition of elm wood, as
indicated elsewhere in this publication, the consumption of wood from hazardous
trees may be an important supplement to the fuel conservation program, espec-
ially in cities where woodlots are not often immediately available. How-
ever, attention should be called to the fact that trees in the public way or on the
boundaries thereof are the responsibility of the tree warden, and promiscuous
cutting by individuals is unlawful. Disposition of the wood after a tree is cut
may be arranged by the municipal officer in charge of trees.

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

•

Harmful Practices. Willful maltreatment, panacea claims, and tree magic
are for the most part of historical interest only in connection with modern tree
care. An informed public, the sincere efforts of the members of the arboricultural
profession, and in some states the licensing of tree workers, have done much to
establish the scientific treatment of tree troubles. Damage sometimes results
from carelessness, inadequate diagnosis of tree defects, or the employment of
inexperienced operators, and every effort should be made to shun these pitfalls.

PRECAUTIONS

Essential Considerations. Many of the operations essential to the satisfactory
maintenance of shade trees can be completed by persons without specialized
training. Nevertheless, certain important considerations concerning trees and
apparatus and materials employed should always be borne in mind.

A person contemplating tree work would do well to inform himself concerning
the nature of the tree, details of the operat'ons involved in his. plans, and the
equipment and materials necessary for the work. By so doing he will more full}'
appreciate the significance of the completed job whether he does the work him-
self or employs others to do It. An excellent procedure before beginning actual
operations on a tree is to make a diagram to scale showing the operations con-
templated. In this way an individual will give himself the opportunity of ex-
periencing practical problems involved and develop an intelligent plan of action.
Whenever possible, attention should be directed toward corrective treatment of
minor defects and the prevention of major injuries by early treatment.

Poisonous Materials. Many of the materials uced for the protection of tree
wounds and as sprays on foliage are poisonous, inflammable, or caustic. Utmost
care in handling all materials should be exercised constantly, therefore, and all
materials should be used only in accordance with direct'ons furn'shed by the
manufacturer. One should always be mindful of protecting other persons,
animals, and property from damage resulting from operations or the use of mate-
rials. Unused materials likewise require attention and should not be stored in
places, or under conditions, in which they are or may become hazardous.

Poisonous Plants. Two important woody plants associated with injury to
humans are poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron L.) and poison sumac {Rhus vernix L)
(Fig. 11), and all persons working with trees would do well to be able to recognize
both of these plants in the field. Detailed descriptions and discussions of poison-
ous properties are available elsewhere for those interested; attention here is
directed to the need for avoiding direct contact with roots, stems, leaves, flowers,
or fruits — as well as the smoke arising from the burning of any of these plant
parts. Injury to humans is an irritating dermatitis, the extent of which varies
greatly according to the individual. Specific directions are required for any
effective program dealing with ivy and sumac eradication.

Electric Current. For reasons of personal safety, as well as the protection of
utility service, work on trees or parts of trees in close proximity to wires should
be undertaken only by authorized persons, skilled in this particular practice.
Individuals observing the need for tree work of this type should make prompt
report to, or obtain information from, the tree warden or other duly designated
municipal officer.

TREE PROTECTION

11

Figure 1. A fallen evergreen tree with decayed trunk. Failure in this free blocked the high-
way and disrupted service by wire-using agencies. Inspection could probably have detected the
trunk weakness in the decayed tree. Note undisturbed sound evergreen in foreground which
was subjected to the same meteorological conditions. Photograph furnished by Boston Edison Co

Figure 2. Advanced decay in this elm and a sleet storm combined to interrupt wire service
in this community. Damage by this fallen tree could have been even more serious; note prox-
imity of dwelling house and police and fire equipment. Photograph furnished by Boston Edison Co.

12

MASS. EXPERIMENT STAT ON BULLETIN 397

Figure 3. The fungus, Polyporus versicolor Linnaeus ex Fries., fruiting on tiie trunk of a
maple. Abundant fruiting of this fungus, which grows on dead sapwood, is an indication of ex-
tensive weakness in a tree.

TREE PROTECTION

13

Figure 4. A red maple almost completely girdled at the base by a root. Note bulging of trunk
slightly above ground line, which is characteristic of this trouble. Root causing the girdling is
often slightly under the surface of the ground.

14

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

Figure 5. A. Frost crack which healed. Closing was complete, but cutting back of bark to
healthy tissue and sterilization and dressing of wound were necessary to promote satisfactory
wound healing.

B. A treated hurricane wound in which the bark was cut back to a smooth regular
contour and shellacked. Wound dressing was applied to wood. Complete healing of the wound
may be expected in such cases.

TREE PROTECTION

IS

Figure 6. An elm in which a frost cracl< extended from a crotch down the trunk. Note repeated
•reopening and resultant slime-flux.

16

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

Figure 7. Tree anclioraj>e weakeneti by excessive tool pruning. Note cracking of soil shown
in upper photograph taken well in advance of casualty shown in lower photograph.

TREE PROTECTION

17

H

1 if

Figure 8. Tree trouble board prepared by wire-using agencies. Approximately x 1 9,
A. Electric light insulators used by liglit companies to protect wire from trees.
Telephone tree wire used for drop wire through trees.
Telephone wires showing abrasion from trees.

Effect of contact with light wire after insulation was worn off in tree.
Electric light tree wire before use.
Electric light tree wire showing abrasion from trees.
Electric light wire showing wear from hanging in electric light insulators.
Tree guard for telephone wire.

Tree guard for telephone cable covering cable and strand.
Tree guard for telephone cable covering strand only.

B.

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

H.

I.

J.

18

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

foli^rsome^pofes werl "oTeefS" with'^oVros'stmT'^T^^ ''?',*'^^" P'^'-^ '"-^^ Broadway
>vay and Maiden Lane. New York carried lloS Tod J ,',nr'^,i'"^ "^^"^ '^e corner of Broad-
there are about 30,000 telephone wirerin 17 r^hli^.tp^K"''^^ ''''* ^'''"^ s<^'^''°n of Broadway.

TREE PROTECTION

19

Figure 10. Today you talk over a wire; Tomorrow you'll see over one. On left is a section of
cable, containing 600 wires, such as now is used for long-distance calls and network radio pro-
grams. At right is a section of the new "coaxial" cable, over which you can "see" by television
as well as talk. It is only one-ninth as large as the other and contains two flexible copper tubes,
with a thick wire inside of each. Waves like those of radio will carry 240 conversations at once
through this cable, each at a different frequency. Other waves will carry television pictures over
the same channel. Copyright National Geographic Society.

20

MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

Figure 11. A. Poison ivy (Rhus toxicodendron L.), woody stem, flowers, fruit (berries), and
compound leaf, consisting of three leaflets.

B. Poison sumac (R. vernix L.), woody stem, flower and 9-leaflet leaf.

C. Poison sumac woody stem, fruit (berries), and 7-leaflet leaf.

Drawn by S. J. Ewer. Approximately x 1/3.

TREE PROTECTION

21

i « I I

Figure 11. D. Winter condition of poison sumac. Note fruits wliicti may persist during the
winter. Photograph courtesy of R. L. Coffin.

rV^''„

1'

Figure 12. Safe procedure for removal of limb.

A. First cut on lower side of limb.

B. Second cut on upper side of limb.

C. Removal of stub by final cut.
Drawn by S. J. Ewer.

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

Figure 13. The earliest successful crotch bracing in the United States on the campus of Mass-
achusetts State College, showing the now discarded practice of wrapping braced limbs with chains
as well as the method of sinking end of brace in branch. In modern tree work the use of rigid
bars in higher parts of the tree for direct strengthening of crotches is an improvement over the
earlier method, but the principle of multiple bracing and the sinking of braces in the wood to avoid
girdling are the same. The work in the tree pictured survived all tests perhaps too well, for the
full crown of the tree remained intact permanently, but the tree was uprooted in the hurricane
of 1938. Photograph furnished by the late Dr. George E. Stone, under whose direction the tree
operations were completed

TREE PROTECTION 23

Methods, Equipment, and Materials. In pruning work, attention should be
given not only to the details of removing a troublesome branch but also to the
effect the necessary operations will have on the future vigor and development of
the tree. Carelessly chopping a heavy branch may result 'n an ugly wound and
permanent injury to a tree, whereas the desired removal of the branch could have
been accomplished satisfactorily with a pruning saw. Special tools and supplies
are sometimes necessary for operations on trees, and in recent years supply houses
have listed considerable tree surgery equipment and material. However, during
the war emergency, it k. futile to indicate detailed operations for special tools,
since in most cases individuals will have to rely on their ingenuity to make use
of any tools and equipment at their immediate disposal. The sterilization of the
implements used in tree operations w"th alcohol is an added precaution against
spreading decay organisms and infectious disease fungi. Also, freshly made cuts
in which fungi are present may be sterilized with a water or alcoholic solution
of mercuric bichloride, especially if the wound dressing or paint to be applied
later does not possess antiseptic properties. These operations may prevent
primary wounds from developing into extensive injuries buch as cavities which
require special study before satisfactory treatment can be attempted.

For similar reasons, when bolts, braces, and guys are installed in trees as
mechanical aids for support, the parts contacting the wood may be dipped in
asphalt or some other suitable material to check the development of fungi. When
a brace is to be installed in tree branches, a hole somewhat deeper and slightly
under the size of the brace may be bored, to provide for the accumulation of
sawdust and enable the brace to fit snugly within a decay-resistant groove. If
the completed job is not waterproof, the operations may have done more harm
than good. A leak which develops around a bolt may ultimately weaken the
entire support.

Foresight vs. Hindsight in Tree Management. Practices and remedies based
on rumors and legends should be avoided in favor of approved methods. Almost
daily, correspondents belatedly seek advice on the repair of injurious cures they
inflicted upon trees from intuition without preliminary consideration of the work
they wished to undertake or the nature of the living trees at their mercy.

A record of completed and proposed tree work, including lessons learned by
experience, will be a valuable aid in checking results and serve as a reminder of
uncompleted jobs. The record will also call attention to the need for repainting
certain wounds and giving other supplementary treatment from time to time.
No list of suggestions could provide for all of the problems which will be encoun-
tered in individual tree operations, but by intelligent planning many costly dis-
appointments may be avoided.

TREE PROTECTION AND IMPROVEMENT PRACTICES

Although the variety and sometimes the extent of defects found in trees during
these studies might appear to be cause for alarm, any exaggerated fears of a tree-
less future should be allayed by the predominance of relatively sound and vigor-
ous trees. Moreover, many of the defects can be treated with appiopriate reme-
dial measures.

Municipal Trees Planted on Private Property. In the General Laws of Mass-
achusetts, provision is made for the Use of public funds for planting trees on
private property under prescribed conditions. Chapter 87, section 7 reads:

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

"Towns may appropriate money to be expended by the tree warden in planting
shade trees in public ways, or, if he deems it expedient, upon adjoining land, at a
distance not exceeding twenty feet from said public wajs for the purpose of
improving, protecting, shading or ornamenting the same; provided, that the
written consent of the owner of such adjoining land shall first be obtained."

Some tree wardens who have availed themselves of this provision of the law
report satisfactory results. No definite recommendations on the desirability of
planting trees on private property can be furnished, however, since conditions
vary widely in different communities. It sometimes happens that in areas where
narrow tree belts obtain, dwelling houses have little, if any free space as frontage.
Nevertheless, it would be well for tree wardens to explore all possibilities for
planting on private property in order to improve local tree conditions as far as
practicable.

Disease and Insect Control. It is not feasible to give control practices in detail
for the individual fungus diseases and insect pests observed. Diagnoses made from
specimens submitted to the Experiment Station will be reported whenever the
cause for the trouble can be definitely ascertained from laboratory examination.
Standard spray programs for the protection of foliage constitute the minimum pest
control measures that should be accorded trees.

Physiological Troubles. Physiological troubles of trees may be revealed by
the presence of small leaves or early yellowing and loss of foliage. Progressive
weakening, following disease, repeated insect infestation, and faulty transplant-
ing often result in certain physiological dit^orders. Inadequate food and water
relations are also common sources of trouble.

Compensation for lack of water during extended periods of drought may be
made by adequate watering of the soil about tree roots. If necessary, holes may
be drilled as in the application of fertilizer discussed below. Plant foods may
likewise be made available by addition of fertilizer to the soil about the feeding
roots, the amount required being dependent upon indiv'dual cases.

A satisfactory technique for introducing fertilizer into the soil includes the
drilling of holes about 18 inches deep and 2 feet apart, in the ground approxi-
mately under the limits of branch spread, or closer in the case of small, round-
headed trees lacking extensive feeding roots. The fertilizer is then inserted in
the holes, leaving the upper two inches for the replacement of soil. In determin-
ing the location of feeding roots of spiry trees, holes should be drilled beginning
at a distance about half the height of the tree away from the trunk and extending
in concentric circles to the limits of the roots.

The value of decaying organic matter, Such as well-rotted manure worked
into the soil at the rate of 15 to 20 cubic feet to 100 square feet of soil, should not
be overlooked in choosing a satisfactory general utility fertilizer. Unfortunately
local conditions may often make its use impracticable. However, when manure
is used it should be mixed thoroughly with the soil or a manure and soil mixture
should be introduced into holes in the same way as prepared fertilizers. At times,
roots under turf or in hard-packed soil may not be satisfactorily reached by
ordinary methods and aerating the soil in a cultivation program may be advisable.
Plowing the surface of the ground about a tree permits many advantages when
this practice is feasible. Fertilizers such as nitrate of soda, at the rate of 2 to 5
pounds for a medium-sized tree, and sometimes small quantities of lime may be
applied in the spring on the surface of plowed ground. Trees, such as oaks or
black and red spruce, which require an acid soil, are to be excepted.

TREE PROTECTION 25

Raw bone meal is a good fertilizer for most trees and may be applied either
on a plowed surface or in drilled holes. It becomes available slowly and appears
to do no injury even when used in large quantity. In applying all nutrients care
should be exercised not to overfertilize trees, else root burning may result and
more harm than good be accomplished From the fertilizers applied to he soil,
only those substances which are water soluble and can be absorbed by the root
hairs will have direct nutritional value. Hence, the presence of water is always
necessary in any successful fertilizing program. The retention of water and other
substances in the soil may be facilitated by the application of mulches. Such
practice is of particular importance in the case of evergreens.

Treatment of Wounds. Wounds on limbs and trunks of trees occur in a variety
of shapes and sizes. Those which result from the fracturing of a branch usually
have irregular and jagged margins. All wounds which can be shaped so that the
longer axes are parallel to the grain of the wood and which may be brought to
points at the extremities, are likely to heal more satisfactorily and to appear less
ugly than wounds not so treated. Final cuts of the wound margin should be made
so as to provide opportunity for callus growth (Fig. 5, B) and for drainage of
water.

When the outline of the surface to be treated has been definitely determined,
all rough and loose edges of bark should be removed with a sharp chisel, and
shellac applied with a small brush. The shellac will prevent drying out of the
narrow exposed moist layer of the inner bark. When this step has been carefullj'
completed, the wood surface of the wound should be made smooth and treated
with creosote, creosote oil, or other sterilizing agent; and with coal tar, asphalt
or other materials for protection. Creosote is inflammable and should not be
permitted to come into contact with an open flame. The creosote should be
applied only to the cut wood surface, with particular care to avoid the living
inner bark previously covered with shellac.

Good wound dressings or paints are possible substitutes which may be used in
a single apjilication provided the precautions previously outlined are observed.
Asphalt without creosote is an excellent protective covering for wounds. The
necessity of applying it hot doubtless explains why it is not more widely used.
An emulsion of asphalt and water is obtainable commercially and the use of this
preparation eliminates the necessity for heating. This material may be applied
in the same way as wound paint. The water soon dries, leaving an asphalt
covering.

The application of tar mixtures and creosote may cause severe injury to cer-
tain trees including magnolias, tulip-trees, and ornamental Primus species. For
these, other treatment is advisable, even though kss permanent in character,
and the following sterilizing and protective materials are sometimes used: liquid
wax, shellac, corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury), copper sulphate, spar
varnish, grafting wax, good commercial Bordeaux paste, Bordeaux powder mixed
with raw linseed oil, and water glass (sodium silicate).

In applying all protective coatings, care must be taken not to cover the un-
injuied bark about the wounds. Frequently, recoating of treated surfaces may
be necessary after a year's time, and blistering, cracking, or checking should be
corrected as soon as detected. Careful attention to these details may preclude
additional serious injury. In all cases, individuals contemplating the use of
materials on trees should inform themselves thoroughly concerning .the nature
of these materials and their proper handling, including the need for precautions
against possible injury to persons and property.

26 MASS EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

Small wounds on slender branches do not ordinarily require protection, but
may be treated on valuable trees as a precautionary measure. When pruning
operations include so many tmall branches that treatment of all cut surfaces is
impossible, a safeguard for prompt healing is the careful use of a sharp hand or
pole piuner. In using an ordinary hand pruner with a curved blade, especially
on surfaces which are not to be treated with a protective covering, care should
be taken to hold the pruner so that the supporting base may bruise only the dis-
carded twig, Pruning hooks should be Uied only with considerable caution.

In making secure one's position while treating wounds in remote parts of trees, it
is often necessary to resort to the use of ropes. Experienced workers use ropes
extensively both while pruning and while treating tree wounds. The amateur
may frequently find that he is able to remove branches without the aid of ropes,
but they may be necessary to establish a safe position before engaging in extensive
wound treatment activities. The wearing of spurs, however, is never advise ble
in operations where the tree being treated is to be retained.

Pruning. Pruning is an important part of any tree improvement program
and may be accomplished at almost any season of the year when practicable.
In spring, when tree growth is most active, wounds inflicted during pruning tend
to heal more rapidly than at other seasons. However, bleeding is most copious
at this time, and loss of sap may somewhat weaken the trees as well as prove a
nuisance along streets and highways. For these reasons, excessive bleeders, such
as birch and maple, should always be pruned later in the season. Pruning when
the tree is in full leaf also has advantages in that dead and weakened parts are
then more obvious; and street and park trees are often pruned in winter when
spraying and other tree work programs are less pressing.

Whether the pruning work to be accomplished is simple thinning, extensive
trimming, topping, or pollarding, the technique of removing branches should
receive careful attention. On large limbs the first operation should be a cut made
with a saw on the under side of and somewhat less than half way through the
limb at approximately one foot from the ultimate pruning point (Fig. 12, A).

This should be followed by a cut on the upper side of the limb about two inches
farther out than the lower cut. Cuttmg with the saw should be continued until
the limb falls (Fig. 12, B).

A third cut made at the ultimate pruning point will remove the stub and leave
a clean cut surface of minimum size for sterilizing treatment and at the same
time promote a rapid callus growth (Fig. 12, C).

An attempt to complete the cutting in one operation on the upper side of the
branch will most frequently terminate unhappily, in an ugly enlarged wound
surface which will not callus over but will enqourage slime flux and defy satis-
factory later treatment.

Following storms, the prompt pruning of broken branches is essential in treat-
ing damaged trees. A saw which makes a wide cut is the best implement to use
in removing large branches. A strong sharp knife, a mallet, and a chisel will com-
plete the necessary instruments for removing accessible limbs. Bark or wood
which is splintered or loosened should also be removed with a sharp cutting
implement and the same protection against infection should be employed as in
the case of wounds.

Doubtless there will be instances in which all efforts to restore symmetry to
a storm-injured tree by pruning will fail. In such cases, severe pruning of the
f-ntire top of the tree, or pollarding, may be the best solution to the problem.
Most trees respond to pollarding in ^ome degree, and certain trees, like willows,

TREE PROTECTION 27

re&pond readily. In the course of time a nearly normal tree symmetry may be
developed by gradually reshaping the outline of profuse dense growth, and later
the tree's symmetry may be further improved by grafting if this practice proves
necessary. The result will commonly be the production of a dense head growth.
To a limited extent, this growth is often an f fifective contribution to the landscape.

Cavities. Certain general suggestions for the repair of cavities have alieady
been indicated. In special cases, complete treatment involving excavation,
sterilization, bracing and filling may be desirable, but it is most doubtful whether
an inexperienced worker is ever justified m undertaking to complete the entire
series of operations independently. In many cases, cavity enlargement can be"
checked by removing the obviously diseased wood and sterilizing and protecting
the exposed surfaces. It is almost impossible to eliminate all infected wood, but
debris and decayed tissue should be removed so as to expose a reasonably sound
and smooth wood surface which can be treated with antiseptics and protected
with wound dressing as already indicated. Careful consideration should be given
to the matter of the ultimate shaping of cavities in order to prevent the accumula-
tion of small reservoirs of water.

Mechanical Support. Any one of a variety of factors may indicate the need
for supplying add-tional mechanical support in trees. Specifically, attention
has been directed toward the following conditions of a tree and the environment
which make bracing advisable: decay, split crotches, weakened sharp-pointed
crotches, borer infestation, injured or pruned roots, poor or limited shallow root
systems, profuse top growth, proximity of damageable property, exposure to
strong wind, or loss of sheltering structures.

Considerable progress has been made recently by professional tree workers and
students of mechanics in the matter of bracing trees. Experimentation and ex-
perience have pointed out certain errors in early work (Fig. 13).

The use of steel rods as rigid braces with or without washers and nuts is com-
monly termed bolting of trees. In cases where parts of a tree must be drawn
together for bolting, the hole bored for a prescribed screw rod should be larger
than the screw rod. Therefore, washers and nuts must be used on both ends of
the rod. For other purposes it is evident that holes drilled for screw rods should
be rod size or smaller. Holes smaller than rod size should be drilled when washers
and nuts are not used on ends of screw rods. In this case dependence is placed
upon the grip of the screw rod in the self-threaded channel. When the size of
the hole drilled to receive the screw rod is identical with the size of the rod,
washers and nuts should be used on both ends of the rod. Screw rods serve in
crotch bolting, holding limbs together or apart, and cavity bracing. Also, as
"lip bolts", these rods draw together a long split or frost crack in trunk, branch
or cavity. Specific conditions will determine the number and location of screw
rods needed to insure the relative safeness of trees.

Steel cable instead of rigid rods is often used for bracing trees. A simple
method of cabling employs the fastening of a lag hook or e3'ebolt into each of the
two limbs forming a crotch so that the hooks or eyes face each other. The hooks
or eyebolts are then tied with steel cable. Where lag hooks are used, provision
should be made so that a final quarter turn will make the cable secure.

When trees require additional structural support, guying may solve the prob-
lem. In such cases wires are appropriately affixed to the tree and connected
with four strong posts set firmly in the ground on the north, east, south, and
west sides. If the guying is temporary, broad bands of leather or other strong
material are sometimes wrapped around the tree and supporting wires attached.

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

In the case of permanent guying, however, two eyebolts may be placed on oppo-
side sides of the tree trunk, one about six inches above the other and two wires
fastened to each.

Bridge Grafting. An injured part of a tree to be bridged by a graft should re-
ceive as preliminary treatment the same protection given any other wound.
In the spring, at which time the grafting is to be performed, the wound should be
inspected and the adjacent bark cut back evenly with a Heavy pruning knife to
provide the wound with edges of tightly fittmg, healthy tissue.

The young shoots or scions to be used in bridging the wound should be in a
healthy condition but completely dormant. To injure dormancy in scions,
pruned from the tree being treated or a similar one, it is advisable to cut twigs
about the diameter of a lead pencil to the desired length before the buds swell in
the early spring and store them under conditions which will prevent drying out.
A good method is to bury them on the north side of a building where warming of
the soil in spring is delayed. A protective covering wrapped about them will pre-
vent direct contact with the soil and a board over all will insure against water
soaking of the scions in the event of seepage into the ground during heavy rains.

Immediately prior to their use, scions should be sharpened or beveled by long
sloping cuts in order to form thin wedge-shaped ends which may be pushed well
under the bark without noticeably separating it from the growing layer. The
entrance points for scions are provided by extending cuts vertically for about
two inches from the wound at each point where a scion is to be inserted. The cut
bark at the upper end of the wound should then be raised i,lightly and one end of
the prepared , scion slipped into place. The other end of the scion is then inserted
in similar fashion into the cut bark at the lower end of the wound. For most
satisfactory results, the scions should be approximately in line with the grain
of the wood and of sufficient length to arch somewhat over the bridged area.
Small brads will hold the ends of scions in correct position, and liquid wax freely
applied to the upper and lower wound edges and to the edges of the attached scions
will prevent drying out. The number of scions required will depend upon the
size of the area to be bridged.

Disposal of Stumps. Two general methods for the disposal of tree stumps may
be employed. The stump may be removed entire from its site by aid of root
pruning and the use of heavy apparatus, or the stump may be destroyed in place
by burning or other means. If the former method is used, there may be certain
advantages to retaining a portion of the butt for purposes of leverage. Details
of this method are omitted here, however, since the use of heavy apparatus re-
quires the services of experienced operators.

The destruction of a stump in its site, when it cannot be readily disposed of
otherwise, may be accomplished in a reasonably simple manner after completing
certain necessary preparations. The part of the sti mp above ground should be
reduced as much as possible by cutting off the trunlc as near to the ground line
as convenient. Generally, in the case of a storm-uprooted tree, this operation
will be most satisfactorily completed by working on the tree without attempting
to free it from any position in which it may have become securely fixed. Upright
stumps may present some difficulty, while in the case of uprooted trees the dis-
posal is already partly accomplished. Having eliminated much of the stump
above ground, the next step is to reduce the underground stump. Removal of
the soil so as to form a circular trench, followed by progressive digging toward the
ball of the root, may consume time, but careful attention to this detail is essential
for later satisfactory progress.

TREE PROTECTION 29

Attention should next be given to the matter of severing any remaining roots
holding the stump in place. At this point the stump without root attachments
should be in such relationship with the ground that except for its weight it could
be readily removed from the hole. The closely packed soil about the roots, may
be removed with a pickaxe or washed off with a strong stream of water when
this facility is available. The use of water, even if dependence has to be placed
upon a heavy rainstorm, has advantages, particularly if local conditions permit
good drainage.

The root ball, free from soil, should then be allowed to dry thoroughly and any
parts of it which can be chopped off should be eliminated. In this way the stump
remaining for ultimate destruction can be still further reduced, and any axe blows
which fail to sever parts of the root stump completely enough for removal will
not be in vain since they will aid in the final destructive process.

The appearance and condition of the stump at this stage in the operations
should determine whether additional openings in the form of holes bored with an
auger are necessary before the application of kerosene. Intermittent applications
of kerosene daily allowing time for adequate penetration through entrances cut
and bored near the top of and throughout the stump, should be as numerous as
the varying tonditions may require. When penetration with kerosem is reasonably
complete, dry rubbish, placed over and about the stump, should be ignited. The
stump will then be either partially or completely consumed, depending upon the
thoroughness of preparation.

This method of destroying stumps may be curtailed or elaborated according
to the results desired. Sometimes the only objective may be the reduction of
size to permit burial of the stump in its original site. In other cases complete
destruction or reduction of the stump to a size which will permit easy removal is
necessary. It is obvious that this discussion is concerned principally with the
destruction of individual stumps in small-scale operations by a reasonably safe
method. Large-scale operations may employ temporary chimney construction,
forced draft burners, or explosives. The method outlined is of use primarily to
persons without expensive equipment or knowledge of machinery and construc-
tion. The chief penalties are the time consumed and the extra work necet^ary
in preparation.

Detecting and Reporting Defects. During the summer season, dead, defoliated,
and injured trees are often easily spotted by the absence, sparseness, or discolor-
ation of leaves. At other seasons signs of injury are less conspicuous, but frac-
tured limbs and some other injuries may be more clearly seen because of the
absence of foliage. The weight of snow and ice on branches sometimes causes
injury to trees, and prompt treatment or removal of injured parts should prevent
tree injuries from becoming injuries to persons or property.

The extent of damage to utilities' wires and other property resulting from fall-
ing trees indicates the need for detecting badly weakened trees before they
collapse. It may be pointed out that there is need for all utilities to keep their
lines under inspection and arrange for the immediate removal of any hazards
which threaten them. Intelligent cooperation by the public in reporting to their
municipal tree departments all dangerous trees, will aid in preventing service
failures and destruction of scarce materials.

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 397

CONCLUSION

Safe Trees the Minimiivi Requirement. In former years ffderal funds for
public works supplemented local appropriations and permitted many com-
munities to give needed care to municipally owned trees. More recently, war
activities have absorbed the personnel previously employed in this work to such
an extent that even when additional appropriations for tree work are available,
it is not always possible to have the work completed. In spite of obstacles, how-
ever, safe trees must be the minimum requirement for municipal tree piograms.

Responsibility and Organization. Unless some wa}' can be found to distribute
more adequately the responsibility for tree work, the number of trees neglected
over one or two years may increase to a point where no amount of community
organization can solve the problem. Already an increase in wire interference by
trees has been reported by the public utilities. It is essential that civilian and
military workers be protected while travelling in the public way; it is also essen-
tial that the communication and power lines be maintained with the least possible
disruption. Public utilities are keenly aware of their responsibility in maintain,-
ing vital service lines and are prepared to do their part in eliminating tree hazards.
Their supplies for replacements and new equipment are critically limited. Repairs
are costly and preventable accidents are wasteful. Many tree injuries can be
treated and many impending tree accidents can be prevented. Civilians have
organized themselves into groups for protection against air raids and invas'on
and, in the light of mounting tree casualties and resultant property damage, it
would be well to provide for tree protection as a supplement to the civilian de-
fense program.

Know your Tree Warden. Massachusetts is especially fortunate in having a
tree warden in every community as a key man about whom to rally in this
important activity. Advance information concerning a weakened tree may
save a life, a life line, and a tree. Tree waidens may further enhance their already
distinguished service throughout Mastachusetts by organizing corps of civilian
inspectors, and supervising their activities. Such a corps might well consist of
representat'ves from the following organizations: Mas&achuseltc Horticultural
Society, Garden Club, Women's Club, Rotary, Kiwanis, Massachusetts Forest
and Park Association, Massachusetts Safety Council — in fact, all groups inter-
ested in civic affairs; in addition to representatives from the wire-using agencies,
such as power, municipal light, telephone, police and fire alarm telegraph. With-
out doubt, these organizations will aid the tree warden by nominating or recom-
mending qualified and interested civilians to serve with and assist the wardep
in processing such a protection program. The public can cooperate effectively
by discovering and reporting defects in trees to the local tree department.

MY TREE WARDEN'S NAME

STREET ADDRESS

TELEPHONE NUMBER

THE DUTCH ELM DISEASE

Since 1930, when the Dutch ehn disease caused by the fungus, Ceratostomella
tilmi (Schwarz) Buisman, was first discovered in the United States, all persons
interested in our shade trees have become increasingly alarmed as the number of
ehns known to be affected has steadily mounted. As the name implies, the Dutch
elm disease was first observed in the Netherlands; and, since its discovery in 1919,
thousands of elms in European countries have been killed. The disease exists
throughout the extensive range of climatic and soil conditions included in the
Netherlands, France, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Balkan States, and Great Britain. The disease is widely dis-
tributed in England but has not as yet been found in Scotland.

In both Europe and North America, the only continents where the disease has
been observed, elms and trees of the closely related genus Zelkova are apparently
the only hosts upon which the disease occurs in nature. A few species of elms are
reported to be resistant, but none is known to be immune; and the American
elm ( JJlmus americana L.) is very susceptible.

From 1930 to 1932 the known cases of the disease in America were limited to
less than a dozen trees in Ohio. Later the disease was found in the mid-Atlantic
States and southern New England. Elms in Massachusetts were first known to
be affected in 1941 when one diseased tree was found in the town of Alford, in
Berkshire County. In 1942, six diseased trees were found in the State: three in
Egremont, one in Great Barrington, one in Westfield, and one in Sheffield. These
trees were destroyed immediately, and in order to further protect disease-free
elms, concerted effort has been directed toward the prompt disposal of all freshly
cut elm wood. This is the most practical control that can be employed effectively
in checking the increase in population of bark beetles which spread the causal
fungus. Since the fungus is virtually a prisoner within an affected tree, it cannot
spread significantly except as it is carried from a diseased to an uninfected tree by
a vector. The best evidence indicates that the smaller European elm bark beetle
{Scolytus midtistriatus Marsh.) is the principal carrier insect. This insect invades
the bark of weakened trees or freshly cut elm wood, where eggs are laid in gal-
leries engraved between the bark and the wood. Upon emergence, beetles feed
for a short period of time on healthy elm twigs and in this manner may spread
the disease to previously healthy trees if the feeding beetles come from galleries
in which the fungus is present. At this writing (December 1942), the beetle is
known to occur in Springfield, West Springfield, and Westfield in Hampden
County, and widely in Berkshire County, in addition to the originally known
eastern Massachusetts infestation which now includes most of the area east of
Worcester County. Possibly the native elm bark beetle {Hylurgopinns rtifipes
Eich.), which is generally distributed in Massachusetts, may also spread the
disease. If so, the prompt disposal of cut elm wood is doubly necessary.

Therefore, all agencies and individuals whose work brings them into contact
with freshly cut or drying elm wood, which is highly attractive to bark beetles,
are urged to dispose of this wood promptly by burning, unless there is complete
assurance that the bark will be removed immediately after the wood is cut. Tree
wardens, foresters, arborists, fire wardens, highway departments, state depart-
ments, and public utilities have cooperated generously in aiding in this practical
method of protecting disease-free elms. As in the case of all fungus diseases and
insect pests of plants, however, unbroken continuity of the program is most
essential. Experience has shown the interruption of investigational and control
programs to be a costly mistake. The elms of Massachusetts are a priceless
possession of all the people of the Commonwealth.

THE DUTCH ELM DISEASE

Fig,

1. Elms in a Massachusetts
town.

The Dutch Elm Disease — caused
by the fungus, Ceratostomella iilini,
and spread by bark beetles —
menaces our Massachusetts elms.

Widespread in Europe since its
discovery in 1919.

Known in the United States
since 1930, following the importa-
tion of fungus and carrier-beetle
infested elm logs from Europe —
1929 to 1934.

Found in N. J., N. Y., Conn.,
Pa., Md., Va., W. Va., Ind., Ohio,

MASSACHUSETTS — 1941.

Fig. 2. The street in figure 1, as it
would appear without elms.

64,468 known diseased elms have been destroyed
programs to September 1942.

in eradication

Fig. 3. Elm affected with
Dutch Elm Disease.

Fig. 4. Streaking of infected wood.

Fig. 5. The fungus in culture.

Fig. 6. A. Smaller European bark
beetle.

B. Native bark beetle.

C. Larva or grub.
(All great'.y en'areed.)

Fig. 7. Work of carrier beetles.
(Somewhat rediced.)

Fig. 8. Natural graft of elm roots.
(Photographs from Mass. Exp. hta.
Bui. 343. Figs. 3 and 8 furnished by
Division of Forest Pathology.
U S D A. Fig. 6 from Cornell
Ext.' Bui. 290.)

Symptoms of the disease include:
Wilting, curling, yellowing, and
early falling of leaves; Brown
streaking of infected wood.

Trees may die suddenly or grad-
ually.

A wood-staining fungus living in
the water-conducting channels
causes the disease.

Death of trees results from a
toxin produced by the fungus.

Trees affected with Dutch Elm*
Disease may appear similar to
elms affected with other wilt
diseases —

Therefore, laboratory study of
wood showing streaking is
necessary to prove which dis-
ease fungus is present.

The smaller European and native
elm bark beetles serve as car-
riers of the fungus.

The beetles engrave breeding
galleries in weakened trees and
later the young emerge to feed
on tender green twigs.

Other means of spread include
direct contact between diseased
and healthy trees — natural
grafts of roots and branches.

All known diseased elms are
being destroyed.

The final goal of the eradication
program is the protection and
preservation of disease-free elms.

The public is urged to cooperate
by sending specimens from the
wilted parts of trees to —

THE DUTCH ELM DISEASE LABORATORY
MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE, AMHERST. MASS.

Massachusetts
agricultural experiment station

BULLETIN NO. 398 JANUARY, 1943

Annual Report

For the Fiscal Year Ending November 30, 1942

The main purpose of this report is to provide an opportunity for presenting
in published form, recent results from experimentation in fields or on projects
where progress has not been such as to justify the general and definite con-
clusions necessary to meet the requirements of bulletin or journal.

MASSACHUSETTS STATE COLLEGE
AMHERST, MASS.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION
Trustee Committee on Experiment Station

Term Expires

Malcolm, David J., Charlemont, Chairman 1946

Webster, Louis, Acting Commissioner of Agriculture

McNamara. Mrs. Elizabeth L., Cambridge 1944

Hubbard, Clifford C, Norton 1946

Whitmore, Philip F., Sunderland 1948

Brett, Alden C, Watertown 1950

Experiment Station Staff, December 1942

Hugh P. Baker, President of the College
Sievers, Fred J., Director Havvley, Robert D., Treasurer

Gaskill. Edwin F., Assistant to the Director Felton, F. Ethel, Editor

O'Donnell, Margaret H., Technical Assistant Church, Lucia G., Secretary

*Alexander, Charles P., Entomology

Archibald, John G., Animal Husbandry
§Bergman, Hfrbert F., Cranberries

Bourne, Arthur L, Entomology
♦Bradley, Leon A., Bacteriology
Colby, William G., Agronomy
Doran William L., Botany
*Eisenmenger, Walter S., Agronomy
t*FELLERS. Carl R., Horticultural Man-
ufactures
*Frandsen, Julius H., Dairy Industry
t*FRANKLiN, Henry J., Cranberries
"^1 Freeman, M( nroe E., Chemistry
Fuller, James E., Bacteriology
♦Gamble, Philip L., Economics
♦Gaskill, Edwin F.. Station Service
♦Griffiths, Francis P.. Horticultural Man-
ufactures
JGuba. Emil F.. Botany
♦Gunness, Christian L, Engineering
Haskins. HiNRi D.. Agricultural Chem-
istry (Professor Emeritus)
Hays, Frank A., Poultry Husbandry
Holland, Edward B., Chemistry (Pro-
fessor Emeritus)
Holmes, Arthur D., Chemistry
♦Holmes, Julia O., Home Economics
Nutrition
KiGHTLlNGER. CLIFFORD V.. Agronomy
t*KooN, Ray M., Horticulture

Kuzmeski, John W.. Fertilizer Law
♦Lentz, John B., Veterinary Science
♦Lindsey, Adrian H.. Agricultural Eco-
nomics and Farm Management
McKenzie, Malcolm A., Botany
Morse, Fred W., Chemistry (Professor
Emeritus)
tOLSON, Carl, Jr., Veterinary Science
♦Osmun, a. Vincent, Botany
♦Parkhurst, Raymond T., Poultry Hus-
bandry
♦Rice, Victor A., Animal Husbandry
♦Ritchie, Walter S., Chemistry
RozMAN, David, Economics
Shaw, Jacob K., Pomology
tSiELiNG. Dale H., Chemistry
♦Smith, Philip H., Dairy, Feed, and Seed

Laws
♦Snyder, Grant B., Olericulture
♦Thayer, Clark L., Floriculture
♦Van Meter, Ralph A., Pomology
Van Roekel, Henry, Veterinary Science
JWhitcomb, Warren D., Entomology
Wood, Basil B., Library

Bailey, John S.. Pomology

Bennett, Emmett, Chemistry

Brown, Alfred A., Agricultural Economics

and Farm Management
Bullis, Kenneth L., Veterinary Science
Creek, Charles R., Agricultural Econo-
mics and Farm Management
tCROSS, Chester E., Cranberries
IDempsey, Paul W., Horticulture
IIDeRose, H. Robert, Feed and Fertilizer
Laws
Esselen, William B., Jr.. Horticultural
Manufactures

Flint, Oliver S., Veterinary Science

HFrance, Ralph L., Bacteriology

jGlLGUT, Constantine J., Nurser\-culture
Gutowska. Marie S., Nutrition
Jones, Carleton P., Chemistry
Jones, Linus H., Botany

7LEVINE, Arthur S., Horticultural Manufac-
tures
McLaughlin. Frederick A., Seed Law
Mueller, William S.. Dairy Industry
Smith, C. Tyson, Feed and Fertilizer Laws
Spelman, Albert F., Feed and Fertilizer

Laws
Wertz, Anne W., Home Economics Nu-
trition

JWhite, Harold E., Floriculture

JYouNG, Robert E.. Olericulture

Man-

Anderson, Jessie L., Seed Law
Becker, William B., Entomology
^j^Bemben, Peter. Olericulture
jBoBliLA, Paul, Nurseryculture
Brinson, Joseph E.. Agronomy
Brunell, Harvey J. Horticultura

ufactures
Clarke, Miriam K., Veterinary Science
Crosby, Earle B.. Veterinary Science
Crowley. Leo V.. Feed and Fertilizer Laws
Davis, S. Gilbert, Horticultural Manu-
factures
^JDoNNELLY, Edward B., Floricuhure
IGari.and, William, Entomology
Howard. James T., Dairy, Feed,

Fertilizer Laws
Jewett. Fei.ici.a. Veterinary Science
Kelley, Joseph L., Cranberries
Kucinski, Karol j.. Agronomy
Martell, Joseph A., Dairy, Feed

ind

and
Horticultural

Fertilizer Laws
McConnell, John E. W.,

Manufactures
Miner, Gladys I., Botany
JMooDY, Mary, Olericulture
Morse, Roy E., Horticultural Manufactures
Parkinson, Leonard R.. Home Economics

Nutrition
Perkins, Margaret K., Floriculture
Sanborn, Ruby, Poultrv Husbandry
Sherburne, Ruth E . Economics
Southwick, Lawrence, Pomology
Spear, Arthur J.. Home Economics Nu-
trition
Stone. Abigail M., Agricultural Economics

and Farm Management
Tischer, Robert G., Horticultural Manu-
factures
JTomlinson, William E.', Jr., Entomology
Weir, Clar.a. E., Home Economics Nutrition
White. W Henry. Botany
JWiLSON, Harold h.. Horticulture

Yegian, Hrant M., Agronomy
JYouNG, Helen, Floriculture
YouRGA, Frank, Horticultural Manufac-
tures
Zatyrka, Irene E., Pomology

♦In charge tAt East Wareham JAt Waltham §With U. S. D. A. TOn Military Leave.

CONTENTS

Page

Agricultural Economics and Farm Management 4

Agronomy 5

Animal Husbandry 13

Bacteriology . 15

Botany 16

Chemistry 22

Control Services 25

The Cranberry Station 26

Dairy Industry '........ 29

Economics 32

Engineering 32

Entomology 34

Floriculture 40

Home Economics Nutrition 42

Horticultural Manufactures 44

Horticulture 47

Olericulture 47

Pomology 4"

Poultry Husbandry 55

Veterinary Science 5/

Waltham Field Station 59

Publications ""

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT

STATION— 1942

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS
AND FARM MANAGEMENT

A. H. Lindsey in Charge

Competitive Factors Influencing the Supply of Market Milk and Cream in
Massachusetts. (A. A. Brown and Abigail Stone.) Bulletin 389, the last of three
bulletins based on the Sprlngfield-Holyoke-Chicopee Milkshed, was published
in 1942.

The organization of production and distribution of sales throughout the State
are now being studied in relation to the program of the Massachusetts Division
of Milk Control.

Transportation Requirements of Rural Communities in Massachusetts.

(A. A. Brown and Abigail Stone.) A study of the amount of trucking necessary
for the movement of grain to farmers in the Amherst-Pelham area is near com-
pletion. One cause for excessive mileage is the frequent buying in small amounts
by many farmers. Much time and probably much mileage could be saved if
farmers would place their grain orders monthly and take at one delivery quanti-
ties up to the permissible mileage of the handler's truck. This sort of arrange-
ment would reduce stops by 50 percent and result In an average delivery of .48
tons per mile. Comparison with mileage under actual conditions was not pos-
sible because some operators kept neither trip nor mileage records. Study of
farmers' buying practices indicates that worthwhile reduction in mileage could
be accomplished by fully utilizing handler's equipment.

Crop and Livestock Enterprise Relationships. (C. R. Creek.)

Results of Pasture Improvement Practices. Detailed gr? zing records were kept
for the 1941 season, in connection with a record of milk production, barn feeding,
and pasture treatment. Acreage of pasture ranged from 10 to 113 acres per farm
with an average of 34 acres. More intensive improvement practices were applied
to the small areas. Size of dairy herds ranged from 8 to 45 cows per farm with an
average of 24 head. The length of pasture season was variable, chiefly because
of drought in late summer, and ranged from 65 to 164 days with an average of 121 .

Results from the grazing of these pastures were calculated in pounds of 4 per-
cent milk, numiber of cow-days, and tons of green forage. For the relatively short
season of 1941 an average of 2017 pounds of 4 percent milk was produced from
each acre of improved pasture. The range per farm was from 313 to 6648 pounds
per acre. Cow-da^-s of grazing ranged from 22 to 152 on these farms with an
average of 74 per acre. Production of green forage was calculated as an average
of 2 tons per acre with a range from 0.5 to 3.0 tons per acre per farm. Returns for
individual fields on these farms varied more widely than the range given for
averages by farms.

Improved pastures consisted of annual crops, Ladino Clover, mixed clover and
grass, and permanent grassland. Returns w^ere highest for Ladino Clover pastures
with 3,044 pounds of milk, 84 cow-days, and 2.7 tons of forage per acre. Clover
and grass pastures ranked second, followed by annual pasture crops and perma-
nent pastures. Returns were also calculated by types of treatment, but the
variation was slight.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 5

Labor-Saving Methods and Practices on Massachusetts Farms. (C. R. Creek.)
An outline has been prepared to apply the r-esults ot previous research on labor-
saving practices to the production and harvesting of vegetable crops on small
farms. Inexpensive and homemade adaptations of labor-saving equipment are
recommended for these farms.

Comparative Costs of Producing Corn and Grass Silage. (C. R. Creek.) Prelim-
inary tabulations and calculations have been made of various items in the cost
of producing corn and legume-grass silage on dairy farms in the Connecticut
Valley counties. Cash costs of growing and harvesting corn for silage ranged
from less than $1 per ton on a farm with no hired labor and no fertilizer expense
to $5.06 per ton on a farm where machinery was hired for all growing and harvest-
ing work and all labor was hired. Total costs were much higher and ranged from
$4.93 to $9.13 per ton. Total costs included such non-cash items as family labor,
depreciation, interest, and the value of manure. The acreage of corn for silage
ranged from 3 to 21 acres per farm with a total production of 20 to 200 tons.
Yields ranged from 5 to 16.5 tons per acre.

Cash cost of legume-grass silage ranged from $2.37 to $3.60 per ton and total
costs from $5.30 to $9.45 per ton. Acreage of the various crops ranged from 2.5
to 40 acres per farm and yields of grass silage were from 3.8 to 8 tons per acre.
Small acreages of oats used as a nurse crop for clover seedings were ensiled on a
few farms. Cash costs ranged from $2.55 to $4.53 per- ton and total costs from
$5.90 to $10.69. Yields varied between 6 and 10.5 tons per acre of oats for silage.

Loan Performance on Low-Income Farms in Massachusetts. (C. R. Creek.)
Data and information have been obtained from the farm plans for Fann Security
Administration borrowers in Franklin, Hampden, and Hampshire counties.
Tabulations have been made by counties for cash-crop and for livestock farms.
Preliminary observations indicate that the rate of repayment of loans has been
much higher on the cash-crop (onions, tobacco, and potatoes) farms than on the
dairy and poultry farms. A small number of the latter have been liquidated at
public auction to repay the Farm Security Administration loans.

The chief reason for loans to cash-crop farmers in the Connecticut River Valley
was the loss of crops in the flood and hurricane of 1938. Low prices for crops and
low yields in earlier years were responsible for the deplorable credit situation of
many small operators. Increasing the size of business from a part-time or sub-
sistence level was the reason for many livestock loans, particularly on poultry
farms. Some of these operators have now returned to a part-time farm business
and are working in industrial plants in nearby cities.

DEPARTMENT OF AGRONOMY

Walter S. Eisenmenger in Charge

Tobacco Projects. (Walter S. Eisenmenger and Karol J. Kucinski.)
Brown Root-Rot of Tobacco. In the experiment to determine the effect of
preceding crops on tobacco it was found that tobacco, artichoke, and sunflower,
as well as fallow, were beneficial as contracted with such crops as corn, sudan
grass, and sorghum, which in all cases seemed to have a deleter-ous effect on yield.
The crops preceding tobacco were planted at three different times: the first,
earh ; the second, thirty days later; and the third, thirty days later than the
second. The earliest planting was completely mature; the others matured to a
lesser degree. The earliest planting developed more lignin than the others.
These plants were permitted to stand and become thoroughly dehydrated by
subsequent freezing and thawing.

6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Where the individual plants were of the type that prevents the growth of weeds
— shade producing plants — the yield of tobacco increased after the late plantings.
In plots of small plants, such as barley, rape, and rye, the weeds in late summer
intrude and to a degree vitiate the results.

There is no evidence, however, of a better quality of tobacco grown after im-
mature plants. This is not entirely new, for it is often the case that larger tobacco
plants do not cure as well as smaller tobacco plants.

Tobacco Experiments with Application to Soil of Commercial Organic Materials-
Different types of carbon compounds were applied to the soil to study their effect
on the yield of tobacco. Because of prohibitive cost, there are not many such
compounds that can be used; but cane sugar, starch, dried skim milk, and char-
coal were each applied to duplicate plots at the rate of 100 pounds per acre. No
decided differences were noted in the tobacco although the check plots receiving
no additions of carbon were low in yield and crop index. The charcoal caused
more rapid growth in the early season, probably because of the more abundant
absorption of heat by the darker color induced, and also gave the highest yield,
suggesting the possibility of its use In early spring for frames where seedlings are
grown. The dried milk left a residual effect the following year for the cover crop
of rye. Increased growth on these two plots was pronounced, suggesting two
possible factors — the nitrogen in the milk, or the subsequent action of lactic
acid which may have influenced the soil flora.

The Absorption by Food Plants of Chemical Elements Important in Human
Nutrition. (Walter S. Eisenmenger and Karol J. Kucinski.) Calcium, mag-
nesium, sodium, and potassium salts, at the rate of 200 parts per million of each
cation, w'ere added singly to soil growing vegetables. The increase of these
cations in plant tissue, when cations were added singly to the soil was as follows:
for cabbage — calcium 30 percent, potassium 127 percent, magnesium 543 percent,
and sodium, none; for celery — calcium 44 percent, potassium 256 percent, mag-
nesium 390 percent, and sodium 52 percent; for lettuce — calcium 12 percent,
potassium 132 percent, magnesium 346 percent, and sodium 72 percent; for carrots
— calcium 18 percent, potassium 24 percent, magnesium 42 percent, and sodium
106 percent; and for beet roots — calcium 22 percent, potassium 12 percent,
magnesium 85 percent, and sodium 356 percent.

Larger amounts of magnesium, potassium, and sodium can be introduced mto
plants than of calcium. Also, more of the halides can be introduced into plants
than of phosphorus or sulfur.

It mav be said that those elements which are abundant in sea water may be
introduced into plants more readily than the elements which are ?bundant in
land waters.

The Intake by Plants of Elements Applied to the Soil in Pairs Compared to
the Intake of the Same Elements Applied Singly. (Walter S. Eisenmenger and
Karol J. Kucinski.) Cabbage, celery, lettuce, and string beans were grown after
application to the soil of 250 parts per million each of calcium, sodium, and potas-
sium, singly and also in all possible combinations. Results show that when these
ions were applied in pairs, the amounts taken in by the plant were lower than
when they were applied singly. This behavior is suggestive of the well-known
premise that up to a certain point one of these elements can serve the function
or purpose of the other.

Magnesium Requirements of Plants. (Walter S. Eisenmenger and Karol J.
Kucinski.) Nearly one hundred species of plants have been grown on a mag-
nesium deficient plot, one-fourth of which receives magnesium sulfate; one fourth.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 7

magnesium sulfate and lime; one-fourth, lime alone; and the other fourth, neither
lime nor magnesium.

The demonstrations have developed to a significant degree — to show what
plants need this element. However, the obvious chlorosis seems not to be the
whole stor}-; for we have found plants regarded as weeds which do not grow at
all where no magnesium is added, and one cultivated plant which does not chlo-
rose but does much better if magnesium is added, and there are plants which
have symptoms of potassium deficiency where no magnesium is added, as in the
case of the apple tree.

Soil Conservation Research Projects. (Karol J. Kucinski and Walter S. Eisen-
menger.)

A Study of the Physical and Chemical Properties of Wind-Blown Soils. Wind
erosion in the Connecticut Valley occurs mostly on onion and vegetable fields
when previously frozen soils thaw, then dry, and are swept ofif by drying, north-
westerly winds. In general, these wind-blown soils are coarser than the soils
least affected. It is important from both the practical and academic viewpoints
to find out just what physical-chemical properties determine the degree of
erodibility of a soil, which of these properties are controllable, and what takes
place in the soil complex when one or more of these properties are changed.

During the past year, in cooperation with the Soil Conservation Service, the
problem of wind erosion has been studied. Soils from wind-eroded and uneroded
areas are being examined by the use of a wind tunnel 32 feet long by 3 feet by
3 feet, especially designed for local conditions. Wind velocities as high as 50
miles an hour can be generated and instruments are used to record the wind
velocities and amounts of erosion. Preliminary trials with the tunnel have given
interesting results, and it is expected that the information finally obtained will
help greatly in understanding why certain soils erode more than others and
possibly in establishing means for their stabilization.

A Survey of Erosion Problems Arising from Changes in Land Use. The growing
of potatoes on a large scale is a relatively new venture on some of the farms in
Massachusetts, especially in the western foothills and plateau. Many acres of
old sod have been plowed under on the sloping hillsides — in some cases, fields
which have not been in open cultivation for the past thirty years. The potato
yields from such fields have been very encouraging and in most cases, therefore,
the operators have not been interested in soil conservation practices. As yet,
only slight sheet erosion is noticed, probably because of the presence of large
amounts of organic matter. Great concern has been felt by some who think that
after a few years of open cultivation, the organic matter originally present in
these new potato fields will decompose and the soil will readily erode, since cover
cropping has not been practiced.

Determinations of carbon and loss on ignition indicate that a large decrease in
the organic matter content of some of these soils has already taken place. There
was an average decrease of 9.5 percent of soil carbon in 194C compared with 1939
and a 21 percent decrease in 1942 compared with 1939. The "loss on ignition"
of this same soil, which is a measure of organic matter, showed an average de-
crease of over 10 percent. It is deemed advisable, therefore, to encourage potato
growers to practice soil conservation methods such as winter cover cropping and
terrace and contour farming of their hillsides.

Sunflowers and their Possibilities. (Karol J. Kucinski and Walter S. Eisen-
menger.) For the past four or five years, sunflowers have been grown in the hope
of finding out whether the crop is adapted to our soil and climate. Results show
that sunflowers can be grown here and produce seed abundantly. Howexer, to

8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

the best of our knowledge, no one in Massachusetts is growing sunflowers in
commercial lots, probably because of the lack of proper mills for processing the
oil. The cost of transportation to mills in the Midwest would not justify ship-
ment even in normal times. Some seed is grown locally and used as a conditioner
of poultry.

Sunflowers will grow in Massachusetts on any land which will produce field
corn and a corn fertilizer seems to do very well. There is an element of risk in-
volved in the growing of the crop which should not be o\erlooked. The plant is
very susceptible to damage from windstorms and there was complete crop failure
after the 1938 hurricane. The "wind-fall" of the sunflower plant is due to a large
extent to infestation with the corn borer. Planting the seed too close will produce
small and thin sunflower plants, too weak to withstand strong windstorms. One
seed per hill every 18 inches in 36-inch rows gave an average crop of over 2 tons
of clean seed per acre. The wholesale price of sunflower seed quoted on the western
coast ranges from seven to eight cents a pound.

Sunflowers are hardy to light frost, and can be planted at the time it is safe to
plant field corn. Harvesting is usually done during the latter part of September.
A growing period of 120 to 140 days, depending on the season, is sufficient for
maturing the seed in Massachusetts. It has been found best to cut the sunflower
heads off the stalk and place them singly on boards to dry for two or three weeks.
This drying facilitates the removal of the seed from the head by striking the head
against some object or rubbing it on a very coarse wire screen.

Black Root-Rot of Tobacco. (C. V. Kightlinger.) The project to improve
tobacco production in Massachusetts by producing strains of Havana Seed which
are satisfactorily resistant to black root-rot and also acceptable in type, quality',
yielding capacity, and habits of growth in general, is being continued. Strains
of tobacco which possess most of these properties have been produced, but they
have not been entirely acceptable to some leaders of the tobacco trade. Attempts
to improve the strains by selection have succeeded in making changes but only
in minor properties. New strains produced by breeding show promise of producing
the desired results.

Results obtained from small plot tests show two of the new strains to yield
well not only in soil free from black root-rot, but under bad black root-rot pro-
moting conditions, as well. They have good general type and produce leaves
which have good shape, smaller veins than many strains, and good body and
quality. These strains mature as early as the common Havana Seed which was
used as one of the parents and bear a close resemblance to that parent in most
respects. They have not yet been tested in commercial production.

Brown Root-Rot of Tobacco (C. V. Kightlinger.) The project to determine the
effects that high and low fertility of the soil may have on the occurrence of brown
root-rot of tobacco is in progress, but work has not yet gone beyond the treat-
ment of soil necessary to produce those diff^erences in fertility.

Soil Treatments for Tobacco Seedbeds. (C. V. Kightlinger.) Experiments were
made again during the fall of 1941 and the spring of 1942, to test the effectiveness
of several difi^erent soil treatments in controlling damping-off diseases, but results
were disappointing because even the control plots showed no evidence of the
disease.

In the control of weeds, there were wide differences between the difi"erent treat-
ments; also, between replications of the same treatment, except in the case of
steaming and the combination treatments with chloro-picrin and calcium cyana-
mid. Steaming was done by the pan method at a steam pressure of about 100
pounds applied for 20 minutes, with the pan kept in place for another 20 minutes.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 9

This gave good control of weeds in all replications, whether done in the fall or in
the spring. The combination treatment of chloro-picrin and calcium cyanamid
consisted of 2 cc. of chloro-picrin per square foot and one-half pound of calcium
cyanamid per square yard of soil surface, applied only in the fall. This treat-
ment was not so effective as steaming, but it gave fair control of weeds in most of
the replications.

Onion Breeding. (Hrant M. Yegian.) Tests were made during the season of
1942 on the Hubbard farm in Sunderland, Massachusetts, to compare the yields
of onions obtained from sets planted Tay machine with yields of onions obtained
from sets planted by hand, and to determine the effect that spacing of sets within
the row might have on both the yield and size of bulbs produced.

The sets planted by hand yielded an average of 51 pounds of Number 1 onions
per 50-foot row, compared with 33.5 pounds for machine-planted sets with
supplementary hand work for checking and respacing. With the machine, the
spacing and the yield are not uniform. The number of plants in a 50-foot row
varied from 153 to 218, compared with 238 to 264 plants per row in the hand-
planted sets. The yield obtained from machine-planted sets varied from 29 to
44 pounds compared with 49 to 54.5 pounds from hand-planted sets. Another
important factor affecting the yield and the stand of machine-planted sets is the
fact that sets are not always placed 'n an upright position. There was a loss of
25 percent in yield when sets were placed horizontally in the row by hand, and
80 percent when planted bottoms up in the experimental plot at the College.
These figures will, of course, varj' from year to year depending on weather condi-
tions prevailing soon after the sets are planted. The weather during April and
the early part of May this season was very dry and warm, which may account for
the poor start made by sets planted horizontally or bottoms up. Although the
machine-planted sets did not yield as well as the hand-planted sets, it would seem
that .the use of this machine should be encouraged in the Valley because of the
saving in labor. Even spacing could be secured by carefully sizing the sets into
several grades.

Spacing of sets in the row had a marked influence on the yield and to some
extent on the size of the bulbs. When sets were spaced 2.1 inches, 3.2 inches and
4.2 inches apart in the rows, the average yields of Number 1 onions were 51
pounds, 40.5 pounds, and 32.5 pounds per 50-foot row, respectively; and the
average weight of bulbs was 0.2 pounds, 0.22 pounds, and 0.23 pounds, respec-
tively.

The data covering one year of field experiments on the effect of storage tem-
peratures on the keeping quality of bulbs and on the subsequent seed-stalk de-
velopment of mother bulbs at uniform weight (40-45 grams) warrant the follow-
ing general statement:

1. Bulbs stored at 32'^F. kept best. Bulbs stored at 45° had 15 percent of
sprouting, while those stored at 60° - 70° had 18 percent of sprouting and 5 per-
cent of soft rot.

2. Bulbs stored at 45°F. were the first to send out seed stalks, followed by
those stored at 60° - 70°. The bulbs stored at 32° were 7-10 days later than
those stored at 45°.

3. The storage temperature had a marked effect on the number of seed stalks
produced. When bulbs were stored at 60° - 70°F., 33 percent of the bulbs had
2 seed stalks per bulb; 30 percent, 3 seed stalks; and 25 percent, 4 seed stalks;
when stored at 45°, 53 percent of bulbs had 2 seed stalks per bulb; 32 percent, 3
seed stalks; and 8 percent, 4 seed stalks; and w^hen stored at 32°, 76 percent of the
bulbs had 2 seed stalks per bulb; 17 percent, 3 seed stalks; and 4 percent, 4 seed
.stalks.

10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Although the amount of seed produced by the several lots of bulbs differed,
it is not certain that the storage temperatures were entirely responsible for these
differences. Further investigation of this phase of the problem is needed.

There was no significant difference in time of maturity between commercialK-
grown onions in the Valley and onions grown from sets selected for early and late
maturity. On account of weather conditions this year, commercially grown onions
matured from 2 to 3 weeks earlier than usual, which may explain the failure to
obtain any advantage from using specially selected sets.

Sets were produced this year from second generation selfed lines for the study
of inheritance of number of seed stalks per plant; from crosses for double and
single bulb characters; and from crosses between white Persian and Ebenezer
variety. F2 seed was secured from the white Persian X Ebenezer cross.

Sterile-species crosses between Allium fistulo sum and A. cepa L. were treated
with calchicine to induce polyploidy. Calchicine in a 2 percent aqueous solution
was lethal to all the early stages of inflorescence when immersed for one hour, and
few of the flowers that were about ready to open on well-developed inflorescence
survived the treatment. Their stigmas were stunted and swollen and no pollen
ripened. One of the hybrids which was not treated with calchicine matured 5
seeds. These seeds were planted as soon as mature, in the greenhouse. Although
all of the seeds germinated, only two seedlings survived. Cytological examina-
tion of the meristematic tissues will be made to determine the chromosome
number of these plants.

The hybrids of the A. fistulas tim X A. cepa cross show the characteristics of
multiplier onion. One of the year-old bulbs separated into 16 parts, each bulblet
having a flower-stalk.

Hybrid Field Corn. (Hrant M. Yegian.) Further trials with early-maturing
hybrid field corn for the higher plateau regions of Worcester County and the
western counties of Massachusetts were conducted at the College Farm. A few
of the promising hybrids will be tested next season in the northern part of the
State.

Nine early-maturing hybrids — Maine A, Wis. 240, Wis. 255, Minn. 402, Minn.
700, Minn. 800, Cornell 34-53, Ohio M15, and Quebec flint— from last year's
trial plots at the College were tested this year for maturity and yield in the
northern part of the State where the growing season is shorter and cooler than it
is here. Maine A was the only one that matured under those conditions.

In order to become familiar with the performance of recently developed out-
of-state hybrids offered for sale in Massachusetts for late grain and silage pur-
poses, yield tests with 27 hybrids were conducted at the College Farm. The
year 1942 was very favorable for corn production. The long ripening season
permitted relatively large, late-maturing hybrids to ripen satisfactorily; but in a
year with a shorter ripening season, the results may be very disappointing.

Available Phosphorus. (A. B. Beaumont.) The distribution of "available"
phosphorus in the soil profile as affected by soil type and management is being
studied. Determinations of soluble phosphorus made to date indicate that past
treatment is a more important factor in determining the amount of phosphorus
extracted by this method than is soil type. Long use of phosphatic fertilizers
has caused an accumulation of acid-soluble phosphorus in the topsoil, the amount
varying with the degree of fertilization. Topsoils which have been heavily ferti-
lized for years, as in truck growing and tobacco culture, have been found to be
relatively heavily charged with phosphorus considered available by the method
of extraction used. Corresponding subsoils have been found to contain little
available phosphorus.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 11

Potato Variety Trials. (Ralph Donaldson, Walter S. Eisenmenger, and Karol J.
Kucinski.) Based on fields of marketable size, the ranking of potato varieties
grown in plots at the college during the season of 1942 were Sequoia, Pontiac,
Green Mountain, Hounia, Red Warba, Russet Rural, Chippewa, Earlaine,
S-46592, Katahdin, Sebago, S-46000, and Irish Cobbler.

Ryegrass as a Green Manure Crop. (Hrant M. Yegian.) The use of domestic
ryegrass {Lolinm sp.) as a winter cover crop and green manure is becoming more
or less a general practice on the better-managed vegetable farms. It is one of the
best all-round winter cover crops in this region, where the temperature during
the growing season in the fall is moderately cool. Ryegrass is easily grown, and
on fertile soil makes a complete cover quickly. Its heavy mat of roots retards
severe soil erosion from wind or rapid run-ofif of rain. It may be seeded, in most
cases, as soon as the previous crop is removed. With set 'onions, ryegrass may
be seeded at the rate of 20-25 pounds per acre, in the early part of August, after
the onions have been harvested and moved out of the field, although seeding
even as late as the early part of September has given a satisfactory cover crop at
this station. The yield (0.5-1.5 tons of dry tops) will vary, depending upon the
time of seeding and the amount of available moisture and plant nutrients during
the growing period. It is moderately winter-hardy. From 50 to 60 percent of
the plants will survive the average winter; so unless the ryegrass is completely
turned under in the spring during the plowing operation, volunteer plants may
interfere with the cultivation of the subsequent crop. Experience here has shown
that a very satisfactory seedbed for the set onion crop can be prepared by plow-
ing under the cover crop in early spring.

Influence of Soil Fertility on Productiveness of Pasture Species. (Hrant M.
Yegian.) In 1941 a field plot experiment was started with thirteen species of
grass to determine their relative productivity and ability to winter over and to
recover from cutting. These grass plots were maintained in pure stand at dif-
ferent levels of soil fertility which were secured by the addition of lime (1000
pounds per acre) and 5-8-7 fertilizer in increments of 400 pounds per acre. Data
covering the second year of the experiment warrant the following statement:

All the species continued to respond as well in their second year as in their
first, to increases in soil fertility levels.

The soil fertility requirements of different species vary. There was a pro-
nounced or consistent increase in yield with additional applications of commercial
fertilizer, but the percentage increase in yield was not the same for all the species
at each level of soil fertility. Reed canary grass, colonial bent, orchard grass,
and Kentucky bluegrass produced proportionally more dry tops at the higher
soil fertility levels (800 to 1600 pounds of 5-8-7 fertilizer per acre); while timothy,
fowl bluegrass, red top, and meadow fescue produced proportionally more dry
tops at the lower levels (400 to 800 pounds of 5-8-7 fertilizer per acre); and there
were a few species, including meadow fo.xtail and smooth brome grass, that pro-
duced in direct proportion to the amount of fertilizer added.

The perennial ryegrass was completely winterkilled in its second }-ear. Ken-
tucky bluegrass, reed canary grass, timothy, and smooth brome grass gave a
greater yield in their second year than in the first in the fertilizer plots; meadow
fescue, colonial bent, orchard grass, rough-stalked meadow grass, and meadow
foxtail produced less in their second year; while red top and fowl bluegrass main-
tained their yield at the same level both years.

Experiments at Amherst with Hay and Pasture Seeding Mixtures. (W. G.

Colby.) Additional data were obtained from three series of plots planted with
different hay and pasture seeding mixtures in 1940 and 1941. Details of the

12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

plan of the experiment were given in last year's report (Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Bui. 388:14-15, 1942).

Yields of both hay ?nd pasture herbage on plots seeded in 1940 were lower this
year than last year. Plots which produced at the rate of 3 H to 4 tons of dry
matter per acre last year produced 3 to 33/^ tons this year. Reduced yields re-
sulted, notwithstanding the fact that growing conditions so far as the weather
was concerned were much more favorable this past season than they were a year
ago. Total rainfall for the period from March 1 to November 1, 1942, amounted
to 30.55 inches, slightly above normal for this period, whereas the total rainfall
for the same period in 1941 was only 22.02 inches.

These experimental results are consistent with what has been observed in
newly seeded hay and pasture lands in Massachusetts for many years. Unless
weather conditions or other circumstances are extremely unfavorable, yields will
be highest the year following seeding. This Is true for both spring and summer
seedings. Yields can be expected to fall for two to three years following the sec-
ond year of maximum production until a fairly constant production level is
reached, which will approximate one half to two thirds of the maximum figure.
Careful grazing management in pastures and regular topdressing applications of
suitable fertilizers will slow up the rate of decrease, but they will not prevent it.
Managed grazing of the plots in this experiment, together with a topdressing
application of 200 pounds of 40 percent superphosphate and 325 pounds of muri-
ate of potash per acre In the fall of 1941, did not prevent yield levels from falling
in 1942.

Of the three grasses — smooth brome grass, late-maturing types of orchard grass,
and meadow fescue — which produced well in association with Ladino clover in
1941, only meadow fescue failed to compete satisfactorily In 1942. The total
production of these grasses In association with Ladino clover was not only high
but w^as fairly uniformly spread over the season. Smooth brome grass and Ladino
clover for example, yielded 1015 pounds of dry herbage in May, 1600 pounds in
June, 1065 pounds in July, 920 pounds In August, and 770 pounds In October.
These yields may be compared with those from the timothy, alsike, red clover
plots which were 1210, 1160, 770, 770, and 340 pounds for the same harvesting
dates.

Promising results were again obtained from the series In which a crop of hay
was cut followed by grazing. A mixture of smooth brome grass, Ladino clover,
and alfalfa produced 4040 pounds of hay m mid-June, 1065 pounds of grazing In
July, 1015 pounds in August, and 870 pounds in October. The timothy, alsike,
red clover mixture yielded 5180 pounds of hay In late June, no grazing in July,
970 pounds in August, and 680 pounds In October.

Some of the leafy, late-maturing strains of orchard grass performed moderately
well with Ladino clover and also when alfalfa was added, but the commercial
strains of orchard grass were not satisfactory. In the pasture plots they were all
too vigorous in their growth habits and tended to crowd out the legumes even
though grazing was carefully controlled and the plots were clipped after each
grazing period. In the hay plots these strains matured too early for the alfalfa.

Although the common variety of orchard grass has been frequently recommend-
ed to farmers, this grass has never found widespread favor. It has recently been
recommended as a companion grass for Ladino clover. The past two years' re-
sults Indicate that the reluctance on the part of farmers to grow it extensively Is
well founded. Except where soils are fertile and well supplied with moisture
and also where grazing is carefully controlled and the means are available for
clipping following grazing, disappointing results with Ladino clover and orchard
grass are likely. Even under such circumstances no more than three to five pounds
of the grass seed should be sown to the acre.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 13

In an effort to eliminate some of the bad features of orchard grass, breeders
have developed a number of new and improved strains. Several of these were
included in the test and it is from some of these strains that promising results
have been obtained. The outstanding one thus far is S37, a strain developed by
the Welsh Plant Breeding Station in Aberystwyth, Wales. Three strains from
this source were tested — S26, S37, and S143 — but S37 gave the best all-round
performance. It is leafy, late-maturing, moderatel}' vigorous and upright in its
growth habit, and a reasonably good seed producer. It looked well in combina-
tion with both Ladino clover and alfalfa and appeared to be adapted for use as
pasture or hay and pasture combined. A satisfactory proportion of legumes to
grasses has been maintained for two years in plots seeded with five pounds of
S37 orchard grass, two pounds of Ladino clover, and ten pounds of alfalfa.

Svalof's early meadow fescue, a short, narrow-leafed type, grew well the first
season with Ladino clover, but was unable to maintain a stand throughout the
second season. Commercial strains were eliminated the first season. The Svalof
strain has been of interest, because it is apparently immune to leaf rust, a factor
which may explain why it is more persistent than commercial strains. Although
meadow fescue is apparently unsatisfactory when grown alone with Ladino clover,
there are indications that five to eight pounds might be seeded along with four to
five pounds of a leafy strain of orchard grass or eight to ten pounds of smooth
brome grass, with excellent results. Meadow fescue is a fast-growing grass which
establishes itself quicklj- and would retard weed growth and yield considerable
feed while the slow-growing brome grass or orchard grass was becoming estab-
lished.

Strains of the so-called tall meadow fescue, such as Alta tall fescue, have not
performed satisfactorily. They are coarse and unpalatable in comparison with
several of the other grasses and offer too much competition for Ladino clover.

DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Victor A. Rice in Charge

A Study of the Mineral Elements of Cow's Milk. (J. G. Archibald, C. H. Par-
sons, and H. G. Lindquist.) For two reasons the work with manganese reported
last year was repeated during the winter of 1941-42: (1) the findings were at
variance with some earlier work at another station, so it was thought advisable
to confirm them; (2) it was desired to investigate the possible effect of metabolized
manganese on the development of oxidized flavor in milk.

The results of this second season's work confirmed the finding reported last
year that the amount of manganese in milk can be doubled by adding manganese
to the ration fed. This additional metabolized manganese did not retard or in-
hibit the development of oxidized flavor either in ordinary milk or in milk to
which copper had been purposely added to accentuate the effect.

The element zinc is being studied this \ear.

Investigation of the Merits of Legume and Grass Silage for Massachusetts
Agriculture. (J. G. Archibald and C. H. Parsons.) War econom\ has resulted in
a definite shortage and a corresponding increase in price of the two most common
preservatives for grass silage, molasses and phosphoric acid. Our efforts this
year have, therefore, been devoted to a study of other materials which might
possibly be used as preservatives, and to an improvement of methods in general
so that smaller amounts of preservative or none at all, may suffice.

It was not possible to conduct any feeding trials with the molasses silage stored
in the large experimental silo in June 1941. The excellent quality of this silage

14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

was, however, very evident; the odor was mild and sweet, and the cows ate it
much more readily than they did a similar lot preserved with phosphoric acid in
the same silo the previous year.

A second silo containing 75 tons of mixed grass was inoculated at five different
levels at filling time in June 1941, with a pure culture of Bacillus hulgaricus. No
other preservative was used. This silo was opened in January 1942; there was
considerable spoilage at the top and sides and the odor at first was very objec-
tionable, indicating formation of excessive amounts of butyric acid. The odor
improved after the top layers were fed off, but continued more sharply acid than
the odor of the molasses silage referred to above, although the pH was 4.4 in con-
trast to 3.9 for the molasses silage. The station bacteriologist was unable to recover
B. hulgaricus from the silage, which suggests that the inoculation may have
played little if any part in the fermentation.

The silage was fed to young cattle; they ate it readilj' but made somewhat
smaller gains than when fed corn silage. This may have been due, however, to
inherent feeding value of the original material rather than to method of preserva-
tion. It would have been desirable to include another siloful of similar material
not inoculated, as a control. This has been done this year, but at this date
(Nov. 30) the silos have not been opened.

In addition to the three large silos filled this year, using respectively molasses,
bacterial inoculation, and no preservative (control), sixteen miniature silos have
been filled, each containing approximately one and a half bushels of chopped
grass or alfalfa, and weighted with concrete blocks to produce a pressure of about
120 pounds to the square foot. Two crops, mixed grass and alfalfa, at two dif-
ferent moisture levels, have been ensiled in these miniature silos with the follow-
ing treatments: (1) no preservative, (2) inoculation with B. hulgaricus, (3) salt,
(4) B. hulgaricus plus salt. At date of writing (Nov. 30) six of these small silos
have been opened and their contents studied from a biochemical, and to a lesser
extent from a bacteriological standpoint. The outstanding facts thus far are:
(1) the excessive amount of butyric acid which has developed regardless of the
preservative used, and (2) the complete absence of lactic acid from these silages.

A Study of Urea as a Partial Substitute for Protein in the Rations of Dairy
Cows. (J. G. Archibald.) This project has recently been discontinued for the
duration of the war. Final conclusions are not being drawn at this time, but
results of feeding trials extendmg over three years indicate that while the urea
has been utilized by the cows to some extent it has not proved equal to the stand-
ard protein concentrates as a source of nitrogen for milking cows.

The Effect of Feeding Irradiated Dry Yeast on Reproduction and General
Health in Dairy Cows. (J. G. Archibald and J. D. Neville.) Two years' results
with sixty cows in the Gardner State Hospital herd show no differences of any
significance between the cows getting irradiated yeast and those on the control
ration. This lack of response may be due to the fact that this herd has always
been maintained at a rather high nutritional level. The level of vitamin D fed
was approximately 10,000 international units daily per cow.

Determination of the phosphatase level in the blood of twenty of these cows
(ten in each group) at regular intervals during January-, February, and March
of this year showed no significant differences between the groups in this constit-
uent. Since a rise in blood phosphatase is considered to be a sensitive indicator
of vitamin D deficiency, it seems evident from these results that the cows in this
herd were not suffering from even a slight deficiency of this vitamin; therefore,
the lack of response to the feeding of irradiated 3'east is quite understandable.
The project in its present form and as involving the use of the Gardner herd has
been terminated.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 15

DEPARTMENT OF BACTERIOLOGY
Leon A. Bradley in Charge

Nitrification in Soils Containing Plant Residues of Varying Lignin Content.

(James E. Fuller, cooperating with the Agronomy Department.) This investi-
gation, so far as the field work is concerned, is obviously seasonal and consequently
proceeds slowly. A preliminary' statement was made in the 1941 report from this
Department (Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 388: 19, 1942). The crops employed
were millet, rye, wheat, sudan grass, sorghum, corn, oats, buckwheat, barley,
rape, artichoke, tobacco, and sunflower. There were six plots with all of the crops
in each, except the sunflower, which was alternated with fallow strips. The
crops were grown and then plowed under. The following season tobacco was
grown on the plots, and during that season three series of soil samples were col-
lected — one early in the season before the tobacco was planted, another in mid-
summer, and the third in the early autumn after the tobacco had been h?rvested.
These samples were tested for their ability to nitrify dried blood and ammonium
sulfate.

The general tendency seemed to be that the capacity of the soil to nitrify dried
blood declined in mid-summer as compared to the spring, and then recovered to
some extent later in the season. There was considerable variation among the
different plots, and no definite relationship could be noted between the variety
of crop and the nitrifying capacity of the soil of the plot. The ability of the
soils to nitrify ammonium sulfate declined markedly, in general, when the early
and mid-season samples were compared, and there was little recovery of activity
when the late-season samples were analyzed.

The nitrification results are being compared with the production and the grade
and crop indices of tobacco grown on the plots. No relationship has been noted,
but further study of the data is being made.

The Determination of the Sanitary Quality of Drinking Utensils. (Ralph L.
France and James E. Fuller.) This project had been carried on b}' France, and
after he entered the armed service of the country the work was taken over by
Fuller, who completed some unfinished work and prepared a report. The results
may be summarized as follows: A wet swab with excess moisture squeezed out
was more effective than a dr\- or a moist swab for removing bacteria from used
drinking glasses. A diluting fluid containing a phosphate (Butterfield's phosphate)
was more effective than distilled water or physiological salt solution for preserving
the viability of bacteria on swabs when they had to be held for some time before
plates were made. When swabs had to be held for several hours before plates
were made, it was found that chilling the containers with ice helped materially in
preventing loss of viability of the bacteria. A yeast-dextrose medium smiilar to
that used for the Standard-Methods procedure for plating milk samples gave
good recovery of bacteria for swabs. Practical examinations were made of local
establishments serving food and drink.

Bacteriological Study of Chocolate Milk. (James E. Fuller and R. W. Swan-
son, in cooperation with W. S. Mueller of the Department of Dairy Industry.)
This study has been completed and the results published. They may be sum-
marized as follows: The addition of chocolate syrups or cocoa powders inhibited
the growth of bacteria as compared with growth in the milk without the powders
or syrups. Even though the bacterial content of some of the powders and syrups
was high, the resultant growth of bacteria in chocolate milk made from these
powders or syrups was not nearly as great as was anticipated. Experiments
indicated that the tannic substances in the chocolate or cocoa were responsible for
the inhibition of bacterial growth.

16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Bacteriological Studies of Rural Water Supplies. (James E. Fuller.) This
project has been started within the year. Some preliminary work along this
line has already been reported (James E. Fuller and Sonnia Levine, Mass. Agr.
Exp. Sta. Bui. 378, 1941). Present experiments are being done on an amplified
scale. The study aims to attempt a differentiation of the intermediate members
of the coliform group of bacteria, so frequently encountered in rural water sup-
plies (wells or springs), to learn how many of them indicate serious pollution and
how many indicate merely surface wash. The differential reactions (Imvic tests)
of these bacteria are being studied at several incubation temperatures, from room
temperature to 46°C. (Eijkmann-test temperature), to determine the proportion
that are related to the fecal Escherichia coli. Present indications are that the
use of the Eijkmann-test temperature for incubating the Imvic tests may be
useful in evaluating the sanitary quality of rural water supplies.

Laboratory Service. (R. L. France, until Julv 1942 ; James E. Fuller, beginning
July).

Milk (bacteria counts) 392

Ice cream (bacteria counts) 91

Milk (butter fat) 27

Water 107

Miscellaneous 3

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
A. Vincent Osmun in Charge

Diseases of Trees in Massachusetts. (M. A. McKenzie and A. Vincent Osmun.)

The Dutch Elm Disease Problem. The Dutch elm disease caused by the fungus,
Ceratostomella itlmi (Schwarz) Buisman, and spread by bark beetles was found
in Massachusetts in 1941. During 1942, investigation of this disease in the State
has had three main objectives: the discovery and eradication of diseased trees;
the evaluation of the importance of woodpiles as sources of the causal fungus and
carrier beetles; and the elimination of conditions favorable to the spread of the
disease.

Results of the inoculation of several species of elm with the causal fungus in
early summer under controlled conditions in the greenhouse indicate that all
species of elm are susceptible; but American elm ( Ulmus americana L.) showed
symptoms of the disease most promptly and succumbed most rapidh- of all
species, potted plants of the species being completely killed within 10 days after
inoculation. Death presumably is due to a toxin produced b}- the fungus, but the
word "toxin" is here employed only in a nonspecific sense. Studies previously
reported bj' others, as well as the writers' investigations, indicate that micro-
scopic symptoms indistinguishable from those resulting from fungus infection
may occur in plants variously treated with sterilized extracts from fungus cultures.
If the symptoms are associated with a specific toxin, a neutralizing agent may be
found, although no consistently reliable agent has been found by the writers.

Considerable interest in the work has been shown by municipal tree depart-
ments and private citizens, and many specimens for laboratory study were re-
ceived during the past year. Through the cooperation of the United States
Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, valuable information relative to
the general distribution of the disease has been obtained regularly. Seven dis-
eased trees have been eradicated in Massachusetts: in 1941, 1 in Alford; in 1942,
3 in Egremont, 1 in Great Barrington, 1 in Westfield, and 1 in Sheffield. The

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 17

eradication of diseased trees is under the direction of the State Department of
Agriculture which has cooperated also in the entire program. The infection of
trees in the southwestern part of Berkshire County and Westfield, Massachusetts,
apparently does not indicate direct spread of the disease between these two regions
within the State, but rather the introduction of the disease into the State at two
separate points, presumably from a commcn source in the extension of the in-
festation radiating from the area around New York City.

In order to protect disease-free 'elms, concerted effort has been directed toward
the elimination of freshly cut elm wood. At present this procedure is the most
practical control that can be employed effectively in checking the spread of the
disease. Since the disease fungus is virtually a prisoner within an affected tree,
it cannot spread significantly except as it is carried from a diseased to an unin-
fected tree by a vector. The best evidence indicates that the smaller European
elm bark beetle, Scolytus multistriatus Marsh., is the principal carrier Insect.
This insect invades the bark of weakened trees or freshly cut elm wood, where
eggs are laid in galleries engraved between the bark and wood. Upon emergence,
the beetles feed on healthy elm twigs and in this manner may facilitate fungus
infect'on of healthy trees if the feeding beetles come from galleries in diseased
wood. The beetle is now known to occur in Springfield, West Springfield, and
Westfield in Hampden County, and widel> in Berkshire County, in addition to
the originally known eastern Massachusetts section of infestation which has
been enlarged to include most of the area east of Worcester County.

The prompt destruction by burning of all freshly cut elm wood which is well
suited for infestation by bark beetles is urged upon all agencies and Individuals
whose work brings them into contact with it, unless there is complete assurance
that the bark will be removed immediately after the wood is cut or other provision
is made for the consumption of any fungus- free wood as fuel in cooperative agree-
ments. Tree wardens, foresters, arborists, fire wardens, highway departments,
state departments, and public utilities have cooperated generously in aiding in
this practical method of protecting disease-free elms. As in the case of all diseases
of plants, however, unbroken continuity of the program is most essential.

Other Tree Problems. Sixty-three diseases of thirty-four species of trees, in-
cluding nine diseases of elm, were identified from approximately 300 specimens
and inquiries received during the year. The Cephalosporium wilt of elm was re-
ported from 4 municipalities in which no previous cases of the disease had been
reported, making a total of 177 cities and towns in which the disease has been
found in Massachusetts. The fungus, Verticillium sp., was isolated from several
species of woody plants, but no specimens were received from municipalities not
included in the total of 96 reported for 1941.

Following an extended period of wet weather early in the growing season, leaf-
inhabiting fungi caused considerable damage to foliage. Trees throughout
Massachusetts were affected.

A nonparasitic disease of white pine, commonly known as needle-blight, In
which needles of the current season discolor to varying degrees beginning near
the tips, was rather prevalent both on ornamental trees and in plantations.

At the request of the Massachusetts Tree Wardens' and Foresters' Association,
a report on wartime municipal tree programs was prepared, and subsequently a
survey of tree diseases and other defects was made, with a view to outlining a
program for tree protection and the prevention of damage by defective trees .to
persons and property. Current miscellaneous activities included the preparation
of parts of the program of the annual Five-day Short Course for Tree Wardens,
the compilation of a progress report, revision and publication of a manuscript
on a Peridermium of northern hard pines, the discussion of the control of wood-

18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

destroying fungi at the Eastern Pest Control Operators' Conference, the prepara-
tion of a mimeographed circular on "Trees in War," and the writing of newspaper
press releases. Publications referred to are found listed at the end'of this bulletin.

Damping-off and Growth of Seedlings and Cuttings of Woody Plants as
Affected by Soil Treatments and Modification of Environment. (W. L. Doran.)

As a result of increasing interest in the beach plum, a native plant heretofore
relatively neglected, work is now being done in cooperation with J. S. Bailey of
the Department of Pomology on its vegetative propagation, and an article on
the subject was recently published. There was no rooting of hardwood stem
cuttings, but softwood cuttings rooted fairh well and best (67 percent in 25 days)
when taken here in mid-June and treated with indolebutyric acid (50 mg./ 1.,
24 hr.). Work with root cuttings taken in the fall is now in progress.

The vegetative propagation of garden sage, a plant not now available to spice
manufacturers from the usual European sources, was investigated in cooperation
with A, M. Davis of the Division of Horticulture, and an article published. Un-
treated cuttings taken in winter rooted well in s?nd-peat or sandy soil, better
than in sand; but their rooting was hastened or improved by treatment for 24
hours with rapthaleneacetic acid or indolebut>Tic acid 25 mg./l

None of the treatments (red cuprous oxide, Barbak D, zinc oxide, Spergon, and
Semesan) which were applied to seeds of trees sown in a cold frame in March gave
wholly satisfactory protection against infection of seedlings by soil fungi. So far
as there were differences in final stands, they were in favor of the use of red cuprous
oxide with blue spruce, Barbak D with white pine, and zinc oxide with hemlock,
arbor-vitae, Douglas fir, and sycamore.

In propagation by cuttings, it is important to know which species need no
treatnients with root-inducing substances. It is noteworthy, therefore, that
August cuttings of Actinidia arguta and February cuttings of Dtcaisnea Fargesii,
both of which bear edible fruit, also February cuttings of Viburnum rhytidophyl-
lum, rooted 100 percent without treatment.

Cuttings of Norway spruce are not very responsive to treatment with the com-
monly used root-inducing acids. But the rooting of February cuttings of two
varieties, pygmaea and nana, was hastened and improved by treatments with
solutions of manganese sulfate, 1.0 percent and 5 hours for the former, 0.5 per-
cent and 24 hours for the latter. Rooting of late fall or early winter cuttings of
Norway spruce, variety nana, as well as cuttings of black spruce, yew, and
Hinoki cypress was also im.proved or hastened by treatment with monobasic
potassium phosphate 0.5 percent, 20 hours. Rooting of the last named was more
improved by this treatment than b> indolebutyric acid.

A mixture of sand and European sphagnum peat has been favored as a rooting
medium, but an American sedge peat, similarly used, may give better results.
January cuttings of Lonicera syringantha, treated with indolebutyric acid 50 mg.
/I., 24 hr., rooted 92 percent in a mixture (2:1) of sand and Florida sedge peat,
decidedly less well in a sim.ilar mixture of sand and European sphagnum peat.

To determine the possible effect of a powder-dip treatment in combination with
and immediately after solution-immersion treatments, cuttings of Chinese juniper
(the variety torulosa) taken in February were variously treated. Untreated
cuttings rooted only 1 1 percent. There was 83 percent rootmg of cuttings treated
with Hormodin No. 3 after treatment for 20 hours with indolebutyric acid 50 m.g.
/L or naphthaleneacetic acid 25mg./l., while cuttings given onK the solution
treatm.ents rooted not more than 50 percent.

As compared with our knowledge of soil disinfection prior to seeding, there
has been relatively little information available about the dismfection of rooting
media for cuttings. When a rooting medium, sand-peat, was disinfected by

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 19

steaming, by formaldehyde, or by vinegrr within 24 hours before the insertion of
winter cuttings, there was injury to arbor-vitae, red cedar, Hinoki cypress, yew,
and two species of Ilex. Similar treatment of the rooting medium with steam or
formaldehyde four days before the insertion of cuttings was also harmful or of no
benefit. Such treatments are apparently more tox'c to cuttings, even dormant
cuttings, than to some seeds and it is evident that there should be considerable
delay between the disinfection of a rooting medium and the planting of cuttings.
Cuttings of white pme, made of the previous year's growth, were taken in late
wnter. They rooted neither more nor less well in sand-peat previously used for
this purpose, or in sand-peat to which soil from under pine trees had been added,
than they did in new sand-peat, never before used, or in new sand-peat steam-
sterilized fifteen days previously. Fungi in the rooting medium are, it appears
from this, without effect on the rooting of cuttings of white pine. Cuttings from
difi^erent white pine trees differ in rooting capacity, and treatments which improve
the rooting of cuttings from some trees are without much or any effect on the
rooting cf cuttings from others. Rooting of cuttings from some trees was im-
proved by relatively short solution-immersion treatments in relatively concen-
trated indolebutyric acid or napthaleneacetic acid solutions, by powder-dip
treatments with Hormodins No. 2 and No. 3, and by combinations of solution-
immersion and powder-dip treatments.

Effect of Chromated Zinc Chloride on Plants. (L. H. Jones.) The scarcity of
lumber which is naturally decay-resistant has led to the use of a chemically treated
substitute. This has been successful in the case of telephone poles, railroad ties,
building supports, etc. However, when such chemically treated lumber was used
in the construction of benches in which plants are grown in the greenhouse, re-
sults have indicated that the wood preservative may be toxic to the plants, in-
stead of only to the fungi and bacteria which cause decay.

In tests made here, where chromated zinc chloride was used as the preservative,
injury to growing plants was very common and was most pronounced during the
warmer months and with the more acid soils.

Study of Diseases of Plants Caused by Soil-Infesting Organisms, with Par-
ticular Attention to Control Measures. (W. L. Doran.) Seed treatment with a
mixture of oxyquinoline sulfate and talc (1:1) markedly improved stands, but
seed treatment with a mixture of potassium dichromate and graphite (1:1) gave
even better results; as good results, in fact, as did Semesan, Spergon, or red copper
oxide with cucumber, cress, beet, tomato, and chicory. Only with pea did Sper-
gon give better results than potassium dichromate. With tobacco, red copper
oxide as a seed treatment gave the best results, Spergon the poorest; but none
of the seed treatments gave as good results as did formaldehyde treatment of soil.

Sodium nitrite, 1.5 to 3.0 gm. per square foot, applied to soil immediately after
seeding, was injurious to crucifers and to pea, not to cucumber, beet, and chard,
and it markedly increased the number of plants which lived. Lacking anything
better, it could be used as a soil fungicide with some plants, but it did not give
so good results as did much lighter applications of potassium dichromate.

Chromates and dichromates of potassium, ammonium, and sodium, applied
in solution to soil immediately after seeding, were found to be highly effective soil
fungicides, as effective as formaldehyde even in light applications. And, if prop-
erly used, they were quite safe as regards effects on germination and growth of
seedlings, except with cabbage and other crucifers. Potassium dichromate, 0.4
or 0.45 gm. per square foot (about 43 pounds per acre), was usually enough for
protection and great improvement in the stands of seedlings whether the pH value
of the soil was 5.6 or 7.1; but the treatment was safer and less likely to retard

20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

growth in the acid than in the slightly alkaline soil. Dichromates usually gave
somewhat more complete protection and, if used in unnecessarily heavy applica-
tions, retarded growth of seedlings more than did the chromates. But if applied
at the time of seeding and at the rate of not more than 0.45. gm. per square foot,
the chromates and dichromates of potassium, sodium, and ammonium were
without ill effect on cucumber, beet, chard, pea, and bean; and the chromates of
potassium and ammonium, especially the latter, gave very good results. Potas-
sium dichromate was most effective and safe when applied to soil immediately
after seeding. Applied 24 hours later, it retarded germination of seeds of some
species. It gave satisfactory control when applied to soil two weeks before seed-
ing but was less effective when applied more than three weeks before seeding.
Chromate and dichromate of potassium, as used, gave more complete protection
than did the corresponding salts of sodium. Chromic acid gave superior results
only with beet; and the chloride, nitrate, and sulfate of chromium were almost
completely ineffective.

Cresol, in as light an application as L5 cc. per square foot, immediately after
seeding, gave good control, almost as good as did formaldehyde.

A very light application of formaldehyde (4.9 cc. or one teaspoonful per gallon
of water) was most effective when applied to soil immediately after seeding, de-
cidedly less effective when applied more than 24 hours after seeding. Growth of
beet, cucumber, and lettuce was improved by applications made not more than
8 hours after seeding, but seedlings of pea were injured when the first application
was made 24 hours after seeding.

When nutrients in the form of potassium nitrate and precipitated bone or
Ammo-Phos were added to a solution of formaldehyde and applied to soil at the
time of seeding, the fungicidal action of the formaldehyde was unimpaired. But
in a good sandy loam, the growth of seedlings of pepper, eggplant, beet, and cu-
cumber was improved as much by formaldehj'de alone as by formaldehyde plus
the nutrients.

Starter solutions applied to the soil around tomato plants as they are set in the
field cannot, w'thout danger of chemical injury to the plants, carry enough for-
maldehyde to be effective against soil fungi.

Lacking chemicals, seeds of some kinds, not all, may well be sown on a layer of
sphagnum, overlying soil. Damping-off was well controlled in this way, although
not so completely as by formaldehyde treatment of soil. Sphagnum so used gave
good results with lettuce, cabbage, and cress, the two latter being especially
susceptible to injury by formaldehyde; but sphagnum did not give good results
as regards either stands or growth of the solanaceous plants, pepper, eggplant,
and tobacco.

Chemical Soil Surface Treatments in Hotbeds for Controlling Damping-off
of Early Forcing Vegetables. (W. L. Doran, E. F. Guba, and C. J. Gilgut.)
This study w^as completed with the publication of Bulletin 394.

In some additional tests, certain newer chemical materials offered as seed pro-
tectants, notably Spergon, Thiosan, yellow cuprous oxide, and tri-basic copper
sulfate, showed in many instances value equal to or surpassing Semesan, red Cu-
prous oxide, and zinc oxide on a wide variety of flower and vegetable seeds.

Control of Greenhouse Vegetable Diseases. (E. F. Guba, Waltham.) The
various types of tomatoes studied for their reaction to Alternaria early blight
were also tested for their susceptibility to Cladosporium leaf mold. Among them
seven types were found showing a very slight degree of susceptibility indicated by
sparse, yellowish areas without sporulation, molding, or necrosis, and one type
showing none of these symptoms and from all appearances immune. In addition.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 21

all six selections of Lycopersicon peruvianum (L.) Mill, showed a similar type of
immunity. Bulletin 393 embodies the progress and results of several years' work
in the development of resistance in tomatoes to Cladosporium. The Bay State
variety is showing susceptibility to the new strain of Cladosporium in an increas-
ing number of greenhouses. Nevertheless, many growers have accepted the new
variety as a choice forcing tomato. Now that resistance to the new or Bay State
strain of Cladosporium has been found, it is being utilized in an effort to combine
resistance with desirable commercial type.

Resistance to Tomato Alternaria Early Blight. (E. F. Guba and R. E. Young,
Waltham.) Seed of some 37 elementary types of tomatoes offered as possessing
significant resistance to Alternaria solani (E. & M.) Jones & Grout were secured
for trials at Waltham. These tests were purely exploratory, and if suitable re-
sistance appeared, it was the intention to utilize it for breeding purposes in the
development of a blight-resistant tomato. Since a large volume of copper fungi-
cides is employed in the control of tomato early blight, this stud}- would appear
to represent a worthy contribution to the war effort.

Weather conditions were ideal for the development of early blight, but in spite
of repeated artificial inoculations the disease rather consistently became epi-
demic only in correlation with a heavy load of fruit and maturity of the fruit.
Thus many types remained relatively free of the disease until late m the season
and then showed it in severe proportions. The largest and heaviest fruited and
earliest maturing types consistently showed a high degree of susceptibility, and
only nine types showed resistance.

Interrelation of Wettable Sulfur, Lead Arsenate, and Lime in Apple Spraying.

(Departments of Botany, Chemistry, Entomology, and Pomology cooperating.)
This project is intended to add to our knowledge of insect and disease control and
to assist in making improvements in the apple spraying schedule. On this basis
special consideration was given to tenacity of sulfur, scab control, spray injury,
and insect control.

Disease Resistance and Heredity of Carnations. (E. F. Guba cooperating
with H. E. White, Waltham.) Eighteen varieties of carnations were scrutinized
for their susceptibility to various important fungus diseases. As was to be ex-
pected, in view of the wide host range of Rhizoctonia solani, no resistance to this
fungus was found.

Twenty-two varieties were studied for their reaction to Alternaria dianthi
(blight). Virginia, New Deal Ward, Minna Brenner, and Hazel Draper
showed a moderate to high degree of susceptibility, but not until long after the
benching season. The disease has become increasingly insignificant in recent
years.

A high degree of susceptibility to Uromyces rust was shown by Woburn, Oli-
vette, New Deal Ward, Hazel Draper, Paragon, Pink Treasure, Johnson's Crim-
son, Spectrum Supreme and King Cardinal.

Tests with the branch rot organism, Fusarium dianthi, and the root rot or-
ganisms, F. avenaceum and F. culmoriim, yielded no results.

Effect of Soil Temperature on Timothy (Phleum pratense L.). (L. H. Jones.)
Seedling plants of timothy were transplanted to containers of soil at a high level
of fertility. The plants were allowed to establish themselves at a soil temperature
of 65° F., after which the apparatus was adjusted to a range of soil temperatures
from 50° to 90° at 10-degree intervals. Tiller counts at 50 days showed that soil
temperature affected stooling, the number being greater at 70° and tapering off
to the extremes of 50° and 90°. At 50° there was a marked tendency for the shoots
to be prostrate in habit. This prostrate habit was also noted in a cool greenhouse

22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

with brome grass {Bromiis inermis Leyss.), meadow fescue (Festuca elatior L.),
perennial rye grass {Lolium perenne L.), and timothy (Phleum pratense L.).

The number of tillers was closely associated with the height of the plants, those
at 70°F. being the tallest at 50 days. Foliage and stem color were affected by sol
temperature. The plants at 50° were a dark green, and those at 60° were inter-
mediate between the dark green at 50° and the light green at 70° and above.

There were enough replications so that half the containers were available for
shifting of temperatures, the remaining half being kept at the same temperature
as at the start of the test. The shifted temperatures were 20 degrees higher or
lower than the original temperatures. By this means it was possible to corrob-
orate the earlier conclusions made at the 50-day period. Plants which had been
at 50° F. and were dark green, prostrate in habit, short, and with few tillers, re-
sponded soon to the 70° soil temperature by assuming the characteristics of the
check at 70°. On the other hand, the plants at 70°, when shifted to 50°, became
prostrate in habit, dark green in color, and stopped growing. At temperatures
of 80° and 90°, the check plants and those shifted from 60° and 70° were not in a
healthy state of activity; but the unhealthy plants shifted from 90° to 70° and
from 80° to 60° resumed the healthy appearance of the check plants for these
temperatures.

In the final stages, the plants at 90° F. soil temperature were very poor. Sev-
eral had died and the remainder were stunted and dark green in color. The
plants at 50° and 60° had the most and tallest spikes, but the foliage at the base
was sparse. The plants at 70° had thick foliage at the base indicating continued
vegetative activity. These plants also had the greatest dry weight. It also
appears that soil temperatures lower than 70° give greater dry weights than those
above 70°. Since careful attention was given to supplying water, the experiment
indicates that soil temperature is the governing factor, and not drought, which
is frequently associated with long hot spells of weather.

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
Walter S. Ritchie in Charge

Chemical Investigations of the Onion. (Emmett Bennett.) The preliminary
work on the characterization of the soluble carbohydrates of the Ebenezer onion
as reported last year has been extended. The titration of the hydrolyzed sugars
with standard iodine and alkali and the determination of the fructose both indi-
cate that the total sugars are approximately two-thirds d-fructose. Syrups of
the total hydroh zed sugars yielded crystals with a specific rotation of [-41°Jd,
which is of the order expected for a mixture of d-glucose and d-fructose in the
ratio of 1 to 2.

By removal of the reducing sugars, a preparation was obtained having a
specific rotation of about [+48°Jd, and after inversion about L-17°Jd. This,
together with the large negative enhancement noted on solutions after inversion,
is a strong indication that the chief non-reducing sugar is sucrose.

The present work is concerned with metabolic changes which occur in the cell
during growth. Samples were taken at intervals during the growing season. At
mid-season onions were collected and divided into equal groups, some of which
were placed in total darkness for different periods of time. The many forms of
nitrogen have been determined as well as the sulfur compounds, organic acids,
and carboyhdrates.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 23

Some of the chemical changes during normal growth are as follows: Total
nitrogen and organic acids decreased as the season progressed; soluble nitrogen
and total sugars increased. The increase in total sugars continued until the
middle of the season. Up to that time the trend was the same for both reducing
and non-reducing sugars; thereafter the main change appeared to be the formation
of non-reducing sugars.

The results of the culture work in complete darkness are almost completely
opposite those of the control. In darkness the content of solids, total nitrogen,
water soluble nitrogen, organic acids, and carbohydrates decreased gradually.

The Hemicelluloses of Forage Plants. (Emmett Bennett.) Previous work at
this station has indicated that a considerable difference exists in the content of
moisture of forage grasses. An investigation of the polyuronide hemicelluloses of
two species, sheep's fescue {Festuca ovina) and sweet vernal (Anthoxanthum
odoratum) which represent grasses of low and high moisture content respectively,
indicated that this difference may be due chiefly' to this group of substances. The
greater content of total hemicelluloses was found in the low-moisture grass, and
the nature of these groups in the two species was quite different.

The hemicelluloses of each species, when hydrolyzed, yielded mainly a uronic
acid, 1-arabinose and d-xylose in the approximate molar ratio of 1:0.2:15.7 in
sheep's fescue and 1:2.9:9.3 in sweet vernal. A preliminary examination of the
viscosity of the hemicelluloses indicated that those from sweet vernal grass when
dispersed in water produced not only the more viscous system, but also the more
stable system. Those from the sheep's fescue for the same period and under the
same conditions were almost completely flocculated. It would appear, there-
fore, that the degree of hydration of the two products differs considerably, and
that the species containing the more highly hydrated product has the greater
original moisture content and contains the larger percentage of 1-arabinose,

Lignin and Its Relation to Absorption of Minerals by Plants. (Emmett Bennett.)
Special attention has centered around the mobilizing power of isolated lignin as
a representative of the residual organic matter in the soil. While it is known that
organic matter may absorb free ions in the soil, its role as a mobilizer of ions is
not so well established. To determine the possibilities of lignin in this capacity,
a container was devised which would hold both the inorganic material (calcite)
and the suspension of lignin in contact with each other and allow the suspension
to be agitated \\ith a power driven stirrer, to renew the contact, without disturb-
ing the calcite. The lignin was freed from mineral acids by electrodialysis. The
extent of mobilization could be noted from time to time by the losses in the
weight of calcite. Calculations based upon such a procedure indicated that
mobilization did take place over a period of several months in amounts equivalent
to a base exchange capacity of about 175 milli-equivalents per 100 grams of lignin.
This phenomenon indicates that the residual organic matter as such may mobilize
ions from insoluble compounds. A practical application may be in the form of
contact depletion.

On the assumption that the high base exchange values of soil organic matter
are due to previous oxidations, samples of lignin were oxidized by iodine. Iodoform
was obtained as one by-product. The oxidation value amounted to 175 ml. of
N, 10 iodine per gram of lignin. Base exchange values of the oxidized lignin were
about 35 percent higher than those of the control.

Attempts were made to determine the nature of the functional groups most
active in base exchange activity by blocking the aromatic hydroxyl group with
acetyl groups. This, while not wholly satisfactory, indicated that the hydroxyl
groups were chiefly responsible.

24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Chemical Changes in Cooking Quality of Vegetables. (Monroe E. Freeman.)
A quantitative method for measuring the texture of baked potato tissue by esti-
mating the pore space of dried slices was found to be satisfactory. The method
was applied to the study of texture changes in tubers during winter storage.
Samples stored at 35° and 50° F. for 76 days, 130 days, and 161 days were baked
and the texture was measured or estimated by three methods. Center rot and
"blackening" appeared in so many tubers that conclusive results were not ob-
tained. From the sound samples available, however, there seemed to be very
little change in specific gravity during the storage period. A visual scoring method
indicated that the cooking quality, i.e., texture, was lower in tubers stored for
longer periods and at the lower temperature. Toluene index of the tubers indi-
cated a small decrease in baking quality with time of storage at the higher temp-
erature, but because the samples were incomplete these results cannot be assessed
with any certainity.

Physico-Chemical Properties of Starches. (Monroe E. Freeman.) The
anomolous heat capacities of starch-water systems reported in 1941 were care-
fully studied and applied to dextrin-water systems and to sand and water. The
data allowed a clear explanation of the phenomenon and its relation to the bound
water in lyophillic colloids and indicated the existence of a general phenomenon
of lyophillic systems that hitherto has not been clearly recognized.

The Influence of Base Exchange Capacity and of Exchangeable Ions in Massa-
chusetts Soils on the Availability of Potassium. (Dale H. Sieling.) Pot cultures
of synthetic soil for plant growth were prepared by mixing quantities of a typical
tobacco soil, the Agawam fine sandy loam, with electrodialyzed bentonite which
had been adjusted to fixed calcium levels with calcium hydroxide. These cultures
were all of the same reaction and varied considerably in their base exchange ca-
pacity. Four levels of base exchange capacity, 7.1, 12.0, 17.0, and 22.0 milli-
equivalents per 100 grams, were established. At each base exchange capacity
level the soils were fertilized with four different quantities of potassium and with
a fixed quantity of both phosphorus and nitrogen. Nitrogen was also added at
various times during the growth of the plants. Each culture was prepared in
duplicate and contained 7000 grams of synthetic soil. Tobacco, Havana Seed
211, was used to test growth response and nutrient uptake. One plant was grown
in each culture and the soils were watered with distilled water whenever the rain-
fall was inadequate.

Luxuriant growth was obtained in all cultures and there were no apparent
nutrient deficiencies or e.xcesses. Growth, as indicated by the dry weight of the
plants, was increased very little by addition of gypsum. The cultures having an
exchange capac't}' of 17.0 m<lli-equivalents gave plants of the highest average
weight. There was a tendency for the dry weight of plants to increase as the
quantity of potassium increased at each exchange capacity level.

The Fixation of Arsenic in Soils and the Influence of Arsenic Compounds on
the Liberation of Fixed Phosphate. (Dale H. Sieling.) Ver\' marked differences
in sorption, of phosphate and arsenate were observed when ballmilled Kaolin
was used as the sorption substance. When 1-gram samples of ballmilled Kaolin
were shaken for two days with increasing quantities of sodium arsenate at pH
3.0 in 10 ml. of solution, there was a linear increase in the arsenate sorption up
to about 13.0 milli-equivalents per gram for a solution having 42.5 milli-equiva-
lents. At higher concentrations there was a sharp increase in the amount of
arsenate sorbed followed b>- progressively smaller increases in the pattern of a
typical adsorption. When 1-gram samples of Kaolin were shaken for seven days
with solutions of the same concentrations, instead of for two days, the sorption

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 25

followed an entirely different pattern. As the concentration increased, the sorp-
tion followed a smooth curve until 12.3 milli-equivalents per gram were sorbed
from a solution containing 40.0 milli-equivalents. As the concentration increased
above this point, there was a marked decrease in the sorption of the arsenate
and also a considerable increase in the volume of Kaolin (from 1.7 ml. to 5.0 ml.
per gram). The amount of arsenate sorbed remamed constant at 10.8 milli-
equivalents per gram between the concentrations of 40 and 50 milli-equivalents
per 10 ml. of solution and then increased rapidly in a true adsorption pattern up
to 24.1 milli-equivalents for a solution containing 80 milli-equivalents of arsenate
ion. It seems likely that both arsenate and water are sorbed by the Kaolin and
at the critical concentration of 40 to 50 milli-equivalents per gram, the water Is
sorbed more, thus causing the tremendous increase in volume of clay and making
it appear as though arsenate were not being adsorbed when one uses the solution
concentration as an index of the sorption.

The same type of experiment was made with phosphate solutions and a typical
adsorption curve was obtained for this ion. No apparent increase in volume was
noticed at any concentration of phosphate and the maximum sorption was found
to be about 12.4 milli-equivalents of phosphate per gram of Kaolin. This ion
apparently does not have the marked hydrating effect exhibited by the arsenate
ion, although it is sorbed in considerable quantity.

The Effect of Orchard Mulches on the Plant Nutrient Elements in the Soil.

(Dale H. Sieling and J. K. Shaw.) Three test plots were established in the sum-
mer of 1941 to determine whether mulching with hay and glass wool had any
effect on the mobilization of the plant nutrient elements of orchard soils. One
plot received a two-inch mulch of Fiberglass wool, the second received a liberal
application of meadow hay, and the third was surface-cultivated to prevent the
growth of weeds. One year after the initiation of the experiment soil samples
were obtained from four depths in each of the test plots and analyzed for ex-
changeable bases and available phosphorus. No material change had taken
place in the plant food content of the soils at any depth after one year of the
treatments. These results were to be expected since there had been very little
decomposition of the hay mulch. More hay has been added to the plots which
are to receive hay mulch and samples wall be taken for analysis from all of the
plots again next year.

CONTROL SERVICES
P. H. Smith in Charge

The fertilizer, feed, seed, and dairy laws are administered as one service and
the operations of each of these, with the exception of the dairy law, are completely
reported in annual bulletins issued for that purpose.

Besides the regular control activities the laboratory, through its staff, coop-
erates liberally' on numerous research projects active in other departments and
also performs many analytical and testing services for State institutions and for
private citizens who, because of the nature of their problems, deserve this con-
sideration.

Under the dairy law 5,984 pieces of Babcock glassware were tested and 107
Certificates of Proficiency were issued during the year ending December 1, 1942.

The enlarged emphasis on the vitamin values of all feeds, and commercial
feeds in particular, and the increased interest in the manganese content of poultry
mashes and in the protein quality of meat and fish products used for feed demands

26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

continual expansion of the analytical service in those fields and, in an attempt
to define these values, several special circulars were published during the year
in order that the feeder might extend intelligent and deserved consideration to
these recently recognized beneficial factors in feed products.

THE CRANBERRY STATION

East Wareham, Massachusetts — H. J. Franklin in Charge

The season's cranberry crop was the second largest in the history of the in-
dustry, both in Massachusetts and in the United States. There was rather more
rot among the berries as they came from the field in this State than has been
evident in any other year, and the abnormal decay showed a marked tendency to
continue in storage. Fortunately, a lively demand for the berries throughout the
selling season, both for commercial canning and as fresh fruit, moved the crop
promptly.

Injurious and Beneficial Insects Affecting the Cranberry. (H. J. Franklin.)
Hill Fireworm {Tlascala finitella (Walker)). Moths of this species emerged in
confinement very late in May and were caged with cranberry branches on May
30. On June 13 many small caterpillars were found to have hatched from eggs
that had been laid during the interval. Some of these were as much as a twelfth
of an inch long and had done considerable feeding, so they may have been three
day's old, indicating that the eggs hatch about ten days after they are laid. Some
unhatched eggs were found, most of them on the stems of th-e new cranberry
growth. They were oval in outline, much flattened against their support, and
about a fortieth of an inch long. The young worms had blackish heads and very
faintly striped reddish brown bodies.

The Burrage bog, infested with this insect last year, was examined on June 16.
The worms there had channeled some of the cranberry stems toward and to the
tips causing them to drop over. Occasional worms, already showing their strip-
ing were sewed up in the cranberry tips like black-headed fireworms, but with
more frass around them. The infestation on this bog was again quite serious.

Spotted Fireworm (Cacoecia parallela (Rob.)). This pest broke out severely on
about nine acres of bog in Marion, Mass., early in June. Most of the worms
matured by July 8, but some remained till after July 16 when the moths had
begun to fly. The infestation was well controlled by dusting with 30 pounds of
cryolite to an ace on June 25.

Nine species of parasites were reared from this pest, the most prevalent being
Itoplectis conquisitor (Say), of the order Hymenoptera, family Ichneumonidae;
and Nemorilla floralis (Fallen), of the order Diptera, family Exoristidae. All the
others belonged to the order Hymenoptera, four being Ichneumonidae and three
Chalc'doidea.

The spotted fireworms fed on the following weeds on and around the infested
bog: chain fern, sensitive fern, marsh shield fern, common brake, flowering fern,
saw brier, hardback, chokeberry, coarse bramble, winterberry, marsh St.-John's-
wort, sweet pepperbush, swamp blueberry, sheep laurel, loosestrife, and asters.
Loosestrife and Inarsh St.-John's-wort were evidently favorite food plants of the
insect. They were very abundant on the bog and may have largely induced the
infestation.

Some pupae of the spotted fireworm squirm vigorously when disturbed, but
they are more often inactive. Each of the abdominal segments of the pupa,
except those toward the posterior end, has two ridges across the upper surface

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 27

with the surface between them very smooth, each ridge bearing a single row of
many short, sharp, tooth-like spines pointing obliquely backward.

White Grub (Phyllophaga). Young grubs, evidently hatched in June, were
found rather abundant in a small area on the station bog on July 13, 1942. They
were quite active and all within an inch or two of the soil surface, most of them
within an inch of it.

Cranberry Spittle Insect (Clastoptera). The young nymphs in their spittle were
found as early as June 2. Flooding a bog for 24 hours as soon as an occasional
flower had opened wiped out a heavy infestation completely without harm to
the vines or crop. This seems to be an excellent treatment.

Cranberry Root Grub (Amphicoma). Half of the station bog was treated with
seven ounces of sodium cyanide in 100 gallons of water, a gallon to a square foot,
late in April and ver}' early in May. The treatment was very successful and did
not reduce the crop. It hurt the vines only on a few small areas. Flood water
drained from this bog eight days after the application had no poisonous effect.

Army worms (Leucania) attacked freely several bogs that had been flooded
from mid-May to mid-Juh to control the root grub.

Grape Anomala (Anomala lucicola Fab., formerly reported as Anomala errans).
Five acres of seriously infested bog, located in the Wenham section of Carver
and not heretofore known to be affected by this grub, were treated very success-
fully with sodium cyanide solution.

Cranberry Tolerance of Certain Materiah. Long experience has found cran-
berry vines ver>- intolerant of sulfur but very tolerant of kerosene and fairly so
of copper.

Cryolite, four tons to an acre, was applied to small areas of the station bog on
June 20, 1941. Injury- from this was \er\' slow in developing but had become
severe by July 1942.

A mixture of 4 pounds of calomel and 96 pounds of talc, 100 pounds to an acre,
was dusted onto plots of Howes vines on July 1, 1941, with the vines then ap-
proaching full bloom. The set of fruit and size of berries were not much affected,
the crop turning out to be about as abundant as on the bog around the plots;
but the treatment greatly delated the ripening of the berries and they finally
failed to de\elop a good red color. The berries were picked toward the end of
September and were examined chemically and spectroscopically for mercury, but
none was found. The vines on these plots were not quite so green in the fall of

1941 as those on the bog around them, and a rather noticeable number of scat-
tered branches died. The treated areas had a normal appearance during the

1942 growing season, but they bore only about a third as much fruit as areas of
the same size around them.

Prevalence of Cranberry Insects in 1942.

1. Bumblebees and honeybees were abundant everywhere on Massachusetts
bogs during the cranberry flowering.

2. Infestation by Gypsy Moth (Portketria) was light in Ph mouth County
and moderate on most of the outer Cape.

3. Cranberry fruit worm (Mineola) was about normally abundant, more so
than in 1941.

4. Black-headed fireworm was normally abundant, more so than in 1941.

5. Firebeetle {Cryptocephalus) , almost none.

6. Yellow-headed fireworm (Peronea) was more troublesome than usual in
recent vears.

28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

7. Spotted fireworm was generally more abundant than for many years.

8. Lady beetles were unusually' prevalent.

9. False armyworm (Xylena) was very prevalent, about as in 1941.

10. Blossom worm {Epiglaea) was much less than normally abundant.

11. Spanworms were about as usual.

12. Cranberry girdler (Crambus) was more harmful than normal.

13. Cranberry- weevil (Anthonomiis) was about as in other recent years.

14. Cranberry spittle insect and tipworm were fully as troublesome as usual.

Control of Cranberry Bog Weeds. (Chester E. Cross.) In all, 155 plots were
used during the season to test the value of various herbicides. The more inter-
esting results follow:

Kainit. This potash fertilizer has been advocated as an herbicide for poison
ivy and has been used extensively in Europe to destroy charlock and wild mustard
in plantings of spring cereals. Results with 56 plots to test its value as a cran-
berry bog herbicide were not encouraging. No injury to either cranberry vines
or weeds followed its use in amounts up to 1000 pounds an acre when the foliage
was dry; and enough to burn weeds like poison ivy, loosestrife, beggar-ticks,
horsetail, or asters with their foliage wet damaged cranberry vines also.

Zotox is widely advertised as a selective weed killer for eradicating crab grass
and various broad-leaved perennials from lawns and fairways. Different amounts
of solution of this chemical in various concentrations were tried on 46 plots against
some of the more common bog weeds. It proved to be valueless as a bog herbicide,
not being effective even on crab grass unless enough was used to injure cranberry
vines badly.

Ferrous Sulfate. A solution of this chemical, a pound to a gallon of water, 400
gallons to an acre, was ver\' effective on low cudweed, with little injury to cran-
berry vines. This weed is often a serious pest on new plantings and on bogs where
grubs have caused areas to be bare of vines.

Kerosene. About 20 plots, on a bog flowed for root grubs till July 15, were
treated with kerosene between August 2 and 12. A thick mat of crab grass was
almost completely destroyed with 200-300 gallons an acre. The same amount
killed barnyard grass, spreading witchgrass, and warty panic grass very eff'ec-
tively. Little harm was done to the relatively tender cranberry vines, most of
this injury being on plots treated during the middle of the day or when the vines
were wet. The time of day the treatments were made did not affect the killing
of the weeds.

Amnwmum Siilfamate. Results of dry applications of this new chemical on
cranberry bogs have been reported heretofore. ^ This year it was tried in solu-
tion as a spray and gave some promise of being a useful herbicide for poison ivy,
loosestrife, chokeberry, feather and sensitive ferns, and asters, when used at a
rate of not more than one pound in eight gallons of water. Stronger solutions,
unless applied in small amount and with great care, were usually very harmful to
cranberry vines. Not enough work has been done with this chemical to justify
conclusions. It is peculiar that, when cranberry vines have been injured by its
use, new growth is slow to develop and its leaves are discolo.ed and undersized,
this perhaps indicating that the injury is greater than appears. Partly grown
cranberries sprayed with ammonium sulfamate solutions reddened noticeably in
a few days without showing other definite s'gns of injury.

iMass. Agr. Expt. Sta. Bui. 378:47, 1941.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 29

Herbarium. A collection of 140 species of the more common bog weeds has
been assembled at the Cranberry Station. It will be useful in identifying weeds
for cranberry- growers.

Blueberries. (H. J. Franklin.) Only 163 quarts of berries were gathered from
the station's cultivated patch in 1942. This small crop is explained by the severe
freeze that occurred the night of January 10-11 when the temperature at East
VVareham fell to 24° F. below zero, probably the lowest at this place in the last
55 years. The interior of all the fruit buds in the blueberry patch became more
or less blackened within a day or two. The subsequent fruiting of the different
varieties showed that they varied greatly in their tolerance of the cold:

Adams, Cabot, June, Jersey, and Stanley bore no berries.

Katherine, Pioneer, Rubel, and Wareham produced less than half a crop.

Concord bore half to two-thirds of a crop.

Harding and No. 73 (Station culture number) were reduced only moderately
from a full crop. This shows cleerly the hardiness of the Harding variety and
adds to other great values of No. 73 (a Harding-Rubel cross).

Twenty of twenty-six seedlings of a Harding-Rubel cross dev^eloped most of
their crop, while 44 of the 59 full-grown miscellaneous plants failed to yield any
fruit.

It was finally estimated that the crop of the station blueberry patch,'as a whole,
was reduced 80 percent by the freeze. However, the blueberry bushes were little
injured anywhere by this cold, only the fruit buds and tender tips being hurt,
thus evidencing the fact that they approach the wild blueberry in winter hardi-

DEPARTMENT OF DAIRY INDUSTRY
J. H. Frandsen in Charge

Studies on Chocolate-Flavored Milk. (\V. S. Mueller.) The popularity of
chocolate-flavored milk has grown greatly in recent years. Whether the addition
of the chocolate flavoring enhances or decreases the nutritive value of the milk
is a question which has been the subject of much investigation but has not yet
been completely answered. The following progress in answering this question
has been made.

1. The Effect of Cocoa Upon the Utilization of the Calcium and Phosphorus
of Milk. (W. S. Mueller, with the cooperation of M. R. Cooney of Home Eco-
nomics Nutrition.) The presence in cocoa of considerable quantities of oxalic
acid suggested the possibility of interference with the utilization of the calcium
of the milk or the diet, similar to that observed with spinach, beet greens, and
other oxalic acid-rich vegetables. It also seemed advisable to determine whether
or not cocoa interfered with the absorption of phosphorus, since milk contains a
liberal amount of this important element, which is nutritionally closely associated
with calcium. The results from an experiment in which 63 albino rats were used
showed that the growth of the rats and their utilization of the calcium and phos-
phorus of milk were affected adversely by cocoa. It would seem, therefore, that
the indiscriminate and excessive use of chocolate-flavored foods, especially in a diet
low in calcium, should not be recommended.

2. Effect of Cocoa on the Vitamin C Content of Milk. (W. S. Mueller.) The
addition of cocoa to milk hastened the destruction of vitamin C. This corrobor-
ates the results obtained in a preliminary stud>\

30 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

3. Vitamin K Content of Cocoa and Dairy Products. (W. S. Mueller.) It
has been observed in the study on the availability of the iron of cocoa that the
blood clotting time was shortened when the rats were fed cocoa. This observa-
tion led to an investigation of the vitamin K content of cocoa and dairy products.
Of the various dairy and cocoa products fed, only cultured buttermilk and cocoa
shell had any great effect on blood clotting time. These results indicate that the
decrease in blood clotting time, which had been observed for rats receiving cocoa,
is not directly tied up with vitamin K.

4. The Tannic Substances of Commercial Cocoa Powders and the Determination
of Cacao Purple. (W. S. Mueller, with the cooperation of J. W. Kuzmeski.)
Commercial cocoa powders have been analyzed for cacao purple by Ulrich's
method. The average for 6 Dutch processed samples was 8.44 percent and for
9 unprocessed samples, 12.72 percent. The total ash of the ferric chloride pre-
cipitate varied from 11.48 to 18.24 percent. The ash of the precipitate consisted
mainly of iron and phosphorus, present either as separate oxides or in combina-
tion as ferric phosphate. In general, Ulrich's method for the determination of
cacao purple in cocoa products apparently leaves much to be desired. However,
the results from this study indicate that the ferric chloride precipitate would
measure the cacao purple content more nearly accurately if the washing procedure
were modified and a correction made for the ash contained.

Improving the Flavor and Keeping Properties of Milk and Some of its Products.

(W. S. Mueller.) Further work is being dene on evaluating various substances
as antioxidants for butterfat. At the outset of this study, the peroxide test was
used in conjunction with the organoleptic tests for determining the effectiveness
of the various antioxidants. As the work progressed, it became apparent that
the peroxide test was not reliable for replacing organoleptic tests. A new chemical
test (Chlorophyll Value Test by M. R. Coe, Eastern Regional Research Labora-
tory, Philadelphia) is being used for butterfat and seems to correspond more
closely to organoleptic rancidity than the peroxide test. Today it is more impor-
tant than ever before that we know how to prevent spoilage of butterfat because
the product is being transported and stored under adverse conditions.

A Study of Vanilla Sugars for Flavoring Ice Cream. (W. S. Mueller.) The high
price of grain alcohol is discouraging the use of ordinary vanilla extract for flavor-
ing ice cream. Vanilla sugars appear to be a desirable substitute and their ad-
vantages and limitations for use in ice cream are being studied. Sixteen samples,
including true, imitation, and mixtures of true and imitation, are being analyzed
and used to flavor ice cream. In general, the vanilla sugars were found to be of
excellent quality and appeared to be suitable for the purpose, and tests with
consumers indicated that it was difificult to distinguish between the true vanilla
and the imitation product.

An Explanation of the Increased Efficiency of Gelatin in Ice Cream Mix Whe n
Initially Aged at 68°F. (W. S. Mueller.) Results obtained in this study indicate
that the initial aging temperature of 68°F. produced a more closely knit gel
structure, which has many more inter-connected filaments than a structure
produced by aging at the low temperature only. The more numerous gel fila-
ments are effective in obstructing the formation of large ice crystals. This ap-
pears to be the most plausible explanation for the smoother texture of gelatin in
ice cream when initially aged at 68°F. In view of the present national emergency,
it seemsjparticularly timely to emphasize the more effective use of gelatin.

Iodoform Taste in Milk. (H. G. Lindquist.) In a study made on off-flavors
in milk, iodoform flavor was detected in a few samples. Investigation showed

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 31

that it Avas traceable to treatment of cows for retained afterbirth by the intro-
duction of oil suspension of boric acid and iodoform into the uterus. One cow so
treated secreted enough iodoform in her milk one week after treatment to con-
taminate 200 gallons of mixed pasteurized milk from the herd.

New Stabilizing Materials for Ice Cream. (A. M. Shipley, M. J. Mack, and
J. H. Frandsen.) New stabilizers are constantly appearing on the market and
arousing considerable interest because of the uncertainty of the supply of some
of the commonly used stabilizers. Algatex, Kragel, Kremtex, and laboratory
mixtures of monoglyceride and gelatin and of monoglyceride and Dariloid were
compared with gelatin (190 Bloom) and Dariloid as controls, for their effect on
ice cream mix and on finished ice cream. The results ma}' be summed up briefly
as follows:

1. With the exception of Kremtex, all the stabilizers studied were completely
soluble at a temperature of 165°F.

2. Dariloid, Dariloid-monoglyceride, and Kragel were basic in reaction;
gelatin, gelatin-monoghceride, Algatex, and Kremtex were acid.

3. After aging 48 hours, the Algatex mix showed the greatest viscosity; the
Dariloid-monoglyceride and Kragel mixes were next; and the gelatin, gelatin-
monoglyceride, and Kremtex mixes showed the least.

4. None of the stabilizers affected the titratable acidity of the mix to any
marked degree.

5. All except Dariloid, which had the least coagulating effect, affected the
protein stability of the mix about the same.

6. All the mixes had about the same whipping rate, with no increase from
the use of the particular monoglyceride used in these trials.

7. None of the stabilizers affected the flavor of the ice cream adversely.

8. Ice cream containing gelatin, Dariloid, Algatex, and Kragel had a satis-
factory body and texture, but Kremtex seemed at times to produce a body that
was slightly weak. The monoglyceride tended to make the ice cream firmer and
drier and produced a crumbh body.

9. A smooth-melting ice cream was produced by all the stabilizers except
Kremtex, which in some instances produced an ice cream that wheyed off slightly
upon melting.

10. More than the usual amount of shrinkage occurred during storage when
Kremtex and the monoglyceride mixtures were used.

Bulk Versus Packaged Ice Cream. (J. H. Frandsen and A. M. Shipley.) There
is as yet no general agreement as to whether ice cream is better marketed in bulk
or in packaged form. For reasons of sanitation ?nd convenience, there is a dis-
tinct trend towards the marketing of foods in packages, and most of the arguments
that apply to other foods are applicable also to ice cream. The results of this
study thus far may be summed up as follows:

The amount of shrinkage incurred in the packaging of bulk ice cream is gov-
erned to a considerable extent by the serving technique and increases as the over-
run of the ice cream increases. A 35 to 40 percent loss in volume results from bulk
packaging as compared with packaging direct from the freezer.

Freezer-packaging produces an ice cream very definitely superior in body and
texture to that packaged as bulk because it reduces temperature changes, does
away with the forced pressure on the ice cream resultant from hand-packaging
and permits the packaging of ice cream in a desirable semi-soft condition. Ma-
chine-packaged ice cream can be held at a lower temperature than bulk ice cream
and, therefore, keeps in better condition after it is sold to the consumer.

32 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Factors Affecting the Sweetness Perception in Ice Cream. (J. H. Nair III
and M. J. Mack.) A study was made of the percentage of butterfat, the source
of butterfat, the ratio of fat to serum solids, the pH of the mix, the effects of salts
present, the types of vanilla used, and the serving temperature of the ice cream
and their effects on the sweetness perception in ice cream. The work has not
been completed, but the preliminary study indicates the following conclusions:

There is a relation between sweetness and body and texture of ice cream.

The kind and amount of sugar in high-fat ice cream mixes definitely affect
the quality of the ice cream. The use of corn syrup solids seems to prevent a
crumbly texture and improves the body.

Temperature definitely affects the sweetness perception; soft ice cream tastes
sweeter than hard.

DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
Philip L. Gamble in Charge

Effects of the War and Readjustments in Massachusetts Agriculture. (David
Rozman.) This project is devised to take account of agricultural readjustments
already in progress, with the expectation of facilitating the attainment of national
goals in agricultural production and of providing a basis for a program of indi-
vidual and public action after the present emergency is over.

So far the investigation has been directed toward obtaining a picture of re-
adjustments in the dairy industry as the most important factor of agricultural
production in the State. B>- analyzing data from the Animal Inspection records
it has been possible to determine the distribution of cow herds in relation to their
number and size in various sections of the State. Between January 1941 and Jan-
uary 1942, the total number of cows two years old and over on Massachusetts
farms declined from 146,424 to 141,302. During 1941 there was a general decline
in the number and proportion of smaller herds; while the herds with twenty cows
and over increased both in total number and in the proportion of animals in the
group. The distribution of cows by size of herds will have a major effect on the
agricultural labor problem because, to the extent that production is concentrated
in larger herds, there will be greater need for hired labor.

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
C. I. Gunness in Charge

Cranberry Storage Investigation. (C. I. Gunness, H. J. Franklin, and H. F.
Bergman.) The studies on storage of cranberries were continued during the fall
of 1942. Samples of Early Blacks from the Experiment Station bog and from a
commercial bog were stored in a commercial air-cooled screenhouse and in re-
frigerated experimental storage at two different temperatures, 45° and 35°.
Both lots were picked on September 14, placed in storage immediately, and
removed and screened on October 22. The storage and screening loss differed
for the two lots of berries, but in both cases was greatest for the air-cooled storage
and least for the refrigerated storage at 35°. There was much less difference be-
tween the two refrigerated storages than between the air-cooled and the re-
frigerated.

The berries from the Experiment Station bog were so well colored when picked
that no appreciable change in coloring was noticeable in the different storages.
Those picked from the other bog were "green" when picked. Those stored at

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 33

45° had colored best; those stored at 35°, least; and those kept in common storage
were half way between.

Samples of Early Blacks from the Experiment Station bog were stored in a
modified atmosphere in sealed sheet-iron cabinets in the refrigerated rooms held
at 45° and 35°. This is a repetition of the trials made in 1941 and reported in the
1941 Annual Report. As explained at that time, it was difficult to remove the
moisture produced by the respiration of the berries. This year more adequate
means were provided for circulating the air from the cabinets through calcium
chloride and no such difficulty was experienced. It was found, however, that the
temperature inside the steel cabinets remained considerably higher than the
temperature within the rooms in which the cabinets were placed. The cabinet
in the 35° room had an average temperature of 43° and the one in the 45° room had
a temperature of 50°. In comparing storage losses in the modified atmosphere
with the losses in air, it was necessary to make allowance for these variations in
temperature. While the results are by no means conclusive, they indicate a
smaller storage loss in the modified atmosphere. It is obvious that this experi-
ment cannot be carried out satisfactorily until a small sealed room is provided
having its own refrigerating coil.

Fruit and Vegetable Drying. (C. I. Gunness in cooperation with Department
of Horticultural Manufactures.) A small electric dehydrator was built during the
summer of 1942 for use in the Department of Horticultural Manufactures. While
planned for experimental work, the drier is of a size and design which makes it
suitable for home use.

A variety of vegetables was dried during the summer and trials on the dr\ing
of cranberries are now in progress.

Poultry House Investigation. (C. I. Gunness and W. C. Sanctuary.) The
housing project for 1941-42 showed an average water content of the litter varying
inversely with the amount of insulation all winter from December 1 to March 11.
On March 11 the water content of the litter from the non-insulated, partially
insulated, and fully insulated pens was 36.6, 26.3 and 25.9 percent, respectively;
the average number of birds was 77, 82, and 84; the food consumption from
December 1 to February 9 was 24, 22, and 20 pounds per bird; and egg production
45, 42, and 41 eggs per bird. "Blue comb" disease and paralysis reduced produc-
tion and caused considerable mortality. Each pen started in the fall with 100
Barred Rock pullets.

Horizontal and vertical temperature gradients were taken under electric
hovers, some commercial and one home-made. The brooders producing the best
results have a rather even temperature gradient from a low point at the outside
edge of the hover to a high point in the center of the hover.

One commercial hover had a lower temperature over a rather large portion of
the central area. This has been associated with a depression in the litter in the
central area under the hover as if made by chicks crowding to keep warm. This
particular hover has had high mortality, associated apparently with this crowding,
on several occasions during severe cold snaps, sometimes early in the brooding
period and sometimes during the lattier part of the brooding period.

The study of soil heating cable to dry the litter in a brooder house equipped
with an electric brooder was continued during the winter of 1941-42. While the
litter can be dried by this means, it was necessary to rake the litter daih to get
full value from the heating. Otherwise, the dry litter near the cable becomes a
good heat insulator allowing very little drying at the top and permits caking at
the surface. The extra work required, together with relatively high cost of current
makes the practice impractical.

34 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY
Charles P. Alexander in Charge

Investigation of Materials which Promise Value in Insect Control. (A. I.

Bourne and W. D. Whitcomb.) Work on a cooperative project on investigations
of dinitro combinations was concerned primarily with the effectiveness of such
combinations against outbreaks of European red mite during the growing season.

A surprisingly heavy infestation of red mite developed in commercial orchards
in practically all sections of the State. Evidences of mite abundance and begin-
ning of injury to foliage were noted by mid-June. The attack developed steadily
throughout June and reached its peak in most sections by late July and early
August. Heavy bronzing of foliage occurred in many orchards, even on varieties
which usually were not considered to be particularly susceptible.

Tests with a DN dust (a L7 dicyclohexylamine salt of DNOCHP) and a DN
spray (a dicyclohexylamine salt of DNOCHP + dispersing and wetting agent,
used at the standard recommended strength of IJ^ pounds per 100 gallons)
were made in nearly all the blocks of the college and station orchard, and in
several commercial orchards. L^niformly good control of the mites was furnished
by both DN dust and DN spray, and where the applications were made with due
care and under suitable spraying conditions no injury resulted.

Special studies of different strengths of the DN spraj- were made in a block of
Baldwin and Wealthy trees. The material was applied at the rate of 12 ounces,
16 ounces, and 24 ounces per 100 gallons. All treatments gave good control of
m.ites on both varieties. Some slight marginal burn was noted in a few cases,
but this was so slight and occurred with such irregularity that it could not be
definitely attributed to the treatment and was of no commercial significance.

Toxicity tests of the DN dust and of the DN spray upon 15 different types of
ornamental trees and shrubs resulted in no measurable injury to the foliage of
butternut, elderberry, flowering plum, willow, rose, ornamental crabapple, privet,
barberry, Norw^ay maple, red maple, evonymus (several varieties) or magnolia.
Sumac, raspberry, and grape showed slight to appreciable injury. Fortunately
these would seldom require summer application of insecticides of this type.

At Waltham a commercial DNOCHP material, known as DN-111 and con-
taining approximately 20 percent of the toxicant, was used at the rate of 24 ounces
and 12 ounces per 100 gallons of water on Baldwin apple trees infested with
European red mite. The spray was applied July 23 when the mites averaged 12
to 16 per leaf. Both dosages gave good control, and no serious injury to foliage
was observed although the margin of some of the tender leaves was slightly
scorched. As a result of these experiments and others, DN-111 appears to be a
very satisfactory material for the control of summer infestations of the European
red mite, and excellent control can be expected from sprays containing as little
as 12 ounces in 100 gallons.

Control of Cabbage Maggot. (W. D. Whitcomb, Waltham.) The natural
field infestation of cabbage maggot at Waltham was heavy and caused commercial
injury to 88 to 90 percent of the untreated plants of susceptible varieties such as
Golden Acre and Copenhagen Market.

The first eggs were found on May 1 which is about the average date for the
last 12 years.

A study of the relative susceptibility of 13 varieties showed 4 early varieties
and 3 medium or late varieties with more than half of the plants severely injured
or killed and more than 80 percent commercially injured, while 2 earh' varieties
and 4 medium or late varieties had less than half the plants severely injured or

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 35

killed and less than 80 percent commercially injured. The most severely injured
varieties were Copenhagen Market and Super-curled Savo>-; Early Jersey Wake-
field showed the least injury.

Tests to determine the possibility of reducing the amounts of corrosive subli-
mate or calomiel in treatments for combating the cabbage maggot during the war
emergency showed that two applications of corrosive sublimate at 1 ounce in 15
gallons of water (1-1920) was equal to or more effective than two applications of
this material at 1 ounce in 10 gallons of water (1-1280) which is the normally
recommended concentration. Caloniel-talc dust containing 2 percent calomel
was very nearly as effective as the dust containing 4 percent calomel (the normal
recommendation) when applied by the mound method; but was significantly
inferior to the 4 percent dust when applied twice with a hand duster.

Control of Squash Vine Borer. (\V. D. Whitcomb, Waltham.) As in previous
experiments, spraying with 1 percent \'olck plus nicotine sulfate 1-500 was the
most effective treatment.

A rotenone-copper oxychloride sulfate dust containing .75 percent rotenone
was also effective and distinctly more satisfactory than a pyrethrum-yellow
cuprous oxide dust containing 3 percent of a petroleum solution of pyrethrins.

A DNOCHP-gypsum compound containing 2C percent of the toxicant reduced
the borer infestation nearly two thirds but produced only slightly more mature
squash than the check. Vines treated with a calcium arsenate-copper oxychloride
dust (5.25 percent tricalcium arsenate) were more heavily infested with borers
than the untreated vines but produced the largest yield in the experiment, indi-
cating that a light borer infestation, especially after secondary roots have de-
veloped, does not seriously reduce the yield of mature squash.

Control of Striped Cucumber Beetle. (W. D. Whitcomb, Waltham.) With the
existing light infestation which produced only about one tenth as many beetles
as in 1941, a calcium arsenate-copper oxychloride dust (5.25 percent tricalcium
arsenate) gave 90 percent protection to cucumbers and complete protection to
melons, which is very encouraging in view of restricted use of rotenone during the
war emergency. Rotenone-copper oxychloride sulfate dusts containing .75 per-
cent and .5 percent rotenone respectively were about equally effective, the
former giving slightly better protection on the cucumbers and the latter on the
melons. It is evident that the dust containing .5 percent rotenone will be satis-
factory if available. A pyrethrum-yellow cuprous oxide dust containing 3 per-
cent of a petroleum solution of pyrethrins was less effective than the rotenone
dusts but generally satisfactory. On the other hand the same pyrethrum dust
without yellow cuprous oxide gave only about 50 percent protection, although
the yield of melons following the treatment was the greatest in the experiments,
apparently because of a partial control of aphids and other sucking insects which
spread mosaic.

Control of Onion Thrips. (A. I. Bourne.) In field tests with insecticides the
standard combination of nicotine sulfate and soap again proved superior to all
other treatments, giving 87 percent reduction of thrips. A commercial rotenone
solution proved nearly as effective and gave greater residual protection. A spray
composed of castor bean extractive proved ineffective, largely because of its oily
nature and poor wetting qualities. A pine oil derivative in a penetrating soap
gave 74 percent control. Its effectiveness was not materially increased when
derris was added. A commercial pyrethrum dust (Pyrocide) gave 70 percent
control, an excellent showing for dust application and good commercial control.
Fixed nicotine spray s were only moderately effective, but a nicotine tannate
spray gave 74 percent effective control. A nozzle adapted to deliver a solid-cone

36 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

'•

type of spray proved much more satisfactory and gave better penetration than
the conventional hollow-cone spray.

Ladybeetles and other natural enemies of thrips did not appear in the fields
in sufficient numbers to keep step with the rapid increase in thrips during late
July, and there was no evidence of the presence of the fungus disease which usuaUy
appears in the fields in seasons when thrips are unusually abundant.

The Value of Control Measures to Supplement the Standard Spray Program
for Apple Pests in Massachusetts. (A. 1. Bourne.) The study of proposed substi-
tutes to replace or supplement present standard materials and practices was
shaped to give special attention to replacements for materials subject to curtail-
ment because of the war emergency. This involved a determination of the value
of certain non-arsenical compounds and a study of more effective timing of late
season applications.

In a study of the effect of pyrethrum on overwintering larvae of the codling
moth in their cocoons on the trees, a pyrethrum-kerosene solution was applied
to the rough, flaky bark of the main trunk and base of the larger limbs of a small
block of apples, early in April while the trees were still in dormant condition.
These trees received no other application for codling moth control. Collections
of both drops and samples from these trees showed less than one-fourth as n^any
apples with codling moth stings and entrances on the treated trees, as on the
checks. The pyrethrum-oil application caused no damage to bark nor retarda-
tion of seasonal development. It apparently had no permanent repellent action
to codling moth larvae as indicated b\' approximately the same number of larvae
collected in chemically treated bands, from both sprayed and untreated trees,
at the end of the growing season.

This treatment eliminates the necessity for most of the scraping of loose bark
from the trees and should prove very effective in penetrating the winter cocoons
of larvae hibernating in piles of prop poles. These often attract large numbers of
larvae and, since they are usually collected in piles at the edge of the orchard,
serve as potential centers of infestation often entirely ov'erlooked by the grower.

In orchard tests to determine the value of various non-arsenicals for codling
moth control, one application of a fixed nicotine (14 percent nicotine) replacing
lead arsenate in the 4th cover spray reduced codling moth damage to 1.5 percent
as compared with 4 percent following the present standard schedule. Fruit
from unsprayed checks in this block showed 19.4 percent injury by codling moth.

Where fixed nicotine replaced lead arsenate in the 4th cover spray and was also
applied in mid-August, samples of fru't at harvest showed less than 6 apples per
1,000 damaged by codling moth.

A modified schedule in which a commercial pyrethrum-rotenone combination
was applied in the 2d, 3d, 4th, and mid-August sprays practically eliminated
codling moth damage. Lead arsenate was used with this combination but at
reduced strength.

An application of fixed nicotine between the 2d and 3d cover sprays to furnish
protection between June 12 and July 9 gave increased protection against codling
moth, although the effect was not so pronounced as would be the case in a year
when codling moth presented a more serious problem.

All of these materials were used with the wettable sulfur for scab control, proved
entirely compatible with the fungicides, and held scab to less than 1 percent dam-
age while samples from unsprayed trees showed 92 percent scabby fruit.

Insecticides for the Control of European Corn Borer. (A. I. Bourne.) The
warm, dry weather in April stimulated corn borer activity and, as in the previous
season, promoted early pupation of the overwintering larvae. Field collections

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 37

in the Connecticut Valley showed 20 to 30 percent pupation by the first week of
May, and the first moths emerged on May 12. Emergence increased steadily to
a peak on June 8 with a gradual reduction during the next 10 days. Coupled with
the comparativeh small carry-over of borers because of the light infestation in
1941, this early moth emergence, in advance of the development of the corn,
resulted in a comparatively light infestation of early market sweet corn although
somewhat heavier than in 1941. There was, however, a substantial build-up
during the summer and a more normal infestation of the corn which matured in
late August and September.

In the experimental plots the insecticidal applications, based on the first
appearance of young, newly hatched larvae, were made on June 10, 15, 20, and
25. Precipitation during that period, while it totaled 2.8 inches of rainfall, was
so well distributed that there was very little interference with the treatments.

Because of the war emergency and the limited supply of rotenone available,
the sale of this material for use on corn was forbidden so that the field tests were
confined to a study of the value of nicotine bentonite and dual-fixed nicotine.

Results from spraying with nicotine bentonite (14 percent nicotine) indicated
a considerable increase in protection when 3 pounds per 100 gallons were used as
compared with 2 pounds, but no advantage when more than 3 pounds were used.
Protection was good in all cases. Dual-fixed nicotine dust again furnished good
protection.

From the commercial standpoint the contrast between the corn harvested from
treated and untreated plots was more pronounced than can be indicated by figures.
Many of the ears scored as "infested" in the treated plots contained very small
borers which had hatched after the last application but had scarcely penetrated
the husks. A large proportion of such ears could be salvaged. Infested ears
from the check plots, however, contained many large, fully developed borers;
destruction of the kernels was extensive; and most of the ears were worthless.

Potato Spraying Experiments. (A. I. Bourne.) The experimental plots were
planted May 4 and 5. The plants made an early start, received no serious set-
back to their steady growth during a long growing season, and were for the most
part alive and green until killed by frost on September 28 to 29, 146 daj's from
the date of planting.

Flea beetles appeared in large numbers as soon as the plants were up, uere
very abundant throughout June and early July, and again from late July until
mid-August. There were no serious infestations of other insects.

The plots were given 11 applications of spray between June 5 and August 25.
In view of the war emergency and the possible shortage of copper for agricultural
purposes, special attention was devoted to a study of different strengths of bor-
deaux, and one plot was given a complete schedule of 2 J^-2 J^-50 bordeaux mixture
to determine the protection furnished against disease and insect attack by the
reduced dosage.

Flea beetle injury was measured by the number of leaf punctures per square
inch of leaf area, and varied inversely with the strength of the bordeaux mixture.
In every case the addition of calcium arsenate to the bordeaux mixture reduced
the number of feeding punctures. The reduction was greatest (one half) in the
plots which received the half-strength bordeaux, and was only slight in the plots
which received the standard 5-5-50 bordeaux, indicating that the addition of the
arsenical was an important factor whenever the strength of lime in the bordeaux
was reduced.

Sufficient protection was furnished by all the different strengths of bordeaux to
keep the plants alive and vigorous throughout the growing season, and scarcely
a trace of blight was noted. In an adjoining plot which was sprayed with a com-

38 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

mercial neutral copper fungicide, the plants were badly riddled by flea beetle,
began to die down in late July, and a large proportion were dead by late August.
The yields in all the bordeaux-treated plots were very satisfactory.

The results in the plots treated with 23^-2 J^-50 bordeaux were very satisfactory
and encourage the hope that, during the present emergency at least, reasonable
protection from disease and insect pests may be secured with a considerable
saving in materials.

Investigations on the Effect of Insecticides on Honeybees. (A. I. Bourne and
F. R. Shaw). The investigations during 1942 were conducted along two main
lines:

L The use of materials that might be added to spray or dust mixtures to
repel bees. Of those used, creosote appeared to be the most effect've m repelling
the bees but Injured apple foliage. Tests are being continued to try to find some
material that will be effective as a repellent and yet be safe on plant foliage.

2. The effect on bees of materials used as ant poisons, together with an in-
vestigation of the danger of bee poisoning resulting from the use of commercial
ant baits. The ant poisons tested contained either thallium sulfate or some
arsenical, most commonly sodium arsenite. Because the arsenical compounds
killed the bees so quickly, there was less danger of the poison being carried back
to the hive than in the case of the slower acting thallium compounds.

Experiments with commercial ant traps, used as directed by the manufacturer,
indicate that very slight danger to bees will result if the ant poisons are in salve
boxes or similar types of containers. The use of sweetened ant baits exposed
openly would appear questionable, not only from the danger to bees but also
from the aspect of safety to man and other animals.

Naphthalene and Similar Compounds as Greenhouse Fumigants. (W. D.

Whitcomb and \Vm. Garland, Waltham.) Experimental fumigations using a
mixture of monochlor naphthalene 3 parts and flake naphthalene 1 part were con-
tinued at various relative humidities. Satisfactory control of the common red
spider mite occurred only after ^ ounce of the fumigant was vaporized in 1,000
cubic feet and the mites had been exposed for 3 hours. Fumigations at 50, 60,
70, and 80 percent relative humidity and 60°F. showed no significant differences
as the relative humidity was increased, indicating that this factor Is less important
than temperature, which has shown increased mortality at the higher tempera-
tures.

Biology and Control of the Apple Leaf Curling Midge. (W. D. Whitcomb,
Waltham.) In emergence cages in the insectary no midge flies emerged in 1942
from maggots collected in June and July 1941, while 67 percent of the maggots
collected In August transformed to flies in 1942.

Emergence of the first generation flies at Waltham was about two weeks later
than in 1941 and oviposltlon was negligible on the trees under observation.
Emergence of flies again occurred July 20-25 and August 8-15, and the greatest
oviposition of the season occurred August 18-27. Larvae were collected In bands
in large numbers on July 28 and on September 10, and precipitation exceeding 1
inch was recorded at each time. The influence of rain in causing the maggots
to leave the rolled leaves was very noticeable.

Treatment of the soil under lightly infested trees with naphthalene flakes at
the rate of 2 pounds per 100 square feet gave almost complete control of midge
flies for both the first and the second generations. Spraying during the height
of the oviposition period of the second generation, caused a measurable reduction
in the number of infested tips where a rotenone or a DN spray was used but no
reduction where a pyrethrum spray was used.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 39

Control of Common Red Spider Mite on Greenhouse Plants. (\V. D. Whit-
comb, Wm. Garland, and W'm. E. Tomlinson, Jr., Waltham.) Studies of the pH
of the sap of several of the host plants of the common red spider mite showed that
the lower the pH of the plant sap the less time was required for the mite to de-
velop from hatching to adult. These results are based on investigations with
rose and carnation plants. Preliminary- experiments with tomato, bean, sweet
pea, snapdragon, gardenia, and chrysanthemum have been made and this phase
of the work will be continued.

Among the experimental sprats for the control of the common red spider mite
on greenhouse roses, a commercial mixture of gypsum and dicyclohexylamine
di-dinitrocyclohexylphenate containing 20 percent of the toxicant, applied two
or three times at weekly intervals, gave practically complete control when used
at the rate of 24, 20, or 16 ounces per 100 gallons of water with Ultrawet 1-1000
as a wetting agent. On unsprayed plants in the same bench, the number of
spiders increased 40 percent during the same interval.

A commercial spray known as technical mannitan laurate reduced the number
of live mites 89 percent in four applications at 1-400, and 73 percent at 1-600.
Two other rotenone materials gave fair control of the red spider mite and a third
material was ineffecti^■e.

Several of these materials were more effective against the red spider mite on
carnations than on roses.

Control of Plum Curculio in Apples. (W. D. Whitcomb, Waltham.) The
effect of different amounts of spray on the control of the plum curculio in apples
was studied by applying a measured quantity to apple trees of known size. An
application of 1 gallon per 100 square feet was significantly more effective than
an application of % gallon, but IM gallons per 100 square feet were not consis-
tently more effective than 1 gallon, indicating that the results might be influenced
by factors other than gallonage.

Cryolite, 4 pounds in 100 gallons, used as a substitute for the same amount of
lead arsenate, gave somewhat less control of the plum curculio in apples, and
caused very severe russet on Delicious apples.

Lead arsenate was used at the rate of 2, 3, and 4 pounds in 100 gallons of spray
on Northern Spy for protection against the plum curculio. Results indicated
that 4 pounds is necessary for satisfactory control where this insect is abundant.

Biology and Control of the Grape Plume Moth. (W. D. Whitcomb and Wm.
E. Tomlinson, Jr., Waltham.) Experimental dormant applications of the com-
mercial DN product Elgetol confirmed previous experiments which showed that
a 3^ percent dilution did not give satisfactory control under the same conditions
where a 1 percent dilution was effective.

The effect of pruning in reducing infestation was studied on two vines. Heavy
pruning (removing 79 percent of the nodes and canes) destroyed 72 percent of
the eggs as compared with 55 percent destroyed by light pruning (ren:oving 50
percent of the canes and nodes).

New Vegetable Insect Pests. (W. D. Whitcomb, Waltham.) The snout beetle,
Baris scolopacea Germ., discovered at Arlington in 1941, was quite destructive
to Swiss Chard in the vicinity of Waltham. Typical injury cons'sted of egg cavi-
ties and feeding punctures in the stems of the chard, making the stalks unsightly
and unfit for market. Preliminary trials with applications of rotenone dust
indicated that this treatment will reduce the abundance and destructiveness of
this insect.

In the late summer and fall of 1942, several acres of celery, particularly in
Arlington, Belmont, WalthaiB, and Woburn, were severely damaged or destroyed

40 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

by the plant bug, Lygus campestris L. Typical injury resulted from the punc-
tures by the bugs in the heart and new stalks of the celery. The punctures were
usually infected with a bacterial or fungus rot which turned the heart black,
making the celery unfit for sale and often useless for any purpose. Reports from
growers indicate that spraying with powdered derris and a wetting agent, prepared
bj' the formula recommended for spra\ing to combat the European corn borer,
is helpful and will give satisfactory control if the applications are started while
the infestation is light.

The Effects of Solar Heat on the Subcortical Development of Elm Bark Beetles.

(W. B. Becker.) In addition to laboratory and field work with Hyliirgopinus
rufipes in Amherst, field work with this species was also carried on in Pittsfield
this summer. Work on Scolytus multistriatus was carried on in Springfield and
Westfield.

Two brief tentative observations on the trend of the field work may be given
now. (1) Freshly cut elm logs, not 3'et infested with the beetles, which were
placed (in the early spring) in a north-south position where the sunlight could
strike them all day, did not seem to become infested with any elm Scolytids on
most of the uppef half throughout the season. This applied to logs up to 4 feet
4 inches in diameter with bark up to 2 3/16 inches thick. (2) When Scolytid
beetles were already in the bark before the logs were placed in the sun, the mor-
tality due to the high subcortical temperatures generated by the sun's rays varied
with the thickness of the bark, mortality being highest and including a broader
arc of the upper surface in logs with thin bark. Some factors to be considered
in this work are the weather, thickness of bark, and diameter of logs, as well as
the effects of heat on different species of bark beetles.

Some New Findings of Scolytus multistriatus Marsham in Massachusetts.
(W. B. Becker.) This species was found to be abundant at a locality in Spring-
field and was also found in Pittsfield. Federal scouts attached to the office of
the Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine at Bloomfield, New Jersey,
uncovered infestations in Williamstown and North Adams.

Insect Pests of Wood and of Shade, Forest, and Ornamental Trees in Mass-
achusetts. (W. B. Becker.) During the year, 249 inquiries were received about
such insect pests, involving 72 species. Ants, termites, powder post beetles,
aphids, oak twig pruners, Japanese beetles, and secondary tree-boring insects
were received most frequently.

DEPARTMENT OF FLORICULTURE
Clark L. Thayer in Charge

Breeding Snapdragons for Varietal Improvement and Disease Resistance.

(Harold E. \\'hite, Waltham.) Two t>'pes of resistance to rust have been observed
in snapdragons. The first is inherited as a simple dominant factor which has been
reported previously. The second is a modified dominant type obtained from
progeny of crosses made with susceptible commercial varieties. The most promis-
ing rust-resistant strains are those developed by inter-crossing susceptible com-
mercial greenhouse forcing varieties. These strains are 80 to 100 percent resistant
to rust, free flowering in winter, and good seed producers. The plants can be
propagated from cuttings and such material has been highly resistant to rust
for three seasons in field and greenhouse tests.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 41

Resistance to other diseases, such as Verticillium Wilt and Powdery Mildew,
has not been conclusively determined, although in some seasons a few strains
have appeared somewhat less susceptible to these diseases than commercial
varieties.

Soilless Culture of Carnations. (Harold E. White, Waltham.) The use of
gravel as a cultural medium has been continued for demonstration purposes and
for comparison of the responses of carnations to various nutrient formulas. Four
formulas were used, which gave the following number of blooms per square foot:
Ball's, 14.80; New Jersey, 15.77; Ohio 2 WP Modified, 19.33; Ohio 2 WP Modified
plus Yi formula weights of phosphate and potash, 18.61; soil plot (checks), 17.44.

Plants grown in soil and transplanted to gravel require considerable time for
adjustment and development of a root system adapted to the gravel medium.
The most critical cultural period for the plants is after they are transplanted from
soil to gravel. Keeping the gravel too wet soon after planting will cause heavy
losses of even the most vigorous plants; and, contrary to what has been claimed,
observations show that weak plants give no better results in gravel than in soil.

A commercial grower should not find it difficult to grow carnations in gravel as
far as manipulation of the nutrients is concerned; but the costs of installation at
present are very high and it is impossible to obtain fertilizer salts or pumps for
the duration of the war.

Cultural Requirements of Freesias. (Harold E. White, Waltham.) Freesia
corms pre-cured for 2 to 11 weeks prior to planting lost from 3 to 24 percent of
their original weight — a greater loss than in the two previous years because of
differences in moisture content of the 1941 crop.

Corms planted August 17 to 25 required 173 days to flower; those planted Octo-
ber 20, 133 days; while those planted on November 1 flowered in 123 days.
Freesias bloomed earlier when grown in benches than when grown in bulb pans.
Increasing the growing temperature to 60°F. in mid-November hastened the
blooming of early planted corms by 3 to 4 weeks.

Disease Resistance and Heredity of Carnations. (Harold E. White, Waltham.)
Microscopic examinations and germination tests of pollen from 25 varieties of
carnations were started in September and continued through October and Novem-
ber. In the early September tests pollen from the four varieties, Johnson's Crim-
son, Olivette, Barbara Brlgham, and Peter Fisher, responded satisfactorily with
60 to 70 percent germination. Subsequent tests made at weekly intervals on
pollen from these same varieties yielded very poor results. Freshly collected
pollen dried in a temperature of 72°F. for 1 to 3 days and other samples exposed
to sunlight for 6 hours failed to germinate. Microscopic examination of pollen
did not reveal any morphological peculiarities which could be associated with
poor germination responses. A few imperfect or shriveled pollen grains were
common to all varieties but were not numerous enough to be considered a factor
in causing poor germination.

The size of pollen grains in the different varieties did not vary greatly, ranging
from 45 to 49 microns in diameter. A number of giant grains similar to those
characteristic of tetraploid plants were found mixed with pollen of normal size.
Typical pollen characteristics were spherical shape, external markings of extme
being punctate with distinct pores.

Only 5 out of 23 varieties produced seed with self-pollination. Seed production
was low, varying from 10 to 21 seeds per capsule. On the basis of observations
made on germination and fertilization, it would seem that the ability of pollen
to germinate is influenced by environmental conditions present at the time it
is formed.

42 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Packet Seed Studies. (Clark L. Thayer.) The Department of Floriculture
cooperated with the Seed Laboratory for the seventh season in conducting tests
to determine the quality of flower seeds sold in retail seed stores, chain stores,
schools, and other outlets. The seeds were tested for germination and performance
under field conditions. Results are reported in Control Series Bulletin 115.

DEPARTMENT OF HOME ECONOMICS NUTRITION
Julia O. Holmes in Charge

Vitamin Requirements of Older People. (A. \V. Wertz.) The urinary thiamin
excretion of three elderlj' women was followed for a period of 14 weeks. The
diet was supplemented with 3 mg. of thiamin chloride for the first half of the
period and then with 1 mg. thiamin plus enough yeast to bnng the total thiamin
to 3 mg. The excretion of thiamin in the urine was almost twice as much in the
latter period as in the first period, although the intake of thiamin was identical.
This might indicate that there is some factor supplied by the yeast which has a
definite effect on thiamin utilization in the body. There was no change in the
electrocardiograms from the first period. The hemoglobin values decreased.

The Effect of Temperature on Calcium Metabolism in Growing Rats. (Marie
S. Gutowska.) One series of experiments was conducted at temperatjures below
57° and above 9C°F. (approximately the limits beyond which the albino rat will
not breed satisfactorily); and another series at 73° and 83° (corresponding to the
normal range of breeding temperatures). In both series the calcium retention
was greater in the low-temperature group, whether determined by balance experi-
ments or by carcass analysis. Growth was slower at the low temperatures.
Food consumption was considerably larger in the groups of slow-growing rats
kept at the lower temperatures, but food utilization was noticeably lower than in
the groups kept at the higher temperatures. It was concluded that temperature
plays a much greater role in practical nutrition than is now realized.

It is hoped that these findings, if confirmed by tests on adult rats now in prog-
ress, may have some bearing on the food requirements of humans as influenced
by varying ranges in temperature.

The Effect of Temperature on the Cure of Rickets. (Marie S. Gutowska.)
Two groups of six rats each were depleted of their vitamm D and placed in closed
cabinets, one group at 66°F., the other at 82°. All received in three days 4 U.S. P.
units of vitamin D. Two rats from each group were killed on the fourth, sixth,
and eighth day from the beginnmg of the assay period. It was apparent, both
from photographs and from line tests, that the rats kept at the lower temperature
showed an earlier response to the treatment and an earlier healing of the rachitic
sections than the rats kept at the higher temperature. It was concluded that the
biological materials and the temperature at which the bioa.ssay is conducted must
be standardized in order to reduce the errors of the test; and that by lowering the
temperature, it may be possible to shorten the time of the assay.

Manganese Balance Experiments with Birds. (Marie S. Gutowska with the
cooperation of J. W. Kuzmeski of the Feed Control Service.) Manganese metab-
olism studies were conducted in two series of experiments. The first series was
conducted with two groups of laying hens fed for a period of three months on
rations varying only in mangenese content (76 p. p.m. and 21 p. p.m.). The drop-
pings were collected every three hours during a period of a week and five periods
of a week each formed the series. The second series consisted of the same number

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 43

of experiments but was conducted with single hens, not with groups. The rations
and the droppings were analyzed and the balance of manganese calculated.

One hen on the low-manganese ration retained approximately one half of the
total available manganese daily. This suggests that even 21 p. p.m. manganese
in the ration was sufficient not only to keep the hen in a positive manganese
balance but also to provide a surplus so that it was not necessary to store all the
amount available. The hens fed for some months on the high-manganese ration
did not store any manganese, and the daily output was almost exactly' the total
amount of the daily intake. This means that the hens were in a complete man-
ganese balance and that the whole surplus of manganese added to this ration
was voided by the hens.

Manganese and Reproduction of Birds . (Marie S. Gutowska.) Three series
of experiments were conducted to observe the effects of different manganese in-
takes by poultry on reproduction. In the first series, there was no significant
difference in the fertility and hatchabilityofegg5fromhensfedatthelow(17p.p.m.)
and the high (61 p. p.m.) manganese rations. In the second series, it was found
that the hatchability and fertility of the eggs dropped significantly when the birds
were fed a ration containing 14 p. p.m. of manganese; but the differences were not
significant in the groups fed the rations containing 17 p. p.m. and 61 p. p.m. of
manganese, and the hatchability of eggs in these groups was normal.

It was concluded that 14 p. p.m. of manganese in a laying ration is a sub-
minimum quantity which affects reproduction unfavorably; but 17 p. p.m. is
probably not far from the threshold value needed, and 61 p. p.m. is ample. Be-
cause normal commercial rations usually contain over 40 p. p.m. of manganese,
they do not need, in most cases, to be supplemented with this element.

In a third series, there was a highh' significant increase in the volume of sperm
produced by cocks fed the high-manganese ration as compared with cocks fed the
low-manganese ration. The sperm count varied considerably in the two groups
of cocks and also in individual cocks on different days. However, no significant
difference between the sperm count of the two groups was found. Consequently
the increase in the volume of the semen in the group was due not to a change in
the density of the sperm but to improved functioning of the testes.

Effect of Dietary Manganese on the Mineral Content of Some Organs of the

Hens. (Marie S. Gutowska and Lewis L. Glow, of the Chemistr\- Department
cooperating.) An investigation was conducted to determine whether the manga-
nese content of the diet would influence the mineral contents of the bones, the
livers and the kidneys of the hens. One group received a high-manganese ration
(61 p. p.m.); the other, a low-manganese ration (17 p.p.m.).

The ability of individual hens to store or retain minerals in their bones, liver,
and kidneys varied considerabh^; therefore large groups of birds are needed in
this kind cf experiment. The ash content of the bones varied more between
individuals of the same group than between the averages of the two groups.

However, the hens on the high-manganese diet had a larger amount of man-
ganese in their bones and in their livers than did the hens of the low-manganese
diet; but there was no evidence that manganese could be stored in the kidneys.

The calcium and phosphorus content of the ash of the tibias and sternums of
the hens was almost the same for the two groups.

It was concluded that differences in the manganese content of the diet do not
influence the calcium and phosphorus content of the bones and the liver but do
influence the amount of manganese in these organs. The amounts of manganese
found in the bones and livers, after twelve months on a ration lower in manganese
than the average commercial ration for laying hens were considered subnormal.

44 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURAL MANUFACTURES

F. P. Griffiths in Charge

Cranberry Research. (\V. B. Esselen, Jr., R. S. Lubitz, C. R. Fellers, and H.
J. Brunell.) Cranberry juice was found to have a definite bactericidal action on
the oral flora and on pathogenic bacteria frequently associated with gastro-in-
testinal disturbances in man. This observed action appears to be due primarily
to the high acidity of the cranberry.

By means of chemical and microbiological assays, the amounts of several of
the vitamins of the "B-complex" present in 100 grams of fresh cranberries were
found to be thiamin (vitamin Bi), 4.5 international units; riboflavin (vitamin Be),
3 micrograms; nicotinic acid (niacin), 33 micrograms; pantothenic acid, 25 micro-
grams; pyridoxin, 10 micrograms; and biotin, a trace. There was little or no loss
of the "B-complex" vitamins in making cranberry sauce and since the cranberries
in whole cranberry sauce make up about 40 percent of the total weight of the
finished product, the amount of the above vitamins present in the whole sauce
was approximateh- 40 percent of the figures given for fresh cranberries.

Cranberries were found to contain approximately 10 micrograms of vitamin K
per 100 grams, by the chick test.

Domestic Refrigeration. (J. E. W. McConnell and C. R. Fellers.) In house-
hold refrigerators left-over vegetables kept better and retained more of their
vitamin C when stored in covered containers. The most rapid loss of vitamin C
occurred during the first day of storage.

Storage of frozen foods for one day in the freezing compartment of the domestic
refrigerator was found to be satisfactory. For storage periods of a week, a tem-
perature of 16°F. was necessary to prevent excessive loss of vitamin C. A marked
loss of this vitamin occurred at storage temperatures of 20^ to 32^.

Either defrosting of frozen foods at a high temperature or slow defrosting at
low temperatures resulted in a considerable loss of vitamin C.

The Nutritive Value of Mushrooms. (C. R. Fellers, E. E. Anderson, and A. S.
Levine.) Work conducted during the past year shows that fresh and canned
mushrooms {Agaricus campestris) surpass many of our staple fruits and vegetables
in nutritive value. The mineral or ash content of mushrooms ishigh, particularly
in Iron. Mushrooms have been found to be one of the best plant sources of thia-
min, riboflavin, pantothenic acid, and nicotinic acid. They also contain signi-
ficant amounts of ascorbic acid and vitamin K.

Red Squill Research. (A. S. Levine, C. R. Fellers, and L. R. Parkinson.)
Work on the toxicity of red squill (a raticide) was continued, and a standardized
assay method has been developed.

Preservative Values of Organic Acids. (A. S. Levine, M. G. O'Connor, and
C. R. Fellers.) The bactericidal value of benzoic acid is somewhat greater than
that of several of its salts. Magnesium and ammonium benzoate compared
favorably with sodium benzoate in inhibitory properties. Calcium benzoate
was the least toxic of the several compounds tested. It is assumed that the undis-
soclated benzoic acid molecule is the active germicidal agent that represses yeast
growth.

Sodium chloride and ethyl alcohol in apple juices which were treated with
sodium benzoate markedly inhibited the growth of yeasts. The presence of 30
percent dextrose in apple juice caused some inhibition of yeast growth, its in-
hibitor}'* power being greater than that of sucrose under these conditions.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 45

Glass Container Research. (\V. B. Esselen, Jr., E. L. Moore, J. J. Powers,
and C. R. Fellers.) As previously reported it has been found that ascorbic acids
function effectively as antioxidants for glass-packed foods. Only that amount
of ascorbic acid needed to react with oxygen present within the sealed container
is beneficial as far as color and flavor changes are concerned.

The results to date indicate that the addition of ascorbic acid to fruits and
vegetables naturally- low in vitamin C protected them from discoloration and
flavor changes. Ascorbic acid functioned successfully as an antioxidant for
peaches, pears, plums, and carrots; was only moderately successful with apple-
sauce and beets; and had no effect on such products as snap beans and peas,
known to be moderate to good sources of vitamin C.

It was found that oxygen and the decomposition of ascorbic acid are the
principal factors involved in the darkening of packaged orange juice. The dark-
ening is accelerated by warm storage temperatures, but rate and intensity of
darkening were significantly afifected by exposure to intense light.

Deleterious flavor changes in canned and bottled orange juice occur very soon
after the juice is packed, and are associated with the methods used in the prepara-
tion of the juice rather than with the type of container or the vitamin C content
of the juice.

Tests conducted with glass-packed fruits and vergetables stored at room temp-
erature for one year showed that, under average commercial conditions, there is
no danger that light will cause the color to fade.

The Antioxidant Properties of D-Iso Ascorbic Acid. (F. J. Yourga, W. B.
Esselen, Jr., and C. R. Fellers.) Preliminary feeding tests indicate that d-iso
ascorbic acid has an antiscorbutic potency about 1 25 that of 1-ascorbic acid
(vitamin C).

Evidence has been obtained which indicates that d-iso ascorbic acid may be
used as an antioxidant to prevent or retard the oxidation of 1-ascorbic acid in
packaged foods.

Fruit Jellies and Jams. (A. S. Levine, S. G. Davis, \V. H. Fitzpatrick, and
C. R. Fellers.) The beach plum {Prumis maritima) is characterized by a dis-
tinctive astringent flavor. It is relatively high in ash and carbohydrates and
slightly low in pectin as compared with some other varieties of plums. A number
of highly desirable products can be m.ade from this fruit, among which jam, jelly,
and butter are the most popular. Generally the fruit is deficient in pectin for
jelly purposes, and addition of pectin was found necessary for the production of
a high-grade jelly. No added pectin was necessary for the jam or butter.

The substitution of pectin and corn sugar for cane sugar has been found feas-
ible in jelly making. While the jelly is of fair quality, it is somewhat higher in
cost and lacking in flavor when compared with jelly made with all cane sugar.

Apple Products. (A. S. Levine, F. P. Griffiths, S. G. Davis, C. R. Fellers, J.
J. Powers, and W. B. Esselen, Jr.) A cider apple jelly of highly desirable taste,
flavor, and color was prepared by adding sweet Baldwin cider, concentrated to
one-third its original volume, to the heat-extracted apple juice from an equivalent
weight of apples. The amount of dry sugar added was about 60 percent of the
apple stock used. The remainder of the sugar was naturally present in the
added cider. The mixture of concentrated cider, extracted apple juice, and sugar
was concentrated by boiling to a soluble solids content of 68 percent by the usual
jelly manufacture procedure. Cider apple jelly is a distinctive product of at-
tractive color and appealing flavor, superior in quality to either apple jelly or
cider jelly alone.

46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Work has been done on the farm and home production of apple syrup to re-
place sugar and corn syrups. Partial neutralization of the acid in fresh apple
cider with baking soda and concentration of the cider approximately seven to
one produces a sweet, pleasant-tasting syrup which can be used on the table or
for making apple sauce, apple butter, mince meat, or other products. As most
fresh apple ciders contain between 10 and 13 percent of sugar it only requires
between six and seven quarts of cider to produce one quart of syrup. Clarifica-
tion of the syrup can be obtained by proper use of gelatine but for most home
uses it is not considered necesssary. Many New England farms having cull
apples, a cider press, and a maple sugar evaporator are in a position to make
large quantities of this syrup.

Marine Products Research. (C. R. Fellers and R. G. Tischer.) A successful
method for canning the blue crab {Callinectus sapidus) wh'ch is common along
the Central and Southern East Coast of this country has been developed in this
laboratory. A preliminar\' investigation has been made to find out whether this
method is equally satisfactory for the canning of the sand crab {Platyonichus
ocellatus Latreille), an edible crustacean which abounds in coastal waters from
New York to Nova Scotia. The aluminum dip method for preventing discolora-
tion of canned crab meat was found to provide a satisfactory procedure for the
packing of sand crab meat in both glass and metal containers.

The Effect of Processing on the Available Iron in Foods. (F. R. Theriault and
C. R. Fellers.) The dipyridyl method for available iron gave consistent results
for fruits, vegetables, and fish and checked with the bioassay method.

The commercial quick freezing of foods was found to increase the availability
of ircn slightly. Canning in glass had little or no effect on total and available iron.

Foods canned in tin showed changes in iron content somewhat correlated with
their hydrogen ion concentrations. No change or slight gains in iron content
were observed with vegetables, and considerable gains in iron occurred in the
case of the more acid fruits. Fish (red perch), with a pH value of 6.9, lost half
of its total iron and nearly all of its available iron when packed in tin cans lined
with zinc enamel (C-enamel). With semi-acid and acid foods the iron gained
from the can was nearly 100 percent available.

The Development and Control of Molds in Vanilla Beans. (F. W. Wenzel,
Jr., A. S. Levine, and C. R. Fellers.) Vanilla beans which have been properly
cured and aged are resistant to molds because of the presence in the beans of
natural compounds, such as vanillin, which possess mycostatic properties.
Improperly cured beans are susceptible to the grow'th of the saprophytic Aspergilli
and Penicillia. Moisture and humidity regulation, refrigeration, and storage of
the beans in carbon dioxide may be utilized as means of partial mold control.
Ultraviolet irradiation of the beans is of little value as a control measure. Pre-
vention of mold growth may be secured by immersion of the beans in an alcoholic
vanillin solution or by vacuum fumigation with ethylene oxide.

The Use of Levulinic Acid as a Food Acidulent. (C. R. Fellers, R. G. Tischer,
and B.J. Doyle.) The present shortage of the acids commonly used in foods has
created a need for adequate substitutes. Levulinic acid (B-acetylpropionic acid)
may now be prepared from corn at a fairh- low price. Laboratory and clinical
tests have shown that levulinic acid, even in excess of amounts that might be
commonly used, is non-toxic to humans, rats, guinea pigs, and chickens, and
suggest that levulinic acid in small amounts may be safely used to acidulate foods
or beverages.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 47

Jellies and carbonated beverages were successfully prepared using levulinic
acid. Tests in bread and other bakery products indicate that levulinic acid is
at best only weakly mycostatic.

Dextrose Investigations. (\V. B. Esselen, Jr., H. Fram, and A. S. Levine.)
It was found that sucrose and dextrose had similar effects on the thermal resis-
tance of microorganisms ccmmonK- associated with the spoilage of acid food
products.

DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
R. A. Van Meter in Charge

Nursery culture. (C. J. Gilgut.) In the commercial culture of ornamental
plants interest has been confined almost entirely to the production of esthetic
effects. During the early stages in the development of a research program with
plants in this class, it was necessary to devote much attention to the study of
their habits to learn their response to cultural practices. While the results may
not have contributed anything sufficiently conclusive to justify recommendations
for use in commercial production, the\- have unquestionably prepared the way
for the development of a sound research program which is gradually being
formulated.

DEPARTMENT OF OLERICULTURE
G. B. Snyder in Charge

Variety Studies. (W. H. Lachman and G. B. Sn\der.) The 1942 season was
very favorable to the growing of vegetables and furnished excellent opportunity
for testing some of the newer strains. Tomatoes, cucumbers, sweet corn, Pascal
celery, and beans were given special consideration. While nothing significantly
conclusive resulted from these tests, information has been gained concerning
habits and cultural response that will serve in evaluating the merits of the several
varieties and strains included in this stud\-.

Asparagus Investigations. (Robert E. Young, Waltham.) In the asparagus
breeding plots, yields from selected strains were 60 percent higher than last year.
The increase in production was quite uniform for all strains, even though the
best produced just twice as much asparagus per plant as the poorest. This
poorest strain was commercial Mary Washington, indicating that with the proper
selection of parent material the yield can be greatly increased. The order of
yield of these strains has followed fairly closely the average yield of the parent
plants.

Although the yield was so much higher, the average size of spear showed only
slight increase, and this did not seem to be correlated with yield or size of spear
in previous years.

A division of the spears, during harvest, into four different sizes showed that
the percentage of both small and large spears has remained quite constant for
all strains for all years and that the change has been a decrease in the medium size
and an increase in the very large. The percentage of very large spears varied
from 53 percent for the highest yielding strain to 25 percent for the lowest yield-
ing; so the best strain from the standpoint of yield was the best from the stand-
point of quality also.

48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Rust varies with seasonal conditions, but some selected strains showed only 52
percent infection as compared with 83 percent for the commercial strain. Rust
of sufificient severity to cause any injury to the plant occurred on only a fourth of
the total population. This compared with 14 percent on the old asparagus plants
growing alongside, from which the strains under comparison were derived; and
67 percent for a row of the Paradise variety, known to be more susceptible to rust.

Vegetable Breeding for Improvement of Quality. (Robert E, Young, Waltham.)
During the year breeding and general varietal studies were conducted with a
number of the common vegetables including tomato, Summer Pascal celery,
lettuce, rutabaga, beet, greenhouse cucumber, broccoli, and carrot. While there
has been an extensive accumulation of information concerning the possibilities
and habits of these several vegetables, the results are not sufficientlj' conclusive
to justify detailed discussion, except in a few cases.

Trellis Tomato. The breeding program to improve the internal quality of the
two strains of trellis tomatoes developed here was continued with a very satis-
factorj' crop. Since most of the tomatoes that have better internal quality are
later maturing, some of the desirable F2 population has been back-crossed to
Trellis No. 22 to get earlier 3'ield. A small early tomato, Denmark, has also been
used for some of the back crosses. Some new hybrids were made in the green-
house and planted for the summer crop, to determine what varieties could be
combined with Trellis No. 22 to take advantage of the hybrid vigor.

The most productive hybrid tried this year was Trellis No. 22 X Maine No.
85. This produced an early yield 44 percent greater than Trellis No. 22, with an
11 percent greater total yield, although the percentage of No. 1 fruits was only
slightly larger for the hybrid. Work with this hybrid will be continued. There
were other first -generation hybrids that produced an increase in yield, and the
second generation hybrids were above average in early yield.

Greenhouse Tomatoes. The spring crop of tomatoes was used as a test crop in
the use of a hormone spray to produce fruit without seed. Every other plant
was treated by spraying the cluster about the time two to three blossoms had
opened. Three applications were made one w'eek apart, and some of the buds
on the second cluster were small at the time of the last spray. The use of the
hormone spray almost doubled the average set of fruit on the first cluster. The
spray did not make so much difference in the set of the second cluster — 52 per-
cent for the sprayed, compared with 39 percent for the unsprayed. For both
clusters, the three sprays produced a set of 64 percent compared with 38 percent
for the untreated plants. There was no noticeable difference in flavor between
the seedless fruit and that having seed.

The disadvantage of this spray is that it must be confined to the flower cluster
because it affects the foliage about the same as severe mosaic. The labor of
putting on the spray, where it has to be applied several times, is considerable;
and further trials are necessary before its practical value can be determined.

Rutabaga or Cape Turnip. As reported last year, three distinct types of Ruta-
baga have been developed and were ready for trial, and six lots of these three
types were distributed in Bristol and Barnstable counties.

No. 1 has typical Cape turnip foliage and root shape. The chief distinguishing
feature is the absence of green coloring matter in the exposed shoulder, which,
however, develops a purple color when exposed to the sun. When grown with
sufficient foliage to furnish shade, the shoulder as well as the bottom of ithe root
is white.

No. 2 is a uniform type having white flesh and a green shoulder, and in general
resembles the White Cape strains.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 49

No. 3 has yellow flesh and green shoulder and is, in its general characteristics,
like the White Cape. Its smooth green shoulder is quite difi'erent from that of
the usual yellow type.

Careful observation and stud\ led to the conclusion that Nos. 1 and 3 were
deserving of consideration for general distribution in the turnip-growing sections
of the State.

Hutchinson Carrot. A crop of seed of the hybrid carrots which have been
under development was produced in the greenhouse. This hybrid strain, com-
pared with the regular Hutchinson in the fall crop, showed better interior and
exterior color with good length and shape. On account of slower growth, however,
it is not so well adapted for the early market, and attempts to improve it b\' breed-
ing and selection are being continued.

DEPARTMENT OF POiMOLOGY
R. A. Van Meter in Charge

The Influence of Various Clonal Rootstocks on Apple Varieties. (J. K. Shaw
and L. Southwick.) The stock bed set in the spring of 1940 yielded in the spring
of 1942 at the rate of from about 6000 to over 20,000 rooted layers per acre.
The 18 clonal types may be classified as follows:

Low yields: II, IX, X. XII, XV, A, C, Spy 227.

Medium yields: I, III, VII, VIII, F.

High yields: IV, V, XIII. X\I, Vt. 323.

This classification represents, in general, about what may be expected from
these stocks, but owing to the small areas involved, there may be some that are
wrongly classified. Probably Mailing VIII will usually fall in the low yielding
class and II in the medium class.

Many of the individual plants have died following this cutting in the second
year. The number of these failures seems to differ with the different stocks.
Perhaps a stock bed should be allowed to grow at least two >ears before severe
cutting, so that larger, more \'igorous root systems may be established.

The trees in our own six-year-old clonal stock orchard continue to grow \-igor-
ously and some trees have borne fair crops for their size. Thus far, there are no
significant differences in the increase in trunk diameter due to stock influence.
This is probably not true in all the cooperative orchards, for soil and other environ-
mental influences are important factors in the interrelation of stock and scion.

Lethal Incompatibilities between Clonal Stocks and Varieties of Apples.

(J. K. Shaw and L. Southwick.) The clonal stock Spy 227 was budded in 1941
to Staym.an, Winesap, and two strains of Mcintosh. In 1942 nearly all buds
started to grow, but Stayman failed to develop and by midsummer most of the
trees were dead or dying. Winesap failed a little later. One of the Mcintosh
strains grew normally all summer and the trees are now good one-year trees, while
the other strain behaved like Stayman. Several strains of Mcintosh and several
varieties belonging to the "W'inesap group" were budded on this stock in 1942
to see whether these varieties will act in the same way and how extensive this
type of relation ma\" be.

There seem to be lethal combinations between certain flowering crabs and
certain Mailing stocks. Bechtel crab failed to grow on Mailing III. These
combinations are being studied further.

50 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Tree Characters of Fruit Varieties. (J. K. Shaw, A. P. French, O. C. Roberts,
and L. Southwick.) The usual examination of commercial nurseries for trueness
to name was made in the summer of 1942. While occasional new mixtures were
found in inspected nurseries, the number of misnamed trees was small compared
with earlier years. As the work was extended mixtures were found in cherries,
pears, and plums. Increased attention is being given to peaches and thousands
of misnamed peach varieties are being eliminated although it is not possible to
give this as complete a service as other tree fruits. The only way to be sure
that peach varieties are invariably true to name is by the maintenance of a scion
orchard, known to be correctly named, as a source of renewal of budding stock.

Comparison of Cultivation and Sod in a Bearing Orchard. (J. K. Shaw.)
Of the cultivated plots, one is now under the mulching system and is reported
under the following project. Another which had ho fertilizer from 1921 to 1927,
but has since received nitrate of soda at the rate of 300 pounds per acre, has
developed symptoms of both potash and magnesium deficiency. If potash is
applied to correct this deficienc\- a magnesium deficiency will appear on soils not
well supplied with this element. Where nitrate of soda alone is used over a period
of years a potash deficiency appears on our soils under cultivation after about 10
to 15 years.

One of the sod plots of 10 trees which had been fertilized with nitrogen alone
has received a N-P-K fertilizer and another similar plot a N-K fertilizer for the
past four years. These plots now show a difference in yield, with the N-K plot
yielding best. Both plots have increased fields over the period when nitrogen
alone was applied thus dispelling, at least to this extent, the general contention
that only nitrogen was necessary as an orchard fertilizer.

Comparison of Cultivation and Heavy Mulching of Apples. (J. K. Shaw.)
The plot of nine Wealthy trees which had been mulched for 20 years continues to
show superiority over the similar adjoining plot which has been under cultivation
and cover crop, although no additional mulch has been applied for the past four
years. There is still a thick layer of decaying mulch through which grasses,
mostly quack grass, grow luxuriantly. General observations suggest that when
a young orchard is planted immediately following the reinoval of old trees, much
attention should be given to building up the soil which has been exhausted of
organic matter and nutrients, because it is concei^•able that old trees may be able
to maintain themselves quite well on a soil so deficient that newly planted trees
are unable to establish themselves and special fertilization should be provided.

The two plots in the 14-year-old Mcintosh clonal stock orchard near by were
mulched as last A'ear and the yield was significantly greater than that of adjacent
trees in a Ladino clover sod. No fertilizer has been applied since mulching began;
while the trees in the clover have received moderate applications of nitrogen and
potash. The foliage on the mulched plots was of a deeper green color and per-
sisted longer in the fall than on the adjacent trees. No signs of a nitrogen de-
pression have appeared on these mulched plots following the application of liberal
amounts of higher carbohydrate material.

The Effect of Orchard Mulches on the Plant Nutrients in the Soil. (J. K. Shaw
in cooperation with the Chemistry Department.) This project was continued by a
second application of hay mulch under the mulched trees and collecting soil samp-
les for analysis as last year. Grass growing up through the mulch of glass wool
was suppressed. No differences in the behavior of the trees was observed. The
objective is the study of the behavior of nutrients in the soil. Further comments
may be found among the Chemistry projects.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 51

Studies of Varieties of Fruits. (J. K. Shaw and Staff.)

Apples. Anoka has fruited for several years. It is not equal to Duchess for
commercial purposes, and its only value for us is its tendency to fruit very early
in its life.

Close is an earh' apple, first sent out as U.S.D.A. 57. It is fairly promising
as a red early apple of Yellow Transparent season, but variable in size and
shape.

Webster is a large red apple originated at the New York Experiment Station.
It is attractive in size, shape, and color and begins to bear early but is suitable
for cooking onh-.

Van Buren is reported to be a bud sport of Duchess. It is remarkable in that
nursery trees can be distinguished from Duchess. We know of no other bud sport
in propagation that can be so distinguished from the parent variety. It is promis-
ing to replace Duchess if one wants better color.

Pears. Two Bartlett-like pears, Berger and Conference, have come into
bearing. Berger seems to be the more promising, but it remains to be seen whether
it can compete with the well-established Bartlett. Conference seemed not equal
to Bartlett.

Peaches. N. J. 105. Large, yellow-fleshed, attractive, freestone, flesh fine to
firm, should be good shipper, quality good but not outstanding, will bear watching.
Ripe August 20.

N. J. 102. Large, attractive, yellow-fleshed, freestone, excellent quality, fine-
textured firm flesh, ripens a few days ahead of N. J. 105. Looks very promising.

Red Rose. Flavor tart and slightly astringent even when ripe, disappointing.

Blueberries. GN-87. A small crop was produced on a budded bush. The
berries were very large, firm, short-stemmed, oblate, very good blue, very attrac-
tive, and very good flavor. The clusters were large and compact making picking
a little hard. Skins tore some during picking. Season late medium to late. Had
some mumm\ berry. Looks very promising.

Scammell. This variety performed much better than ever before. It yielded
more and larger berries, and berry size held up better during the season. Never-
theless, the Aield is still too light for 't to compete with commercially recommended
varieties.

Raspberries. Tahoma is a bright red berry, not firm and of poor quality. So
far it does not seem promising for Massachusetts.

Washington is a large, firm berry of good quality. Worthy of further testing.

Mercy continues to promise well. It seems superior to Taylor, and may prove
worthv of cultivation here.

Nature of Winter Hardiness in the Raspberry. (R. A. Van Meter and A. P.
French.) A plantation of 22 raspberry varieties was set in the spring of 1942,
including the hardiest varieties and those most susceptible to injury by cold.
Preliminary trials of canes from older plantations suggest that the buds of vari-
eties most often injured by low temperatures have very short rest periods.

52 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Storage of Apples in Modified Atmospheres. (L. Southwick and O. C. Roberts,
in cooperation with the Department of Engineering.) On account of mechanical
difficulties with the storage room the test could not be started until November 27.
The oxygen percentage steadily decreased, reaching 2 percent in three weeks,
and thereafter the room atmosphere was maintained at 1 to 2.5 percent oxygen
and around 8 percent carbon dioxide by periodical "washing" out of the latter
and by infrequent partial ventilation to allow oxygen build-up. There is danger
of anaerobic respiration, development of off-fiavors, and death of apples under
long-continued oxygen levels below 1 percent. The room was opened on March
17 and the apples removed.

Cortland had scalded slightly to severely even when wrapped in oiled paper,
indicating that modified atmosphere storage is entirely unsuited to this variety.
The Golden Delicious were in excellent condition with practically no shriveling,
indicating that for this variety this type of storage ma}' be especially suitable.
The relative humidit\- rem.ained high throughout the storage period and this is
particularly important in successful storage of Golden Delicious. The Mcintosh
were variable, with condition good but quality onh fair. They were already
mature to slightly over-mature when the storage began to function properly late
in December and, under these conditions, they came through better than ex-
pected.

On September 25, 1942, the room was again filled and at the time of writing
(November 20) the storage appears to be functioning properly.

Nutrition of the High-bush Blueberry, Especially in Relation to Soil Reaction.
{]. S. Bailey.) A mixture of equal parts by weight of sulfur and ferrous sulfate
was found to be a good remedy for iron chlorosis. The amount required depends
on the acidity and buffering action of the soil and condition of the plant.

Blueberry Culture. (J. S. Baile\ .) Buds set in 1941 ga\e a small percentage
of successes. Winter protection of the buds b\- sawdust was of little value be-
cause the buds failed to "take" before the sawdust was applied. Bushes were
budded in 1942 at weekly intervals from July 25 to September 3 to observe the
effect of time of budding. Although some buds have already died, the "take"
seems to be much better than last year.

Four new varieties, Atlantic, Burlington, Weymouth, and No. 73, have recently
been added to the collection, which includes all the improved varieties now in
cultivation.

Preharvest Dropping of Apples. (L. Southwick.) Drop-control sprays and
dusts were used on Mcintosh, Duchess, and Wealthy.

With Duchess, which responded markedly to drop-control sprays in 1940, the
results with dusts were disappointing although the three dusts used were partially
effective. Two commercial materials applied as sprays were almost equally
effective and significantly more effective than the dusts.

With Wealthy, which responded poorly to "hormone" sprays in 1940, dusts
were relatively ineffective as w'as also one standard spray. With the other spray
applications, the degree to which drop was controlled was correlated with the
concentration of active chemical. These results support the conclusion reached
previously that under Massachusetts conditions the stronger sprays are likely to
be more effective. The added cost of more concentrated sprats ma}' or may not
prove profitable.

With Mcintosh, results were variable, but in general dusts were more satis-
factory than with Duchess or Wealth}\ The three commercial dusts varied
somewhat in apparent effectiveness but more than one season's tests are neces-
sary to confirm that differential results are really due to "brand." Repeat

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 53

applications (four daj's after the initial applications) increased effectiveness and,
in these cases, drop-control was substantial!}' equal to that obtained with sprays.
Applications followed in a few hours by rain were less effective. This was also
true in the case of a spray which failed to dry before the onset of rain. In one
instance, a second application four days after the first not only increased effective- ■
ness but prolonged the duration of effect.

From these tests, it is evident that spra>' applications were, in general, more
effective than dusts although the differences were not so significant but what they
may be easih' overcome when dust applications become more perfected. For
best control of drop in Massachusetts orchards it may be necessary to increase
concentrations somewhat.

Beach Plum Culture. (J. S. Bailey.) To gain a preliminary basis for pro-
cedure and to become more familiar with this fruit and its possibilities, a fertilizer
experiment was started at East Sandwich in cooperation with Mr. William Foster
and Dr. C. E. Cross.

A spraying experiment was also conducted consistent with the spray program
outlined by Mr. Bertram Tomlinson in Special Cicrular No. 46. This program
gave ver\- poor control of plum gouger, the worst insect pest of the beach plum,
but eliminated completely a gall maker which was present in great numbers on
the leaves of unsprayed bushes adjacent to the sprayed plot.

Plum Pockets is one of the worst diseases of the beach plum. Plenty of in-
fected fruits were found on older bushes surrounding the sprayed plot, but none
on the sprayed plot. Brown Rot, another serious disease of the beach plum,
and blights were fairly well controlled.

In cooperation with Dr. H. J. Franklin and Dr. C. E. Cross, a planting of
improved selections was made at the Cranberry Station at East Wareham.
These selections were supplied by Mr. J. M. Batchelor, plant explorer of the Soil
Conservation Service, and are considered, by him, to be the best beach plums to
be found anywhere along the east coast.

Other phases of the work are reported by the Departments of Botany and
Horticultural Manufactures.

Ethylene Dichloride Emulsion. (J. S. Bailey.) Experiments to test ethylene
dichloride emulsion for the control of peach tree borers were started in the fall of
1940 and continued through 1941 and 1942. Three cases of injury to trees were
observed, all of which resulted from over-dosage or faulty application. No
injury has been observed where applications were properly made.

Applications made September, October 1, and October 15, 1941, were very
effective in controlling peach tree borers. Those made November 1 and Novem-
ber 15, 1941, were not so effective.

The Use of Peat in Planting Apple Trees. (L. Southwick.) In the 1940 Annual
Report, a progress report was made on this experiment which began in the spring
of 1939. It was reported at that time that, after two growing seasons, there was
no significant difference in growth between the check and the treated trees. After
two more years of growth, with scanty fertilization, the same conclusion holds.

Killing Woody Weed Plants. (J. S. Bailey and L. Southwick.) Ammonium
sulfamate at three-fourth pound per gallon of water was very effective in killing
chokecherries. The black cherry is much more resistant. Sprays of this material
were used at several concentrations and the speed of killing of the leaves was pro-
portional to the concentration. It is too early to determine the effectiveness of
the various concentrations in destroying the whole plant.

On July 29, 1942, poison ivy in an apple orchard was thoroughly sprayed with

54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

ammonium sulfamate at dosages of one-fourth and one-half pounds per gallon
of water. By August 1 the younger leaves were considerably browned and dried
out and the older leaves showed some injury. During the following week, most
of the ivy appeared to be dead. The carry-over value of the treatment remains
to be determined. Experience showed that care must be exercised not to get
this poison ivy eradicant on apple trees.

Magnesium Deficiency in Massachusetts Apple Orchards. (L. Southwick.)
In September 1939, medium to severe intervenal leaf scorch was observed on
individual Mcintosh trees in two experiment station orchards. These trees also
showed excessive preharvest drop of truit. A test for potassium showed a high
level of this element in the leaves from afifected trees. In August 1941, the same
deficiency symptoms became prevalent in these and other orchards, particularly
in a young orchard set in May 1939. In 1942, the trouble was evident in many
commercial orchards. Other typical symptoms besides leaf scorch included
occasional yellow banding and mottling and usually abnormally early leaf fall
commencing near the bases of current shoot growths and progressing upwards.
The symptoms suggested magnesium deficiency and chemical analyses of leaves
in the late fall of 1941 tended to support this hypothesis. At that time, soil was
collected from the young orchard mentioned above and Mailing rootstocks were
set in 2 and 3 gallon crocks and forced into growth in the greenhouse in February.
Typical deficiency symptoms became evident in all pots where magnesium was
not added and the trouble was most severe in the potassium-fertilized pots.
Chemical analyses of the leaves showed low amounts of magnesium wherever
deficiency symptoms were prevalent and high amounts where symptoms were
not present.

In August 1942, leaf samples were obtained from many apple trees. Chemical
analj'ses of unburned leaves from trees showing variable degrees of foliage scorch
and leaf fall showed that there was consistent correlation between symptom sev-
erity and the magnesium and potassium leaf contents. Magnesium was always
low and potassium always tended to be high in trees showing deficiency symptoms.
Most of the afifected orchards were on acid soils.

Just why the trouble has been more prevalent and severe in the past two
years is not easy to explain although several factors may be significant. Increased
use of potassium in recent Aears may have caused a build-up to such a point as
to accentuate the need for magnesium. Increased use of mild sulfur sprays and
sulfur dusts has tended to increase soil acidity. Weather conditions, particularly
rainfall, may have influenced the amounts of magnesium available to trees. These
are surmises only. Of course, it is probably true that magnesium deficiency in
apple orchards is not new but that It had not been recognized as such.

Magnesium deficiencies may be overcome either through the use of adequate
applications of high magnesium (dolomitic) limestone or, where quicker results
are desired, by applying some soluble magnesiuni compound such as magnesium
sulfate.

Temperature of Orchard Soils. (J. S. Bailey.) Thermographs were placed in
the soil under two Mcintosh trees in the Clark Orchard, one under a mulched
tree, and the other under a tree growing in sod. The following observations were
made:

1. The soil temperature under mulch was lower than that under sod from
March to August; from August to late January the temperature under
mulch was higher; from late January to March the soil temperature under
sod and mulch was about the same and nearly constant.

2. Soil under sod warmed up faster In the spring and cooled of? faster in the
fall.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 55

DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY
R. T. Parkhurst in Charge

Broodiness in Poultry. (F. A. Hays.) Results of crossing strains over a 10-year
period confirm the h^'pothesis that two dominant complementary autosomal
genes, A and C are necessary to produce the broody instinct in Rhode Island Red
females. Extreme care in crossing strains is necessary to avoid bringing together
these two genes.

The attempt is still being made to develop a non-broody strain of Rhode Island
Reds through progeny testing. The major objective yet to be accomplished is to
discover whether or not both genes A and C can be completely eliminated by this
method.

A Genetic Study of Rhode Island Red Color. (F. A. Hays.) Two lines of exhi-
bition-bred Rhode Island Reds are being developed; one selectively bred for early
sexual maturity, and the other for late sexual maturity. Complete plumage
color records are made on all birds, and females are trapnested for a full year to
get their performance record. Feather samples are also taken at sexual maturity
from all birds and these are being studied for pigment distribution.

Crosses between Rhode Island Reds and Buff Orpingtons indicate that the
extension factor E for melanin pigment is not present, but that Buff Orpingtons
are essentially the same as Rhode Island Reds in that the e factor permits the
development of some black pigment in neck, wings, and tail. Fi hybrids are
intermediate in general plumage color, but the lipochrome pigment in skin, beak,
and shanks is inhibited so that the color is white.

The Effectiveness of Selective Breeding in Reducing Mortality in Rhode
Lsland Reds. Cooperative Project with the Regional Poultry- Research Labora-
tory of East Lansing, Michigan, and the Department of Veterinary Science.
(F. A. Hays.) Seven generations have been carried through to the age of 18
months to study the effectiveness of selective breeding in reducing mortality in
one line and increasing mortality in another. The loss from cannibalism in the
females of the low mortality line was double that in the high mortality line.
Such losses distort the results, but there was no indication that selective breeding
with small numbers is effective In reducing the mortallt}- rate of males and females
from the ordinary diseases and disorders.

Losses during this period were produced by a number of disorders but there
were no acute outbreaks of disease. In many cases more than one disorder ap-
peared In the same individual and the primary cause of death was not determined.

Genetic Laws Governing the Inheritance of High Fecundity in Domestic
Fowl. (F. A. Hays and Rubj- Sanborn.) At the present time particular attention
Is being given to the establishment of genetic uniformity in Intensity of laying.
Intensity Is a complex character which has an important relation to egg size.
Egg size has reached a satisfactory level, but Intensity is still highly variable
and there Is considerable difficulty In combining large egg size with high intensity.
The incidence and duration of winter pause have also received special attention.
In other characters affecting egg production there Is a satisfactory degree of
uniformity In the flock.

A Study of Fertility Cycles in Males. (F. A. Hays.) In addition to the histo-
logical study of stages of spermatogenesis In males of different ages and at differ-
ent seasons, still under way, attention has been given to fertility tests of males in
natural matings throughout the summer. During this period the oldest male
(36 months old) declined In fertility from 81 percent to 45 percent. The 24-

56 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

months-old male began with 100 percent fertility, declined to 74 percent in mid-
June, but returned to 100 percent fertility in late July. The young male (12
months old) showed consistent fertility throughout the 10-week period, but his
record was never equal to that of the 24-months-old male. On the female side,
yearling hens were consistently higher in fertility than either old hens or pullets.

Miscellaneous Genetic Studies. (F. A. Hays.) Linkage studies between
genes for shank feathering, comb form, and mottled ear lobes in Rhode Island
Reds will soon be concluded. The dominant sex-linked gene has been eliminated
so that stocks of crossbreds that carry only the autosomal gene E' are being
developed. Progress is being made on a new method for separating the sexes in
Rhode Island Red Chicks on the basis of down color. A gold-barred strain is
being developed for auto-sexing chicks. The effect of ultra-violet irradiation on
mutation rate is being studied. Selective breeding for abnormal sex-ratios is
being carried on.

Alkaline Phosphates and Egg Shell Formation. (Marie S. Gutowska and
R. T. Parkhurst, with the cooperation of E. M. Parrott and R. M. Verberg of
the Chemistry Department.) Studies were conducted to throw more light on
the question whether or not alkaline phosphatase is a factor in egg shell forma-
tion. It was found that:

1. The physiological mechanism of the deposition of calcium in the egg
shell was independent of a local phosphatase activity factor in the shell gland
(uterus) of the hen.

2. The phosphatase activity in the blood plasma of the laying hen seemed to
be related to a definite genetic constitution of the hens — high productivity and
good egg shell strength.

3. The deposition of calcium in the egg shell was based on a different mechan-
ism than the calcification of the bones.

4. Phosphatase activity was very low in the shell gland, in the oviduct, and
in the ova of the laying hens as well as in their bones at the tmie of shell forma-
tion. It was considerably higher in the blood plasma, coming within the lower
range found in human blood.

5. The necessary transformation of the colloid compound containing calcium
and phosphorus, and yielding calcium for the egg shell, appeared to take place
in the blood itself; the shell gland acting, probably, only as an excretory organ
for calcium.

Crab Meal as a Replacement for Fish Meal in the Laying and Breeding Ra-
tions. (Raymond T. Parkhurst and Emery J. Jefferson with C. R. Fellers of the
Department of Horticultural Manufactures cooperating.) In further studies in
which crab meal replaced fish meal on an equal-protein basis (4 pounds for 2.5
pounds) in the Massachusetts complete all-mash laying ration, corn dried dis-
tillers grains with solubles, corn distillers dried solubles, and fermentation sol-
ubles (with soybean oil meal) also replaced all the dried skimmilk in the ration.

The results confirmed previous conclusions that crab meal can replace all of
the fish meal in the ration used, in which adjustment was made for the higher
mineral content of the crab meal. Comparable egg production, egg weight, body
weight, feed consumption, feed efficiency, egg quality, hatchability and chick
quality were also obtained when the distiller^' and fermentation by-products
replaced the dried skimmilk.

In the groups with Red-Rock crosses, the percentage hatchability of fertile
eggs was higher for the rations containing skimmilk than for those containing
distillers dried solubles, whether used with fish meal or crab meal and, in both
cases, was higher for fish meal than for crab meal. For Rhode Island Reds, the

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 57

percentage hatchability of fertile eggs was higher for fish meal than for crab
meal when used with distillers grains with solubles; but was higher for the crab
meal when used with fermentation solubles and soybean oil meal.

Corn Dried Distillers' By-products in Laying Rations. (R. T. Parkhurst, C.
R. Fellers, and J. W. Kuzmeski.) Complete or unsupplemented all-mash diets
were fed to Rhode Island Red pullets in laying cages. All the dried skimmilk
(2.5 percent) was replaced by an equal amount of dried distillers' by-products
from mashes containing a high percentage of yellow corn. The by-products tested
were the "screenings" or conventional light grains; the "grains," which were the
grains with solubles or dark grains containing the residue (screenings) with which
were dried the screened condensed stillage (solubles); and the "solubles", ob-
tained by drying the stillage, after removal of the alcohol and "screenings."

The rations containing these by-products, each supplemented with meat-
scraps, gave as good production results as meatscraps and dried skimmilk, as
indicated by percentage egg production, egg weights, body weight gains and
egg qualit3^ Mortality was low in all groups. Similar production results were
obtained when fish meal replaced meatscraps as a supplement to "grains" and
to "solubles". Hatchability was better when the "solubles" were fed. With
either fish meal or meat scraps, "solubles" were comparable to milk in results
obtained. With fish meal, "grains" also gave good hatchability.

Dried Cereal Grasses in Starting Rations. (R. T. Parkhurst, J. H. X'ondell,
and J. W. Kuzmeski.) Dried cereal grasses at levels of 1.25 and 2.5 percent
adequately replaced dehydrated alfalfa meal at a 5 percent level in a meatscrap
basal ration in which the vitamin D was obtained from D-activated animal
sterol. In a similar comparison involving the 1942 (revised) New England Col-
lege starter, equally good results were obtained with a low cost ration containing
15 percent soybean oil meal, dry vitamin D, and both dried cereal grasses and
alfalfa meal, provided both fish meal and meatscraps were used. Results were
not satisfactory when meatscraps were the only animal protein concentrate
included in the ration.

DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SCIENCE
J. B. Lentz in Charge

Poultry Disease Control Service. (H. Van Roekel, K. L. Bullis, O. S. Flint,
and M. K. Clarke.)

1. Pidlorum Disease Eradication. During the 1941-42 testing season 366
chicken flocks and 31 turkey flocks were tested for pullorum disease. The results
from this service are reported in a separate bulletin issued for that purpose.

2. Diagnostic Service. A total of 2,180 specimens in 498 consignments were
examined. Personal delivery of specimens was made in 252 cases. The speci-
mens may be classified as follows: J ,932 chickens, 190 turkeys, 11 foxes, 9 mink,
8 each of goat feces and pigeons, 4 each of pheasants and rabbits, 3 each of
canine feces and geese, 2 each of dogs and quail, and 1 each of equine feces, feed,
parrakeet, and sheep.

It is encouraging to note that avian tuberculosis and fowl typhoid were not
encountered during the year. The former has not been widespread in recent
years, but fowl tj'phoid began to reach serious proportions until 1939, when educa-
tional activities by the County Extension Services and the Massachusetts Divi-
sion of Livestock Disease Control were apparently effective in checking further

58 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

spread. Pullorum disease Is rarelj' encountered in chicks where owners have
adopted effective measures for the eradication and prevention of this disease.
Twelve new foci of fowl cholera infection were identified during the year. Fowl
cholera has been found on 53 premises during the past 10 years. This disease
continues to become more widespread and of greater economic importance.
Listerellosis was identified in one chicken, but apparently was not a source of
great trouble in the flock in which it was encountered. The 69 tumors encoun-
tered were classified on the basis of gross examination as lymphocytoma 35,
embryonal nephroma 9, myelocytoma 7, fibrosarcoma 5, hemangioma 4, fibroma
2, not identified 2, hematonia 1, leiomyoma 1, and myxoma I.

The 190 turkej's were received in 48 consignments. The diseases encountered
most frequently were coccidiosis, paratyphoid, ulcerative enteritis, and entero-
hepatitis. Four cases of pullorum disease were poults shipped in from outside
of the State. Swine erysipelas was detected in September in two flocks which
were being reared in confinement. Limited observations suggest that this in-
fection is apt to be encountered earlier in the season in birds reared in confine-
ment than in birds reared on range; also that such an outbreak may be controlled
by lettmg the birds out on range. This reduces direct contact between birds and
stops much of the feather picking.

3. Flock Mortality Studies. Morbid and dead birds from the flock main-
tained at the College for genetic studies have been examined to determine the
causes of mortality and to furnish information for experiments in genetics. This
is a continuation of work similar to that conducted in former years. ^ During the
fiscal year, 340 birds were examined. Since these represent birds hatched over a
period of five years, major emphasis is placed on the group which finished its
first la^'ing \ear during the past fiscal year. From the birds hatched in the spring
of 1941 , a total of 331 , representing 242 females and 89 males, have been examined.
No extensive outbreak of any particular disease w^as noted during the year, but
the recognition of 13 cases of aspergillosis was unusual. Fowl paralysis was
noted in an increased number of birds, despite efforts to effect a reduction through
elimination of families showing a high incidence of the disease. Over three-
fourths of the cases of fowl paralysis noted were in birds which had not reached
sexual maturity. Fowl paralysis was noted more frequently than any other
disease. Other conditions noted in order of frequenc\' were kidney disorders,
tumors, reproductive disorders, and cannibalism. Pathological conditions in
birds more than 18 months of age were quite similar to those in the jounger birds,
except that the percentages of leiomyoma and carcinoma increased markedly.

4. Salmonella Types Isolated. Paratyphoid organisms isolated from diseased
specimens were identified as to t>pe. A total of 15 strains was recovered from
consignments received from 10 different flocks. Twelve strains were S. typhi-
murium, two w^ere 5. newport, and one was 5. derby. The 5. typhi-murium strains
w-ere isolated from two pigeons and ten turkeys (five poults and five mature birds).
The 5. newport and 5. derby strains were recovered from poults. In one instance
5. typhi-muriii7n and 5. derby were isolated from the same flock, but the stock
originated from two different sources which may account for the presence of the
two types.

We are greatly indebted to Dr. Philip Edwards, Department of Animal Path-
ology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, who identified these strains
as to type.

5. Avian Encephalomyelitis. Duirng the past year studies of avian encephalo-
myelitis were continued. Serial passage of this virus in young chicks has reached
the 128th transfer. No perceptible change in the nature of the virus has been

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 59

observed. -Chicks hatched from eggs laid by laboratory breeding stock revealed
evidence of avian encephalomyelitis at hatching time. This observation further
substantiates previous findings at this laboratory that this infection may be
egg-borne.

6. Infectious Bronchitis. During the past year investigations in the control
of infectious bronchitis were continued with the cooperation of the Extension
Service and the Massachusetts Division of Livestock Disease Control. The 14
flocks inoculated with a laboratory strain of live infectious bronchitis virus in
the summer of 1941 passed through the laying season without contracting the
disease. In two instances evidence of respiratory infection was observed, but
infectious bronchitis was not definitely diagnosed.

The results of these field investigations were received with great enthusiasm
by other flock owners whose flocks had experienced this disease. During 1942
the program was extended to additional flocks, in which the infection had previ-
ously been observed. Susceptible birds were inoculated or exposed to infection
before reaching sexual maturity. In most instances post-inoculation reactions
were favorable. However, it was noted that concomitant infections or diseases
and climatic and management factors play a definite role in the response of the
flock to infectious bronchitis virus. Mature birds which were regarded as im-
mune to the infection due to previous exposure failed in every instance to con-
tract the disease from the inoculated young stock. The results of the field trials
appear encouraging, but before a practical control program is inaugurated fur-
ther critical tests should be conducted.

Investigations have also been continued to develop a reliable method of de-
tecting birds that ha\'e been exposed to infectious bronchitis infection. Such a
method will serve as a guide in using this virus only in flocks that have had the
disease.

7. Farm Department Brucellosis Control and Eradication. The laboratory
cooperated in this work by testing 639 bovine blood samples by the standard tube
agglutination method.

Studies of Neoplastic and Neoplastic-like Diseases. (Carl Olson, Jr.) Prog-
ress under this study was interrupted by Dr. Olson's enlistment in military
service and therefore no conclusive report is possible at this time.

WALTHAM FIELD STATION
Waltham, Massachusetts
Ray M. Koon, in Charge

The members of the research staff of the Waltham Field Station are assigned
to the unit by the Departments of Botany, Entomology, Floriculture, Horti-
culture, and Vegetable Gardening. Reports of these departments give results
of investigations conducted at this station.

Soil Testing Service. Testing soil for commercial vegetable growers, mush-
room growers, florists, nurserymen, greenkeepers, arborists, vendors of loam, and
home gardeners has long been regarded as an important service which the Field
Station has rendered. More recently this program has been extended to include
service to the State Department of Public Works, the Metropolitan District
Commission, Works Project Administration, U. S. Army Engineers, and town
and city administrations. There is no doubt that this effort is effective, partic-
ularly when the soil test is followed by a personal interview between the client
and the technician. The total number of soil samples tested in 1942 was 6134.

60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

Field Day. Because of the shortage of gasoline and tires, and the lack of farm
machinery for demonstration purposes, this annual meeting, which would have
been the twenty-fourth, was not observed. Special groups and individuals,
however, interested in certain particular experiments and trials visited the Station
at opportune times. Among them were the New England Carnation Growers
Association, Boston Market Gardeners Association, Greenkeepers Club of New
England, Society of American Florists and Ornamental Horticulturists, Massa-
chusetts Fruit Growers Association, U.S.D.A. Club, New England Seedsmen's
Association, and the New York-New England Fruit Spray Specialists.

PUBLICATIONS

Bulletins

388 Annual Report for the Fiscal Year Ending November 30, 1941. 108 pp.
illus. February 1942.

The main purpose of this report is to provide an opportunity for present-
ing in published form, recent results from experimentation in fields or on
■ projects where progress has not been such as to justify the general and
definite conclusions necessary to meet the requirements of bulletin or jour-
nal.

389 Production and Prices of Milk in the Springfield-Holyoke-Chicopee
Milkshed in 1935. By Alfred A. Brown and Mabelle Booth. 32 pp. illus.
February 1942.

A comprehensive understanding of the productive organization and the
marketing disposal facilities of the fluid milk industry is a necessary basis
for sound marketing regulation. To this end, the investigation reported
here was undertaken.

390 The Composition and Nutritive Value of Potatoes with Special Emphasis
on Vitamin C. By William B. Esselen, Jr., Mary E. Lyons, and Carl R.
Fellers. 19 pp. March 1942.

Potatoes enjoy a prominent position in the American diet. It is the
purpose of this study to evaluate the nutritive properties of this popular
vegetable, with special emphasis on the value of the cooked potato as a
source of vitamin C.

391 A Survey and Study of Spontaneous Neoplastic Diseases in Chickens.
By Carl Oslon, Jr., and K. L. Bullis. 56 pp. illus. April 1942.

Neoplastic diseases (tumors) cause much loss to the poultry industry.
This collection of cases of neoplasia gives information of the characteristics
and relative incidence of the different types.

392 Blooming Dates of Some Selected Hardy Perennials. By Harold S. Tiffany.
55 pp. April 1942.

A flower lover's ambition is to have some blooms available in the garden
at all times during the growing season. This bulletin should be of service
in the selection of perennials for that purpose.

393 Bay State, A Red Forcing Tomato Bred for Resistance to Leaf Mold. By
E. F. Guba. 8 pp. illus. June 1942.

Leaf mold is a devastating disease of tomato in greenhouses and its con-
trol is difficult and expensive. This bulletin describes a new greenhouse
tomato which combines resistance to certain strains of the fungus with
desirable commercial fruit type.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 61

394 The Control of Damplng-off of Vegetables by Formaldehyde and Other
Chemicals. By W. L. Doran, E. F. Cuba, and C. J. Gilgut. 20 pp. June
1942.

Damping-off is one of the most serious problems of the vegetable grower,
and the results here reported should provide safer and more effective con-
trol of the disease in hotbeds and greenhouses.

395 Preparation and Use of Artificial Manures. By Karol J. Kucinski. 12 pp.
jIIus. July 1942.

The real or assumed dependence of crop production upon animal manures
has encouraged this attempt to provide an artificial substitute.

396 Breeding Rhode Island Reds for Rapid Feathering. By F. A. Hays and
Ruby Sanborn. 24 pp. illus. September 1942.

Rapid chick feathering, particularly over the back region, is a very
valuable character in general purpose fowls. This study was carried on
over a long period to discover a reliable method for fixing this character
in Rhode Island Reds.

397 A Civilian Program for Tree Protection. By Malcolm A. McKenzie. 32
pp. illus. December 1942.

Public appreciation of shade trees in Massachusetts is evidenced by the
extensive and varied planting throughout the State. This bulletin, pre-
pared primarily to promote municipal tree management, also suggests
methods of tree care in general.

Control Bulletins

112 Twenty-second Annual Report of Pullorum Disease Eradication in Massa-
chusetts. By the Poultry Disease Control Laboratory. 11pp. June 1942.

113 Inspection of Commercial Feedstuffs. By Philip H. Smith. 25 pp. Sep-
tember 1942.

114 Inspection of Commercial Fertilizers and Agricultural Lime Products.
By Fertilizer Control Service Staff. 48 pp. October 1942,

115 Seed Inspection. By F. A. McLaughlin. 94 pp. December 1942.

Meteorological Bulletins

637-648, inclusive. Monthly reports giving daily weather records, together with
monthly and annual summaries. By C. I. Gunness. 4 pp. each.

Reports of Investigations in Journals

385 The Effect of Storage on Carbohydrates of the Ebenezer Onion. By Emmett

Bennett. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 39:293-294. 1941.
399 Scoring Baked Potatoes for Texture. By Monroe E. Freeman. Food Res

6 (6):595-598. 1941.
401 A Study of Neoplastic Disease in a Flock of Chickens. By Carl Olson,

Jr. Amer. Jour. Vet. Res. 3(6):111-116. 1942.
403 Report on Soluble Chlorine in Feeding Stuffs. By John W. Kuznieski.

Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. Jour. 25 (4):870-874. 1942.
406 Vitamin Content of Green Snap Beans. Influence 'of Freezing, Canning,

and Dehydration on the Content of Thiamin, Riboflavin, and Ascorbic

Acid. By Kenneth T. Farrell and Carl R. Fellers. Food Res. 7 (3):17l-177

1942.

62 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

412 Studies in Mineral Nutrition of Laying Hens. I. The Manganese Re-
quirement. By Marie S. Gutowska and Raymond T. Parkhurst. Poultry
Sci. 21 (3):277-287. 1942.

413 Studies in Mineral Nutrition of Laying Hens. II. Excess of Calcium in
the Diet. By Marie S. Gutowska and Raymond T. Parkhurst. Poultry
Sci. 21 (4):321-328. 1942.

415 A Device for Marking Fields on Microscope Slides. By Carl Olson, Jr.
Jour. Lab. and Clin. Med. 27 (7):939-940. 1942.

417 The Significance of Tannic Substances and Theobromine in Chocolate Milk.
By William S. Mueller. Jour. Dairy Sci. 25 {3):221-230. 1942.

418 Experimental Autoecism and Other Biological Studies of a Gall-Forming
Peridermium on Northern Hard Pines. By Malcolm A. McKenzie. Phyto-
pathology 32 (9) :785-798. 1942.

419 Report on Zinc. B\- E. B. Holland and VV. S. Ritchie.
Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem. Jour. 25 (2):393-394. 1942.

421 Maintaining Fertility- Levels in Massachusetts Pastures. By \V. G. Colby.
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 6 (1941):281-284. 1942.

422 The Inheritance of Blossom Type and Blossom Size in the Peach. By J. S.
Bailey and A. P. French. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 40:248-250. 1942.

423 Relative Inhibition of Microorganisms by Glucose and Sucrose Sirups.
By L. Tarkow, C. R. Fellers and A. S. Levine. Jour. Bact. 44 (3):367-372.
1942.

424 Further Studies on the Control of Preharvest Drop of Mcintosh. By
Lawrence Southwick. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 40:39-41. 1942.

425 Further Observations on a Narrow-Leaf Variation of the Apple. By A. P.
French and Lawrence Southwick. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 40:245-247.
1942.

426 Trunk Diameters of Young Apple Trees on Clonal Stocks. By J. K. Shaw.
Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 40:269-271. 1942.

427 An Improved Orange Juice Concentrate. By A. Sedky, C. R. Fellers, and
W. B. Esselen, Jr. Fruit. Prod. Jour. 21 (5J:136-138.' 1942.

428 An Improved Orange Marmalade of High Vitamin C Content. B>' A. Sedky,
C. R. Fellers, and W. B. Esselen, Jr. Fruit Prod. Jour. 21 (6):170-172,
185, 189. 1942.

429 The Availability of the Iron of Cocoa and of Iron-Fortified Cocoa Mixtures.
By Faye Kinder, W. S. Mueller, and Helen S. Mitchell. Jour. Dairy Sci.
25 (5):401-408. 1942.

430 The Nontoxicity of Levulinic Acid. By R. G. Tischer, C. R. Fellers and
B. J. Doyle. Jour. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. Sci. Ed. 31 (7):217-220. 1942.

431 Tomato Catsup as a Source of Vitamin C. By W. B. Esselen, Jr., and H.
Fram. Jour. Home Econ. 34 (9):677-678. 1942.

432 The Control of Wood Decay. By Malcolm A. McKenzie. Pests and Their
Control, March 1942.

433 Cider-Apple Jelly. By S. G. Davis, C. R. Fellers, and A. S. Levine. Fruit
Prod. Jour. 21 (9):260-261, 283. 1942.

434 Measurement of Texture in Baked-Potato Tissue. By Monroe E. Freeman.
Food Res. 7 (6):451-458. 1942.

435 Geography of New England Soils. By A. B. Beaumont. Econ. Geog. 18
(2):203-208. 1942.

437 Propagation of Garden Sage, Salvia officinalis L., by Cuttings, Especially
by Cuttings Taken in Winter. By W. L. Doran and A. M. Davis. Amer.
Nurseryman 76 (5):12. 1942.

ANNUAL REPORT, 1942 63

438 Effect of Freezing and of Canning in Glass and in Tin on Available Iron
Content of Foods. By F. R. Theriault and C. R. Fellers. Food Res.
7 (6)-503-508. 1942.

439 Bacteriological Study of Chocolate Milk. By James E. Fuller, W. S.
Mueller, and R. W. Swanson. Jour. Dairy Sci. 25 (10):883-894. 1942.

440 Cranberry Storage Tests. By C. I. Gunness. Cranberries, September
1942, pp. 7, 10.

441 The Food Value of Mushrooms (Agaricus campestris). By E. E. Anderson
and C. R. Fellers. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. Proc. 41:301-304. 1942.

442 Effect of Apples, Tomatoes, and Dates on Urinary Acidity and Blood
Alkali Reserve. By K. G. Shea and C. R. Fellers. Jour. Amer. Dietet.
Assoc. 18 (7):454-457. 1942.

444 Composition and Utilization of the Beach Plum. By S. G. Davis and A. S.
Levine. Fruit Prod. Jour. 21 (12):361-364. 1942.

445 Heat Capacity and Bound Water in Starch Suspensions. By Monroe E.
Freeman. Arch. Biochem. 1 (l):27-39. 1942.

449 A Comparison of Four Methods for Determining Vitamin C with a 25-Day,
Weight- Response Bioassay. C. F. Dunker, C. R. Fellers, and W. B.
Esselen, Jr. Food Res. 7 (4):260-266. 1942.

452 Propagation of Beach Plums by Softwood Cuttings. By W. L. Doran and
J. S. Bailey. Amer. Nurseryman 76 (6):7. 1942.

453 Factors Responsible for the Darkening of Packaged Orange Juice. By E. L.
Moore, W. B. Esselen, Jr., and C. R. Fellers. Food Prod. Jour. 22 (4):100-
102, 124. 1942.

454 The Hemicelluloses of Forage Plants. By Emmett Bennett. Jour. Biol.
Chem. 146 (2):407-409. 1942.

457 Dehydrated Baked Beans. By W. B. Esselen, Jr., and S. G. Davis. The
Canner, October 17, 1942.

Unnumbered Contributions

Slime Flux of Trees. By E. F. Cuba. Arborists Net^'s 7 (13) :1 7-18. March 1942
Third List of Fungi of Nantucket. By E. F. Guba and E. V. Seeler. Rhodora

44:167-175. May 1942.
Progress Report Including Transcriptions of Certain Papers Presented at the

Ninth Annual Five-Day Short Course for Tree Wardens and Other Workers

with Trees, M. S. C, March 30-April 4, 1942.
Indoor Culture of Plants. By L. H. Jones, p. 4.

Ferns in the Roadside Landscape. By A. Vincent Osmun. pp. 12-13.
Municipal Tree Programs in National Defense. By Malcolm A. McKen-
zie. pp. 29-30.
The Present Status of the Dutch Elm Disease and the Program for Massachu-
setts. By Malcolm A. McKenzie. Rpt. of 44th Annual Meeting of the

Mass. Forest and Park Assoc, January 29, 1942.
The Dutch Elm Disease in New England. By Malcolm A. McKenzie. Proc.

Annual Meeting of the Mass. Tree Wardens' and Foresters' Assoc, Boston,

February 4 and 5, 1942.
Iodoform Flavor in Milk. By H. G. Lindquist. Jour. Milk Technol. 5 (6):334-

335. 1942.
Butter from Goats' Milk. By H. G. Lindquist. N. E. Goat News 4 (7:)1, 9, 11.

July 1942.
Control the Flavor. By H. G. Lindquist. N. E. Goat News 4 (10):1, 7, 8.

October 1942.

64 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 398

War Time Milk Delivery. By J. H. Frandsen. Milk Plant Monthly, May, 1942.

pp'. 32-33.
Quality Goat Milk and How It is Produced. By J. H. Frandsen. 1941 Yearbook

Amer. Goat Soc, Inc., 1942. pp. 82-86.
Orchard Insects in 1941. By W. D. Whitcomb and A. I. Bourne. Ann. Rpt.

Mass. Fruit Growers' Assoc. 1942.
The Codling Moth Menace. By W. D. Whitcomb. Ann. Rpt. Mass. Fruit

Growers' Assoc. 1942. pp. 27-34.
Some Observations on the Effects of Sulfur Compounds Applied During Bloom,

on Bee Behavior. By F. R. Shaw and A. I. Bourne. Jour. Econ. Ent.

35 (4):607-608, 1942.
Prionus laticoUis (Drury) in a Subterranean Wooden Duct for Telephone Cables.

By W. B. Becker. Jour. Econ. Ent. 35 (4):608, 1942.
Benzoate as a Wartime Food Preservative. By William B. Esselen, Jr. Glass

Packer, September 1942.
Should the Glass Packer Be Concerned About Light? By J. J. Powers and W. B.

Esselen, Jr. Glass Packer, October 1942.
Other Preservatives for Foods. By F. P. Griffiths. Glass Packer, November 1942.
A Note on the Japanese Quince. By Arthur S. Levine. Fruit Prod. Jour. 21

(6):177. 1942.
Souring of Dates by Sugar-Tolerant Yeasts. By C. R. Fellers and J. A. Clague.

Fruit Prod. Jour. 21 (ll):326-327, 347. 1942.
The Non-Toxicity of Levulinic Acid. By R. G. Tischer, C. R. Fellers, and B. J.

Doyle. Quart. Jour. Amer. Med. Technol., April 1942.
Does Light Have Any Effect on Glass Packed Foods? By J. J. Powers and

W. B. Esselen, Jr. Ceramic Indus., August 1942.
Massachusetts Toxicity Test Assay for Red Squill Powder. By C. R. Fellers and

A. S. Levine. Mimeographed. 1942.
Hopper Feeding May Require Changes in Ration. By R. T. Parkhurst. Poultry

Tribune, February 1942.
Finding Substitutes for Cod Liver Oil. By R. T. Parkhurst. New England

Homestead, February 7, 1942.
Government Wheat in Poultry and Turkey Rations. By R. T. Parkhurst. New

England Homestead, April 18, 1942.
Northeastern Poultrymen and National Defense. By R. T. Parkhurst. North-
eastern Poultryman, April 15, 1942.
Ground Barley in Poultry Feeding. By R. T. Parkhurst. Northeastern Poultry-
man, May 15., 1942.
Dried Distillers' Grains with Solubles. By R. T. Parkhurst. Northeastern

Poultryman, June 15, 1942.
The Use of Certain Milk Replacements in Starting and Growing Rations for

Poultry. By R. T. Parkhurst. Feedstuffs, May 16, 1942.
War-time Poultry Feeding Problems. By R. T. Parkhurst. Feedstuffs, October

10, 1942.
War-time Homes for Hens. By R. T. Parkhurst. Country Gentleman, July

1942.
Control of Respiratory Diseases. By H. Van Roekel. National Poultry Digest,

November 15, 1942.