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Ww York State Museum
, FREDERICK. iRee se MERRILL Tereetor
aay : * Bulletin 71 . ZOOLOGY 10 an = FEEDING HABITS AND GROWTH a
OF
JAMES L. .KELLOGG Ph. D, Sat jae PAGE PAGE Dye SE A Se ey a 3 Growth under wire netting . ieee Growth above the bottom....... 23 Soa Scr era eye OS SR EMES OS... yan pete eed Thee TORN OTe NASON 55 hc ee pean yee a SP Sep ee nae 18 | Description of figures........... 26 AB es TOF | PEioOunesw a8). . 2s. es bac a2 Peas 22 | Index.................. sees een 28 iqs6TT ALBANY UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK X 1903 .
Price 10 cents
1892
1878 1877 LSAT 188i 1881 1883
1885 1890 1890 1895 1895 1895
1897 1900 1901 1901 1902 1903 1903 1903 1903
University of the State of New York REGENTS
With years of election i
WILLIAM CROSWELL DOANE D.D. LY. D. Chancellor, Albany
WHItELAW ReEip M.A. LL.D. Vice hans New York
CHAUNCEY M. DEPEW LL.D. - - - New York CHARLES BE. Firce LL.B. M-A. l.o. D> Rochester Wit11am H. Warson M.A. M.D. LL.D. - Utica Henry KE. TurRNER LL.D. - : = ss Lowville Si -Crarr- McKEL way MsAy LED. Tipe:
D.C.1,. Brooklyn
DANIEL BEACH Ph.D. LL.D. - - - Watkins Puiny I. Sexton LL.D. er ee res aliens T. GuiiForp SurrH M.A. C.E. LL.D. - Buffalo Lewis A. Stimson B.A. L1,.D. M.D. (- - New York ALBERT VANDER VEER M.A, Ph.D. M.D. - Albany CHARLES R. SKINNER M.A. LL.D.
Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex officio
CHESTER S. Lord M.A. LL.D. - - - Brooklyn THomas A. HenpRicK M.A. LL.D. - - Rochester BENJAMIN B. ODELL JR LL.D. Governor, ex officio
ROBERT C. PRUYN M.A. - - - - Albany WILLIAM NoTTINGHAM M.A. Ph.D. LL.D. - Syracuse FRANK W. HIGGINS Lieutenant Governor, ex officio ei
Joun F. O'BRIEN Secretary of State, ex officio
CHARLES A. GARDINER LL.B. M. A. Ph.D. LL.D. New York CHARLES S. FRANCIS B.S. - - - - Troy
One vacancy ;
SEHCRETARY Elected by Regents
1900 JamES RUSSELL. PARSONS JR M.A. LL.D.
DIRECTORS OF DEPARTMENTS
1888 MrLvin DEwEY M.A. LL.D. State Library and Home Education 1890 JAMES RUSSELL, PARSONS JR M.A. LL.D.
Administrative, College and High School Dep’ |
1890 FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL Ph.D. State Museum iat
University of the State of New York
New York State Museum
FREDERICK J. H. Merritt Director
Bulletin 71
ZOOEOGY 10
FEEDING HABITS AND GROWTH
VENUS MERCENARIA |
Introduction
In a previous bulletin of the New York State Museum,! attention was directed to the fact that both the hard clam, or little-neck, and the common long-neck clam were rapidly diminishing in numbers, not only in the waters of New York State, but also along the entire Atlantic coast where these forms have previously been found. After a careful examination of a large part of the coast of New England and Long Island, it appeared that the apprehensions of many mar- ket men and clammers concerning the growing scarcity of these forms were well founded. It was not intended that the attitude of an alarmist should be assumed. Clams still may be had at almost any hotel or restaurant. Even if the natural beds alone are depended -on, as heretofore, a certain supply may be had for some time. But it is certainly true that, unless something is done to check or modify the indiscriminate and unintelligent methods of taking these forms now in vogue, the supply is finally to fail more or less completely everywhere, as it has already failed in many localities. That time is not remote. It is difficult for one not personally familiar with the clam flats and beaches, and their histories, to realize the truth of such a statement. While at any time one may obtain fresh or canned lobsters in the market, it is difficult to interest him by the statement that he may not long be able to
1Clam and Scallop Industries of New York State. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 43.
4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
indulge his taste for them; yet even now lobsters are danger- ously near extinction on our coast. But it is the consumer who should be interested, if possible, because from him, through his representatives in the Legislature, must come the action which shall make possible new and intelligent methods of propagation which may preserve the supply.
Unpleasant facts of this kind, in any case, should be eoneiiee seriously by the public-spirited citizen; but his interest would be enlisted, and his support obtained much more readily, if he could
_ be shown some practical way out of the difficulty.
It has been proved, I think beyond question, that, not only are methods of cultivating the common clam, Mya arenaria, easy and inexpensive, but the results of the labor involved are astonishingly great. “Seed” clams may readily be obtained in many localities. They may, when necessary, be transported from one place to another without injury. The planting is a simple process. Small individuals may even be sown broadcast on a soft bottom like so much grain. Unlike the oyster, the salinity of the water makes little difference with their growth. Most important of all, their growth is extremely rapid.
This method of culture, the details of which have been carefully worked out and tested in artificial beds, was developed after a study of the life history, the habits, and the conditions of growth. Every- thing of scientific interest concerning the form has not been investigated. The early stages of development from the egg, for example, are not yet known; but enough was known to devise an entirely satisfactory and practical method of culture, and this method has been thoroughly tested.
The question may be asked, why, if the demand is increasing and prices are rising, if the supply has everywhere fallen off, and if a cheap and eee method of culture has been devised, do not those who are interested in supplying the market become clam “farmers,” instead of remaining clam-diggers?
The answer is that ancient laws still leave beaches and flats to the people. They are public grounds where all have equal rights.
On them any one may dig at any time. No man has a right to plant and protect his clams, and clam culture is impossible. To
VENUS MERCENARIA 4 5
repeal a law of this character is extremely difficult, for it appeals to the many as a cession of their rights to the privileged few. But all would have equal rights to the property by lease or purchase. Good beaches are very numerous, and there is little danger that any would be excluded who might desire such property. The sale and lease of bottoms to oystermen along the shores of Long Island, - have apparently worked injustice to no person who is desirous of entering that occupation. At a very few points on the coast, por- tions of flats have been leased to clammers. These experiments have failed because of a lack of adequate protection. Unless such a system, with proper protection, is introduced by the repeal of old, and the enactment of new laws, soft clam culture will be impossible, and such laws can be had only when they are desired by the people at large.
The little-neck clam, Venus mercenaria, grows most abundantly below the low tide line, where it is taken by means of tongs. Much of the shallow bottom about Long Island, in which clams were formerly taken, has been leased to oystermen. The profit from oyster culture is much greater, acre for acre, than that derived irom the taking of hard clams, which are left to propagate by the natural method. ‘The areas left to clammers are now limited, and the greater part of the supply used in the canning industry comes
from the southern coast. At the same time, clams are rapidly - diminishing in the available beds.
The little-neck is also found between tide lines. This fact suggested experiments to determine whether they grow well in such places. Beaches and flats are not now generally available by lease. If this were given, these areas could be more easily protected than those in deeper water, and the matter of planting and digging would be greatly simplified. It is of the utmost importance, however, that clams not continually submerged should increase in size with some degree of rapidity, to insure the success of culture methods under these conditions. An account will be given of this growth in Venus.
Very little is known of the growth of lower organisms. Among the Lamellibranchiata, the group of mollusks to which the clams belong, much is known concerning the growth of the oyster, which, for many years, has been artificially reared in Europe and
6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
America. But, till very recently, no observations have been made on the growth of any clam. In work for the United States Fish Commission, the results of which have not yet been pub- lished, Mya was reared in many places, the experiments being carried out on a large scale. In many ways the results were astonishing, particularly in regard to the rapidity of growth. Not only was the actual amount of growth observed, but also the conditions under which it was least and most rapid, or altogether impossible. It was my desire to continue the same line of work with Venus, as nothing was known concerning its growth or the conditions governing it. Though from lack of time and facilities, these experiments were not extensive, they were most encouraging, and show that this form also increases in size rapidly, even when exposed at low tide.
Feeding habits of Venus. Growth a matter of food
Within wide limits, rapidity of growth in clams seems to depend directly on the amount of food. In order to make clear the con- ditions under which rapid growth is possible, the feeding habits of Venus should be described.
Before such a description is possible, some anatomical features must be noticed. In a clam bed, the animal lies but a short dis- tance below the surface of the bottom. Though the shell is entirely hidden, the creature reaches up to the water above: by means of a fleshy extension of the body, which has the form of a double tube. These tubes are known as the siphons, and may quickly be retracted within the valves of the shell. Ona smooth bottom, the ends of the siphons may be seen, when the animal is undisturbed, extending out to the level of the surface. A close inspection will show that a steady stream of water is entering one tube [fig. 1, m. S| and leaving the other [er. s]. The margin of the first tube is crowned by short, tactile tentacles. When touched by foreign bodies floating in the water, these sense organs cause a closing of the incurrent siphon, or perhaps a retraction of the entire structure. The microscopic diatoms, which form the food of clams, are so small and so evenly diffused in the currents, that they do not induce these movements.
| VENUS MERCENARIA 7
When the animal is removed from the bed, the tight fitting valves of the shell are found to be firmly closed. It may be neces- sary to break the shell in order to insert a knife blade by means of which the two powerful muscles which connect the valves, and by their strong contraction close them, may be cut. Removing one half of the shell, it is seen that both shell valves are lined on their inner surfaces by thin, fleshy flaps which grow out from the sides of the body. These are known as the mantle folds [fig. 1, m], and they inclose a large space, the mantle or branchial chamber, in which is found the main part of the body. The body, however, does not entirely fill the mantle chamber, but a large space remains which is filled with water. The siphons are seen to be simply a modified portion of the mantle. It is into this space that the inflowing stream of water, bearing the microscopic food, must enter. The manner in which the food is collected and passed into the mouth will be described presently. While the mantle folds are free at their margins, their edges are closely applied to each other, and the mantle chamber is essentially a closed space, except- ing for the siphonal openings.
If now one of these mantle folds be cut away, the body is exposed from the side and appears as represented in figure I. The mantle fold on the farther side is shown at m, lining the entire inner surface of the shell valve, s.
Two large, conspicuous folds, ig and og, the gills, arising from the side of the body, hang free in the mantle chamber. In this position, they are continually bathed by the incoming stream of water, and they perform a very important function in addition to that of the aeration of the blood —that of food collection. Just anterior to the gills, and behind the large anterior adductor muscle, aa, are two small folds, ap and pp, the labial palps. The portion of the palp seen in the figure, ap, is simply the lateral extension of a fold which hangs in front of the mouth like a huge lip drawn out to a point on the sides. The posterior palp is similarly placed behind the mouth. The mouth opening is on the median line behind the anterior adductor muscle, and is hidden from view by the closely applied palps. It is a funnellike entrance to the digestive tract, and, because the food of the clam is microscopi-
8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
cally small, it is supplied with no special organs such as teeth or rasping structures.
I would call particular attention to the relation in position between these palps and the anterior edges of the gills; for I wish presently to describe the manner in which food is transferred from gills to palps, and by these into the mouth.
When the gills are removed, there is exposed the main mass of the body [vm, fig. 2] which is made up chiefly of a large colored gland, the function of which is the secretion of the digestive fluid, and the greatly developed sexual glands. This body in anatom- ical descriptions, is called the visceral ‘mass, to distinguish it . from the muscular organ which is developed on its under or ventral surface —the so called foot, f. The last named organ is represented in the figure as being contracted within the mantle chamber. It is capable of great distension and, in a large clam, may be projected for a distance of two or three inches from the edges of the shell. Though a fleshy structure, it is, when protruded, quite tough and firm, being made rigid by a large quantity of blood which is pumped into it by the heart, in order to cause its distension. The foot is an organ of locomotion, and is also used in burrowing. It is possible for Venus to creep about by means of its thrusting and wormlike movements; but I believe that the animal uses it in this way much less than is generally supposed, and this is a point of much interest to the clam culturist.
In order to understand the mechanism by means of which food is collected, it is necessary to describe in more detail the structure of gills and palps. The gills are the most complicated organs in the bodies of lamellibranchs, and must be described here as briefly and as simply as possible, without mentioning their won- derful histological structure. Outer and inner gills are practically the same. Suppose that one of these is carefully removed from its line of attachment to the body, and studied by means of the microscope from the surface and in section: such an examina- tion shows the gill to be not a solid flap or fold, but an exquisitely minute basketlike structure with an outer and inner wall inclosing a space between. These walls are made
VENUS MERCENARIA ; ie)
of extremely fine rods placed side by side, as represented in the most diagrammatic way possible in figure 3. In order that these rods, r, may retain their position, they are in many forms, irregularly fused with each other by secondary lateral growths of tissue, ic. The outer and inner walls of the gill are also held together by partitions which extend across the inner space between ‘them, p. The gill is thus seen to be basketlike, the walls being made of rods between which are spaces, s, which put the interior chamber in communication with the mantle space in which the gills hang.
These rods, or filaments, of which the gill is made, contain an interior space in which the blood flows. They were probably | primarily developed in order that the blood of the body might be brought in close contact with the water, that, by diffusion, the carbon dioxid of the blood might pass outward through the thin walls, while, by the same process, oxygen, carried by the water, might pass into the blood. But, in addition to performing the function of breathing, the gills have taken on that of collecting minute organisms used as food. This is accomplished by a com- plicated process.
We have seen that a constant stream of water entered the mantle or branchial chamber. What becomes of it? And what is it that causes the current? All of this water inthe mantle chamber streams through the minute openings between the filaments of the gill and enters its interior space. It now rises to the base of the gill, and flows into a tube, the epibranchial chamber [fig. 1, ec], through which it passes backward, leaving the body by the upper or exhalent siphon, which is directly continuous with the epibranchial chambers of the four gills. The currents which we first noticed, then, enter the mantle chamber by the lower siphon, pass into the interiors of the four gills, flow to their upper or attached edges, and are directed backward and out through the upper siphon tubes of the mantle.
The cause of these rapid currents is revealed by a microscopic examination of the rods or filaments of the gills. These are found to be covered on their outer surfaces, which face the water on both sides of the gill, with innumerable short, hairlike structures which project perpendicularly from the surface. These cilia
IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
are protrusions of the living protoplasm of the cells which form the walls of the filaments. Each possesses the power of movement, lashing in a definite direction, and recovering the original per- pendicular position more slowly. This movement is so rapid that it can not be seen till nearly stopped by inducing the gradual death of the protoplasm. It is very effective in causing strong currents in the surrounding water. ;
A microscopic examination, and direct experiment with minute, floating particles, will show that other cilia are present on the filaments than those which cause the water to enter the gills. The diagrammatic figure of the gill [fig. 3] does not show why the minute food particles may not be taken into the interior of the gill by the entering stream of water, and finally out of the body through the broad water channels. This is prevented by long cilia arranged in bands which project out laterally between con- tiguous filaments in such a way as to strain the water which enters the gill, thus preventing all floating matter from entering. These highly specialized cilia tracts of lamellibranch gills, I have called the “straining lines.“t In some forms there is a single line, in others there are two. In some cases the lines are formed by a single row of cells; or a section across the line sometimes reveals several closely crowded cells bearing the greatly elongated strain- ing cilia.
That foreign matter is really excluded as the current of water enters the gill, may be demonstrated by direct experiment on a living gill. Carmine may be ground into a fine powder, and suspended in water without becoming dissolved. If a small amount of this is allowed to fall on the surface of a living gill, it will be seen to lodge there. A wonderful thing now occurs. A myriad of separate minute grains, which may represent the food of the clam, are almost instantly cemented together by a sticky mucus which is secreted by many special gland cells in the fila- ments, and the whole mass, impelled by the oscillations of the cilia, begins to move with some velocity toward the lower or free edge of the gill. On this free margin is a groove into which the material collected on the faces of the gill is turned.
1 Kellogg, J. L. Contribution to Our Knowledge of Morphology of Lamelli- branchiate Mollusks. U.S. Fish Com. Bul. 1892.
VENUS MERCENARIA Il
This groove is also lined by ciliated cells, and the whole mass is swept swiftly forward in it toward the palps. The natural food of the clam, of course, is carried forward in the same way. It is evident that a large proportion of the organisms floating in the water which enters the mantle chamber must come in contact with the sides of the gills, and be carried forward to the mouth folds, to which they may be transferred.
These points may be made more clear by referring to the diagram [fig. 4]. It represents a section made transversely across the fila- ments of a typical lamellibranch gill. In a single gill there are thousands of these rods. But five are shown here on each side, standing in row to form the perforated walls of the gill. Each rod is represented as being more or less oval, when its cut end is viewed in this way. In three places are shown the lateral union of filaments. The reference letters ig are supposed to be placed - in the interior space of the gill, and » shows the nature of the partition, or septum, which, at more or less regular intervals, stretches across this space and holds the two walls of the gill together.
The details of cellular structure have been drawn in two filaments. The long, straining cilia, which stretch across the spaces between rods, are shown at sc, and the arrow indicates the course taken by the water current as it enters the interior of the gill. The cilia which cause this entering current are the frontal cilia, fe. Opening on the surface between them and the straining cilia are the gland cells, gc, the secretion from which cements together the food particles.
This figure is not intended to represent the details of structure found in the gill of Venus, which is much more complicated in ‘aany ways. The general plan of structure and of function in that form, however, is very much as represented, and this diagram is used because it may be so much more easily described. :
If we now examine the palps with a hand lens, we may notice that their inner surfaces—those nearest to the mouth — are covered by a set of very fine parallel ridges. The lateral portions of the palps are shown in figure 2, ap and pp. They are capable of many movements. They may be bent and spirally twisted,
i2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
lengthened or shortened, and, if their inner faces touch the edges of the gills, any material which is being brought to this region is transferred onto the ridges of the palp. This is accomplished by strong cilia which are developed on the ridges. These same cilia carry the foreign matter on across the ridges, and finally force it into the mouth [arrow on pp].
_ This, in brief, is the method by which clams and oysters wid other lamellibranchs collect and ingest their food. The process, till very recently, has not been closely studied, but this auto- matic feeding process has been known in a general way for a long time. It has sometimes been said that, if a lamellibranch is to prevent suspended mud from being collected by the gills, it must close its shell, thus entirely preventing all ingress of water into the body. It has been found that these creatures have no more control over the activities of the cilia which have been described than a man has over the cilia in his trachea. As long as the animals live, the cilia continue to lash in the same definite directions, though their activities soon become lessened after the shell is removed.
But I have found that the animal can prevent food or particles of dirt from being taken to the mouth while the stream of water is yet flowing. It seems never to have been suspected that complicated mechanisms existed, by means of which collected particles could at once be discharged from the body. They are present, however, probably in all lamellibranchs, differing some- what in different forms, and I shall describe the comparatively simple one which is found in Venus. ©
If the mantle and gills are removed from one side of the body, so as to expose the visceral mass and the foot, and the creature is put into a dish of sea water, grains of carmine, which are allowed to settle on the surface of the visceral mass, at once indicate the presence of a ciliation there, as well as on palps and gills. These experiments require care and patience, but they show with great certainty that the most definite cilia currents exist in this region. These are indicated by the arrows placed on the visceral mass in figure 2. It will be seen that all the currents converge at a definite point, x, just above the line of the base of the muscular foot on the
VENUS MERCENARIA ibe
posterior margin of the visceral mass. Any material, then, which touches this surface, instead of being taken toward the mouth, tends to be forced in the opposite direction. Immediately on touching the wall of the visceral mass, the fine particles are ‘cemented together by an abundant mucus, as on the gills.’ When much carmine or mud is used, a large ball of it is collected at x. It will be noticed that this region lies directly in the path of the incoming stream of water from the branchial or lower siphon; and at first sight it would seem that from this position there could be no means by which it could escape from the mantle chamber. Clams undisturbed in the bottom, however, from time to time may be seen to discharge a strong jet of water from both siphons. This habit of many lamellibranchs is better shown in Mya. When these clams are kept in a bucket of water over night, the floor will be wet for many feet around it in the morning, and indeed one may at any time when they are so kept, see them violently close the shell by contracting the adductor muscles, thus emptying the mantle chamber by throwing a strong jet out of both siphons. This peculiar habit of all lamellibranchs which have been observed is, without doubt, for the purpose of removing masses of material which the animal can not use as food.
This is not the only means of discharging undesirable material from the mantle chamber. If the entire body be removed, leaving only the mantle lining the sheil on one side, it also will be found to be ciliated. In this case, as illustrated in figure 5, everything is swept downward toward the free edge of the mantle, and falls into a line parallel with the edge, and is then directed backward. Particles which may fall on the extreme edge are also passed into this well marked stream. Everything is directed backward, but _can not be carried out of the incurrent siphon against the stream which is entering through it. Ina little bay beneath the base of the siphon, where it is out of the current, the material is collected. By the contraction of the adductor muscles, and the resulting emptying of the mantle chamber, as described above, this col- lected mass is expelled. !
But, in spite of the activities of these two surfaces, which tend. to rid the body of material not fit for food, it is evident that, if
14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
much mud is entering, large quantities of it must be collected on the gills and be sent forward toward the mouth. I have spoken of the fact that the palps are capable of extended movements. Ii they are withdrawn so as not to touch the gills, material will accumulate in the anterior parts of the gill grooves till masses are formed so large that they fall off into the space of the mantle chamber below — perhaps to be taken up by the currents on the mantle. At any rate, they would be discharged when the mantle space was emptied. I have no doubt, especially after what I have observed in forms like Yoldia, that the palps of Venus are from time to time withdrawn from contact with the gills, in order that they may receive no material from them.
It is when we come to examine the palps that we find the most complex arrangement for keeping material from entering the mouth when that is desirable. A close examination of the inner faces of the palp shows a narrow strip around its margin which is without the ridges previously described. Both of these margins are very densely ciliated. When suspended material falls on the upper margin, it is carried up onto the surface of the ridges [fig. 2, um] and across them to the mouth. Anything which touches the other margin, on the other hand, is swept with great rapidity in the other direction— out to the end of the palp, where it accumulates and is finally thrown off into the mantle chamber below. It is true that this margin is narrow, and not much material suspended in the water would strike it; but probably when a large quantity is collected on other parts of the palp, this edge is folded over so as to touch these heavily laden sur- faces, and sweeps them clean.
It thus appears that there are extensive ciliary tracts for collect- ing and conveying food to the mouth; but that, in addition to these, there are other ciliated surfaces by means of which unde- sirable material may be excluded without the necessity of closing the shell. Because of the advantage of sustaining the aeration of the blood, this must be of very great service when the water is muddy.
In this description of the feeding habits of Venus many important details have been omitted, particularly in regard to the
VENUS MERCENARIA 15
anatomy of the gill, which is much more complicated than is indicated in the figures.
The question of food is an important one when we are searching for means of rearing this clam by some culture method. In order to force the growth of oysters in French claires, water is held in reservoirs back of the beds till the contained diatoms may have multiplied greatly, and is then allowed to run over the beds. Such methods are expensive, and under proper natural conditions, Venus will grow very much faster than either the European or American oyster. Enough has been said of the food of Venus to make it clear that, if it were raised on beaches or flats, we should not expect to find so rapid a growth as if it were never exposed, for feeding is impossible without water currents. I hope to show, however, that growth seems to be very rapid even under these circumstances.
Growth experiments
Before speaking of these experiments, it will be well to make it clear that the planting was done on a small scale, and was pursued under the most adverse circumstances. I believe that the results as we have them are perfectly certain — and they are most satisfactory as they are; but I am also sure that under favorable conditions growth would have been very much greater.
A trip was made to Riverhead, and the shore examined carefully as far as Greenport. Many clams are found along this shore, and several sites were located, which, so far as currents and char- acter of bottom were concerned, seemed to be ideal. In every case, however, | was assured that clams would not.be allowed to remain unmolested for a week. So certain did this seem, that the very much less favorable harbor at Cold Spring, on the sound, was selected. Here also it appeared that no portion of any of the beaches would be free from molestation by clam-diggers. The only thing to be done was to ask the privilege of a small space on an oyster bed which extended close to the low water mark. This was granted by Captain Jones, who has my sincere thanks for this favor, and also for the kindly interest which he showed in the work.
The rights of the oystermen seem to be strictly respected. I ventured to run some of my beds up on the narrow beach nearly
16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
to the high tide line, marking them by labeled wires which were run down out of sight. These I easily found in the winter, but some of the beds had been raked clean. Others certainly escaped ob- servation. Before planting, the ground was raked, that I might be assured that no little-neck clams were presentinit. Jam very positive that the beds and sealed wire cages on the oyster ground had not been touched when they were examined after an interval of six months.
But the unfavorable conditions were these. Everywhere above and below these beds, oysters covered the bottoms as close as they could lie. They take from the water the same floating organisms which Venus uses for its food. Everywhere, too, above and below low tide line, soft clams were burrowed almost as close as they could be placed. They also use the same food. Now, we have experimental evidence to show that the growth of all these forms is, up to a certain point, directly proportionate to the amount of food. They all grew here; for, on account of the conditions of the upper harbor, where at high tide the shallow water, fed by fresh- water streams, was warmed for hours by the sun, diatoms must have multiplied with great rapidity, and, when carried out, offered abundant food. But undoubtedly none of these lamelli- branchs grew as they would if the life of the bottom had not been so abundant.
As an example of the number of these organisms on the bot- tom, this case may be cited. A flowerpot, 4 inches across the top, filled with clean sand, was sunk nearly to the level of the ground on June 19, 1901. In it was placed a little-neck clam. When _ examined Dec. 28 of the same year—six months afterward—the sand in this pot contained 11 soft-shelled clams ranging from half to three quarters of an inch in length, besides the hard clam, which had increased considerably in size. These soft clams had settled in the pot from the swimming larval condition, as they settled elsewhere on the bottom, and had begun to grow. It is most reasonable to suppose that, if this hard clam had been growing on almost any beach where less life was being supported, its growth would have been more rapid, for diatoms are more or less abund- ant all along the shore.
os
|
VENUS MERCENARIA M7
Another serious hindrance to the growth of clams is the presence of the seaweeds, Ulva (sea lettuce) and Enteromorpha which, . during the greater part of the year, grow profusely after their attachment to large pebbles or other solid bodies on the bottom. ‘Not only the larger stones on these beds, but, especially, the wire cages which were sunk into the bottom, were in December more or less completely covered by them. In extended experi- ments on the growth of the soft clam, Mya, the same difficulty was met with in many localities. The masses of weed, flattened out on the bottom by the tide currents, greatly hinder the clams underneath from obtaining from the water their needed food. My experiments with both forms show that this condition is detrimental to the best results. If one were free to select sandy ground which would afford no means of attachment, this difficulty would not appear.
These matters are spoken of in detail because the results which will be given should, without doubt, have been far greater. Any one with rights to certain parts of a beach, who could watch his beds at all times of the year, could, with very little labor, prevent
. these drawbacks. c
Still another difficulty attending the work at Cold Spring was the fact that it was almost impossible to obtain clams small enough for planting. None were to be had in this locality. A number were sent from Jamesport, L. J., but most of them were of marketable size, and hence too large for the most important part of the experiment. The smaller ones came from New Bedford Mass., and these had perhaps previously been received from Edgar- town. It must however be said that the hard clam, like the oyster and quite unlike the soft clam, Mya, will live for many days, and even for weeks, after being removed from the water during the hot summer time, without apparent injury. The soft clam may be preserved in this way for a long time during the winter, and very small individuals may safely stand much exposure in hot weather; but the larger forms of this species succumb after a short time. The tenacity of life in‘the small Venus may also be greater than in the adult, but nothing is known in regard to it.
18 NEW YORK:STATE MUSEUM
Methods
Each clam was measured in sixteenths of an inch at the time of planting, and also when taken from the bottom six months after- ward. Merely to state the increase in length, however, gives no adequate idea of the actual growth. It is much better to give the increase in volume. To state that a clam increases from 1,2, to 14% inches in a certain time gives little idea of its actual growth. If individuals of the two sizes are held in the hand and compared by the eye, the bulk of one is seen to be much greater than that of the other. It is really this increase in volume which we wish to determine, so each clam was measured also by deter- mining its displacement in water. A table was made showing the displacement of clams of various sizes. For example, many indi- viduals just 1 inch in length were measured in a graduated vessel. There is some slight variation, because some are thicker than others. The average of many measurements, however, show that a clam of this length displaces 2.5 c.cm. ‘The average displace- ment of other sizes was determined in the same way.
To illustrate the difference in the two ways of stating the increase, we may compare clams I and 2 inches in length. One is 100% longer than the other. One has a volume of 2.5 c.cm, the other a volume of 22 c.cm; and, while a clam 1 inch long has increased in length 100%, it has increased in bulk or volume 780%. This increase ‘in size or volume is what we wish to determine.
Suppose that in a certain bed are placed clams all of a size. When these are dug, after a lapse of several months, some indi- viduals will have increased in size more than others, though the differences may not be great. In order to determine the increase in such a bed, the arithmetical mean length of the whole series has been calculated, and the volume of the mean has been com- pared with the volume of the clams when planted.
In one bed, for example, several clams 1 53, inches in length were planted. In six months they were removed, and the length of each individual carefully measured. There was some individual variation in the length; so the mean length of the series was calculated. It was found to be 14? inches. The average volume of clams 1,3, inches long is 4.5 c.cm; that of individuals 143% inches long is
VENUS MERCENARIA 19
14.5 c.cm, or 3.22 times as great. The increase in volume in the six months, therefore, was 2224.
Growth between tide lines
The most important point brought out in this experiment is the fact that growth is considerable on bottoms exposed for several hours at low tide. This is shown in the following cases. .
A line of flowerpots was run from below ordinary low water mark up the steeply sloping beach to a point about two feet below the ordinary high water line, the fall of the tide being about six feet. The pots were sunk so that their tops were level with the ground, and were separated by a space of about two feet. June 19, 1901, there was placed in each of these pots a clam 1.25 inches, or — to give the measurements for convenience’s sake in sixteenths of one inch — 1,4, inches in length. These were examined, after an interval of six months, on Dec. 28. Some of the pots were empty er contained dead shells. In the first or highest, the clam had grown to a length of 144 inches, an increase of 148% in volume in the half year. If we had no other example of growth, this would be very suggestive, for the increase is great, the creature having become in this short period almost two and a half times as large as when planted.
We should expect to find still greater growth with longer immersion.. In the second pot, the clam had increased 154%, and in the third, still lower down, 172%.
The fourth pot was empty. In the fifth, the increase, instead of being greater still, was only 87%. The explanation of this seems to be perfectly clear, and is exemplified in several other cases. Around ‘the margin of this pot there had grown a large quantity of Ulva. There was much of it at this level of the beach, while higher up it was not abundant. Without doubt this seaweed was flattened out over the top of the pot by the current, in such a way as to prevent free access to the food-bearing stream, and for this reason growth was not so rapid.
The presence of these weeds, which grow on so many bottoms, should not seriously inconvenience the clam culturist. They may be removed without difficulty with a rake, and do not grow abundantly on a surface which is reasonably smooth. If it had
20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
been possible to visit these beds a few times during the summer, the results in the case of many lower beds would undoubtedly have been different.
In pots still lower down, all of which were covered with Ulva, the growth was much the same as in the fifth — from 80% to 100% increase, : :
In this line of pots, then, the fact is demonstrated that between tide lines, hard clams 1.25 inches long may increase 2.5 times or more in volume in half a year. Localities more favorable for their growth could easily be found. If experiments were made on a large scale, I should expect to get a more rapid average growth even where the forms were exposed at low tide, and a much greater increase on bottoms which are never exposed. As it is, this growth as compared with that of the oyster is marvelously rapid, just as it is in the soft clam.
It should be noticed that we are not attempting to make extended generalizations on the data given by four or five individual clams. Two clams side by side will not increase at the same rate. It is possible that one might grow twice as fast as another. But, if we - had a single case in which we were certain of the amount of increase, it would assuredly indicate the possibilities of growth, and the chances are that it would not by any means be the limit of- possibility.
On the other hand, when we compare the growth in pots 1, 2 and 3. and find a progressive increase from the higher to the lower pot —an increase of 145%, 154% and 172%— our induction is founded on insufficient data, and really means nothing. The result is as we should expect it, but it may be entirely accidental. But it is sug- gestive, and, if it were possible to observe many rows of clams similarly placed, we might .reasonably expect to establish it. Unfortunately it has not been possible to do this.
The simple case of the line of flowerpots has been spoken of first because it was more or less typical of the results obtained in many small beds planted under similar conditions. Many hundreds of clams, after being carefully measured, were segregated into groups according to length and planted together. Their growth substantiates the results obtained in the flowerpots.
VENUS MERCENARIA 21
Very briefly the following results will be described. Several small beds, each with an area of 16 square feet, were laid out on the gravel between tide lines: A group of these was separated by an interval of 20 or 30 yards from another group. Most of these small plots were within the boundaries of the oyster bed already mentioned, but some were above the line of the bed, and a few of them were dug clean. Others were not discovered by clam diggers, and apparently entirely escaped molestation.
In each of these small beds, clams all of a size were planted. The number on a bed varied from 100 to 175. I would call particu- lar attention to the fact that on the deeper beds, where the tide currents were swiftest, larger stones were exposed, and there was here an abundant growth of seaweed, which was not found farther up on the beach. This always interfered seriously with the growth of the clams.
For example, on these beds which were below the ordinary low _ tide line, where we should expect to find the most rapid growth, there was an increase in volume in clams 112 inches long, of 35%; in those 144, inches long, of 41%; and in those 14% inches long of 42%. 1am allthe more certain that this low rate of growth is to be explained by the presence of the seaweed, because I had previously had the same experience in a much larger experiment in the soft clam. F ortunately, as I have already stated, a little labor by one who is able to be on the spot during the entire year would prevent this result.
Some of the higher beds, however, which from the character of the bottom were free from the weed, gave different results, and show the possibilities of growth much better. On a bed only three or four feet from ordinary high water line, there was placed on July 6, 130 clams, 134 inches long. On Dec. 30, almost the entire number was removed. Some had increased more than others. The mean of the series was calculated, and showed an increase of 255% in volume in a little less than six months.
On another bed, somewhat lower, 150 clams 1,8 inches long had increased 157% in volume. One of the things to be expected is that clams of smaller size would show a relatively greater growth. It has not been possible to make comparisons to demonstrate this
22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
because of the influence of the seaweed on so many beds. The variation in the size of planted clams in this experiment was from 1°; inches to 14% inches in length, and this is not a very great range.
On a third bed, also situated well up on the beach, clams 18 inches long when planted had increased 155% in volume in the six months. Whether the amount of food in the summer is greater than in the winter, I do not know. I have no doubt that the increase goes on during the winter months, though, it may be, with diminished rapidity. It would be extremely interesting to carry out these experiments on a large scale through the entire year. These facts certainly show that the possibilities of growth in Venus are very great, and indicate that its artificial culture between tide lines would be easy and inexpensive, and that it would yield large results. Considering the place which the little-neck has in the markets, it would seem that the artificial culture of the form should yield a larger income than does the culture of the oyster as carried on in Long Island sound. The latter is expensive and laborious, and growth is very much slower than in the case of either of the clams.
Wandering habits of Venus
The soft or long-neck clam, Mya, is capable of locomotion only when very small. As the body increases in size, the foot, or loco- motor organ, becomes relatively smaller. An individual 2 inches long, while it can not move along the stirface of the bottom, is still able to use the foot as a burrowing organ. When it has attained a length of 3 or more inches, however, it seems to be incapable even of covering itself in the bottom.
In the case of the hard clam, Venus, on the contrary, the foot remains throughout life a very well developed locomotor organ. Though no definite experiments have been made to demonstrate what it is able to do, one might assume, from the size of the organ and its power of extension as demonstrated in aquaria, that the animal is able at all times in its life, not only to burrow but also to move from one locality to another, as the fresh-water clams, with a similar foot, are known to do.
VENUS MERCENARIA 23
The beds in this experiment were planted with the fear that the clams would wander. The result, however, showed conclusively that they do not have this habit — or that they did not exhibit it in this particular case. The clams were found where they were placed within the limits of the original beds. Careful digging around the margins of the beds failed in every instance to show any wandering tendencies.
Growth under wire netting
In order to be perfectly certain that clams should have no means of escape, three cages of wire netting were constructed, bounding the margins of the area containing clams in each case to a depth of 5 inches and covering the top. These forms never burrow to a greater depth than this, and there was no possibility of escape. In each case the netting remained intact, and certainly was not disturbed. These beds were exposed only during the full moon tides. Here also the seaweed seemed to play an important part in the results. In one case the netting was sunk so deep as to be covered with sand, and consequently no seaweed attached, as it did on the other cages. Growth was much more rapid here, though the clams in this bed were smaller when planted, and, asa consequence, a more rapid growth should have been expected.
The results were as follows:
Cage 1 Clams planted July 6, 1,5 inches long. Some seaweed was attached to the wire of the cage. The clams were removed Dec. 30. The increase in volume was 145%.
Cage 2 Planted July 6, 1;% inches in length. Removed Dec. 30. A very large quantity of weed over the cage. Increase in vol- ume, 78%.
Cage 3 Planted July 6, 14 inches long. This cage was sunk so deep that no weed was attached on the surface. The increase Dec. 30 was 222% in volume in the six months.
Growth above the bottom
In methods of oyster culture as developed in France, the forms are placed in racks above the bottom, and from the tide which sweeps over them, they are enabled to obtain nourishment enough for comparatively rapid growth. It would be an interesting Go Nelpretateneon eh gee pet
24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
thing to show that clams could be made to erow in this way. The clam culturist could then make himself independent of beach rights, and perhaps more easily obtain a lease of ground for such a purpose below low water mark. .
But one or two very small experiments on the soft clam have indicated that the creatures do not do well under these conditions. At Cold Spring a wire rack was constructed, and anchored above the bottom in a swift current. Into it were put several hard clams ranging from 1,4, to 24? inches in length. Every one of these seemed to be in a healthy condition at the end of six months, but not one had increased a particle in size. Not being able to cover the body in sand, they seem to have remained most of the time with valves closed. They may possibly have moved about at ° times, for their shells were worn, but more likely this was due to the fact that they were rolled about in the cage by the currents. On their smooth, clean surfaces numbers of Anomias, or silver shells, had attached and grown, as shown in figure 6. ;
Though this small attempt to induce growth above the bottom ended in failure, it should, on account of its importance, be repeated on a large scale under as many different conditions as possible, in the hope that some combination of circumstances might prove to be the right one.
Enemies
Neither of the clams is molested by the starfish after it has become large enough to burrow, though the very small soft clam, ‘and perhaps the hard clam also, is destroyed in great numbers by _ small starfish, before itis able to cover itself. So far as I have been able to discover, there is but one natural enemy of Venus which might possibly be destructive. It is the gastropod mollusk, Lunatia [fig. 7], which is abundant in some localities. It is found in numbers at Cold Spring. On several occasions I have observed it digging below the surface and attacking both hard and soft clams in their burrows. By long continued labor, it files a smooth, clean hole through the shell of its victim by means of a rasping organ in its mouth cavity, and then destroys the soft parts of the body within. Figure 8 illustrates the character of the borings on shells
VENUS MERCENARIA 25
taken from the beds at Cold Spring. In every case the perforation is near the prominence of the shell called the umbo, directly over the pulpy visceral mass, which might most easily be sucked up through the opening. It is a curious fact that this region of the shell is selected by Lunatia for boring in any lamellibranch which it attacks. It may not invariably be so, but I have many shells of different species which have been drilled in this region, and have happened to notice no exceptions to it.
No matter how numerous it might be, this enemy would prob- ably not be as troublesome to clam culture as the starfish is to the oyster industry. In several | places I have seen it collected by fishermen for bait, simply by pegging a bit of fish, or even a dead starfish on the bottom. In a short time numbers of them will be found collected on the bait. By some such simple means, if it were desirable, a clam bed probably could easily be rid of the creatures.
Conclusion
- This experiment on the growth of Venus from lack of means and time and favorable locality has been a limited one. In order fully to demonstrate the feasibility of the artificial culture of the form, it should be carried out on a very much larger scale, and should be extended through a longer period of time. There can be no doubt about the accuracy of the results in the case of the wire cages, the growth in which has been described; and, from their position, I have no reason to think that the clams were dis- turbed on the other beds which have been cited as examples of growth. Some of the higher beds seem to have been discovered by clammers, and these were raked clean.
The figures giving the percentages of growth, though not numer- ous, at least indicate the fact that the most essential feature of the culture of the little-neck clam — rapidity of growth —is all that could be desired. Neither has anything appeared which would suggest a natural difficulty in the way of artificial culture.
26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES Figure 1
Side view of large Venus mercenaria. Mantle fold on right side of the body has been removed. The edge of the left fold of the mantle is shown at m. The exhalent, ex. s, and inhalent, in. s, siphons are modified parts of the mantle. |
Water bearing food and other floating substances enters the space between the mantle folds — the mantle chamber — through the inhalent siphon. Hanging in this chamber are the foot, f, and gills, og and ig. -Cilia on the gills cause water to enter them, forcing it to their bases, into the epibranchial chambers, ec, and then backward and out of the body through the excurrent siphon. This is indicated by fine, dotted arrows. The two large transverse muscles —the anterior and posterior adductors— which, by their contraction, close the valves of the shell, are shown at aa and pa.
Reference letters: aa, anterior adductor muscle; pa, posterior adductor muscle; ec, epibranchial chamber ; og and 1g, outer and inner gills; ap and pp, anterior and posterior palps; ex. s and m. s, exhalent and inhalent siphons; f, foot; m, edge of left mantle fold; Ss, ventral margin of shell.
Figure 2
Drawn to show that floating particles which touch the surface of the visceral mass are taken posteriorly and thrown off into the mantle chamber at x. From this region, they are removed from the body by the contraction of the adductor muscles, which dis- charges a large part of the water in the mantle chamber.
At pp is shown the striation of the inner side of the posterior palp, over which food is taken to the mouth. The unstriated margin is also shown.
Other reference letters as in figure 1.
Figure 3 Paper model of lamellibranch gill. A diagrammatic figure to show the basketlike structure of the gill. Reference letters: ic, interfilamentar connections; , partition or septum holding the two halves of the gill together; r, a rod or filament; s, space between filaments. ;
VENUS MERCENARIA ¥ 27
Figure 4
Diagrammatic section across the filaments of a typical gill. Arrows represent the course taken by water which enters the gill. Reference letters: 1g, interior of gill; p, septum between sides; gc, gland cells, the secretion from which cements floating particles into a mass on the outer surfaces of the gill; fc, fine frontal cilia causing water to enter gill; sc, straining cilia pre- venting solid matter from entering the gill and moving it to the ventral margin.
Figure 5 View of inner surface of left mantle fold of Venus, showing course taken by particles which touch it. These are discharged from the body when the stream entering the mantle chamber through the lower siphon is reversed by contraction of adductor muscles. Figure 6 Hard clams kept in wire cage above the bottom for six months. All shells were covered by attached Anomia, or silver shells.
: Figure 7 Lunatia, a gastropod mollusk, which bores shells and destroys
clams. Figure 8
Venus shells bored by Lunatia.
INDEX
Anatomical features of Venus mer- cenaria, 6-12; cilia, 9-10; foot, 8; gills, 7, 8-11; mantle folds, 7; palps, 7-8, 11-12, 14; siphons, 6 7, 13.
Beaches and flats, public grounds, 4.
Cilia of Venus mercenaria, 9-10. Cultivation of Mya arenaria, 4, 6; of Venus mercenaria, 15-17.
Enemies of Venus mercenaria, 24-25.
Enteromorpha interferes with clam culture, 17.
Experiments to determine growth of Venus mercenaria, 15-17.
Feeding habits of Venus mercenaria, 6-15.
Figures, description of, 26-27.
Foot of Venus mercenaria, 8.
Gills of Venus mercenaria, 7, 8-11.
Growth of Mya arenaria, 6.
Growth of Venus mercenaria, depen- dent on food, 6; experiments to determine, 15-17; method of meas- uring, 18-19; between tide lines, 19-22; under wire netting, 23.
Hard clam, see Venus mercenaria. Jones, Capt., acknowledgments to, 15. Kellogg, James L., cited, 3, 10.
Little-neck clam, see Venus merce- naria. ©
Lobsters, near extinction, 4.
Locomotion, of Mya arenaria, 22; of Venus mercenaria, 22-23.
Long-neck clam, see Mya arenaria.
Lunatia destructive to Venus merce- naria, 24—25.
Mantle chamber, 7, 9, 13, 14. Mantle folds of Venus mercenaria, 7. Mya arenaria, cultivation of, 4, 6; ob-
stacles to cultivation of, 17; enemies, 24; rapidity of growth, 6; growth, above the bottom, 24; locomotion, 22; power of emptying mantle cham- ber, 13.
Oysters, cultivation, 5, 16; growth, 15, growth above the bottom, 23.
Palps of Venus mercenaria, 7-8, 11— 12, 14. '
Planting, difficulty of obtaining clams for, 17.
Racks to hold oysters, 23—24.
Seaweeds interfere with clam culture, W7pe10=205.29,
Seed clams, 4.
Siphons of Venus mercenaria, 6,7, 13.
Soft-clam, see Mya arenaria.
Starfish destructive to clams, 24.
Straining lines, 10.
Tide lines, growth of Venus merce- naria between, 19-22.
Ulva, interferes with clam culture, 17, 19-20:
Venus mercenaria, supply in danger of failing, 3-4; where found, 5;
anatomical features, 6-12 ; feeding —
habits, 6-15; growth experiments, 15-17; methods of measuring
growth, 18-19; growth between tide .
lines, 19-22; wandering habits, 22-23; growth under wire netting, 23; growth above the bottom, 23— 24; enemies, 24—25.
Wandering habits of Venus, 22-23.
Wire netting, growth of Venus merce-_.
naria under, 23. Wire rack to hold clams above bot- tom, 24.
Fa.
eC. A gg comes in Ss. AU
Figure 3
Figure 7
Figure 8
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Bulletins are also found with the annual reports of the museum as follows:
Bulletin Report Bulletin Report ,Bulletin Report 12-15 48, v.1 20-25 SZ aif AL 35-36 54, v. 2 16-17 50 ‘* 26-31 Re | 37-44 SAVERS 18-19 Dilan 32-34 yee 45-48 alae ed
49-54 *55, v. 1
- The figures in parentheses indicate the bulletin’s number as a New York State Museum bul- etin.
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATH OF NEW YORK
Geology. G1 (14) Kemp, rT F. Geology of Moriah and Westport Townships Essex Co. N. Y., with notes on theiron mines. 38p. 7pl. 2 maps, Sep. 1895. IOe.
2 (19) Merrill, F: J. H. Guide to the Study of the Geological Collections of the New York State Museum. 162p. 119pl. map. Nov. 1898. [soc] New edition im preparation.
G3 (21) Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Lake Placid Region. 24p. 1pl. map. Sep. 1898. se.
G4 (48) Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of Nassau County and Borough of Queens. 58p.il. 9pl.map. Dec.1901. 25¢c.
G5 (56) Merrill, F: J. H. Description of the State Geologic Map of 1901. 42p. 2 maps, tab. Oct.1902. oc.
G6 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Herkimer Co. In preparation.
—— Crystalline Rocks of the Northeastern Adirondacks. In preparation.
Kemp, J. F. Crystalline Rocks of Warren and Washington Counties. In preparation.
Woodworth, J. B. Glacial Geology of New York. In preparation.
Economic geclogy. Egi(8) Smock, J: C. Building Stone in the State of New York. 152p. Mar. 1888. Out of print.
Eg2 (7) First Report on the Iron Mines and Iron Ore Districts in New York. 6+70p. map. June 1889. Out of print. Egs3 (10) Building Stone in New York. 210p. map, tab. Sep. 1890. oc. Eg4 (11) Merrill, F: J. H. Salt and Gypsum Industries in New York. 92p? 12pl. 2 maps, 11 tab. Ap. 1893. oc. Eg5 (12) Ries, Heinrich. Clay Industries of New York. 174p.2pl.map. Mar. 1895. joc.
Eg6 (15) Merrill, F: J. H. Mineral Resources of New York. 224p. 2 maps. Sep. 1895. soc.
Eg’? (17) —— Road Materials and Road Building in New York. 52p. 14pl. 2 maps 34x45, 68x92 em. Oct. 1897. z5¢.
Maps separate roc each, 2 for z5c.
Eg8s (30) Orton, Edward. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York. 136p: il. 3 maps. Nov. 1899. z5¢.
Eg9 (85) Ries, Heinrich. Clays of New York; their Properties and Uses. 456p. 140pl. map. June 1900. fz, cloth.
Eg10 (44) Lime and Cement Industries of New York; Eckel, E.'C. Chap- ters on the Cement Industry. 332p. 101pl. 2 maps. Dec. 1901. S5C, sei
Eg11 (61) Dickinson, H. T. Quarries of Bluestone and other Sandstones in New York. 108p. 18pl.2 maps. Mar. 1903. 5c.
Mineralogy. M1 (4) Nason, F. L. Some New York Minerals and their Lo- ealities. 20p. 1pl. Aug. 1888. [zoc]
M2 (58) Whitlock, H. P. Guide to the Mineralogic Collections of the New York State Museum. 150p.il. 39pl.11 models. Sep.1902. oc.
M3 (70) —— New-York Mineral Localities. In press.
Paleontology. Pal (84) Cumings, E. R. Lower Silurian System of Eastern Montgomery County; Prosser, C:S. Notes on the Stratigraphy of Mohawk Valley and Saratoga County, N. Y. 74p.10pl. map. May 1900. zse.
Pa2 (39) Clarke, J:M.;Simpson, G: B. & Loomis, F:B. Paleontelogic Papers 1. 72p. il. 16pl. Oct. 1900. . z5e.
Contents: Clarke, J: M. A Remarkable Occurrence of Orthoceras in the Oneonta Beds of the Chenango Valley, N. Y.
—Paropsonema cryptophya; a Peculiar Echinoderm from the Intumescens-zone (Portage Beds} of Western New York.
—Dictyonine Hexactinellid Sponges from the Upper Devonie of New York.
—The Water Biscuit of Squaw Island, Canandaigua Lake, N.
Simpson, G:B. Preliminary Descriptions of New Genera of HENS Rugose Corals.
Loomis, F:B. Siluric Fungi from Western New York.
NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM
Pa3 (42) Ruedemann, Rudolf. Hudson River Beds near Albany and their ( Taxonomic Equivalents. 114p. 2pl.map. Ap.1901. 2sc.
Pad (45) Grabau, A. W. Geology and Paleontology of Niagara Falls and Vicinity. 286p. il. 18pl. map. Ap. 1901. 65c; cloth goc.
Pad (49) Ruedemann, Rudolf; Clarke, J: M. & Wood, Elvira. Paleontologic Papers 2. 240p. 13pl. Dee. 1901. oc.
Contents: Ruedemann, Rudolf. Trenton Conglomerate of Rysedorph Hill.
Clarke, J: M. Limestones of Central and Western New York Interbedded with Bituminous ; Shales of the Marcellus Stage.
Wood, Elvira. Marcellus Limestones of Lancaster, Hrie Co. N. Y.
Clarke, J:M. New Agelacrinites.
——Value of Amnigenia as an Indicator of Fresh-water Deposits during the Devonic of ~ New York, Ireland and the Rhineland.
Pa6 (52) Clarke, J: M. Report of the State Paleontologist 1901. 280p. il. 9pl. map, 1tab. July 1902. oc.
Pa? (63) Stratigraphy of Canandaigua and Naples Quadrangles. 2 maps. In press. Pa8 (65) Catalogue of Type Specimens of Paleozoic Fossils i in the New
York State Museum. 848p. May 1903. $7z.20, cloth.
Pa9 (69) Report of the State Paleontologist 1902. In press.
Zoology. Z1(1) Marshall, W:B. Preliminary List of New York Unionidae. 20p. Mar. 1892. sc.
Z2 (9) Beaks of Unionidae Inhabiting the Vicinity of Albany, N. Y. 24p. Ip]. Aug. 1890. zoc.
Z3 (29) Miller, G.S. jr. Preliminary List of New York Mammals. 124p. Oct. 1899. z5¢.
Z4 (33) Farr, M.S. Check List of New York Birds. 224p. Ap.1900. 25c.
Z5 (38) Miller, G.S. jr. Key to the Land Mammals of Northeastern North America. 106p. Oct. 1900. z5c.
Z6 (40) Simpson, G: B. Anatomy and Physiology of Polygyra albolabris and Limax maximus and Embryology of Limax maximus. 82p. 28pl. Oct. 1901. 25c.
| Z7 (43) Kellogg, J. L. Clam and Scallop Industries of New York. 36p. 2pl.
map. Ap. 1901. zoc.
Z8 (51) Hckel, E. C. & Paulmier, F.C. Catalogue of Reptiles and Batrachians of New York. 64p. il. Ipl. Ap. 1902. z5€c.
Eckel, E.C. Serpents of orc ein United States. Paulmier, F.C. Lizards, Tortoises and Batrachians of New York.
Z9 ong Bean, T. H. Catalogue of the Fishes of New York.’ 1784p. Feb. 1903. 1, cloth.
Z10 Kellogg, J.L. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus mercenaria. 30p. 4pl. Sep. 1903. zoe.
Farr, M.S. Birds of New York. In preparation. Letson, Elizabeth J. Catalogue of New York Shells. In preparation.
Entomology. Enl (5) Lintner, J. A. White Grub of the May Beetle. 3zp. i. Nov. 1888. zoc.
En2 (6) Cut-worms. 36p. il. Nov. 1888. zoc.
En3 (13) —— San José Scale and Some Destructive Insects of New York State. 54p. 7pl. Ap. 1895. z5c.
En4 (20) lelt, E. P. Elm-leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il. 5pl. June
1898. 5¢ See En15 En5 (23) —— 14th Report of the State Entomologist 1898. 150p. il. 9pl- Dee. 1898. 2c. En6 (24) Memorial of the Life and Entomologie work of J. A. Lintner
Ph.D. State Entomologist 1874-98; Index to Entomologist’s Reports 1-13. 316p. Ipl. Oct. 1899. 25. _Supplement to 14th report of the state entomologist.
En7 (26) Collection, Preservation and Distribution of New York Insects 36p. il. Ap. 1899. <<.
UNIVERSITY OF THE STATH OF NEW YORK
En8 (27) —— Shade Tree Pests in New York State. 26p.i. 5pl. May 1899. Se.
En9 (31) —— 15th Report of the State Entomologist 1899. 128p. J une 1900. ZC:
En10 (36) 16th Report of the State Entomologist 1900. 118p. 16pl. Mar. 1901. 25¢. ; bye
En11 (37) Catalogue of Some of the More Important Injurious and Bene-
ficial Insects of New York State. 54p. il. Sep. 1900. zoc.
En12 (46) Scale Insects of Importance and a List of the Species in New York State. 94p.il.15pl. June 1901. 25c.
En13 (47) Needham, J.G. & Betten, Cornelius. Aquatic Insects in the Adiron - dacks. 234p. il. 36pl. Sep. 1901. gsc.
En14 (53) Felt, E. P. 17th Report of the State Entomologist 1901. 232p. il. 6pl. Aug. 1902. oc.
En15 (57) Elm Leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il. 8pl. Aug. 1902. z5¢.
This is a revision of Kn4 containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared.
En16 (59) Grapevine Root Worm. 40p. 6pl. Dec. 1902. z5c. New edition in preparation.
En17 (64) 18th Report of the State Entomologist 1902. 110p. 6pl. May 1903 _20¢.
En18 (68) Needham, J. G. & others. Aquatic Insects in New York. 322p. 52pl. Aug. 1903. Soc, cloth.
Felt, E. P. & Joutel, L. H. Monograph of the Genus Saperda. In press.
Botany. Bol (2) Peck, C: H. Contributions to the Botanv of the State of New York. 66p. 2pl. May 1887. Out of print.
Bo2 (8) —— Boleti of the United States. 96p. Sep. 1889. [soc] |
Bo3 (25) —— Report of the State’Botanist 1898. 76p. Spl. Oct. 1899. Out of print.
Bo4 (28) —-— Plants of North Elba. 206p.map. June 1899. 20c.j
Bod (54) —— Report of the State Botanist 1901. 58p.7pl. Nov. 1902. 40c.
Bo6 (67) —— Report of the State Botanist 1902. 196p. 5pl. May 1903. soc.
Archeology. Arl (16) Beauchamp, W: M. Aboriginal Chipped Stone Imple- ments of New York. 86p. 23pl. Oct. 1897. 2sc.
Ar2 (18) Polished Stone Articles used by the New York Aborigines. 104p. 30pl. Nov. 1897. 25¢.3%§
Ar3 (22) Earthenware of the Noy York Aborigines. 78p. 33pl. Oct. 1898. 25¢.
Ar4 (32) —— Aboriginal. Ououpalion of New York. 190p. 16pl. Q maps. Mar. 1900. oc.
Ar5 (41) Wampum and Shell Articles used by New York Indians. 166p. 28pl. Mar. 1901. oc.
Ar6 (50) Horn and Bone Implements of the New York Indians. 112p. 43pl. Mar. 1902. 0c.
Ar’? (55) Metallic Implements of the New York Indians. 94p. 38pl. June 1902. a25¢.
Ar8 —— Metallic Ornaments of the New York Indians. In press. —— History of the New York Iroquois. In preparation.
—— Perch Lake Mounds. In preparation.
Aboriginal Use of Wood in New York. In preparation.
Miscellaneous. Msl (62) Merrill, F: J. H. Directory of Natural History Museums in United States and Canada. 236p. Ap. 1903. oc.
Ms2 (66) Ellis, Mary. Index to Publications of the New York State Natural
History Survey and New York State Museum 1837-1902. 418p. June |
1903. 75, cloth. Museum memoirs 1889-date. Q.
1 Beecher, C: E. & Clarke, J: M. Development of some Silurian Brachiopodh 96p. Spl. Oct. 1889. Out of print. 2 Hall, James & Clarke, J: M. Paleozoic Reticulate prone 350p. il. 70pl. 1898. Br, cloth.
wv ork State Muscum PUBLICATIONS (continued)
e,J:M. The Oriskany Fauna of Becraft Mountain, Columbia Co. N. Y. -9pl. Oct. 1900. Soc.
Fa@ralibes Ne Ye: Edible Fungi, 1895-99. 106p. 25pl. Nov. 1900. 75.
sorts of the state botanist.
5 Clarke, J: M. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Guelph Formation and Fauna of New - York State. -196p. 21pl. July 1903. $z.50, eloth.. 7
ay
6 —— Naples Fauna in Western New York. In press.
Telt, EH. P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. In preparation. Merrill, F: J. H. Geology of New York City and Vicinity. In preparation.
Vatural history of New York. 30v.il. pl.maps. Q.. Albany 1842-94.
ston 1 zoonoay. DeKay, JamesE. Zoology of New York; or, The New York Fauna; comprising detailed descriptions of all the animals hitherto ob- served within the State of New York with brief notices of those occasionally found near its borders, and accompanied by appropriate illustrations. dy. il, pl. maps. sq.Q. Albany 1842-44. Out of print. “ Historical introduction to the series by Gov. W: H. Seward. 178p. y.1ptl Mammalia. 13-+-146p. 38pl. 1842. . a 00 copies with hand-colored plates. : v.2pt2 Birds. 12+380p. 141pl. 1844.
Colored plates. 4 y.3 pt3 Reptiles and Amphibia. 7-+98p. pt4 Fishes. 15+415p. 1842. pt3-4 bound together.
‘Y. 4 Plates to accompany v.38. Reptiles and Amphibia 23pl. Fishes 79pl. 1842.
300 copies with hand-colored plates.
y.5 pts Mollusca. 4427!p. 40pl. pt6 Crustacea. 70p.13pl. 1843-44. Hand-colored plates : pt5-6-bound together.
ae coN 2Botany. Torrey, John. Flora of the State of New York ; comprising e full descriptions of all the indigenous and naturalized plants hitherto discovered
in the State, with remarks on their economical and medical properties. 2v. il.
ep lees @) Albany 1843. Out of pring. ey. 1 Flora of the State of New York. 124484p. 72pl. 1843. 800 copies with hand-colored plates. F ; vy. 2 Flora of the State of New York. 572p. 89pl. 1848.
300 copies with hand-colored plates. DIVISION 3 MINERALOGY. Beck, Lewis C. Mineralogy of New York ; comprising detailed descriptions of the minerals hitherto found in the State of New York, and notices of their uses in the arts and agriculture. il. pl. sq. Q. Albany 4 1842. Outof print. — y. 1 ptl Economical Mineralogy. pt2 Descriptive Mineralogy. 24+586p. 1842. 8 plates additional to those printed as part of the text.
DIVISION 4 gkoLocy. Mather, W: W.; Emmons, Ebenezer ; Vanuxem, Lardner & Hall, James. Geology of New York. 4v. il. pl. sq. Q. Albany 1842-48. Out of ‘print.
v.ipti Mather, W: W. First Geological District. 87--658p. 46pl. 1848.
vy. 2 pt2 Emmons, Ebenezer. Second Geological District. 10-+437p. 17pl. 1842. y.3 pt3 Vanuxem, Lardner. Third Geological District. 3806p. 1842.
v.4pt4 Hall, James. Fourth Geological District. 22+683p. Map and 19pl.
DIVISION 5 AGRICULTURE. Emmons, Ebenezer. Agriculture of New York; com-
prising an account of the classification, composition and distribution of the —
- soils and rocks and the natural waters of ‘the different geological formations, _ together with a condensed view of the meteorology and agriculturai produc- : tions of the State. Sv. il. pl. sq. Q. Albany 1843-84. Out ¢ of print. v. 1 Soils of the State, their Composition and Distribution, 11-+-37Llp. 21pl. —-:1846
is includes revised descriptions and illustrations of fungi Teported i in the 49th, 51st and 52d
‘y.2 Analysis of Soils, Biante, Geren. etc. SHOR HCD. 42pl.
‘H18 Insecticides and Fungicides. 20p. 3c.
With hand-colored plates. : y Bear v.3 Fruits, etc. 84310p. 1801. A ee ee y.4 Plates to accompany v.38. 95pl. 1851. s
Hand-colored. oa v.5 Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 8+272p. d50pl. 1854. With hand-colored plates, DIVISION 6 PALEONTOLOGY. Hall, James. Palaeontology of New York. 8v. pl. sq.Q. Albany 1847-94. Bound tn cloth. v.1 Organic Remains of the Lower Division of the New York System. 23.1 3838p. _ OPjoul. “1847, Out of print. v.2 Organic Remains of Lower Middle Division oF the New York Syste 8-++3 62p. 104pl. 1852. Out of print. y.8 Organic Remains of the Lower Helderberg ata and the Oriskany aud L stone, pti, text. 12+582p. 1859. [$3.50]. payee pt2, 1438pl. 1861. [S2 eI es y.4 Fossil Brachiopoda of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and ch - mung Groups. 11-+1--428p. 99pl. 1867. $2 50. v.5 ptt Lamellibranchiata 1. Monomyaria of the vee Helderberg, Hamilton
and Chemung Groups. 184268p. 45pl. 1884. $2.5 . . Lamellibranchiata 2. Dimyaria of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilto Portage and Chemung Groups. 62-++-293p. Slpl. 1885. $2.50.
pt2 Gasteropoda, Pteropoda and Cephalopoda of ne eiuete Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups, 2v. 1879 . 1, text. 15-+4-492p a
vy. 2, 120pl. f2 50 for 2 U. ‘ q v. ; Corals and Bryozoa of the Lower and Upper Helderber 2 and Hamilton
Groups. 24+298p. 67pl. 1887. $2.50. vy. 7 Trilobites and other Crustacea of the Oriskany, Upper Heldemmere Hom
ton, Portage, Chemung and Catskill Groups. 64+-256p. 4Upl. 1888. Cont.
supplement to v. 5, pt. Pteropoda, Cephalopoda and Annelida, ee a
1883. $2.50.
v. 8 pti. Introduction to the Study of the Genera-of the Paleozoic Brachiopoda, 16--307p. 44pl. 1892. $2.50. oa
—— pt2 Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 16--894p. 84pl. 1804. $2.50.
Handbooks 1893-date. 743x124 em. :
In quantities, 1 cent for each 16 pages or less. Single copies postpaid as below. H5 New York State Museum. 48p.il. ze.
Outlines history and work of the museum with list of staff 1902.
H18 Paleontology. 8p. 2c. ~ : Brief outline of “State Museum work in paleo plac under heads: Definition; Relation: to biology; Relation to stratigraphy; History of paleontology in New York, " ae
H15 Guide to Excursions in the Fossiliferous Rocks of New York. 120p. Se.
Itineraries of 32 trips covering nearly the entire series of Paleozoic rocks, prepared specially- for the use of teachers and students desiring to acquaint themselves more intimately with the classic rocks of this State. ae
H16 Entomology. 12p. 2c. H17 Eeonomic Geology. In preparation.
H19 Classification of New York Series of Geologic Formations. d8p. S65
Maps. Merrill, fF: J. H. Feonomic and Geologic Map of the State of New York; issued as part of Museum bulletin 15 and the 48th Museum Report, — v.1. 59x67 em. 1894. Seale 14 miles to 1 inch. Separate edition out of print. a ae <4
Geologie Map of New York. 1901. Scale 5 miles to 1 inch. In atlas form $3: mounted on rollers $5. Lower Hudson sheet 60c. =
The lower Hudson sheet, geologically colored, comprises Rockland, Orange, Dutchess, Put- nam, Westchester, New York, Richmond, Kings, Queens and Nassau counties, and parts of
Sullivan, Ulster and Suffolk counties; also northeastern New Jer sey and part of western Con-
necticut.
Map of New York showing the Surface Configuration and- Water Sheds.
1901. Boa 12 miles to 1 inch. I5C.
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