i; I ^Bulletin OF THE ;ciENTiFic Laboratories OF Denison university EDITED BY FRANK CARNEY VOLUME XIV IQOS-IQOQ GRANVILLE, OHIO z\(\zsn O CONTf:NTS OF VOLUME XIV November, igo8 Page Foreword. By President Emory W. Hunt r 1. Pre-Wisconsin Drift in the Finger Lake Region of New York. By F. Carney. 3 2. An Esker Group South of Dayton, Ohio. By Earl R. Scheerel 19 3. Wave-cut Terraces in Keuka Valles^, Older than the Recession Stage of Wiscon- sin Ice. By F. Carney 35 4. A Form of Outwash Drift. By F. Carney 47 5. State Geological Surveys and Practical Geography. By F. Carney 55 A pril, igog 6. Fossils from the Silurian Formations of Tennessee, Indiana, and Kentucky. By Aug. F. Foerste 61 7. Studies on Babitt and Other Alloys. By J. A. Baker 117 8. A Stratigraphical Study of Mary Ann Tov/nship, Licking County, Ohio. By F. Carney 127 9. Significance of Drainage Changes near Granville, Ohio. By Earl R. Scheefel 157 10. Age of the Licking Narrows. By K. F. Mather 175 June, igog 11. A Spectrometer for Electromagnetic Radiation. By A. D. Cole 189 12. The Development of the Idea of Glacial Erosion in America. By F. Carney.. 199 13. Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian Fossils. By Aug. F. Foerste 209 14. Notes on Spondylomorum Quaternarium Ehrenb. By M. E. Stickney 233 15. The Reaction to Tactile Stimuli and the Development of the Swimming Move- ment in Embryos of Diemyctylus torsus, Eschscholtz. By G. E. Coghill 239 16. The Raised Beaches of the Berea, Cleveland, and Euclid Sheets, Ohio. By F. Carney 262 November, igog 17. Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils. By Aug. F. Foerste ^ 289 18. The Pleistocene Geology of the Moravia Quadrangle, New York. By Frank Carney 335 SUBJECT AND AUTHOR INDEX Volume XIV Page Abandoned stream channels 182 The age of the Licking Narrows at Black Hand, Ohio 175 Alteration of shore lines by later ice-invasions 37 Albeolites inornatus, sp. nov 103 Ammonium molybdate 119 Anoplotheca saffordi 89 Asymmetrical in response 244 Atrypa arctostriata 93 reticularis-newsomensis, var. nov 93 Austinella scovillei 224 Babbitt analysis, method of W. H. Low 119 method of H. Yockey 124 Baker, J. A., Studies on babbitt and other alloys 117 Bar 269 Barrier 270 Beatricea nodulifera, sp. nov 299 nodulifera-intermedia, var. nov 300 undulata 298 undulata-cylindrica, var. nov 298 Brigham, A. P., on glacial erosion 202, 204 Brachiospongia laevis, sp. nov 300 Calapoecia cribriformis 310 Camarotoechia lindenensis ' 98 Capture of the Licking river 183 Carney, Frank, Development of the idea of glacial erosion in America 199 Form of out wash drift. 47 Pleistocene geology of the Moravia quadrangle, New York 335 Pre-wisconsin drift in New York 3 Raised beaches of the Berea, Cleveland and Euclid sheets 262 State geological surveys and practical geography 55 Stratigraphical study of Mary Ann township 127 Wave-cut terraces in Keuka valley 35 Caryomanon patei, sp. nov 107 Centralization of the nervous system 258 Centrosome in Spondylomorum 236 Cephalization 258 Ceraurus miseneri, nov. sp 228 Chamberlin, T. C., on glacial erosion. 202 Chestnut ridge 275 6 Index Page Chonophyllum (Craterophyllum) vulcanius loi Chonostrophia lindenensis, sp. nov 8i Chromosomes in Spondylomorum 236 Chromatophore in Spondylomorum 235 Cilia of Spondylomorum 235, 236 Cleavage in Spondylomorum ". 236, 237 Clitambonites di versus-rogersensi s 323 CoGHiLL, G. E., The reaction to tactile stimuli, and the development of the swimming movement in embryos of Diemyctylus torosus Eschschlotz 239 Cole, A. D., Spectrometer for electromagnetic radiation 189 Columnaria alveolata 312 alveolata-calycina 313 vacua, sp. nov 313 Composition of eskers 29 Conchidium legoensis 69 Conchidium lindenensis 69 Contractile vacuolus of Spondylomorum 235 Crossbedded structure in valley terraces 178 Culture of Spondylomorum 234 Cusps, beach 269 Cutaneous nerves of fishes and amphibians 258 Cuyahoga formation 134, 144 Cyclocoelia sordida 227 Cynthiana 209 Certia cliftonensis 91 Cyrtoceras cinctutus, sp. nov . 61 Dalmanella bassleri, sp. nov 215 (Bathycoelia) bellula 221 breviculus, nov. sp 216, 322 emacerata 213 321 emacerata,filosa 214 fairmountensis, nov. sp 216. 322 jugosa 218 meeki 218 multisecta 217 Davis, W. M., on glacial erosion 201, 204, 206 Determination of tin in babbitt and other alloys. 117 Development of the idea of glacial erosion in America 199 Diaphorostoma brownsportensis 64 cliftonensis, sp. nov 63 Diastrophism 1 61, 168 Diemyctylus torosus 241 Differential tilting 186 Diffraction phenomena 197 Dinorthis carleyi-insoleus, var. nov 320 ulrichi, sp. nov 320 Index 7 Page Diphyphyllum proliferum 102 Drumlin region 48 Dystactospongia madisonensis, sp. nov 302 Early Wisconsin drift 43 Erosion and color of glacial drift 9? 17 Esker group south of Dayton, Ohio. 19 Eskers, general discussion of 400 Eucalyptocrinus springeri, sp. nov 99 Fairchild, H. L., on glacial erosion 205 Favosites obpyi iformis 100 Field work in geapraphy 58 Foerste, Aug. F., Fossils from the silurian formations of Tennessee, Indiana, and Kentucky 61 Preliminary notes on Cincinnatian fossils 209 Preliminary notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington fossils 289 Form of outwash drift 47 Forms which simulate wave-cut terraces 38 Fossils from the silurian formations of Tennessee, Indiana and Kentucky 61 Gannett, H., on glacial erosion 203 General consideration of ice-front lakes 265 Geographic influences arising from stratigraphy 146 G. K. Gilbert, on glacial erosion 204, 205 Glacial lakes '..... 412, 418 Glaciation 160 Gypidula roemeri 70 simplex, sp. nov 70 Hebertella alveata, nom. nov 224 (Schizonema) celsa, sp. nov 80 fasciata 77 fissiplica 79 fissistriata, sp. nov 76 nisis 78 frankfortensis ; 318 maria-parksensis, var. nov 319 Heliophyllum pegramensis, sp. nov. 100 Heterospongia, sp 303 Homoeospira beecheri 90 pisum, sp. nov 90 schucherti 89 schucherti-elongata, var. nov 89 “Honeycomb” effects in weathering 148 Hunt, Emory W., Greeting to the Ohio academy of science i Hyolithus cliftonensis, sp. nov 62 newsomensis -'. . . 63 Illinoian drift 43 industrial activities 58 Inherent characteristics of old drift. ii 8 Index Page Instinct, development of 260 Instinctive behavior 260 swimming 259 Intelligence, as related to instinct 260 Interference of two reflected waves 195 In ter- tongue fan 53 Iowan drift 4, 43 Karnes, and kettle development 362, 389 Kansan drift 4, 6, 43 King, Clarence, on glacial erosion 201 Lakes, ice-dammed, general study 412, 417 in connection with pre-Wisconsin glaciation 437 Land warping 36 Lateral drainage from the ice 185 Late Wisconsin drift 4, 43, 45, 46 Leconte, J., on glacial erosion 200 Leptaena gibbosa-invenusta, var. nov 315 richmondensis, nom. nov 211 richmondensis-precursor, var. nov 211 Lincoln, D. F., on glacial erosion 202 Locomotion, of amphibian embryo 257 259 Logan formation 138,145 Mather, Kirtley F., Age of the Licking Narrows 175 Maysville formation 209 Meristina maria-roemeri, var. nov 88 M’Gee, W. J., on glacial erosion 203 Mohawk Valley 266 Newark river '. 129, 1 71 valley 175 Niagara and other gorges 43 Nucleolus in Sponylomorum 236 Nucleus, character of, in Spondylomorum 235 Nunatak drift 388, 391 Ontario glacial lobe 48, 49 Orthis flabellites 74 flabellites-militaris, var. nov 75 interplicata, sp. nov 76 nettelrothi, sp. nov 76 Orthostrophia dixoni, sp. nov 74 newsomensis, sp. nov 73 Outwash plains 393 Pachypora (Platyaxum) pegramensis, sp. nov 103 platys, sp. nov 104 planostiolata, sp. nov 106 Pasceolus darwini 303 Paton, on the reaction of vertebrate embryos 261 Peneplanation 172 Index 9 Page Phototaxis in Spondylomorum 234 Piracy, river 158 Physiologico-anatomical correlations 261 Platyceras pronum, sp. nov 65 Platymerella manniensis, sp. nov 70 Platystrophia ponderosa, nom. nov 225 ponderosa-auburnensis, nom. nov 226 Plectambonites tennesseensis 83 Plectorthis fissicosta 221 (Eridorthis) nicklesi, nov. sp 222 (Eridorthis) rodgersensis, nov. sp 223 Plucking, ice 419 Polarization, electrical radiation 195 Post-glacial tilting 418 Potassium permanganate 120 Pottsville formation 138, 145 Practical geography 55 Preliminary notes on Cincinnatian fossils 209 Pre-Wisconsin drift in the Finger Lake region of New York 9 shore lines 45 Protarea richmondensis, nom. nov 210 , 308 Protarea? verneuili 308 Pterinea brisa 65 nervata, sp. nov 67 newsomensis, sp. nov 66 Publications for teachers 56 Pyokatanin blue as a stain for cilia 234 Raccoon creek 162 Raised beaches of the Berea, Cleveland, and Euclid sheets, Ohio 262 Rectilinear propagation, electrical 194 Red pigment spot in Spondylomorum 235 Reflection, electrical 195 Refractive index by interposed-plate method, electrical 195 Regional geography 60 Relationships of Spondylomorum 237 Reproduction, mode of, in Spondylomorum 236, 237 Reticularia pegramensis 92 Rhipidomella lenticularis 72 newsomensis, sp. nov 73 saffordi 72 Rhombopteria (Newsomella) revoluta 68 (Newsomella) ulrichi, sp. nov 67 Rhynchotrema dentata-arnheimensis, var. nov 227 inaequi valve 314 manniensis, sp. nov 315 simplex, sp. nov 94 thebesensis, sp. nov 94 lO Index Richmond formation Scenidium bassleri, sp. nov ScHEFFEL, Earl R., An esker group south of Dayton, Ohio. Significance of drainage changes near Granville, Ohio School museum Schuchertella roemeri . Sedimentation Seneca valley, N. Y. Sexuality in Spondylomorum Shore lines, development of life relations of Significance of drainage changes near Granville, Ohio Size of spondylomorum colonies and individuals Sodium thiosulphate Solifluction Spectrometer for electromagnetic radiation Spirifer geronticus swallowensis Spit, shorelines. Spondylomorum quaternarium, Ehrenb Springs as a geographic influence in humid climates State geological surveys Stephanocrinus tennesseensis Stickney, Malcolm E., Notes on Spondylomorum quaternarium Ehrenb A stratigraphical study of Mary Ann township, Licking County, Ohio. . . . Streptelasma dispandum, sp, nov . divaricans divaricans-augustatum, var. nov insolitum, sp. nov vagans, nom. nov Striae, indication of ice-movement Stricklandinia dichotoma Stropheodonta (Brachyprion) newsomensis, sp. nov Strophomena concordensis, sp. nov maysvillensis, sp. nov vicina, sp. nov Strophonella dixoni, sp. nov ganti, sp. nov laxiplicata prolongata roemeri semifasciata-brownsportensis, var. nov tenuistriata, sp. nov Sub-Aftonian drift Sunbury formation Swimming movement in embryos of Diemyctylos torsus, Eschscholtz. Systematic geography Page 209 72 19 157 59 82 141 49 237 267 282 157 23s 121 367, 368 189 92 93 269 233, 234 146 55 99 233 127 307 307 308 306 30s 428, 429 71 87 213 212 317 85 86 86 8S 84 87 83 4 144 241 60 Index II Page Tactile stimuli, reaction to, in embryos of Diemyctylus Tarr, R. S., on glacial erosion. Tetradium minus Theories of origin of eskers Topographic relations of eskers Topographic sheets Triplecia (Cliftonia) striata, sp. nov ? Triplecia (Cliftonia) tenax, sp. nov Uncinulus schucherti Utica Valley terraces Valley trains Volvox family, relationships of Spondylomorum Lake Warren level Watkins, N. Y Wave-cut terraces in Keuka valley, older than the recession stage of Wis- consin ice Lake Whittlesey level 241 202, 206, 207 311 24 23 57 81 82 99 209 176 376, 392 233 280 26, 49 35 277 r 1843. 48 Frank Carney let past Penn Yan into the Seneca valley. Obviously this cross- section, W-like in shape, is made at the junction of the old sauth- flowing river and a tributary. The general topography of the Finger Lake region, so frequently alluded to in geological articles, is a systematic assemblage of trough-like valleys opening into the Ontario lowland. Presum- ably the bed rock of these troughs slopes northward, as do also the divides between them. The Penn Yan quadrangle extends almost to the edge of this Ontario lowland. The Drumlin region reaches its maximum southern extension north of the Penn Yan sheet, and a few miles southwest of Geneva, which lies within the j flaring walls of the Seneca valley. f I if ICE-FRONT AND DRIFT AS AFFECTED BY TOPOGRAPHY. i The Ontario lobe, as the ice which occupied this lowland is j designated, maintained along its southern margin, during the | advance and retreat of the ice sheet, valley dependencies, the development of which was directly in proportion to the depth of the troughs above alluded to. Of these troughs those of the Seneca and Cayuga valleys are the deepest and therefore probably were occupied longest by tongue-like projections of ice. Contiguous to these troughs are upland valleys which were also occupied by ice showing more or less dependence upon the lobes lying in the Seneca and Cayuga valleys. But as the general border of the ice retreated, the divide ridges separating these trough-like valleys were revealed farther and farther to the north between the converging lines of ice; and in an analogous manner the lesser divides marking and forming the valleys contiguous to the Cayuga and Seneca troughs became reentrant angles between converging walls of ice. It is the work of two such lesser valley dependencies that is supposed to have given rise to the peculiar drift accumulation with which we are concerned. A study of the drift about Penn Yan reveals a massive accumula- tion of debris which begins southward a mile or so from Milo Center and continues a mile or more north of Penn Yan. This moraine, approximately three miles wide, suggests a very slow A Form of Outwash Drift 49 retreat of the ice in this region. It is evident also that this wide band of moraine represents more than the decay of the ice reach- ing out from the Ontario lobe into Seneca valley. It more likely is an indication of the general northwest trend of the ice-front crossing Flint, Naples, and Canandaigua valleys. When the ice Fig. I. A part of the Penn Yan (N. Y.) Quadrangle. Stood with a reentrant angle approximately at Milo Center, the Seneca tongue reached many miles southward towards Watkins, while the lesser lobe in the Keuka valley was shorter. A detail of this lesser lobe evidently would give two tongues of ice, one occupy- ing each arm of Keuka lake, with the reentrant angle along the 50 Frank Carney north-south axis of Bluff Point, and the drift of our triangular area (fig. i) in process of construction. Along the margin of these valley lobes drift ridges, often widen- ing into morainic areas, were being formed. The uniformity of such ridges as traced by Tarr on the Watkins quadrangle has suggested the characterization, ‘^almost diagrammatic in their simplicity.”^ Each such moraine is indicative of stability in the reach of a valley lobe. Two contiguous valleys as those of Keuka and Seneca lakes would give us contemporaneously formed contouring moraines. The particular form assumed by the glacial debris at the angle of two such contiguous moraines will depend in the first place upon the northward slope of the divide; in the second place, upon the debris melted out of the ice at this particu- lar point; and, in the third place, upon the amount of glacial drain- age diverging at this point, carrying the material thus melted along the margin of the valley lobes. From a study of these intertrough divides of the Finger Lake region, it is noted that their northward slope is gradual. The normal condition then of drift where the lateral moraines of two adjacent lobes unite reveals no special thickening. Where, how- ever, the slope of the divide in question is steepened, and the ice immediately northward is perhaps more stagnant, or where it contains less debris, then we would anticipate a tendency toward the general removal of such debris, and the axis of the slope or divide would have less than the normal veneer of drift. On the other hand, when the axis of the northward slope is more in line with the general deployment of the ice, the chances for the accumu- lation of drift will certainly be enhanced. It should be noted that the northern part of the longitudinal axis of Bluff Point does trend to the east quite in unison with the direct deployment of ice from the Seneca lake lobe. This being the case then, we have the hypothetical conditions favorable to an assemblage of debris in the triangular area. There is, however, still a further factor that favors accumulation of the drift, which is operative when the divide flattens immediately to the north, a topographic relationship due to the drainage his- ^ Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.^ vol. xvi, p. 218, 1905. A Form of Outwash Drift 51 tory of the uplands or divide areas between these northward open- ing troughs. This fact taken in conjunction with the one just mentioned, that is, when the topography favors free movement from the major lobe, thus directing thitherward more active ice with this load of debris, will give us the conditions that account for the peculiar localization of the drift of the area under discussion. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRIFT IN QUESTION. A detailed study of this particular interlobate outwash material reveals the following facts: (i) The ice-contact face is not accen- tuated, that is, there is no cliff or terrace to suggest the speedy withdrawal of the ice from a position of long halt; (2) the northern part of the accumulation presents a subdued morainic surface; (3) rather numerous bowlders may be seen, some of which are the largest noted in the region. To the southward, however, this morainic topography gradually blends into a normal outwash slope. The control exercised by the falling contours of the rock slopes both east and west, is manifest in the expanding outwash when con- sidered in connection with the moraine to which it belongs, and in the gradual falling contours of the outwash, i. e., this develop- ment of drift has something of a saddle form. Judged from the surface appearance — there is an absence of sections — the outwash material is entirely normal; there is a blending distally form coarser to finer sediments, with a few bumps suggestive of kame topography. Proceeding southward from this area along the east slope of Bluff Point, one traces a very sharp lateral moraine marking the position of the valley tongue which occupied the Penn Yan arm of the lake contemporaneously with the building up of the out- wash. This band of lateral moraine may be traced without a break until it disappears beneath the surface of the lake at a point a little south of Ogoyago. The counterpart of this band of drift on the eastern wall of the Penn Yan branch has not been traced continuously. It has been picked up, however, along the highway directly west of Warsaw, also to a point northeast of Crosby, and continuously traced where it makes the angle around the divide west of Himrods, blending then into marginal drift of the Seneca valley lobe. 52 Frank Carney But the moraine which marks the position of the valley depend- ency occupying the west branch of Keuka lake, at the time the outwash was developing, attained only faint expression. Its most pronounced development exists through the first mile and one-half southwest of the drift in question. From that point one cannot be certain of the outline of this valley dependency. Its form, as suggested by drift flanking the west wall of this branch of the lake, has not been investigated. THE NORMAL OUTWASH PLAIN. Chamberlin cites^ references to descriptions of the general type of ‘‘glacio-fluvial aprons,’’ variously named by geologists from 1874-1893. But a precise summary of the terminology of the deposits made by glacial waters, together with accurate distinc- tions on genetic and topographic principles,^ appeared in 1902 in Salisbury’s Glacial Geology of New Jersey, from which we quote: Where the sub-glacial streams did not occupy sub-glacial valleys, they did not always find valleys at hand when they issued from the ice. Under such circumstances, each heavily loaded stream com- ing out from beneath the ice tended to develop a plain of stratified material (a sort of alluvial fan), near its point of issue. Where several such streams came out from beneath the ice near one an- other for a considerable period of time, their several plains, or fans, were likely to become continuous by lateral growth * * * Thus arose the type of stratified drift variously known as over- wash plains, outwash plains, morainic plains and morainic aprons.”® This definition of an outwash plain leaves no uncertainty: gen- etically it results where there is a lack of alignment between sub- glacial valleys and sub-glacial loaded streams: topographically these streams should flow out upon a plain where their individual fans may coalesce. It is also evident, as Salisbury states elsewhere, ^ Glacial Phenomena of North America, in Geikie’s The Great Ice Age^ foot- note p. 751, 1894. ^Brief descriptions are also given in Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology, voL i, p. 306; voL iii, p. 372, 1906. ® Geological Survey of New Jersey, vol. v, pp. 1 28-129, 1902. A Form of Outwasfi Drift 53 that the degree of development of this drift-form varies with the time the ice stands at a given halt. Woodworth alludes^ to a washed drift which confronts the terminal moraine on Long Island; this formation, as described, is a normal outwash plain. In his description of the drift in southern Wisconsin, Alden* describes an ^‘outwash apron’’ which constitutes a portion of the deposits in the interlobate angle between the Lake Michigan Glacier and the Delavan lobe; his usage of the term outwash else- where in the paper is also in accord with the standard of definition. In applying this definition to the localization of drift referred to on the north slope of Bluff Point, we note the following facts: (l) the absence of an initial plain, (2) the probable absence of a strong sub-glacial stream, (3) a constancy in the position of adja- ent ice-lobes which built up lateral moraines, (4) a synchronous accumulation of debris at the reentrant ice-angle, (5) diverging slopes to the south that insured rather active drainage away from this angle, and (6) a single alluvial fan-like body of washed drift blending northward into moraine. The normal outwash plain is an assemblage of such alluvial fan-like units. The drift in question is quite identical with an out- wash plain in structure, but different from it in degree of develop- ment and in topographic environment; ignoring the latter discrep- ancy, we may say it is a very subdued form of outwash plain that represents a constant position of the ice at the junction of two rather small valley dependencies. Since Bluff Point is a not uncommon type of topography in the Finger Lake region, and since the writer has mapped on the Moravia quadrangle similar deposits of drift, he suggests, as a designation for such deposits, the term inter-lohule (or inter-tongue) fan. Geological Department, Denison University, January, 1907, N. Y. State Mus., Bulletin 8^, p. 90, 1905. ® Professional Paper, No, 34, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 31-32, 1904. STATE GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS AND PRACTICAL GEOGRAPHY.^ FRANK CARNEY. The expression ^‘practical geography/’ as used in this paper, implies, not essentially the utilitarian or economic phase of the subject, but the rational as opposed to the idealistic, the possible as opposed to the highly improbable or impossible. What we would accomplish in the way of right geography, and what, as a matter of fact, we are able to accomplish in the near future, are disproportionate quantities. But we do not desire the idealist to become less active; he is the standard-bearer, and when at some future time this country shall have attained the position in geog- raphy even now reached in England, we may grant that the man who always advocated the very best did more than half the work. In the meantime, it may not be futile to point out some lines of activity possible for Geological Surveys, organizations already well established and sustained in many of the States. Not only these organizations, but many others, both State and national, are constantly producing much matter that is strictly geographic, but which for purposes of geography is unused and will continue use- less till properly correlated. The correlation of this material, and the accomplishment of a few other suggestions, appear to the writer practicable at the present time. No one would underestimate the progress being made in this country in geography. The encouraging conditions furnish an incentive to hasten much better conditions. In our colleges and universities are a number of men employed solely for giving instruc- tion in geography, and other institutions are considering the estab- lishment of chairs. Even in secondary schools the physiographic side of geography, at least, is receiving more attention. The ^Written for the Chicago Meeting, 1907, of the Association of American Geog- raphers. Reprinted from the Bulletin American Geographical Society^ vol. xl, Sept- ember, IQOg. 56 Frank Carney organization of local geographic societies is another evidence of I progress. Of the various agencies through which further and more prompt progress may be effected, the Geological Surveys seem the most worth while considering. If by some necromancy we might at once bestow upon all individuals who are now giving instruction in geography a good training, making them reasonably well- equipped geographers, even such proficiency as domestic insti- ; tutions can give, we would look no further. For the trained pro- I gressive teacher the innovations outlined in this paper have no j personal application. In the following paragraphs I briefly con- 1 sider six ways in which the Surveys might further the interests of i geography: | Publications for teachers. The publications of our State Sur- | veys contain much that is useful to the secondary school teacher; this is especially true of the economic reports, though there is an | objection common to nearly all these publications; they are pre- | pared for the class of critical and informed readers represented by | the authors of the reports. No one would suggest that in this j respect Surveys should deviate from the present method; such I reports must not only be abreast of their phase of the science, but I should also make contribution to it. | Nevertheless, it is evident to all that reports of this type can not be of greatest benefit to the average teacher of geography, and it is j| this teacher with whom we would labor in advancing scientific j geography. To this end might not our Surveys prepare special |i and supplementary reports specifically for teachers ? If these | teachers as a class were readers of the geographical journals, the desired object might be partially accomplished; but we know | they are not; furthermore, publications prepared by their own i State for them in particular would make a more certain appeal. | The publications I have in mind should be of two types: ' a. As illustrating the class of special reports, one of these ; should aim at instilling a better concept of geography as a science. | There is no lack of general books of method in geography, but we | need terse treatments of the basal principles that should govern j instruction in regional and systematic geography, emphasizing ] State Geological Surveys and Practical Geography 57 the interrelation between the organic and inorganic parts of the subjectj and impressing the necessity of a strict terminology. While in a few text-books some or all of these ideas may be exem- plified, they are not given the prominence that insures an appre- ciation of their importance. b. Supplementary reports summarizing for teaching purposes the more extended publications would be of great aid to the schools. For example: In recent years several States have issued extensive studies on their clays and clay industries. In nearly every case these were prepared by specialists; they contain much that is purely technical, besides facts that contribute to human relations; the facts bearing on geography admit of correlation, affording in particular an opportunity to emphasize the organic. Some States have issued reports on one or another phase of physiography; others are engaged on more extensive physio- graphic studies. These contemplated publications may be strictly physiographic, embodying only the inorganic, in which case they will disregard half their scope for usefulness in the schools. Type sets of topographic sheets. The laboratory manuals in physiography leave no occasion for reference to this topic, so far as classes in that subject are concerned. It is seldom, however, that we find topographic sheets used with classes in elementary geography. These younger pupils, consequently, do not get any conception of the map representation of relief. For their teachers, for the classes, and for older students as well, it would be a great service if Surveys were to provide at a minimum cost mounted sheets illustrating types of topography; so far as is possible, the sheets should be selected from the State concerned. Concise, lucid explanations should accompany the maps. I am aware that teachers and school boards may secure these maps directly from Washington. But the sheets are not exten- sively used even in high schools. Their use would become more general if some organization of the State were to take an active interest in seeing that the proper sheets are selected, that these are made more durable by mounting, that their import is to some extent particularized upon, and that the subject of using such maps is brought directly to the attention of the parties who should use them. 58 Frank Carney \ i The need of good maps in the schools was cogently amplified I before this Association one year ago.^ The best maps of home { areas available are those issued by the U. S. Geological Survey; | the more extensively they are used, the less will be the demand for r|| mediocre maps. ji Industrial activities. The State supplements of many school ll geographies usually give special attention to industrial activities; ,j often maps are used in showing the distribution of areas of cer- |i tain natural products, of the several lines of manufacturing, or ! particular phases of agriculture, etc. Some of this information 11 is rendered obsolete or incomplete in a very few years; other data, ! usually illustrating the organic part of geography, appear, so that > no matter how satisfactorily these phases of geography were treated 1 in the original edition of the supplement, they are shortly out cf i date. Two or three years often witness marked changes in the | activities of many localities. The fact that there has been a ! change is not so important in geography as the reason for the ! change. It is mainly in the industrial lines that innovations arise. i The publishers of State supplements can not be expected to inves- | tigate and announce these activities with the promptness and | thoroughness desired. State Geological Surveys can do this; | furthermore, their efforts are not constrained by mercenary inter- ests as with competing publishers. Field work. Some years ago the New York Survey published a Guide to Excursions in the Fossiliferous Rocks of New Fork State. This little bulletin is a type of publication that other Surveys might adopt, greatly to the advantage of geography. While the schools of each region must depend largely on the imme- diate locality for illustrative field work, at the same time each State possesses some features, valuable for study but localized, which should be generally known. A thickly populated part of a State suggests several lines of investigation which a Survey can treat without in the least dis- couraging the initiative of local teachers. It is seldom that a city is so completely self-developed that a study of its factories, etc., does not at once lead into relationships of environment, active ^ Cyrus C. Adams, Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., vol. xxxix, p. 6, 1907. State Geological Surveys and Practical Geography 59 and passive. The tracing of these relationships may be a matter of considerable study, but of sufficient importance to deserve the attention; the explanatory treatment thus given a particular phase of a city’s activity visited by a class is good geography. The school museum. The school museum as an auxiliary in teaching geography is of recognized value. The large permanent museums of certain cities and of some institutions may be of in- estimable aid locally, but it is a fact that such collections seldom make an appeal commensurate v^ith their intrinsic worth, save to a few investigators or advanced students. The completeness of such museums is both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is a question whether the circulating school museum as managed in the city of Chicago is not of greater advantage for the purpose designed. The plan brings the material right into the classroom where there are no distractions arising from strangeness and from the multiplicity of objects, as is the case when the class is taken to a museum. . The assembling and management of circulating museums might be undertaken by State Surveys. Additional appropriation should be procured to start the work; if not, increased appro- priations will surely come after an exemplification of its value to the schools of the State, Exchange of material between State Surveys would be the normal method of augmenting collections, particularly of natural resources. Thus rocks, ores, minerals, fossils, and illustrations of particular phenomena, as glacial scour- ing, and marine grinding of given areas, would be added to the collections of other States. The museums of State colleges and universities should be the clearing-houses for this material. A participatory method might be instituted by which school boards would pay transportation charges on the collections needed. Furthermore, the schools themselves, in localities where desirable material is to be had, might be utilized in collecting for the State, at the same time encouraging the schools to arrange permanent collections. Manufactured products, so far as is practicable, should have a large place in these collections. Every such product is either a response to a particular environment, or a less immediate and direct but no less important fact of organic geography. 1 6o Frank Carney Bibliographies and digests. The quantity of matter, primarily or incidentally of geographic value, issued by both government and private presses is so great that even the teacher who is giving his entire time to this study depends to some extent on the reviews and digests appearing in journals, and in bulletins of geographical societies. That the instructor who is dividing his time with other subjects can not keep abreast in geography is apparent; further- more, it is the exception if this instructor, when he enters upon his work, is broadly acquainted with the literature. For this reason it seems advisable to place in his way the means of strengthening his preparation, and of keeping up to date. Periodical bibliog- raphies and reviews of the recent books and articles would stimu-. late this activity and insure progressiveness. Surveys could exercise a selective treatment in the preparation of such bibliog- raphies and subjects for digesting, thus eliminating the features less pertinent to the teachers and schools of their States. CONCLUSION. To accomplish much of this means that Surveys should employ geographers, or the best trained men that may be secured. Where this is not feasible, the cooperation and part-time assistance of men in teaching positions would be of advantage. The outlook is encouraging, particularly where Surveys are broadening their scope by giving attention to industrial and eco- nomic activities, and by directing investigation in phases of natural history. Regional geography is thus intensified, a work which should precede a well-founded systematic geography, because a satisfactory system presupposes a consideration of a high per- centage of the facts which the system would compass. Even the little that is being done by the least affluent of our Sur- veys furnishes data and opportunity for advancing better methods in geography. All that is needed is an amplification of work in few lines; an emphasis wherever the schools may be reached, both in instructing and inspiring the teachers and by supplementing the outfit of the class-room; and a correlation of data produced by the Survey, and, to as great an extent as is practicable, by other similar organizations. BULLETIN OF THE SCIENTIFIC Laboratories OF DENISON UNIVERSITY Volume XIV Articles 6-10 Pages 61-188 EDITED BY FRANK CARNEY Permanent Secretary Denison Scientific Association 6. Fossils from the Silurian Formations of Tennessee, Indiana, and Kentucky. By Aug. F. Foerste . 6i 7^ Studies on Babbitt and Other Alloys. By J. A. Baker . • . . : . . . . . . . ... , . uj 8. A Stratigraphical Study of Mary Ann Township, ticking County, Ohio. By F. Carney . . . . ^. ..... . . .... ^ . / . ..... .... ; . . . . . . . . . .1^7 9. Significance of Drainage Changes near Granville, Ohio. By Earl R. Scheffel . . ........... . . ... ..... . . 157 10. Age of the Licking Narrows. By K. F. Mather . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . , . . . 175 :s s ' GRANVILLE, OHIO, APRIL, 1909 WAVERUY PRESS BALTIMORE FOSSILS FROM THE SILURIAN FORMATIONS OF TENNESSEE, INDIANA AND ILLINOIS Aug. F. Foerste The Silurian formations of Ohio, Indiana, and Tennessee con- tain a large fauna which awaits elaboration. Preliminary notes on some of the Tennesseean fossils were published in a paper on Silurian and Devonian Limestones of Western Tennessee, in the Journal of Geology, m 1903, with the expectation of their further elaboration and illustration. Plates were prepared during the fol- lowing year, but not published, in the hopes of securing further material in the field. Other duties have intervened, and for some time to come will prevent further study. Under the circumstances it is considered best to publish these plates with their accompany- ing notes in their present condition, awaiting a future opportunity for more complete study. A part of the figures refer to fossils from Indiana, and a few of the notes include references to forms from Illinois. Several terms of a subgeneric character have been proposed. Whether these terms will commend themselves or not will depend largely upon the question whether future studies will show that they include groups which indicate close affinity and are sufficiently distinct from the types of the genera already described to warrant the separation of these groups from former genera either as subgenera or as independent genera. All the available material has been utilized in an attempt to define these groups. In most cases, the material at hand has not been of such a character as to submit to treatment by chemicals. Cyrtoceras cinctutus, sp. nov. {Plate III, Figs, 37 A, B.) Gyroceracone; in the specimen figured the living chamber occupies a length of 30 mm. However, since the margin of the aperture is not distinctly preserved, its original length may have been greater. In a poorly preserved gyroceraconic shell from the same part of the section, with only indistinct traces of costae, the broken 62 Aug. F. Foerste apical end, about as large as in the specimen here figured, almost touches the dorsal side of the aperture; but on account of its poor state of preservation it cannot be definitely identified with the present species; the distance between the septa is slightly greater. Annular costae distinct at all stages of growth preserved by the type specimen, deflected toward the apical end; along the sides ] of the shell, between the dorsal part and the ventro-lateral angle, | the curvature of costae is fairly constant, but at the ventro-lateral I angle the costae are deflected more rapidly toward the apical end I of the shell, forming a sinuate curve along the median part of the i ventral side. Shell distinctly compressed laterally, the ventro- | dorsal diameter of the larger end of the living chamber of the | smaller fragment figured being 16.5 mm., and the lateral diameter | 12.3. The costae are more prominent at the ventro-lateral angles, | adding to the flattened appearance of the sides and producing also ' a slightly flattened appearance along the ventral face. Along the median part of the ventral face the costae form a deeper and more angulate sinus than do the costae of Cyrtoceras rigtdum\ the shell is narrower, and the greater prominence of the costae at the ventro- lateral angles is a distinguishing feature. Siphuncle ventrad of the center, about .7 of the distance from the dorsal to the ventral side, poorly preserved, apparently narrow and tubular. Septa 15 in a length of 50 mm. in the type specimen figured, the distance between the septa being greater during the ephebic stage. Internal casts of the shell and such parts of the shell as are preserved show faint transverse striations, about 30 to 35 in a length of 5 mm.; these striations are transverse to the length of the shell and main- tain their directions across the costae. In one weathered specimen there are faint traces of longitudinal striae, but in all other speci- mens only transverse striae are seen. Osgood bed: Clifton, Tennessee. Hyolithus cliftonensis, sp. nov. {Plate III, Figs. s8 A, B.) Length of more complete specimen, 32 mm.; original length possibly 38 mm.; width at the larger end, 12 mm.; width 26 mm. from the larger end, 6 mm.; vertical diameter at right angles to the width at the larger end, 8 mm. Dorsal side strongly convex, but flattened sufficiently on each side of the strongly rounded median Silurian Fossils 63 part to produce, in conjunction with the flat ventral side, a sub- triangular cross-section. The ventral side, although strongly flat- tened, is slightly convex, and bears indications, along the median part, of two or three faintly defined linear, longitudinal ridges. A shallow groove, less than a millimeter from the lateral margins, gives these margins a more acute cross-section. The specimens are chiefly in the form of casts of the interiors, or, at least, do not preserve the test well. The larger specimen, however, preserves distinct traces, on the dorsal side, of numerous, close-set, longi- tudinal striations, alternating in size. Judging from Hyolithus newsomensis, these longitudinal striations may have been absent from the ventral side. Osgood bed: Clifton, Tennessee. Hyolithus newsomensis. {Plate I, Figs, j A, B.) Length, 22 to 25 mm.; width at larger end, 5.5 mm.; vertical diameter at right angles to the width, 4.2 mm. Dorsal side evenly convex, in cross-section approximately semicircular. Ventral side flattened, the median parts distinctly though moderately concave. Dorsal side striated lengthwise, about 5 or 6 more prominent striae in a width of 2 mm., the intervals occupied by 4 to 8 finer ones; crossed by transverse striae which are difficult to see even with a lens. Ventral side crossed by fine transverse striae and lines of growth, and by almost imperceptible longitudinal striae. Judg- ing from the transverse striae, the aperture was not oblique but opened approximately at right angles to the length of the shell. Waldron bed: Newsom, at the old quarries half a mile south of the station; Swallow bluff, along the upper part of the bluff south of the landing; Iron City, along the top of the bluff' at the station; all in Tennessee. Diaphorostoma cliftonensis, sp. nov. {Plate III, Figs. 41 A, B.) This species has usually been referred to Diaphorostoma niag- arense, to which it evidently is closely related. However, it is not identical, and the failure to distinguish between the two species gives them little value in determining the horizons of the rocks in which they are found. Diaphorostoma niagarense occurs typically 64 Aug. F. Foerste in the Rochester shales of New York, but is represented also by an almost identical form in the Waldron of Indiana and Tennessee. Diaphorostoma cliftonensis occurs typically in the Osgood bed of Tennessee and Indiana, but is represented by almost identical forms in the Clinton. Diaphorostoma cliftonensis typically is a smaller shell, with a relatively greater height, compared with its width. There are about three and a half volutions, and the last volution never attains the relative width, compared with the height of the shell, which is shown by Diaphorostoma niagarense. Height of largest specimen, 20 mm.; width parallel to the aperture, 22 mm.; width perpendicular to this diameter, 17 mm.; height of spire above the aperture, 7 mm.; above the last volution, a little over 2 mm.; width of aperture, 14 mm.; height of aperture, about 15 mm. Shell marked by numerous faint striations transverse to the length of the volutions. There are no striations parallel to the volutions. Osgood bed: Clifton, Tennessee. Diaphorostoma brownsportensis. (Plate I, Fig. 14.) Shell depressed, vertically compressed along the outer margin of the last volution; a groove or depression, usually very distinct, follows the inner edge of the compressed part along the upper side of the volution; a faint depression follows the inner edge of the compressed part along the lower side of the volution. Surface marked by transverse striae and wrinkles, which are bent back at the compressed edge of the last volution, indicating the presence of a sinus at the aperture having a maximum length of about 4 mm. Volutions about 3, contiguous, the last volution very much flattened near its beginning but less flattened toward the aperture. Resembles Platyceras sinuatum as represented by fig. 5, plate 55, vol. iii, of the New York Paleontology.'^ Brownsport bed: glade southwest of Brownsport Furnace, three miles west of Vice landing; north of landing at Cerro Gordo; hill north of Bath Springs; all in Tennessee. Games VL-dW.^ N atural History of New York, part vi, Paleontology, Vol. Ill, 1861. Whenever these volumes are referred to later in this paper they will be designated. New York P aleontology. Silurian Fossils 65 Platyceras pronum, sp. nov. {Plate III, Fig, 40^ Shell unguiform, with an ovate outline, the beak being twisted sufficiently to make it point toward the right. The shell is striated concentrically, but otherwise is smooth. Length, 28 mm.; width, 18 mm.; vertical elevation, about ii mm. Osgood bed: Clifton, Tennessee. Pterinea brisa, Hall. {Plate IV, Fig. 61.) Pterinea brisa was described by Hall in the Twentieth Regents Report the State Cabinet of Natural History of New York. The type was obtained at Bridgeport, Illinois. This is an entirely dif- ferent species from that identified as Pterinea brisa from the Wal- dron bed, Waldron, Indiana. Only a single specimen of Pterinea brisa was found in the Waldson bed at Newsom, Tennessee. This was a left valve. It has the following characteristics. Length of the umbonal ridge or general body of the shell, from the beak to the posterior end of the ridge, 20 mm. The poste- rior margin of the body makes an angle of about 30° with the hinge line; the anterior margin is nearly vertical. The anterior lobe begins about 9 mm. beneath the beak and extends forward about 5 mm. from the center of the beak. The extremity of the posterior lobe, along the hinge line, is about 18 mm. from the beak; the inner edge of the sinuous curve is about 16 mm. Radi- ating plications are numerous and sharply defined along the umbo- nal ridge or general body of the shell. At a distance of ii mm. from the beak, there are 13 to 15 striations in a width of 5 mm. anteriorly, becoming less frequent and less distinct on the posterior lobe, and reduced to mere crenulations or nearly obsolete on the anterior lobe. Concentric lines of growth rise as sharp narrow laminae, approximately equidistant on the same parts of the shell, about 12 in a length of 5 mm. at a distance of 10 mm. from the beak. These concentric striae become more distant toward the posterior lobe of the shell, and closely crowded together on the anterior lobe. While the radiating striae become stronger toward the anterior edge of the concentric striae or lamellae, they are not produced into fimbriae. 66 Augr. F. Foersfe The conspicuous features of this shell compared with the species described from Waldron are as follows. The radiating and con- centric striae are more numerous, and without fimbriae. The ante- rior lobe is longer; its upper edge is more nearly parallel to the hinge margin; the sinuosity limiting it from the general body of the shell, originates farther from the beak. The posterior lobe is more extended along the hinge line. The anterior outline of the shell forms a much sharper angle with the hinge line, and the anterior height of the shell, in consequence, is less. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Pterinea newsomensis, sp. nov. {Plate IV, Figs. 59 A, B.) Compared with Pterinea hrisa, from the Niagaran of Illinois, the species described as Pterinea brisa from the Waldron bed of Indiana differs considerably. The relative height of the shell is much greater; the anterior outline of the shell forms a smaller angle with the hinge line; the anterior lobe extends a shorter distance from the beak, both anteriorly and vertically; the posterior lobe is less extended along the hinge line and the sinuosity along its posterior margin is less. Both the radiating and concentric stria- tions are less numerous on the left valve, and the concentric striae or lamellae are more or less fimbriated where crossed by the radiat- ing striae, the so-called fimbriae consisting chiefly of short denticu- late projections, the margins of which are sharply turned upward. The shell attains a larger size than in the case of typical Pterinea brisa. The right valve is smaller, nearly flat, except toward the beak, where it is only slightly convex. Its surface is compara- tively smooth along the main body of the shell, being marked only by rather distant, low striae, which become indistinct toward the beak. The posterior lobe is marked by rather numerous sharp concentric striae, crossed by fairly distinct radiating striae. Height of one specimen, 26 mm.; length along the hinge line from the anterior edge of the anterior lobe to the tip of the posterior lobe, 29 mm. The sinuous outline limiting the anterior lobe begins 6 mm. from the beak, and the extension of this lobe anterior to the general body of the shell is about 2.5 mm. Radiating striae about 4.5 in a width of 5 mm. at a distance of 25 mm. from the beak. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Silurian Fossils 67 Pterinea nervata, sp. nov. {Plate IF, Fig. 60.) A third species of Pterinea found at Newsom, Tennessee, is in some respects intermediate between Pterinea hrisa and Pterinea newsomensis. Its left valve is marked by radiating striae, but these are less sharply defined than in Pterinea hrisa, and are much less numerous. The concentric lamellae show the fimbriate denticula- tions, but these are conspicuous only along the less elevated parts of the general body of the shell, where the shell is less worn. In general outline this species approaches Pterinea newsomensis, of which it may be regarded as a variety. However, in the case of Pterina nervata, when the shell is more or less worn, the general body of the left valve is seen to be covered by radiating striations of various size. The more prominent striae number about four in a width of 5 mm., the intermediate spaces being occupied by 3 to*5 much finer striae, visible under a lens. The species is char- acterized by the more distant radiating striae, between which are a number of much finer striae. In size, this shell equals Pterinea newsomensis. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Rhombopteria (Newsomella) ulrichi, sp. nov. {Plate IV, Figs. 62 d, B.) In surface ornamentation this shell is closely allied to Rhom- hopteria mira, described by Barrande from the Silurian lime- stone of Bohemia. In our shell, however, it is the right valve which is convex and which carries the characteristic ornamenta- tion. This consists of two systems of striations, m-ore or less radi- ating, crossing each other at an angle of about 30°. In addition to this there are strong lamellose concentric lines of growth, rather distant from each other, the free edges of these lamellae being some- times about a millimeter in width. In one shell, the distance from the beak to the posterior end of the hinge line is 21 mm. The out- line of the posterior lobe is slightly concave and makes an angle of about 45° with the hinge line. The height of the shell at the posterior extremity of the hinge line is almost 21 mm. The height where the sinuous outline of the anterior lobe begins is about 13.5. The upper part of the outline of the anterior lobe makes an angle of about 60° with the hinge line. The crossing of the 68 Aug. F. Foerste I two systems of striations usually is seen best along the umbonal V ridge. No left valves have been found attached to the right valves, " but the left valves are believed to be less convex, with strong and distant lamellose lines of growth, similar to those on the right ; valves, but with radiating striations difficult to recognize even ' under an ordinary lens. Named in honor of E. O. Ulrich. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. In Rhomhopteria mira, the type of the genus Rhornhopteria, the , straight hinge line is continued both anterior and posterior to the beak; the left valve is more convex and displays the cross-striations. i With this species Rhomhopteria clathrata, described by Weller from ’-i the Coeymans limestone of New Jersey, is congeneric. Rhom- '|‘ bopteria ulrichi and Rhomhopteria revoluta differ in the absence of the anterior projection of the straight hinge line, and in the reversal of the valves, the right valve being the more convex one and possessing the conspicuous cross-striations. If these species fji possess teeth, cardinal or lateral, no trace of them has been found in the specimens at hand. Posterior to the beak, the hinge area J of the right valve is thickened for about half the length of the hinge :] dine, and against this thickened area the hinge margin of the left -! valve rests. The term JSfewsomella is here introduced to distin- ''i guish these shells from those typified by Rhomhopteria m.ira. 1 Rhomhopteria (Newsomella) revoluta, Winchell and Marcy. {Flate IV, Figs. 63 A, B, C.) ' U Specimens either identical with Rhomhopteria revoluta, described \ by Winchell and Marcy from the Niagaran rocks of Bridgeport, Illinois, or closely related to this species, occur in the Waldron bed, at Newsom, Tennessee. The radiating striae are much coarser; 12 to 14 striae occupy a width of 5 mm. at a distance of 10 mm. from the beak. The striations on the posterior wing diverge strongly from those on the anterior part of the body, and along the umbonal ridge, on the posterior side of the body, the two sys- f terns of striae cross. Cross striations are present also on the ante- rior lobe, only the right valve possessing these radiating striations. The striations on the posterior wing meet the hinge margin at angles of about 30° to 45°. The left valves are less convex, •! often nearly flat, and are marked by prominent, and rather distant 4 lamellose concentric lines of growth. Between the latter, only i Silurian Fossils 69 faint concentric striations are visible under a lens. This species is distinctly smaller than Rhombopteria ulrichi. The largest speci- mens do not exceed 22 mm. in length when measured along the umbonal ridge. Considering the small size of the shell, the longi- tudinal striations of the right valve are very conspicuous. An examination of the cast of the type of Rhombopteria revoluta does not reveal specific differences between this type and the New- som specimens, but the type is an imperfect exterior cast of the right valve only. In the Newsom specimens the shallow depres- sion limiting the anterior lobe from the body of the shell appears more distinct, the resulting concavity of outline between this lobe and the body is more readily discernible, and the radiating striae meet the hinge line of the posterior wing at a greater angle. If these features should prove to be fairly constant differences, when more is known of the Bridgeport species, the Newsom specimens might be called Rhombopteria divaricata. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Conchidium legoensis. {Plate II, Figs. 56 A, B.) Closely related to C. crassiplicay but the shell is smaller, the plications are angular rather than rounded anteriorly, and there are ii to 14 radiating plications, none of them bifurcating ante- riorly. Length 29 to 31 mm., width 20 to 24 mm., thickness 16 to 17 mm. Brachial valve depressed along its entire length. Beak of the pedicel valve erect, apex of brachial valve concealed, sides of shell distinctly flattened posterior to the middle. Brownsport bed : northeast of Lego on Short creek, 300 yards southeast of W. E. Ashley and P. Denman, along hillside south of the valley, Tennessee. Conchidium lindenensis. {Plate II, Figs. 35 A, B.) In form of shell and closeness of radiating plications most nearly related to C. colletti, but the shell is smaller, there are only 19 radiating plications in the entire width of the shell at a distance of 30 mm. from the beak where C. colletti would show 34 plica- tions; moreover, the shell is narrower, and does not possess the frequent lines of growth. Length of largest specimen, 50 mm. 70 Aug. F. Foerste Brownsport bed : east of William Goodwin on Coon creek, two ) and two-tenths miles east of Linden, near base of exposures on i hill side, Tennessee. Gypidula simplex, sp. nov. {Plate III, Figs. 51 A, B.) Shell small, smooth, plicated near the anterior edge. On the |! pedicel valve two low plications, 3 mm. apart in a shell having a { width of about 21 mm., rise sufficiently to form a low median fold | along the anterior third of the valve. On the anterior third of the j brachial valve there is a corresponding broad shallow sinus, with j| a low median plication. There may be an additional smaller pli- ( cation along the median line of the pedicel valve, and the median plication of the brachial valve may be divided by a narrow furrow into two plications. This shell probably is closely related to Gypidula angulata, Weller. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Gypidula roemeri, Hall and Clarke. {Plate III, Fig. 51 C.) I The shell figured here is intermediate between Gypidula simplex and typical Gypidula roemeri. Waldron bend: Newsom, Tennessee. Platymerella manniensis, sp. nov. {Plate I, Figs. l A, B, C, D.) j Elongate, equally biconvex pentameroid; not galeatiform, pedi- cel valve not overarching, and without distinct fold or sinus; without distinct cardinal area. The beaks of the pedicel and brachial valves are practically in contact with one another, so that the delthyrium can not be seen; the beak of the pedicel valve rises slightly higher than that of the brachial valve. The dental plates of the pedicel valve are united so as to form a spondylium sup- ! ported by a median septum; this septum appears to be supported along its entire length by the interior of the shell, but it is very short, about 6 mm.; the spondylium is small and appears to be confined to the immediate vicinity of the beak. Cross-sections of the shell at the beak show crural plates, moderately convergent. Silurian Fossils 71 extending toward the inner surface of the brachial valve, but in no case has it been possible to demonstrate that these plates reach the brachial valve and form a spondylium. Shell apparently very thin except at the beak. Exterior marked by low, broad, and often rather indistinct radiating plications, which bifurcate in an irregular manner. In some specimens the median part of the pedicel valve is separated from the lateral parts of the shell by very slight depressions, while the median part of the brachial valve rises almost imperceptibly above the general con- vexity of the shell. Near the beak, the radiating plications are usually very indistinct. Form oblong. Length of one specimen, 35 mm.; width, 28 mm.; thickness, 16 mm. This species does not fit well into any of the divisions established for the pentameroids. It may be an ancestral form m which the spondylia are not yet strongly developed. Its affinities can not be determined more closely until the interior is better known. It is too flat for a Pentamerella. The absence of a straight hinge margin is characteristic. The term Platymerella is suggested. Clinton bed: at foot of cliff north of railroad bridge northwest of Riverside, two miles north of Mannie, Tenn.; Cedar Point, one mile north of station at Iron City, at top of ferruginous bed, along the railroad to Pinckney, Tennessee. ? Stricklandinia dichotoma. {Plate I, Figs. 2 A, B.) Generic affinities uncertain, the interior being unknown; may be one of the Orthidce, but the surface ornamentation resembles that of Stricklandinia castellana. Hinge line straight, delthyrium open. Valve moderately convex, 23 mm. long, 30 mm. wide, pos- terior half of the shell marked by about 20 radiating plications, all of which, except those nearer the posterolateral angles, branch once dichotomously on the anterior half of the shell. Plications crossed by fine concentric striae which may escape attention if not well preserved. Clinton bed : at Riverside and Iron City, associated with Platy- merella manniensis ; also in the Clinton at the landing at Clifton, Tennessee. 72 A ug. F. Foerste Scenidium bassleri, sp. nov. {Plate IV, Figs. 68 A, B.) Shell small, with four or five plications on each side of the median depression in the brachial valve, occasionally with two additional narrow plications on the sides of this depression ante- riorly, and sometimes with a narrow intercalated plication even in the space between the first and second conspicuous plications, counting from the depression outward. The median plication of the pedicel valve is distinctly elevated. From this the shell slopes convexly toward the margins of the shell. There are four or five lateral plications on each side, and also occasionally several narrow intercalated plications, near the median parts of the shell. The characteristic features of this species are the small number of plications and the presence of very distinct concentric striae, rather distant from each other, considering the size of the shell. Width, 5.3 mm.; length, 4 mm.; depth, 2.2 mm. Named in honor of Adr. Ray S. Bassler. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Rhipidomella lenticularis. {Plate II, Figs. 28 A, B.) Largest specimen 28 mm. long, 36 mm. wide. Valves moder- ately convex, the greatest convexity apparently posterior to the center of the shell. Form subcircular, striae about 160, about 12 to 14 in a width of 5 mm. The hinge line has a length of about 18 to 20 mm., the postero-lateral outline is rounded. Evidently related to Rhipidomella circulus^ but with more numerous and finer radiating striae. Brownsport bed: glade southwest of Brownsport Furnace, three miles west of Vice landing, Tennessee. Rhipidomella saffordi. {Plate I, Figs. 17 A, B, C.) A very small species; length, 8 mm.; width, 9 mm.; thickness, scarcely 4 mm. Brachial valve with a median depression which, considering the size of the species, is deep and broad. Pedicel valve evenly convex. Radiating striae about 6 in a width of 2 mm. Brownsport bed : in massive limestone near top of Brownsport Silurian Fossils 73 bed northeast of stables on Gant place, two miles northeast of Martins mills; Pegram bridge; Bath Springs; east of George Wil- son, seven and one-half miles east of Savannah; all in Tennessee. Rhipidomella newsomensis, sp. nov. {Plate IV, Figs. 72 A, B.) Among the specimens of Rhipidomella found in the Waldron bed, both in Tennessee and in Indiana, there is a small, strongly convex form, apparently mature, which may be distinct from Rhipidomella hybrida, as usually identified in the same beds. One of the largest of these specimens is 10.5 mm. long, of almost exactly the same width, being slightly wider, and its depth is 7 mm. Except in their smaller size, and mature appearance at this size, these shells do not differ from the associated specimens referred to Rhipidomella hyhrida. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Hartsville, Waldron, and at the George Wright locality in Shelby county, Indiana. Orthostrophia newsomensis, sp. nov. {Plate IV, Fig. 64.) Ventral valve moderately convex, with a wide depression along the median part toward the anterior margin of the shell. The radiate striation of the shell resembles that of Orthostrophia halli., judging from fig. 22, plate VA, volume viii, part i, of the New York Paleontology, but the individual at hand is distorted inequi- laterally. At earlier stages of growth it was much more extended along the hinge line than Orthostrophia halli and even at maturity it is a relatively wider shell. Most of the radiating striae branch once or twice before reaching the margin of the shell. Muscular cavity of pedicel valve small; the anterior margin only 6 mm. from the beak, considerably elevated above the inner surface of the valve, bor- dered laterally by the dental lamellae and their anterior extension at the base. The greater part of the base of the muscular area is formed by a moderately concave platform separated on each side from the base of the dental plates by a narrow groove; the diductor muscular impressions are apparently much narrower than in Orthostrophia strophomenoides. Ovarian impressions remarkably distinct, extending about 7 mm. anterior to the hinge line and 6 74 A ug. F . Foerste mm. laterally from the muscular area; with linear dendritic ovarian striae. Vascular markings in the form of deep grooves with few branches excepting n€ar the anterior margin of the shell. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Orthostrophia dixoni, sp. nov. ( {Plate IV, Fig. 65.) I Pedicel valve slightly convex at the beak, flattened or slightly reversed in curvature anteriorly, but it is possible that this ante- rior flattening of the shell is due partly to crushing. The radiate striation of the shell is rather coarse and resembles that of an orthoid rather than that of a strophomenoid shell. There are about 6 or 7 rather broad striae in a width of 5 mm., and these are crossed by concentric striae and lines of growth which resemble those of an orthoid shell. Muscular area of the pedicel valve very small and remarkably deep, the base of the dental plates uniting with the curved anterior edge of the muscular area in such a manner as to produce a border sharply and considerably raised above the inner surface of the valve. The median part of the area is occupied by a low median elevation bordered on each side by a lower lateral elevation, representing the position of the adductor impressions, and occupying about one-third of the width of the area. Length of muscular area, 5 mm. ; width, 6 mm. No evidence of ovarian or vascular markings. Delthyrium wide, covered by a small deltidium at the apex. Brownsport bed: glade southwest of Dixon Spring, Tennessee. Orthis flabellites. {Plate III, Fig. 43.) Orthis flabellites is the name suggested for the specimen repre- ' sented by fig. 6, on plate 52, of volume ii. New York Paleontology, This is the species which occurs in the Rochester shale in New York. The species is figured also in figs. 37 to 41 on plate v of volume viii. New York Paleontology. In the list of fossils from the Niagara limestones of Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa, published in the Twentieth Annual Report on the State Cabinet of Natural History of New York, on p. 397, the name Orthis flabellites is used evidently for the northwestern form belonging to the group typified by Orthis flabellites. Exactly what Silurian Fossils IS western form was termed Orthis flabellites in this list is unknown. In volume viii, New York Paleontology, on plate 84, Hall and Clarke figured Orthis flabellites-spania from the Niagara dolo- mites near Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Typical Orthis flabellites occurs also in the Osgood bed of Indi- ana, from which the following description is drawn up. It is characterized by the presence of 28 to 30 simple radiating plica- tions, separated by deep narrow grooves. Specimens with 25 to 27 plications are not rare. The brachial valve is evenly convex, having a depth of 4 to 5 mm. in shells 21 mm. in length. The convexity of the pedicel valve depends on the height of the hinge area which varies from 3.5 to 6 mm., averaging at about 4 mm. From the beak of the pedicel valve the shell slopes with a very slight convexity toward the anterior and lateral edges of the shell, but owing to the height of the hinge area, this results in giving the valve a distinctly convex form, with the point of greatest elevation at or near the beak. The hinge area of the pedicel valve forms an angle of about 60° to 65° with the plane dividing the valves. The hinge area of the brachial valve forms an angle usually of 5° or 10°, rarely of 30°. The muscular scar of the pedicel valve is of an obovate form, the sides being distinctly outlined, and con- verging anteriorly; the anterior termination of the muscular scar, however, usually is indistinctly outlined. When distinctly out- lined anteriorly, the outline is seen to be reentrant at the anterior margins of the diductor scars, so that the anterior margin of the adductor scars lies at the rear of this angle. The adductor scars are linear in form, and about a millimeter in width, the entire muscular area having a width of 5 mm. Osgood bed: New Marion, Osgood, Big creek, Nebraska, in Indiana. Orthis flabellites-militaris, var. nov. The large form of Orthis flabellites found in the Clinton at the Soldiers’ Home, near Dayton, Ohio, and represented by figs. 12a and 12b on plate xiii, vol. i, of this Bulletin, differs chiefly in hav- ing only 20 to 24 plications, and in having a broad shallow median depression near the beak of the brachial valve, as well as may be determined from the specimens split out of the limestone. The pedicel valve is strongly convex, especially toward the beak which is distinctly incurved. Clinton bed : at Soldiers’ Home, near Dayton, Ohio. 76 A ug. F. Foerste Orthis interplicata, sp. nov. {Plate III, Fig. 44.) This form differs only in the greater number of radiating plica- ■ tions, a part of them being intercalated between the primary I plications. In the specimen figured there are about 21 primary I plications, counting all of those initiating at the beak or along the I cardinal margin. In addition to these, about 19 secondary plica- j tions are added, those near the median line being added within j 3 mm. of the beak, and those along the side within 5 mm. of the || beak. Traces of the beginnings of several additional plications j are found near the anterior edge. The interior of the brachial |! valve is closely similar to that of typical Orthis flabellites. The |j convexity of the valve is moderate, as in the less convex valves of Orthis flabellites. Osgood bed: New Marion, Indiana. Orthis nettelrothi, sp. nov. The shell figured by Henry Nettelroth in Kentucky Fossil Shells of the Silurian and Devonian Rocks, on plate xxxiv as Orthis fla- bellum, also has intercalated plications, but it is a larger, more coarsely plicated shell from a higher horizon. Louisville bed: from the upper part of the Louisville bed, at the Beargrass quarries, east of Louisville, Kentucky. Hebertella (Schizonema) fissistriata, sp. nov. {Plate III, Figs. 4^ A, B.) Brachial valve moderately convex, with a very shallow median depression. Cardinal area of medium height, forming an angle of about 5° with the general plane of the shell. Cardinal process formed by a thin vertical plate of moderate elevation; in addition to this plate two narrow striae occupy the space between the crural plates, diverging from the cardinal process at an angle of about 25° to 30L These are well developed in two specimens, but whether a constant feature of this species can not be determined at present. From the space between the crural plates, a broad median elevation extends forward to the center of the valve. The posterior ad- ductor impressions may be traced, but the anterior impressions are very indistinct. Silurian Fossils 11 Pedicel valve a little more convex than the brachial valve, the I cardinal area of moderate height, forming an angle of about 30° I with the general plane of the brachial valve. Delthyrium wide, I the sides diverging at an angle of 65°. Muscular impressions small, the anterior margin about 6 mm. from the beak; the lateral margins converging anteriorly; outline reentrant in front of the linear adductor impressions, as in typical specimens of Orthis flabellites. Radiating striations angular, increasing by intercalations at vari- ous distances from the beak. About 13 to 15 striae originate at or very near to the beak; 28 striae originate at least within 3 mm. of the beak, so that about 13 to 15 striae must have been intercalated between the more primary striae within a short distance of the beak. Additional striae are added about 9 mm. from the beak, and along the margins of the shell a total of 60 striations may be counted. While the striae originate in a fasciculate manner they are not suf- ficiently different in size, and the primary striae are not sufficiently prominent to make the fasciculation at all conspicuous, differing in this respect from Orthis fasciata, Hall. Concentric striae, if present, were not noticed on the specimens at hand. Osgood bed : New Marion, Indiana. The shell is not considerably thickened beneath the muscular area of the pedicel valve, as in Orthostrophia strophomenoides, nor are the vascular markings conspicuous. The muscular area of the pedicel valve is not conspicuously smaller than in shells of this size belonging to typical Orthis. For the group of shells having the structure of Hebertella fissistriata, with numerous intercalated striae, with the brachial valve not exceeding the pedicel valve in convexity, but externally resembling Hebertella, the term Schizo- nema is suggested. This term should include apparently also Orthis fasciata, Hall, which is not a true Orthostrophia, and pos- sibly also Orthis fissiplica, Roemer. Hebertella (Schizonema) fasciata, Hall. {Plate IV, Fig. 71) Among the specimens found in the Osgood bed, at New Marion, in Indiana, is one which closely resembles the description given of Orthis fasciata from the Rochester bed of New York. The postero-lateral angles are broken off so that the extension of the 78 A ug. F. Foerste hinge line beyond the general width of the shell can not be verified. The fasciation, however, is distinct, especially on the pedicel valve. About lo striations begin at or very near to the beak, and between these an approximately equal number is intercalated almost immediately, so that about i8 fairly prominent striae extend from near the beak to the margins of the shell. These striae have a tendency to occur in pairs, as though resulting from the division of the more primary striae. About 7 mm. from the beak other striae are intercalated, and anterior to this there may be a few additional striae, so that the anterior and lateral parts of the shell are marked apparently by fascicles of striae, the fascicles consisting of three or four striae near the median parts of the shell, the pri- mary striation of each fascicle being considerably more conspicu- ous, as in Plectorthis fs si costa. The fascicles have a tendency to occur in pairs. Length of shell, 15 mm.; width across the middle, 19 mm.; depth of the entire shell, 6 mm. The valves are nearly subequal in con- vexity. Osgood bed: New Marion, Indiana. Hebertella (Schizonema) nisis, Hall. | This species is evidently closely related to Hehertella fissi plica, j| it shows about the same range of variation in the coarseness and frequency of the radiating stride and in the curvature from front j! to rear of the pedicel valve. It has the median depression of the jl brachial valve; the high cardinal area, inclined strongly backward, of the pedicel valve; the pedicel valve is conspicuously more con- |l vex and deeper than the brachial valve; the delthyrium is narrow. | It differs from Hehertella fissipUca in the greater convexity of [ the brachial valve and the greater height of the cardinal area of | the pedicel valve. This area is more incurved near the beak in one of the specimens figured by Hall than in any specimens of | Hehertella fissiplica so far seen. See figs. 4 to 8 on plate 9 of the Twenty-seventh Report on the New York State Cabinet. Louisville bed : in the upper strata exposed in the quarries along Beargrass creek east of Louisville, Kentucky. Silurian Fossils 79 Hebertella (Schizonema) fissiplica, Roemer. {Plate III, Fig. 54.) Shell plano-convex. Brachial valve nearly flat or slightly convex with a distinct but shallow median depression similar to that of Dalmanella jugosa; cardinal area very narrow, deviating but slightly from the general plane of the valve; cardinal process in form of a thin, simple, vertical plate, as in Orthis jlabellites. A thickened elevated median ridge extends from the deltidial cavity forward to a point a short distance beyond the center of the valve. Muscular impressions indistinct. Pedicel valve convex; cardinal area high and flat, but slightly if at all incurved at the beak, forming an angle of about 110° with the general plane of the brachial valve; delthyrium narrow as in Hebertella nists. In the specimens from Dixon spring, the shell is but slightly curved along the median line, from the beak to the anterior margin. In the larger specimens from Clifton, the curva- ture corresponds more nearly to that of Hebertella nisis. In gen- eral the shell slopes strongly from the beak to the lateral and anterior margins. Muscular impressions small and rounded, ele- vated at the margin slightly above the interior of the valve; margin slightly incurved anterior to the adductor muscle impressions; the latter are linear and occupy about one-fifth of the entire width of the muscular impressions. Size of muscular area small, corre- sponding to that of Orthis rather than that of Hebertella. Interior of valves radiately grooved along the border as in typical species of Orthis. Radiating striae about 22 within 4 mm. of the beak, increasing to about 45 at the margin, about 5 to 7 striae occupying a width of 5 mm. At their origin the newer striae are much less conspicuous than the older striae, usually originating near the latter although sometimes inserted near the middle of the spaces between the older striae. The older strise are usually more conspicuous, resulting in an alternation of larger and smaller striae or in a more or less fasciculate arrangement. Radiating striae crossed by numerous fine, sharp concentric lines, usually well preserved between the strise. In fig. 5a, plate 5, of Roemer’s monograph on the Silurian Fauna of Western Tennessee, the posterior margin along the hinge area is drawn too concave to the right and left of the beak. In fig. 8o Aug. F. Foerste 5b, the reversal of curvature is due to crushing, common except 1 in silicified shells; the cardinal area of the brachial valve should be : much higher, and the inclination of the cardinal area of both 1 valves is incorrectly indicated. Errors of this nature are shown | also by other drawings accompanying this paper. |j Brownsport bed: glades southwest of Dixon Spring; Clifton,! west of Dr. Evans, west of Hope creek; south of Mr. Phillips, four j miles northwest of Martins mills; Bath Springs; Wells creek basin, Tennessee. jHebertella (Schizonema) celsa, sp. nov. | {Plate III, Figs. 53 A, B.) |j Brachial valve moderately convex, with a distinct but shallow j median depression as in Dalmanella. Cardinal area forming an |: angle of about 150° with the general plane of the valve. Upper ili margin of cardinal process narrow, projecting slightly beyond the I cardinal area, marked by a faint longitudinal groove. Anteriorly | the cardinal process is merged in the comparatively high median |j elevation which divides the muscular area. Crural plates strongly I developed, their base continuous with the straight postero-lateral border of the posterior adductor impressions. Anterior margin of the anterior adductor impressions extending slightly beyond the center of the valve. Muscular impressions resembling those of |j Hebertella insculpta. | Cardinal area of the pedicel valve flat, forming almost a right angle with the general plane of the brachial valve, broadly trian- , gular, high at the beak. The type specimen has a width of 16.5 j mm., the cardinal area has a length of 13 mm. along the hinge j line, and the height of the area is 4.3 mm. The width of the del- thyrium is about 2.5 mm. at the widest part, at the apex it appears | to possess a rather large apical plate, poorly preserved. Curvature | from the beak to the anterior margin of the shell slight, the shell (j sloping rather evenly but abruptly from the beak to the lateral and li anterior margins of the shell. j Radiating striae rather angular, the newer striae being implanted I among the older so as to produce a fasciculate arrangement; about j: 8 or 9 striae in a width of 5 mm. Numerous fine concentric striae. 1 Linden bed: above quarry along river north of Perryville,Tennes- j see. I Silurian Fossils 8i Chonostrophia lindenensis, sp. nov. {Plate III, Fig. 52) Shell with extremely fine, filiform radiating striae, visible under , a lens. Pedicel valve slightly convex near the beak and slightly width of the shell, compared with its length, will distinguish it readily from any species described hitherto. Linden bed: Pyburn bluff, Tennessee. Triplecia (Cliftonia) striata, sp. nov. {Plate III, Figs. 42 A, B.) The external aspect of this species is that of a small A try pa, but the internal structure indicates close relationship to Triplecia. Brachial valve circular in outline; pedicel valve more nearly ovate. Brachial valve strongly convex, raised so as to form a low broad median fold anterior to the middle. The shell starts at the beak with a median groove which is rather conspicuous along the posterior third of the shell. Pedicel valve rather strongly convex posteriorly, but bent downward anteriorly so as to form a broad shallow median depression, not always symmetrical. Radiating striae rather coarse and distant considering the size of the shell, about 7 to 9 in a width of 5 mm. Concentric striae probably were distinct on the original shells. Length of the pedicel valve, 13 mm. ; width, 13 mm.; depth, almost 3 mm. Length of brachial valve practically the same as that of the pedicel valve, but the depth is almost 6.5 mm. Interior of brachial valve with a linguliform cardinal process, 1.7 mm. in length, and f mm. in width at the hinge line. This process becomes broader anteriorly, and divides near the tip into two short, sharply pointed, divisions. The impressions of two short sharply pointed crurse are seen in one of the specimens. There is a narrow median striation along the posterior third of the interior, corresponding to the median groove on the exterior. The interior cast of the pedicel valve indicates the presence of a rather high flat hinge area, whose length is about 8 mm. in a shell 13 mm. wide. The height of this area is estimated at almost 2 mm. A conspicuous cavity extended from the interior of the shell along the part enclosed within the beak, and opened by means of a small aperture at the tip of the beak. Teeth supported by short dental 82 Aug. F. Foerste lamellae which are only 1.5 mm, in length, and are separated ante- riorly by a space about 1.4 mm. in width. A sharp striation bor- ders the sides of the aperture leading to the beak. Clinton bed: south of the old abandoned Cement Mill, south of Clifton, Tennessee. The type of Triplecia is Triplecia extans, a smooth shell. From this Triplecia striata differs sufficiently in general appearance to warrant the erection at least of a subgeneric term. For the striate species, resembling Triplecia striata, the term Cliftonia is here suggested. Possibly Triplecia niagarensis. Hall and Clarke is congeneric. ? Triplecia (Cliftonia) tenax, sp. nov. {Plate III, Fig. 56; Plate IV, Figs. 70 A, B.) Shell with the external aspect of a F[ebertella, but apparently so similar in form to Triplecia {Cliftonia) striata, that these shells are regarded as very closely related, although the interior structure of Triplecia tenax is not known. Compared with Triplecia striata, Triplecia tenax is a larger, broader, and less strongly convex shell. It possesses the low broad median fold on the anterior part of the brachial valve, and the broad, shallow depression along the ante- rior part of the pedicel valve. The median groove toward the beak of the brachial valve is distinct. The hinge area on the pedicel valve is well defined, but nothing is known about the delthyrium. The radiating striations are distinctly stronger than in Triplecia striata, especially in case of che primary striae. Between 6 and 7 striations are found in a width of 5 mm. Concentric markings indistinct on the considerably exfoliated surface of the shell. Length, 13.5 mm.; width, 18 mm.; depth, 9 mm. Length of hinge line, 10 mm. Height of hinge area, about 1.6 mm. Convex- ity of valves approximately equal. Radiating striae increased by implantation of additional striae at various distances from the beak, resulting in a fasciculate arrangement. Osgood bed: Clifton, Tennessee. Schuchertella roemeri. {Plate II, Figs. 27 A, B, C.) Shell evidently related to Orthothetes subplanus with which it usually is identified, but the shell is smaller, the number of radiat- ing plications is smaller, and the intermediate spaces much broader. Silurian Fossils 83 Width, 28 to 30 mm. This is evidently the species identified by Roemer with Orthothetes suhplanus. Brownsport bed: glade southwest of Dixon Spring, also ac Pegram, Tennessee. Plectambonites tennesseensis. {Plate I, Figs. 5 A, B, C, D, E.) Width, 7 to 9 mm.; convexity, 2.2 mm.; pedicel valve with 5 more conspicuous radiating striae, distinct even near the beak, the intermediate spaces occupied in each case by a single radiating striation which extends only halfway from the margin of the shell toward the beak. Finer radiating striae practically obsolete. Can- centric markings of the shell rather distant, distinct, due to differ- ence in color caused by clay entering the thin spaces left at different stages of growth. Waldron bed: Iron City, at Cedar Bluff, also at the station; Swallow Bluff; along the river three-quarters of a mile above the landing at Clifton; along the road leading east from New Era; Newsom; all in Tennessee. Strophonella tenuistriata, sp. nov. {Plate II, Figs. 20 B, A.) Evidently related to Strophonella roemeri, but the shell is smaller, the outline is more semicircular, and the curvature of the shell where it is deflected anteriorly is much more moderate and not at all sufficient to be called geniculate. Width, 31 mm.; length, 20 mm. Brachial valve distinctly concave over the larger part of the flattened area anterior to the beak, reversal of curvature begin- ning about 10 or ii mm. anterior to the beak. Pedicel valve dis- tinctly convex for a distance of about 8 mm. anterior to the beak, the remainder following the curvature of the brachial valve. Sur- face with fine radiating striae, 5 to 8 more prominent striae in a width of 5 mm., separated by 3 to 6 finer striae. Inner surface granulose. This is probably the species identified by Roemer with Strophonella euglypha. His specimens were fragmentary, his figures were restored, and the curvature of the shell as indicated by fig. 3c, plate 5, of his work, Stlurische Fauna des westlichen Tennessee, is probably incorrect at the anterior extremity; if the anterior part, 5 mm. long, were omitted, the figure would be a fair 84 A ug. F. Foerste representation of the curvature of the Tennessee specimens. Our fig. 20 A is taken from a specimen which evidently equaled his fig. 3b in size. Brownsport bed: on hill side south of road leading east from New Era; also north of landing at Cerro Gordo^ Tenn.; and in massive limestone northeast of stables on Gant place northeast of Martins mills^ Tennessee. Strophonella williamsi^ - described by E. M. Kindle from the Silurian of northern Indiana^ appears to be a much more convex species^ when viewed from the side of the brachial valve, Strophonella roemeri. {Flate II, Fig. 24) Shell subtrigonal in fully developed specimens, probably more semicircular in young specimens, the subtrigonal form being due chiefly to the greater growth of the shell along the anterior edge and the rapid deflection of the shell antero-laterally. Width at hinge-line 56 mm.; brachial valve distinctly flattened anterior to | the beak for a distance of about 18 to 20 mm., slightly concave j toward the beak, abruptly deflected anterior to the flattened area, I the deflection being greater toward the antero-laterai margin than i toward the anterior median parts of the shell. Antero-lateral slopes more or less flattened. Erom the anterior part of the flat- ! tened area to the anterior part of the shell may be a distance in | the largest specimens of 37 mm., but usually 34 to 30 mm., or | even less. Pedicel valve slightly convex- near the beak, following | the curvature of the brachial valve. Cardinal margin crenulated ' for a distance of about 7 mm. on each side of the delthyrium. 1 Muscular area of pedicel valve 13 mm. long, 16 mm. wide, lateral ' margins thickened and raised abruptly above the inner surface of the valve, open along the median line anteriorly; adductor scars distinctly defined posteriorly by low elevations which ' begin at the beak and branch within i mm. of the same, the }; two exterior branches defining the postero-lateral margins of j' the scar, the two inner and much shorter branches defining the inner margins at the posterior extremity. Between the two inner ! branches arises the narrow median elevation which divides the j adductor area. Inner surface granulose, the granules arranged | in lines approximately following the exterior ornamentation of the Silurian Fossils 85 shell; this granulated area passes behind the muscular area and almost reaches the beak. A profile view of the pedicel valve resembles fig. 4c of plate 23,vol. iii, of the New York Paleontology. Surface with radiating stri^, about 7 to 10 more prominent striae in a width of 10 mm., separated by 4 to 8 finer striae. Brownsport bed: glade southwest of Brownsport Furnace, three miles west of Vice landing, Tennessee. Strophonella prolongata. {Plate II, Figs. 2s A, B.) Width, 31 mm.; length, 15 mm. Shell broadly sub-semicircular, considerably extended along the hinge line; brachial valve flattened for a distance of 10 or ii mm. anterior to the hinge line, slightly concave toward the middle of this surface; anterior to the flattened area the shell is deflected almost vertically, producing a profile similar to that of fig. 6c, plate 23, vol. iii. New York Paleontology. Pedicel valve slightly convex anterior to the beak, following the curvature of the brachial valve; cardinal line crenulated for a dis- tance of about 3 mm. on each side of the delthyrium; interior showing the character of the striation of the exterior surface dis- tinctly; muscular impressions not distinct, a faint median elevation, and two faint elevations defining the postero-lateral margins of the muscular area. Surface with radiating striae which are rather coarse and prominent considering the size of the shell, about 18 to 21 in a width of 10 mm. along the anterior margin. Brovvnsport bed: glade southwest of Brownsport Furnace, three miles west of Vice landing, Tennessee. In the massive limestone layer near the top of the Brownsport bed, northeast of the stables on the Gant place, northeast of Mar- tins mills, a specimen is found which shows a strong median depression on each side of which the shell is slightly raised. It is represented by fig. 22 on plate ii, of this paper and evidently resem- bles Strophonella geniculata, fig. 6, plate 23, vol. iii. New York Paleontology. The striations are coarser. The specimen is poorly preserved. Strophonella dixoni, sp. nov. {Plate II, Fig. 21.) Evidently related to Strophonella prolongata, hxit smaller. Width, 16 mm.; length, 7 mm.; brachial valve flattened and slightly con- 86 Aug, F. Foerste cave anterior to the hinge line, the flattening extending for a dis- ! tance of almost 6 mm. anterior to the beak; at this point the shell is strongly curved, the anterior part of the shell being deflected almost vertically downward. Pedicel valve following the curva- I ture of the brachial valve. Radiating striae strong and coarse con- sidering the size of the shell, about ii in a. width of 5 mm. along the anterior margin. I Brownsport bed : glade southwest of Dixon Spring, also at ' i Clifton, Tennessee. | !| Strophonella ganti, sp. nov. {Plate II, Fig, 22.) j| Shell small, about i6 mm. in width along the hinge line, and | varying from 8 to lo mm. in length. Resembling Strophonella \ gemculata^ Hall, from the Lower Helderberg, in having a broad median depression along the brachial valve, becoming stronger toward the geniculate border. The striations appear to be rather coarse, as in Strophonella prolongata. There is not sufiicient material to establish the validity of this foim as a species. Brownsport bed: in the coarse sandy limestone at the base of jj the Gant layer, forming the upper part of the Brownsport forma- S tion, at the A. B. Gant place, and at Martins Mills, Tennessee, j i| Strophonella laxiplicata. ! {Plate II, Fig. 25.) : The most perfect specimen appears to be only a young form of | this species. The brachial valve is slightly concave, and the pedi- I cel valve is moderately convex anterior to the beak. The reversal 11 in curvature takes place about ii mm. anterior to the beak. The most characteristic part of the shell is the nature of the radiating striae. The striae are rather sharply elevated above the general i surface of the shell; and are separated by comparatively wide j spaces in which finer intermediate stri^ are absent or practically I obsolete. Only a small number of striae, usually less than lO, I begin at the beak, and new plications are added usually by inter- | calation, appearing near the middle of the comparatively wide i intermediate spaces. Cardinal area striated vertically. Radiating striae crossed by fine concentric striae which are seen only under a lens, chiefly in the spaces between the stri^. Width of type Silurian Fossils 87 specimen^ 21 mm. At Brownsport Furnace^ three miles west of Vice landings a specimen having the characteristic surface orna- mentation of this species, but at least 37 mm. wide, was found. Brownsport bed : Brownsport Furnace, Tennessee; Cerro Gordo; Bath Springs; east of George Wilson, seven and one-half miles east of Savannah, Tennessee. Strophonella semifasciata-brownsportensis, var. nov. {Plate II, Fig. 26.) At Brownsport a single fragment was found of a Strophonella in which the spaces' between the more prominent stride are very wide. The finer intermediate striae usually found are entirely obsolete in this specimen. Between the stronger stri^ alread} mentioned the spaces are either flattened or broadly concave. The striae tend to become indistinct toward the beak. Although represented only by a small fragment, the specific characters are striking. Its -nearest relative is Strophonella semifaseiata, Hall, from the Waldron bed, of which it may be only a smaller variety. Brownsport bed: Brownsport, Tennessee. Stropheodonta (Brachyprion) newsomensis, sp. nov. {Plate IF, Fig. 67.) Stropheodonta newsomensis is a smaller species rhan Stropheo- donta profunda from the Clinton of New York. While occasional specimens are quite strongly convex, the convexity of the greater number is not sufficiently great to warrant the term profound. In the type of Stropheodonta profunda the convexity is stated to be three-fourths of an inch, the length of the shell, as determined from the accompanying illustration, being 43 mm., and the width 53 mm. across the middle. A large sized, rather strongly con- vex, specimen of Stropheodonta newsomensis has a length of 33 mm., a width of 36 mm. across the middle and 40 mm. at the hinge, and a depth of about ii mm. The valves are thin, and the space between them scarcely exceeds 3 mm. nearer the hinge line and I mm. anteriorly. The convex ventral valve is marked by fine and rather distant radiating striae, between which there are sets of three or four still finer stri^. Toward the anterior and lateral margins these stri^ become larger and more nearly sub- equal, or alternately large and small. The larger striae near the 88 A ug. F. Foerste margin number about ii in a width of 5 mm. The radiating striae on the dorsal valve are still finer. The concentric striae on both valves can be seen only with a lens. The interior of the pedicel valve shows the crenulations on the cardinal margin for a distance of about 4 mm. from the delthyrium. The muscular area is triangular fiabelliformj well defined laterally but not anteriorly. A median ridge divides the posterior part of this area, and near the beak this thickens into a callosity filling the median part of the space between the hinge teeth. From this cal- losity two short ridges diverge anteriorly, in addition to the median ridge. The cardinal process of the brachial valve consists of two lobes, slightly over 2 mm. long, diverging at angles of 50° from each other, in a plane at right angles with the shell. Anterior to the cardinal process, the shell is thickened so as to form a subrhom- boidal space, anterior to which there are only faint traces of mus- cular impressions. The posterior parts of the brachial valve, and also of that part of the pedicel valve which lies outside of the mus- cular area, are marked by coarse granules, becoming more numerous and finer anteriorly. In some shells only the coarser granules are present. Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. Meristina maria-roemeri, var. nov. {Plate II, Fig. 2Q A, B.) This species is evidently closely related to Meristina maria of the Waldron horizon, but is readily distinguished by its sub- trigonal outline, especially when viewed from the side of the pedi- cel valve. This subtrigonal outline is produced by a straighten- ing of the postero-lateral outline. The strongly sinuous outline of the anterior margins of the valves is normal in this form while in typical forms of Meristina maria it usually is less developed. See fig. 12, plate 5, of Roemer’s work in the Silurian Fossils of West- ern T ennessee. Brownsport bed: north of landing at Glenkirk, at mouth of Beech creek; glade southwest of Brownsport Furnace, three miles west of Vice landing; mound glade half a mile west of road, two and one-half miles north of Vice store; Martin’s Mills; old Colonel Jim Smith’s place, nine miles east of Savannah; bridge two miles west of Pegram; all in Tennessee. i A Silurian Fossils 89 Anoplotheca saffordi. {Plate /, Fig. 6) Length, 5 mm.; convexity, 2.8 mm. Pedicel valve strongly con- vex, v^ith the 3 median radiating plications (the middle one nar- rower) forming an indistinct elevation, with 4 distinct and one indistinct plication on each side; the beak projecting but slightly beyond that of the brachial valve. Brachial valve concave, espe- cially anteriorly along the shallow median depression; depression occupied by 2 radiating plications placed close together and sepa- rated by a short space from the lateral plications of which 4 are distinct and one indistinct. Brownsport bed; in the massive limestone near the top of the Brownsport exposure, northeast of the stables on the Gant place, northeast of Martins Mills; Bath Springs; east of George Wilson, seven and one-half miles east of Savannah; all in Tennessee. The same species, described as Anoplotheca congregata^ by E. M. Kin- dle, occurs in the Kokomo limestone at Logansport, Indiana. Homoeospira schucherti. {Plate I, Figs. 10 A, B.) Shell broadly ovate; length of one of the type specimens, 1 1 mm. ; width, 10.3 mm.; thickness, 6.8 mm. Both valves with a shallow median groove or depression most distinct anteriorly, usuallv occu- pied by one or two plications originating in the groove a short distance anterior to the beak, less distinct than the remainder; about 7 distinct and i indistinct radiating plications on each side of the median groove. Length of largest specimen seen, 13 mm.; named in honor of Mr. Charles Schuchert. Brownsport bed: Brownsport Furnace, Tennessee. Homoeospira schucherti-elongata, var. nov. {Plate I, Figs, g A, B.) Shell smaller, narrower, median groove more distinct, radiating plications usually narrower and closer together', as in fig. 9 B; about 8 distinct plications on each side of the median groove, with one or two less distinct plications within or along the walls of the groove. Shell narrower and more convex from side to side, the beak of the pedicel valve more incurved over that of the brachial 90 A ug. F . Foerste valve. Length, 9 mm.; width, 7.6 mm.; thickness, 6.2 mm., in one specimen . Apparently connected by intermediate forms with Homceospira schucherti, although extreme forms are readily dis- tinguished. Brownsport bed; north of the home of W. N. Davis, Bath Springs, Tennessee, associated with H. schucherti. Homceospira beecheri. (Plate I, Figs. 8 A, B.) Very small; length, 6.5 mm.; width, 6 mm.; thickness, 3.5 mm. ij Convexity of shell rather small, form broadly ovate, radiating j| plications more distinct at the beak than in FI, schucherti, 6 dis- tinct and I indistinct plication on each side of the median groove, j Beak of the pedicel valve erect, raised above that of the brachial j' valve, not strongly infolded. Median groove of brachial valve j scarcely larger than that between the plications nearest the groove, i occupied by a single very narrow plication which anteriorly divides | i into 2 very narrow parallel closely set plications very easily over- looked. Median groove of ventral valve broader, occupied by two ; narrow plications, much narrower than the plications on each side : of the median groove, but much more distinct than those occupy- ; - ing the base of the groove in the brachial valve. Named in honor of Mr. Charles Beecher. Brownsport bed: glade southwest of Brownsport Furnace, west i of Vice landing, Tennessee. 1 Homceospira pisum sp. nov. i (Plate /, Fig. 7.) I Shell smaller and more convex than any of the forms described above. Length, 6.3 mm.; width, 5.5 mm.; thickness, 4.5 mm. f Lines of growth numerous near the anterior margin; shells evi- dently mature notwithstanding their small size. Beak of pedicel valve either curving strongly over that of the brachial valve, or j lifted considerably above the latter and only moderately overarch- 1 ing the same. Median groove of both valves distinct; 2 very nar- | row plications occupy the median groove of the brachial valve, i while the two plications which are inserted along the median line of the pedicel valve a short distance from the beak almost equal Silurian Fossils 91 I the other radiating plications in size anteriorly, and are but slightly I depressed below the level of radiating plications on either side. I About 6 distinct radiating plications on each side of the median i groove. I Brownsport bed: Bath Springs, Tennessee. I A study of the various specimens of Homceospira at hand sug- gests that there is considerable variation in the appearance of the plications which occupy the median groove even within the limits of the same species so that characters drawn from this source are considered of doubtful value. A single plication may begin at different distances anterior to the beak and may or may not bifur- cate anteriorly; in case it bifurcates the two branches may be very fine and remain very close together, or they may separate more or less; they may separate so far as to occupy a position along the side walls of the groove. In some cases these median plications may so nearly equal the size of the plications on either side that only their later insertion at a greater distance from the beak dis- tinguishes them readily. Sometimes two plications are inserted side by side along the median groove and increase in size anteriorly or remain comparatively small. Nevertheless differences in form are noticed which are sufficiently constant to suggest the presence of different species. These differences consist chiefly in differ- ences in the lateral outline, the convexity, and the coarseness and , distinctness of the plications. The amount of overarching of the I beak of the pedicel valve varies considerably in the same species. Cyrtia cliftonensis. I {Plate II, Fig. S2.) I Height of cardinal area, 6 mm.; width, 10 mm.; margins of sinus I of ventral valve distinct and angular, diverging at an angle of about 52°; lateral outlines of the cardinal area form an angle of about ' 82° at the beak; the cardinal area forms an angle of about 69° with a plane resting upon the margins of the sinus. Although the sinus is sharply defined laterally, it is of only moderate depth; in a sim- ilar manner the elevation of the median fold on the dorsal valve is moderate. Surface with very fine radiating striae, seen only under a lens. Width of delthyrium at hinge line about i mm.; I foraminal groove of the deltidial covering apparently very long I and narrow but not well preserved. 92 Aug. F. Foerste Brownsport bed: Clifton, at the top of the hill back of the town, Tennessee. Reticularia pegramensis. {Plate II, Fig. 31 A, B.) Length, 15 mm.; width, 19 mm.; thickness, 10.5 mm. Valves subequally convex; median fold of brachial valve low but distinct owing to a slight depression of the shell along each side, width of |! fold 5 mm. at the anterior margin of the shell; median depression of the pedicel valve shallow. No lateral folds or plications. Sur- 1 face with concentric markings as in Reticularia fimbriata. Sides of the fold diverging at an angle of about 20°. Probably identical with Reticularia proximay described by E. M. Kindle from northern Indiana. Brownsport bed: Pegram, Tennessee. | Spirifer geronticus. {Plate II, Fig. 30 A, B.) Width of largest specimen found, 24 mm. Fold of brachial valve, i low, rendered more distinct by a narrow depression of the shell or groove, on each side; sides of fold diverge at an angle of 27°; the groove is most distinct at the beak. On each side of the fold 1 is a plication which is distinct at the beak but becomes faint and disappears about 14 mm. from the beak; a second plication on each side becomes faint about 4 mm. from the beak. Sinus of ' the pedicel valve sharply defined laterally, the margins of the same being formed by a plication which is distinctly defined by a groove along its posterior part, the groove becoming less distinct ante- | riorly. In addition to the plication which borders the sinus there i is a second plication on each side which disappears about 6 mm. j anterior to the beak. It is evident that the shell possesses a larger j number of plications in its earlier stages of growth than it continues [j to develop during its later stages, the ornamentation becoming j more simple at maturity. Surface with numerous fine radiating 1 stride. j Brownsport bed; glade southwest of Dixon Spring; hill east of I Clifton; four miles northwest of Martins Mills; south of Mr, I Phillips’; Pegram, Tennessee. Silurian Fossils 93 Spirifer swallowensis. j {Plate II, Fig. S3-) I Resembles Spirifer crispatus, but, in addition to the median ! fold of the brachial valve and the two plications forming the sides j of the median sinus on the pedicel valve, there is on each side only one well developed lateral plication in place of two as in the case of Sp. crispatus, and the concentric lamellae appear coarser. Length, 11.5 mm.; width, about 14 mm.; thickness, 9.5 mm. Waldron bed: Swallow Bluff, north of landing, Tennessee. Atrypa reticularis-newsomensis, var. nov. {Plate I, Figs. ll A, B.) The assigning of a distinct name to this very common form of Atrypa reticularis is due merely to the convenience which a distinct ; name offers when it is desired to record in the field the particular I variety which is present at any locality. It is not expected that this name will find general use. Radiating plications coarse, 8 or 9 in a width of 10 mm. Shell of medium size. Types from Waldron bed at Newsom, Tennessee. Atrypa reticularis-niagarensis was figured by Nettelroth in Fos- sil shells of the Silurian and Devonian rocks of Kentucky, 1889, plate 32. There are from 12 to 14 plications in a width of 10 mm. The form of the shell is more variable than the figures by Nettel- roth suggest. It is the form figured by Roemer, fig. 9, plate 5, in his work on the Silurian Fossils of Western Tennessee. Atrypa arctostriata. {Plate II, Figs. 34 A, B.) Probably only one of the many varieties of Atrypa reticularis but apparently more distinct than the greater number of these forms. About 28 radiating plications in a width of lo mm. Fimbriate margin at different stages of growth well preserved. Shell of only moderate convexity, a specimen 15.5 mm. long and 18.5 mm. wide having a vertical dimension of only 7.5 mm. Brownsport bed; glade southwest of Brownsport Furnace, three miles west of Vice landing, Tennessee. 94 Aug. F. Foerste Rhynchotreta simplex, sp. nov. {Plate III, Figs. 46, A, B.) Shell triangular, cuneiform, tapering posteriorly into an angular beak. Width of one specimen, ii mm.; thickness, 5 mm.; length, estimated at 13 mm. Both valves moderately convex. In the pedicel valve the teeth are supported by thin vertical lamellae which border a long, narrow, deep pedicel scar; muscular impres- sions faint, probably 3 mm. long, extending to within 8 mm. of the anterior margin of the shell. Brachial valve with a median septum Cardinal slopes long and flattened. Plications about 12; no evi- dence of fold or sinus. Shell apparently remaining in the neanic stage. No reversal of curvature is noted. Compared with Rhynchotreta transversa, Weller, this species has a greater number of plications. Clinton bed: from the weathered brown chert found near the cement mill, at the southern end of Clifton, along the river. Ten- nessee. Rhynchotreta thebesensis, sp. nov. {Plate IV, Figs. 66, A, B, C.) Shell cuneiform, with long flat sides diverging at an angle of 6o° to 70°, with an acuminate beak. The anterior outline is rounded, and the depth of the shell is considerable for one of this type. In a shell having a width of 14.5 mm., the depth was 10.5 mm., the length of the brachial valve was 14.5 mm., and the length of the pedicel valve was estimated at slightly over 15.5 mm. Near the beak of the brachial valve a few specimens show a slight median concavity. The two median plications are slightly raised ante- riorly above the general convexity of this part of the shell. On each side of these median plications there are four distinct and i indistinct plication, reduced sometimes to 3 distinct and i indis- tinct one. On the pedicel valve there is a median plication with 4 distinct and i indistinct plication on each side. This median plication, in some specimens, terminates in a slight depression anteriorly, in others the plication on each side of the median pli- cation also is involved so that there is a broad flattening or slight depression, without the appearance of a sinus. There is no evi- dence of a deltidium partly closing the delthyrium. Strata of uncertain age, but evidently lower Niagaran. Thebes, Illinois. Silurian Fossils 95 ; Rhynchotreta thebesensis occurs in a layer of rather coarse I grained crystalline limestone, 3 feet thick, forming the top of the 5 exposure along the river bank a mile north of Thebes. This layer 1 contains Lichas breviceps-thebesensis, a form differing from the I variety clintonensis only in having a pygidium of a slightly more j triangular outline than the common Clinton variety. In addition I to this, pygidia occur which cannot be distinguished from Phacops \ pulchellus, and others which {vomDalmamtes werthneri oniy in having a terminal spine, i mm. in length. Whitfield ell a billtng- siana, Meek and Worthen, is closely related to Whitfeldella cylin- drica. Pterinea thebesensis, Meek and Worthen, may be related to Pterinea rhomboidea, Hall. A try pa calvina, Nettleroth, not known from strata as early as the Clinton elsewhere. Leptcena i- rhomboidalis. Lyellia thebesensis, forming massive coralla with the walls of neighboring corallites almost in contact with each other, leaving very small interspaces for the coenenchyma. The tabula average about 8 or 9 in a length of 5 mm., and the plates in the intermediate spaces are more numerous, but not distinctly vesic- ular. The diameter of the corallites is slightly more than i mm. The walls of the corallites are slightly crenulated, and are slightly striated lengthwise. No septa are visible. See figures 69 A B on plate IV of this Bulletin. Beneath the coarse grained limestone carrying the preceding fauna there is a layer of clay shale one foot thick, underlaid by a layer of limestone, seven inches thick, containing Dalmanites dancE, Meek and Worthen, Schuchertella subplana, Pterinea thebesensis. Meek and Worthen, and a large form resembling Menstina maria. These species of Dalmanites, Orthothetes, and Menstina suggest later age than the Clinton of Ohio, so that the overlying fauna may be regarded as of later than Clinton age, but with a recurrence of some species elsewhere known in the Clinton. Beneath the Dalmanites danee layer, there are found, in descend- ing order, shale 2 inches thick; limestone, 4 inches thick, wavy at the base; shale, 14 inches thick; a layer of limestone, 8 inches thick. The latter contains Cyphaspis girardeauensis, Shumard; Proetus depressus, Shumard; Encrinurus deltoideus, Shumard; Acidaspis halli, Shumard: Orthis {? Schuchertella) missouriensis, Shumard; Leptcena (fBrachy prion) mesacosta, Shumard; T enta- culites incurvus, Shumard, and a species of Cornuhtes. This layer evidently contains the fauna described by Shumard from the Cape 96 A ug. F . Foerste Girardeau limestone. This fauna has a Silurian aspect, and here forms the base of the Niagaran section apparently. The fossilif- erous layer of limestone here described, and the underlying thin bedded layers, are more or less oolitic and form a section about 33 inches thick a short distance south of the exposures containing ; the upper faunal layers here described. There is a line of uncon- formity beneath, indicated by a wavy surface of the underlying rock, along an irregular contact, marked loo feet south of the main fossil locality by a series of nodular masses occurring at success- sively higher elevations in the series. Rhynchonella (Stegerhynchus) whitii-praecursor, var. nov. {Plate III, Figs. 47 A, B, C.) Lateral outline broadly ovate, both valves convex, the convexity of the brachial valve being slightly greater. The pedicel valve is distinctly flattened from the point where the plates supporting the teeth terminate on the interior of the shell as far as the point where the downward curvature of the shell at the anterior margin Ij begins. In one specimen, a cast of the interior, with a length of h 8 and a width of 9.5 mm., the depth is 7 mm. In most other speci- |i| mens, possibly less mature, the depth is nearer 5 or 6 mm. Two | plications occupy the median fold of the brachial valve rising | scarcely a millimeter above the neighboring plications. A single plication occupies the sinus of the pedicel valve. This plication equals in size the plications bordering the sinus. i Interior of the brachial valve marked by plications where the exterior is marked by the grooves between the plications. This results in a median elevation in the interior of the brachial valve. While the other plications on the interior of the valve become indistinct before reaching the crural plates, the median plication is strengthened by a thickening of the shell posteriorly and forms a median elevation which broadens slightly on reaching the ante- rior margin of the crural plates, apparently filling in the space just beneath these plates. The crural plates present a slightly concave surface approximately parallel to the plane of the valve, and pro- ject forward at their inner angles so as to form crural tips. The shell beneath the crural plates is thickened and filled out so that only a narrow space is left between these plates, and this space is occupied by a very narrow, linear septum, representing the car- j dinal process. Silurian Fossils 97 The teeth of the pedicel valve are supported by vertical dental lamellae, enclosing a cavity of ovate form, distinctly outlined in natural casts of the shell. None of the casts shows a distinct mus- cular area, but in an indistinct manner this area is represented by the indistinctness of the median plication of the cast, extending to a point 3.7 mm. from the beak. In the cast of this muscular area there is a slight and narrow median depression, and another is shown laterally, suggesting the muscular area of Rhynchotreta. Clinton bed: Clifton, Tennessee. Compared with Rhynchonella bidens, tht angulation produced by the fold and sinus along the anterior margin of the valves is much less, and the pedicel valve is less convex. The sinus and fold are relatively broader, and the lateral plications usually number three rather large ones, and one much smaller, the latter sometimes indistinct. It evidently is closely related to Rhynchonella whitii, from which it differs chiefly in the smaller size, and the less promi- nent fold and sinus. Rhynchonella (Stegerhynchus) neglecta-cliftonensis, var. nov. {Plate III, Figs. 48, A, B, C.) This shell is unquestionably congeneric with Rhynchotreta whitii-pr recurs or. The brachial valve possesses the same crural plates terminating anteriorl)/ at their inner angles with crural points. These crural plates rest upon the thickened shell beneath but are separated from each other by a space within which the thin longitudinal cardinal process may be seen distinctly. The teeth of the pedicel valve are supported by dental lamellae, and anterior to the space thus enclosed may be seen the faint traces of the muscu- lar area. The latter is indicated chiefly by the diminished distinct- ness of the plications which correspond to grooves between the plications of the exterior of the shell. There are four plications on the median fold, with 3 distinct and I indistinct plication on each side, on the brachial valve. In the sinus of the pedicel valve, there are three plications, with 4 distinct and I nearly obsolete plications on each side. Compared with Rhynchonella neglecta, from the Clinton group of New York, theshellislarger,broader, less triangular, flatter along the middle parts of the pedicel valve, and the number of lateral plications is smaller. Clinton bed: Clifton, Tennessee. 98 Aug. F. Foerste According to the preceding observations, Rhyuchonella whitii^ Rh. neglecta, and Rh. indianensis are congeneric. This group is believed *to include also Rhyuchonella bidens, and Rhyuchonella acinus. That these shells do not belong to Camarotoechia is shown by the thin, lamellar cardinal process. That they do not belong to Rhynchotrema is shown by the much smaller, oval muscular area, quite different in form and in the general arrangement of the mus- cular markings. The nearest relative undoubtedly is Rhyncho- treta cuneata, to which genus it may belong. To determine this, the delthyrium must be studied. This delthyrium is not preserved in the specimens at hand in such a form that any opinion can be expressed with confidence. The general form of Rhynchotreta is very different, but this may be a specific, rather than a generic characteristic. To distinguish the species typified by Rhyncho- treta whitii-proe cursor^ from the more typical species of Rhyncho- treta, possessing an acuminate beak, long broad flattened sides, and a median depression along the posterior parts of the brachial valve, the term Stegerhynchus may be employed. Camarotoechia lindenensis. {Plate 7, Fig. Jj.) The generic affinities of this shell can not be determined defi- nitely since the interior is unknown and the tip of the beak is poorly preserved; however, as far as can be determined the beak of the pedicel valve was not perforated. Outline approximately circular; length, 19 mm.; width, 23 mm.; thickness, about 11.5 mm. The specimen may have been thicker originally, but it evidently con- | sisted of a shell of only moderate convexity. Median fold and | sinus distinct, rather narrow and of only moderate elevation and I depth, the fold rising only 2.5 mm. above the adjacent part of the i shell at the anterior margin. Three radiating plications on the I median fold, two in the sinus, 8 or 9 on each side. Plications rather sharply angular along the top, crossed by fine close striae i distinctly visible under a lens. ! Brownsport bed: near E. Duncan, one and one-half miles east of Linden, Tennessee. Silurian Fossils 99 Uncinulus schucherti. (Plate If Fig. ig.) Shell resembles Wtlsonia saffordi, but that part of the ventral valve occupying the fold projects far less beyond the lateral mar- gins of the shell. The dorsal valve is more evenly convex. The anterior face of the shell is not flattened, so that a profile view is less angular. Plications on the mesial fold vary from 4 to 5; of the lateral plications 7 to 10 are distinct, and 2 to 4 indistinct. Larg- est specimen, 15 mm. long. Globular or moderately elongated. Named in honor of Mr. Charles Schuchert. Linden bed; above the quarry north of Perryville, Tennessee. Stephanocrinus tennesseensis. (Plate I, Figs. 4 A, B.) Closely related to Stephanocrinus osgoodensts. Body approxi- mately inversely conical, the sides diverging at angles varying from 50° to 60°; constriction at base usually slight; base usually sharply pointed and triangular in cross-section; some specimens less acute at the base; cavity for reception of stem either very minute or obsolete. Length to base of ambulacral grooves 6.5 to 7.5 mm.; length of interambulacral projections of the body, 2 mm. Surface granulose; the granules are arranged more or less serially in direc- tions corresponding to that of the striae of the distinctly striated species, and in these directions the granules are usually more or less elongated, but at first sight the granulation is more obvious than is the arrangement of the granules according to some design. In Stephanocrinus osgoodensis the surface is traversed by fine closely arranged striae, the base is less acute, more triangular below, and the cavity for the insertion of the stem is more distinct. Waldron bed: Iron City, at station; Clifton, three-quarters of a mile above landing, along the river; Swallow Bluff, along upper part of bluff south of landing; along road leading east from New Era, following the Waldron bed outcrop for a considerable dis- tance; all in Tennessee. Eucalyptocrinus springeri,. sp. nov. (Plate IV f Fig. 73.) > This species is closely related to Eucalyptocrinus elrodi, from the Waldron bed, at Waldron, Indiana, but differs in the charac- 100 Aug. F. Foerste ter of the surface ornamentation. In a calyx 44 mm. in width the margins rise only 13 mm. above the base. The basal cavity has a width of 7 mm. Surface nearly smooth, but under a lens the plates are seen to be covered by a network of fine lines radiating in an irregular manner in sets from various centers, the lines bending in an irregular vermiculiform manner. Named in honor of Mr. i| Frank Springer. 1 1 Waldron bed: Newsom, Tennessee. I ' I; I Heliophyilum pegramensis, sp. nov. j| : {Plate III, Fig. 58 A, B.) j ! Corallum simple, small, short and broad, arising from a very i oblique base. Diameter of calyx rarely exceeding 25 mm.; corre- j < sponding height, 15 mm., the tip of the base usually extending U beyond the vertical projection of the margin of the calyx. Width i I of calyx in a specimen 25 mm. wide is about 15 mm.; depth of 1 calyx about 7 mm., but the upper margins of the corallum are j flattened, as is frequently the case in Heliophyilum. Vertical | septa, 63 to 68; equal in size at the margin of the calyx, but half way down the calyx the alternate septa are adnate to the primary ones. At the base of the calyx the septa are twisted to the right I on approaching the center. Only a slight indication of a septal ! fossette is found in the calyx, on the convexly curved side of the corallum. I Brownsport bed: Pegram, Tennessee. Favosites obpyriformis. ^ {Plate IV, Fig. 74.) Coralla chiefly in nearly globular masses, sometimes inversely pear-shaped, possibly formerly covered with an epitheca toward the base, but no trace of this is found in the specimens at hand. | Some specimens attain a height of 12 cm. The corallites vary | from 3 to 4 mm. in width, averaging probably nearer 3 mm. Con- . | necting pores large and distant, on the flat walls as well as near | the angles of the corallites. Apparently these pores tend to be j more frequent near the horizontal diaphragms, so that they tend to be arranged in series at various levels. These diaphragms frequently are distinctly deflected downward at various parts of Silurian Fossils lOI the periphery, probably at about those points where the walls of the corallites are pierced by the pores. Brownsport bed: glade northwest of the home of Charles McClanahan, two miles west of Vice Store, Tennessee. Chonophyilum (Craterophyllum) vulcanius. {Plate I, Fig. 12^ Resembles Chonophyilum canadense, Billings, as figured by Lambe in Revision of the genera and species of Canadian paleo- zoic corals, 1901. Corallum simple, width 65 mm.; base flat, cov- ered by concentrically wrinkled epitheca. Top fancifully com- pared with surface of a low volcano. . The vertical dimensions at the center are 10 mm.; at 6 mm. from the center of the corallum, 15 mm.; at 17 mm. from the center, 4 mm.; toward the margin the corallum is reduced to a thin sheet. Septa represented at the base of the inner walls of the calyx or crater by about 74 vertical striations which increase in width toward the upper edge of the crater, continuing thence as low broad radiating plications increas- ing in width as far as the margin of the corallum. A narrow but distinct groove separates these plications along the extracalicular surface. There is no evidence of septa in the extracalicular part of the corallum, nor could any be detected in the central part. The radiating plications are evidently thin horizontally developed sheets, united along their adjacent edges so as to form a continu- ous expansion, radially grooved, covering the extracalicular surface. Corallum formed by the superaddition of successive expansions. Inner structure between successive expansions entirely vesiculose, composed of convex blister-like plates, irregularly arranged with- out reference to the radiating grooves traversing the expansions. On close inspection, the location of the blister-like plates may be detected on the upper surface of the expansions. Viewed from beneath, the grooves appear as raised lines, often crossing the concave surfaces of the blister plates. Structure of corallum not preserved at base of calyx or crater; no evidence of tabulae or of distinct septal plates in this part of the corallum. No distinct concentric striations on the upper, calycular, surface of the co- rallum. While probably congeneric with Chonophyilum canadense, this could not be determined from the specimen at hand. Brownsport bed: half a mile west of Dr. Evans’s, west of Hope creek, Tennessee. 102 Aug. F. Foerste For those chonophylloid corals which have a flat base, upon i which the calycular side arises in a manner resembling a low vol- « canic crater, the designation Craterophyllu7n is proposed. This i term includes Craterophyllum vulcanius from the Brownsport bed, Craterophyllmn canadense from the Anticosti Group, and an unde- ^ scribed species from the Devonian limestone at Louisville, Ken- ^ tucky. ^ Diphyphyllum proliferum. {Flute I, Figs. i8 A, B, C, D.) This species is closely related to Diphyphyllum rugosum as |j figured by Rominger from Louisville, Kentucky, on plate 45, vol. I| iii. Geological Survey of Michigan. Rominger mentions that the i gemmation from the calyces is very prolific; from 4 to 6 gemmae \ grow at once from an end cup. In the Tennessee specimens 4 ^ gemmae are common, 6 are very rare. Rominger states that the : lateral processes for mutual attachment of the stems are acanthi- i form and quite numerous; in the Tennessee specimens, however, 1 no lateral processes were noted, and therefore they can hardly be i numerous even if present. Moreover, the Tennessee specimens 1 can hardly be said to be annulated by subregularly repeating con- r strictions, the constrictions hardly being sufficiently pronounced to constitute annulation. In fact, Rominger’s figure shows com- ■ paratively little strong annulation. The figure by W. J. Davis, on plate 109 Kentucky Fossil Corals, 1885, appears more typical as regards annulation and the presence of numerous acanthiform processes. The form figured ‘ as Eridophyllum sentum, on plate 108, appears to have septa extend- j ing as superficial carinae of the tabulae quite to the center of the calyx. In the Tennessee specimens there are between 40 and 50 | * septae, crenulated, of two orders, alternating, the primaries usually extending only a slight distance beyond the margin of the tabulae, , ; but in one calyx extending as superficial carinae of the tabula 1 almost to the center. The tabulae occupy the central area and the 1 septa are confined chiefly to the peripheral cycle; there is no inter- mediate vertical wall. Septa connected at regular intervals by 1 dissepiments. Diameter of stems between 7 and ii mm. single specimens occasionally attaining a width of 14 mm. Calyx 3 to 4 mm. deep. Exterior marked by 'low, often indistinct, longitudinal Silurian Fossils 103 ridges corresponding to the spaces between the septa, crossed by fine transverse striae and constrictions of moderate depth. Brownsport bed: near home of E. Duncan, one and one-half miles east of Linden; also at the glade southeast of Brownsport Furnace, three miles west of Vice landing, and 8 miles east of Savannah on the Waynesboro road; all in Tennessee. Alveolites inornatus, sp. nov. {Plate III, Fig. 56.) Corallum massive, increasing in thickness by the addition of successive layers which are adnate to one another, the later layers often projecting slightly beyond those of earlier origin so as to form an irregularly convex lower side, covered by a very thin epitheca concentrically wrinkled. The upper surface usually compara- tively flat. Maximum thickness of one specimen, 32 mm.; width, 80 mm. Four to five apertures in a width of 5 mm;, upper wall of the aperture distinctly convex, its sides resting upon the median parts of the upper walls of the subjacent apertures; lower wall • formed by the adjacent parts of the upper walls of the subjacent apertures. No trace of a cycle of denticules at the aperture, nor of longitudinal rows of spinules along the inner surface of the walls forming the aperture; no large marginal pores have been detected. Usually the inner walls of the aperture appear smooth but occa- sionally there is a longitudinal striation along the median part of the lower wall, and rarely a similar striation along the median part of the upper wall. Anterior outline of upper wall nearly straight or more or less concave. Degree of vertical compression j of the aperture variable, the apertures being sometimes compara- I tively high as in the more typical forms of Alveolites, at other times ' compressed and transversely slit-like. This form was at first iden- tified with Alveolites niagarensis^hul the characteristic features of that species cannot be detected. I Brownsport bed : near the home of E. Duncan, one and one-half ' miles east of Linden, at the mouth of Jacks Branch of Short creek, ! Tennessee. I Pachypora (Platyaxum) pegramensis, sp. nov. {Plate III, Fig. 570 Corallum forming flat, thin fronds, i to 3 mm. thick, irregularly lobate, with corallites on both sides. Corallites appearing as nar- 104 A lig. F. Foerste row tubes in the interior of the fronds, approaching the surface at a very oblique angle, rapidly widening at the surface; the upper wall thin, moderately convex, with a convex anterior outline; the lower wall formed by the general surface of the frond, concave for a short distance anterior to the margin of the upper wall; the cav- ity thus formed at the aperture is filled usually with clay, produc- ing a semilunate border to the anterior edge of the upper wall, very similar to that of Alveolites platys. Apertures about 4 in a width of 5 mm. Associated with these specimens are thin expansions similar to those of Alveolites platysjhxxt with corallites equal in size and form of aperture to those of Platyaxum pegramensis . The lower surface of these expansions is covered by a wrinkled epitheca. The largest specimen has a width of ii cm. The free edges of the expansions have a thickness of I to 2 mm. The anterior outline of the upper wall of many of the corallites of one specimen is concave or even, V-shaped owing to the weathering back of the raised median part of the wall; at some apertures this median part of the upper wall is raised as distinctly as in Platyaxum platys. In another specimen the anterior part of the upper wall is only slightly convex, but the anterior outline is distinctly convex. The form of the anterior out- line of the upper wall appears to be determined in part by the general curvature of the wall; where theupperwallis very depressed even along the median part the outline is more strongly convex, where the median part is distinctly raised the outline is nearly straight or moderately concave; when the median part is sharply raised the median part of the outline is often distinctly indented, , and the adjacent parts project slightly. These flat expansions with a basal epitheca, which we shall call Alveolites pegramensis temporarily, are believed to be identical specifically with Platy- axum pegramensis. Although no specimens showing the mode of i origin of the frondose forms are at hand, it is believed that they originate locally from parts of the flat expansions. Brownsport bed: bridge two miles west of Pegram, Tennessee. Pachypora (Platyaxum) platys, sp. nov. {Plate I, Figs. 16, A, B, C.) Corallum forming flat, thin fronds, i to 3 mm. thick, irregularly lobate, with corallites on both sides. The interior of the frond is i I I Silurian Fossils 105 I dense, the corallites appearing as minute tubes traversing the dense substance at angles very oblique to the surface, gradually approach- i ing the latter. Near the surface the tubes widen rapidly laterally, attaining a width of about half a millimeter at the apertures; they I are very oblique to the surface. The apertures are strongly com- pressed vertically, resulting in an obliquely directed slit; the lower edge of the aperture gradually rises above the surface of the frond, the calyx widening from the tubular portion toward the aperture; near the aperture a cross-section of the lower edge is distinctly convex along the middle and slightly concave toward the sides : resulting in a more prominent elevation of the median part of the wall. The outline of the lower margin of the aperture is concave along the median part, often becoming convex at the sides where the sides of the lower edge of the aperture rest upon the general surface of the frond. In well preserved specimens the concavity of the outline of the lower margin of the aperture often is slight, but in worn specimens the median parts have suffered most, and the outline of this part of the aperture is then more strongly con- cave, or even deeply V-shaped. The upper wall of the aperture is formed by the general surface of the frond. No septal spines or pores or longitudinal ridges were noticed along the upper wall where the upper lower edge of the aperture had been weathered away. The internal structure between the tubular passages of the corallites is unknown; the cell walls apparently are thick walled here but the structure is not clearly defined in the specimens at hand. About 7 apertures in a width of 5 mm. Brownsport bed: near the home of E. Duncan, on Short creek, one and one-half miles east of Linden, Tennessee. Among the species referred to Pachypora, there is a group char- acterized by the sharp edge of the thin, strongly flattened, more or less appressed, lower lip, which may be indented with one or two emarginations, or may weather to a deeply indented V-shaped form. Septal spines are wanting. There is no indication of an internal process or septal ridge. This group includes, in addition to Pachy- pora platys, Aso Pachypora frondosa, Nicholson, and probably also Pachypora fisheri, Billings. For this group the term Platyaxum is here used. io6 Aug. F. Foerste Pachypora (Platyaxum) planostiolata, sp. nov. {Plate III, Fig. 55.) At the bridge west of Pegram, specimens occur which differ from Platyaxum platys chiefly in their mode of growth. They form thin expansions, increasing in thickness by a succession of superimposed layers which often are more or less free toward the margin. The lower side of the corallum and of all of the free parts of the successive expansions is covered by a concentrically wrin- kled epitheca. The largest specimen at hand, when complete, must have had a diameter of about 25 cm., and a thickness at the center of at least 15 mm. The free parts of the expansions fre- quently are less than 2 mm. thick. The corallites are very oblique to the surface and have very depressed apertures. There is a great variation in the form of the aperture, depending in part on the state of preservation. In most well preserved specimens the lower edge or lip of the aperture is slightly convex and the anterior outline of this wall is distinctly, sometimes strongly convex, producing a lunate aperture. The upper margin of the aperture, formed by the general surface of the corallum, is often distinctly concave for a short distance anterior to the lower edge or lip. A semi-lunate mass or line of clay often appears in the aperture, indicating its form. In some specimens the lower edge or lip of the aperture is distinctly elevated along the median line, the elevation being bordered by narrow, though shal- low, depressions on either side. In these cases that part of the anterior margin of the lower lip which is anterior to the grooves often projects slightly farther forward^ while the median part is slightly indented, giving a slightly dentate appearance to the ante- rior outline of this lip. The median parts of the lower lip, when distinctly elevated, often are worn back, as in Platyaxum platys. In some worn specimens a distinct longitudinal ridge appears to be present on the interior of the corallite, along the upper wall; in others, it cannot be detected; possibly cross-sections might show it. About 7, sometimes 5, apertures occupy the width of 5 mm. This species does not appear to be a true Alveolites, although specimens congeneric with it appear to be referred usually to that genus. In Ccenites the corallites bend abruptly toward the surface meeting the latter almost at right angles, the walls being thickened abruptly near the surface. These features are not noticed in the Silurian Fossils 107 specimens here described. It is believed that further study will prove this species to be congeneric v^ith Platyaxum platys although at present the different forms of growth must distinguish them. Brownsport bed: railroad bridge two miles west of Pegram, Tennessee. Caryomanon patei, sp. nov. {Plate I, Fig. 75.) Sponge distinctly flattened on what is assumed to be the lower side. Upper side strongly convex, rounding into the base. Upper surface marked by rather shallow channels which tend to occur in pairs or in groups of three, but this grouping is not very evident. Some of the deeper channels give a slight lobation to the lower parts of the side of the sponge, but this lobation also is very indistinct. The oscula, almost a millimeter in diameter open in these radiating channels, especially along the upper part of their length. The chan- nels become indistinct about 7 to 9 mm. from the center of the top of the sponge. The largest specimen found is 43 mm. in width, and 21 mm. in height. Brownsport bed: near the A. B. Gant place, northeast of Mar- tins Mills, in Tennessee. Species named in honor of Mr. W. F. Pate, whose collections have contributed greatly of our knowledge of the Silurian formations of western Tennessee. PLATE I. Fig. I. Pentamerella manniensis. A, D, pedicel valves. B, C, brachial valves. Northwest of Riverside, Tennessee. Clinton bed. Fig. 2. Stricklandinia dichotoma. A, Riverside. B, Iron City, Tennessee. Clinton bed. Fig. 3. Hyolithus newsomensis. A, dorsal side. B, ventral side. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig, 4. Stephanocrinus tennesseensis. A, B, Iron City, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 5. Plectambonites tennesseensis. T, .S, C, pedicel valves. Z), T, brachial valves. Iron City, Tennessee. Fig. 6. Anoplothecas affordi. Pedicel valve. Gant Place. Northeast of Martins Mills, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 7. Homoeospira pisum. Brachial valve, Bath Springs, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig, 8. Homoeospira beecheri. T, pedicel valve. Z, brachial valve. Browns- port furnace, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 9. Homoeospira schucherti-elongata. T, pedicel valve. B, brachial valve. Bath Springs, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 10. Homoeospira schucherti. T, pedicel valve, B, brachial valve. Brownsport Furnace, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. II. Atrypa reticularis-newsomensis. T, Z, pedicel valves. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 12. Chonophyllum (Craterophyllum) vulcanius. West of D.r. Evans, west of Hope creek, Lewis county, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 13. Camarotoechia lindenensis. East of Linden, Tennessee. Browns- port bed. Fig. 14. Diaphorostoma brownsportensis. Brownsport furnace, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 15. Caryomanon patei, nov. sp. Gant Place, two miles northeast of Mar- tins Mills, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 16. Pachypora (Platyaxum) platys. A, three fragments placed arbitra- rily so as to suggest lobation of the frond. B, C, basal fragments referred to this species. East of Linden, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 17. Rhipidomella saffordi. T, B, brachial valves. C, pedicel valve. Gant stables, northeast of Martins Mills, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 18. Diphyphyllum proliferum. A, B, side views of budding stems. C top view of budding stem. D, calycular view. East of Linden, Tennessee., Brownsport bed. Fig. 19. Uncinulus schucherti. View from side of brachial valve. Perryville, Tennessee. Linden bed. SILURIAN FOSSILS A. F. Foerste Bulletin of the Denison University, vol. xiv. PLATE II. Fig. 20. Strophonella tenuistriata. A, pedicel valve, from Cerro Gordo. B, i brachial valve, from Nev/ Era. Both from Tennessee. Brownsport bed. ' Fig. 21. Strophonella dixoni. Brachial valve. Dixon Spring, Tennessee. ]i Brownsport bed. Fig. 22. Strophonella ganti. Brachial valve. Gant place, northeast of Mar- J tins Mills, Tennessee. At base of Gant division of Brownsport bed. | Fig. 23. Strophonella prolongata. A, B, brachial valves. Brownsport Fur- j nace, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. ij | Fig. 24. Strophonella rcemeri. Brachial valve. Brownsport Furnace. Browns- j i port bed. Fig. 25. Strophonella laxiplicata. A, pedicel valve. B, Fragment valve, with striae more prominent than usual at the beak. Brownsport Brownsport bed. Fig. 26, Strophonella semifasciata-Brownsportensis. Fragment of brachial j valve. Brownsport, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. !| Fig. 27. Schuchertella roemeri. A, C, brachial valves. B, ventral valve. \ Dixon Spring, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. j Fig. 28. Rhipidomella lenticularis.' A, brachial valve. By pedicel valve. ' Brownsport Furnace, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. | Fig. 29. Meristina maria-roemeri. A, brachial valve. B, Anterior view. || Glenkirk, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 30. Spirifer geronticus. A, cardinal view. By Ventral valve, fragment, j Dixon Spring, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. j Fig. 31. Reticularia pegramensis. Ay pedicel valve. By brachial valve. | Pegram, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 32. Cyrtia cliftonensis. Pedicel valve. Clifton, Tennessee. Browns- ! port bed. i Fig. 33. Spirifer swallowensis. Brachial valve, photographed in an inverted | position in order to indicate the concentric striae better. Only two plications are shown here, one of which corresponds to the median fold; the other is the lateral plication. Swallow bluff, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 34. Atrypa arctostriata. Ay pedicel valve. By brachial valve. Browns- | port Furnace. Brownsport bed. J Fig. 35. Conchidium lindenensis. Pedicel valves. Coon creek, east of Linden, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. I Fig. 36. Conchidium legoensis. Northeast of Lego, Tennessee. Brownsport , bed. if pedicel || Furnace, l! PLATE II SILURIAN FOSSILS A. F. Foerste Bulletin of the Denison University, vol. xiv, PLATE III. Fig, 37. Cyrtoceras cinctutus. A, lateral view. B, dorsal view. Clifton, Tennessee. Osgood bed. Fig, 38. Hyolithus cliftonensis. A, Ventral view. B, Dorsal view. Clifton, Tennessee, Osgood bed. Fig. 39. Triplecia (Cliftonia) tenax. Clifton, Tennessee. Osgood bed. Fig. 40. Platyceras pronum. View of upper side. Clifton, Tennessee. Os- good bed. Fig. 41. Diaphorostoma cliftonensis. A, side view. B, view showing aper- ture. Clifton, Tennessee. Osgood bed. Fig. 42. Triplecia (Cliftonia) striata. A, brachial valve. B, pedicel valve. Clifton, Tennessee. Clinton bed. Fig. 43. Orthis flabellites. Brachial valve. New Marion, Indiana. Osgood bed. Fig. 44. Orthis interplicata. Brachial valve. New Marion, Indiana. Os- good bed. Fig. 45. Hebertella (Schizonema) fissistriata. A, brachial valve. B, interior of brachial valve. New Marion, Indiana, Osgood bed. Fig. 46. Rhynchotreta simplex. A, pedicel valve. B, brachial valve. Clif- ton, Tennessee. Clinton bed. Fig. 47. Rhynchonella (Stegerhynchus) whitii-praecursor. A, B, brachial valves. C, pedicel valve. Clifton, Tennessee. Clinton bed. Fig. 48. Rhynchonella (Stegerhynchus) neglecta-cliftonensis. T, brachial valve. B, pedicel valve. C, anterior view. Clifton, Tennessee. Clinton bed. Fig. 49. Wilsonia saffordi. Lateral view, with the pedicel valve on the right. Brownsport Furnace, Tennessee, Brownsport bed. Fig. 50. Uncinulusschucherti. Lateral view. Ferryville, Tennessee. Linden bed. Fig. 51 A, B. Gypidula simplex. T, pedicel valve. .5, view from side of bra- chial valve. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 51 C. Gypidula roemeri. Pedicel valve. Newsom, Tennessee. Wal- dron bed. Fig. 52, Chonostrophia lindenensis. Pedicel valve. Pyburn bluff, Tennessee. Linden bed. Fig. 53. Hebertella celsa. T, Interior of brachial valve. B, view from side of pedicel valve. Perryville, Tennessee. Linden bed. Fig, 54, Hebertella (Schizonema) fissiplica. A, B, brachial valves. C, D, interiors of brachial valves. E, interior of pedicel valve. Dixon Spring, Ten- nessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 55. Pachypora (Platyaxum .^) planostiolata. Upper surface, showing the apertures of the corallites. Pegram, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 56. Alveolites inornatus. Upper surface. A mile and a half east of Lin- den. Tennessee. Brownsport, bed. Fig. 57. Pachypora (Platyaxum) pegramensis. Part of a frond, with the bro- ken edge along the lower side of the figure. Pegram, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. Fig. 58. Heliophyllum pegramensis. A, Calyx. B, side view. Pegram, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. PLATE III SILURIAN FOSSILS A. F. Foerste Bulletin of the Denison University, vol. xiv, PLATE IV. Fig. 59. Pterinea newsomensis. Left valve. B, right valve, with concen- tric striations on the posterior wing. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 60. Pterinea nervata. Left valve with outline restored after comparison with Pterinea newsomensis. Between the conspicuous radiating striae there are 2 to 3 much finer striations, not readily seen except under a lens. Newsom, Ten- nessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 61. Pterinea brisa. Left valve. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 62. Rhombopteria (Newsomella) ulrichi. T, right valve, with cross- striations. B, left valve, with only concentric striae, more or less lamellose. New- som, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 63. Rhombopteria (Newsomella) revoluta-divaricata. A, right valve, with posterior wing restored. B, left side. C, right valve, apparently represent- ing a shell shorter in length but greater in height than those figured by A andR. jii Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. I Fig. 64. Orthostrophia newsomensis. Pedicel valve, with small deep muscular I area and strong vascular markings. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Glade | southwest of Dixon Spring, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. 1 Fig. 65. Orthostrophia dixoni. Pedicel valve, with small deep muscular area. I Glade southwest of Dixon Spring, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. I Fig. 66. Rhynchotreta thebesensis. A, Brachial valve. B, Lateral outline r of a thin shell. C, Lateral view of a more obese specimen, illuminated from the lower right hand side so as to show the flattened sides toward the beak. Beak of ( pedicel valve restored. About a mile north of Thebes, Illinois. In the lower part of the Silurian, about 3 feet above the Cape Girardeau limestone. Fig. 67. Stropheodonta (Brachyprion) newsomensis. Pedicel valve. New- | som, Tennessee. Waldron bed. 1 Fig. 68. Scendium bassleri. T, Brachial valve. B, lateral outline. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldson bed. i Fig. 69. Lyellia thebesensis. Two specimens. About a mile north of Thebes, j| Illinois, 3 feet above the Cape Girardeau limestone. Silurian. j Fig. 70. Triplecia (Cliftonia) tenax. A, Brachial valve. By Pedicel valve. Clifton, Tennessee. Osgood bed. Fig. 71. Hebertella (Schizonema) fasciata. A, Pedicel valve. New Marion, Indiana. Osgood bed. ' Fig. 72. Rhipidomella newsomensis. A, Brachial valve. B, Lateral view. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. Fig. 73. Eucalyptocrinus springeri. Ornamentation too minute to be seen readily without a lens. Newsom, Tennessee. Waldron bed. ! Fig. 74. Favosites obpyriformis. Part of a globular corallum 6 cm. in width. Glade 2 miles west of Vice store, Tennessee. Brownsport bed. SILURIAN FOSSILS A. F. Foerste PLATE IV 72 A Bulletin of the Denison University, vol. xiv. 1 I. THE DETERMINATION OE TIN IN BABBITT AND OTHER ALLOYS.^ J. A. Baker. Mr. W. H. Low published a method for the ‘^Determination of Antimony and Tin in Babbitt, Type Metal or other Alloys,” which appeared in the ‘Journal of the America?! Chemical Society j vol. xxix, no. I, 1907. When it became necessary to make an analysis of a bronze containing copper, lead, tin, and zinc, Mr. Low’s method gave promise of a rapid means of estimating the tin. It was, therefore, thoroughly tested. Mr. Low’s method for tin is as follows : Decompose the alloy with nitric acid and expel the latter by boiling with sulphuric acid till fumes of the anhydride come off thickly, add tartaric acid and potassium sulphate, heat the melt till the carbon is oxidized, cool and dilute with water. Transfer to a 500 cc, flask, add about one gram of powdered antimony, and hydrochloric acid to the extent of one-fifth the volume of the solution. Connect the flask with an apparatus capable of furnishing carbon dioxide, and while the gas is passing, heat the liquid to the boiling point, and boil for about three minutes, then cool while the current of gas is still passing. This process leaves the tin in a proper state of oxidation to titrate with a standard iodine solution. Furthermore, according to Mr. Low, no amount of lead will interfere and ^‘theoretically no amount of copper should interfere, while small amounts are known to give no trouble. ” Attention was attracted to the article by this last statement, for evidently the process separates neither the copper nor the lead, the former being present in solution and the latter for the most part as solid lead sulphate. In practice in this laboratory, after bringing the solution up to the proper condition for titration according to the above directions, a few cubic centimeters of good starch solution were added, and ^ These studies were undertaken at the suggestion of Prof. A. M. Brumback as a partial requirement for the Master’s Degree. y. A. Baker 1 18 then a few drops of standard iodine solution were run in. At the first drop a heavy, dirty-white precipitate formed. It was evi- dent from the nature of the precipitate and the substances in solu- tion that cuprous iodide, stained with free iodine, was being pre- cipitated. However, several titrations were made, in the hope that the interfering action of the copper would be perfectly regular, and that a correction could be made after the amount of copper present had been determined. The addition of iodine was there- fore continued till the characteristic blue coloration indicated that the end point had been attained. Care was taken to stir the solu- tion thoroughly after each addition. The heavy precipitate present obscured the end point to some extent, but it was suffi- ciently well noted each time. Three different portions of the alloy were taken, and the fol- lowing results were calculated to a weight of 4 grams of the alloy. |j One portion required 175 cc. of the standard iodine solution, j another required 133 cc., and the other required 159 cc. It was manifest that the reaction v/as altogether too irregular to justify i any confidence in it. ! : The following method was finally used fin the determination of t the metals present in the alloy. Take portions of two or three ^ grams each and cover with nitric acid (1:1). Action takes place at once without heating, and soon the alloy is entirely decomposed, j Expel nitric fumes and add about 10 cc. of concentrated sulphuric | i acid. Heat till white fumes come off quickly. Cool, add 50 cc. i of water, filter and wash. The lead in the precipitate may be esti- * mated gravimetrically or volumetrically. The filtrate contains 3 the copper, tin and zinc. ‘ To the filtrate add enough water to make its volume up to 150 : cc. Add 25 cc. of sulphuric acid. Place clean aluminum foil 1 in the liquid and bring up to a boil. Boiling is continued till all I the copper is precipitated in the metallic form. Separate the metallic copper by decantation or filtration, wash and weigh as metallic copper, after drying; or dissolve and estimate volumetric- ally. The copper is now entirely separated from the tin, the latter remaining in the filtrate along with the zinc which does not inter- fere with the estimation of the tin by iodine. The tin is now reduced by metallic antimony in a current of carbon dioxide as i directed by Mr. Low, and titrated with the iodine solution. The iodine solution produces, now, no precipitate, but the oxida- ' Studies on Alloys 119 tion goes on in a perfectly clear solution and the end point is sharply defined and unmistakable. An analysis gave the fol- lowing results: Copper Lead. . Tin.... Zinc. . . 62.33 1 .66 T3 35.29 99.81 The amounts of iodine solution required for the estimation of the tin in two samples calculated to 4 grams per sample? were as follows : Modified method? 6.82 cc. 6.88 cc.? as compared with Mr. Low’s method? 133.cc.? I75mc. and 159.cc. II. BABBITT ANALYSIS BY THE METHOD OF W. H. LOW. The method followed in this work was that of Mr. W. H. Low, published in the Journal of the American Chemical Society for January 1907, with some slight modifications that seemed to be demanded by the nature of the work. It was in connection with this work that the application of the method to alloys containing large amounts of copper, was tried. The criticism of the method for such alloys appears elsewhere in these pages. Below appears a detailed statement of what was done in apply- ing the method. Standard solutions of ammonium molybdate, potassium permanganate, iodine and sodium thiosulphate were prepared. These were made and standardized as appears below. 1. Ammonium molybdate. About 9 grams of the dry salt were dissolved dn each liter of water. This solution was then stand- ardized by titrating it against thoroughly dried, pure lead sulphate. The latter was dissolved in ammonium acetate, diluted to 250 cc., acidified with acetic acid, heated to boiling and titrated, using tan- nin as an indicator. The tannin solution was made by dissolving tannin in about 300 parts of water. The value of the molybdate solution was calculated as follows: Weight of PbS04 taken Weight of lead in {a) = («) X .68292 Volume of molybdate solution used I cc. of molybdate = (h) (c) = .xxxx (a) = .xxxx (h) = .xxxx (c) = .xxxxx g. Pb. 120 J. A. Baker 11. Potassium permanganate. The pure salt was dissolved in water, about 4 grams being taken for each liter of water. This was standardized according to the two following methods: a. With metallic iron. Thin annealed wire, containing 99.6 per cent of pure iron was dissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, in an Erlenmeyer flask fitted with a Bunsen valve. Heat was usually applied to hasten solution. When solution was complete the flask and contents were cooled without removing the stopper, by holding under a stream of water. The stopper was then removed, the liquid was diluted, if necessary, with recently boiled, distilled water, and the iron was titrated with the permanganate solution to a faint pink color. The calculation for the iron value of the permanganate was made as follows : Weight of iron wire taken Weight of iron in {a) = (a) X .996 Volume of permanganate used I cc. of permanganate = (h) -f- (r) = .xxxx (a) = .xxxx (b) = .xxxx (c) = .xxxxx g. Fe b. With ferrous ammonium sulphate. Weighed portions of the salt were dissolved in acidulated water in a flask into which had been previously put a little sodium carbonate. The water was acidulated with sulphuric acid. As soon as solution was com- plete the iron was titrated with the permanganate solution, and the value of the latter calculated as follows : Weight of (NH,)^ Fe {pop, m,0 = .xxxx (a) Weight of iron present == (a) X .14251 = .xxxx (b) Volume of permanganate used = .xxxx (r) I cc. of permanganate = (b) {c) = .xxxxx g. Fe Since the purpose of the permanganate solution in the work undertaken was to determine antimony, the iron value as found above was calculated to the antimony value as follows: The equations for the action of permanganate upon iron com- pounds and upon antimony compounds are these: 2KMnO, + loFeSO, 4- = 5Fe2(SOj3 + K^SO^ + 2MnS04 + m,0 2KMnO, f sSbClg + 16HCI = 2MnCl3 + s’ShCl- + 2KCI + SH^O It is apparent, then, that 10 atoms of iron are equivalent to 5 atoms of antimony in reducing KMnO^. Hence the following propor- tion will give the antimony value of the permanganate [solution. Studies on Alloys 121 letting d represent the iron value of the solution and the anti- mony value : 55.9 X 10 : 120. 1 X 5 : X. Whence X = d X 1.075. III. Sodl um thiosulphate. Make the solution 'with about 19 grams of the crystallized salt per liter. Such a solution v^as standardized against copper sulphate, the copper content of which had been very accurately ascertained in connection with other laboratory work. The weighed amounts of the copper sulphate were dissolved in about 200 cc. of water. To this was added 5 cc. of ammonium acetate solution and 5 cc. of dilute acetic acid. Then were added about ten times the copper weight of potassium iodide crystals and the mixture stirred. The liberated iodine was titrated with the thiosulphate solution nearly to the end, when a few cubic centimeters of clear starch solution were added and the titration finished. This standard solution was used only for the purpose of standardizing the iodine solution and titrating back against the iodine solution during the estimations. The iodine value of the thiosulphate solution was calculated as follows from the reaction equation: 2CUSO4 + 4KI = 2I + CU2I2 + 2K2SO4 Weight of copper sulphate taken = .xxxx {a) Percentage of copper present in the sulphate = .xxxx (b) Weight of pure copper present = {a) X {h) = .xxxx (c) Weight iodine equivalent to copper ^ (c) X = .xxxx{d) Volume NagSgOa used = .xxxx {e) I cc. thiosulphate = (d) (e) = .xxxxxg. I. IV. Iodine. About 18 grams of pure potassium iodide were dissolved in 250 cc. of water and 13 grams of iodine were dissolved in the resulting solution. When solution was complete the whole was diluted to a liter. This iodine solution was titrated against measured volumes of the standard thiosulphate solution using a clear solution of starch as an indicator in just the way described above. The standard values were calculated as below: I cc. of thiosulphate in grams of iodine (as above) = .xxxx (a) I cc. of thiosulphate in cubic centimeters of I sol. = ,xxxx (h) I cc. of the iodine solution in grams of iodine(a = .xxxx (c) 122 J. A. Baker Since this iodine solution was used in the estimation of tin, its tin value was calculated as follows from the reaction equation: Therefore or SnCh + 2l 4- 2HCI = SnCh + 2HL Sn : 2I :: X : c 119 : 253.94 :: X : c where e is the weight of iodine in i cc. of the iodine solution, and V is the weight of the tin equivalent to one cubic centimeter of the iodine solution. Then .v = (e) X .4686. METHODS OF ANALYSIS. I. For the estimation of lead. Samples of about 0.5 gram each were used. The alloy was in the form of fine drillings, often flattened by hammering. The samples were digested in dilute nitric acid (sp. g. -= 1.20) on the water-bath for about 2 hours. The decomposition seemed to be so effected by this method of treatment that better results were obtained than by hurried decomposition at higher temperatures. When the decomposition seemed to be complete, the samples were removed from the water bath and quickly evaporated till about 5 cc. of liquid remained, then they were diluted with 100 cc. of water, boiled up, filtered and washed repeatedly with hot water. The filtrate was diluted to about 250 cc. with water (if the volume together with the wash- ings was less than that), heated to 50° to 60° and the lead was precipitated by adding 10 cc. of sulphuric acid (i: i). The pre- cipitate was allowed to settle and was then filtered and washed, first with very dilute sulphuric acid and then two or three times with pure cold water. The precipitate, without separating from the filter paper, was placed in a flask and dissolved with 10 to 15 cc. of strong ammonium acetate solution. The volume was then made up to 250 cc., heated to incipient boiling and titrated with the standard molybdate solution, using tannin as an indicator. The results are recorded at the end of this paper, II. For the estimation of antimony and tin. The method here described is based upon that published by Mr. Low, in the article heretofore referred to. The finely divided alloy was weighed out in samples of about i gram each. They were placed in an Erlen- Studies on Alloys 123 meyer flask and were treated with 15 or 20 cc. of concentrated sulphuric acid and 2 to 4 grams of potassium sulphate. Heat was applied till the melt was perfectly white, but care was taken not to drive off* all the sulphuric acid. The samples were then cooled and diluted with 50 cc. of water and 10 to 15 cc. of strong hydrochloric acid added. Heat was applied till all pos- sible had passed into solution. The flask was cooled and the con- tents rinsed into a 600 cc. beaker and diluted to 400 or 500 cubic centimeters and then titrated with the permanganate solution. The results of the estimation will be found at the end of this paper. The method just described involves a radical departure from Mr. Low’s method. Mr. Low advocates the use of hydrochloric acid solution for the titration of the antimony in which the con- tent of HCl is about 10 per cent the volume of the solution. At- tempts to use such a concentration ended in utter failure at lab- oratory temperatures, 20° to 22°. Very shortly after the per- manganate was added the solution turned yellow, evolved the odor of chlorine and threw down a brown precipitate, all of which showed that the permanganate was being decomposed by the hydrochloric acid present. The decomposition was so energetic that absolutely no end point could be observed. The concentra- tion recommended by Mr. Low is somewhat greater than that recommended by Fresenius and Sutton, but these authors also recommend the addition of Magnesium sulphate or other similar agent. In these experiments the volume of the acid was reduced to the proportions stated above. The solution in which the antimony had been estimated was poured into a round bottomed flask, was rinsed out with 50 cc. of strong- HCl, the rinsings being added to the contents of the flask. The solution at this point was made to contain one-fifth its volume of strong hydrochloric acid. There was then added about one gram of finely powdered antimony. The flask was shaken well and the contents digested on a water-bath till the vol- ume was about 300 cc. The flask was next connected with an apparatus for delivering a rapid stream of CO2, connection being made so that bubbles of the gas passed rapidly through the solu- tion. While the gas was passing, the flask was heated to boiling and maintained at the temperature for about fifteen minutes. This was long enough to secure the reduction of all the tin. While 124 J. A. Baker the gas was still passing the flask and contents were cooled by pouring cold water over the former. The flask was then discon- nected from the apparatus, 5 cc. of good starch solution were added to its contents and titration was effected by means of the standard iodine solution. The thiosulphate solution was used to tritrate back if the end point was passed. The results for tin i are here tabulated: Ij Analytical Results. pb. Sn. Sb. . Total. 1 '78.92 5-52 15.21 99-65 Magnolia Metal 1 79-34 5-50 15.01 99-85 [78.69 5-93 1535 99-97 1 [ 82.30 2.24 15.24 99.78 Eagle A 82.42 2.13 15-14 99.69 [82.81 2.07 14-73 99.61 I 1 [84.61 3.08 12.22 99.91 Frictionless shales locally arenaceous, but in the main, black in color and I :' bearing a considerable fauna. Both the fauna and the litholog- f‘ ical aspect of the formation indicate marine sedimentation. On ji . this principle, then, the water area in which the next older for- | c mation, the Berea, was laid down, continued to transgress the | ! land, thus maintaining a horizon of marine deposition. !| Cuyahoga Formation. This formation consists of shales and ii i sandstones, the upper boundary of which was for some time given S j as Conglomerate Later studies, “ however, have shown that i i this conglomerate horizon is not persistent, and furthermore, that ( even where found it overlies beds that do not have the Cuyahoga characteristics. So far, however, as the process of sedimentation | j involved in the Cuyahoga beds admit of interpretation, it is evi- I - dent that the quick transition frequently noted from fine to coarse ‘ textured layers probably indicates a somewhat static relationship • of land and water which would result in the coarser sediments j locally reaching out over mud deposits. This supposition accounts i for the transition from shale to an arenaceous or even a conglom- erate horizon. When, however, mud deposits follow, in the vertical succession, the sandstone or argillaceous shale, which is f the prevailing relationship in the Cuyahoga inasmuch as it con- | tains more shale than any other textured rock, it is surmised that j the predominating tendency of the water body was transgressive. [ I feel nevertheless that a closer mapping of the Cuyahoga and the conglomerate horizon by which the top of the formation was for- | merly fixed will reveal much horizontal variation, and that the || meaning of this inconstancy is a closely balanced relationship | during the early and late Cuyahoga times between the rate of deposition and the rate of transgression by the sea. | C. L. Herrick: Bull. Denison University, vol. iii, p. 26, 1888. C. S. Prosser: The American Geologist, vol. xxxiv, p. 359, 1904. il A Strati graphical Study 145 Black Hand Formation. This horizon of rocks overlying the Cuyahoga is generally called a conglomerate. The conglomerate phase is indeed remarkably developed in many localities; on the other hand the formation consists locally of fine sand and even of argillaceous sands. From the standpoint of methods of sedimen- tation the striking feature of the Black Hand is its thickness (fig. 13). We note, not infrequently, ledges often about 100 feet thick where it shows very little irregularity in texture. This constancy of shallow water or of littoral sediments implies a sustained rela- tionship of land and water brought about through the rate of deposition balancing the rate of land subsidence or of transgres- sion by the sea. Where, however, we find this formation inter- rupted vertically by beds somewhat coarse and often conglomeratic there is evidence of more vigorous erosion, or of tidal assortment combined with current scour, resulting in the localization of coarser deposits. Accordingly the conglomerate beds of the Black Hand are not consistent in horizontal development. For this reason we are inclined to favor the wave and current rather than the stream-erosion explanation for these coarser beds. The Logan Formation. This formation consists of sandstone, somewhat clayey in character, with now and then a thin layer of shaly sediments. The prevailing condition of sedimentation dur- ing this period is certainly not clear. The irregularity of the for- mation in horizontal extension, however, gives some suggestion. Furthermore, the general thickness of its beds leads to the same conclusion, namely, a transgressing sea following up rivers already mature in their drainage-cycle-position, with the rate of deposition lagging considerably behind the rate of transgression. The gen- eral absence of mud deposits and the fine texture of the sandstone in this formation both indicate a nearby source of sediments, presumably the working over of those last developed and of con- tinental sediments. Further evidence leading to this same conclu- sion is found in Conglomerate H, a persistent coarse horizon marking the boundary line between the Black Hand and the Logan. This conglomerate is widespread but not thick, its maximum depth usually being less than two feet. This relationship is sug- gestive of transgressive deposits marking a slow growth of a sea over the land in the gradually deepening of which water-body the Logan sandstones were laid down. The Pottsville Formation. The Sharon member of this forma- 146 Frank Carney tion is prevailingly coarse; locally it is exceedingly coarse. A variation along horizontal lines is the most striking feature of the Sharon. The transition laterally from fine, even-textured sand- stone, to irregularly bedded conglomerate masses ranging from quartzite pebbles to units 4 or 5 inches or even larger of siliceous fragments, was long ago noted by geologists in Ohio. The evi- dence of regressive continental sedimentation in the Sharon is quite conclusive. Terrestrial streams here have followed a retreating shore line, their flood plain and alluvial fan deposits being indicated now by the coarser phases just alluded to. Such a transportation of river deposits would be witnessed in a tilt or warp of an ocean-border tract, the movement progressing inland. Thus in the littoral zone finer sediments would accumulate, irregu- lar in horizontal distribution because of vigorous streams, a condi- tion less favorable to fauna; these sediments, the Logan, would suffer erosion locally, and in the channels thus made later sedi- ments, the Pottsville, were deposited. The patches of fire-clay and of coals found in the upper Sharon and later Pottsville indicate a balanced condition between ero- sion and deposition which insured a wide littoral zone and the development inland of extensive flood-plains. I c. Geographic Influences Arising from this Stratigraphy^ In the arid southwest parts of the United States, the crude water signs of the Indians have often pointed the white man to a spring. The government topographic maps covering sections of this region of sparse rainfall give the location of many springs. Throughout the longer-known and more-traveled desert areas of the world, the few oases have fixed the routes taken by caravans. Numerous books are available detailing facts that bear on the geographic influence of springs in arid climates. But into whatever land man has gone, humid as well as arid, springs have had a part in his activities. So far as America is concerned, I am not aware that a quantitative D. White: Bull. Geolog. Soc. Am., vol. xv, p. 279, 1904, urges that a trans- gressing sea was associated with the deposition of the Pottsville sediments. The remainder of this paper is reprinted from The Popular Science Monthly, vol. Ixxii, pp. 503-11, 1908, where it appeared under the title, “Springs as a Geo- graphic Influence in Humid Climates.” A Strati graphical Study 147 study of the influence of springs in humid regions has been under- 1 taken. |i (i) While mapping the stratigraphy of an area of approxi- j mately 25 square miles in central Ohio, where the annual precipi- jtation is about 40 inches, the influence exercised by springs was given particular attention. In this area the upper formations of ^the Mississippian, and the lower of the Pennsylvanian periods come to the surface. The vertical series of rocks involves two ; Fig. 9, Looking up-stream through the narrow, former col, part of Lost Run. j The section shown in Fig. 2 was measured beneath the trees standing on top of the I cliff in the middle distance. A primitive log house marks the location of a constant t spring. horizons of coarse clastic sediments, the Black Hand of the earlier period, and the Sharon member of the Pottsville, which is the lowest formation of the later period. The Black Hand overlies the Cuyahoga, which in central Ohio ‘‘is composed largely of bluish and grayish shales and buff sandstones. Subjacent to the Sharon is the Logan formation consisting chiefly of “bufl^ arenaceous shales to thin bedded sandstones. The Black Hand is a mas- ” Charles S. Prosser: ‘Journal of Geology, vol. ix, p. 220, 1901. "/W., p.231. 148 Frank Carney sive sandstone, locally conglomeratic; the Sharon is less massive, \ and locally coarser; this characterization of these two formations 1 1 applies specifically to the area studied. While neither of these ! : sandstone formations overlies impervious beds, yet in themselves { « they are variable in texture and structure, and the region is so ma- ■ turely dissected (fig. 15), that conditions are very favorable to the ; I development of springs. Furthermore, the Logan also contains li beds that are water bearing. | (2) The early settler in agricultural lands found a spring, if j| possible, and then built his log house. Others coming into the [ I Fig. 10. The iron content of this Sharon rock induces the “honeycomb” effects ! in weathering, and also makes the springs less desirable. | region made similar locations. Settlement generally moved along streams, since in the absence of roads valleys are more accessible. 1 If the valley has been developed in water-bearing formations, ' which are not much tilted, springs border the bottom land on j either side. Both topographic convenience and the presence of water tended to confine the earliest habitations to the valleys. ■ Later settlers spread over the intervalley areas, building their houses in proximity to springs. Primarily the highways lead from house to house; eventually, j however, several factors become operative before the roads are permanently fixed. In the case of a valley having a commodious 1 15° Frank Carney flood-plain, but not extensive enough to warrant the maintenance of roads on each side, the slope bearing the better springs was nor- mally the decisive factor; the homes on the opposite side would be approached by fords and lanes, or by only the latter if located near a transverse highway. In the uplands the permanent lines of traffic appear to take courses that will accommodate the greatest number without making too great sacrifice in distance; even then some dwellings are isolated. The isolation may continue but one P ig. 12. The tiny rill of a spring that has already developed a small basin in the Black Hand formation. generation, or until the desire to live on the highway overcomes the convenience of water and the associations of the hearth; the latter factors have prevailed wherever we see an isolated frame house, whereas a deserted log cabin means the dominancy of the former. Moreover, the intervalley highways sometimes exhibit an eco- nomic influence. When the area is heavily timbered, and lumber- ing rather than agriculture is the initial occupation, the roads made A Strati graphical Study 151 in connection with logging and milling may become permanent. For example: North of Wilkins’ Corners (fig. i) the second high- way leading west ascends about 160 feet in one-half mile; this road parallels a valley a few rods to the left, where the same horizontal distance involves only half the grade; the original high- way did follow the valley, connecting the two houses. But log- haulers from the wooded upland located their main road where it would command as much of the area as possible, approaching it Fig. 13. The Black Hand formation is generally a coarse, irregularly bedded sandstone, yielding a copious supply of spring water. by spurs along contours. This traffic fixed the road where it is, though it has never led directly to a dwelling; property complica- tions diverted the second house up the valley to it, the original roadway being abandoned. A similar influence in highway loca- tion due to mining operations is seen one and one-half miles west of Mary Ann Furnace in the road trending southwest from the one leading to Wilkins’ Corners. Some 50 years ago a vein of coal on this slope was worked for local use, and was approached from the west, thus opening a highway that has served little use since. It is evident also that so far as the intervalley roads are con- cerned, the topographic factor made slight appeal to the locating Fig. 14. Sawed shingles and a few boards are used in lengthening the years of service of this rough-hewn log spring house. Frank Carney engineers, an ox-team and its driver. If the most direct line between houses, i.e., between springs, crossed a sharp hill, the highway went directly over rather than follow a contour, or take even a gentler, if slightly longer, grade. I have noted several places where in the past decade these sharp grades have been removed by a detour, but two generations had dragged themselves wearily over the hill. (3) The convenience of good water, or of rich bottom lands in the valleys, factors that would seem to have much weight with the early settler in choosing a location, is of secondary importance when opposed to an inherited topographic proclivity. A man reared among hills, however barren, has a latent tendency to plant Fig. 15. A mature stage of erosion is a condition favorable to numerous springs. 154 Frank Carney his new home in similar topography. This bias^ developed through j environment, whether inherited or acquired by the individual, is :i illustrated in the choice of lands made by Welsh immigrants who i came into Licking county, Ohio, early last century; they passed j by thousands of acres of lowlands, the richest in the state, and q selected farms in a rugged portion of the county, still owned by , > their descendants, and even now designated ‘‘The Welsh Hills.” (4) But in the region to which special study was given, the j geographic influence of springs is obvious. There are 203 houses j) in the township, 148 of which are built at springs; some of the 55 ; using wells formerly depended on springs. Both the horizontal j ; and vertical distribution of these dwellings is largely a matter of |l 1 stratigraphy of which the springs are a manifestation. It should !( be noted, however, that the localization of houses near Mary Ann I Furnace is due to the fact that over sixty years ago iron ore, found | : in the neighboring hills, was reduced here; stoves also were manu- | ' factored at this place. The furnace was destroyed in 1853, but h the houses are still in use. I (a) Over 50 per cent of the dwellings with springs are in the | horizon of the Black Hand formation (fig. 13), which borders the | flood-plains of all the valleys, a distribution made possible because the formation has an eastern dip of about 25 feet pe:r mile. The springs in the Black Hand are numerous and copious (fig. 12), partly because of the thickness and texture of the formation, also because of its subjacency to horizons that carry water freely. | (b) In the Logan formation, I have mapped 30 houses with I springs. There is doubt concerning a few of these, an indefinite- I ness occasioned by the absence of contacts. The Logan sediments j suffered erosion contemporaneously with Pottsville sedimentation; | furthermore, the Logan, in comparison with its contact forma- tions, the Black Hand and the Sharon, weathers easily, producing gentle slopes. These two conditions make it doubtful about the i exact horizon of a spring near either the top or the base of the il Logan. (c) Slightly less than 17 per cent of the houses with springs I are found in the Sharon. The areal extent of all the exposed for- I mations diminishes vertically, hence the number and the volume of the springs decrease; the value of the land for farming also ■ decreases with altitude. A further fact concerning the springs of the Sharon is their content of iron, making them less desirable than springs in either of the lower formations (fig. 10). 1 A Strati graphical Study 155 The township contains no extensive areas of outcropping coal measure or Pennsylvanian formations, save in the south central portion; elsewhere disintegration has left only outliers. In the area west of Mary Ann Furnace, covering several square miles, and another along the eastern border of the township, there are eighteen houses, three of which, now occupied, have springs. For the entire township, the average number of houses per square mile is about eight; for the horizon of the coal measures, it is less than two. That springs are rare is not the sole cause for the discrepancy; the bleakness of the upland, and the unproductiveness of the soil are contributory factors. About 10 per cent of the homes with springs are built on glacial deposits. The drift is localized chiefly in the valleys. The ice- sheet covered approximately two-fifths of the township, but left scarcely a veneer of drift on the intervalley areas. While fourteen springs have been mapped as belonging to the drift, it is quite probable that a good fraction of these are fed by water courses from the Black Hand formation. Of the wells noted, 56 per cent are in glacial deposits. Still another evidence of the influence due to springs is seen in the fact that of the eight deserted houses in the townships one is in the Black Hand formation, one in the Logan and six in the Coal-Measures, the horizon practically without springs. It is noted also that 22 per cent of the dwellings are off highways, an iso- lation due entirely to springs. Furthermore, dairying has always been carried on in this region (fig. 14) because in the summer sea- son the springs furnish cool water for handling milk. SIGNIFICANCE OF DRAINAGE CHANGES NEAR GRANVILLE, OHIO ^ E. R. SCHEFFEL OUTLINE Introduction — Physiography of Area and Nature of Problem. Drainage Changes (general treatment). Piracy Topography Stratigraphy Rainfall Glaciation Planing Topography Eroding Divides Diastrophism Detailed Discussion of Licking County Streams Raccoon Creek Incompetency of Glacial Explanation Competency of Explanation by Diastrophism Brushy Fork Runip Creek The Licking Rivers Conclusions Peneplanation Summary Introduction Physiography of Area and Nature of Problem This paper will endeavor to prove by the intensive investigation of a limited area a dynamic phenomenon which has probably influenced much of the drainage history of Ohio. The area considered includes practically the whole of Licking county, with the village of Granville as the approximate center and offering in its physiographic environment the most decisive' proofs for the contentions made. ‘‘Licking county lies near the center of Ohio and its present drainage is by the Licking river, which is formed at Newark by ^ Work done under the direction of Prof. Frank Carney, Denison University, as partial requirement for the Master’s Degree. E. R. Scheffel 158 the confluence of three streams, the North and South Forks and Raccoon creek. These streams form a hydrographical basin which ! is very nearly coextensive with the county lines. To the west i of the headwater portions of the North and South forks, narrow- ings followed by decided flarings are noted. By correlating these narrowings and following the most unbroken line of high rock altitudes the conclusion is reached that a former divide passed through Granville^ in an approximately north-south direction. tt 1 DRAINAGE CHANGES [ Before considering the cause of the diversions in this area it 1 may be advisable to give a general discussion of the subject, drain- age changes. I The causes for such changes may be somewhat arbitrarily j 1 divided into three heads, ^ though it is quite possible for two or all | to be inextricably associated. These causes are piracy, glaciation, I and diastrophism. Others, less important and more localized, will be omitted.^ ' [| I. Piracy.^ This term is applied when one stream ‘Tteals’'^ ij another. Primarily piracy is resultant from the more rapid head- | water growth and deeper cutting of the pirate stream as compared | with the robbed or beheaded drainage line. Davis gives a dramatic 1 account of the contest for supremacy between the east and west j flowing streams draining the Blue Ridge. ^ The entire Appalachian j system is also cited as witnessing many such contests. ji Though these contests may not represent in every instance typ- | ical cases of piracy, still, in a broad sense, when by the greater ! relative growth of one stream its divide migrates, thus lessening S the drainage area of another, the first has in reality robbed the | second. nV. G. Tight: Bull. Set. Lab. Denison Univ., vol. viii, part ii, p. 36, 1894. ^ ^ F. Leverett: Glacial Formations of the Erie and Ohio Basins, Monograph xli, | U. S. Geological Survey, p. 160, 1902. | ^Ihid., pp. 196-200. I ®G. D. Hubbard: The Ohio Naturalist, voL viii, p. 349, 1908. A. C. Lane: | Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. x, p. 12, 1899. j ®L Bowman: Journal of Geology, vol. xii pp. 326-334, 1904. j ^ R. D. Salisbury: Physiography, p. 176, 1907. | ®W. M. Davis: Bulletin of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia, yo\. iii, pp. 213-244, 1903. Drainage Changes near Granville y Ohio 159 j ii For simplicity the causes inducing piracy will be considered j with glacial and diastrophic forces as quiescent. Three may be named: Topography, stratigraphy, rainfall. Each of these will be considered alone, disregarding the other factors. I Topography. Of two drainage systems separated by a divide, ! the one lying on the steeper slope has a decided advantange. The I' impetus given its waters permits it to cut more deeply and rapidly j than its opponent.' The divide consequently migrates; the feeding ;i areas of the weaker stream are gradually gained and more or less of its headwater drainage captured by the stronger. The most striking cases of piracy occur when the two contending major lines flow approximately parallel. This may conceivably permit the sudden capture of almost the whole of the weaker system. When the major streams flow in opposite directions from the divide sepa- ji rating them,*^ as in the Blue Ridge, the ground is sharply contested and the diversion of drainage less evident. I Piracy may occur between systems of drainage or within a sys- f tern. The same laws are operative in either case, i Stratigraphy. Differences of structure and dip in the strata { over which they flow may give one of two streams a decided advan- j tage over the other. Thinly bedded strata offer less resistance to [ weathering, corrasion and corrosion than do heavily bedded strata, f The direction of outcrop relative to stream flow is also a factor in erosion. Chemical composition and structure, whether unmeta- morphosed sedimentary rock or igneus or metamorphic rock, must : also be considered. By advantageous combinations of the above one stream may j cut its channel more rapidly and eat headward faster than its neighbor, thus securing substantially the same conditions as in the case of the stream with steeper slope. Rainfall. It is evident that, all other conditions being equal, of two opposing streams the one in the area of heaviest rainfall I would have the greatest advantage. There are many instances I where a divide obstructs the prevailing winds causing the precipi- 1 ration of nearly all their excess moisture on the windward side. ! In such areas it is evident that the streams draining the territories I of greatest rainfall would ultimately gain an advantage similar to that favored by topography or stratification. ® F. S. Mills: Journal of Geology^ vol. xi, pp. 670-678, 1903. i6o E, R. Scheffel 2. Glaciation^^ This has been considered the principle factor i in changing the drainage over considerable areas. Tight^^ ascribes the reversals in the drainage of Ohio to this cause. Leverett i inclines to the same explanation for this and other areas. Leverett i has shown a tendency, however, to admit the possibility of another i explanation for changes in glaciated areas. Carney, particu- larly, has suggested a theory of preglacial diversion for certain Ohio streams. I Glaciation may effect drainage in various ways, i. e., by planing topography and by eroding divides. I: Planing Topography. This may be accomplished bytheeros- jl ive action of a glacier combined with its later passivity with [ resultant heavy aggradation. This may effect a changed drainage 1 having the same general course as the preglacial, or the debris | filling may take a slope at variance to the original valley bottoms | necessitating a very different and perhaps reverse course. i Eroding Divides. Cols may be cut directly by the corrasive | action of glaciers. Again, a valley may be dammed by a morainal I deposit^^ necessitating outflow of the drainage in a new direction, sometimes over rock divides. Perhaps the most commonly recog- I nized cause is damming^® of the headwater areas by the ice-front. In such instances the water is ponded between the ice and divide, and is forced to seek an outlet over the lowest point in the latter, i Eventually a deep channel or channels may be cut through it. j The deposition of drift in such a lake would normally be heaviest I near the ice, with the possible result of a change in the slope of the bottom, downward toward the col, leaving on the retreat of | the ice a reversed drainage. Sometimes glacially formed lakes fi f jl R. S. Tarr: Physical Geography of New T ork, pp. 154-184, 1902. G. D. Hub- | bard: Ohio Naturalist^voX. viii,pp. 349-355, 1908. W.G. Tight, J. A. Bownocker, jj J. H. Todd, and Gerard Fowke: Special Paper No. 3, “The Preglacial Drainage of O.,” O. State Acad, of Sc. i; “ W. G. Tight: Bull Sci. Lab., Denison Univ., vol. viii, part ii, pp. 35“6l, 1894. j Bull. Sc. Lab., Denison Univ., vol. ix, part ii, p. 2i, 1897. Monograph ;! 199. G. C. Matson: Jour, of GeoL, vol. xii, p. 139, 1904. | Bull Sc. Lab., Denison Univ., vol. xiii, p. 151, 1907. F. Carney: American Journal of Science, vol. xxv, pp. 217-223, 1908. T. L. Watson: Untv. of State of N. T., State Museum Report (No. 51), vol. i, p. r7l“2, j 1899. H. L. Fairchild: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. x, pp. 27-68, 1899. vol. vi, pp. 354-5, 1895. :i G. K. Gilbert: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. iii, p. 286, 1897. 'i Drainage Changes near Granville^ Ohio l6l survive the ’withdrawal of the ice, at times being confined in val- leys between two moraines. While the theory of the erosion of divides is quite plausible it seems not improbable that this may have been pushed too far. The overflowing water would be deprived of nearly all its cutting tools and would consequently be dependent almost entirely on cor- rosion for dissolving down its spillway. The time necessary for such a process would seem greater in certain instances^® than could be granted for the favorable position of the ice-front. Changes of drainage by glaciation may be ephemeral, lasting only through the period when immediately affected by the ice, or such changes may be of great permanency, outlasting indefinitely the period of glaciation. All degrees of endurance may be found between the two extremes. 3. Diastrophism. This term includes all crustal movements. Diastrophism is the most potent and far-reaching of all the causes inducing drainage changes. In many examples explained by piracy or glaciation it is probably an unseen factor. Slight move- ments are difficult to determine, particularly when inland, and for this reason have not been accorded their full share of influence. M. S. Campbell has formulated the theoretical eiFects of land movements occurring under ideal conditions. He also describes specific instances of drainage changes and applies these theories to them.^® His ‘^Law of the Migration of Divides” is a brief sum- mary of the theoretical side of the question. It is as follows: ‘‘When local radial movements occur in any region the stream divides in that area will tend to migrate the direction in which they move will be determined by the character of the crustal move- ment; and the extent of the migration will depend upon the amount of movement and the local obstacles which the streams may encounter. If the movement is upward the divide will tend to migrate toward the axis of uplift; and if the movement continues R. D. Salisbury: Loc. cit.^ p. 280. 18 Harmer: Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society (London), vol. Ixiii, pp. 470-514, 1907- Journal of Geology, vol. iv, pp. 567-581, 1896. Ihtd., pp. 657-678. See also L. G. Westgate, American Geologist, vol. xi, pp. 245-260, 1893. A phase of the migration of divides consequent on faulting by W. S. T. Smith, Journal of Geology, vol. v, pp. 809-812, 1897. E. R. Schejfel 162 long enough, and other conditions are favorable, it will reach the axial line and there remain. If the axis coincides with a divide already established, it will hold the latter stationary unless some stronger influence causes it to migrate. ‘‘If the movement is one of subsidence the divide will tend to migrate away from its axis; and will continue in that direction until the streams attain a condition of equilibrium. The migra- tion of the divide away from the axis of depression generally results in the formation of a stream along the axial line; and the direction in which it flows will depend, in a great measure, upon the pitch of the axis of the fold.’’ A peculiar phase of stream diversion, evidently not in the litera- ture but theoretically possible, may be considered. A slight dif- ferential movement resulting in a steepened slope on one side of a divide and a lessened slope on the other, would encourage head- water cutting on the first mentioned side and aggradation on the second. In time the divide would be cut through, the stronger stream gradually diverting the weaker by cutting back into its aggraded bed. Other theories have always implied a backward cutting through solid rock under such conditions, but the very movement which induces this cutting on the one side encourages aggradation or at least the accumulation in situ of the products of erosion on the other, thus giving the proposed theory a strong basis for support. Of the local movements in the United States those in the Great Lakes and New England areas have been given considerable attention. Tilting is probably never the only factor entering into drainage changes; rock structure and dip, glaciation, the revolution of the earth, etc., may have greater or lesser shares in the responsibility. DETAILED DISCUSSION OF LICKING COUNTY STREAMS ' Raccoon Creek. This stream will be taken as a type and a || minute discussion of it given to prove the change of drainage and S J. B. Woodworth: Bulletin 84, New York State Museum, p. 66, 1905. A. W. 1 Grabau: Ihid., (no. 45), vol. ix, pp. 55-66, 1901. G. K. Gilbert: U. S. Geol. Surv., j Annual Report no. 18, pp. 601-47, 1898. G. K. Gilbert: Smithsonian Report, pp. 237-244, 1890. Also “Preglacial Valleys of the Mississippi,” by F. Leverett, l| Journal of Geology, vol. iii, p. 763, 1895. I 1 Drainage Changes near Granville, Ohio 163 its cause. Raccoon creek rises in the west by northwest part of Licking county, flows southeast to Alexandria and then almost due east to its junction with the South Fork of the Licking at Newark. The old topography of the headwater area has been so completely masked and smoothed by a filling of glacial debris that interpretation of the preglacial history is difficult. This interpre- tation must depend largely on the evidence of the less obscured area downstream. Beginning near Alexandria the drift filling slopes sharply eastward and the great width of the valley is revealed for several miles, until near Granville where it suddenly narrows, passing between rock walls. The appearance of this valley sug- gests a large amphitheater opening eastward : to the west, a slop- ing drift surface; southeast and east, except at the gap noted, rock walls of the Waverly Series, The northern wall consists for appar- ently several miles of a drift divide separating this valley from a similar one constituting the headwater area of Brushy Fork. The length of this drift divide, considered in connection with the nar- row rock-walled outlet to the east, is strong evidence that a former stream headed north of the present divide and following the large valley already mentioned passed westward through Alexandria. For convenience this old drainage line may be called the Alexan- dria river. (Fig. i.) The narrowing in the Raccoon continues for about a quarter of a mile east where the junction with an “Old” north-south tributary valley^® permits a decided southward flaring. The east wall of this tributary valley reaches out as a spur into the valley of the Raccoon, producing its minimum width. The constriction is further emphasized by the presence of a glacially worn rock hill known as Sugar Loaf, lying in the valley slightly northwest of the spur. East of Sugar Loaf about a third of a mile is a similar but larger rock hill, “Mount Parnassus.” This physiography suggests that a divide shaped like a reversed S once existed at this point; the two isolated rock hills being the remaining frag- ments of the outermost curves of the S. These two points, it may^ be noted, correspond very nearly with the east-west limits of the village of Granville. _ (Fig. 2.) From this divide area eastward about three miles the valley ■again widens, the greater width being principally due to the numer- E. R. Sheffel: Bull. Set. Lab., Denison Univ., voL xiii, p. 154, 1907. 164 E, R. Scheffel ous tributaries, particularly those from the north. Just before the junction of the valley of the Raccoon with that of the Lick- ing rivers another narrowing occurs. The relative widths and lengths of these described portions of the Raccoon may best be obtained by consulting the contour map, fig. i. Rock Floor. The entire length of the valley from Alexandria east to its junction with the Licking has been shown to be filled Fig. I. Present drainage of Licking County. The broken line indicates a former divide. with an enormous depth of glacial debris. On the Sinnett farm, about one-half mile east of Flower Pot hill, a drilling made ( in probably the middle of the valley discovered 274 feet of loose material overlying the rock floor. This added to the altitude of Flower Pot hill above the present valley bottom gives a total depth for the uncovered valley of over 325 feet. Subtracting the thickness of the unconsolidated material from the surface Drainage Changes near Granville^ Ohio 165 altitude, the altitude above sea-level of the rock-bottom is here I approximately 646 feet. The A. R. Wright w^ell, located about ' five miles west, also in the valley bottom, has an altitude of i 930 less 170, or 760 feet above sea level. The Colville well, I three-fourths of a mile east of Alexandria and very close to the i debris divide between the valleys of the Raccoon and Brushy D Fork, has an altitude of 931 less 238 or 693 feet. While for the purpose of logical treatment it is desirable that all data should be Fig. 2. Topography of the region about Granville, based on “advance copies” of the Newark and Granville sheets supplied by Mr. J. H. Jennings, Geographer, U. S. Geological Survey. secured from corresponding points relative to the valley center, f it is impossible to determine absolutely whether the data given j conforms to this. Nevertheless it seems safe to conclude from all I the drillings, including several in addition to those given above, j that the altitude of the rock-bottom west of the Sinnett well gradu- ally rises as it approaches Alexandria. The Colville drilling, though west of the Wright well, has a much lower rock bottom and prob- ably lies near the center of the old Alexandria river. E. R. Schefjel 1 66 The statements of drillers and managers indicate that most of the rock formations shown in the drillings are approximately uni- form in thickness throughout the county; but they give varying statements for the “ slate (Berea^^ or Sunbury^^ Shale, probably including some Cuyahoga) found directly above the “Berea Sand,” so-called by the drillers, and underlying the drift. Assuming that this “slate” when laid down conformed in this particular to the formations beneath, pre-Pleistocene erosion would be the natural cause of the present irregularity in thickness. By simple computa- tion from records furnished, the Sinnett well is found to have a thickness of 184 feet of this uppermost formation, the A. R. Wright well 250 feet, and the Colville well 167 feet. The signifi- cance of this will be explained later. All information obtained is uniform in supporting the theory that the strata dip east or southeast. One manager^® stated that this dip equals thirty feet east per mile. Further computations from the three well records already quoted favor greater conserva- tism than this. The altitude of the upper surface of the “Berea Sand” (which it is assumed is uneroded and of uniform thickness in this area) is figured in the Sinnett well as 461 feet, in the Wright well 510 feet, and in the Colville well 526 feet. This dip, divided by the distance between the first and last, about 6 miles, gives an eastward slope of 19 feet per mile. The Black Hand Formation, the outcropping rock in this area, according to the measurements made by C. L. Herrick, and by Carney, shows a confirmatory dip. Herrick determined this dip near Granville to be 14 feet south and 18 feet east per mile. All the data^^ secured by him indicates the same general direction of dip for the other formations. Carney's work in Perry township shows a dip eastward of nearly 13 feet, and southward about 18 feet per mile.^® Tributaries. In the outlet portion of the Raccoon several trib- utaries break into the north wall. The largest of these occupied by Clear Run entering the Raccoon just east of Mount Parnassus, has extended its valley ramifications northwestward into the old divide. The principal tributary from the south has cut a deep E. Orton: Geological Survey of Ohio^ voL vi, p. 371, 1888. Chamberlin and Salisbury: Geology ^ voL ii, p. 554, 1906. Fletcher S. Scott (private company), Newark, Ohio. Bull, Set, Lah.j Denison Univ.^ vol. iii, pp. 24--5, 1888. Ihtd.^ vol. xiii, p. 120, 1906. Drainage Changes near Granville^ Ohio l6y channelway almost parallel with the Raccoon into the first rock terrace, leaving it standing as a ridge merging into Flower Pot hill on the west. These streams generally head in circular-like valleys frequently wider than the lower portions, a character doubt- less due to the fissile character of the lower rock in the valley walls?® Of the tributaries to the wider portion of the Raccoon west of Granville, the one occupying an old wide valley to the south has been already mentioned. A small barbed tributary arising in the divide area is received from the north. Further west Lobdell Run from the north and Moots Run from the south are tributary. In general the valleys tributary to the Raccoon show a contra- barbing to the east and west- of the Granville col. Those to the east show a normal condition, i. e., the smaller angle made with the Raccoon points east. Those to the west show an abnormal tendency, i. e., the smaller angle points west or upstream relative to the present Raccoon. This contra-barbing is itself evidence of a drainage diversion: The tributaries to the lower end of the Raccoon conform to the normal tendency of tributaries in joining their trunk stream. When the abnormal is found, as west of the assumed former divide at Granville, the most satisfactory explana- tion is that at one time the present abnormal was normal, which in turn necessitates the hypothecation of an originally west flowing drainage at -this point. Incompetency of Glacial Explanation. The frequent obliter- ating effect of glaciers by masking the primitive topography with a mantle of drift makes absolute accuracy in the discussion of the preglacial .histories of such areas practically impossible. Tight has favored glaciation as a cause of drainage changes^® in central Ohio, although admitting without discussion the apparent pre- glacial origin of the lower end of the Raccoon and of the S.outh Fork of the Licking. The glacial theory, if pertinent to this prob- lem, presupposes an ice-mass coming from the west, ponding a body of water against the divide at Granville. This water would seek an outlet across this S divide toward Newark. The cutting of this divide could not be permitted, however, the entire length of Pleistocene time for completion, since the entire valley from F. Carney, Ibid., p. 130. Bull. Set. Lab.f Denison Univ.j vol. viii, pt. ii, p. 37, 1894, i68 E. R. Scheffel Alexandria to Newark has a deep filling of glacial debris, which as described by Tight^^ shows both Illinoian and Wisconsin char- acters. The presence of Illinoian drift east of the divide would indicate that if the col was cut glacially, it must have been com- pleted during early Pleistocene times. ‘'Spring Valley Stream, a tributary to the Raccoon, flowing laterally on the east wall of the “Old Valley” west of Flower Pot hill, could not have taken its original course^^ unless the divide had been previously removed. This again brings up the question of the competency of water deprived of its load to cut through such divides in the compara- tively short time that may be granted. To explain the capture at Granville the glacial theory would further require that the slope of the rock floor from Granville west- ward would be downward, and that this direction gave way to an eastward slope of debris because of the varying deposition of the latter. But the rock floor has been found by the drill records to slope eastward. This fact alone would seem sufficient to preclude any theory of capture due to glacial influences. It may also be added that of all the cols noted in Licking county by the writer, none open toward the south. Many opportunities for the damming of water against east-west divides existed, while the direction of ice-movement further favored such phenomena. The persistent occurrence of these gaps opening toward the east does not seem in harmony with a glacial explanation. Competency of Explanation by Diastrophism. That a divide formerly passed? north and south through Granville is obvious from physiographic evidence. If further evidence in addition to what has been given were needed, the Sinnett and Colville wells in their order westward may again be cited : In the first there is a thickness of the Berea formation of 184 feet, in the second 167 feet. The Sinnett well is obviously near the valley center and con- sequently marks the point of greatest erosion in this immediate locality. The Colville well in the wider valley westward shows a greater erosion by 17 feet. This difference alone is an indication of a former west flowing drainage, assuming that the Berea was originally of equal thickness at both places. Bull.. Sci. Lab., Denison Univ., vol. viii, pt. ii, p. 37, 1894. E. R. SchefFel: Loc. cit., pp. 158-160. ^^Ibid., p. 165. 169 Drainage Changes near Granville , Ohio As the slope of the rock bottom of the Raccoon valley from Alex- andria towards Newark is now eastward, land-movement can be the only remaining explanation for the reversal of drainage west of the divide at Granville. The dipping of the strata eastward may be even suggestive of tilting in that direction. (It is admitted that the A. R. Wright well shows some discrepancy with all but the last of these explanations, but its harmonism with the latter suggests that the disharmonism is due to its probable situation on the old valley wall rather than on the valley bottom.) Confirmatory evidence from other streams. — Brushy Fork. The northern debris boundary of the wide Raccoon valley to the west of Granville, as already mentioned, forms a divide between this valley and a similar one occupied by the headwaters of Brushy Fork. From this wide headwater valley Brushy Fork flows east- ward toward a narrow rock-walled channel. This channel reaches its narrowest portion about a mile farther east and then very slowly widens until its junction with the valley of the North Fork of the Licking. Glacial debris in situ lying against the valley wall with water- laid material above has been noted. In its wide drift filled headwater portion and its narrow rock-walled outlet portion it is strikingly similar to the valley of the Raccoon. Throughout its length it is about parallel to the latter stream. In a north-south direction the narrowest portion of its valley would fall in approxi- mate line with the narrowest portion of the valley of the Raccoon at Granville, the latter constriction representing the capture of a west flowing stream formerly tributary to the Alexandria river, which in turn was captured by the Brushy Fork. Rump Creek. This stream is the next south of the Raccoon, flowing nearly parallel to it and emptying into the South Fork of the Licking river. Its valley shows a decided widening toward the west and narrowing toward the east similar to the condition noticed in the Raccoon and Brushy Fork valleys, with the greatest constriction in the same approximately north-south line. The length of the narrow portion is, however, much shorter than the other streams, this being due to the swinging southwest at this point of the South Fork of the Licking to which it is tributary, by which its eastward extension is cut olF. No well data was obtain- able in this area. The physiographic evidence makes it not unrea- sonable to suppose that glaciation may have been responsible for the capture, but the theory of land-movement is equally as reason- able. 170 E. R. Scheffel The Licking Rivers. Both the North and South Forks of the Licking river occupy in their lower ends mature valleys well filled with debris. In the northern part of the county the North Fork turns sharply to the west^ this portion formerly drainings accord- ing to Tight, directly to the Scioto System. At Newark the aggraded material reaches a maximum depth of 300 feet. This gives an altitude (above sea level) for the rock floor of about 500 feet.^^ Toward the southern part of the county near Hebron the valley, though continuing very wide, becomes drift-choked. Drill- ings, one showing a drift filling of 341 feet in Liberty township, Fairfield county, strongly support Tight’s theory^^ that this valley was formerly continuous southwestward to the old Scioto drainage. It is noted west of Hebron also that the coarse sandstone capping the valley walls has been eroded much more than its equivalent the glass sand^® formation, constituting the walls of the east-flow- ing Licking of which the South Fork is a branch. The inference is that the present most southerly portion of the South Fork must represent an older active drainage than that of the present east- flowing Licking. At the present time the South Fork of the Lick- ing turns, just south of the county line, sharply north and west for its headwater drainage, becoming approximately parallel with the east-flowing streams before mentioned. The entire drainage of the North and South Forks and the Raccoon meets at Newark, passing eastward through a gorge-like valley narrower than the lower portion of any of these tributary valleys. This east-flowing stream, the Licking river, which receives nearly ail the eastern drainage of the county, also, after a turn southeast, empties into the Muskingum river at Zanesville, and thence its waters pass southeastward to the Ohio river. In the Licking System two points particularly may be noted: I. The long tributary streams come from the north and west. These are, following to the left a circle including all the more important, the Rocky Fork, the North Fork of the Licking, the Raccoon, and in general direction the South Fork of the Licking. Such an arrangement would result, according to Campbell’s the- ory, from a differential tilting toward the northwest or a difter- I A, \ 1 W. Go Tight: Bull. ScL Lab., Denison Univ., voL viii, pt. ii, p. 365 1894. p. 37. F. Carney and A. M. Brumback: Ohio Naturalist, voL viii, pp. 357-60, 1908. J Drainage Changes near Granvtlley Ohio 1 71 ential subsidence toward the southeast. Tight has shown that the greater part of the Muskingum drainage system was for- merly connected with the Scioto system by a’ broad valley leading from Dresden (a few miles above Zanesville) westward past New- ark to the Licking reservoir^ and thence into the Scioto basin near Circleville.^^ The present southward course past Zanesville is through a much narrower valley than the old line leading west- ward to the Scioto Basin, and the rock floor is markedly higher along the present course of the Muskingum than along the old course/’^® This old connecting drainage line Tight has named the “Newark river. Besides carrying the old Muskingum drainage it received some of the streams now tributary to the Licking. i 2. The east bank of the old Newark river so far as observed ; from Hanover to the Licking reservoir about 10 miles southward is abnormally steep considering the width of the valley. On the assumption that tilting has taken place this would be explained by an axis of uplift, approximately parallel to the valley, on the j further side, or a corresponding depression on the near side. I Under such conditions streams perpendicular to the axis also work j headward and may finally capture the parallel streams.^® The [ time required would depend on the vigor of the movement and the degree of intrenchment of the parallel stream sought for. With the case in point it is conceivable that an enormous period of time, representing a probably very slow movement must have ! been required for this diversion. While the old Muskingum was slowly reaching back through its tributaries to the old Newark valley, the drainage of the latter was in turn under cutting its left bank in an endeavor to escape eastward. Conclusions. It appears from the evidence that formerly the drainage of the western part of Licking county passed directly to the valley now occupied by the Scioto System from the present headwater areas of the Brushy Fork, Raccoon creek and the I North and South Forks of the Licking. The present lower portions I of the same streams and also Rocky Fork (together, perhaps, with I glacially obliterated streams from the south) drained into the same Bull. Set. Lah.j Denison Univ.^ voL viii, pt. ii, pp. 35~6l, 1894. F. Leverett: Monograph xli, p. 155. ^®U. S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper no. 13, plate i, 1903. M. R. Campbell: Journal of Geology ^ vol. iv, pp. 658-9, 1896. 172 E. R. Schejfel old system through the former Newark river, having a general direction of west-southwest. Later all this drainage was diverted , eastward through the present Licking valley. , ’ No doubt has been expressed by any writer concerning the ij actual occurrence of the captures indicated. The general tend- ency, however, has been to refer them to glacial causes. Hints that differential movement may have been a factor have been given, but nothing has been adduced to support such a theory. The purpose of this paper has been to emphasize the possibility that this may have been the controlling factor even before glacial times, aided also by the stratigraphy which in at least part of the divide area permits rapid weathering. While arguments are avail- able in favor of the glacial theory, yet in view of the fact that all the changes conform to the theoretical results following a simple differential movement of uplift or subsidence, it would seem that the latter factor should be given a more serious consideration than it has been accorded. While the problem has been treated from a localized standpoint, a study of Tight^s map^^ shows similar drainage changes over almost the whole of Ohio, including the drainage under discussion. Formerly this combined drainage passed northwest, now it passes southeast. May not the same cause have been operative in both instances causing the reversions; and may not the theory of differ- ential movement be perhaps nearer the truth than the glacial ? PENEPLANATION The hills of the western part of the county consist of rock of the Waverly Series. Tight in discussing the Muskingum area gives the Cretaceous as the probable period of base-leveling.^^ This time would also seem applicable to the Licking county area, though a later date is not improbable. If this supposition is cor-i rect then if these drainage changes were caused by differential ; movement this movement must have come between Cretaceous and Pleistocene times. Attempts have been made to correlate the rock formations of this area with those in the Allegheny Plateau ^^Professional Paper no. 13, plate i. Bull. Set. Lah.y Denison Univ.^ vol. viii, pt. ii, p. 55, 1894. Drainage Changes near Granville, Ohio 173 region. Differences of opinion have resulted/^ but the areas have generally been accorded the same period (Cretaceous) of penepla- nation.^^ Oscillations of the earth’s surface have been evidenced in the Great Lakes area and in the Allegheny Plateau region. 1 The probability that the Ohio area under discussion has been I genetically connected with some of these movements seems plaus- i ible.^® SUMMARY 1. This article has endeavored to throw some light on the subject of drainage changes near Granville, Ohio, first giving a brief of the general subject — drainage changes — in which the three principal causes are discussed: piracy, glaciation, and dias- trophism. 2. The wide headwater and narrower outlet portions of the streams tributary to the North and South Forks of the Licking are evidence of a diversion to the east. The narrow outlet of the combined drainage through the Licking Narrows east of Newark further supports such a contention. 3. The commonly ascribed causes for such drainage changes in Ohio are not competent because: (^7) So many similar phenomena are hardly consistent with a glacial cause, (b) Overflow streams would not be competent, in the times which may be granted, to do the enormous amount of cutting represented. (<:) The eastward slope of the eroded rock floor, as illustrated in the Raccoon, strongly derogates against such a theory. 4. The reasons proving a diversion of drainage and those opposing a glacial explanation for such diversion, support, in general, the theory of diversion by tilting. 5. By differential land movement (probably in late Cretaceous times or possibly as late as the Pliocene) the drainage of Licking county has been diverted from the Old Scioto System west of Lick- C. L. Herrick: American Geologist, vol. iii, p. 95, 1889. C. L. Herrick: Geol. Surv. of Ohio, vol. vii, pp. 409, 501, 1893. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Yo\. ii, p. 561, 1901. M. R. Campbellfinds evidence of two peneplains in same area. See Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. xiv, pp. 277-96, 1903. F. Carney: Am. Jour, of Sci., vol. xxiii, p. 326, 1907. F. Leverett: Journal of Geology, vol. iii, p. 763, 1895. 174 Scheffel ing county to the southeast flowing Muskingum lying east of the same county. 6. If Point 5 is correct, then such an explanation rather than glacial may apply to most of the drainage changes of Ohio. Geological Department Denison University June, 1908. THE AGE OF THE LICKING NARROWS AT BLACK HAND, OHIO.^ Kirtley F. Mather. The Licking river is formed at Newark, Ohio, by the confluence of three streams, the North and South Forks, and Raccoon creek. Thence it flows almost due east and joins the Muskingum at Zanes- ville. Newark lies in the center of a broad open valley, partly filled with glacial drift, at the head of the Licking river. At Claylick, seven miles downstream from Newark, the Licking river leaves this broad old valley and continues eastward in a narrow channel wTich, a mile and a half farther on, becomes a gorge, cut 90 feet deep, in the Black Hand formation. The walls rise perpendicularly from the stream's edge and there is scarcely room for the railroad tracks on either side. The river winds through this gorge for a distance of two and a half miles, and at Toboso the valley widens out again to about half the width of the first valley at Newark. The older and broader Newark valley continues from the vicin- ity of Claylick northeastward toward Dresden, but at Hanover is nearly filled with glacial drift. The rock topography of the region makes it apparent that in pre-glacial times this valley was occu- pied by a stream flowing southwestward, and tributary to the ancient Scioto. This stream has been named the Newark river, and it has already been pointed out that it must have been cap- tured and diverted by the present east-flowing Licking.- The simplest hypothesis to account for this piracy would be that when the ice sheet, classified by Leverett"^ as Illinoian, entered this region it acted as a dam across the channel of the west-flowing ^ This paper is the result of investigations undertaken, as a partial requirement for a Master’s Degree, under the direction of Prof. Frank Carney of Denison Uni- versity, and was read before the Ohio Academy of Science, November 28, 1908. ^ Tight: Bull. Set. Lab., Denison Univ., voL vii, part ii, p, 49, 1894. Leverett: U. S. Geological Survey, Monograph xli, p. 155, 1902. Ibid., p. 51. 176 K. F. Mather stream causing its waters to back up into a lake, which, overflow- ing across the divide into a tributary to the Muskingum, would cut down the channel at the Licking Narrows. Under this theory the present terraces in the valleys of the Lick- ing and its tributaries would be deposits formed in the waters of this one large lake. Moreover, the drift which fills the Newark valley for a distance of three or four miles east of the Hanover dam would be in the nature of subaqueous outwash. It has already been shown"* that this drift-filling is a deposit from a valley dependency of ice extending as far as the drift is found. It is the purpose of this paper to show that a similar depend- ency stretched out down the Licking valle}/ past Claylick, that no large lake occupied the valley at this point, and that the last cap- ture and reversal of drainage in the Newark valley was accom- plished before the invasion of the ice sheet. The glaciation of the region. The ice of the Illinoian glacial stage entered this region from the west, and its frontal position was that of an irregular line drawn north and south through Clay- lick. At the time of the ice-advance the region was maturely dissected and the topography had a great influence on the work of the glacier.® In the valleys, tongues of ice extended for some distance in front of the main lobe while on the highlands the advance was retarded. Valley trains of sands and gravels stretch down the stream channels away from the ice-front. It is quite difficult to map the exact limit of the ice as there are no topographic features, such as a terminal moraine, to help in the work, and because there was so much fluvio-glacial action which carried drift far beyond the edge of the ice. The valley terraces. Between Claylick and the Nariows, the Licking river has four tributaries which join it from the south; these are designated A, B, C and D (fig. i).® The first three of these streams flow in relatively broad valleys somewhat filled with drift. One of the most striking characteristics of these northward trending valleys is the persistent terrace which is found in each ^Carney: Bull. Set. Lah. Denison Univ., “The Glacial Dam at Hanover,” vol. xiii, pp. 139-153. 1907- ® Leverett: Loc. cit., p. 222. ® I am obligated to Mr. J. H. Jennings and to Mr. W. H. Herron, geographers of the U. S. Geological Survey, for an advance sketch of this portion of the Newark and Frazeysburg topographic sheets. Age of Licking Narrows 177 one. A detailed description of this feature in valley A will be typical of all three. Here the terrace is so persistent that it is impossible to climb from the stream bed to either divide without j crossing it. It has a down stream slope of six or eight feet to the I mile, but, as the gradient of the stream is several times as great, the top of the terrace is only fifteen feet above the bed of the brook , at the south, while it is thirty-five feet above it at the northern I end. The terrace is also slightly higher on the west than on the Fig. I. Map of the Licking Narrows area. From the Newark and Frazeysburg Quadrangles, advance sheets, U. S. Geological Survey. I east; the combination of these two gradients is such that the low- I est point in the terrace is just as high as the loNvest point in the ' valley wall, at K, I The terrace is composed of fine sands, clays, and gravels, and I varies in its composition in different places. At its northern end i a gully cut in it reveals a section consisting of clay interbedded I with fine loess-like sands. These sands are entirely free of gravels and have no distinct stratification or lamination. The clay beds are from two inches to nearly a foot in thickness and some of them 178 K. F. Mather are quite persistent, though they are seldom horizontal. The upper foot or foot and a half of the terrace is here composed of waterworked gravels and small bowlders of foreign rock, evidently of fluvio-glacial origin. A quarter of a mile farther up-stream, the terrace is thirty feet above the stream bed and here sands have been removed for mold- ing purposes. The surface is covered by rubble and debris up to sixteen feet above the stream bed, but above this point a good section is exposed. At the base (fig. 2) is a fine gray sand with an intricate crossbedded and laminated structure. Two feet higher the sand becomes yellowish and clayey; the length of the ripples is nearly double the length of those below and the sand is finer and retains its shape when molded in the hand. The fine laminae are accentuated by reddish, oxidized streaks, found only in this yellowish bed. This must mean that the oxidation took place during the deposition of the sand for only in that way could the lines of oxidation coincide with the lines of deposition. This deposit is five feet thick, and above it there is five feet of light yellow sand. The latter has occasional streaks of the gray sand found at the base of the section, but has nothing of the clayey char- acter of the sands directly beneath it. This bed is about the same in texture as that at the base and has the same stratification and lamination. The three beds of sand grade into each other, are loess-like, and contain only an occasional small pebble and no shells. The remaining three feet of the terrace above them con- sists of gravels quite sharply separated from the sands benearh by a nearly horizontal plane, and quite evidently of glacial or fluvio-glacial origin. Directly across the valley to the west of this section there is another place where sand has been carted away. The deposit here is similar to that in the upper and lower beds of the section just described. The cross-bedded structure is the same and its tendency to stand in vertical or even overhanging faces is also apparent. The upper surface of this deposit is ten to twelve feet above the surface of the terrace. It seems to fill the angle between the valley wall and the terrace surface and slopes upwards against the former. The whole deposit has the appearance of a fan spread- ing out from halfway up the valley wall and sloping down to the terrace level where it flattens out into the broad terrace. These fine sands in the composition of the terraces in the three N arrows m Age of Licking Fig. 2. Cross-bedded stratification of terrace in valley ‘^A,” near Claylick, Ohio. i8o K. F. Mather valleys are only found in a few localities and are not a general i feature of the terrace structure. As a rule the terraces are made | up of stratified and cross-bedded gravels, clays, and sands, alter- j nating locally with areas of unstratified gravels. They present all the appearance of fluvio-glacial deposits made in a ponded or very sluggish stream containing unstable currents overloaded with material from the melting ice. This same conclusion is reached in a consideration of a similar deposit at Andover, Mass.^ A photo- graph of the delta-plain material at that place presents an appear- j ance very similar to that described in these terraces. I! The terrace in valley A extends across the divide through the j channel K into valley B. Here the same persistent terrace is I found at a corresponding level. It sustains a similar relation to | the brook as does the terrace in the first valley except that here j there has been a little more erosion since its formation. This, | however, is not antagonistic to the idea that the two terraces were ; formed at the same time in the same body of water because trib- utary A has been held up by a rock barrier near its confluence with the Licking while stream B everj/where flows on a till floor. In valley C the same sort of a terrace, composed of similar mate- rials, is found on both sides of the valley. At first inspection it appeared to he about the same elevation as the terraces in the other two valleys but when the topographical map of the region was obtained it became evident that here there w^as a discrepancy. The elevation of the terraces in valleys A and B is 830 feet while that in valley C is only 810 feet above sea level. The necessity j of attributing these terraces to lacustrine deposition is here accen- j tuated by the fact that at the southern end of the valley, where two i smaller streams converge to form the tributary L, there are found | delta-like deposits at the mouths of each of the small brooks. These delta-fans are the result of deposition, at the time that the lake occupied the valley, of the material brought to the lake by these two small streams. I It was pointed out that these terraces all contained assorted | glacial drift, but in valley D no terrace nor glacial drift was dis- covered. This last valley, although younger and smaller than any of the three others, is of pre-glacial age. It is, also, broad enough to favor the formation and preservation of this same sort of ter- race if glacial waters had been ponded in it. F. S. Mills: American Geologist, vol. xxxii, pp. 162-170, 1903. Age of Licking Narrows From these facts it follows that the relation of the ice-sheet to the topography must have been such that the outflowing waters ; were ponded in valleys A and B at one level, in valley C at a dif- ferent level, and were not ponded at all in valley D. Old water channels. Three-fourths of a mile south of Claylick there is a broad sag (Channel K, fig. i) connecting valleys A and B at the level of the terraces described above. The terrace in valley A is slightly higher than that in valley and slopes gently eastward through this sag into the latter valley and is continuous with the terrace there. That this sag was the outlet of the lake in valley A at the time of the formation of the terrace system is evident. The cemetery of the town of Claylick is situated on the bench marked L (fig. i) and shown in the photograph (fig. 3). It must } have been carved out of the hill slope by the overflow of the lake ! in valley Ay which at some time evidently 'flowed across it. This I course must have been taken by the stream after its diversion from the sag Ky but before the complete withdrawal of the ice, whose front must have served as one side of the outflow channel at L, After the retreat of the ice sheet from that point the stream slipped off this bench and its course can be seen in a broad curve in the Fig. 3. Bench “LA near Claylick, Ohio. i82 K. F. Mather foreground of the photograph; this curve marks the level where it paused for a time in the relatively rapid cutting of its channel in the unconsolidated glacial drift. A diagrammatic profile of this bench is shown in fig. 4. Nearly a mile east of Claylick, at the point M, there is a much larger bench whose level coincides with that of the terrace in val- ley By and is five feet lower in elevation than the sag K. The ter- race can be traced around the valley, sloping gently from the sag to the bench. This bench was carved in the slope of the valley wall at this point, where there must have been a spur extending in a northwest direction into the valley. Almost in the center of Fig. 4. Diagrammatic profiles of abandoned stream channels near Claylick, Ohio. the bench a well has been sunk to a depth of sixty feet. It passes \^ through ten feet of sand and gravel before it reaches the underlying j : rock which outcrops on the hillslope adjoining the bench on the : east. At the western end of the bench there is a slight elevation 1 1 of two to three feet, formed by an outcropping knoll of the same bed-rock. This gives the bench a profile as shown in fig. 4. It is evident that at the time the terraces were formed the drain- age from valley B flowed across this bench, producing its present shape. To do this the lateral stream from the glacier must have been held against the valley wall by the front of the ice. Two miles east of Claylick, just at the entrance to the Licking Narrows, there are two more abandoned channels which were Age of Licking N arroius 183 carved by the glacial waters. (Channels N and P, fig. i.) Chan- nel N presents a profile as shown in the diagram, fig. 4. Its floor is continuous with the terrace on the adjacent valley slope and is covered with a thin deposit of sand and gravels, much water- I' worn, and underlain by the rock in place. That the tributary in valley C flowed through this channel at the time of the formation of the persistent terrace is quite evident. Since Pleistocene times it has reverted to its pre-glacial channel where it now flows on gravels ten feet below the level of the bed-rock in the old channel. Channel P, across the Licking, shows similar structure and history; the origin of the two channels must have been the same. The only explanation that satisfactorily accounts for the carving out of these channels on the slopes of hills is that the ice-front abutted against them and served as one of the valley walls until the stream was well established in its new course. The frontal limit of the ice sheet is, then, definitely located in these four places by the channels which resulted from its position. It is necessary, therefore, for us to postulate a valley dependency similar to, though smaller than, the one in the old Newark valley^ extending, as shown in fig. i, down the Licking valley until it was stopped by the steep slopes at the points M, JSf andP. Glacial bowlders have been found near the top of the hill just south of Claylick; this fact, combined with the small amount of cutting necessary to carve the bench at P, leads one to suppose that the I latter was covered by the advance of the ice and was formed dur- I ing a retreatal pause of the ice-front. The capture of the Licking. The hypothesis has been published that after the retreat of the ice the Licking Basin was closed and ! as the waters rose in Lake Licking they reached a low col in the j divide a little south of Hanover. The position of this col is rep- resented by the present Licking “Narrows.^’ ^ If this were the case I terraces would be found in all four tributary vallevs at the same i elevation, for they would all be parts of the same lake. As stated I above there is a marked discrepancy between the elevations of those in valleys B and C, while no terrace, or signs of a glacial I lake, is found in valley D. The phenomena of the region do not, f therefore, coincide with this hypothesis. I * Carney: loc. cit.^ p. 149. ' Tight : loc. cit.y p. 49. 184 K. F. Mather Moreover, the sag at K, the bench at M, and the channel at N* could not have been formed if the large valley had been occupied by a lake at that time. They must be the work of lateral drain- age between the front of the ice and the adjacent hill-sides. This stream, and the rest of the water from the melting ice must have had an unobstructed passage out of the valley, which, as has been shown, was occupied by the valley dependency. This outlet could only have been through the present Licking Narrows. This necessitates the placing of the capture of the Newark river by the Licking in pre-glacial times. Under this hypothesis the dilhculties at once vanish and all the phenomena of the region are satisfactorily accounted for. The tongue of ice occupying the larger valley would have formed a dam across the mouths of the tributaries J, B and C, and would have caused a lake to form in each of them. The connection across the sag K would have made the body of water continuous in valleys A and B and accounts for the correspondence between the elevations of the terraces in them. In valley C the water would probably stand at a different level and this corresponds with the observations of the heights of the present terraces. In fact, this is the only hypothesis that can correspond with the phenom- ena and account for two different lakes at different levels in val- leys B and C, and at the same time allow valley D to remain with- out fluvio-glacial deposits. The waters from the lake in valley A at first overflowed across the sag K into valley B. Here the water level rose until it reached the lowest place of exit, where the ice front abutted the flank of the hill at M. The channel was gradually cut down until it ( formed the present bench. The stream of glacial waters flowing along the face of the cliff from tributary B to valley L, between it 1 and the ice front, has left faint traces of the work of degradation in the slope of the profile. This stream, reinforced by the waters of the lake in tributary cut, at the point N, the same sort of a bench as now exists at M. The stream here was much stronger than at the latter place, and the channel was cut much deeper. When the stream at M reached the level of the present bench a slight retreat of the ice occurred. This opened up the channel at L and separated the lake of valley A from that of valley B. The waters of the former then flowed across the bench at that i| point and carved it in the same manner as that already described | -j Age of Licking Narrows 185 at M. This also accounts for the secondary level of terraces found in valley A at this elevation. At the same time the lateral drainage from the ice was concen- trated in a channel between the ice-front and the face of the steep hill due west of Claylick. This accounts for the steepening of the slope near the base of the hill as shown in fig. 5. The same slight retreat of the ice-front permitted the stream flowing over the bench at M to slip down off from it and occupy the natural channel Fig. 5. View looking west from Claylick, Ohio. The steepened slope near the base is due to marginal glacial drainage. between the glacier and the base of the slope; thus a similar steep- ening of the slope at this point was produced. The channel at before this oscillation, had become so firmly established that it retained its stream of water until the abnormal conditions due to the presence of the ice had been entirely dissipated. Then, a small stream working in the soft gravels, north of the outlier pro- duced hy N j captured and deflected the creek from its rock chan- nel. This piracy can still be traced in detail in the former courses of the creek and its small branches. i86 K. F. Mather Across the valley northeast of Claylick, the steepening of the base of the southern slope of the hills is indicative of similar glacial stream action between the ice-front and the valley wall. The village of Hanover is in a valley which, at the maximum extension of the ice, must have been occupied by a glacial lake, as shown by the terraces found here at an elevation of 800 feet. This lake was held up by the ice of two dependencies of the main sheet, one at either end of the valley. Its overflow and sub- sequent drainage conditions account for the channel at Py now occupied by the traction line and the old canal; this channel is similar in every way to the one at Af, already described, and must have had a similar history. j4n alternate hypothesis. It has been hypothecated that when the glacier advanced into the valley past Claylick the ice-front drainage would have had unusual erosive powers and might have channelled the divide area so rapidly that a lake condition did not exist long. It, however, is not conceivable that an ice-front stream would have been strong enough to cut a channel in the Black Hand formation a mile and a half long across a ninety foot divide without necessitating the ponding of th^. stream be- tween the ice-front and the crest of the divide. The large amount of cutting necessary in the development of this channel, therefore, precludes the possibility of its having been made during the ad- vance of the ice into the valley. The cause of the capture and reversal. The capture of the west- flowing drainage by the east-flowing Licking immediately pre- ceding the glaciation of this region — perhaps in the earliest stages of the Pleistocene period — is not discordant with our knowledge of conditions at that time. The close of the Pliocene is looked upon as a time of crustal movement, a critical period in the history of North America, Streams were turned from their courses in some places and nearly everywhere started on careers of increased activity.^® A slight differential tilting would have caused the Mus- kingum and its tributaries to increase their valley cutting, and the reversal of drainage would have followed as the result of stream adjustment. The gorge of the Narrows is located at one side of a broad open valley having a lateral extension to the north of the crest of the gorge walls; this mature valley, at this point, was cut Chamberlin and Salisbury: Geology^ vol. iii, p. 316, 1906. Age of Licking Narrows 187 down to the surface of the Black Hand formation, and it seems likely that its stream was flowing at this level when its action was increased by the tilting, probably near the close of the Pliocene, and the gorge started to develop in the bottom of the valley. As soon as this gorge had been cut back to where it could tap a trib- utary of the west-flowing drainage system, stream reversal com- menced in the Scioto system. This was a slow process, and how far it had reached before the ice invasion is not known. The difficulties of working out these details are many, because the changes were greatly complicated by glaciation which soon fol- lowed the adjustments started by the differential tilting. These discrepancies between the phenomena of the region and the hypothesis that the reversal of drainage was due to glaciation, together with the accordance of the phenomena with the theorv of pre-glacial capture due to differential tilting, lead us to the con- clusion that the Licking Narrows at Black Hand, Ohio, are of pre-glacial age. Geological Department, Denison University, December, 1908 BULLETIN OF THE Scientific Laboratories OF . DENISON UNIVERSITY Volume XIV Articles 11-16 Pages 189-287 EDITED BY FRANK CARNEY Perijianent Secretary Denison Scientific Association 11. 12. 13- ^5- A Spectrometer for Electromagnetic Radiation. By A. D. Cole...... 189 The Development of the Idea of Glacial Erosion in America. By F. Carney , i ■ .... . ..... . . . • k- • • • • • • •> • • • • • • • • 199 Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian Fossils. By Aug. F. Foerste. . . . . . .209 Notes on Spondylomorum Quaternarium Ehrenb. By M. E. Stickney. . .231 The Reaction to Tactile Stimuli and the Development of the Swimming Movement in Embryos of Diemyctylus torsus, Eschscholtz. By G. E. Coghill . V ...... . ..... . ..... . . . ... . .239 The Raised Beaches of the Berea, Cleveland;, and Euclid Sheets, Ohio. By F. Carney .... . ...... . s . . . . .. ... . . . . .240 GRANVILLE, OHIO, JUNE, 1909 WAVERLY PRESS BALTIMORE A SPECTROMETER FOR ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION.^ A. D. Cole At various times for some years the author has carried on experi- mental studies of electric radiation, measuring the amounts reflected, transmitted, absorbed, refracted and diffracted under diff'erent conditions.^ For these purposes the separate pieces of apparatus were brought into suitable relation to one another by temporary mountings, somewhat deficient in accuracy and in con- venience. Such makeshift arrangements have been common with most workers in this field. This is perhaps due to the influence of the classic pioneer work of Hertz^ in 1888. In his case such arrangements were necessary because the long wave-lengths he used required apparatus of large size, which was, therefore, heavy and inconvenient. So its different parts were mounted and moved as separate units. Righi,^ however in the early nineties showed how it is possible to obtain strong electrical radiation whose wave- length does not exceed a few centimeters, so that it then became possible to use apparatus of much more convenient dimensions. There was a three-fold reason for the design of the apparatus about to be described. The first was the need of a more compact and easily adjustable mounting for the various pieces of apparatus used in continuing a research on diffraction phenomena, upon which a preliminary report was presented at the New York meet- ing of the A.A.A.S. The second reason was the desire to have a compact arrangement by means of which advanced students could repeat the experiments of Hertz, Righi, Boltzmann and others. ^ Read before A.A.A.S., Section B. and the American Physical Society, Decem- ber 31, 1908. ^ A. D. Cole, Wied. Ann.., vol. 57, p. 290, ’96 — Phys. Rev., 4, p. 50 ’96- Elec. World, September, "96. Phys. Rev., 7, p. 225; ibid., 20, p. 268, ’05 ibid., 23, p. 238, ’06. ® H. Hertz, Wied Ann., 36, p. 769, or Phil. Mag., 5, 27, p. 369. ^ A. Righi, Rend. Lincei. 1893. p. 333. 190 A. D. Cole A Spectrometer for Electromagnetic Radiation 191 The third object was to secure the means of demonstrating the optical analogies of electric waves as completely and rapidly as pos- sible in the lecture room. It seemed that all three of these objects would be best attained by the use of a mounting for the several parts of the wave appara- tus similar to a laboratory spectrometer for light. Such a design has indeed been used by Righi.“ His apparatus, however, was only roughly quantitative and its indications could be seen by but a single observer at once. Furthermore, it was clumsy and lacked rigidity. In the present design, an attempt has been made to secure a form sufficiently elastic to adapt it to a wider variety of uses than that of either Hertz, Righi or Lodge,® and so develop very com- pletely the analogy bet een electrical radiation and light. The apparatus consists of a suitable mounting for an exciter or generator of electrical waves and a similar mounting for the receiver. Each of these is supported by a moveable arm, swing- ing horizontally about a common vertical axis which is also the axis of a revolving central table. Upon this a prism, grating, diffraction slit or other optical device can be placed. The exciter and receiver are as a rule each mounted in the focal axis of a cylindrical parabolic mirror, as in the original experiments of Hertz. Either or both of these converging mirrors however can be replaced by a cylindrical lens. An ordinary 5-lb. acid bottle I filled with kerosene, benzine or gasoline makes a satisfactory con- - centrating lens. If the exciter is placed about 1.5 cm. behind it, 1 the conditions for a ‘‘parallel beam” are secured. The illustra- 1 tion, (fig. i) shows the exciter mounted at E behind the lens L and the receiver R (enclosed in a small pasteboard box) at the focus of the parabolic mirror M. A prism P is placed upon the revolv- ing table T so as to receive the radiation concentrated by E and refract it to the receiver. The exciter is shown only diagram- matically in the figure. It is a modified Righi exciter consisting of I two small cylinders with rounded ends, separated by an oil-filled ^ spark-gap. A continuous flow of kerosene oil passes through this I spark-gap. This exciter has been described by the author in , Phys. Rev., vol. 23, p. 241, (Sept., ’06). [Some features of it have I ® A. Righi, Die Optik der Electrischen Schwtngungen, p. 9. ® O. Lodge, The Work of Hertz and Some of His Successors, p. 33. 192 A. D. Cole been described more fully in an earlier paper in the same journal, Phys. Rev., voL 7, p. 226 (Nov., ’98)]. The receiver used is a Klemencic thermo-junction made of fine iron and Constantin wires. An early form is described in Phys. Rev., vol. 4, p. 54 (July ’96) and the form lately used in Phys'. Rev. ,yo\. 20, ^.26"^ (Apriro5). This receiver is used in connection with a low-resistance Kelvin galvanometer of fairly high sensitiveness. The receiver is tuned to the period of the exciter by use of little sliding tubes as described in Phys. Rev., 20, p. 269. Hertz used a receiver whose natural period was longer than that of his exciter and Righi one of shorter period than that of his exciter, but there are some advantages in having both of the same period. To avoid confusion in the figure, some details of the apparatus are not shown. For instance, each of the parabolic mirrors is actually mounted so that it may be revolved about a horizontal axis aR. Thus the focal axis of each can be made horizontal or vertical, or may be set at any desired angle to that of the other, the angular position of each being read on its graduated circle. A third graduated arc G shows the angle which the two revolving arms, carrying exciter and receiver, make with each other. A fourth graduated circle T shows the angle through which the prism table is turned. To keep the apparatus of convenient dimensions a wave-length of 10 to 15 cm. is used. This enables good results to be obtained with apparatus of moderate dimensions. For example, the aper- ture of the parabolic mirrors is about 35 X 33 cm., the two revol- ving arms are one 100 cm. and the other 120 cm., the prism-table 26 cm. in diameter, prism and lenses 22 cm. high, plane mirrors 30 cm., square, etc. In contrast with these dimensions Hertz’s mirrors were of 200 X 120 cm. aperture, his gratings and his smallest plane mirror each 200 X 200 cm.; his prism was 150 cm. high and weighed more than 1300 pounds. To illustrate the use of the apparatus a brief account follows of the method of performing some of the classic experiments of Hertz and others who have since brought the optical analogies of electrical radiation to convincing completeness, (i) Proof of the existence of stationary waves by interference of direct radiation with that reflected by a plane surface. The disposition of apparatus is shown in Fig. 2 a. The exciter E, mounted in its cylindrical mirror, radiates toward the receiver R and the plane mirror M A Spectrometer for Electromagnetic Radiation 193 placed immediately behind it. The radiation directly received at R interferes with that reflected from M. By shifting M back about 2 cm. at a time the phase relation of the two waves is changed and a system of nodes and loops obtained. In Hertz’s original experi- ment a mirror 13 feet high was used; with our apparatus we com- monly use one about one foot square. Fig. 3 shows the results of such an experiment with a mirror only 4 inches square. Distances of the plane mirror behind the receiver are plotted as abcissae and the corresponding galvanometer deflections as ordinates. Two maxima and minima are well shown. With a mirror i foot square 3 maxima and 4 minima appear. (See Phys. Rev.,yo\. 23, p. 244.) The use of a thermojunction receiver (whose indications are proportional to the energy received) shows the rate of damping- out of the stationary waves, as well as the position of the nodes. 194 A. D. Cole (2) Rectilinear Propagation. (Cf. Wertz, Ausbreitung der elec- trischen Kraft, p. 189). For this experiment the two revolving arms are brought into the same straight line^ and exciter and receiver placed about i meter apart. A metallic screen having about the dimensions of the aperture of the parabolic mirrors — say 35 cm. square — is placed upon the central table midway between tFem. The effect on the leceiver is thus almost entirely A Spectrometer for Electromagnetic Radiation 195 I cut ofFj but only when the screen center is on the straight line connecting exciter and receiver. Ordinary sheet zinc is used I for the screen. I (3) Polarization, In place of Hertzes huge polarization grating of parallel wires, we use a piece of cardboard, 35 cm. square, pro- vided with parallel strips of tinfoil, each 2 mm. wide and i cm. apart. (4) Reflection. Hertzes experiment showing the equality of the angles of incidence and reflection by a plane mirror, is readily repeated with the 35 cm. square sheet of zinc used in 2. The arrangement of apparatus is shown diagrammaticaliy in fig. 2, h. (5) Refraction. This is illustrated already in the action of the 'Tottle lens.’’ Its efficiency in concentrating the radiation is easily shown by removing it in such an experiment as the last named. The eff*ect on the receiver immediately falls to about one- fifth that before obtained. The experiment which Hertz performed with his gigantic ijoo-lb. prism of street asphalt we have repeated, first with a hollow prism made of window glass having faces about .15 X 20 cm. and refracting angle 30°, filled with resin-oil. When water or alcohol is placed in the hollow prism, no measurable fraction passes through. Another larger prism of solid resin, with 30° angle and faces 25 cm. square, was later constructed and gave good results; showing a deviation of about 18°. This prism has become broken, and one of a less brittle material, hard paraffine, is being made to take its place. (6) Interference of Two Reflected Waves. This famous experi- ment of Boltzmann is readily performed. The necessary arrange- , ment of apparatus is shown in fig. 2, c. In this case two mirrors j M and are used. At first both are in the same plane and act i as one large mirror, reflecting the radiation received from E to the I receiver at R. Then is shifted back a few centimeters at a I time and readings taken for each position. A figure showing the j interference curve for this case was shown in the paper in Phys. Rev., vol. 20, p. 271, and is reproduced here as fig. 4. (7) Refractive Index hy Interposed-plate Method. By inserting a plate of dielectric material in the path of one of the interfering I beams in the last experiment, the position of nodes and loops will be shifted because the radiation moves with diminished velocity in the dielectric medium. From the amount of this displacement the refractive index is readily calculated. We have used paraffine 196 A. D. Cole I' I A Spectrometer for Electromagnetic Radiation 197 plates for this experiment. Fig. 5 shows the displacement of the first two maxima caused by the insertion of a plate of paraffine 5, 3 cm. thick. From this curve it appears that the first maximum is shifted 2.9 cm. and the second 2.7 or a mean of 2.8 cm. Then the refractive index ^ = I,ir6 5-3 ^ Another similar experiment gave ^ mean 1.52 (8) Diffraction Phenomena. A variety of diffraction effects can be shown with such an apparatus, such as the spreading of the radiation after passing through a narrow aperture, the reflection of a larger amount of energy to a given receiver by a small plane mirror than by a considerably larger one diffraction bands by the use of a slit opening having a width suitably related to the wave-length employed, etc. Fig. 6 shows the first two ‘Tright bands” with the intervening ‘Mark band” obtained by the use of a slit, 17.6 cm. wide, interposed between exciter and receiver. In such experiments the receiver must be used without its usual 198 A. D. Cole converging mirror or lens. It is admissible, however, to use a narrow metal strip placed one-quarter wave-length behind it as suggested by Righi in his book. We have used a narrow strip of sheet metal about 1.5 cm. wide. In fig. 6 abscissas give the angle in degrees through which the revolving receiver-arm was rotated from its central position and the ordinates the corresponding galvanometer deflection. (9) A mount of Reflected Energy Depended upon the Angle between Plane of Incidence and that of Vibration. By revolving the cylin- drical mirrors containing exciter and receiver, the proportion of radiation reflected by a surface of liquid is shown to be different with exciter and receiver in the relation shown in Fig. 2, from that obtained in the position shown in Fig. 2, e. With water and an incident angle of 45° these ratios of reflected to incident energy are shown to be quite accurately such as are calculated from FresneFs well-known formulas for reflection of polarized light, taking 8.95 as the refractive index of water for electric waves. With alcohol the application of these formulae to the results of a reflection experiment show a refractive index smaller than that found for longer waves. By this means anomalous dispersion for electric waves was discovered,® a discovery independently made by Drude a little later by an entirely different method.*^ It is believed that the spectrometer form of mounting here described considerably facilitates the repetition of such classical experiments as are here described, strengthens the force of the optical analogies, and provides a suitable means for new research work. Ohio State University. April 28, 1909. ' H. Hertz, fVied. Ann., 34, p. 610, ’88. ^ A. D. Cole, Wied. Ann., 57, p. 310, ’96. ^ P. Drude, tVied. Ann., 58, p. i, 4, 18, ’96. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IDEA OF GLACIAL EROSION IN AMERICA. FRANK CARNEY. 1899 A. P. Brigham G. K. Gilbert 1900 W. M. Davis 1904 G. K. Gilbert 1905 H. L. Fairchild 1906 R. S. Tarr W. M. Davis 1907 R. S. Tarr 1908 R.S.Tarr Conclusion INTRODUCTION. In this paper I give some brief citations, chronologically arranged, from such- contributions of American students as represent a field study of glacial erosion, particularly in valleys; no attempt is made to trace the development of the cirque idea, or that of rock basins in mountainous areas. The literature contains numerous references, both incidental and extended, to the tendency of glacier ice to carve valleys; but until within the last decade these were disconnected observations representing, with few exceptions, local field experience if any at all, and in no individual case sup- plying data that could be correlated into convincing proof. Pro- fessor Davis summarized much of this literature up to 1882, giv- ing many citations to show the development of the subject.^ What glacier ice, of either the Alpine or continental types, may have done in altering the surface it moved over has long been a matter of interest, sometimes disputatious interest; but the litera- ^ W. M. Davis, “Glacial Erosion,” Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History^ vol. xxii, pp. 19-58, 1882. In the preceding volume of the Proceedings^ PP- 336-45, Professor Davis gives a historical review of “The theory of the glacial origin of lakes.” In vol. xxix, 1900, pp. 310-20, he reviews the “Previous writings on hanging valleys.” Introduction 1873 J. Leconte 1878 C. King 1882 W. M. Davis 1883 T. C. Chamberlin 1892 D. F. Lincoln 1893 A. P. Brigham 1894 R. S. Tarr W. J.M’Gee 1898 H. Gannett 200 Frank Carney ture has generally grown less polemical with the increase of field ji knowledge. At the present time the belief in glacial erosion, | locally even profound erosion, is almost universal. It is many years since attention was first directed to the deepen- 1 ing of valleys as an evidence of glaciation. But for a long time no convincing proof was adduced. Perhaps the earliest observa- j tion approximating proof, and even this was not credited by many [| geologists, was King’s description^ of certain Cordilleran valleys '! which, passing downstream, change from a U-profile, ice-carved, to a V-profile, water-made. An appreciation of the distinction | between the ice-modified and the water-made valley was of slow j development. McGee^ in 1883 briefly mentioned the relation- || ship produced when ice makes a major valley wider, thus removing |i the terminal part of a tributary; but this intimation of the ‘‘hang- j ing valley” condition apparently did not fix an impression in the i| minds of glacialists. In 1887 Russell gave a very accurate descrip- [ tion of this relationship, but concluded that “the great inequality I in the depth of the main glacial troughs and of their lateral bran- ! ches is too great a work to be ascribed to the erosive power of I ice.”^ The first description of an ice-produced discordance be- | tween a major and its tributary valley, given in sufficient detail i and explicitness to merit acceptance, is that of Tarr in his “Lake Cayuga, a Rock Basin. 1 i 1873 J. LECONTE. I Leconte says the fact that the Yosemite and other similar canons ll in the Sierra Nevada “have been occupied by glaciers, makes it [l almost certain that they have been formed by this agency.” “I | must believe that all these deep perpendicular slots have been | sawn out by the action of glaciers. ”® ! i ^ Geological Exploration of the Fortieth Parallel, vol. i, p. 478, 1^73’ | ^ W. J. McGee, Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement j| of Science, p. 238, 1883, |, ^ 1. Russell, U. S. Geological Survey, Eighth A nnual Report, part i, p. 352, 1889. ji ° Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. v, pp. 339-5^) 1894. ® Quoted from Davis, Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, vol. j xxii, p. 46, 1882. Leconte’s statement appeared in American Journal of Science, |j vol. V, p. 339, 1873. The Idea of Glacial Erosion in America 201 1878 — CLARENCE KING. One of King’s conclusions from his study of glaciation in the Cor- dillferan section of the Fortieth Parallel Survey is the following: “There is not a particle of direct evidence, so far as I can see, to warrant the belief that these U-shaped canons were given their peculiar form by other means than the actual ploughing erosion of glaciers; nor do the objections to this belief advanced by cer- tain observers, based upon the moderate amount of detritus trans- ported by the existing glacier-streams of the Alps, seem to be worthy of serious consideration, since the Alpine glaciers of the present day are at the best but the shrunken relics of the former system; and with vastly greater accumulation of snow in the ice period there is every reason to believe that the thickness, move- ment, and energy of the glacier must have been much greater, and that its power of abrasion would be correspondingly increased. 1882 — W. M. DAVIS. In connection with Davis’s arrangement of the evidence for and against glacial erosion, he makes the following comments: “It must be granted that the ice itself will suffer when pressed on its bed, and in spite of its long action will fail to produce much erosive change. “No sufficient reason has been given to show why the glaciers of the Italian slope of the Alps should be suddenly endowed near their ends with erosive power sufficient to cut out lakes 1000 to 2000 feet deep, while a little farther up stream their valleys were but slightly modified, as Ramsey himself claims.”® Professor Davis has since studied one of these valleys, and became convinced that ice had modified it; his discussion of ice- erosion in the Ticino valley, to be referred to later, is one of the great contributions to the subject.^® ’ Loc. cii., p. 483. ® Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, voL xxii, p. 28. « Ihid., p. 53-54. Appalachia, “Glacial Erosion in the Valley of the Ticino,” vol. ix, pp. 136-56, 1900. 202 Frank Carney | 1883— T. C. CHAMBERLIN. The following statement is probably the first characterization i of ice-work in the Finger lake region by a man of wide study and field experience in glacial geology: ! ‘‘That these troughs were the preglacial channels of streams i does not seem to me to admit of reasonable doubt; but that there ' was a selection and moulding by glacial corrasion seems equally | clear; those channels that lay in the directions that would have ; been pursued had the ice moved on a uniform floor, being ground I out wider, deeper, straighter, and smoother, while those in trans- verse directions were measurably filled and obscured. I 1892 — D. F. LINCOLN. [| After describing the surface features especially about Seneca | and Cayuga lakes, he concludes: “The inference from these ; considerations is that the preglacial river which has been devel- i oped into Seneca lake must have occupied a level many hundreds | of feet above the present bed of the lake. i Following a descripiton of some valleys tributary to the Seneca valley, he says : “ If these valleys, or any of them, had a preglacial , existence and a rational connection with the lake valley, it would | seem necessary to suppose that the bed of the latter then stood at an elevation 800 ( .^) feet higher than at present. | 1893 — A. P. BRIGHAM. i Following a discussion of the Finger lakes, Brigham thus sum- marizes their origin: “To review briefly we suppose the basins | to be a composite resultant of valley erosion, glacial scoop and i drift barriers, with perhaps a slight element of orography. 1894 — R. S. TARR. ! In a paper presented to the Geological Society of America in i 1893, Tarr discusses the origin of the Finger lakes, particularly I U. S. Geological Survey, Third Annual Report, p. 358. j American Journal of Science, vol. xliv, p. 299. ' Ibid., p. 300. ji Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Yo\.xxw,p. 16. The Idea of Glacial Erosion in America 203 the evidence of vigorous erosion in Cayuga valley. “In the Finger lake region the ice, moving from the north^vard, after entering the valley occupied by Lake Ontario, found its progress interfered with by the rising New York-Pennsylvanian plateau. Naturally the north-and-south valleys furnished lines of easiest escape, and naturally, also, the ice motion was here more power- ful and the ice deeper. That the latter was true is proved by the fact that, even without the added depth due to ice erosion, these valleys were, at the beginning of the glacial invasion, at least 700 or 800 feet below the general upland level. This increase in thickness means, other things being favorable, an increase of erosive power. Tarr also gives detailed evidence showing the discordance of two valleys tributary to Cayuga valley; concerning one of these. Six-mile creek, he makes the following statement: “The north- and-south valley of Lake Cayuga is several hundred feet below it, and its depth has without question been caused by glacial erosion.’’^® 1894 — w. j. m’gee. After listing the characteristics of “glacial canons,” he says* “It follows that these features do not necessarily imply extensive glacial excavation or indicate that glaciers are superlatively ener- getic engines of erosion.”^' 1898 — H. GANNETT. Following a very complete description of glaciation in Lake Chelan valley, Gannett thus concludes: “There are therefore ‘ certain characteristics by which the gorge produced by glacial erosion may be distinguished from that produced by aqueous erosion. The glacial gorge has the shape of the capital letter U, while the water-worn gorge is a V-shaped notch. In a glacial gorge the spurs separating the tributaries have their ends blunted or planed off, while in a water-worn gorge they are sharp and angular. In a glacial gorge the tributaries enter the valley above its level, while in a water-worn gorge they commonly grade down 15 16 17 Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. v, p. 351. Ibid., p. 350. Journal of Geology, vol. ii, p. 364. 204 Frank Carney to its level. A glacial gorge has an amphitheater at its head; a water-worn gorge has not.’’^® 1899 — A. P. BRIGHAM. In an abstract of Brigham’s paper “Glacial Erosion in the Aar valley” is this: “Below the lower Aar glacier, on the south side, a stream descends over the steep cliff face, carrying the waters of the upper Aar glacier. The lateral valley enters its principal i some hundreds of feet above the floor of the latter, and thus is a typical case of the hanging valley Similar hanging il valleys enter from east and west at Innertkirchen. j So far as I have been able to learn, this is the first published i recognition by an American of “ hanging valleys ” in other lands. | 1899 — G. K. GILBERT. !' In the discussion of Brigham’s paper, Gilbert is reported thus: “He had been greatly impressed, years ago, by the magnitude of the glacial excavation indicated by such phenomena in the high I Sierra, and last summer had found the coast of Alaska replete with similar evidence. After sailing for weeks through Alaskan fiords and observing scores of hanging valleys, he had come to i regard their occurrence as diagnostic of the former extent of glacia- tion, and had used them with confidence as criteria for the dis- || crimination of glaciated districts. | ji 1900— W. M. DAVIS ij ji In discussing the “ hanging valleys ” of the Ticino he says : “ The j| persistent association of this discordance with valleys that have f been strongly glaciated points so conclusively to glacial erosion as its explanation that the doubts which I had long felt as to the ability of ice to erode deep valleys and basins — doubts which were not altogether dispelled by the arguments adduced j by many glacialists regarding the U-shaped cross-section of ice- j worn valleys, and by the form and distribution of lake basins — | National Geographic Magazine^ “Lake Chelan,” vol. ix, p. 422. ^ Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. xi, p. 590. j Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. xi, p. 591, 1900. | The Idea of Glacial Erosion in America 205 were completely removed, and I came home with perhaps an over-ardent belief in the competence of glacial erosion, as is often the habit of the newly converted/’ Up to this time Davis had maintained a very conservative atti- tude when discussing glacial erosion; this conservatism appeared first in his ‘‘Basins of Glacial Erosion, and was explained in greater detail in later papers/^ 1904 — G. K. GILBERT. Gilbert’s studies in Alaska, on which was based his discussion of Brigham’s paper at the Geological Society’s meeting in 1899, were not published till this date. The following extracts make clear Gilbert’s views on glacial erosion; his paper is one of the best con- tributions to the subject: ^‘The hanging valley is especially significant in two lines of physiographic interpretation. It is a conspicuous earmark of the former presence of glaciers; and it helps to a conception of the magnitude of Pleistocene glacial erosion. ‘^The value of an earmark depends on the principle of exclusion: glaciation is the only physiographic process known to produce such forms. After discussing other processes that may result in mild cases of discordance between the grades of major and tributary streams, Gilbert says: ‘‘But despite all qualifications the hanging valley is the most important witness yet discovered to the magnitude of the work accomplished by the alpine glaciers of the Pleistocene.”^® 1905 — H. L. FAIRCHILD. . That there is not complete unanimity in the interpretations based on field evidence is shown by the following which refers more particularly to the Finger lake valleys of New York: Appalachia, vol. ix, p. 139. Proceedings of the Boston Society of N atural History, vol. xxi, January, ‘‘On the Classification of Lake Basins,” pp. 336-44, 1882. Ibid., vol. xxii. May, 1882, “Glacial Erosion,” pp. 19-58. U. S. Geological Survey, i8th Annual Report, part ii, “Glacial Modification of Form and Drainage,” pp. 179-B1, 1898. Harriman Alaska Expedition, “Alaska,” vol. iii, “Glaciers and Glaciation,” p. I15. ^'Hhid.,^.ii6. Ibid., p. 1 18. 2o6 Frank Carney ‘‘The most that can be reasonably claimed for ice-work is that it smoothed off the intervalley ridges and also the valley sides. The valleys are stream valleys, like valleys everywhere, and only slightly modified by ice action.” “Let us hope that assertions of the glacial origin or deepening of the Finger lake valleys (or any other valleys) will cease, and that former statements to that effect will be corrected. 1906 — R. S. TARR. In discussing erosion in the Seneca valley, he says: “In this valley there is a general condition of remarkably perfect, broad, mature tributary valleys hanging several hundred feet above the lake level, at about the 900-foot contour. They are truncated by the straight, smooth, lower steepened slope of the main valley, so that they stand out prominently ,with open mouths, clearly discord- ant with the main valley, and about 1500 feet above the rock floor of the Seneca valley at Watkins. “When the hanging valleys of the Finger lake region were first recognized, and ice erosion proposed in explanation of them and of the main lake valleys, there were few who accepted the conclusion advanced; but now the great majority of American physiographers accept the ice erosion explanation for this region, as well as for others. 1906 — W. M. DAVIS. In connection with a discussion of “The present condition of the problem of glacial erosion,” Davis states: “It has thus come to be believed by a number of observers that the glacial erosion of Piedmont lake basins must be extended to the over-deepening of the main mountain valleys far upstream from the lakes, and that the retrogressive glacial erosion of cirques carries with it the sap- ping and sharpening of the culminating ridges and peaks. The last named effect is truly not the direct work of ice, but it is so closely dependent upon glacial erosion that it should be included Bulletin of the American Geological Society^ vol. xvi, “Ice Erosion Theory ^ Fallacy,” p. 65. “Glacial Erosion in the Finger Lake Region,” Journal of Geology, vol. xiv, p. 19. D. F. Lincoln, American Journal of Science, vol. xlix, pp. 290-93, 1892. R. S. Tarr, Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, vol. v, pp. 339-56, 1894. The Popular Science Monthly, voL Ixix, p. 391 The Idea of Glacial Erosion in America 207 in any discussion of the sculpture of mountains by glacial agencies; just as the wearing of slopes and ridges by the weather goes with the erosion of valley bottoms by rivers. 1907 — R. S. TARR. After a very detailed description of conditions observed in Alaska, concerning hanging valleys he says: “It is also true that this phenomenon is practically confined to regions of former glacia- tion. Together with the U-shaped valley, truncated spurs, and steepened main valley slopes, the condition of hanging valleys is reported not only from a wide area in Alaska and British Col- umbia, but in such other regions of former glaciation as the Sierra Nevada, the Rocky Mountains, the Finger lake valleys of central New York, the coast of Norway, the Alps, the Himalayas, and New Zealand. 1908. Following a field study of glaciation in Scotland, Tarr’s con- clusions are illustrated thus: “Loch Ness is quite like one of the Alaskan “canals.” It is remarkably straight, has perfect truncated spurs, numerous hang- ing valleys and many waterfalls along its shores. The height of the hanging valleys above the lake bed varies greatly and seems to be proportioned to the size of the valley as one would expect.” “The measure of glacial erosion in many instances is hundreds of feet and in places perhaps as much as a thousand feet, thus being comparable to the erosive activity of the Alaskan glaciers and the continental glaciers in the Finger lake region of central New York.” CONCLUSION. The above quotations characterize the development of the idea of glacial erosion in this counrty; the list might be increased for many of the years as well as for the intervening periods. My aim has been to call attention only to the writings of men who have studied the subject most widely in the field. The Scottish Geographical Magazine^ vol. xxii, “The Sculpture of Mountains by Glaciers,” p. i. “Glacial Erosion in Alaska,” The Popular Science Monthly^ vol. Ixx, p. 113. 2o8 Frank Carney It is observed (i) that the present day idea of the amount of glacial erosion does not differ much from estimates written thirty years ago; (2) that the method of, and the several lines of evidence of, ice-work were slowly understood and analyzed; and (3) that the most convincing evidence of deep valley erosion, the hanging valley, was described fifteen years ago, while the truncated spur characteristic was later recognized. Geological Department Denison University February, 1909 PRELIMINARY NOTES ON CINCINNATIAN FOSSILS. Aug. F. Foerste. The attempt to identify all the fossils found in Cincinnatian areas with the forms already described by various American and European writers has the disadvantage that it fails to account for the numerous varieties which may be distinguished when forms from different faunal provinces and from different horizons are subjected to more exact study. For purposes of stratigraphical studies the recognition of these varieties often is of the greatest value. In the following notes attention is called to a number of these varieties. Some of these appear to be sufficiently distinct to warrant their designation as species. The following table, indicating the classification of the Cincin- natian strata in Ohio, now in use, will be of service in determining the vertical distribution of these fossils: Formations. Richmond Maysville Eden Utica Cynthiana Beds. Elkhorn Whitewater < Liberty Waynesville Arnheim Mount Auburn Corryville - Bellevue Fairmount Mount Hope f McMicken the specific equivalency of the two specimens. From this it i follows that Brachiospongia Icbvis has a suborbicular osculum, campanulate below. The number of arms probably varies as in Brachiospongia digitata. The absence of geniculation probably is a specific characteristic. The arms of the specimen from Madison county are much longer, but this may be due to better preservation. Dystactospongia madisonensis, sp. nov. {Plate IX, Figs, i, 5.) Sponge massive, irregularly lobate; the lobes in one specimen attain a length of lo© or more millimeters, with a diameter of | ' about 40 millimeters. The surface of these lobes may be com- ' paratively even or slight!)/ nodose. Sometimes one of the lobes is traversed vertically by a broad groove, probably a case of incipient lobation. In the central parts of the sponge, the fibers appear to anastomose so as to produce an irregular net-work, but toward the surface a series of vertical passages results. These passages vary from 4 to 7 millimeters in length, are perpendicular to the surface, are about half a millimeter in diameter, and are separated by coenenchym having about the same thickness. The openings at the surface are irregular, the larger ones frequently attaining a width of one millimeter, between which the smaller openings are interspersed. In the specimen from the vicinity of Versailles, oscula between 1.5 and 2 millimeters in diameter, and from 7 to 14 millimeters apart, are present. In other specimens, oscula were not noticed. In the specimen from Madison, this coarser sponge structure appears to be covered by a thin film without apertures but with numerous irregular elevations as in some specimens referred to Lahechta. For the present this is regarded as a para- sitic stromatoporoid growth. Geological position. Lower part of the Saluda bed. Along Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 303 the Hanging Rock road, at Madison, Indiana, a specimen was found about 7 feet above the chief Columnaria bed, in sandy layers, associated with Rhynchotrema capax, Strophomena sulcata and Streptelasma. Two specimens were found a little over two miles south of Versailles, Indiana, opposite the home of Porter Harper, 65 feet below the base of the Clinton, immediately below the Tetradium horizon, in strata regarded as forming the base of the Saluda bed. Several specimens were found also a mile and a half northeast of Osgood, Indiana, in the lower part of the Tetra- dium minus bed, associated with numerous specimens of Colum- naria alveolata, some of Calapcecia cribriformis, and the same forms of Byssonychia as those found in the T etradium layer oppo- site the home of Porter Harper. Heterospongia, sp. {Plate IX, Fig. 2.) The distinguishing features of Heterospongia knotti are the presence of oscula, scattered over the surface at intervals of 8 to 20 millimeters, and the relatively small apertures between the meshes of sponge fibers, about 6 to 8 in a length of 5 millimeters. These apertures tend to be rounded instead of roughly angular. In other respects this species closely resembles Heterospongia suhramosa, a much more common species. The specimen here figured appears to have poor indications of oscula and appears more closely related to Heterospongia knotti than to ILeterospongia suhramosa. It was found southeast of Lebanon, Kentucky. The types of Heterospongia knotti were found near Lebanon, Kentucky, but their exact horizon has not been determined. Heterospongia is found here both in the Liberty bed and in the upper part of the Maysville formation, in strata belonging below the Dinorthis carleyi horizon. All of the specimen found in situ belonged to the species Heterospongia suhramosa. Pasceolus darwini, Miller. {Plate VIII, Fig. I, A, B.) Body spherical, consisting of a covering of polygonal plates, chieflj/ hexagonal, surrounding a body cavity at present filled with 304 Aug. F. Foerste argillaceous rock within which no structure has been discovered. The plates usually are not preserved, so that the fossil usually consists of a structureless globular mass with polygonal concave depressions locating the former position of the plates. The sur- face of the plates frequently is marked by radiating grooves extend- ing from the central part toward the angles, near which they become indistinct. The fossils usually have a depressed globular form. This evidently is due to sagging, the fossil being preserved in a clayey matrix. The lower side frequently is indented by a broad shallow depression, which also may be due to pressure, but which for the present is regarded as diagnostic. Geological position. At the base of the Bellevue bed, along the railroad two miles southeast of Maysville, Kentucky, in a layer of clay two feet thick, and in the immediately overlying limestone. Specimens identified as Pasceolus darwini occur in the Valley school house railroad cut, between a mile and a half and two miles south of Lebanon, Ohio. Specimens of Pasceolus retaining only the cavities left by the plates and resembling Pasceolus darwini occur a mile and a half northeast of Modest, Ohio, along a road crossing the direct road to Edenton, a short distance beyond Stone Lick creek, immedi- ately above the Platystrophia ponderosa horizon near the middle of the Arnheim bed. Astylospongia tumidus, James, appears to be identical with Pasceolus darwini. One of the best preserved specimens among the series of types preserved in the James collection in the Walker Museuipi at Chicago University shows a rather deep depression on the side usually regarded as the base. Several of these speci- mens show distinctly the stellate grooves on the surface of the polygonal plates. These specimens are labelled as coming from a level of 350 feet above low water in the Ohio river. Miller cites Pasceolus darwini from the hills back of Cincinnati at an elevation of about 400 feet above low water. From this it is evident that Pasceolus occurs at Cincinnati either in the Bellevue horiz(m or in the immediately underlying or overlying strata. Pasceolus darwini agrees with Pasceolus intermedins in size of the body and in the size of the polygonal plates. The types of Pasceolus intermedins, Billings, are preserved in the Museum of the Geological Survey of Canada. Only the depressions left by the plates remain. The specimens are globular and vary from 1 i i Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 305 25 to 28 millimeters in width. No depression was noticed on the basal surface. Four hexagonal plates occur in a width of 7 milli- meters. The depressions left by the plates are concave as in Pasceolus darwini. The association of Pasceolus intermedins with a Silurian rather than Ordovician fauna suggests that when this species is better known it will prove distinct from Pasceolus darwini. Streptelasma vagans, nom. nov. {Plate XI, Figs, i, A, B, C.) The species of Streptelasma from the Richmond group of Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky, long known as Streptelasma corniculum., has been referred more recently to Streptelasma rusticum, from the Hudson River group of Snake Island, in Lake St. John, in the province of Quebec, in Canada. Recently, L. M. Lambe has figured a specimen of Streptelasma rusticum, and, judging from his figures, this species is much more nearly cylindrical toward the top, and relatively more narrow than is true of the species characteristic of the Richmond of the region affected by the Cincinnati geanticline. Streptelasma canadensis, Billings, from the Hudson River group on Drummond Island,* in Lake Huron, appears to have the inner edges of the septa more nearly vertical, producing a wider calyx, with a flatter bottom. In the specimens from the Whitewater beds, at Dayton, Ohio, the corals more nearly resemble Streptelasma canadensis in form, but are less wide at the top. The number of primary septa is about 60 to 65. The secondary septa, approximately equal in number, do not extend more than one millimeter from the thick- ened walls of the corals; frequently they appear not much more conspicuous than prominent striations. The calyx is conspicu- ously narrower at the base than near the top. In a specimen 25 millimeters wide at the top, the twisted central area at the base of the calyx equals about 8 millimeters in width, and the width of the base of the calyx, limited by the inner edges of the septa, does not exceed 10 millimeters. The free edges of the septa are not denticulated. While this species undoubtedly is closely related to Streptelasma canadensis, it is not regarded as identical. Geological position. The type specimens are from the White- water bed at Dayton, Ohio. At this horizon they are abundant 3o6 Aug. F. Foerste in Ohio and Indiana. In the Liberty bed similar forms are com- mon in Ohio and Indiana, and at the more northern localities in Kentucky. Southward, along the eastern side of the Cincinnati geanticline, at Wyoming, Owingsville, Howards Mill, it is con- fined to the base of the Liberty. The specimens found at the Merritt ferry, at the mouth of Red river, near College Hill, and Cobb Ferry, in Madison county, probably belong to about the same horizon. They occur at the base of the Liberty at Ophelia, north of Richmond. They occur in the Liberty bed also on the western side of the Cincinnati geanticline, as far south as Marion county. This may be the horizon also of the specimens found on Fishing creek, east of Somerset, in Pulaski county. In the upper or Blanchester division of the Waynesville bed Streptelasma vagans is common in Ohio, Indiana and northern Kentucky, although associated with Streptelasma dispandum which locally almost replaces the former species. Occasional specimens occur below the chief Columnaria layer, which forms the base of the Liberty bed, also in the vicinity of Bardstown, Kentucky. They are quite abundant at several horizons in the lower part of the middle or Clarksville division of the Waynesville bed in Clinton and neighboring counties, in Ohio. At Concord, Kentucky, they occur both 5 feet above and 5 feet below the Strophomena con- cordensis layer which there forms the base of the Waynesville bed . Streptelasma insolitum, sp. nov. {Plate Z, Fig. 3.) A small and relatively slender form of Streptelasma occurs occasionally in the Whitewater strata, along their southern edge of exposure, in Decatur, Jennings, and Ripley counties, in Indiana. The type specimen, from the Whitewater bed, a mile and a half southeast of Westport, on the east side of Painter creek, does not preserve the sides of the calyx, but the septae leave a central area of only about 4 millimeters for the base of the calyx, the diameter of the coral at this level being 18 millimeters. A similar specimen was found at the same horizon about two and a quarter miles south of Versailles, opposite the home of Porter Harper. Preliminary ISfotes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 307 Streptelasma dispandum, sp. nov. (Plate IX, Figs. 4, A B.) In the Upper or Blanchester division of the Waynesville bed, along the creek southeast of the railroad station at Moores Hill, Indiana, a large robust form of Streptelasma occurs which differs from Streptelasma vagans chiefly in its more rapid rate of expan- sion. This is conspicuous especially in young specimens. When fully mature some of the largest specimens resemble Streptelasma canadensis in form much more closely than is true in case of typical specimens of Streptelasma vagans, from the Whitewater beds. Geological position. Abundant in the Blanchester division of the Waynesville bed at Moores Hill, Indiana. Also, at the same horizon on the bluff east of Laughery creek, nearly a mile north- east of Versailles; along the creek, half a mile south of Olean; and along the creek, north of Canaan; all in Indiana. Specimens of the same type have been found at corresponding horizons in Ohio, but no attempt has been made to work out their geographical distribution. Streptelasma divaricans, Nicholson. « (Plate X, Figs. 4, A, B, C, D, E.) Streptelasma divaricans appears to be a small, sessile species, at- tached to shells or other ob jects. Usually two or three specimens are attached to the same shell, at about the same point, but sometimes more than a dozen may be found in the same cluster. The indi- vidual corals are inverted conical in shape. Where growing in clusters, the sides usually are more or less adnate, and may be deformed by pressure. The area of attachment usually is more or less oblique to the base, preserving the conical form of the coral on its free side. Occasionally a radicular expansion of the edges of the area of attachment is noticed. Specimens may be found in which the corallites are free at the top, but the presence of lateral gemmation has not been demonstrated in any specimens at hand. Geological position. In the original description of this species one specimen is described as attached to the brachial valve of Rhynchotrema dentata. Although Rhynchotrema dentata occurs At 3o8 A ug, F . Foerste three horizons, in the upper part of the Whitewater bed, in the upper part of the Waynesville bed, and near the middle of the Arnheim bed, it is probable that the type of Streptelasma divari- cans came from the Whitewater. Streptelasma divaricans is very common in the Whitewater bed in Ohio and Indiana, and occurs in Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky in the Liberty bed, but Rhynchotrema dentata is very rare in the Liberty bed. A small sessile form of Streptelasma occurs in the upper or Blanchester division of the Waynesille bed at Versailles, Indiana, but it is rare at this horizon. In the Liberty bed Streptelasma divaricans it is. found as far south as Bardstown, Kentucky. The most southern locality on the eastern side of the Cincinnati geanticline is at the Hornback curve, two miles west of Indian Fields, in Clark county. The horizon here appears to be a considerable distance above the base of the Liberty bed but the presence of the Whitewater bed has not been demonstrated as yet. In the lower part of the Whitewater bed, a mile and a half southeast of Westport, Indiana, on the east side of Painter creek, a specimen of Rafinesquina was found to which 3 separate speci- mens of Streptelasma divaricans were attached, in each case so that all of one side was adnate to the shell. This appears to be only an extreme case of the oblique attachment often seen in specimens unequivocally identical with Streptelasma divaricans. Streptelasma divaricans-angustatum, var. nov. {Plate IX, Fig. 6, A, B.) Several specimens of Streptelasma divaricans have been found in the Whitewater bed at Osgood, Indiana, which differ from the more typical examples of that species in having the sides less divergent. The form of the individual corals, therefore, is more > nearly cylindrical. It appears to be a rare variant. Protarea richmondensis, Foerste. {Plate VII, Fig. 8.) The type of this species, here figured, is characterized by the ■: presence of 12 distinct septa. It was found in the Whitewater \ beds, at Tate’s hill, east of Dayton, Ohio. This form occurs at j the same horizon at numerous localities in Ohio and Indiana, Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 309 In the Liberty beds it is common from Ohio and Indiana as far south as central Kentucky. It makes its first appearance in the upper part of the Middle or Clarksville division of the Waynes- ville bed, in Clinton and Warren counties, Ohio, and occurs also' in the Upper or Blanchester division. Typical specimens of Protarea richmondensis are associated with other specimens in which the septa are much less distinct. They appear to be replaced by papillae, those along the margins of the calyces being larger, those at the base being smaller. At times these papillate specimens resemble growths of Protarea rich- mondensis covered by a thin film of the so-called Stomatopora or Lahechia papillata. However, if this were the case, the so-called Lahechia papillata should be common also on other fossils at the same localities, which is not the case. This papillate form of Protarea is illustrated by figures 9A and 9B, on plate V, in volume XIV of this Bulletin, and also on Plate X, figs. 2A, and 2B ac- companying the present article. The most southern locality at which Pjotarea richmondensis has been found is at Raywick, in Marion county. On the eastern side of the Cincinnati geanticline it has been found as far south as directly east of Wyoming, in the southwestern part of Fleming county. At both localities the horizon was the Liberty bed. Protarea ? verneuili, Edwards and Haime. {Monographic des polypiers fossiles des Terrains Paloeozoiques, l8yi, p. 20g.) Polypier en masse elevee, convexe; calices polygonaux, peu inegaux, separes par des murailles assez minces et presentant a leiirs angles de petites colonnes greles: une vingtaine de cloisons peu inegales, assez minces; largeur des calices 3 millimetres. Silurien inferieur. Alexanderville, Ohio. Collection de Verneuil. Unfortunately the type has been lost. This species is not a Protareay that genus not possessing 20 septa. It scarcely could be a Columnaria since that genus was familar to Edwards and Haime and does not resemble Protarea. Moreover, the statement that the septa differed little in size and that the cell walls present at their angles some small slender columns scarcely agrees with Columnaria. As a matter of fact, however, some specimens of Calapwcia have ^a superficial resemblance to Protarea. The 310 Aug. F. Foerste septal lines of both are distinct at the mouth of the calices, and extend only a short distance from the walls, leaving circular spaces at the center, and both show traces of denticulate margins along the septa. The fact that the calices are described as polygonal need not disconcert the student since even Nicholson described C alapcecta cribriformts as having the corallites for the most part hexa- gonal or polygonal. Specimens of C alapcecia occasionally occur with calices fully 3 millimeters in diameter. Moreover, the base of the Liberty bed occurs at several localities within two or three miles of Alexanderville, and C alapcecia has been found at this horizon. It is my belief that if the type of Protarea verneuilli ever should be found it would turn out to be a Calapcecia; either that, or it is not an Ordovician species at all. Calapcecia cribriformis, Nicholson. (Plate XI, Fig. 4.) Calapcecia crthriformis has cylindrical corallites which retain their cylindrical form owing to the fact that the walls of adjacent corallites are not in continuous contact as in genera of corals hav- ing polygonal corallites. The walls are penetrated by numerous mural pores arranged more or less in horizontal rows. The septal lines are distinct. In well preserved specimens their free edges are denticulate. The tabulae usually are not well preserved or may be absent, but probably were present in all cases originally, since they are abundant, alternating with the horizontal rows of mural pores, in the various species of Calapcecia described by Billings. Calapcecia cribriformis appears to be identical with Calapcecia huronensis, Billings, and the former name probably should be dropped, as acknowledged by Nicholson himself in later years. Geological position. Calapcecia cribriformis is common at some localities west of the Cincinnati geanticline in the lower part of the Liberty bed, from Henry county as far south as Marion county, Kentucky. It occurs at the same horizon at Wyoming, Cobb Ferry and 4 miles north of Richmond, in Kentucky. In the lower part of the Saluda bed it occurs from Madison, Indiana, as far north as Osgood. Stray specimens occur in Indiana as far north as Richmond, and are known in Ohio at various localities in Clinton and adjacent counties. Near Clarksville, Ohio, speci- Preliminary N otes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 31 1 mens have been found near the base of the Liberty bed. John Misener found tv^o specimens at Richmond, Indiana; one in the Liberty bed; and the other in the upper part of the Whitev^ater bed. Tetradium minus, S afford. {Plate X, Figs. I, A. B.) This species is recognized readily by its small quadrangular corallites, breaking apart lengthwise so as to show an apparently fibrous structure. On close examination the presence of four septa, one attached near the middle line of each of the four wallsy may be noticed. Additional septa may exist but require the use of a magnifier for detection. Geological position. A species of Tetradium associated with the stromatoporoid usually called Labechia ohioensis occurs in the Fairmount bed on the Cumberland river, in Russell county, 2 miles east of Rowena, Kentucky. Small specimens are found 20 feet above river level, and larger specimens are found 35 feet above the river. The intervening rock contains Orthorhynchula linneyi. T etradium and Labechia may be traced up the river as far as the exposures a quarter of a mile below Belk island. T etradium minus occurs with the same association of fossils also in Maury county, Tennessee. In the lower part of the Waynesville bed it occurs atOwingsville and Wyoming east of the Cincinnati geanticline and north of Mount Washington and west of Fisherville west of the geanticline, all in Kentucky. In Clinton county, Ohio, it makes its appearance in the Orthoceras fosteri horizon bed, at the base of the middle or Clarksville division of the Waynesville bed. East of Pendleton, Kentucky, and at the mouth of Bull creek, Indiana, it is common at a horizon which appears to be the upper part of the Waynes- ville bed. At the base of the Liberty bed it is quite abundant at many localities west of the Cincinnati geanticline, in Kentucky. The most southern localities are in Marion county, Kentucky. Occasional specimens are found in Indiana. On the eastern side of the geanticline it is much less common, but occasional specimens are found in the base of the Liberty bed as far south as Concord, Kentucky. It is possible that the specimens found at the Merritt ferry opposite the mouth of Red river, and several miles west of 312 Aug. F. Foerste Crab Orchard, east of Cedar creek, belong to the same horizon. It is an abundant fossil at the base of the Saluda bed in Jefferson and Ripley counties, in Indiana. At the top of the Saluda bed it occurs at numerous localities in Jefferson county, Indiana. In the Elkhorn bed it occurs both in Indiana and Ohio. Columnaria alveolata, Goldfuss. {Plate XI, Fig. 3.) This species is readily distinguished in the region of the Cincin- nati geanticline by its conspicuous septa, half of which almost or quite reach the center of the corallites. Geological position. In the lower part of the Liberty bed this species may be traced from Jefferson county to the middle of Casey county, Kentucky. It occurs at the same horizon four miles north of Richmond and between Stanford and Crab Orchard. Large specimens occur half way between Peewee valley and Brownsboro, presumably at the same level. Lrom Hanover and Madison, Indiana, as far north as the exposures two miles north- east of Osgood, they occur at the base of the Saluda bed, in some localities abundant, at others very rare. The specimens found by John Misener near the base of the exposures below Richmond, Indiana, probably came from the Liberty horizon. Lrom the western part of Henry county, in Kentucky, to the northwestern edge of Nelson county, specimens also identified as Columnaria alveolata are common locally at one horizon in the lower part of the Waynesville bed. At Concord, Kentucky, specimens of Columnaria alveolata occurred not onlv at the base of the Liberty bed but one specimen was found also near the base of the Waynes- ville bed, associated with Streptelasma vagans., 5 feet above the Strophomena concordensis horizon. At Clifton, Tennessee, several specimens occurred in the Arnheim bed. Columnaria alveo- lata occurs near the base of the Liberty bed in Stony Hollow, northwest of Clarksville, Ohio. One specimen was found loose in the upper or Blanchester division of the Waynesville bed, at the Blacksmith Hollow northeast of the railroad station at Ore- gonia. Along Elkhorn creek, south of Richmond, Indiana, small specimens of Columnaria alveolata, associated with small speci- ' mens of Columnaria vacua, occur 14 feet below the Brassfield or Clinton bed, in the Elkhorn bed. Several poorly preserved Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 313 specimens of Columnaria, species not determined, are present in the lower part of the bluff on the west side of the Cumberland river, opposite the mouth of Forbush creek, in Wayne county, Kentucky, in strata regarded as of Richmond age. Columnaria alveola ta — calycina, Nicholson. Coluninaria calycina differs from Columnaria alveolata only in the tendency of a part of the corallites to become free and assume a more or less cylindrical shape. The corallites of this form also usually are a little smaller. Geological position. This species was described from River Credit, Ontario, where it occurs in strata equivalent to the Rich- mond group. The same species was described by Rominger under the term Columnaria herzeri, and the statement was made that the types were found by Rev. H. Herzer, of Louisville, in the Cincinnati group, Kentucky. Specimens showing these feat- ures occur at the base of the Liberty bed north of Mount Wash- ington, and from this point as far north as Jefferson town, Ken- tucky. Their local distribution is the chief point of interest. They can be regarded as only a varietv of Columnaria alveolata. Columnaria vacua, sp. nov. {Plate XI, Fig. 2.) Associated with Columnaria alveolatam the great coral reef at the base of the Liberty bed in Jefferson, Bullitt, Nelson, and Marion counties, Kentucky, is a species in which the septa are represented by sharp striae rather than strong plates. These striae line the inner walls of the tubes, or corallites, and usually become indis- tinct at the margins of the horizontal diaphragms. In other respects this species is identical with Columnaria alveolata. This species is listed by Nickles as Columnaria halli, Nicholson. The latter, however, is a smaller celled species from a much lower horizon. Columnaria vacua also frequently has been regarded as merely a different state of preservation of Columnaria alveolata. In that case, however, it is difficult to explain why the absence of conspicuous septa should be constant in large coral growths several feet in diameter, contiguous to others showing conspicu- ous septa, or why certain horizons should contain numerous 314 Aug. F. Foerste specimens of Columnaria vacua, while others, possessing the same geological features, several feet farther up, should contain chiefly Columnaria alveolata. The constancy of the same features throughout the corallum in the case of large specimens at numer- ous localities and at several horizons scarcely could be due merely to a different state of preservation. Geological position. Base of Liberty bed, at Bardstown, Ken- tucky, and at numerous other localities at corresponding horizons i in the counties mentioned above. At the base of the Liberty bed, , this species may be traced from Jefferson to the center of Casey j county. They occur at the same horizon 4 miles north of Rich- ij mond, and at various localities between Stanford and Crab ji Orchard. At the base of the Saluda bed they occur from Han- i' over and Madison, in Indiana, northward to the northern edge of 1 Jefferson county. One specimen of Columnaria, referred to ij this species, was collected immediately above the Hehertella Ij insculpta zone, at the base of the Liberty bed, at Concord, Ken- tucky. Near Clarksville, Ohio, one specimen was found 18 feet i below the top of the Waynesville bed, in the Blanchester division. | Along Roaring Run, in Warren county, Ohio, one specimen was h found in the Liberty bed. Along Elkhorn creek, south of Rich- mond, Indiana, small specimens were found 15 feet below the 1 Brassfield or Clinton bed. I Rhynchotrema inaequivalve, Castelnau. 1 {Plate VII, Figs. 10, A, B, C.) This is the shell described by S. A. Miller in the Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of Science (vol. 2, p. 60, 1875) as Trematospira quadriplicata and later referred by him to Rhynchotreta. Compared with Rhynchotrema increhescens. Hall, from the 1 Trenton of New York, the beak of the pedicel valve appears more ; ' erect, the middle part of this valve is more flattened, and on j lateral view the anterior parts of the brachial valve appear more | obese. The radiating plications are less numerous and more prominent. The number of radiating phcations on each side of the fold usually does not exceed five, and frequently is reduced to four. Of these the three nearest the fold are conspicuous, and the remaining one or two are much less distinct. The concentric 1 striations frequently are rather distant, and present an imbricat- i ing effect. Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 315 Typical Rhynchotrema incequivalve belongs to the group having more numerous lateral plications, the middle parts of the pedicel valve are less flattened, and the beak is less erect. Geological position. Common in the Paris bed wherever typi- cally exposed in Kentucky. The most northern localities are at Drennan Springs and at Cynthiana. On South Benson creek, and at Frankfort, in Franklin county, it occurs also in the upper part of the beds containing Prasopora simulatrix, the character- istic fossil of the Wilmore bed. Rhynchotrema manniensis, sp. nov. {Plate VII, Fig. 4.) Mature specimens of this species become full as gibbous as chotrema capax. In one specimen with a length and width of 14 millimeters, the gibbosity or extreme dimension perpendicular to the valves was 19 millimeters. This is a gibbosity in excess of that normal for Rhynchotrema capax. Rhynchotrema man- niensis is a much smaller shell, it appears to be more compressed laterally, and has a greater number of lateral plications. Of these plications there are about 7 to 9 on each side of the median fold in case of the brachial valve. The sinus of the pedicel valve usually is narrower, relatively deeper in front, with more abrupt limiting slopes. As a matter of fact, however, the chief difference is one of size. Geological position. In the Mannie shale, forming the upper part of the Richmond formation about three quarters of a mile west of Riverside, Tennessee; the exposure is located west of the home of Mr. Howard, on the road to Flat Woods, east of the mouth of Trace creek. It is found at the same horizon at Clifton, at the Maddox Mill on Horse creek, and also 32 miles northeast of Riverside, on Leiper’s creek, a little over two miles south of Fly, north of the home of J. M. Gardner, all in Tennessee. Leptsena gibbosa — ^invenusta, var. nov. {Plate VII, Fig. 3.) Width along the hinge-line about 30 millimeters; the postero- lateral parts of the shell being broken away, this width is an seti- mate. Fourteen millimeters from the beak, the anterior part of 3i6 A ug. F . Foerste the pedicel valve is geniculately deflected almost vertically for a distance of 6 millimeters. The general surface of this valve is gently convex. The concentric Wrinkles characteristic of this genus are almost obsolete, the wrinkles being faint but close together. About 15 radiating striae occur in a width of 5 milli- meters along the anterior margin. The middle one of these striae is slightly more prominent. The remainder are very uniform in size, and are separated by very narrow spaces. Compared with Leptcena gibbosa, James, the shell material of each valve is thicker, the striae are more nearly uniform in size, there is no concentric depression immediately posterior to the geniculate border, and this deflected border is shorter. More- over, in Leptcena gibbosa the spaces between the striae appear relatively wider, especially along the median parts of the pedicel valve. Geological position. At the mouth of Emily run, 2 miles west of Drennan Springs, in a series of argillaceous limestones inter- bedded with greater quantities of clay. The total thickness of this clayey section is 18 feet. It is overlaid by coarse limestone, 2 feet thick, followed by the Southgate division of the Eden forma- tion. Below the clayey section containing the Leptcena there occurs a series of limestones, 18 feet thick, overlying the typical Paris bed with Rhynchotrema incequivalve and Hebertella frank- fortensis. The top of the limestone section below the clayey beds containing Leptcena is characterized by a rather coarse limestone containing a Hebertella with rather more numerous plications than is typical of Hebertella frankfortensis. The argillaceous limestones and clay section within which the Leptcena was found is placed at the base of the Eden formation, but not necessarily in the Economy member, whose presence has not been demon- strated in the area in question. It may be an extension of the Fulton horizon. A small specimen of Leptcena, 16 millimeters wide, with a dis- tinct geniculate border, and with somewhat finer radiating striae, was found in the clayey section overlying the massive argillaceous limestones in the railroad cut north of Boyd, Kentucky. The exact horizon was ii feet above the massive limestone. It here is associated with Trinucleus concentri c us, hut horizon may be an extension of the Fulton bed. The heavy limestones at the top of the hill section east of the cut probably correspond to the heavy Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 317 || limestones in the Tunnel Cut east of Carlisle, Kentucky. A 1: similar specimen Leptcena was found north of Ford, Kentucky, || about a quarter of a mile before reaching the second railroad tun- f nel, associated with Clitamhonites diversus-rogersensis^ Plectorthis (Eridorthis) rogersensis, Plectorthis {Eridorthis) nicklesi. f| Strophomena vicina, sp. nov. {Plate VII, Figs. I2, A, B.) Shell closely related to Strophomena planumhona. The hinge- I line usually is conspicuously longer than the width of the shell ! across the middle, producing an outline similar to that shown by that variety of Strophomena plamimbona which was described by James as Strophomena> elongata. However, the brachial valve does not attain as strong a convexity and the pedicel valve usually is only slightly concave, producing an appearance closely resem- bling those specimens of Strophomena planoconvexawhichh-AYQ a more elongated hinge-line. Compared with Strophomena plano- convexa, the radiating striations are much finer, equalling in this respect typical specimens of Strophomena planumhona. The muscular scars of the pedicel valve closely resemble those of the latter species, but the limiting border is much less conspicuously elevated. The vascular markings of this valve usually are faint or almost obsolete, although occasionally fairly distinct. There never is a strongly raised thickening of the shell along the anterior border interiorly. Frequently the margin of this part of the interior of this valve is striated in a radiate manner. The interior of the brachial valve closely resembles that of Strophomena planumhona. Compared with Strophomena trentonensis., from the Trenton shales of Minnesota, the shell is larger, and the outline is more extended along the hinge-line, making it less quadrangular. The shell is not wrinkled obliquely along the hinge-line. l| Geological position. In the upper part of the Paris bed along the road south of the Crow distillery, on Glen creek, in the north- western part of Woodford county, associated with Llehertella frankfortensiSy and immediately below a layer containing Stroma- tocerium pustulosum. In a blue, fine-grained limestone thirty feet below the highest beds containing an abundance of Rhyn- chotrema incequivalvcy in the southwestern part of Frankfort, Aug. F. Foerste 318 along the road passing the reservoir. In fine-grained limestone i about 10 feet below a massive contorted layer and 25 feet above : Benson creek, about a mile northwest of Bridgeport, along the road to Benson station. Along the railroad, about a mile west of Benson, associated with Hehertella frankfortensrs, and immed- iately underlying argillaceous, fine-grained limestone, ii feet thick. In the upper part of the Paris bed, on the C. H. Bowyer farm, northeast of Becknerville. At the top of the Paris bed or at the base of the Flanagan chert, at Flanagan, In the upper part of the Paris bed in the quarry in the northern part of Cyn- thiana. About 20 feet above the Ohio river, at Carnestown, Kentucky, in strata associated with Eridotrypa mutahilisy Erido- try pa trentonensis, Prasopora falesiy Prasopora simulatriXy Cal- lopora multitahulatay Dalmanella bassleriy Platystrophia sp., Plectamhonites sericeay and Zygospira recurvirostra. Hebertella frankfortensis, James. {Plate VII, Figs. II, A, B.) {Catalogue of the Lower Silurian Fossils, Cincinnati Group, hy U. P. James, iSfl; p. 10, nomen nudum). {Paleontology of Ohio, voL i, p. lOi, under Orthis borealis) Radiating plications usually simple, about 40 in number, occasionally increased by intercalation near the postero-lateral angles to forty-five. Hinge-line distinctly shorter than the greatest width of the shell; the latter is found either at or slightly anterior to the middle. Brachial valve almost evenly convex, the low, broad, median fold being almost imperceptible except when the shell is seen from the anterior side. The broad, shallow, median depression or sinus of the pedicel valve frequently is much more conspicuous, although in some specimens it scarcely amounts to more than a distinct flattening of the anterior part of the valve. This flattening usually does not extend nearer to the beak than one-third of the length of the shell. The hinge-area of the pedicel valve is slightly incurved, inclining outward, the beak rising dis- tinctly above the level of that of the brachial valve. The largest specimens attain a width of one inch. Compared with Hehertella borealis^ Billings, from St. Martinks Junction, near Montreal, Canada, the flattening of the median parts of the pedicel valve begin nearer the beak and the shallow i Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 319 median depression toward the anterior margin of the shell is a more constant feature. The result is a general flattening of the valve. The line of junction between the valves, when the latter are viewed from the front, is more sinuous. The brachial valve is never distinctly flattened or depressed anteriorly, but frequently is elevated slightly, so as to correspond with the more distinct median depression of the pedicel valve. The close relationship of this shell to Flehertella borealis is undoubted. Geological position. Common in the Paris bed wherever typi- cally exposed in Kentucky. The most northern localities occur at Drennan Springs in Henry county, and at Cynthiana in Harri- son county. It occurs also in the underlying Prasopora simula- trix or Wilmore bed, but here it is much less abundant, or is even comparatively rare. The specimens here figured are from the Paris bed. Hebertella maria — ^parksensis, var. nov. {Plate VII, Figs. 6, A, B.) A comparison of this form with the figures of Hebertella maria suggests that the chief difference consists in the larger size of Hebertel a parksensis. The latter frequently attains a width of 25 millimeters, and specimens 28 millimeters in width are not rare. The brachial valve is much more convex toward the beak, the umbo rising above the level of a plane passing perpendicular to the valve at its cardinal margin. A direct comparison with the types of Hebertella maria might show other differences. Geological position. Abundant in the Greendale division of the Cynthiana formation between Pleasant Valley and Millers- burg, Kentucky, associated with Orthorhynchula linneyi. The type specimens were obtained at Parks Hill, directly south of the Licking river, on the railroad between Maysville and Paris, Kentucky. Similar specimens but in much smaller numbers occur as far south as the middle of Madison county, and west- ward as far as Woodford county. In the northwestern corner of Woodford county, one mile southeast of McKee’s Ferry, Heber- tella man a-p arks ensis occurs in the Perryville bed, associated with Orthorhynchula linneyi, 7 feet above the Paris bed contain- ing Hebertella frankfortensis and a species of Columnaria. 320 Aug. F .^-Foerste Dinorthis ulrichi, sp. nov. (Plate VII, Figs. 7, A, B,C.) This species closely resembles Dinorthis subquadrata in almost | every feature, exterior and interior. Dinorthis ulrichi differs j chiefly in the more conspicuous flattening of the pedicel valve, j the convexity at the umbo being less prominent and being con- i fined to the immediate vicinity of the beak. In some specimens the median part of the valve is depressed anteriorly so as to form I; a broad, shallow sinus. The shell frequently is wider posteriorly } than across the middle, producing a more angular outline, postero- l| laterally, than in most specimens of Dinorthis subquadrata. The |i radiating plications usually are coarser than in that species, but individual specimens may be selected which do not differ in this I respect. The muscular impressions of the pedicel valve are |! similar in form but tend to be relatively smaller in size, occupy- i ing slightly less than half the length of the valve. f Compared with Dinorthis meedsi, Winchell and Schuchert, |i Dinorthis ulrichi is much larger, the pedicel valve is more strongly 1: flattened, the shell is less suborbicular in outline, and the plica- j tions usually are coarser. '| Geological position. The types are from the upper part of the >1 Paris bed on the C. H. Bowyer farm, northeast of Becknerville, in the western part of Clark county, Kentucky. The exposures | are on the eastern side of the creek crossing the farm in a southerly i direction. The Flanagan chert is exposed west of the creek j toward the northern part of the farm. Associated in the same |i layers with Dinorthis ulrichi are Flebertella frankfortensis, Rhyn- |! chotrema incequivalve, and Strophomena vicina. It is found at the same geological horizon, also at Flanagan, in Clark county, i and in the railroad cut in the northeastern part of Paris, in Bourbon i county, Kentucky. !. Dinorthis carleyi — insolens, var. nov. | (Plate VII, Fig. g.) ( A variety of Dinorthis carleyi occurs at various localities in j; Ohio and Indiana at the base of the Upper or Blanchester division j! of the Waynesville bed which differs from the typical form of the | species only in having somewhat wider and flatter plications. i Preliminary Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 321 Geological position. The specimen here figured was obtained about 2 miles northwest of Miltohvillej Ohio^ east of the Blanken- becker farm^ along Dry Fork of Elk Run, a short distance above the lower Hehertella insculpta zone. This lower Hebertella insculpta zone marks the base of the Waynesville bed from the neighborhood of Miltonville as far toward the southeast as the southern part of Adams county. Dinorthis carle yPinsolens has been found along this line at the crossing of the road from Middleboro to Oregonia, two miles east of Hammel, in Warren county. It occurs in the Stony Hollow northwest of Clarksville, and on SewelFs Run, southeast of Clarksville; also about a mile northwest of Blanchester; all in Clinton county. It is found also southwest of Woodville, in the northeastern part of Clermont county. A single specimen, not in situ but at the lower part of the Blanchester division was found about two miles southwest of Oxford, Ohio. In Indiana, the same variety occurs at the base of the Blanchester division, but without the presence of Hebertella insculpta^ on the east side of Blue creek, west of Blue creek post office; at the home of Nick Senefeld, four miles south of Brookville; at the home of William Bauman, three miles south- west of Brookville; and also in Union county, opposite the home of Robert Martin, half a mile above the mouth of Silver creek. Dalmanella emacerata, Hall. {Plate VII, Fig. I.) In the original description of this species by Hall no clue is given as to the horizon at which the type specimens were found beyond the fact that they occurred in the shales of the Hudson river group near Cincinnati, Ohio. Usually, at that time, the term shales was applied by preference to the Eden beds. Later, S. A. Miller identified with this species a form found 160 feet above low water in the Ohio river, at Columbia avenue and Torence road, and in the excavation of Deer creek tunnel. The specimens from this Middle Eden horizon were figured in volume XIV of this Bulletin as Dalmanella emacerata-filosa (fig. i, plate V). In these specimens, the radiating striations appear more numer- ous than in the types of Dalmanella emacerata^ preserved in the American Museum of Natural History, in New York city. The specimens most nearly conforming to the first published 322 Aug. F. Foerste figure of Dalmanella emacerata^ namely figure I on plate 2 of ! the Fifteenth Report, New York State Cabinet of Natural His- tory, appear to be those which were obtained from the Fulton or Triarthrus becki horizon, at Cincinnati, Ohio. Considering | the fact that the so-called River quarries were largely operated | at the time when the earlier collections were made at Cincinnati, | this identification is not improbable. In favor of this identifica- | tion is the coarseness of the radiating striae evidently distinctly !| greater than that of the specimen represented by figure 2 on the j|i same plate. A specimen from the Fulton bed is figuied in the |l present number of this Bulletin. lij As a matter of fact, the type specimen of Dalmanella emacerata, ||j preserved in the American Museum of Natural History, appears ji i to be not quite as coarsely striated as these Fulton specimens, or j’ as the first published figure. i|! li ■ I ^ Dalmanella breviculus, Foerste. jl; {Plate VII, Fig. 5.) |! ■ I; This form would not be considered distinct from Dalmanella L' emacerata-filosa, were it not for the fact that intermediate forms li i are unknown at present. The shorter length, resulting in a semi- || i circular, rather than subquadrate outline, is the chief distinguish- ! 1 ing feature. See figure 2 on plate 2 of the Fifteenth Report^ New ' York State Cabinet of Natural History. jl Geological position. Middle Eden beds at Cincinnati, Ohio, jl < Dalmanella fairmountensis, F(]erste. ! {Plate VII, Fig. 2.) || An enlarged figure of one of the type specimens is presented in I this Bulletin, for purposes of comparison with the enlarged figures l|»! of the other forms belonging to the Dalmanella emacerata group, ij I Geological position. Fairmount bed, at Hamilton, Ohio. Iji Found also at Cincinnati, Ohio, New Trenton, Indiana, and along j i the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern railroad, half a mile east ! ^ of Dillsboro station, in Indiana, at the same horizon. || Notes on Cincinnatian and Lexington Fossils 323 Clitambonites diversus — rogersensis, var. nov. \ {Plate VII, F'igs. 14, A, B.) This is an extremely variable species and it is difficult to deter- mine from the specimens at hand whether it is to be regarded as identical with Clitamhomtes diversus^ Shaler, or as new. The pedicel valves vary between forms which are quite symmetrical in shapCj and which appear to predominate, to others in which not only the beak is excentric, but the entire valve is more or less irregularly contorted. The area of this valve is broadly triangular and varies from 7 to 8 millimeters in height; it usually forms an angle of about 100 to 115 degrees with the plane of junction of the valves, but may be inclined forward so as to form an angle of 70 degrees. The brachial valve is flat, with a broad, shallow, median depression anteriorly. The most conspicuous feature of this valve is its great width, considering its length. Several specimens 24 millimeters wide had a length of only 14 or 15 milli- meters. In these specimens, the posterior adductor scars and the depressions between the cardinal process and the crural plates are considerably shorter from front to rear than in the Trenton specimens of Clitamhonites vernetitliy Billings. The anterior adductor impressions are distinctly indicated and either equal or exceed in size the posterior ones. The number of radiat- ing stri^ varies from 4 to 5 in a width of 3 millimeters. Geological position. In the lower part of the Eden formation at Rogers Gap and also north of Ford, a quarter of a mile before reaching the second tunnel, Kentucky, associated with Plector- this (Eridorthis) nicklesiy Plectorthis (Eridorthis) rogersensis^ and a Leptcena similar to that found at Boyd, Kentucky. Smaller specimens of Clitamhonites j apparently belonging to the same variety as the preceding, occur in the coarse-grained limestone quarried about a mile and a quarter west of Carlisle, and in contorted fine-grained argillaceous limestone exposed east of Carlisle, both before reaching the so-called Tunnel cut, along the railroad, and also at the exposures immediately beyond the cut. At the latter locality the following section is seen, described in descending order: Hard blue limestone layers, cross-bedded .4 ft. Hard limestone with a nodular base ............................... .2 ft. 3 in. Nodular argillaceous limestone with Clitamhonttes . . • • - 3 4 324 Aug. F. Foerste Solid blue limestone layer i ft. 2 in. Nodular argillaceous limestone with Clitamhonites . 6 ft. 6 in. Thin limestone layers interbedded with a greater quantity of clay, not measured, approximately 40 ft. Top of Cynthiana formation. The clays overlying the Cynthiana formation carry an exten- sion of the Fulton fauna. The extensive exposures at the Tunnel cut overlie the Clitambonites horizon. The relation between the Clitambonites horizon at Carlisle and that at Rogers Gap has not been determined. PLATE VII. Fig. I. Dalmanella emacerata. Cincinnati, Ohio, from the Fulton bed. Mag- nified 1.6 diameters. Fig. 2. Dalmanella fairmountensis. Hamilton, Ohio. Fairmount bed. Mag- nified 1.6 diameters. Fig. 3. Leptcena gibbosa-invenusta. Two miles west of Drennan Springs, Kentucky. In strata underlying the Southgate member of the Eden; possibly an extension of the Fulton bed. Magnified 1.6 diameters. Fig. 4. Rhynchotrema manniensis. Three quarters of a mile west of Riverside, Tennessee, in the upper part of the Richmond formation. Fig. 5. Dalmanella breviculus. Cincinnati, Ohio. Southgate bed. Magnified 1.6 diameters. Fig. 6. Herbertella maria-parksensis. Parks Hill, Nicholas county, Kentucky. Greendale member of the Cynthiana formation. A, brachial valve. B, pedicel valve. Fig. 7. Dinorthis ulrtcht. A, brachial valve. B, C, pedicel valves. North- east of Becknerville, Kentucky. Paris bed. Fig. 8. Protarea richmondensis. Figure of the type, enlarged 1,6 diameters. Dayton, Ohio. Whitewater bed. Fig. 9. Dinorthis carleyi-insolens. Northwest of Miltonville, Ohio, in the Blan- chester division of the Waynesville bed. Fig. 10. Rhynchotrema incequivalve. Lexington, Kentucky. Paris bed. This is the form described by S. A. Miller as Trematospira quadriplicata. yf, lateral view. B, pedicel valve. C, brachial valve. Fig. II. Hebertella frankfortensis. T, pedicel valve. .S, brachial valve. Lex- ington, Kentucky. Paris bed. Fig. 12. Strophomena victna. Pedicel valves. Northeast of Becknerville, Kentucky. Paris bed. Fig. 13. Beatricea nodulifera. Three miles southeast of Lebanon, Kentucky. Near the base of the Liberty bed. Fig. 14. Clitambonites diversus-rogersensis. A, pedicel valve. By interior of brachial valve. Rogers Gap, Kentucky. In the strata underlying the Southgate member of the Eden formation, but including Eridorthis rogersensis and E, ntcklesiy and carrying a fauna differing from that of the Economy member. Bulletin of the Denison University, vol. xiv, Article 17. ORDOVICIAN FOSSILS, A. F. Foerste. PLATE VII. PLATE VIII. Fig. I. Pasceolus darwini. A, B, different specimens. Two miles south of Maysville, Kentucky, along the railroad. At the base of the Bellevue bed. Fig. 2. Brachiospongia Icevis. Figure reduced to half size. One mile north of Paint Lick, Kentucky. Near base of Mount Hope bed. Fig. 3. Beatricea undulata. Bardstown, Kentucky. In the lower part of the Liberty bed. Fig. 4. Beatricea nodulifera-intermedia. A, lateral view. B, terminal view of the same specimen, showing the central area occupied by large convex diaphragms, and the general mass occupied by numerous cystoid plates. Lebanon, Kentucky. Near the base of the Liberty bed. < Fig. 5. Beatricea nodulifera. Lebanon, Kentucky. Near the base of the Liberty bed. ORDOVICIAN FOSSILS. PLATE VIIL A. F. Foerste. Bulletin of the Denison University, vol. xiv. Article 17. PLATE IX. Fig. I. Dystactospongia madisonensis. Madison, Indiana. Saluda bed, 7 feet above the chief Columnaria layer. Fig. 2. Heterospongia, probably H. knotti. A mile and a half southeast of Lebanon, Kentucky. In the upper part of the Maysville formation below the Arnheim horizon. Fig. 3. Streptelasma, apparently an aberrant form of Streptelasma vagans. Dayton, Ohio. Whitewater bed. Fig. 4. Streptelasma dispandum. Moores Hill, Indiana. In the Upper or Blanchester division of the Waynesville bed. Fig. 5. Dystactospongia madisonensis. A little over two miles south of Ver- sailles, Indiana. Part of the surface of a lobate form, similar to that represented by figure i. At the base of the Saluda bed, immediately beneath the Tetradium horizon. Fig. 6. Streptelasma divaricans-angustatum. Osgood, Indiana. Whitewater bed. Fig. 7. Beatricea undulata-cylindrica. Four miles north of Richmond, Ken- tucky. Liberty bed. ORDOVICIAN FOSSILS. ‘ PLATE IX. A. F. Foerste. Bulletin of the Denison University^ vol. xiv, Article 17. PLATE X. Fig. I. Tetradium minus^ Safford. natural size. B, cross-section enlarged; copied. Mouth of Bull creek, Indiana. Richmond group. Fig. 2. Protarea richmondensis-papiUata. A, natural size. a part of the same specimen, enlarged. Encrusting Strophomena planumhona. Dayton, Ohio. Whitewater bed. Fig. 3. Streptelasma insohtum. Walls of calyx broken off. A mile and a half southeast of Westport, Indiana. Whitewater bed. Fig. 4. Streptelasma divartcans, Nicholson. A, the calyx of one specimen. B, the same, enlarged. C, D, lateral views showing calyces. E, a group viewed from above. Osgood, Indiana. Whitewater bed. Fig. 5. Brachiospongia tuherculata, James. A, view of lower surface. B, lateral view. Both views reduced in size. The greatest dimension is 235 mm. Seven miles west of Wilmington, Ohio, south of the road from Ogden to Van- devorts Corner, along one of the branches entering Todds Fork from the west. Liberty bed. ORDOVICIAN FOSSILS. A. F. Foerste. PLATE X. Bulletin of the Denison University, vol. xiv, Article 17. ■j PLATE XI. Fig. I. Streptelasma vagans. lateral view, showing interior of calyx. By lateral view. C, view from above, the sides of the calyx having been broken away, showing the twisting of the septa at the center. Dayton, Ohio. Whitewater bed. Fig. 2. Columnaria vacua. Bardstown, Kentucky. At the base of the Liberty bed. Fig. 3. Columnaria aheolata, Goldfuss. Bardstown, Kentucky. At the base of the Liberty bed. Fig. 4. Calaposcia crihrtformisy Nicholson. Bardstown, Kentucky. Near the base of the Liberty bed. ORDOVICIAN FOSSILS. A. F. Foerste. PLATE XL Bulletin of the Denison University, vol. xiv, Article 17. PLEISTOCENE GEOLOGY OF THE MORAVIA QUAD- RANGLE, NEW YORK. By Frank Carney. CONTENTS. Physiography of the Quadrangle: Stratigraphy 338 Devonian formations, Hamilton to Portage. The matter of weathering. Four classes of valleys 338 Those of greatest maturity: Fall Creek and some of its tribu- taries; valley southwestward of Locke; eastward from Mont- ville. Those of a more recent cycle: Skaneateles Inlet valley; a por- tion at least of Owasco Inlet valley. Effects of glacial erosion Those of interglacial development; at mouth of the Montville hanging valley; a portion of Dry Run. ' Those of post-glacial genesis: all the gorge-cutting now in pro- gress. Activity immediately following withdrawal of the. ice. Present position in the drainage cycle 345 Slight degradational work in progress. The different base levels* Owasco Inlet, Cayuga valley, Lake Ontario. Topographic adjustment. Some areas made prematurely old, others made more youthful by glaciation. Distribution of the Drift: General discussion 346 The load of glacial ice; influence of topographic attitude of the area passed over, influence of rock structure. Distribution of debris in cross-section of ice-sheet — Stationary position of ice- front^ — influence of the upturning of layers of ice. Control of local topography in the distribution of drift — when rugged — when slight in relief — lobes of ice developed in topographic basins. Cyclic and cliniatic factors. Drift in V alleys 351 Valley loops. Development attained depends upon: amount of debris in ice; grade of valley floor; time involved; nature of 336 Frank Carney the drift. The outline of the loop depends upon: width of the valley; depth of the valley; symmetry of valley cross-section; relationship of valley axis to moving ice; influence of marginal streams. Loops in the Freeville-Moravia valley 354 Designated by letters ‘‘A”- “I” Loops in Fall Creek valley 362 Designated by letters “ J” - “N” . Other loops principally in tributary valleys 365 Designated by letters “O” — “R.” Other forms assumed by drift in valleys 366 Massed valley moraine — terraces — ridges — isolated hillocks — Kame areas — eskers — flood-plain deposits — lake de- posits. Drift of the uplands 379 Ground Moraine — the drift load of static or inactive ice 380 Terminal moraines — influence of the Cayuga lobe, and of the Finger Lake basin on the outline of the ice across the Moravia sheet — the best developed terminal moraines 381 Nunatak drift — conditions of development — area east of Free- ville — another, one mile north of this — northeast of Como — east of Sempronius — J ewett Hill southwest of Moravia 388 Parallel drift-ridges: three localities, Owasco Hill, Lafayette, Benson Corners — description — suggestions as to origin 391 Valley Trains; Outwash Plains: V alley trains: Origin — variations from type — particular trains — ^Out- wash plains; normal — ^the Freeville plain 392 Eskers: Classes; one controlled by local topography; the other quite independ- ent of details of relief. Description of the nine eskers found in the quadrangle — general discussion of these: location — direction — genesis — vertical range — stagnant condition of ice — conclusions 394 Bowlders of the Drift: Composition — ^of local origin — erratics — unusually large bowl- ders 404 Ice-Dammed Lakes: Work of Fairchild, of Watson. Location of the high-level deltas — at McLean — near Groton — near loop “F” — south of North Lansing — at Locke — three near Moravia — at Morse Mill. . . . 406 Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle Bodies of water represented by these deltas — their chronology — overflow channels previously investigated — control exercised by the Cayuga lobe — description of each lake stage represented — smaller deltas — other lake phenomena — post-glacial tilt- ing— alluvial fans Glacial Erosion: General evidence of — profound erosion in Owasco valley — con- ditions governing ice-erosion in valleys — transverse and longitudinal valleys — examples of each — from Locke north- ward— figures of disturbed residual rock — other possible ex- planation for the disturbed area. Analysis of erosion in cross- section of a longitudinal valley Striae : Many striated surfaces — usually represent final movements of the declining ice — general direction of ice-motion was from the northwest — one exception — topographic control — com- posite readings — striae from standpoint of range in altitude. . . . Ice-front Channels: Two types: topographic and torrential — description and exam- ples of each type Ice-Walled Channels: The work of Gilbert and of Fairchild. Conditions governing the formation of such channels — examples on Moravia quad- rangle. Pre-Wisconsin Drift: Lack of positive evidence — theoretical reasons for its existence here — geographical distribution of old drift — effects of ice- erosion — “through ’’ valleys — evidence of pre-Wisconsin ice- front lakes. How an ice-invasion may affect a former till sheet; eroded in longitudinal valleys, protected in transverse valleys — effects of pressure. Possible suggestions of old drift found in well records Index 33^ Frank Carney Physiography of the Moravia Sheet. STRATIGRAPHY. The rocks outcropping in this region belong to the Devonian Period, representing the formations from the Hamilton to the Portage inclusive. The higher areas bear the Portage which contains many arenaceous layers interspersing the sandy shale. The Genesee is best exposed about Montville and in the gorge of Dry Run. The Tully limestone has been cut by the Owasco Inlet valley, and may be studied to advantage along the eastern wall from a point about one mile north of Moravia southward nearly to Locke. Fig. 6 gives the contact of the Hamilton and Tully, also of the Tully and Genesee at the falls in Dry Run. These formations disintegrate readily. The Portage contains no very heavy beds. The Tully, as shown by fig. 6, consists of several beds. This formation resists weathering better than the others, but its slight thickness, nowhere more than fifteen feet, does not enable it to form much of a shoulder or cliff on the valley wall. THE SEVERAL CLASSES OF VALLEYS. The valleys of this area appear to fall into four classes: (i) Those of greatest maturity; (2) those of a more recent cycle; (3) those of inter-glacial development; (4) those of post-glacial carv- ing. (i) Those of Greatest Maturity: Of the oldest valleys in the quadrangle Fall Creek is the most typical (fig. 2). The valley of this creek heads near the north margin of the quadrangle (fig. i), possibly a little north in the Skaneateles sheet. Its exact origin is somewhat indefinite because of burial by glacial drift. The valley, however, opens towards the south and in the vicinity of McLean joins a wider valley which leads from Cortland, trend- ing southwestward towards Ithaca. The valley of Fall Creek apparently is in topographic adjustment with this wider valley. There are also certain mature tributaries of the former valley, parti- cularly one which heads north from Summer Hill joining the major valley south of Groton City. Other arms of equal maturity (fig. 3) may be observed. To this same drainage cycle perhaps belong the wide contours which represent a former valley leading southwestward from 340 Frank Carney Locke. We may call this the North Lansing-Locke valley; it has a genetic relation to Salmon Creek valley of the Genoa quad- rangle, the first one west. Possibly of the same age is the valley extending eastward, with a tributary northward, from Montville. In this connection it may be suggested that the erosion slope of the area southeast of Moravia and east of Montville indicate that the maturity about Montville possibly has a genetic association with the work of the Locke-North Lansing stream. (2) Those of More Recent Cycle. Belonging to a cycle perhaps next younger than the one just described are the valleys of Skanea- teles Inlet and, in parts at least, that of the Owasco Inlet. Only a segment of the Skaneateles Inlet (fig, 5) is included in this sheet, in the northeast corner. ^ Glacial erosion has markedly altered the cross-section of these valleys as now they are in places walled by steep rock slopes; but a study of their cross-sections above the U-part of glacial erosion origin shows that they are less mature than the drainage lines considered in the preceding section. The Owasco valley southward from Moravia to the vicinity of Peruville bears several loops of moraine and a few areas of wider morainic bands. From the study given the region it is apparent that the rock boundaries of the valley narrow about two miles north of Groton; there must have been a former divide here for there is no stratigraphic cause for the narrowing. On this suppo- sition, the drainage which now controls this narrow area indicates a more recent period of erosion. (3) Those of Inter-glacial Development. The evidence of inter- glacial erosion on this sheet is very plain in a few localities, and probably more detailed work would discover other examples; my study of the sheet has given this matter only incidental atten- tion. The valley in which Montville lies hangs about 200 feet above the flood plain of Owasco Inlet valley; at the southwest corner of Main and Walnut streets in Moravia a well 200 feet deep does not reach rock, so the height of the hanging is at least 400 feet. The mouth of this lateral valley has not just a single channel through which its drainage has been let down into the controlling valley; but even the contour lines show evidence of two such channels; and there is strong evidence of a third apparently buried by the massive delta gravels to the north. The road from Moravia to Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 341 Montville by way of the flour mill has for a short distance a sharp grade up over the south wall of the present stream, then relatively a gentle grade the rest of the way; this latter part of the course is a deserted channel. While I have not attempted a final study of these channels, one hypothesis is as follows: The stream is now following, in part of the course from Montville, an inter-glacial route which came into use again early in the post-Wisconsin inter- val by a minor tributary gradually working its way back from the floodplain at Moravia, removing the delta gravels, etc., till it captured the drainage that had been flowing through the channel now deserted. That this channel, now followed by a highway, is of post-Wisconsin origin is believed because it contains neither till nor delta gravels; it is possible that stream work since the last ice-invasion has disclosed a channel carved earlier, but not very probable. About one mile south of Moravia is Dry Run, which rises near Lickville. For a mile in the lower part of its course this stream occupies a narrow rock-walled gorge; up-stream, the valley is more mature. Just south of the gorge segment is a wider, partly buried, rock-walled channel now occupied by a slight creek; the highway runs near this deserted course which has several char- acteristics indicating inter-glacial origin. This latter chamiel appears to correlate with the wider part of Dry Run valley, but no attempts were made to trace the buried portion. (4) Those of Post-Glacial Carving. All the present gorge- cutting on this quadrangle is but a continuity of erosion that has been in force since the withdrawal of the Wisconsin ice. Along the Moravia Inlet valley, commencing at the Freeville end, we find the first of these post-glacial gorges at Peruville. This is a short and rather shallow gorge in the lower formations of the Chemung rocks. It is very probable that much of this gorge-cut- ting work here represented was accomplished even while the ice was near at hand. The torrential aspect of the stream is evi- denced by the existing alluvial fan that is built out into the main valley at Peruville, a fan that is out of proportion to the drainage area controlled by this stream. Therefore the suggestion that the fan and the gorge represent abnormal drainage conditions. Proceeding northward through the inlet valley the side walls are so deeply buried beneath glacial drift, and the catchment basins of the creeks so limited, that post-Wisconsin time has but 342 Frank Carney Fig. 2. Looking slightly south of west from top of the i8io-foot hill east of Freeville. Shows shape of the lower Fall Creek valley, position of the Cayuga trough, also the Seneca-Cayuga divide. The wooded and cloud-shaded area on right center marks position of the George Junior Republic grounds. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 343 rarely sufficed to remove the drift sufficiently for much rock- cutting, so that there are no post-glacial gorges, though there are many sags or small valleys representing post-glacial stream ero- sion. Near Groton on the east side of the valley two streams for short distances are on rock, but this is nearly a mile from the floor of the main valley. North of Centerville we find the gorge of Dry Run (fig. 6), already alluded to. On the west slope of the Owasco valley we would anticipate many glens, since the steep fall should encourage rapid erosion, but the creeks have such limited catchment basins that they have been unable to produce any marked channels in the slopes. At Montville the stream coming from the north flows in the last mile or so of its course, between rock Walls. This stream has a fall of fifteen to twenty feet over the Tully limestone, which forms a conspicuous shoulder and is easily quarried along the east wall of the valley as far south as Locke; and a short distance down stream a slightly greater fall over hard layers in the underlying shale, the latter fall being used by the village of Moravia in con- nection with its electrical plant. Northwest of Lake Como is a slight post-glacial gorge cut in some of the harder layers of the Portage sandstone. The small basin of this stream is apparently all out of proportion to the gorge-cutting here present. The explanation of the condition, however, is apparent as one follows the highway toward North Summer Hill. Just east of this village, at about the head of the valley whose gorge we are describing, is found a loop of moraine (p. 366) marking a position where the ice stood for some time. The gorge-cutting was done when the valley was carrying a burden of ice-front drainage. About a mile east of Sempronius one passes between rock walls in following the highway into the Skaneateles valley. These rock walls cannot be connected genetically with present drainage; nor, from deductions that one would make, has the former develop- ment of drainage in the area developed the gorge. The only reasonable hypothesis for the gorge cutting here represented is that the erosion was done by ice-front waters, and this supposition is sustained by the nature of the channel which leads into the head of this rock gorge from the north (p. 432). In the southwestern part of the quadrangle near Asbury is another gorge which presumably represents the work of post- Fig. 3. Southeast of McLean is a tributary valley of Fall Creek, which heads in Cortland county. This view looks along the axis of this tributary valley, showing its flattened cross-section as well as the maturity of the major valley. Fig. 4. Looking east across the Owasco valley at Locke; camera stands near the i200-foot contour. Valley drift shows on both slopes. Fig. 5, Looking north through Skaneateles Inlet valley; camera stands near mouth of overflow channel. Small portion of lake shows in middle of picture; the heavily wooded slope paralleling eastern shore marks the upper limit of more vigor- ous ice-erosion. ■ Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 345 Wisconsin waters. This gorge continues westward into the Genoa quadrangle. In the discussion of post-Wisconsin carving it is apparent that no sharp distinction has been made between the work of immed- iately ice-front waters and the erosion-work of more recent streams. In all caseSj except the downhill gorges associated with the glac- ially steepened valley wallsj and the channels connected with the Skaneateles InleL both factors probably enter somewhat into the gorge-cutting. The Skaneateles Inlet channeb however^ is purely the work of an ice-front stream. PRESENT POSITION IN DRAINAGE CYCLE. Aside from a few post-glacial streams now in rock there is very little degradational work being done at the present time in the area of this quadrangle. Streams of this type have a local base- level due either to glacial overdeepening of the main drainage 346 Frank Carney lines of which they are tributaries, or to the work of an abnormal i quantity of water which their valleys carried in immediate post- glacial times. Such channels, where topographic adjustment is in progress, exist at Peruville, a few between Locke and Moravia, |i at Montville, and in the short tributary valley south of Dresser- l! ville. The base-level of the present Owasco Inlet valley is Owasco I lake, which is 464 feet above the level of Lake Ontario. The base- level represented by Lake Ontario is far removed from becoming ; active in the drainage degradation of the quadrangle. Fall Creek, | a tributary of the Cayuga valley over the eastern wall of which it jj now drops^ at Ithaca, controls a large portion of the Moravia jj quadrangle. But the base-level represented by the water in |i Cayuga valley initiates a new drainage cycle for such parts of the | quadrangle as are drained by Fall Creek. A recent cycle is also ' in operation for the valley tributary to the Owasco Inlet at Mor- ll avia. In all other respects this quadrangle occupies a prema- I turely advanced stage in its drainage cycle. The former major i drainage line, that is, the valley now controlled by the Owasco I Inlet, in its southern part has been so aggraded by glacial deposits j that many of the streams which preceding the ice invasion were I doing erosional work have in the main ceased to be agents of dis- integration. This glacial interference with the erosion cycle is i the same in kind as has become operative in all of these Finger Lake valleys. It becomes apparent, therefore, that one of the results of glaciation is the hastening of the position which drain- | age in its normal development would have brought about. On the other hand, certain upland valleys contiguous to these major drainage lines have been started on an entirely new cycle through i| the erosive work of ice in the longitudinal valleys to which the 1 upland valleys were pre-glacially graded. | Distribution of the Drift. GENERAL DISCUSSION. In accounting for the veneer or for the deeper accumulations of i: drift found in glaciated countries, one considers both the local topography and the topographical aspect of probably all the area [ ^ R, S. Tarr: Am. Geologist, vol. xxxiii (1904), pp. 271-91. A water fall due to the Tully limestone south of Moravia in Dry Run. Contact of Hamilton and Tully. 348 Frank Carney which intervenes along all the lines of ice movements between ij the region under discussion and the dispersion centers of the ice. i The load which an ice sheet acquires doubtless depends in the : first place upon the irregularity of the surface over which the ice i; is moving, and in the second place upon the attitude of that sur- ' face in reference to the dispersion area: that is, ice moving down j a slope does not perform the abrasive work conducive to the I acquirement of a great amount of debris, whereas ice moving !|i against a slope is apt to take on much more rubbish. The litho- | logical aspect likewise of the country being traversed is a factor |: of considerable importance. This factor enters into the question f in two ways: (i) Stratigraphical terranes that are easily denuded either by erosion or by abrasion suffer more from an ice cap than !i do terranes that because of structure are less easily influenced by j these agents. (2) On the other hand, the attitude of the rock { formations regardless of the general slope of the country is a I control in the acquirement of a load by glacial ice. In much the j same manner, but to a less degree, the abrasive work of ice is accentuated when the movement is against the dip of the rock. : I It has been noted that on coasts where the rocks dip seaward, ; wave work is less effective. The analogy between the erosion of ; waves and ice may not be close; nevertheless there is^a similarity h in the mechanical principles involved. 1 It is apparent, therefore, that a cross-section of the ice sheet | - transverse to the axis of movement would reveal an irregular dis- tribution of debris. This irregularity is due largely to the factors ' : already discussed, that is, the topography, and the attitude and |( structure of the rocks over which the ice has moved. If the local i topography were not a factor in the final disposition of drift by |li an ice-sheet, then any given moraine of an area would be the 1: counterpart of the termini of the lines of rubbish carried by the I - ice at the time of that halt. ; This consideration as yet has neglected the fact that ordinary 1 ground moraine is the sum total of debris in the ice that finally 1 covered the area of this moraine. The ideal example of such : drift-accumulation is seen only when some portion of an ice-sheet 1 ■ becomes stagnant and decavs. Then the load of drift in this | 1 stagnant ice will have, after melting, about the same areal dis- tribution that it had when enclosed in the ice. So it follows that ( a considerable area of detached ice might be marked by an accu- ^ i Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 349 mulation of deposits corresponding to the points where the drift was localized in the ice. Only in limited areas, perhaps, is any ground moraine due to this combination of conditions. ■ When the ice-melting and the ice-supply are about equal the resulting accumulation of debris is simply the piling up at the ends of the lines of ice movement of such quantities of drift as the i ice holds along these lines. The most typical illustration of debris thus assembled exists in the areas of thickened drift called terminal moraines, and along valley lobes and tongues which deposit drift known as lateral moraine and loops. Such bands represent the debris gathered by the ice along its paths of motion. Furthermore, the upturning of layers in the ice results in shift- ing laterally considerable debris that otherwise might reach a distal position in accordance with the conditions mentioned above. This phenomenon has been observed in Greenland in both the ice-cap and the dependencies.^ The other great factor in the distribution of drift is found in the relief of the region under consideration. This control works itself out in two ways; first, the local topography to a large extent estab- lishes the course of ice-front drainage; second, this local topo- graphy gives the ice-front its particular form. I will discuss these points in reverse order. The influence which topography has on the outline of the ice- front is a question that can be unraveled largely through mapping the drift. Certain theoretical considerations, however, are of aid, since a semi-plastic body naturally assumes forms consequent upon the outlines of the area over which it rests. The ice will feed out farther along the more deeply incised valleys, and will be hindered in its progress by the highest divides. It follows, then, that if a given region contains valleys longitudinal to the direction of the ice-feeding, these valleys will each be occupied by a tongue or lobe of ice. When the ice with this irregular front maintains a fixed position, the feeding and the melting being about equal, drift accumulates in lines along its borders. If, however, the area has slight relief, then the form of ice-front will reflect more nearly the lines of impulse of the ice-sheet. This principle would give us in a fairly level country a uniform ice- ^ R. D. Salisbury: Jour, of GeoL, vol. iv (1896), p. 791. Chamberlin and Salis- bury: Geology, voL i (1904), pp. 282-83. 350 Frank Carney front, and the drift which accumulates from such an ice-front 1 1 would take somewhat the outline of an arc whose ultimate radii ;i converge towards the dispersion centers of the ice. But it is rare that the dispersion centers so completely control the outlines of | c the ice in distant parts. With an expanse of intervening lowlands I and highlands, the original impulse suffers so many deflections that the resultant lines of movement in distal areas betray this impulse in only a slight degree; consequently when we are dealing with an area quite removed from the ice-dispersion centers, as the j St. Lawrence-Susquehanna divide region is, this latter factor may be largely neglected. Nevertheless the topographic influence exercised by the Ontario basin, inducing in the ice, once at least in its progress and once again in its retreat, a marked lobation, is a feature so pertinent to the whole matter of drift distribution to the south as to warrant some consideration. The general features of the Ontario lobe | have been understood by glacialists, with a fairly apt apprecia- tion, since Chamberlin’s^ work on the moraines of the “Second Glacial Epoch.” The contributions to a study of the control exercised by this lobe, made by Gilbert, Spencer, Taylor, Tarr, Fairchild, and others, constitute an inclusive study that gives certainty to a paper which concerns the smaller dependencies or valley lobes of this larger body of ice. The Ontario lowland formed as it were a great reservoir which insured a degree of con- stancy in the position of the ice as it reached southward through the Finger lake valleys. From a study of existing ice areas, it is probable that cyclic and climatic factors manifested themselves in the pulsations of activity shown by the continental ice-sheet. The variations of the smaller glaciers of Alaska, of the Alps, and of the dependencies to the Greenland ice-cap, all point to irregularity in the rate of feeding of the ice. When a given region lies leeward of such a basin as the Ontario area it is evident that these cyclic or seasonal varia- tions will be less manifest, the intervening low section acting as a reservoir. In a similar manner rivers are subject to control in their flood seasons. Because of this fact there probably were fewer important local readvances of the ice in the Finger lake region than in such topography as is found in the upper Missis- sippi valley. ^ U. S. Geol. Surv., Third Ann. Rep. (1883), Preliminary Paper on the Terminal Moraine of the Second Glacial Epoch. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 351 DRIFT IN VALLEYS. The Stationary position of ice tongues or lobes in valleys is generally marked by a loop of drift. The development which such loops across valleys may attain is dependent upon the follow- ing factors: (1) The Load Carried hy the Ice. It is needless to say that ice which contains no debris fails to register the position of its front. It is equally apparent, however, that in a topography of even slight relief the ice while passing over it accumulates some material so that where dissection has produced valleys maintaining tongues a halt of even short duration will be marked by drift; and that greater surface inequality, and a slope of the valley floor toward the ice, thus offering obstruction to its progress, furnish the con- ditions requisite for the deposition of thicker loops of drift. (2) The Grade of the Valley. The velocity of ice-front streams, and consequently the load that they are capable of transporting, depends on the slope of the valley floor. When these streams have slight velocity the debris gathering from the ice is more apt to be transported and deposited as a valley train. A sluggish stream, or a slackwater condition in front of the ice, offers a favorable condition to the building up of a valley train. Probably the topo- graphic association, on the supposition that the ice contains a good load of rubbish, most conducive to the development of a valley-loop, requires also a gentle slope, and a corresponding low velocity in the streams leading away from the ice. A valley tongue which extends into a static body of water, as was very often the case in the Finger lake region, should be marked by con- spicuous frontal accumulations of drift. In this case wave work, and the tendency of the finer debris to be carried off in suspension, are factors that in no wise antagonize the formation of heavy loops. (3) The Time Factor. The degree of development of this form of drift is directly controlled by the length of time that the ice maintains a permanent position : in other words, the period dur- ing which the melting and feeding factors are about equal. Even this condition requires a little closer analysis since it is evident that a low rate of ice-feeding accompanied by equally slight melt- ing, thus insuring a permanent position, destroys a minimum of ice; a thickened loop of drift in most cases represents the decay of much ice. Therefore, when the ratio of feeding and melting. 352 Frank Carney both factors being active, approximates unity, we have the com- ! bination most favorable to producing valley loops. (4) Texture of the Drift. The nature of the debris being accu- mulated likewise exercises some control over the development i attained by the loop. This control is shown more perhaps in the ' form of the loop. The coarser the material being assembled, the higher will be the loop. When the drift contains a large percent- age of clay, which when moist has a tendency to slump, the loop | will be low but broad; when the drainage of the valley is ponded, [ this slumping will be more pronounced; but even in the absence jj of static waters, which induce a genetic broadening of loops, post- jj glacial weathering tends to flatten them if much clay is present. | Likewise the condition of its gravel content, whether fine or coarse, | if sufficiently abundant, manifests itself in the slope of the loop. ! THE OUTLINE OF VALLEY LOOPS. | Since this form of drift marks the front of the ice, it is evident 1 that there are controls to which the shape of the ice-tongue itself is | subject, and which in ultimate analysis determine the outline of | the loop : (i) Obviousl}^ the vjidth of the valley, a feature contingent upon stage of development and upon the stratigraphy, will give two I types of loops. In a valley of gently sloping side walls, the form usually found in areas of fairly homogeneous rock structure, the loop formed is more symmetrical. It consists of two divisions, i the flood plain segment, and the lateral segments. When the valley is wide, the flood plain segment is relatively narrower, a condition due to the tendency of the ice-tongue to protrude along the axis of the valley. The lateral segments consist each of two arcs. The portion higher up the valley wall has a longer radius, i. e., slighter curvature, than the portion near the flood plain seg- I ment. It is apparent that the arc of the loop flattens as we pass j along it in either direction from the axis of the valley. But valleys having steep side walls, a condition due either to lack of maturity or to less resistant rock in which the valley is floored, underlying a more resistant formation, tend to shorten the arc of the flood plain segment of the loop; that is, the portion of the loop in the bottom of the valley is narrower than in the | former case. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 353 (2) It appears furthermore that the course taken by a loop in crossing a valley depends also on the depth of the valley. In deep valleys which have gently sloping side walls, the tongue of ice reaches farthest ahead of the main ice-front. Consequently the loop formed is more symmetrical, the lateral segments being many times longer than the flood plain segment. The lateral segments likewise drop so gently into the lowest part of the valley that they present a diagrammatic^ appearance. It is evident, therefore, that this control is better illustrated in mature valleys, such as those now occupied by the Finger lakes. (3) The form of loop may also reflect a lack of symmetry in the cross-section of the valley. It not infrequently happens that a spur of one side-wall is opposed to a gentle slope on 'the opposite side. A cross-section of the valley at this point gives un symmetri- cal slopes, and exerts a control on a loop developed there. Such a control gives the drift-loop on one of its sides a very straight or ridge-like appearance, the direction of the ridge marking the axis of feeding of the ice-tongue. (4) The relation sustained by the volley axis to the direction of ice-movement will also have an influence on the general outline of valley loops. Usually the topography exerts a strong control over the direction of ice motion along its more attenuated front, but this control is effective up to a certain relation of these axes, beyond which the direction of motion of the ice sheet decides the course taken by the loop in crossing a valley. Thus it happens that a loop, near the point of junction of two or more fairly mature valleys, may sustain a position anywhere between coincidence with the axis of the valley and at right angles to this axis. (5) The influence of marginal streams, as described by Tarr,* is frequently shown in the lateral segments of loops, producing sometimes a lopsided developm.ent. Slight oscillations of the ice-front cause a shifting of streams lateral to the valley lobes; both the erosion work of these streams and their unequal deposi- tion of load tend to the asymmetrical development of loops. ^ R. S. Tarr, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.^ vol. 16 (1905), p. 218. ® Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.^ vol. 16 (1905), p. 222. 354 Frank Carney VALLEY LOOPS OF THE MORAVIA QUADRANGLE. The generalizations in the above section have been deduced from a study of the loops detailed below: (l) In the Frceville-Moravia Valley. It is recalled (p. 340) that this valley is probably composite in origin. At present it con- veys through-drainage to the north from about the area of Free- ville; in the genesis of this valley a divide doubtless formerly existed a mile or so north of Groton, from which water flowed in either direction. This constriction in the rock-confines of the valley had some slight effect at least upon the outline of the valley tongue which occupied the Freeville- Mora via area during the retreatal halts of the ice. The general direction of the valley is quite accordant with the general direction of ice motion. This fact accounts for the many typically developed loops found in the valley. ''A. ” Extending southeastward from the vicinity of the George Junior Republic is a conspicuous ridge of drift, shown in fig. 7. The massiveness of this ridge taken into consideration with the great accumulation of drift contiguous to it, but slightly to the north, with also the thickened drift southward from Freeville against the south wall of the old Fall Creek valley (See Dryden Quadrangle) indicates a rather long halt of the ice. By consult- ing the combined topographic map it is observed that a mature valley extends northward towards the Freeville area from the direction of Dryden lake. This mature valley during several stages of the ice retreat carried valley dependencies whose posi- tions may now be read from the loops, but when the ice had retreated northward to the position occupied when the loop under discussion Was being developed, the front of the ice did not extend to the southeast into this old valley, but maintained a general north-south line across the mouth of the valley. In other words, the general position of the ice in the Moravia area at this time reflected the larger control being exerted by the lowland of the Cayuga valley. In this Cayuga valley the ice then reached much farther south than Freeville, so that the halt connected genetically with the loop under discussion was contemporaneous with a halt several miles south of Ithaca. An examination of this loop shows that it contains a large per- centage of clay, with some gravel. That this loop had a genetic ii Fig. 8. West segment of loop “E” viewed from south. Loop blends into drift covering valley wall near left margin of view. Just to right of smokestack the loop has been cut by a stream; the west end of the other segment shows on extreme right. Sag-and-swell valley drift appears in foreground. Pleistocene Geology of Moldavia Quadrangle 357 association with the conspicuous kame-area at Freeville and northward is a question discussed in another place. Just north of Freeville where the recently constructed highway reaches westward across the valley one notes an incon- spicuous accumulation of drift, suggesting a temporary position of the ice. This drift does not average over eight feet above the general outwash plain, but the alignment of scattered knolls indi- cates that the ice halted here briefly at least. The outwash gravels of a later ice-halt, and wave work of an ice-front lake which later covered the area have rendered less conspicuous this loop which had slight initial development. C. ’’ At Peruville, an alluvial fan on the west side of the valley reaches out almost to the drift which flanks the opposite side of the valley. It is noted, too, that the lingering of the ice at this point probably commenced slightly south of the present southward slope of this alluvial fan, but the melting and feeding factors lacked enough of being balanced so that a rather wide, low band of drift was developed across the valley. The abundance of washed deposits into which this loop blends on the east side, where the fan has not partially buried it, is a condition that will be discussed elsewhere in connection with the fact that in this part of our quadrangle the kame type of drift apparently predominates. '‘D.” About half way between Peruville and Groton, the drift which all the distance covers the walls of the valley, particu- larly the east wall to a considerable depth, narrows down into a ridge across the valley. We have to bear in mind constantly that through a large part of this Freeville- Moravia valley, moraine terraces and other forms of valley drift are so thoroughly developed that there is a tendency to mask the accumulation which would mark the position maintained for any essential length of time by the valley tongue. This condition perhaps accounts for the fact that some of these loops are so inconspicuously developed in the bottom of the valley that their diagnosis as moraines would hardly be permissible without the association of analogous drift higher up on the valley walls. ‘‘E’k Extending across the valley at Groton is another loop which has been cut through by a drainage channel probably from Its early history. The ice-front drainage maintained for some time after the ice had retreated far northward in the valley, an outlet to the south. It is thus that the ridge of drift at Groton is 358 Frank Carney not complete. As shown by figures 8 and 9 it is evident that ! the west segment of this loop is more conspicuously developed, i In connection with this fact it may be observed that the east wall I of this valley carries everywhere a great complex of drift, so that the normal condition of the east segments of nearly all the loops j is a lack of distinctness brought about through the massing of I drift by marginal drainage. It may be stated further that the I material constituting these loops is uniformly more gravelly in | the eastern than in the western segment. This fact is especially well illustrated in the Groton loop, as here the west segment con- sists prevailingly of till in which clay predominates, while the east segment discloses a great amount of gravel as exposed where cut into by the streets crossing it and passing over it up the slope, as well as in the pits that have been opened for road-making material, and also in the fact that the village cemetery is located on its top. ‘‘F.’’ Proceeding northward the present valley pinches down at the boundary line between Tompkins and Cayuga counties. Here the loop (fig. 10) is only less distinct than at Groton, and repeats the same arrangement as to the predominating constituents in the two segments. The prevalence of clay in the western part of this loop is the normal condition of the drift, not only at this point in the valley, but for about two miles to the north and rising up the slope to the west. On the other hand, the eastern segment of the loop, the eastern wall of the valley, and the adjacent uplands bear drift in which washed material predominates. ‘‘G.’’ About three-fourths of a mile southeast of Locke there extends out into the valley bottom from the east wall a conspicuous ridge of till whose axis of direction is not in harmony with the position of a valley loop. That the material is predominantly clay, containing many large bowlders, is evidence that the ice here maintained for some time a fairly constant position, but the direc- tion of the ridge is somewhat puzzling. It may be suggested that this particular ridge is the resultant of erosion. If so the reentrant angles, particularly on the north side, have lost all evidence of stream work such as would suggest this genesis for the axis of the ridge. Neither is there a catchment basin, nor at present any indication of springs that might furnish the water for the degrada- tional work. In this connection it may be noted that just west of the present inlet stream and railway there appear beneath the Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 35Q Frank Carney (D CO ti .5 ^ S o a ^ «) CO S C3 W D-, CO ■&)'= 3 ^ P -t;; end, has slumped forming a corrugated surface. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 361 delta several exposures of till which may correlate with this ridge; the location of the deposit of till now buried by the washed material of the delta conforms to the general trend of the ridge on the east side of the valley. North of Locke, about one-half mile, reaching out from the east side of the valley, is an accumulation of drift that sug- gests a halt in the ice. The analogous segment on the west wall is not well developed, if it ever existed, but there is noted along this west wall a large amount of till that probably represents the slow retreat of the ice, not a permanent halt. The suggestion of a loop on the east side may on the other hand represent a concen tration of drift, as the sections in it show an abundance of washed material from the region north and east, that is, the accumulations I of lateral-tongue drainage. This area of drift was originally irregular, and stream erosion has since greatly increased the irregularity. About one mile north of this last loop a more marked frontal lobe accumulation of drift crosses the valley. On either side this loop attains a fairly uniform development, and is espe- cially marked by the abundance of washed drift in the form of kames. This is particularly true on the western segment of the loop as appears in fig. Ii. The outwash in the valley southward to the loop discussed under is well developed. Fig. II. Looking southward on the west segment of loop “ 1.” 362 Frank Carney Northward from this halt the ice, so far as the drift in the valley | affords evidence, suffered a more rapid retreat. At any rate, no ' well-developed loops cross the valley; nevertheless both walls suggest a less rapid retreat of the ice in that they are fairly well mantled with irregularly distributed drift. Having in mind that : the retreating ice in the region of the lakes constantly held in I front of it, through several degrees of latitude, static bodies of water into which streams from the well dissected lands were pour- j ing their load of gravel, sand and silt, and the further fact that j the later ice-front lakes were of longer duration than the earlier |; ones, and consequently spread over their bottoms a greater i| amountof lake deposits, it is to be expected that mild loops, formed j with the slight halts of the ice, have been largely obliterated. A 1' long duration of such a series of factors would tend to efface the |l evidence of loops that formerly existed in this segment of the j| Freeville-Moravia valley. Furthermore, it is probable that the frontal parts of these loops were largely disseminated through the static water into which the loops were being deposited. (2) In Fall Creek Valley. It is recalled from thediscussion ji under drainage that the most mature topography of the Moravia quadrangle is found in, and adjacent to, the Fall Creek valley, j We recall also the fact that at McLean this Fall Creek valley, j as marked on the Moravia sheet, joins a master valley extending : southwestward towards Ithaca. The maturity of development found in both the master stream and the tributary have tended to produce, during the retreating stages of the glacier, a more |: evenly outlined form of ice-lobe; the gently rising side walls and j| the preglacial width of the valley bottom give us here quite a j| different type of loop than that described in the Freeville-Moravia 1' valley. ‘‘J.” In passing north and east from Freeville along the || Lehigh Valley Railroad one notes in the vic’nity of Red Mill the | converging, toward the valley-bottom, of the massive kame accu- jl mulations, particularly those on the eastern side of the valley. |j A short distance north from this place, at Malloryville, the valley }j becomes quite completely clogged with glacial debris. The ji typical developed esker (fig. 18) described elsewhere in this paper j, is found at this place. Kettle holes and other phenomena espe- j! cially characteristic of washed drift are numerous. The present ; stream has sluggishly picked its way through the massive accumu- j Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 363 lations of drift. This marked development continues to barricade the valley almost to McLean (fig. 21) a distance of fully three- fourths of a mile. At McLean the bottom of the valley again presents the wide flood plain appearance already alluded to north- east of Freeville. This accumulation of drift represents rather more perhaps than the mere halt of a valley tongue or lobe of ice. Its general appearance, however, in crossing the valley tends to bring the drift under the category of valley loops. A fuller dis- cussion, however, of this particular area is g ven under Karnes, since the predominating type of drift in this area is the kame. ‘‘K.’’ Proceeding northward from McLean one notes the rather constant mass of drift that the valley carries, more espe- cially along its western wall. The three highways that terminate in the east-west road passing through Nubia cross the drift just alluded to. The easternmost of these highways cuts through less glacial material than the other two; in fact, during the last half mile before reaching Nubia, the rock slope is slightly mantled. At the village of Nubia, however, the position maintained by the ice-front is more strikingly shown; a wall or ridge of drift pre- sents a convex outline as we proceed northward and for a quarter of a mile it is evident that the ice receded very slowly, as one is able to easily decipher briefer but very clear halts. Here, too, the bulk of the drift flanks the western wall of the valley. ‘‘L.” For about two miles, as we proceed northward, the drift on valley bottom and the side walls is monotonously uniform approaching Rogers Corners, east of which place there enters the major valley from the east a fairly mature tributary. The posi- tion which the ice maintained, with two tongues abutting the rock salient that extends northward between these valleys, is most plainly seen in the location of the drift ridges across the two valleys. Fig. 12 shows the appearance of a valley loop in the tributary valley; the ice-front drainage here was not as free as in the major stream. Furthermore, the topography to the east tended to concentrate into the tributary valley a large amount of drift brought by streams aligning the flank of the ice tongue; hence, the more conspicuous development of this latter loop. ‘‘M.” For the next mile northward the flood plain is not interrupted by ridges of drift, but just south of Lake Como, where the highway forks across the valley, a stationary position of the ice is read in the band of drift that intercepts the outwash. 364 Frank Carney w . 2 Jo O o h4 2 b . a • SP 3 jOt Pleistocene Geology of Ai or avia Quadrangle 365 A relationship of major and minor valleys, similar to that just described, exists also at this point. The direction, however, of the tributary valley is more normal to the major stream, and there- fore has not offered as favorable a topographical position for the development of a loop. Lake Como, an unusually large kettle lake, is bordered on the north and east (figs. 14, 15) by leveled drift hills in which gravel largely predominates. The kame-like aspect of the drift to the north and east of the lake is suggestive of the particular outline that the ice-front, as it lingered in this region, presented. ’’ For something more than two miles north of the vil- lage of Como the drift of Fall Creek valley does not indicate any long stationary halts of the ice, but near the present divide of the Fall Creek-Bear swamp drainage areas we have a well developed mass of drift which analyses itself into two or possibly three posi- tions of the ice. The drift, however, is so irregularly dissected in part probably because of the drainage which came through this section as the ice was in the neighborhood north, and in part too because of the lateral valley slopes, that one does not feel safe in a final statement as to the several distinct positions which the front of the valley tongue may have maintained. The southern line of the next quadrangle north cuts a valley loop, the major portion of which lies within the Skaneateles quadrangle. (3) Other Loops Principally in Tributary Valleys. ‘‘O.’’ The Skaneateles Inlet valley presents a mass of drift that cannot be differentiated into loops, if they exist, without a more complete study of the region to the east which lies without the quadrangle. Fig. 13 gives a general idea of the irregular surface of the drift which buries this valley. ‘‘P.’’ At Dresserville there is a strong suggestion of an ice- halt. The valley here is evidently deeply buried with drift, as is shown by well sections, some distance away from its axis. But in the main, this valley, especially north from Dresserville towards Morse Mill, presents such a heterogeneous surface that one does not feel safe in interpreting the drift from a standpoint of valley loops. There are, however, some very marked suggestions, par- ticularly on the eastern wall, of aligned deposits of drift that inti- mate the loop type. “Q.’’ At Wilson’s Corners about a mile north of Montville the vallev is completely barricaded by a very distinct loop. The 366 Frank Carney position maintained here by the valley tongue reflects topographic relations that exist on the north in the Skaneateles quadrangle. The outwash material synchronous with this loop has been masked by the delta and the other deposits of static water-body streams. Just east of North Summer Hill is the well developed loop, alluded to in the discussion of drainage (p.343.) The ice fed into this rather moderately developed valley from the northwest. The loop does not suggest a long halt of the ice. OTHER FORMS ASSUMED BY DRIFT IN VALLEYS. (i) The few suggestions already made to the problems one often meets in deciphering loops intimated the type of drift, if the dis- tinction is sufficient to warrant such a classification, that I attempt to give in the present category. One who has been around these Finger lake valleys is familiar with the localities where drift seems to clog the valley in a manner both without system and apparently without any particular or definable position of the ice genetically contiguous to the drift. For the purposes of classifica- tion we might designate such areas of glacial debris as massed^ valley moraine. For the formation of such drift accumulations three conditions, as it appeals to me, are requisite: (i) A period of time during which the ratio of the feeding and melting factors is a little less than unity. This condition then assures a fairly stationary position of the ice, and with ice that carries a heavy load much debris must accumulate. (2) Another requisite con- dition is such a topographic relation of valley floors and side Walls as tend to concentrate toward the axis of the valley the load car- ried by the streams flowing along and out from the margin of the ice. It is conceded that an amount of water abnormal to the present drainage in similar valleys must have trended towards the ice tongues throughout the retreatal stages. This water especially during the seasons of flood would cut both the drift already deposited, eroding it in a brief space of time into rough- ened forms, and tend to remove more speedily the debris contem- poraneously collecting at the foot of the ice walls. The pertinency ®Tarr discusses similar deposits under the heading “Moraine Complex in the Upper Cayuga and Seneca Valleys,” Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. vol. 16 (1905), pp. 225- 27. Professor Tarr also uses the term “morainic complex” for moraine in the up- lands which does not correlate with traceable moraine bands (Ibid., p. 223). Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 367 of the latter condition is dependent directly upon the slope of the valley in which the tongue lies; only when the valley slopes away from the tongue would this vigorous drainage at the axis of the valley obtain. (3) Reports of existing glaciers of a type more analogous to the lobes that characterized the front of the ice-cap often mention the tendency of crevasses to reach inward from the lateral slopes of the valley tongue. When the ice is relatively stagnant and the conditions of drainage exist as described under No. 2, these crevasses would not only be filled with rubbish, but^ with the normal melting would be enlarged till the accumulation of debris prevented further melting. Such conditions would account for some of the ridges of drift that are so reticulated in arrangement as to make their interpretation as valley loops absurd. Another feature of the above discussion follows as a corollary when there is a large amount of clay present in the drift. The scars of recent land-slips in the very areas under discussion show how at the present time the irregularity of the drift is being empha- sized. Glacial till in which clay predominates weathers more per- haps through solifluction than through erosion, and while soli- fluction need not necessarily render a topography more irregular, it is evident that wet clay when moving in mass produces scar- slopes that are much sharper than the initial surface. The best illustrations on the quadrangle of drift of this hetero- geneous type exist in the Skaneateles Inlet valley (fig. 13) and in the valley southeast of Morse Mill. Milder surfaces, though similar perhaps in genesis, are noted in the Fall Creek valley north of McLean against the west slope, and northeast of Groton in the Freeville-Moravia valley. (2) Terraces. Along the walls of valleys once occupied by tongues of ice are found terraces formed of materials dropped from the ice, and of debris deposited by marginal streams. Dur- ing the continuance of the glacier, these deposits tended to level up the depressions between the ice and the valley wall. Where- ever this marginal drainage was locally slack, or was temporarily ponded, much clay entered into the debris being collected. At the melting back of the glacier, the ice-contact face of these deposits assumed a lower angle, as shown by Watson.^ The ^Tarr: Zettschrift fur Gletscherkunde, band iii (1908), p. 87. * New Tork State Museum Report^ vol. 51 (1897), p. 178, figs. 12, 13. Fig. 13. Kame phase of the drift in Skaneateles Inlet valley. 368 Frank Carney \ j; present slope of the marginal terraces and their evenness of front j! depend upon the material composing them. When clay is present in quantity the terrace is apt to be represented by a series of alluvial fan-like ridges, but disproportionately long in direction normal to the proper front of the terrace, which from a distance j appear as corrugations on the valley wall. When, however, gravel is conspicuously present the terrace longer maintains its original j form. The most typical illustration on the Moravia quadrangle l| of the corrugated slopes which may characterize terraces is seen || 11 towards the foot of the valley wall southwest of Moravia. At | first sight it might appear that these short ridges and interven- ; ing troughs are but the normal result of erosion. A closer study | on the ground shows that the clay, so abundant, has assumed this form through a long series of slippings, thus illustrating^[the ! type of weathering known as solifluction.® The normal moraine terrace, as studied in valleys, has been J. G. Anderson: Journal of Geology, vol. xiv (1906), pp. 91-1 12. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 369 so frequently and accurately described^® that no further reference is needed here. (3) Ridges, There appears in all the valleys studied a per- sistent form of drift which it seems most natural to classify under this heading, although the name is not at all suggestive of origin or development. They consist more frequently of till; but gravel sections occur in many of them. They vary much in length, the longest one noted measuring about one-half mile, while the general length is less than twenty rods. In general direction these ridges are either transverse or longi- tudinal. As to their method of formation they may be construc- tional or destructional. As a general condition, however, this form of valley drift is found near the foot of the valley walls, seldom out very far in the flood plain. One form of the constructional type is shown in figure 10. This was made of debris accumulating along the margin of the valley tongue, and consists largely of till. The northern end of this ridge resembles a kame; southward the ridge has lost its original height through slumping to both sides. A longitudinal section shows a decline from 60 feet at the north to zero at the south; the sides at the higher part slope 24° to 26°. Clay predominates in the southern part, whereas gravel increases towards the northern end of the ridge. Another constructional form of ridge may be developed in the j distal area of a valley lobe which, following a period of less activ- ity, has developed openings or crevasses in consequence of an i advance the ridges represent the concentration of debris by ji streams. Glacial drainage is not connected with this particular 1 type of drift save when very near the edge of the ice. It fre- I quently happened that tributary valleys were occupied by the 1 lateral tongues of ice which in position were transverse to the 1 drainage flowing from the north along the margin of the ice lobe. In this condition probably the stream for some distance had its I bed over the ice which thus reached out into the tributary valley. ! That a super-glacial course of streams always hypothecates such I an arrangement of valley lobe and lateral tongue is not implied. Chamberlin: Third Ann. Report,X^. S. Geol. Surv. (1883), p. 304. Gilbert: Monograph /, U. S. Geol. Surv. (1890), pp. 81-83. Tarr: Phys. Geog. of New Tork State (1902), p. 85. Tarr: Zeitschrift fiir Gletscherkunde^ band iii (1908), p. 99. 37° Frank Carney The only condition insisted upon in this form of the constructional type of ridge is that the coincidence of such a stream course and one or more crevasses would give the requisite relation of ice and a loaded stream to produce the accumulation of debris noted in these ridges. The destructional ridge results from the erosional Work of ice- front streams whose courses have been shifted either by a slight advance of the ice or by a barrier derived from a localized greater load of debris in the ice. The suggestion as to a localized condi- tion of debris is found in the reports^^ of Chamberlin & Salisbury’s studies in Greenland. (4) Isolated Hillocks. A featureless outwash plain is some- times most surprisingly interrupted by a lone hill of drift often so symmetrical in development as to suggest artificial origin. I have also seen a few such hills on the upland near the east side of the valley between Locke and Groton. They consist of both till and washed deposits, the latter being more common. As to origin, it seems reasonable that these lone hills of drift may mark the brief continuance of factors which would produce, if given more time, some of the ridges described in the preceding section; subdued moulin work might make such hills. It is not forgotten that a considerable degree of symmetry might in time be developed by normal subaerial erosion on an original mass of drift less regular in outline. The fact, however, that no constant condi- tion as to water-laid or ice-laid drift is prevalent in these hills precludes our interpreting them as less well developed kames. (5) Kame Areas. Hillocky areas of prevailingly stratified drift are formed in valleys either at the margin of the ice or back aways from the front as the ice becomes rather stagnant. Such areas are noted in the triangular plains that mark the union of mature valleys. They are likewise noted along the valley walls in the intervals between loops of drift. This type of drift in which washed material predominates has also been observed in the higher -^rea between valleys. The promiscuous location of these kame areas tends to eliminate a topographic control as the sole factor in their genesis, though it is evident that more of such drift is found in some topographic relations than in others. The most extensive kame-area of this sheet is found east and Geology, vol. i, (1904), pp. 296-97. i Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 371 ! north from Freeville. The kames of this region have already been : given a place in the literature of glacial geology While the I kames here are conspicuously developed, nevertheless they are I no more typical than are those formed northward in Fall Creek j[i valley about McLean. Both well records, and sections exposed 1 in excavations, reveal the constant presence of water in the genesis i of this drift. Numerous kettle holes are suggestive of a stagnant [ condition of detached portions, at least, of ice. The distorted 1 layers noted in some sections suggest either slight readvances of t the ice, or slumping, following the accumulation of this washed 1 drift. Bearing in mind the control exercised by the Cayuga valley on the lobation of the ice-front, we are able to understand how I this mature Fall Creek valley is so largely filled with drift in I the area between McLean and Freeville. For the sake of empha- ‘ sis in this relationship of controlling-topography and position of t the ice-front in this area it is assumed that the general direction ( of the Fall Creek valley from McLean towards Ithaca may have I been coincident, for a time at least, with the front of the ice along I the eastern part of the Cayuga lobe. In this relationship we are I ignoring minor tongues which were encouraged by the lesser details I of topography. The existence of these minor tongues has I tended, it is evident, to facilitate the accumulation of this washed i drift in the region under discussion. Extending southeastward from Freeville is the Dryden valley which was occupied by a dependency of ice that gradually shortened in length as the general front of ice moved northward. That Dryden valley continued to be a factor in the outline of the ice-front even after it had ceased to be occupied by a tongue of ice is evident from the discussion already given of the valley loop which reaches southward from the vicinity of George Junior Republic (p. 354). This loop marks a static condition of ice showing that for a considerable time the general front of the glacier, approaching Ithaca from the vicinity of McLean, was convex toward the Dryden valley but did not extend into it. Because of such a relationship then, a condition of slackened- ice-front drainage obtained during the retreat of the ice in the McLean-Freeville region. Observing the relief of the region R. S. Tarr: Phys. Geog. of New Tork State (1902), fig. 68. 372 Frank Carney to the north and eastj we note a topographic environment that directed into this area of kames a large amount of drainage both along the general front of the ice and from the higher ridges towards Virgil in the Cortland quadrangle. A more or less stationary ice mass bearing a considerable load offers an added explana- tion for the peculiar localization of stratified drift and of outwash ; deposits found in the vicinity of Freeville. While this discussion i has emphasized a relationship that existed for some time as shown by the valley loops already described, I am not overlooking the fact that this somewhat stationary position of the ice probably i was slowly reached and as slowly receded from; during this period of gradual change a great amount of gravel and other washed material was accumulating. While in the main I have considered the kame areas in the Freeville-McLean region as quite identical in development, there are, nevertheless, some features that indicate partial inde- pendence of origin. By consulting the topographic map we note, a short distance east of Red Mill, a slight creek that follows the sags across the irregular drift reaching ultimately out onto the flood plain. The limited catchment basin which this stream has, when considered from the standpoint of the well developed crease it occupies, proves the former erosive work of an active stream. This fact leads me to conclude that the kame area south of McLean is in part of later chronology than the Freeville kame area. The creek occupies a valley which it never could have cut with any such amount of water as might flow under normal conditions from the basins which it drains. Its more mature course has an axis which leads it westward of the Freeville kame district. In other words, the portion of the Freeville kame area that reaches nearest Red Mill was in existence when ice-front drainage cut the channel now occupied by this slight creek, and accordingly it is concluded that the conditions for drift-accumulation were present in the vicinity of McLean long after the ice had entirely withdrawn from the immediate region of Freeville. The portion of the McLean kame area which probably is contemporaneous with the first formed part at least of the Freeville kame area lies near the eastern wall of the Fall Creek valley in the vicinity of, and immediately south and east of, Mud Pond. The connection of the Malloryville esker with the washed drift north of this village is discussed in the chapter on Eskers. It may Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 373 be said here, however, that after very detailed work in the field there appears to be no genetic association between these kames and the esker. Hills of washed drift contemporaneous in origin with the Mallory ville esker lie to the west; probably a much longer esker was developed than may now be deciphered, for the reason that the kame type of drift filling the portion of the valley into which the esker leads has apparently buried a part of the esker 1 ridge. The striking kame topography south and west of McLean is apparently more typical for this type of drift than similar accumu- I lations noted elsewhere on the sheet. In the immediate vicinity 1 an ice-front lake occupied for some time this part of the valley. A delta was built into this body of water at McLean; otherwise I the broken kame topography is not interrupted till we reach the I flood plain deposits some distance east. In the wide valley extending northeastward towards Cortland there I is near the edge of the sheet, but more typically developed just over the boundary in the Cortland quadrangle, another area of I kames. Here too, as in the Freeville region, the maximum devel- opment is on the south or east wall of the valley. Another conspicuous group of drift hills, prevailingly washed ! in texture, skirts the shores of Lake Como (fig. 14). The kames of this region are not distinctly different, save in their slighter development, than the sections already described; that many of i these drift knolls have been altered is evident from the photograph / shown in figure 15. Apparently a static body of Water stood here ' in front of the ice; its greatest areal extent endured pending the ' cutting down of its outlet through the drift loop just south; lake . Como is the remnant of this larger lake. The level of the former lake coincided approximately with the tops of many of the drift- hills; waves attacked the drift distributing the products; the pro- : cess continued as the outlet was lowered; accordingly many of these knolls now present a very flat-topped appearance, j In this section, too, an esker of sharp development leads south- ' westward from a slight kame area near the road crossings desig- |i nated Como. The massed drift which now constitutes the divide between the 1 headwaters of Fall Creek and Bear Swamp Creek is, in localities, I very kamy; but the Water-laid deposits are not sufficiently de- veloped to designate the region as a typical kame area. 374 Frank Carney Along the east wall of the valley north of Groton the general drift in areas consists prevailingly of washed materials in rounded knolls, and sometimes more strongly developed. This is espe- cially true in the vicinity of the loop near the boundary line of Tompkins and Cayuga counties. In this region, and for three- quarters of a mile east, the kame aspect of the drift predominates. Again, on the east wall of the valley near Locke (fig. 4) the highway leading to Summer Hill passes through very strikingly developed hills of washed drift. The topography here indicates Fig, 14. Looking westward over kame deposits north of Lake Como. slackened drainage, as at least a temporary condition, of ice- front waters. A mile or so west of Locke in the vicinity of Goose Tree the water-laid content of the drift is so conspicuous as to intimate conditions that produce the kame type of deposit. This may be said of much of the drift of this area, both south and west, and southwest to North Lansing. About a mile east of West Groton the front of the ice, in this broad divide area, offered the right relationship for producing a . : predominance of water-laid drift. The moraine band here for ' Frank Carney some three-quarters of a mile is very kamy both in surface appear- ance and in texture. From Benson Corners the drift for one and one-half miles south and east is made up of a maze of water-laid hills, (fig. i6), most irregularly distributed. Locally this belt of moraine is over one-half mile wide. Also, the kame aspect is very marked along the ice-front southwestward toward Asbury. In the vicinity of West Dryden the kame type likewise charac- terizes the drift. Indeed, the isolated areas in which water-laid moraine prevails are found irregularly scattered about the whole sheet. In this rather detailed inventory but two more particular locali- ties need be mentioned. Immediately westward from Fitts Corners the kame aspect of the drift is accentuated. This locality is on the divide between the Moravia-Freeville valley on the one hand and Fall Creek valley on the other; apparently ice-front waters had free drainage. These kame hills, therefore, have a topographical location that suggests quite a different genesis from the kame areas already described in, or adjacent to, valleys. Again, about one-half mile northeast of Morse Mill there is an extensive deposit of kame drift; and the water-laid moraine con- tinues northward, but not so well developed, into the next sheet. (6) Eskers. On this sheet two general types of eskers exist: (i) Those due to local topographic control; these are short, usually transverse to the direction of the valley axes, starting on one wall and terminating not far from the foot of the slope; (2) The other type appears to be less influenced by the minor details of relief. A full description of eskers appears in a later section. (7) Flood Plain Deposits. These deposits are of two types: (i) Valley trains, the form developed in narrow valleys between morainal loops. In the valley of Fall Creek, and in a portion of the Moravia-Freeville valley, the valley trains attain typical develop- ment; they are discussed in detail later (p. 392). (2) Outwash plains noted especially at the wide triangular junction of twoor more valleys where the several distributaries from the ice-front built up individual fans which coalesced into outwash plains. A few areas in the uplands have also been noted, bearing this same type of drift. (8) Lake Bottom Deposits. The high-level lakes, held by the ice in the topographical basins of the sheet, are marked by a I Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 377 veneer of lake sediments, which is not constant and its localiza- tion is somewhat puzzling. Two areas in particular may be mentioned: (i) The triangular section about Freeville; (2) The valley northwards from Locke and Moravia. The former of these has a topographic relationship that upon casual observation seems to offer no basin for enclosing a high-level lake. We recall the discussion of drainage lines in this area: Extending from Freeville toward Ithaca is the wide mature valley of Fall Creek, probably the oldest dissection line in the whole region. This valley, as pointed out by Tarr^^ hangs several hundred feet above Cayuga valley at Ithaca. The controlling ice lobe of the reg on was in Cayuga valley. During one of its retreatal stages, when perhaps its most distal reach was in the area of West Danby, several miles south of Ithaca, lateral tongues extended eastward into Sixmile creek, and Cascadilla valleys, while the eastern side of the lobe had a position northward from Turkey Hill (Dryden Quadrangle) blocking the wide flat-bottom valley of ancient^^ Fall Creek. The general northeast trend of the ice contempor- 1 aneous with this halt presumably marked an irregular line towards Cortland. It is felt, furthermore, that the valley tongue which I for some time maintained a position at Groton (p. 357) may have 1 been contemporaneous with the early period of this halt across '' Fall Creek valley in the vicinity of Varna. In connection with this discussion we need to note the possibility of southward over- [I flow for this high level lake. The earliest static water about Free- ! ville overflowed by way of the Dryden valley.^® This stage Was I succeeded by others with spillways via Turkey hill, the details of ! which are given in a later section (p. 415). Even at the time of its highest outlet this lake was not deep. With the presence not far to the north, along the Freeville-Moravia and also along the valley about Cortland, of active ice, causing turbid water, which was the source of this clayish sediment, we have an explanation for the lake-bottom deposits noted in the vicinity of Freeville. The further fact that this clay deposit is more markedly developed in I that portion of the triangular area towards Groton is in harmony j with the hypothecated position of the ice; in the angle towards I Am. Geologist^ vol. xxxiii (1904), p. 273. ^®F. Carney: “A Type Case in Diversion of Drainage,” Jour, of Geog.^ vol. ii (1903), PP- 115-24* T. L. Watson: loc. cit.y p. 292, 378 Frank Carney Fig. i6. Kame hills south of Benson Corners. Fig. 17. The corrugated clay surface near foot of west wall of valley south of Moravia viewed from top of loop “I. ” Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 379 Cortland the development of clay is less conspicuous, as the area contains much outwash gravel which I describe in a later section. The second area of these lake-bottom deposits is not so typical a case. The presence of clay south of Moravia has already been alluded to. While this clay may be interpreted as belonging to a temporary lake, nevertheless its deposition may be connected partially with a static body of long duration. The best illustra- tion of it is found flanking the west Wall of the valley near Moravia. Here the clays through slumping have assumed a corrugated form (fig. 17), mentioned in describing the drift of this region. Perhaps the case is not clear as to the controlling cause in this slump- ing. One would hardly expect such localization of lake clays as this area of slipping indicates. On the opposite side of the valley, however, the massive delta deposits (p. 410) indicate less quiet waters, as well as an additional source of the finer-textured sediments. While elsewhere in the valley only slight areas of this same clay have been noted, nevertheless I did not find such exten- sive deposits as would necessarily indicate a lake of long duration, carrying in suspension a marked amount of this clastic material; waters impounded along the valley tongue, or a stagnant portion of a valley tongue^^ may have afforded opportunity for its develop- ment. It should be remembered, however, that northward from the last moraine (p.361) loop which is about a mile south of Mo- ravia the valley-bottom obviously is the result of such deposition- work, both clastic and organic, as characterized the latest stages of the high level lakes. It is felt that the study of these lake clays constitutes by itself a problem for investigation, and that the few facts here contri- buted barely touch the matter. The longitudinal valleys of Central New York each furnish more or less that should be studied and combined into a more detailed report on this topic. DRIFT OF THE UPLANDS. To draw a fast line between a region that would be classified as upland, and the valley area, is not easy. For the sake of discus- sion, however, we will take for the Moravia quadrangle the 1300- foot contour in general as the line of demarcation, along valley slopes, between upland and valley. On this premises the general ^’Tarr: Zeitschrift fiir Gletscherkunde, band iii (1908), p. 99. 380 Frank Carney thickness of the upland drift as attested by 210 well records is 24.6 feet; and so far as 29 borings in the valleys give information the depth of drift in the latter area averages 112 feet. This latter measurement, however, has slight value since in these lowland areas water for domestic purposes is abundant at such slight depth that few deeper borings have been made.^^ (i) Ground Moraine, Under this heading is included the glacial debris of irregular thickness covering the intervals between accumulations that mark more permanent halts of the ice. From a study of the areas over which the ground moraine is thinnest, it appears that the topography is an active factor in its distribution. Between the longer dissection axes of the localities where the drift is thin, and the direction of striae is a pronounced parallelism. This veneer of ground moraine presumably represents the load of rubbish carried by the ice that remained when the ice covering these areas, in no case very extensive, had become sluggish or stagnant, plus any sub-basal drift already accumulated. So long as active feeding persisted, the front of the ice probably main- tained more or less fixed positions particularly in the region of lower altitudes, the valleys. It appears, therefore, that the nor- mal outline of the ice-front in the Moravia quadrangle was serrate, the divide between the longitudinal valleys being ice-free while lobes and tongues occupied the intervening low areas. This ice- free condition of the higher regions probably followed a brief period during which stagnant or semi-inert ice covered the recently freed area. These were periods of less active feeding when the melting factor was much the stronger. The ground moraine consists largely of such a load of rubbish as this static ice contained. Where, however, in certain upland localities we find thickened drift, it is evident that the ice receded more slowly in consequence of much less inequality between the feeding and melting factors, the melting factor being slightly ascendant. In such areas it is apparent either that the ice retreated slowly, or that it contained a very large amount of rubbish. So far as the investi- gation has proceeded we have not been able to find in the topo- graphic environment itself a plausible control for thickened drift of the uplands. The extremes for the well records below the 1300 contour are 45 feet and 300 feet 6 inches, neither of which reach rock; above this contour the extremes are zero and 135 feet. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 381 Some quite extensive areas are particularly free of drift. These generally are regions of active ice erosion. One such locality exists south of Locke, commencing 'with the i20C-foot contour, and embracing a region of some five or six square miles north- ward of West Groton. The thin veneer of drift present consists of local stones embedded in an exceedingly slight amount of other drift. Some quite extensive plots are free of any drift, the local rock presenting a bare surface. Another similar locality is found southwest of Moravia, on the ascending slope which is reached by the first road running eastward from the valley. Here the horizon of very thin drift commences likewise at about the 1200- foot contour, and comprises three or four square miles. The description given for the area south of Locke is applicable to this region. These two areas are typical of several others which are usually found on rock outliers, presenting a prow towards the northwest; in each case the longer axis of the fairly drift-free surface is quite parallel to the general direction of ice movement. (2) Terminal Moraines. As the ice retreated across the Mo- ravia quadrangle its front kept a general northeast-southwest position. The minor irregularities in its front gave rise to the several forms of valley drift discussed above. While the ice stood at a certain place in a valley, and drift was accumulating about the margin of the tongue, deposits were also forming away from the valley, thus registering the position of the ice in the uplands. If after the ice had kept a stationary front for some time, by feed- ing as fast as it wasted, there followed a period of much more rapid melting, thus causing the front to retreat rapidly, no pronounced accumulation of moraine would be formed; then if this period was I succeeded by one in which the feeding and melting of the ice were j about equal, thus depositing in a narrow strip all the debris car- ried by this wasted ice, we would have one more band of moraine. If, on the other hand, we do not have these alternating areas of thick and sparse drift, but instead an almost continuous heavy ' sheet of drift, which in fact is a wide moraine, we conclude that the ice wasted rapidly but fed on at but a slightly less rate; with ' such a relation the front of the ice receded slowly, and much I debris accumulated. The peculiar feature of the ice-front and the resulting arrange- ment of the drift in this quadrangle is its direction. The Cayuga 382 Frank Carney valley is 'wide and deep; for this reason a lobe of ice reached into this valley, extending far in advance of the front of the ice-sheet. But this valley itself is near the center of a greater basin, occupied by the Finger Lakes included between Otisco lake on the east and Canandaigua lake on the "west. The effect of this Finger Lake basin on the general outline of the ice-front is 'well shown in Cham- berlain’s map of the terminal moraine of the ‘‘Second Glacial Epoch. The proximity of such a deep valley just west of the Moravia sheet, and the fact that the southern half of this vallev trends to the southeast, together with the fact that the sheet lies in the eastern half of the Finger Lake basin, accounts for the general northeast-southwest direction which the ice-front main- tained as it gradually withdrew across the area. While it is easy in the principal valleys of the sheet to map the longer halts of the ice as indicated by the loops, there was much uncertainty in definitely correlating the drift of the uplands with these loops. Two reasons particularly contribute to this con- dition: (i) The uplands contain irregular relief; in consequence the ice-front was also irregular, assuming new positions more frequently than in the valleys. (2) The work of marginal streams tended to blend the drift of these shorter halts. West of the Free- ville-Moravia valley, there is slightly more system in the moraine; also in the southeast corner of the quadrangle distinct moraines were mapped. In certain localities the moraine is characteristically developed. I will describe some of these, attempting at the same time to corre- late them with general changes in the position of the ice; plate XII gives hypothetical chronological positions of this ice-margin. But the following discussion does not always consider the moraines in their supposed order of origin : {a) The high points in the extreme southeast corner of the quadrangle were the first of the sheet to be ice-free. A beauti- fully developed moraine skirts these slopes. Between it and the westernmost of the hills the drainage from the ice-front escaped. In places this moraine is kame-like; one well gives a record of 70 feet mostly of gravel. ib) Following this halt of the ice a second position is indicated by a belt of thickened drift cornmencing east of Mud Pond and S. GeoL Surv., Third Annual Report (1883), plate xxxiii. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 383 I ranging in altitude from 1240 to 1340 or 1350 feet. This moraine I bears southward for a couple of miles and then directly south I continuing along the hills east of Dryden in the Dryden quad- I rangle. In this distance its upper margin drops about 50 feet I in altitude. In texture, so far as revealed in scattered sections, ! clay predominates, though areas of washed drift are not uncom- ' mon. The most marked development in this belt is attained I nearer the edges of the quadrangle, the thinnest portions being found in the segment southeast of Malloryville. In the north ; part, or near Mud Pond, the belt blends with the kame deposits I already referred to, the only distinction being in the texture of the II materials; but southward there is no ambiguitj/ as the drift both I above and below the band is very thin. (^) The great areas of kame moraine in the valley northeast- ward from Freeville probably indicate a slow retreat of the ice. A lake ponded in the Dryden valley reached into this area; the prevalence of the kame drift is partly due to this fact. East of McLean there is an extensive flat surface in the valley which sug- gests the burial of a stagnant mass of ice;^® this mass was left as the high region just north appeared above the ice which afterwards fronted in Fall Creek valley. But south of McLean the retreat was gradual. At and west of Freeville there is a region of two or more square miles from which the ice appears to have withdrawn quickly; it is not improbable that a subdued moraine topography here may have been modified first by lake deposits and later by stream erosion. At any rate, in the valley itself, the first evidence of an ice-halt succeeding the loop south of the Junior Republic is one-half mile north of Freeville, where the slight development of the loop indicates a short halt. ! iFrom this time on till the glacier had disclosed about four- fifths of the sheet the line of its front trended south westward. South of the parallel of Locke, the area between the Owasco Inlet and Fall Creek valleys is almost continuously buried by morainic drift from 20 to over 130 feet thick; there are three small outliers on which the drift is thin, hut the surroundings are mo- rainic. I was unable to definitely correlate much of this drift with halts in the valley south of Groton; the map gives one inter- pretation. But the Groton loop is part of a sharply developed ^‘’^Tarr: Zeitschrift fiir Gletscherkunde, band iii (1908), p, 98. 3^4 Frank Carney moraine which reaches across the sheet. Northwest of Groton this loop leads into a wide moraine the southern part of which may have been deposited when the ice extended a little farther south in the main valley; this drift blends continuously with deposits west and northwest. Where the highway leading east from West Groton crosses this drift it has a kame topography; for about a mile southward washed drift characterizes the belt. Crossing the slight valley of the brook which leads southeastward through Pleasant Valley to Peruville this moraine forms a low ridge or loop. Its continuation from this point is marked by the kame hills indicated in the irregularity of the 1400-foot contour line on the south wall of this valley. At Benson Corners this moraine shows a variety of development. North and a little west of the Corners it assumes a ridge-like form, the axes having a northwest-southeast trend; while south of the Corners the drift has a typical kame aspect. This kame topography continues in a southeast band to the headwaters of Mill Creek, where a conspicuous ridge of drift crosses the valley indicating an earlier halt of the ice which is farther defined by the outwash gravel spread to the southeast; this ridge rises on the south Wall of the valley to the 1280-foot contour, and the moraine, noted in line with a continuation of this ridge, crossing the higher area to the southwest, is another indication of this temporary position of the ice; drift of contemporaneous origin is found in the vicinity of the third south-leading highway, east of the southwest corner of the sheet. It is apparent that this moraine is complex in development because the ice was gradually retreating with temporary halts. The two temporary halts already mentioned represent the pro- trusion of ice into low upland valleys, namely. Mill Creek valley and that of the Pleasant valley stream. These two variations indicate slight time periods, preceding the more permanent posi- tion which caused the major development of this moraine, which correlates more nearly with the Groton loop. Returning, then, to the kame plexus south of Benson Corners, we note that this band of drift takes a direction to the southwest where it again has a very kame-like appearance (fig. 16), in the vicinity of the highway-crossing approximately one mile south- west of Benson Corners. Here the ice-front held an east-west course for about one-half a mile, continuing thence in a line Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 385 approximately south-20°-west. The drift ridge which marks the latter position is followed by a highway, the second north-south road east of Asbury; it is also indicated by the contour line. This moraine continues in the general direction already mentioned southward leaving the sheet. The sharpest development of the ridge is in the valley east of Asbury; nevertheless the line of drift may be traced southward up over the rock salient, which has an altitude of 1120 feet, thence down the south slope of this hill, where the drift becomes more kame-like and blends into the accumulations of the Dryden sheet. The ice apparently kept this general position for a time after the valley tongue had withdrawn from Groton, for this moraine I continues, when traced northward, into Cayuga county, blending ' with valley drift west of loop ‘‘F’’ (p. 358). I Would allude again to the fact that this moraine shows clearly 1 the control exercised by the Cayuga valley lobe on the ice-front 1 in this part of the Moravia quadrangle. The irregular course I of the drift belt is not so perplexing when We consider the topog- I raphy of the Genoa sheet in connection with that of the Moravia I quadrangle. This is further evidence that the particular form 1 assumed by the margin of a receding continental glacier reflects I the local topography to a much greater extent than the general I topography of the area farther northward. The eastern segment of the Groton loop continues northward; I but the whole region east and northeast of Groton is such a mo- rainic complex^^ it is quite impossible to map particular halts except where a minor protuberance of the ice has stood across one of the upland valleys from which it retreated rapidly, as south of Summer Hill, and again west of this place. The greatest established depth of this drift is 135 feet, a well record on the Summer Hill road at the farm of A. C. Ranny, and this well does ' not reach rock; directly south of this well, on the next road, rock was reached at 85 feet. The last position of the glacier associated with the moraine under consideration is indicated by a band of drift, in places one-half mile wide, extending to North Summer I Hill where a stationary position of the ice-front is indicated by , both the heavy hummocky moraine and the drift loop. 1 Eastward, the ice reached south in crossing the lower area about Lake Como; a very distinct terminal moraine was developed Tarr: Bull. Geol. Soc. Jm., vol. 16 (1905), p. 223, 386 Frank Carney contemporaneous with part of the moraine discussed above; this will be described next. {d) Extending northward from the vicinity of Como the 1700- foot contour marks the general course of another of these distinct bands of drift. The arrangement of the moraine east of Como has already been referred to in connection with the valley deposits; the valley east of Como contains much drift. Its association with the moraine northward is not entirely clear, though it seems evi- dent that part at least of the drift in this short valley is contem- poraneous in origin, i.e., that for a few miles here the front of the ice was nearly north-south. The hill just northeast of Como, which reaches an altitude of 1700 feet, is in the main drift-covered, part of which is elsewhere described as nunatak deposit (p. 388), an explanation not essentially at variance with moraine interpre- tation of the drift to the northward; I have frequently noted evidence of these briefer positions of the ice preceding a longer halt. Near the ice-front channel leading into Skaneateles Inlet valley this drift assumes a rather kame-like phase; in this northern portion the heavy part of the moraine is rather narrow and thins both up and down the slope. Along a line paralleled by the highway southward from the entrance to the Skaneateles over- flow channel the drift again thickens; it is probable that this represents another halt of the ice following a short period of greater melting or of less activity. Between this valley and the Dresserville valley is a long divide, rising more than 300 feet above either valley. That the ice moved from the west across this high ridge is shown by the arrangement of the moraine just described. On the west slope of the valley extending north from Como there is very little drift, while moraine is sharply developed on the opposite slope. At the northern end of the valley there is evidence that at a later stage a slight tongue of ice reached a short distance southward. Contemporaneous with the development of this moraine a dependency from the ice-sheet reached south into the Skaneateles Inlet valley even beyond the margin of the Moravia sheet. {e) Morse Mill and Sempronius lie within an east-west belt of moraine. In mapping the deposits of this area I have appreciated the influence of the Skaneateles Inlet valley, and of the valley between Morse Mill and Dresserville. The proximity of these valleys would tend to increase the development of drift through- Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 387 out the intervening divide. The fact, however, that this general development of the drift covers not only the portion of the quad- rangle north of Sempronius but reaches also into the adjacent parts of the Skaneateles quadrangle is evidence of a continuous hesitancy in the withdrawal of the ice. Furthermore, even in the most elevated parts of this region, as the hill northeast of Sem- pronius which reaches an altitude of nearly 1800 feet, the drift is thick and shows a normal morainal-surface development. In these same high levels, the bowlders are large and numerous. It is inferred, therefore, that the ice maintained an east-west frontal position in this part of the quadrangle for quite a long time. (/) The portion of the quadrangle west of the Moravia-Locke valley and north of the tributary rising near North Lansing has a deep covering of drift; only a small part of this is associated with a tongue of ice extending southward into the Moravia valley. From the vicinity of the Owasco Hill to the valley of Hollow Brook is a band of thickened drift, the general position of which is marked by the 1400-foot contour; but towards the southern extremity, the band grows broader and reaches even below the 1300-foot contour. It is clear that the line of drift thus defined is all of the same origin. At the north end, the belt blends into an exten- sive plexus of drift knolls and ridges that continue along this west slope of the Owasco valley reaching into the quadrangle to the north; at its southern end, it blends into extensive accumulations that encompass both walls of the Hollow Brook valley, being con- tinuous even with the drift which has a marked development at Goose Tree and westward. But the continuity of the belt within these limits points to a relatively permanent position of the ice-front throughout much time. Washed deposits in the form of knolls characterize the whole length of this moraine. In this connec- tion it may be noted that free ice-front drainage probably existed southward through the valley opening out in the vicinity of Locke. This moraine does not admit of definite analysis into positions correlating with the halts in the valley east of it. The longest halt in this upland district is indicated by the moraine which the 1400-foot contour follows southward for about three miles. It is clear that the ice receded very slowly and that it was well bur- dened with debris. The loops of drift in the valley north of Locke were found to be poorly developed on their western sides when attempt was made to trace them into the moraine just described. 388 Frank Carney {g) Including some six miles along the western side of the sheet, from North Lansing as far north as the headwater area of Hollow Brook, the moraine is so strong as to suggest a permanent position of ice-front. But its development may be completely interpreted only in connection with the adjacent drift of the Genoa quadrangle. It is probable that by the time this moraine was being deposited, the eastern side of the Cayuga lobe had commenced to develop an irregularity due to Salmon Creek valley. The southern por- tion of this drift area is alluded to in the preceding section as continuous with morainal development about Goose Tree. The abundance of washed deposits over an area a mile square, north and east of North Lansing, is in keeping with the topography and the relations that the ice-front evidently maintained to this general southward rock slope. (3) Nunatak Drift. The maximum thickness of the great ice sheet was attained far from its outer margin. Various estimates^^ have been made of its depth at several points in northeastern North America. Whatever may have been the depth of ice in any particular locality, it is evident that towards the outer edge the ice sheet tapered to the uncovered region. The condition must have been analagous to the relations of the ice noted now in Greenland where there is a seaward thinning. The irregular topography, the result of a complex drainage history, would give the decaying ice a more or less patchy surface condition. As the ice grew thinner the highest land areas, if limited in extent, evidently would show through the sheet, pre- senting bare surfaces designated nunataks, or limited ice-free areas sometimes surrounded entirely, and again partly surrounded by the glacier. It is obvious that when such a point of land has appeared above the sheet, melting in its immediate neighborhood Would be increased because of the heat reflected from the bare rock or soil. So long then as the ice continued in this position in reference to the nunatak, a quantity of glacial debris would be accumulated. The decay of the ice evidently was more rapid on the southern exposure of the nunatak; the fact that the glacier in general fed from the north would accentuate this difference in the height of the ice about the exposed hill. There would be a tendency for drainage to carry more or less drift, other things being equal, to Chamberlin is’ Salisbury: Geol.^ vol. iii (IQ06), pp. 355-58. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 389 the leeward side of the nunatak. On the other hand, super- glacial, and perhaps in some cases subglacial, drainage accounts for the accumulation of washed material on the stoss side of some nunataks. It has been noted, furthermore, that the drift develop- ment in all cases in the area studied is more pronounced on the west and southern exposures of nunataks. The nunataks from which the preceding general deductions have been made are grouped as follows: {a) In the southeastern part of the quadrangle a hill rises to an altitude of 1810 feet. A study of the slopes of this hill shows on its southern side a quan- tity of drift which extends usually below the 1700-foot contour. Elsewhere about the hill there is slight evidence of its having con- tinued very long as a nunatak. The general relationship of this hill to the topography to the east and to the south appears to pre- clude any protracted nunatak period. After the ice sheet had thinned to the level of this nunatak further decay shortly brought above the ice surface, if not beyond its front, the whole region of which this hill is a part. {b) About a mile northwest of the above area is a fairly isolated hill reaching an altitude of 1600 feet. The evidence of drift on the flanks of this slope is more pronounced than in the preceding case. A variation, however, should be noted here, since the association of drift in the region immediately south, where the slope drops down to the 1400-foot contour, suggests that a small tongue of ice may have continued in the area after the nunatak phase of this hill had ceased to exist. The kame and kettle development between the 1500-foot contour and the top of the hill on its southern slope therefore may not be entirely of nunatak origin. Nevertheless, such accumulation of washed drift on the southern slopes of nunataks is normal, especially where the body of water in which apparently the deposit Was made endured for some time. The ultimate outlet of the water that gathered in the area under consideration, an ice-walled channel, is indicated by the rock cliff and terrace parallel to the highway leading south- west along the hill directly west of the nunatak described under {a). The base of this cliff is approximately 1500 feet and its upper limit cannot be definitely defined now because of post-glacial weathering. In any event the evidence of a slight body of water held up in this basin between the high areas discussed in this and the preceding paragraph is conclusive. 390 Frank Carney {c) Northeast of Como, a hill, which appears to be an outlier of the higher ground still father northeast, reaches an altitude of 1700 feet. The unusual association of drift on the flanks and on the southern end of this hill attracts attention; its western slope bears a collar of drift, using a term coined by Tarr,^® while the southern extremity of the nunatak bears several knolls of washed material. This association is not a definite case of nunatak deposit for the reason that the area is so intimately connected with the moraine extending northward, already described (p. 386), that the typical conditions for a nunatak may be questioned. It is clear, however, that the topography exercised an active control on the drift in question. {d) Just north of the ice-front channel which leads into the Skaneateles Inlet valley, is a hill 1720 feet in altitude. The topographic relationship here favored the appearance of a nuna- tak, and the mapping of the drift about this hill proves that the nunatak phase was not of temporary duration. In the Skaneateles valley to the eastward a tongue of ice was present sometime after the general ice-front had retreated northward. With the thinning of the sheet conditions favored a depth of ice to the east for some period of time during which the exposed hill maintained a nunatak relationship. Here, to a degree not noted elsewhere on the quadrangle, the collar moraine is developed. The prow or stoss end of the nunatak bears an accumulation of small kames, while the leeward slope is covered likewise by knolls of washed drift. It should be stated that on all sides of this nunatak, save the west, the deposits are sharply demarcated from the slopes that are practically drift-free. Towards the west, however, the control exercised by the Fall Creek valley has resulted in a con- tinuous development of moraine in which it appears that the drift of nunatak is not differentiated from the drift of the lateral moraine type. {e) Southwest of Moravia, Jewetfs hill, which reaches an alti- tude of 1448 feet, apparently bore a brief nunatak relationship to the ice-sheet. Where the highway, ascending the slope from the north, turns directly to the west, a band of thickened drift is apparent on the surface, and is proved by well records. The other slopes of the hill do not seem to have witnessed the accumu- Bull, Geol. Soc, Am,, vol. 16 (1905), p. 225. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 391 lation of much glacial debris. An obvious reason for this, per- haps, is the temporary position of the ice, as well as the gradual slope of the area to the west. (/) At several other points throughout the quadrangle, one notes in the uplands localizations of drift, more or less kamy in texture, that suggest nunatak relationships. The cases are not always clear enough to warrant this explanation of the deposits. Two localities may be mentioned as typical of these: (i) At Fitts Corners is a pronounced kame area, alluded to in the discussion of kames (p. 376). Bearing in mind the relationship of this region to Fall Creek valley, and noting the topography to the north, there is a suggestion of conditions that probably produced, for a temporary period, stagnant ice to the south, while there existed an ice-free area just northward. The Fitts Corners locality is not sufficiently isolated to warrant the name nunatak; neverthe- less the probable persistence of ice about the region afforded the environment that governs the formation of nunatak drift. (2) A further illustration of these areas is the height of land surrounded by the 1700-foot contour southeast of Lickville. The irregularity of this contour, particularly on the north, marks a drift-collar, representing a temporary exposure of this area, while all the adjacent region was beneath the ice. Parallel Ridges of Drift, In three localities on the sheet I have mapped an unusual parallelism of drift ridges. The most pro- nounced development was noted east of the highway that extends northwest from Owasco Hill; the ridges here are 10 to 40 rods in length, 15 to 25 feet high, and from surface appearance contain much washed material. One-half mile north from Lafayette a highway leads east; near the margin of the sheet, and some 80 rods north of this road is another series of these ridges; here, however, unmodified drift is more abundant than in the former locality, but good sections are wanting. In neither case is the characterization as to content very accurate. A short distance north and west of Benson Corners are several ridges, somewhat parallel, but much broader and less sharply defined than in the two areas already mentioned. The material of these ridges is prevailingly fine, from surface indications. Some have a tendency to broaden and flatten towards the north- west. 392 Frank Carney The ridges of the first area referred to appear to be construc- tional in origin; their direction marks the lateral margin of the declining Owasco lobe. This genesis seems less applicable to the ridges of the second locality; here conditions favored stream erosion which may have been a factor. The Benson Corners area apparently represents initially the drift that accumulated in the reentrant angles where the ice-margin had locally assumed a serrate outline; erosion has later altered these deposits, flatten- ing them in the direction of the slope, i. e., to the northwest. Valley Trains and Outwash Plains. Both these forms of drift have to do quite as much with topo- graphical relationships as with the positions of ice halts. In a longitudinal valley having so constant a slope to the north that a continuous ice-dammed lake is held up as the ice tongue recedes, we will not find illustrations of the typical valley train. This form of drift develops best in valleys having a slope away from the ice-front; but an initial iceWard slope of the valley may be reversed by the gradual filling of the lake from the ice-contact end. With this topographic condition, then each loop of drift may con- nect southward with a valley train. In any event there is bound to be some distribution of drift away from the loop, which marks the position of the ice, even when a static body of water rests against the loop being formed. In this case the plain of more or less modified drift will be shorter and evidently also steeper in slope since it will represent the deposition of material held in sus- pension by the water; and with a continuance of these deposits the grade in this part of the valley would at length be changed, and outwash material be built up normally. A section of deposits made under these conditions would show clay at the bottom grad- ing upward into gravel. It is observed that Fall Creek valley from lake Como southward offers the only area for the normal development of valley trains. Since the development attained by a valley train is intimately connected with the development of the moraine loop with which it is associated, it follows that we have the most pronounced trains only where the loops are conspicuous. In Fall Creek valley the particular halts of the ice, with one exception, appear to have been brief. The Como halt is characterized by a marked Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 393 silting up of the valley floor. To a less extent this is true of a halt immediately south. In the Moravia-Freeville valley, where we find the best developed valley loops of the sheet, the northward slope that the valley floor has, as explained above, hindered the formation of typical valley trains. In this connection, however, it should be remembered that a valley train having undergone rather active erosion in post- Wisconsin times is apt to be so altered as to lose its more definite aspects. This valley has been subject to erosion by a north- flowing stream during part of the post-Wisconsin interval or at least since the high-level lake in it fell below the Lansing outlet; the present stream here drops 325 feet in 12 miles, a grade of 27 feet per mile. The level area, which is quite extensive for some distance south of Moravia, is partially the product of delta filling that has con- stantly followed the receding lake level, and is still in progress just north of this sheet. Another interval of fairly level bottom, just south, cannot with certainty be explained as entirely of valley- train genesis. From Peruville southward, however, where the old valley floor doubtless has a southern slope, We may recognize the play of ice-front streams aggrading to the extent of produc- ing valley trains. This suggestion pertains especially to the ice- front drainage characterizing the halt at Peruville. The normal conditions for the formation of outwash plains, as described by Salisbury,^^ do not exist on the Moravia sheet. Nevertheless there is evidence particularly in the vicinity of Free- ville where we have a very broad valley bottom, broader still no doubt before the kame deposits were made eastward by the retreating Wisconsin ice, of the conditions which here favor the ' coalescence of alluvial fans of ice-stream origin. The great masses of kame moraine flanking the Freeville-Cortland valley represent a duration of ice-debris accumulation that must have been attended by heavily burdened streams flowing away from the Free- ville area. The Junior Republic kames, however, were formed I when the ice obstructed the drainage, thus ponding a lake which I extended southward overflowing south of Dryden lake; so long as ice blocked the ponded water from escaping westward through I Fall Creek valley, outwash gravels developed only as fans into GeoL Surv. of New Jersey, vol. v (1902), pp. 128-9. 394 Frank Carney the static water. Succeeding this lake stage the heavy ice-front drainage spread gravels southward from the vicinity of Red Mill, and in the valley east of the Junior Republic kame area. Eskers. As already noted the eskers of this sheet appear to fall into two ji general classes, (i) those that are connected with local topography, I and (2) those more or less independent of the details of topog- ;! raphy.* There follows a description of the general characteristics j; of each of the several eskers on the sheet; their location may be |l found on plate XII, which also indicates by arrow the supposed j- direction of the esker stream. I No. I. This esker originates a short distance southwest of West 1 Dryden. The altitude of this area is about 1200 feet, and the i drift, which is rather Well developed in the vicinity of this village, I attains considerable thickness, one dug well having reached a | depth of forty feet without encountering rock; the texture of the |i material as revealed by this well indicates emphatically a washed- deposit origin; the stones contained in it are generally smooth, h and there is considerable sand present. So we have in drift \ topography about West Dryden a suggestion of conditions that i govern kame accumulation. This esker measures on the Moravia sheet but three-eighths of i! a mile. Its general direction is south approximately 10® west, and this course continues for some distance on the Dryden sheet, then it turns more to the east. The northern segment of the esker, or that on the Moravia quadrangle, so far as revealed by one section and by surface appearance abounds in finer material. There is no evidence of more than a small amount of coarser stones either on the esker or in its environing drift. No. 2. This esker has its origin apparently at the first four corners east of West Dryden. For one-half mile its course is due southeast, parallel to the brook that flows towards Fall creek. Then it takes a more easterly course. Farm buildings mark its intersection with the next highway to the east. A few rods beyond this road the esker divides, one branch bearing north and east, while the other takes a southern course passing out of Moravia into the Dryden sheet. The vertical range of this esker is about 140 feet, having a continuous decline. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 395 Between the first mentioned highways the esker attains a sharp and typical development. No other on the sheet displays such a continuity of even meanders; but from the point of division the ridges are lower and more flattened. The eastern of these two divisions breaks up shortly into distributaries which lead into a low flat area of sandy soil, the development of which is hardly ample to warrant the designation ‘^sand plain.” While the division turning south is typically developed in a few segments, in the main its appearance is indicative of a subglacial stream which had already disposed of most of its load. As indicated above, the first half-m^ile of the esker is without a break. The brook which it parallels, however, then cuts across the esker, taking advantage evidently of a low place in the ridge. Just before reaching this breach in the ridge, in walking along the esker from the northeast, one observes on the west side a tributary ridge not many rods long but attaining considerable height near the place of junction with the main esker. So far as may be determined from the surface, in the absence of fresh sec- tions, the material of this esker is prevailingly fine. No. 3 (fig. i8). There is considerable obscurity as to the termini of this esker. Kame moraine practically hems the esker in except for a portion of its southern side, and either end of the esker appears to be buried or to be interfered with by the agencies con- nected genetically with this marked kame development. The ridge in places approximates fifty feet in altitude, and has steep slopes. Some complexity of the subglacial drainage here is suggested by a tributary ridge from the south towards the eastern end of the esker. As exposed in the railroad cut the esker is rather coarse in structure, indicating the vigor of the subglacial stream. It is felt that in an esker of the proportions evidenced by this there should be a typical development of sand plain. The fact, how- ever, that in all parts of the valley, save where the kame topog- raphy abounds, outwash material has leveled up to some extent the natural inequalities tends to obliterate the sand plain structure that may have existed; furthermore this absence of the finer assorted deposits that would indicate a static body of water is evidence that when the esker stream was active the front of the ice had retreated, allowing the drainage of Dryden valley to flow westward, thus terminating the lake stage. A feature worthy of note in connection with this esker is the 396 Frank Carney long kettle hole immediately north, mapped on the topographic sheet. It may be stated also that this is the only esker on the quadrangle which is denoted by the contours. No. 4. The highway leading north from Jones Corners inter- cepts a brook just before the first road-crossing. Commencing a few rods east of this highway an esker extends down the slope of the valley for about one-fourth of a mile. No development of the ridge was noted to the west of the highway. Since the Fig. 18. Esker No. 4. The entire sky-line is the eastern rock wall of Fall Creek valley; the sag near the left is a marked kame area. The camera points a little north of a line normal to the axis of this glacially aggraded valley. direction of this esker is longitudinal to the valley, we would | anticipate a greater length. The grade of course favors pro- j nounced flow of the subglacial stream. Where the esker ridge i becomes discontinuous the valley moraine is well develo ed. This fact suggests the possible deformation of the esker ridge by the ice-front deposits. Certain drift accumulations, ridge-like | in form, have been mapped as possibly disconnected segments of |: the original esker. About halfway down this valley an abandoned ■ lime kiln stands on one such segment. About the surface of both Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 397 |i the moraine swells and the esker itself, bowlders are numerous. This is the only one of the four eskers already considered that ' bears a conspicuous development of bowlders. No. 5. East of Lafayette is a valley opening northward. The 1 last half mile of this valley before it joins the Fall Creek valley I carries an esker, the northern portion of which has attained a very I typical development. The esker in the distance over which it has I been mapped has an unbroken vertical range of about 120 feet. At the point where the valley widens rapidly the esker swings towards the eastern wall which it skirts for a short distance before it turns to the west into the flood plain section. The valley to the I east and south, it Was thought, ought to give some evidence of an I extension of the esker in that direction; but no ridge exists there. About one-half mile to the southeast is a marked development of low kames probably associated with the esker. Just west of this kame area is an ice-front drainage channel, the stream of which may have removed a portion of the esker. Northwest, in the flood plain of Fall Creek valley, and in line with the ridge above described, is another gravel ridge which I at first mapped as a separate esker. Its best development is noted near its western terminus where it is about 19 feet high, and its side walls slope 24°. Furthermore, its development here is very symmetrical. To the east, however, it gradually flattens, termin- ating in low kame knolls. The original development of both the esker and the low knolls of washed material has been somewhat obscured by the great quantity of outwash deposits that are graded down the Fall Creek valley. It is probable that these discon- nected ridges belong to the same subglacial stream, and that the gap may be due to both an incomplete initial development and a later partial removal by ice-front stream erosion. No. 6. An esker, that has a beautifully meandering course, may be seen a short distance south and east of Rogers Corners. This ridge is approximately one-half a mile long. Its southern end has been modified considerably by drainage-dissection, as it reaches to the axis and probably formerly beyond the axis of Fall Creek valley. There is a faint suggestion towards the bottom of the valley of two distributaries though the case is not clear in the presence of alterations or obscurity through outwash deposits. The ridge attains nowhere a height of more than twelve to fifteen feet, and its side walls slope gently. Furthermore in its texture fine material predominates. 398 Frank Carney No. 7. This esker has its origin on the steep slope south and east of Como. Its vertical range is little more than 100 feet, but its length is scarcely one-eighth of a mile; the esker attains a stout development even in this short distance. Kame deposits are plentiful about the slopes of the hill to the north, and the esker material too consists largely of 'washed deposits. From the height of the esker and the slopes of its flanks it seems natural that formerly it had a greater linear extent. Just north of this location are accumulations which reach across the valley; the ice fronted along the line of these kames, and the drainage tended to work over the drift deposits immediately southward in the valley. Therefore the wide area of washed drift which now extends south- ward in the line of this esker has probably obscured, and degraded portions of the ridge. A couple of isolated hills of drift near the middle of the valley, it was noted, are in line with this esker and add to the pertinency of the suggestion. No. 8. Of the eskers studied on the sheet this had attained the greatest development. The termini of the segments which it is thought represent the original esker give it a distance of approxi- mately five miles. In several places the ridge is completely want- ing, one gap at least being normal; this is where post-glacial drain- age has cut the ridge. Faint suggestions of subglacial stream deposits are noted at and slightly above the i6oo-foot contour a little northeast of North Summer Hill; a plexus of drift knolls containing a large percentage of washed material exists in this same locality. I am not satisfied that there is any genetic association, however, between this accu- mulation and the esker. The fact that a gap several rods long occurs immediately to the southwest is the most serious objection to any such association. Where the map next indicates a develop- ment of the esker, the ridge is clear and in all respects normal. Then follows a short break, but with enough localizing of drift to warrant making the ridge continuous. From this point on, however, to the last interruption at about the i6oo-foot contour southwest, the ridge is strongly and normally developed. Continuing southwest from the gap in the esker occasioned by the intersection of Dry Run, we find about the 1480-foot contour the same marked development of the winding ridge. After cross- ing the next highway the esker locally expands into a kame cluster; narrowing down again it continues to the top of the grade where Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 399 the ridge flattens and becomes rather indefinite; but to the west of the next public road we come to an elongated ridge that appears to split into two distributaries, both of which turn rather sharply to the south. That these ridges are genetically associated with the esker does not seem proved especially since their continuation north or east is so indefinite. Were the ridges dilferently oriented we would scarcely consider their association with a subglacial stream, but the direction they take from a line which is continuous with the esker would seem to indicate the influence of more active ice in the Locke valley deflecting the esker stream southward as these ridges point. In this connection reference may well be made to a geographic influence illustrated particularly in this esker as well as in some of the others. I refer to the location of farm buildings at the inter- section of highways with this ridge of drift. Commencing at its supposed point of origin it is noted that every highway crossing save the last to the extreme southwest has been made the location of farm buildings. No. 9. This esker lies directly north of the southern portion of No. 8. Locally it is referred to by the farmer as the ‘‘ Indian Road,’’ and the older residents have a legend as to this turnpike of drift having been constructed by the red men. The ridge is indeed scarcely higher than a well made pike, and its course through a swamp area about a half-mile wide is very suggestive of artificial origin. The topographic map makes the slope occu- pied by this esker much steeper than it really is. As a matter of fact in its whole distance the esker descends northward less than thirty feet, whereas by the mapping it should drop one hundred. The swamp appears to be the result purely of undeveloped drain- age lines, as it occupies a flat elevated area including perhaps a square mile. It has been heavily forested, and in lumbering operations the esker is used as a highway. No sections are present, but judging from the surface it is inferred that the esker material is coarse; in some places the presence of till was noted. No characteristic terminal phenom- ena were observed; the ridge begins and ends almost impercep- tibly. While its course is not straight, nevertheless the curves are few and long. 400 Frank Carney GENERAL DISCUSSION OF ESKERS. I Location. From the standpoint of altitude we note that Nos. 2 and 3 start below the I200-foot contour. All the others are higher. Nos. i to 4, 6 and 7, descend with the valley wall on ^ which they lie, and terminate, so far as has been observed for those wholly on the Moravia quadrangle, in the flat valley bot- toms. No. 5 starts on a flood plain and ascends over 100 feet. No. 9 reaches across a level upland swamp. No. 8, transverse to drainage slopes, is highest in altitude and exhibits the greatest |i vertical range. j Direction. Nos. I, 2, 3 and 5 are more or less in harmony j with the supposed movement of the ice. No. 9 appears to be ■ opposed to ice movement, while No. 8 is plainly transverse, and | Nos. 4, 6 and 7 are somewhat transverse to the line of ice motion, i No. 8 exhibits a possible yielding to the activity of the moving ice; by reference to the map we observe that this esker crosses a well developed drainage line which opens toward the general direction of ice motion. The segment of the esker as it crosses the axis of this valley obviously bows in the direction of ice motion. | For this reason it is felt that the subglacial stream developed the I course indicated by the esker ridge. i Genesis. It is already apparent from this discussion that we | are dealing with two types of conditions from which correspond- ing types of eskers have taken their origin. Nos. 4, 6, 7 and 9, all of which are short and occupy each a continuous slope, evi- !| dently were produced in a brief space of time. They represent the transient drainage that became subglacial from a super- j glacial position, or from marginal areas of ponded water adjacent | to stagnant ice which occupied the neighboring low areas, being ’ merely a line of escape of such waters. The conditions are not identical in all of these, but they have in common the location in reference to a valley, and the short linear extension indicating a brief period of formation. No. 7 originates in a cluster of kami& knolls indicating clearly ] the subglacial course of waters formerly superglacial or marginal, i If the point at which this drainage became subglacial had been j 40 or 50 rods to the east the course of the resulting esker would have been either south or southeast. The position of the kame deposits in the vicinty of Lake Como is evidence that a large area Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 401 of ice extending eastward into the tributary valley became stag- nant here. Before the mass of ice had thinned down to a level where ‘‘ablation moraine might gather, thus protecting it from speedy decay, drainage lines were developed beneath it, particularly from the point where marginal or superglacial streams gave a head to the water. Consequently this esker resulted from the escape of water confined between the ice and the high ground to the north and east. The eastward extending tongue of ice here formed a barrier which in connection with the ice in the Fall Creek valley adjacent held up the drainage gathering from the north as well as that coming from the decaying ice. The only outlet for these waters was around the end of the ice tongue, a course which the drainage for some time did take, but as the ice became more and more stagnant the subglacial course was developed. Fur- thermore, the material of this esker is prevailingly fine, indicating that the chief source of supply was found in the kames where it originates. While No. 4 is plainly also the result of a gravitative direction given to drainage, the further point of variation in texture indi- cates different conditions than obtain in No. 7. Here we have no feeding kame area; we have a strong suggestion of coarse till-like material in the esker. Throughout its length, so far as may be 1 mapped with certainty, there is a slight fall, which may account partly for the absence of washed material. Terminally the esker is without characteristic features. By consulting the topographic map we note that the topography in the vicinity of esker No. 9 favored the development of a re- entrant angle of ice-free surface. Thus the ice here formed a saddle; in the sag between it and the rising land south Water accu- mulated. Judging from the present contours, and granting the most favorable condition of this interpretation, such a body of water had slight areal extent and apparently during most of its period did not have a depth of more than twenty feet; but as the ! ice decayed, it became somewhat larger and deeper. If a stagnant ' condition of the ice existed for but a short time we may under- I stand how this water found a sub-ice outlet, associated probably , with a subglacial stream already flowing southward along the east wall of the valley towards Locke. The slight development of this esker indicates the short duration of the stream. ^®Tarr: Zeitschrift fiir Gletscherkunde, band iii (1908), pp. 85-88. 402 Frank Carney V ertical Range. The gradient of an esker-forming stream probably is represented by the vertical range of the esker. In the following data the figures enclosed in parentheses represent the gradient in feet per mile of the esker stream: The range in altitude of esker No. i is lOO feet (i6o feet); of No. 2, 140 feet (82 feet); of No. 3, 80 feet (80 feet); of No. 4, if we consider only the unbroken segment, 15 feet (60 feet), but considering the scattered segments of the possible former esker the gradient is much sharper, as it trends eastward down the slope; of No. 5, 100 feet (100 feet); of No. 6, 160 feet (320 feet); of No. 7, 70 feet (263 feet); of No. 8 the gradient is broken since it crosses in its length of four and one-half or five miles, one marked valley and one valley of lesser development. The northern segment of this esker drops about 200 feet. Even this distance, however, is broken by the H orixorilaV Scale 2.2^"’= Imil^ Vertical Scale 20jeet. I I I i_ I __j -I- I I I — ~i — I — 4 — -j — -j — — i— — • — — • — • — L — Fig. 19. A profile showing the broken gradient of Esker No. 8. lesser valley just alluded to. The portion south of Dry Run rises about 120 feet. Fig. 19 plots the grade of this esker stream. ; The vertical range of esker No. 9 is about 30 feet (46 feet). From these figures, and the description of the eskers given in the preceding sections, it is apparent that streams of sharp grad- ; ient did not develop the highest esker ridges. The low eskers as . well as the ridges having low lateral slopes have the higher range \ in altitude. No. 7, however, appears to be an exception, but as already explained, the lower course of this esker has probably ( been so altered by outwash material and ice-front streams that the remnant represents but a fraction of the original development, 1 and this remaining portion is the upstream end which has the i! sharpest gradient; the hypothecated removed segment had a lower gradient. On the other hand, eskers Nos. 4 and 9 have both a II I m r Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 403 low gradient and a low ridge. The material constituting these two eskers contains a preponderance of coarse deposits; and the former, much till. This prevalence of unmodified drift suggests slight Water action. Esker No. 2 illustrates best of any the typical serpentine course which characterizes the paths of some subglacial streams. The meandering form is also excellently shown in portions of Nos. 3 and 8. It is not well developed in eskers having either the lowest or the highest gradients. A great bulk of aggraded material, it is observed, is present where the sinuous course has a sustained development. Since the esker ridge is developed beneath the ice, the ice-cave being enlarged by ablation as the stream becomes more and more aggraded, the question arises as to the development of meanders. To what extent do the principles accepted as governing meander belts in subaerial streams obtain in the evolution of the sinuous esker ridges ^ It is very certain that a low stream-gradient does not account for the meanderings of the esker ridges discussed above. I do not believe the meandering of subaerial streams is induced entirely by a sluggish flow. Ice Motion. The location, direction and degree of develop- ment of these eskers, with probably one exception, indicate genetic association with stagnant ice. Nos. i, 2 and 3 are probably con- temporaneous in formation and indicate the interval of inactivity that followed the halt associated with the valley loop south of Freeville. Nos. 4 to 7, which were formed somewhat in the order named, have their genesis with the decaying lobe that reached southward through the Fall Creek valley. That none of these eskers attained a very marked development is due doubtless to the rapid decaying of this inactive ice. Esker No. 9 likewise represents the brief duration of a subglacial stream; the esker ridge is low, and its material, as already mentioned, contains a large amount of coarse ingredients, both characteristics indicat- ing an inactive flow of water. The only esker on the sheet that suggests a genesis not immed- iately governed by the underlying topography is No. 8. This ridge represents furthermore a considerable activity of the ice; brief mention has already been made of this fact. The middle portion of its course, which is convex to the southeast, is supposed to be normal to a line of the more vigorous ice which occupied the trough of Dry Run. It is supposed that the whole region was 404 Frank Carney then covered with ice, and that the subglacial stream had its course marked out shortly preceding the period of subdued activ- ity when the ice on the higher areas to the south and southeast disappeared completely. The manner in which the southwest portion of this esker shows some southward deflection seems also to indicate the activity of the ice still remaining in the Moravia valley. Conclusion, {a) As to distribution, these eskers illustrate the usual association between slopes and streams. Nos. 2, 4 and the southern part of No. 5 are quite parallel to the axis of the valley which each follows. Nos. i, 3, 6, 7 and 9 course down valley walls of moderate slopes. In the case of No. 3, however, the valley-wall control is not so obvious. This esker probably trends north of the course which the rock slope, here deeply buried, would give it. ib) In reference to degree of development, those eskers hav- ing the slightest gradients are most pronounced, both in bulk of deposits and in sinuosity of course. (r) As to cause, it is apparent that the eskers of this sheet are due to an association of inactive ice and relief. In the absence of valleys and plains of marked gradient, eskers would be much less common, as they would then represent the subglacial outlets of superglacial waterways. Stagnant, or slightly active, ice ap- pears to have been the principal factor associated with the eskers of the Moravia quadrangle. Bowlders of the Drift. Composition. The most conspicuous of the glacial bowlders seen in the Moravia quadrangle consist of crystalline rocks car- ried in from the Canadian or other northern areas. Bowlders of local and neighboring sedimentary rocks were likewise noted. On the west wall of the valley just south of the moraine loop ‘‘F” (p. 358), many Oriskany sandstone bowlders may be seen; now and then an Oriskany bowlder was noted elsewhere on the sheet, but nowhere else were they numerous enough to attract attention. So far as I am aWare the nearest outcrop of the Oris- kany formation is found in Cayuga valley east of Union Springs. Small bowlders and pebbles of Medina sandstone, while not plentiful, may be found especially in the sections of kames. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 405 Of Local Origin. In a few localities bowlders of local origin are so conspicuous that special reference should be given them. For a few miles north and a mile or so south of Lickville, a region where the drift is thin, the percentage of local material is very large. Bearing in mind that the general movement of the ice here was from the northwest, and noting on the topographic map the rock salients southwest of Moravia, we understand how the Fig. 20. A bowlder clinging to the steep west wall of Skaneateles Inlet valley. moving ice took on such a load of local debris. Again, south of Locke, where the altitude reaches 1200 to 1350 feet, the large I amount of local material in the drift is evidenced by the stone I fences, as well as by the great heaps of stone gathered in tilling the land. Other areas, both of ground moraine bearing a high percentage of local bowlders, and of accumulated drift deposits likewise large in its amount of local sedimentary rocks, were observed on the sheet, but the two localities mentioned are typical. Frank Carney 406 Crystalline Erratics. A few areas where the foreign element of the drift is large, and the individual bowlders also of unusual dimensions, will be referred to. East of the highway leading northward from Sempronius several very large crystallines may be seen; at the head of the short valley extending westward from Locke, the drift knolls are dotted with erratics; about one mile northeast of Benson Corners, at the general altitude indicated by the 1400-foot contour, the bowlders are numerous and large. Another area of abundant foreigners is the slope of the hill southeast of Como; a Bench Mark of the United States Geological Survey has been fixed in a large bowlder in the field a short distance from the highway which skirts this slope. A few bowlders conspicuous because of their unusual size were located. Near the first house on the west side of the road north of the Tully limestone ledge, which is crossed by the highway leading northward from Moravia, is a granite bolder showing io| feet by 8 feet by 4 feet above the ground. On the farm of S. C. Gooding, about a mile east of Groton, is another very large bowlder. The largest bowlder found in the quadrangle may be seen on the steep western wall of Skaneateles Inlet valley in a wood lot belonging to E. Griffin; its location is a few rods south of the overflow channel (p. 432) which has incised this west wall. The size of the bowlder may be judged from fig. 20. Ice Dammed Lakes. Some of the high level lakes of this quadrangle have been studied by Fairchild and by Watson. Their study has been particularly along the line of correlating deltas and locating overflow channels. They mention old deltas at Moravia and in the vicinity of Locke. Plate XII refers by letters and dotted outlines to the several high-level deltas of the sheet. I will discuss these deltas in the order in which they are designated. ^A ’’ village of McLean is built mostly on a delta (fig. 21) the altitude of which is about 1120 feet. The southern seg- ment shows the best development, as northward these gravels have suffered m.uch from post-Wisconsin stream work. The lake in which this delta was accumulated evidently was of short dura- tion. It is remiembered that southwest of this area, towards Mallory ville, the valley is completely blocked with kame moraine; 21. Kame deposits in vicinity of McLean. Delta “A” shows near right side. Frank Carney 408 the present course of Fall Creek between these villages is an indication of the irregularly deposited drift that there fills this valley. This lake, if it persisted long enough, must have tended to level off the drift hills approximating its altitude. ‘‘ B. This delta is about one mile north of Groton on the east i side of the valley. The triangular area marked off by highways lies entirely within the delta. Its slope is gentle, rising from about 1010 feet at the margin to 1035 feet eastward; its area is approxi- mately a square mile. As the lake in which these sediments were laid down gradually lowered, the delta-forming stream from the east evidently hesitated between two courses. Along its eastern I margin running southward is the course of a temporary water- way, while the final course taken by the stream from the east has i| dissected the northern portion of the delta. Thus the body of ! the delta has remained intact. (Fig. 9). i ‘‘C. ’’ This delta is adjacent to morainal loop "‘F” (p. 358); it lies on the same side of the valley, but one and one-half miles | north of ‘"B.” Its general level is 1120 feet. Along its north- ! western side there is an ice-contact slope; here also clay is abundant | in the delta plain. In genesis, then, this delta is closely associated | with a halt of the valley tongue. Further consideration, however, is given this point in the section where I discuss the static bodies represented by these deltas. | ‘‘D.’’ This delta is in the valley bottom about a half-mile southeast of North Lansing; it has but slight development, never- | theless it is typical both in outline and in surface slope, ranging i from 980 to 1000 feet. The delta was laid down by a stream j flowing from the east. Its serrated front as well as the valley | bottom to the west contains a conspicuous quantity of sand. '‘E.” South of Locke is a delta approximating two square i miles in area, and ranging in altitude from 855 to 905 feet, j Obviously it represents the work of a stream flowing from the | west (fig. 22), and the development evidently attained is not due j entirely to stream deposition. A few scattered sections, particu- | larly along the eastern margin of the delta, disclose deposits of till, !| showing that the load of the stream emptied here into a static body has tended to even up the former irregular morainic topography in this triangular area. In this connection I would mention the fact that practically the whole delta surface is unusually ston), attesting the torrential character of both the major delta-making Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 409 < ^ +-I "^3 oj C ^ ' •b CTJ CIh _ OS _ ^ lU o C! s;r s O ^ ^ os o J3 Ui t>jo i-t U 4i 5 •‘-’ v-i S 3 .0 .ili o CX, Dh 3 o u T3 u O (U 410 Frank Carney stream and the many short waterways coursing down the steep slope south of the delta. The surface of the delta likewise shows many distributaries. The permanent post-glacial drainage from the west lies at the foot of the northern wall of the valley, skirting the delta; a slight brook also has sectioned its southern portion. ‘‘F.’’ The local gravel pit at Moravia is in this delta, the sur- face of which averages 885 feet in altitude. Fig. 23 gives a general view of the crest of this delta. Stream erosion near its north side Fig. 23. Deltas “F” and “G” from west slope of valley. Camera stands about 200 feet above floor of valley. Inlet stream shows in foreground. reveals till deposits beneath the gravel. This same relation of unmodified drift has been disclosed also by the creek flowing westward from Montville. The village cemetery between Mor- avia and Montville is located on this delta. No development of it was mapped with certainty south of the highway from Moravia to Montville which follows, for the most of the distance, the bed of an inter-, or abandoned post-glacial stream. iiQyy This is the largest delta of the sheet; views of it are shown in figs. 23 and 24. In altitude it ranges from 1010 to 1060 Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 411 I 412 Frank Carney feet, and because of post-glacial erosion, it has been so dissected by a meandering stream and altered by resulting aggradation as : to suggest two deltas rather than one. Nevertheless the genesis of these sediments scarcely allows a compound result. | The portion of this delta lying nearer Moravia presents a beauti- ! fully serrated front and very typical top. This part has suffered | but slightly from post-glacial stream work. The eastern seg- j ment, which is just northeast of Montville, presents a very even || surface, but a verj. abnormal front, if one is inclined to consider I; it a distinct delta. This front, however, is more likely the product |! of stream erosion. It still bears a suggestion of meander curves ij and sloping floodplain reaching away from them (fig. 24). |l Southeast of Wilson’s Corners is a slight but sharply developed delta. In texture its sediments are very fine. Its altitude, 1160 to 1175 feet, indicates a very localized water body, | while its slight area suggests a brief period of formation. ‘N.” Immediately east of Morse Mill is a small but nicely | outlined delta ranging from 1880 to 1900 feet in altitude. This I delta also shows genetic association with a local body of water. aj „ This sheet includes in the Skaneateles inlet valley a small portion of a delta, the remainder of which is on the Cortland | sheet. As this delta is associated with a stream that lies entirely |i off the Moravia quadrangle, no study was given it. 1 WATER BODIES WITH WHICH THESE DELTAS ARE ASSOCIATED. j| The general history of the ice-front lakes connected with the 1 retreat of the Wisconsin glacier has been worked out with con- | siderable detail in the St. Lawrence basin area. The minor lakes ' formed in the Finger lake valleys, as soon as the ice had with- drawn northward from the divides at the southern ends, coalesced j ultimately into two more extensive levels, one Lake Newberry | with its overflow channel at Horseheads, N. Y., into the Susque- |! hanna drainage basin; the other and later. Lake Warren, with an outlet across the '‘Thumb” of Michigan into Lake Chicago. (i) Lake Newbury, according to the geologists who have given it special attention, represents the coalescence of glacial lake Seneca and high-level water bodies to the east, principally of the Cayuga and Owasco valleys. (2) The expansion of Lake New- berry, as the Ontario lobe withdrew northward, resulted in a Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 413 increase and a drop in its water level of 100 or more ultimate outlet of Lake Warren was via Chicago, with possibly several intermediate levels due to successively lower channels between the Huron and Lake Michigan lobes; the steps in this history have been described by Taylor.^® It seems apparent, according to Fairchild, that Lake Warren in its later stage may have had also an overflow to the east as the ice withdrew gradually to the axis of the Mohawk lowland area. Glacial lakes Newberry and Warren are therefore associated with the more general expansion of the ice-sheet. The earlier lakes which progressively united to form these great water bodies were associated with minor lobes that reached southward through the axes of the Finger lake valleys. A consideration of the high- level lakes of the Moravia quadrangle starts, then, with the minor bodies of water which skirted the retreating ice-front. When the Cayuga lobe reached somewhat south of Ithaca, with one dependency extending into the valley of Sixmile creek, and another towards Newfield, a lake stood in front of each of these minor glaciers, one. Lake Brookton, overflowing by wav of Willsey- ville (Fairchild’s White Church spillway), the other, West Danby lake, via Spencer Summit. With the withdrawal of the ice from South Hill,” the salient just south of Ithaca, these two bodies of water coalesced, forming glacial Lake Ithaca, which over- flowed by way of White Church. Lake Ithaca endured till the ice had retreated, revealing an altitude lower than that of the White Church spillway; this occurred at Ovid. Lake Ithaca then flowed into glacial Lake Watkins, which escaped southward over a spill- way at Horseheads.2® The statement has already been reiterated that the region east of Cayuga valley Was controlled by the lobe of ice that persisted in this valley long after areas on the same parallels eastward were ice-free. This condition maintained in the Moravia quadrangle a general northeast-southwest position of the ice-front. The study of moraine belts led to this deduction; an interpretation of the high-level deltas further fortifies the conclusion. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am.y vol. viii (1896), pp. 48-53. New York State Museum^ Bulletin 106 (1907), pp. 43-44. The resume contained in this paragraph is based on the publications of Fair- child. The writer, however, has made a field study of all the localities mentioned. I great areal feet. The 414 Frank Carney \ ^ While it is probably impossible to be certain about the chronol- ! ogy of these deltas, nevertheless in discussing their genetic rela- I tions an attempt is made to arrange the associated water bodies in their chronological sequence. In this study only one type of observation has been made in addition to verifying the earlier work i of Fairchild and of Watson on the high-level lakes of the region. The overflow channels with which these men have correlated the deltas studied are all located along general drainage lines to the south and west of the water bodies under discussion. After hav- | ing mapped the bands of thickened drift, one notes that the eastern i margin of the Cayuga lobe so abutted the rock salients as to form j intermediate overflow levels between the spillways that have t already been located. In accordance with these observations i the several deltas will now be considered in the order in which it ! is thought they were developed. j The position of the ice as denoted by the morainic loop ' southward from Freeville held up in front of it a slight body of Water which overflowed through the Dryden valley with a spill- I way approximately 1207 feet in altitude. This is the first static body of Water formed on the quadrangle as the ice retreated, i No typically developed delta was observed correlating with it. In the wide valley, however, immediately north of Dryden village may be seen on the eastern wall a well formed alluvial cone which 1 presumably correlates with this level. • But the delta ‘A’’ at McLean, having a general altitude of 1140 feet, obviously represents an overflow channel, one wall of which was the ice itself, the other the northwestward slope of Turkey Hill, located on the Dryden sheet. The water thus had its ultimate outlet through Cascadilla valley by way of Ellis, and thence into the glacial lake that occupied Sixmile creek. C. ” As already stated, this delta is associated with a morainic loop of which it almost forms a part. Its level coincides closely ' with that of ''AC but it is not of contemporaneous development; | while these two deltas correspond in altitude, "C’ is of much j later origin; its position is such that a marked accumulation of ! aggraded material developed in a fairly short time. The loop of j drift reaching across the valley at this point attests a stationary | position of the ice for some period during which there poured ! along the eastern side of this ice-tongue a vigorous stream whose gradient suddenlv changed, as may be observed on consulting Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 415 the topographic sheet. It is entirely possible that this delta started as an alluvial cone, growing rapidly, and that in the shift- ing of the ice, a slack or even static condition of drainage developed in the rear of the cone; consequently the final deposition of stream- load produced the delta effect. The well developed delta north of Groton appears to be associated in its earlier stages with a partial withdrawal of the ice from the west slope of Turkey Hill, thus lowering the outlet while still keeping a static body of water, a score or more feet in depth, over the normal divide of Fall Creek valley in the region of Freeville. But after the ice had retreated sufficiently from Turkey Hill to drain Fall Creek valley southwest of Freeville, then this latter divide became the overflow channel of the water standing in front of the ice in the Groton valley. This spillway is given as 1040 feet in altitude. ‘‘H.’’ With the thinning of the general ice-sheet over the Moravia quadrangle the Owasco lobe alone remained, but pre- ceding the stage when the area of this sheet bore only remaining portions of the Owasco lobe there appears to have intervened a period when the eastern flanks of the Cayuga lobe still spread over a part of the western area of the sheet. Delta ‘‘H’’ represents the withdrawal of the ice from the high area east of Wilson’s Corners sufficient to allow drainage from the north an outlet between the ice and this slope into the small body of water held up in the Morse Mill valley; this delta has a slight areal extent, but is typical in the usual delta features. It apparently does not represent a long time interval. Its position and development are both in accord with the ice-walled channel outlet described south- east of Moravia (p. 435). ‘H. ” This delta at Morse Mill represents a lower level of the same slight body of water. Its spillway also was formed by the ice and the westward slope of the salient southwest of Moravia. ^G ” portion of delta ‘‘G” here referred to lies north- east of Montville and has a general altitude of 1060 feet. In accordance with the distinction made by Fairchild^^ this delta represents glacial Lake Groton which overflowed through Fall Creek with a spillway at Freeville. The great mass of material in this delta bespeaks the vigorous drainage of ice-front streams Bull. Geol. Soc. Jm.y vol. 10 (1899), p. 50. 4i6 Frank Carney coming from the north* During the formation of this part at least of delta the ice of the Cayuga lobe obviously reached eastward from Ludlowville covering a later overflow channel at North Lansing, covering also the Moravia sheet northward, and connected apparently with the morainic belt east of Asbury, With this tendency of the ice, it is probable that the duration of the Freeville overflow channel was contingent upon the position which the eastern margin of this Cayuga lobe maintained in reference to the high area south of Asbury, that is, the rock hill in the southwest corner of the Moravia quadrangle. When the ice crept down this western slope, disclosing a contour lower than 1040 feet, it is evident that the waters of the glacial Lake Groton worked along the edge of the Cayuga lobe and flowed into glacial Lake Brookton. The western slope of this hill shows the effect of such a spillway. As just indicated the water level connected with delta ^^G’^ gradually dropped to an overflow of about 1020 feet, which we will call the Asbury spillway. In consequence, this delta has a lower stage during which it developed westward from the part above described; the feeding stream, when the lake-level fell, took a course near the western part of the old delta. The difference in level between these two parts of this delta is shown in figure 24. The highway leading south from Asbury for some distance passes over a rock surface from which the normal veneer of drift has been largely removed by the outflowing waters of this lower stage. It is evident that this relation of ice and topography south of Asbury was maintained for considerable time, a position of the ice proba- bly marked by drift loops in Fall creek valley on the Dryden sheet. This delta, meagre in development, apparently also represents an overflow by way of Asbury; its altitude is about 940 feet. Furthermore, at seems to mark the critical stage in the history of glacial Lake Ithaca, a stage that immediately preceded the formation of Lake Newberry. 'This delta is a short distance west of the Lansing overflow channel, and was developed during and shortly after the time when static water stood over the channel. Its height and areal extent both indicate a brief duration of the water body which it is associated with. The Locke delta, as already pointed out by Fairchild®® Loc. cit.^ p. 50. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 417 and by Watson,®^ represents thelevelof Lake Warren. Its general altitude is 865 feet, but it blends westward into slopes, alluvial cone or delta in origin, that suggest a gradual lowering of the waters from the Lansing overflow channel. The sharper develop- ment of the delta, however, is associated with the lower level. ‘‘F. Delta '‘F’’ correlates with “E’’ at Locke. More recent erosion has removed much of this gravel from one-half of the valley as far upstream as Montville. Post-glacial stream-work also has creased the northern slopes of the delta, revealing buried drift which often is very bowldry. The top of delta ‘‘F’’ has a gentle southward gradient. Both this fact and its frontal outline indicate a rather speedy decline in the level of the Lake Warren waters. Figure 23 gives an idea of the general outline of the delta viewed from the West wall of the valley. Smaller Deltas. The above list includes the more conspicuous areas of delta gravels. Each level thus indicated marks also the altitude of many minor accumulations of gravel at the mouths of secondary streams. These smaller deltas are particularly com- mon along the Freeville-Moravia valley. A delta fan of con- siderable size shows at Peruville, and apparently correlates with the lake level indicated by deltas ‘‘A’' and “B’’, overflowing by way of Turkey Hill. South of Locke, on the eastern side of the valley, several of these minor deltas show. Another marks the outlet of Dry Run, south of Moravia. Other Lake Phenomena. The dimensions of some of these deltas, particularly and '^E,” suggest a static body that endured for some time. When, however, we consider the torren- tial condition of drainage incident to the retreating ice-sheet, and the fact that load was easily acquired by all streams, there being little vegetation to retard degraclational agencies we realize that in a relatively short time a great quantity of gravel accumulated at the mouths of these streams. Consequently the other shore phenomena which we are accustomed to connect with water bodies did not attain much development in this quadrangle; some of the lakes had a brief existence; some were so slight in area that very little wave work was accomplished. In the valley south of Moravia, also in the neighborhood of Lake Como (fig. 15), and again southwest of McLean was noted the Loc. cit., p. r93. 4i8 Frank Carney general flat-topped appearance of many drift knolls. These j flat tops correlate with water levels; originally they projected I somewhat higher, but probably never very far above the range of wave work, and therefore were leveled off. j Along the Freeville-Moravia valley I observed on drift slopes i some benches that apparently correlate among themselves, form- | ing different levels, suggestive also of wave and current work. ' These benches show to best advantage in the spring of the year j when snow persists longer in the angle between the cliff and j terrace. j: Just south of the mouth of Dry Run are two terraces cut in the !! rock. These are the only instances of terraces in rock, possibly j produced by waves, which I noted in the quadrangle. One of i them corresponds to a lake level. In the absence of other such j terraces, I would not interpret these as due to wave work. I No bars, spits, or other phases of shore gravels, were noted. I The period during which these lakes stood at any given level I hardly sufficed for phenomena of this type. Post Glacial Tilting. Up to this point no reference has been made to the changed altitudes given these deltas by tilting subse- quent to their formation. The value of this factor for any par- ticular gravel terrace varies directly with its distance north of the spillway used by the static body in which the terrace was con- structed. The first data referring even indirectly to this defor- mation have been supplied by Dr. G. K. Gilbert who estimates that the postglacial tilting of the Iroquois shore line, in this part of the state, is 2.7 feet per mile.^^ on the assumption that no land warping took place in this area during the time that inter- vened between the formation of the deltas we are discussing and the development of the Iroquois shore line does this factor apply. On this assumption, then, it follows that the highest delta at Moravia, constructed in a water body which overflowed by way of Turkey Hill, is now approximately 42.9 feet higher than when it was formed. T he assumption of stability of the land surface during the interval between the Turkey Hill overflow level and i the level of glacial Lake Iroquois is too remote to give these figures much value. It is reasonable to assume that the levels existing while these higher deltas were being constructed, because of sub- Quoted byTarr:yoMr. of Geol.,vo\. xii (1904), pp. 79-80. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Q^uadrangle 419 sequent pre-Iroquois land warping, intersected the water-level which developed the Iroquois shore line. This suggestion would merely call attention to the futility of applying the measure of land tilting established through a study of the Iroquois shore line to the water levels of antecedent lakes. Alluvial Fans. Some alluvial fans connected with higher water-levels have been noted. One, particularly well-developed, exists at the mouth of the valley into which esker No. 3 leads (p. 395). Another is connected with Hollow Brook, southwest of Locke. The over-deepening of the Owasco valley by glacial erosion has favored the construction of alluvial fans now noted near the flood plain; north of Moravia, on the west side of this segment of the valley each house, along the valley road, stands on such a fan; some of these are conelike in steepness. A few fans are found also on the east side of the valley. Glacial Erosion. As in all glaciated areas, the round-topped hills (fig. 18) of the higher altitudes in the Moravia quadrangle suggest the erosive work of an over-riding ice sheet. The details of this process imply both abrasion and plucking as the ice closing about the elevations first modified them through freezing to and transport- ing the blocks already loosened by weathering processes. It is probable, however, that the tendency of over-riding ice to modify the higher points into rounded domes cannot work itself out typically save in areas of crystalline or other rocks of homogenous structure. Regions of sedimentary rocks, particularly where the beds are thin and somewhat irregular in structure, do not have the nicely rounded domes that elsewhere indicate ice-carving. Looking southward from a position well-up the valley wall near the foot of Owasco lake one sees most convincing evidence of the power of ice as an agent in altering valleys. While the valley seems wide, and the upper part of its walls have a slope corre- sponding to the age indicated by this width, yet the depth of the valley is all out of harmony with these characteristics. The gentle slope of this upper part of the walls changes suddenly to a de- clivity, continuing steep down to the flood-plain. At, and north of, Moravia on both sides of the valley the highways ascend these slopes only by laboriously swinging far to the right and left while 420 Frank Carney making . relatively a slight ascent. And for several miles at a stretch no roadway-construction has been attempted. The verti- cal measure of the steep part of the side walls is 300-500 feet, but we have no proof of the amount of glacial over-deepening in this valley; the deepest well, 200 feet, is near the east wall of the valley at Moravia and did not reach rock; a conservative estimate of the measure of glacial erosion here would be 1000 feet. These steep walls are remarkable, but their continuity, giving the valley a canal-like effect, an artificial appearance, is more remarkable. Rivers widen their valleys by cutting alternately against the two walls; thus we generally find a steep slope directly across the valley from a gentle slope; a long-range view through such a valley is broken by spurs each hiding the end of the next one beyond but belonging to the opposite valley-wall. Glacier ice is the only agency known to smooth and straighten the sides of a valley. When glacial erosion thus alters a valley, deepening it and cutting back the lower parts of its walls, an abnormal relationship is established between the major and tributary streams; the latter, instead of flowing into the former at an even grade, drop over falls or tumble down cascades in many instances several hundred feet. The immediate base-level of a branch stream is the main stream, and save in very exceptional cases the branch lowers its bed in unison with the major. But after a valley has been glaci- ally over-deepened the tributary streams commence to adjust themselves to the new base-level, and in consequence have cut rapids and gorges; these tributaries then ocupy ‘‘hanging valleys.’ Fall Creek valley in the vicinity of Dresserville, and Skaneateles Inlet valley also show the result of vigorous glacial erosion. Similar evidences of the work of glaciers have been observed in many parts of the world. That ice has done work of such magnitude, there is almost unanimous agreement among scholars. Of necessity, it is impossible to study the actual process of glaciers eroding valleys. In some mountainous regions at the present time glaciers of the alpine type are at work; the portions of the valley from which such ice has recently withdrawn show plainly what has been done: a U-profile has been developed, making the valley deeper and its bottom broader; the sides and bottom, where bare, show scouring, polishing, and scratching, the work of stones of all sizes held in the basal and lateral parts of the valley glacier. I Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 42 1 Hence it is concluded that the over-deepening of valleys is accom- plished slowly by the stone tools plowing and rasping the solid rock; the nature of the surface being eroded, the quantity of the tools, the pressure of the ice, and the time through which these continue to act are factors in the process. The conditions that govern the erosive work of an alpine glacier are probably very much the same in nature as operated in a conti- nental glacier, but the pressure of the ice in the two cases is quanti- tatively different. The degrading tools are held to their work of erosion by the weight of the ice mass above; for this reason, the longitudinal valleys of central New York were altered by the ice cap. Rock in valleys always sustained a greater pressure than rock of the upland; hence the valleys suffered more erosion, thus supplying the tools for sustained erosive-work. Furthermore the shoe of ice filling the valleys bore down heaviest on the valley- bottom, the pressure decreasing up the side walls as the thickness of the ice also decreased, but not proportionally with the ascent for the reason that the ice-shoe tends to spread laterally under weight. This lateral pressure combined with the vertical pres- sure produces the U-profile, an erosion-product never arising from the work of water. Any discussion of conditions that obtained during Pleistocene times must be partly theoretical. In quantity of ice, Greenland affords the nearest approach to a continental glacier; in the inter- pretation of the features that probably characterized the margin of the Pleistocene ice-sheet, Alaskan studies have been most help- ful.The alpine glaciers are strictly analagous to the valley dependencies of the great ice-sheet only when it fronted in moun- tainous topography. The gradient of the valleys of central New York was generally towards the ice, hence the conditions were quite different from what is seen today in the Alps. It is largely by inference based on such facts as observers have recorded in the above regions, and on the distribution and nature of the drift sheet itself, that we interpret the varying mode of its origin, and reconstruct the shifting outline of the ice-front. The most conspicuous feature of glacial Work is the stupendous erosion seen in some valleys. In other valleys deposition took 33 Xarr: Zeitschrift fur Gletcherkunde, band iii (1908), ‘‘Some Phenomena of the Glacier Margins in the Y akutat Bay Region, Alaska/’ pp. 8 i-i 10. 422 F7-ank Carney place. The variation of valleys from transverse or from longi- tudinal positions is attended by a corresponding variation in erosion. The Moravia quadrangle has several valleys maintain- ing various attitudes between the transverse and longitudinal positions. Remembering that the ice in this area did not have a meridional motion, we understand the unequal erosive effects in these valleys. For example, a valley extending southeastward from Freeville bears quite a transverse relationship to ice-motion, whereas certain segments of the more longitudinal valleys (fig. 4) are quite in line with the deployment of the moving ice. The valleys that approach a transverse position suffer modification largely through partial burial. This is particularly the case when they happen to coincide with ice halts. The development offextended and fairly steep valley Walls is not normal to regions having slight vertical variation in stratigraphy. The development of drainage lines, and the resulting disintegra- tion of terranes, produce side walls more or less irregular in reference to the axis of the valley. In a longitudinal view this condition gives the effect of over-lapping spurs. From Locke northward the Owasco inlet, as already stated, especially on its western side has an oversteepened valley slope such as would not normally be developed in the stratigraphy. On the eastern side from Moravia northward the same condition exists; the exact nature of the valley wall on this side, southward from Moravia, is partially masked by drift accumulations. But this segment of the Freeville-Moravia valley does not have over- lapping spurs, a consequence of the active ice-erosion in this longitudinal valley. There is conclusive evidence that the north- ern half of the Freeville-Moravia valley is genetically due to the same direction of stream flow that the valley now has. This being the case the rock floor had a general northward gradient, and accordingly offered the moving ice the condition of obstruction conducive to a great amount of erosion. The same principles of ice-erosion in longitudinal valleys is illustrated by the steep rock slope extending from Morse Mill southeastward to the vicinity of Lake Como. Again, in the valley of Skaneateles inlet We have these oversteepened slopes on both sides, so far as this sheet is concerned (fig. 5), due to ice erosion. When glacial-deposition does not later take place in localities of active glacial-denudation we find barren farms as on the steep Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 423 slopes lying between West Groton and Locke; likewise on the two salients southeast of Moravia, as well as several north- ward sloping areas found on the eastern side of Fall Creek valley northward from McLean. Of a similar genesis too are some scattered areas in the southwestern part of the quadrangle. This condition in the uplands has been discussed as illustrating areas where the till is thin (p. 381). The slopes alluded to afforded the ice the proper obstruction attitude for very effective erosion. In general, however, the subject of ice-erosion is thought of as applying more particularly to longitudinal valleys. Is the entire transverse profile of a valley altered by ice, or is the erosion con- fined largely to the lower parts The observations bearing on this point, made in the Moravia quadrangle, are best illustrated in the Freeville-Moravia valley northward from Locke. As men- tioned above, this segment of the valley offered the most favorable conditions for ice erosion. A generalized statement of the con- clusion from the data observed is: In this longitudinal valley the most vigorous erosion was operative along the contours below 900 feet. Above this plane is a zone of less active erosion, while still farther up the ice did considerable abrasive work. In the lower contours of the valle}^, however, the power of an ice sheet to deepen longitudinal dissection lines is very impressive. The above generalization is based on a detailed study of the slopes, and upland above the 900-foot contour; what the ice did below this general altitude of 900 feet is perfectly clear. Folded beds, rather completely disintegrated, shown in figure 25, may be seen in a quarry a short distance northeast of Locke. The fold as exposed in this cross-section, which is oriented S. 30° east, has a tilt of approximately 51°. The disturbed zone is but a little over one foot in thickness and is made up of thin sandy shale layers beneath which is a sandstone bed about six inches in thick- ness. The quarry has been opened for removing the heavier beds which are subjacent to this six inch layer of sandstone. Over- lying the distorted beds are about two feet of drift and quarry rubbish, the till part of which in all probability is not in place. Figure 26 shows another folded horizon a mile and one-half north of Moravia. This fold inclines about 36°, and the exposure is in an east-west line. The folded area is on the eastern slope of the valley, and the fold itself is turned against gravity. Llere too the disturbed beds, about eighteen inches in thickness, con- 424 Frank Carney t sist of shale and sandy layers. Overlying the disturbed zone is very compact ground moraine from three to four feet thick. It should be stated further that the disturbed beds are underlain by a hard sandstone layer over which the stream is now flowing. A similar disturbance was seen in a recent stream cut about a quarter of a mile northeast of the folds just described. Here too it should be noted that the fold is turned against the slope. Fig. 25. View in a quarry east of Locke; shows weathered thin bedded strata folded by glacial ice. The exposed plane is approximately parallel to the last movement of ice. Origin of These Folds. In other localities it has been noted that freezing and thawing is competent to produce anticlinal dis- turbances in sedimentary beds. Under normal conditions folds thus produced should be symmetrical and the disturbed beds should blend vertical y into more and more residual soil; a gradual transition likewise should be noted in the opposite direction; Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 425 where beds are so deeply buried this explanation is not applicable. The area shown in fig. 26 is below the normal frost line for this climate. Fig. 25 gives a section the upper part of which is subject to frost; there is evidence here of frost alteration in the apex of the fold, but this fold is so unsymmetrical that the frost theory cannot apply. Folds due to creeping are not uncommon especially in the horizons of thin beds. The factor which induces the disturbance Fig. 26. This view shows subjacent strata disturbed by the outward or lateral motion of an ice-lobe. J is gravity. A fold then which is turned in a direction contrary to the supposed force of gravity cannot be thus explained. In glaciated countries it is very probable that the superficial rock horizons when removed by glacial erosion and other methods of ice disintegration no longer subject the underlying strata to the normal burden of their weight, and in response to this removed pressure these underlying horizons doubtless buckle, producing a fold. Such folds, however, should always be symmetrical or at 426 Frank Carney least approximately so, and should likewise show the effects of rather speedy giving away to certain stresses. This type of fold probably is represented in the Moravia quadrangle, one example at least having been noted. But the folds in question cannot be explained as due to buckling. Campbelk^ has described folds which result from normal weathering of superficial formations. The weathering being localized along joints, there results, particularly when these joints are numerous, a very appreciable lateral extension which at some point in the horizon overcomes the normal pressure and produces a fold. Both the mode of production and the type of fold pro- duced, which in all cases illustrated are symmetrical, preclude this explanation for the folds in question. The only remaining explanation seems to be that of over-riding ice. We have little data of exact observation detailing the method of ice-erosion. When the country being transgressed bears a mantle of residual soil, this is removed before the less weathered horizons become subject to ice abrasion. Considering the great weight of over-riding ice, we apprehend that friction between its base and the underlying surfaces accounts for the removal of great areas of partially weathered rock. The distorted horizons above figured seem in harmony with such a method of removal. This being the case, then, these folded horizons indicate a zone where ice-erosion has been less efficient. Fig. 25 shows that the direction of ice-motion was more nearly north-south. Fig. 26, in which the fold is turned east- ward, implies a flow of ice in that direction. The former locality, is quite in line with the direction of ice-motion for this region. The latter locality suggests rather a movement of the declining Owasco lobe, when on the eastern side it fed outward from the main axis of the valley. This outward movement of the ice in valley lobes has long been known. These figures therefore illus- trate both linear and lateral motions of the Moravia lobe. The areas shown have been selected from several photographs; some of them, however, represent less distortion. As already suggested, theoretical considerations point to greater activity of ice as an eroding agent in the lower contours of these longitudinal valleys. On the west side of the valley south of M. R. Campbell: Jour, of GeoL, vol. xiv (1906), pp. 226-32. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 427 Moravia, at an altitude of about 820 feet, a polished and striated surface attests the vigor of the ice action; that plucking v^as a part of the process of disintegration is evidenced by the several stages of rounded edges, farther down the slope, developed after the removal of rock along bedding planes. The basal load was sufficient for most active planing or abrasive work. On the same side of the valley but northward, similar striated and polished surfaces have been noted. Also on the opposite valley wall, the vigor of the ice is indicated by the well rounded and polished ledges. Southward from Locke, however, evidence of this nature is wanting. In general it may be said that evidence of the^most active ice-erosion is not found over 150 feet above the present flood plain. Fig. 27. A generalized representation of glacial erosion in a longitudinal valley. The observations on which this deduction rests were made about the Owasco valley from Locke northward. The resultant, then, of ice-erosion is to deepen longitudinal valleys, producing oversteepened walls, the horizon of accentuated erosion commencing in the Moravia valley somewhat below the 900-foot contour. Consequently, in cross-section, valleys that preglacially had a sharp V-outline, are given more of a U-shape outline, while mature valleys are made composite by having a U- outline cut approximately along their normal axes. Fig. 27 attempts to generalize the results of ice-erosion which, in accordance with the above discussion, may be given three ranges showing variation in effectiveness. First, in the highest altitudes, a range of mild erosion; second, next below, a range of inefficient erosion; and third, toward the valley axis, a range of vigorous erosion. Whether this enormous over-deepening of certain valleys was accomplished by the ice-sheet while the margin was far south. 428 Frank Carney or by the fringing tongues or dependencies that fed out into the valleys as the ice-sheet advanced and again as it retreated, and whether more erosion was done by the Wisconsin ice than by an earlier invasion, are pertinent questions. Observations made in the Ticino valley of Italy,^® and in other valleys through which glaciers have fed from mountainous regions, indicate that valley glaciers performed much erosion; but in these valleys the ice moved downhill, whereas in central New York the valleys sloped the other way. Furthermore in New York there is evidence of erosion, as in the Laborador pond valley of the Tully quadrangle, producing a ‘Through” valley where appar- ently two streams formerly headed against each other. It does not seem to be clearly demonstrated that over-deepening and “through” valleys are the products solely of valley glaciers. Again, if the erosion of the Owasco valley was accomplished bv dependencies of the retreating Wisconsin ice we should find drift-loops in the parts of the valley not now drowned by the lake, and in the lake part lateral moraines correlating with loops; on the Moravia sheet I did not find loops near enough to the over-deepened part of the valley to indicate that the erosion was due to tongues of ice appended to the retreating Wisconsin sheet. If an earlier invasion did not extend farther south than the general location of Chamberlin’s “ Moraine of the Finger Lake Region,”^® we can conceive how the alteration of these valleys may have been accomplished by glaciers somewhat of the alpine type, belonging to a pre-Wisconsin ice-sheet. Striae. The thin drift in many portions of the uplands, and the altitude of the axes of rock salients have made obvious the direction of ice- motion over several parts of the Moravia quadrangle. While many scores of readings were taken in the particular areas, the average of these in most cases has been used in Plate XII which locates the most pronounced striated surfaces. The glacial scratches we now read represent in the majority of W. M. Davis: Appalachia, vol. ix (1900), “Glacial Erosion in the valley of the 1 Ticino,” pp. 136-56. j U. S. Geol. Surv., Third Annual Report (1883), pp. 353-60. | Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 429 cases, the direction of motion of the retreating ice-body; and, as had already been discussed, the local topography is a deciding factor in the direction of these latest movements. Therefore, it is an open question \vhether the glacial scratches in the vicinity of valleys, after all, give much information as to the movement of the general ice sheet. The discordance in the appended table of striae between the lower and the higher ranges of altitude show the influence of topography. It is apparent that the general movement of the ice in the Mo- ravia quadrangle was from the northwest, such is the indication of striae on higher altitudes. This prevailing direction of ice- motion does not necessarily imply that the general ice-sheet thus moved. As explained on earlier pages, the controlling lobe of this vicinity occupied the Cayuga valley which lies to the west. The lines of ice-movement, as has been established in several distant parts of the country, is always outward from the axis of such a lobe. If then the Cayuga valley lobe controlled the last movement of ice in the Moravia quadrangle there is accordance between the hypothesis and the direction of striae. In the whole area of this sheet but one locality was found indi- cating a direction of ice-movement from any other quadrant. Near the eastern margin of the sheet, a mile or so northeast of Rogers Corners, a dimly striated surface exists on the very top of a hill which the topographic map makes 1720 feet above sea level. These scratches are mere brushings, and the first time I noted them the}' were not read, feeling that they represented some accidental alignment of plough or road scraper markings. Later in this season, however, the same faint markings were again observed, and read. The next summer this area was visited, and the evidence of dim striations was read on still a different side of the highway. The average direction of these several readings is S. 45° W. The faintness of the brushings, and the weathered surfaces carrying them, both indicate greater age than do the striae elsewhere on the sheet. The topography eastward suggests that this area may have been finally controlled by ice which moved towards the southwest, just as the ice of a lobe farther west has affected other parts of the sheet by the striae trending to the south- east. On the basis then of control of ice-motion by the drainage lines eastward, we may account for these discordant striae; and on the supposition that they present the work of the oncoming 430 Frank Carney ; Wisconsin ice-sheet we may understand their weathered and ! indefinite condition. Few of the striated areas present much variety in direction. In only a couple of cases is there sufficient discordance to suppose I that the scratches are not contemporaneous in origin. South- | east of Moravia between the 1400-foot and 1500-foot contours | there appear to be two sets of striae, one of which averages S. | 72° E., and the other S. 41° E. On the rim of the Montville ;| valley, where it drops into the Moravia valley, we also find dis- j; cordant striae, one set of which has the direction S. 51° E., and || the other S. 26° E.; the first mentioned set evidently represents j| the more general movement of the over-riding ice, while the second I is plainly the result of local topography. li About a mile southeast of Sempronius in a saddle between two || prominent rock hills we find conclusive evidence of a minor tongue i| which fed across and through this sag. The vigorously striated 1 surface here gives an average reading of S. 76° E., while the valley ; to the west obviously directed the ice in a general southeastern j motion. A similar instance is also noted southeast of Nubia | where the striae average S. 73° E. | One mile west of Locke is an area which apparently gives us the motion of the general ice mass. The average course of the striae here is S. 44° E. If these striae were connected with the out- moving-ice from the Moravia lobe their normal direction would be a similar deflection to the west. There is no evidence at all showing that the Owasco valley ever induced a lobation of the ice-front sufficiently strong to offset the controlling influence of the Cayuga lobe. Grouping the direction of striae according to ranges in altitude ; it is seen that those found below the iioo-foot contour average | S. 39.2° E.; those between 1100 and 1400 average S. 52.6° E.; | between 1400 and 1700 the average direction is S. 69.3° PA; while ' the only striated surface above 1700 is the indefinite one already alluded to where the direction is S. 45° W. The following table gives a condensed resume of the principal striated areas arranged according to altitude; each direction repre- sents the average of a great many individual readings: Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 431 800-1 100 11-1200 12-1300 13-1500 i 15-1700 00 § S. 14° E. S. 26° E. S. 51° E. S. 66° E. 1 S.75°E. S. 57° E. S. 37° E. S. 44° E. S.5o°E. S. 56° E. S. 51° E. S.45"E. S. 46°E. S.48°E. S. 3i°E. S. 49° E. S. 55°E. S. 72°E. 1 S.73°E. 1 1 S. 6i°E. 1 S. 7i°E. S. 76°E. S. 45°W Ice-Front Channels. The several halts of a retreating ice-sheet naturally develop waterways not normal to ordinary conditions of rainfall. Often these waterways are narrow, occupying a slight depression some- times incised in rock; more often, however, they are not cut entirely through the previously deposited drift. Again, they are broad channels indicating a wide shallow stream bearing drain- age away from the melting ice; in this case an unusual quantity of bowlders, large and small, generally characterize the former water course. These bowlders may represent the unremoved heavier portions of the former drift deposits, as well as the debris melted from stranded ice-blocks being floated off by the waters flowing from the front of the glacier. The two types of ice-front channels may be discriminated: (i) Topographic, or drainage ways usually following the sags between or leading into the valleys of the locality; (2) Torrential, or channels cut generally in previously deposited drift, and hav- ing locations possible only when an abnormal quantity of water is turned loose through an area that in post-glacial times has never carried any considerable drainage. The former type one might locate with some degree of accuracy on a topographic map, knowing only the general positions of bands of thickened drift. The torrential type, however, can scarcely be hypothecated on any normal premises. Ice-front channels of this type are found often in unexpected places, particularly where the ice has melted slowly and the drift in consequence has become very thick. Topographic Type, (i) About a mile southwest of West Dryden is an area now covered by extensive swamps. This flat region leads away from northwestward falling contours to contours descend- 432 Frank Carney ing in the opposite direction on the Dryden sheet. The plentiful bowlders, as well as the suggestion of a channel toward the north- ern margin of the flat area, both indicate ice-front drainage. In some places it is evident that the drift has been quite completely swept away; this is particularly true in the crease which is indica- tive of a channel, cut by the narrower, more permanent form of the overflow stream. (2) West Groton is situated on the northwest corner of a quadrangle formed by highways. Just south of the diagonally opposite corner from West Groton is a channel which lies slightly north of the axis of the valley leading southeastward to the village of Pleasant Valley. This channel dissects a loop of drift already described. It is a well marked crease, though it does not disclose the underlying rock. (3) Beaver Brook, a tributary of Fall Creek, heads in a channel southeast of Lafayette. The channel here indicates a long period of overflowing glacial waters. The lateral tongue of ice from the lobe that persisted in Fall Creek valley stood for a considerable period in this valley, the drainage from which incised the over- flow channel referred to. (4) Another tributary valley of Fall Creek valley, leading south- east from the parallel of Rogers Corners, also was similarly occu- pied by a lateral tongue of ice, the drainage from which developed a channel leading into Dry Creek of the Cortland quadrangle. Fig. 12 gives an idea of the morainic accumulations built up during this halt of the ice. (5) Again the tributary valley east of Como caused an analogous arrangement of drift and overflow channel. This channel like- wise carried waters into a valley of the Cortland quadrangle. (6) Leading eastward from the plexus of drift in which Fall Creek rises is a channel of glacial overflow incised in the rock, and leading into Skaneateles Inlet valley. This channel has already been alluded to under the discussion of drainage (p. 343). To some extent its development may be of post-glacial origin. The manner in which the drift north and west from the western ter- minus of the rock gorge portion of this channel has been eroded indicates that the post-glacial factor in its degradation is very unimportant. (7) In connection with the formation of the drift loop just east of North Summer Hill the ice-front waters developed a channel Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 433 that has swept ofF much of the ground moraine leaving the surface of the country rock quite exposed. Reference was likewise made 1 under the general consideration of drainage (p. 343) to this ice- front stream which gave the gorge to the southeast its present development. Here, too, the later post-glacial erosion has been slight. (8) About one and a half miles due northwest of Summer Hill a typical ice-front channel now marks the divide area between Dry Run and the Summer Hill tributary of Fall Creek. This channel is practically of immediate ice-front drainage develop- ment. For a time, however, probably rather brief, the channel was the overflow of a slight lake held in the upper portion of Dry Run valley. (9) Hollow Brook, west of Locke, occupies now for a short distance, near the boundary of Genoa and Venice townships, the course of an ice-front channel, which is crossed by the east-west highway at the point where the present stream occupies the former waterway. The genesis of this overflow channel is con- nected wdth topographic relationships found on the Genoa sheet. Torrential Type. As stated above, this type of channel is con- fined to areas of thickened drift, that is, areas where the ice-front retreated very gradually. While no pretense is made at mapping all channels of this type, it has been thought well nevertheless to make specific reference to a few of the better developed illustra- tions, or to vicinities where the type abounds. (1) On the eastern wall of the Freeville-Moravia valley, it has already been noted that the drift assumes a very morainic aspect. The torrential overflow channel is here common, and is easily differentiated from post-glacial erosion lines. The drainage established since the complete retreat of the ice has suffered but slight changes. Consequently, the deserted channels, since it is evident that they bear no relationship to post-glacial waterways, are plainly of the ice-front type. (2) In the kame moraine areas from Freeville to McLean and northward one notes illustrations of the torrential type of ice-front channels. This would be expected, for here the massive accumu- lations of drift, prevailingly washed in character, bespeak an unusual quantity of ice-front drainage. Some of these channels indicate a sub-glacial origin, as it is impossible to associate them with the normal development of channels cut by water flow along 434 Frank Carney the lines induced by gravity. While only one esker (fig. i8) has been mapped in this region, it is nevertheless possible that some of the short and isolated ridges of washed drift do represent seg- ments of subglacially aggraded drainage lines. It is this associa- tion that prompts the above suggestion concerning the genesis of some of the erosion channels noted in the area. (3) Just a few rods east of the third road to the left going south from Como is a deserted water course which has no connection with recent drainage; its proportions are entirely out of harmony I with the work that might be done by the waters assembling from jl the catchment basin to which the channel is contiguous; it is || direct in course, leading southward, and plainly has the marks j of vigorous initial development. i (4) East of Sempronius the thickened drift indicates a long | halt of the ice. Extending southward from this area, in which | Fall Creek now heads, are several clean cut channels indicating the work done by ice-front drainage. (5) In the region of thickened drift north of North Lansing I | have also observed waterways that obviously are not due to post- I glacial erosion. I Ice-Walled Channels. | Gilbert^’ and Fairchild^® have described the peculiar terraces 1 and benches produced by water courses, one wall of which was j the ice in position. The recent work of Fairchild in the Mohawk | valley^® calls attention to a variety of such water courses. I A few instances of these ice-walled channels are noted on the | Moravia quadrangle. The development attained is not marked l| since in the higher altitudes of this sheet no water bodies persisted >! any great length of time. Where a rock slope abutted the ice, | and the ice fed around this slope in either direction, the topography j otherwise forming the conditions for ponded waters on either side, then as the ice retreated the water on one side or the other would coalesce or flow down into the other body. The channel through which the water spilled consisted of rock on one side and ice ' on the other. If the ice were permanent for some time, normal . Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 8 (1897), p. 285. N. T. State Mus., 22nd. Rep. of State Geologist (1902), pp. r23-r30. Ihid., 2lstRep. of State Geologist (1901), pp. r35-r47. Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 435 methods of erosion would incise the rock slope, and a resulting bench and terrace would now indicate the course of this former overflow stream. Where the highway leading southeastward from Moravia to North Summer Hill skirts the southern slope of the rock salient facing Montville we note at about the I200-foot contour, the first evidence of one of these former stream courses. The appearance from the highway, however, is not suggestive of such a channel, but a short walk northward around the face of the salient leads one to a more conspicuous development of the former stream course. This point of overflow obviously taken by the water held in the valley eastward towards Morse Mill succeeded a higher channel which led the ponded waters about the brow of the hill and formed a conspicuous cliff and terrace extending about the prow and the southeastern part of the slope fairly parallel with the 1340-foot contour. Southward from this highway the course of the channel last traced drops, and at about one-quarter of a mile from the road it may be traced for some distance where it has smoothed out the morainic topography that characterizes the northern slope of Dry Run valley. Likewise, about one hundred feet lower in altitude may be traced the continuation of the first mentioned channel. On the southern wall of Dry Run valley there is noted a marked over-steepening, not due to an)/ lithological irregularity in the salient, which here is included within the district encompassed by a high- way extending to the east and another extending southward and then eastward. The case of a deserted stream course here, while apparent, is not so clear as in the two just described. The western slope of the hill south of Asbury is conspicuously free of drift, a condition due to the sweep of waters from the north between the ice and this hill. No pronounced bench was devel- oped, but the rock over quite a width and vertical range has been fairly well cleared of glacial rubbish. The slopes of many salients found on the east wall of Fall Creek valley also bear benches probably due to a similar cause. It is seen from the topographic map that this area is cut up by frequent and wide valleys, thus producing a medley of salients between which impounded waters escape successively to the lower levels, and in doing so, being held against the slope by ice, have channeled the rocks in varying degrees. I have not mapped these since in 43^ Frank Carney no case do any of them present a linear extension of more than a few rods. Drift of an Earlier Ice Invasion. Positive evidence that the region included in the Moravia quad- rangle was glaciated previously to the Wisconsin invasion was not found in this investigation. No contact between drift of dif- ferent ages has been noted, neither have I observed individual deposits which suggest drift older than the Wisconsin. The strongest suggestion of any earlier glaciation is the presence of apparent interglacial drainage lines. In spite of the lack of direct or positive evidence of the existence of an older drift sheet, in all probability this region was glaciated once at least previous to the Wisconsin invasion. Several lines of indirect proof point to this conclusion. The work of Leverett,^® Salisbury,^^ Woodworth, Fuller,^ Clapp, and others^" along parallels both east and west of the Finger lake district gives cumulative evidence of the existence of drift older than the Wisconsin. Knowing that ice of an Illinoian or some older sheet reached into southern New England and across Long Island into New Jersey, and that drift classified as Kansas has been found in northwestern Pennsylvania, the chance that the plateau section of New York state escaped glaciation contempo- raneous with the ice depositing such drift in those areas is indeed slight. Indirectly, then, we infer that the presence of older ice on both sides of the Finger lake region and farther south implies that this region itself was covered by that ice. The amount of erosion accomplished in these Finger lake i valleys suggests, according to Tarr,^® more than one ice-invasion. In acounting for some of the hanging valleys he alludes to the i Monograph, xli, U. S. Geol. Survey (1902), p. 228. Geological Survey of New Jersey, Annual Report for iSgj, pp. 73, etc.; vol. V (1902), pp. 187-89, 751-82. N. T. State Museum, Bulletin ^8 (1901), pp. 618-70. American Geologist, vol. xxxii (1903), pp. 308-12. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. xviii (1908), pp. 505-556. A. C. Veatch: Jour, of Geol., vol. xi (1903), pp. 762-76. L. H. Woolsey: Beaver Folio, no. 134 (Penn.), U. S. Geol. Surv. (1905), p. 7- Am. Geol., vol. xxiii (1904), p. 284. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 16 (l905)>PP- 239-40. yo«r. o/G^’o/., vol. xiv (1906), pp. 20-21. Pop. Sci. Monthly (fWidLy, PP- 392-93- I Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 437 probability of multiple glaciation. '‘Through valleys offer equally pertinent hints of repeated ice-invasions. Possible evidence of an earlier invasion is indicated also by the scattered hints of ice-dammed lakes older than the lakes held up in front of the retreating Wisconsin sheet. No data is available for a more accurate time-definition; the lakes may have skirted the front of the advancing Wisconsin ice; they may mark the advance or retreat of an earlier invasion. The shore lines of these older lakes so far as traced show discrepancy in attitude when compared with the shore lines of the more recent ice-front lakes. It is obvious, furthermore, that every ice-invasion of this Finger lake region witnessed the growth and decadence of such lakes. The strength of shore phenomena developed by the static water bodies characterizing the progress or retreat of any ice-sheet has a direct connection with the duration of the halt which occa- sioned the static body of water. If, therefore, the ice-dammed lakes in this region held up, for example, by the Illinoian ice- invasion had a duration comparable with the Wisconsin Lake Warren, it is probable that shore lines would have been developed that might locally 'withstand even one or more later ice-invasions and be observed today. Such phenomena have been tentatively studied in the valley of Lake Keuka;^^ if found in other of the Finger lake valleys, correlating data may aid in arriving more closely at the time of their origin. On the supposition that this area has been glaciated previous to the Wisconsin invasion, we may consider the effects produced on an older drift sheet by another incursion of ice. These effects would be controlled somewhat by the topography, and to a much less degree by the length of the interglacial period. The drift which accumulated in transverse valleys obviously would suffer less through a second invasion of ice than would the glacial de- posits made in longitudinal valleys. For this reason, then, older drift sheets should be better preserved in valleys transverse to the line of movement of the later ice-invasion. The bearing that the length of the interglacial period has on the question arises through the amount of soil that would be developed in the lapse of glaciation, and also in time through which the till already The designation used by Tarr, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 16 (1905), p. 233. F. Carney: The Am. Jour, of Sc., vol. xxiii (1907), pp. 325-335. 43^ Frank Carney deposited would have for induration. A drift sheet when un- disturbed through two time units would assume a stage of indura- tion that would not be reached by a drift sheet in one time unit. While the condition of induration attained by the till would but slightly control its resistance to the abrasive powers of another sheet, it is apparent nevertheless that the factor has some weight. All evidence points to the conclusion that throughout this part of the Allegheny plateau the Wisconsin ice-sheet was vigorous. The erosion which it is assumed has been accomplished in rock valleys would very evidently accomplish work of the same degree on a till sheet previously deposited in those valleys. It follows, then, that a pre-Wisconsin drift sheet in this region must have suffered much from the influence of a later invasion. The older drift in the longitudinal valleys especially must have been largely removed, and in semi-protected areas suffered much disturbance. The vigorousness of the Wisconsin ice is evidenced by the great mass of its morainal deposits. Thus while this last ice invasion did much destructive work on a till sheet already in this area, at the same time it produced rubbish which now doubtless buries much of this older drift. A second invasion would also evidently affect previously depos- ited drift which escaped removal in bringing about in such old drift a condition of more or less complete induration. This is accomplished entirely through the weight of the over-riding ice. While I have not seen in the Moravia quadrangle anv sections of drift which suggest an indurated condition, nevertheless the reports of well drillers in the region are very suggestive of the existence of such hard till in many widely separated parts of the quadrangle. It is entirely possible that this hard bluish till was deposited by the advancing Wisconsin ice; the final interpreta- tion must involve its study over a wider area. My purpose is to record the fact of its general distribution in the Moravia sheet. All the evidence here offered as bearing on the question of a possible pre- Wisconsin drift sheet is found in well records. I will accordingly refer to some particular localities where the drill has revealed the presence of hard blue clay. I appreciate the misconceptions that drillers often have of the material through which their drills pass, yet we must grant that in the presence of cumulative evidence of such indurated bluish drift there must be something in common with these wide-scattered deposits: Pleistocene Geology of Moravia Quadrangle 439 (1) About two miles south of Moravia Mr. J. C. Rounds sunk a well which shows 75 feet of blue clay. This well lies north of the first valley loop proceeding southward from Moravia. It is in the valley bottom, and the water flows with some activity from the pipe. While details as to the depth and other material passed through in this well are lacking, the certainty expressed as to the thickness of the blue clay is given as the writer had it. (2) Directly north of the Lansing overflow channel, wells found along the east-west line approximately on the 1200-foot contour report several feet of blue clay. (3) At Locke there are several wells, some of which flow, and all of which give a record of blue clay. That of Burdette Robin- son, who lives a quarter of a mile southwest of the village, shows 160 feet of blue clay overlain by six feet of gravel. That of C. E. Parks just across the highw'ay shows 170 feet of blue clay over- lain by 10 feet of gravel. North of the village a short distance A. A. Slocum has a well which gives 80 feet of blue clay beneath some four feet of light-colored clay. All of these wells reported gravel beneath the blue clay. In the part of the Moravia-Locke valley where these wells are located there is evidence of slight glacial erosion by Wisconsin ice. At this point the valley divides; the western arm bottoms in rock not far from the wells; in the eastern branch a well one mile distant gives rock at 96 feet. Over- deepening which characterizes the main valley a few miles north is absent here. We would expect it to be absent near the point where the longitudinal valley divides because the salient of rock between the two lesser valleys protects that portion of the major valley near its base from ice-erosion. Hence the presence here of drift older than the deposits made by the retreating Wisconsin ice is not improbable. (4) On the uplands north and east of Groton the wells with very few exceptions show several feet of blue clay. (5) About a half mile east of Jones Corners a well shows 60 feet of blue clay beneath twelve feet of gravel. This is on the farm of George Barrows. At the Summer Hill creamery a driven well shows 28 feet of blue clay beneath twelve feet of gravel. (6) Several wells about a mile and a half southeast of Peruville give a record of blue clay. (7) On the property of John M. Sherwood? one mile west of McLean? is a well which revealed forty feet of blue clay beneath 440 Frank Carney sixteen feet of gravel. Gravel also underlies the clay. The well of D. W. Rowley across the highway has a similar record. Obviously there are apt to be several lines of discrepancy in these well records because in all cases they were given the writer from memory. I place slight value on the number of feet of clay or other material alleged in the wells. The constant report, however, of an exceedingly hard horizon is suggestive of an indur- ated drift which may imply much antiquity. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This investigation was begun some years ago at the suggestion of Professor R. S. Tarr to whom I am deeply obligated for sus- taine i encouragement and invaluable aid. Doctor J. B. Wood- worth of Harvard kindly read the manuscript, making many important suggestions; and Professor EarlR. Scheffel of Lawrence college has rendered me great service in reading the proof. Plate XII. A Pleistocene Map of the Moravia Sheet. The overlay gives hypothetical retreatal positions of the ice-front as suggested by the moraines and their valley loops. The direction of striae represent in each case the average of many readings. The eskers are numbered, i to 9; and the deltas are marked by the letters, A to J. In all other particulars the legend is indicated on the margin of the plate. i] '1 •J, (I f*— \- -V Ww^^' ' ,S^'' :'vvvS^'' ■■• INDEX [Bibliographical names are in caps] Alaska, 350, 421. Alluvial fan, 357, 368, 419. Alps, 350, 421. American Geologist, ref. to, 346, 377, 436. American Journal of Science, ref. to, 437. Anderson, J. G., ref. to, 368. Appalachia, ref. to, 426. Bowlders, general study, 404-406. Buckling of strata, 426. Campbell, M. R. ref. to, 426. Carney, F., ref. to, 377, 437. Cascadilla Valley, 377, 414. Cayuga Lobe, 371, 385, 414, 415, 416, 429. Chamberlin, T. C.,ref. to, 349, 350, 369, 370, 382, 388, 428. Channels, ice-front, 431. topographic type, 431-433. torrential type, 433, 434. ice-walled, 434, 436. Clapp, F. G., ref. to, 436. Davis, W. M., ref. to, 428. Deltas, high-level, chronology of, 414-417. special studies, 406-412. tilting affecting, 418. water bodies associated with, 412. Dependencies, ice-cap, 349, 421, 427, 428. Drift, conditions for massed deposits, 366. distribution of, 346. drift-free areas, 381. ground moraine, 380. in valleys, 351. knolls, 370. loops, 352. nunatak, 388-391. parallel ridges, 369, 391. upland deposits, 379. Erosion, of ice-front waters, 431-434. glacial, 419-428 post-glacial 341. Eskers, general discussion of, 400. degree of • development, 402. direction of, 400. distribution of, 394-399. genesis of, 400, 404. ice-motion affecting, 403. types of, 394. vertical range, 402. Fairchild, H. JL,., ref. to, 413, 414, 415, 416, 434. Fuller, M. F., ref. to, 436. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., ref. to, 353, 366, 385, 390, 413, 415, 434, 436. George Junior Republic, 354, 371. Gilbert, G. K., ref. to, 350, 369, 418, 434. Glacial, lakes, 412-418. overflow channels, 431-434. Greenland, 349, 370, 421. Illinois ice-sheet, 436. Induration of drift, 438. Iroquois shore-line, 418. Journal of Geology, ref. to, 349, 368, 426, 436. Karnes, kames and kettle development, 362, 389. kame areas, 370-376. kame plexus, 384. Kansan drift, 436. Kettle holes, 362, 371. Lakes, lake-bottom deposits, 376. lakes, ice-dammed, general study of, 412-417. in connection with pre-Wisconsin glacia- tion, 437. Lake Brookton, glacial, 413, 416. Lake Chicago, glacial, 412. Lake Como, 343, 365, 373, 417, 422. Lake Iroquois, glacial, 418. 442 Index Lakes — Continued., Lake Groton, glacial, 415. Lake Ithaca, glacial, 413, 416. Lake Newberry, glacial, 412, 416. Lake Seneca, glacial, 412. Lake Warren, glacial, 413, 417. West Danby Lake, glacial, 413. Lansing overflow channel, 416. Leverett, F., ref. to, 436. Long Island, 436. Loops, valley, governing factors of, 351, 352. examples of, 354-366. outlines of, 352, 353. Michigan lobe, 413. Moraine, collar, 390. governing factors, 346-350. ground, 380. kame, 393, 395, 433. lateral, 349. loops, 354-366. terminal, 381-391. terraces, 367. New Jersey, Geol. Surv., ref. to, 393, 436. New York State Museum Bull., ref. to, 367, 413^ 434» 436- Nunatak drift, 388-391. Ontario, basin, 350. lobe, 412 Outwash plains, 393. Owasco Lake, 346. Owasco lobe, 392, 415, 426. Parallel ridges of drift, 391. Pennsylvania, 436. Plucking, ice, 419. Popular Science Monthly, ref. to, 436. Post-glacial, tilting, 418. Residual soil, 424, 426. Retreatal ice-halts, 354, 362. Salisbury, R. D., ref. to, 349, 370, 388, 393, 436. Six mile Creek, 377, 413, 414. Solifluction, 367, 368. Spencer, J. W., ref. to, 350. Strias, Indicating ice-movement, 428, 429. list of readings, 431. Subglacial, deposits, 398. drainage, 395, 400. Swamps, 399, 400. Tarr, R. S., ref. to, 346, 350, 353, 366, 367, 369, 37L 379> 383^ 385^ 390» 40i> 4^1, 437- Taylor, F. B., ref. to, 350, 413. Turkey Hill, 377, 414, 415, 417, 418. U. S. Geological Survey, ref. to, 350, 369, 428, 436- Valley train, 376, 392. Veatch, a. C., ref. to, 436. Watson, T. L., ref. to, 367, 377, 406, 414, 417. Weathering, postglacial, 389. Well records, 380, 394. suggesting pre-Wisconsin drift, 438-441. White Church spillway, 413. Woodworth, J. B., ref. to, 436. WooLSEY, L. H., ref. to, 436. BULLET! OF THE SCIENTIFIC Laboratories DENISON UNIVERSITY Volume XV Pages 1-100 EDITED BY FRANK CARNEY Permanent Secretary Denison Scientific Association This volume is published in commemoration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the election of Clarence Luther Herrick to the Professorship of Geology and Natural History at Denison University 14 r *0 ur.. GRANVILLE, OHIO, MARCH, 1910 5 '1' : iii :i 1 II : LARENCE LUTHER HERRICK FOUNDER OF THE DENISON SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION BULLETIN OF THE SCIENTIFIC Iv/ LABORATORIES JOURNAL OF COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY TRUE TE MEMORIAL TABLET UNVEILED IN BARNEY MEMORIAL SCIENCE HALL, NOVEMBER, 1908 C BULLETIN OF THE SCIENTIFIC Laboratories OF DENISON UNIVERSITY EDITED BY FRANK CARNEY Permanent Secretary Denison Scientific Association This volume is published in commemoration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the election of Clarence Luther Herrick to the Professorship of Geology and Natural History at Denison University VOL. XV GRANVILLE, OHIO, 1910 CONTENTS Introduction. 1 The Summation-Irradiation Theory of Pleasure-Pain. 5 The Equilibrium Theory of Consciousness 12 Body and Soul 23 The Concept of Individuality 29 The Fundamental Postulate of Dynamic Monism 39 Pure Spontaneity. 46 Historical Setting 49 Energism: The Fundamental Principles of Dynamic Realism 52 The Postulate of Resistance. 59 Dynamic Monism and Heredity 62 Dynamic Aphorisms 65 The Freedom of the Will. 72 The Problem of Evil. . 76 The Spiritual Paradox : A Metaphysical Study of Immortality 85 ’ Ethical Conclusions. 99 THE METAPHYSICS OF A NATURALIST Philosophical and Psychological Fragments by the Late C. L. Herrick INTRODUCTION In these days when philosophy is considered less and less as transcendental metaphysics and more and more in terms of the instrumental methodology of the sciences, the thoughts and writings of men who represent this phase of human endeavor are coming to be valued above every other source of philosoph- ical inspiration, The opinions of such men as Tyndall, Hux- ley, Helmholtz, Kelvin, Mach, Ostwald, to mention no others, become of great significance to philosophy when the latter is conceived as an interpretation and criticism of the underlying principles and methods of the sciences. It is as a contribution to this increasingly valuable literature that these pages are offered to the public. Professor Herrick was not only an eminent naturalist and neurologist, but from the first he conceived and executed his researches in a philosophic spirit and with the special problems of psychology in mind. This fact in itself would make his views of interest. But when to this the fact is added that his ideas are always expressed viva- ciously and in suggestive form, his writings become doubly in- teresting and important. An account of the life and work of Prof. Clarence Luther Her- rick, with portrait and an appended bibliography, may be found in the Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology^ and more fully in the Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories of Deni- son University.^ As a young man, while serving on the Geo- logical and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, he acquired a thorough and broad knowledge of natural history, devoting him- self to paleontology, systematic zoology and comparative anat- ^ Vol. 14, no. 6, November, 1904. ^ Vol. 13, pp. 1 to 33,. January, 1905. 1 2 C. L. Herrick omy. The suceeding five years were devoted chiefly to geology, and the later years of his life to neurology, comparative psy- chology and philosophy. At the beginning of the latter period he founded in 1891 the Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, which he continued to edit until his death. His interest in philosophical questions was perennially active, as shown by the note-books which he made as a college student, his correspondence throughout life, and his frequent contribu- tions to the psychological and philosophical serials. Professor Herrick, though a great admirer of Lotze, whose lectures on psychology he translated and privately printed while still a young man for the use of his classes (with, significantly, j| an appended chapter on the structure of the brain) was a disciple ! of no school. The systematist, he remarks in the introduction | to one of his unpublished works, may be horrified to observe that ! questions of psychology and of neurology jostle problems of ' ontology and ^^Erkenntnistheorie. The hysterical individual, ; on the other hand, who finds the word system insupportable, | will doubtless do well to stop here and may as well detain his | fellow who sees in an unclassified fact a maverick escaped from the | herd to be roped, rounded up and branded Hegelian, Herbar- | tian, etc., as soon as possible. | The pages which follow were assembled shortly after Professor ! Herrick’s death in 1904 from a large collection of miscellaneous i papers. The greater part of this compilation was done by Prof. ! H. Heath Bawden, an arduous labor, very skillfully and sympa- thetically performed as a tribute from a pupil to the memory of his first master. The entire manuscript has been critically read by Dr. George Fitch McKibben whose association with I Professor Herrick began when they were students in Germany. | The attempt has been made to correlate the most distinctive j of the philosophical and psychological teachings of Professor Her- | rick by bringing together the important ideas scattered through- r out his published writings and contained in hitherto inaccessible papers and unpublished manuscripts which it has been our privi- | lege to consult. The greater part of what here appears is pub- lished for the first time, references being made to his published | writings only so far as has been necessary to give the proper | ® Published at Minneapolis. Pp. x + 150, 2 plates, 1888. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 3 setting to this new material. The section on the theory of pleasure-pain alone contains any considerable amount of pre- viously published matter and this is presented first in order to illustrate the nature of the data upon the basis of which the theory of consciousness and some other philosophical sections were elab- orated. The chapters which are here assembled were not, how- ever, prepared by the author with reference to each other, and this accounts for the large amount of repetition, which the editors have not attempted to eliminate. A certain amount of interpretation and evaluation has been inevitable because of the fragmentary character of much of the material and because of the unelaborated state of many of the ideas themselves. But it has been the aim as far as possible to let Professor Herrick speak for himself. In explanation of the heterogeneity and very unequal value of these chapters, attention should again be called to the fact that no one of them represents a finished product, and the parts were written at widely different times under exceedingly various conditions. Some of the most valuable passages have been extracted from personal letters. Others are taken from frag- mentary pencil notes made when he was too ill to write more than a few minutes at a time. Some are sections extracted from par- tially elaborated drafts of systematic treatises. His papers con- tain outlines of four such books. Parts of two of these were quite fully written up; but very little of the others had been written. He had in preparation a philosophical treatise and published some extracts from this work in the philosophical serials shortly before his death; others were published immediately thereafter. The earlier chapters of the present volume (except the first) have been drawn largely from the unpublished materials for this work. The later chapters are assembled for the most part from the notes for a text-book on ethics, to be entitled. Lectures on Conduct: The Principles of Ethics from the Dynamic Point of View. These fragments suffer, not only from their hasty preparation and lack of revision, but also from the absence of the setting within which they were elaborated in the author’s mind. Doubt- less in the light of current criticism many details of psychological or philosophical exposition would be stated differently by the author if he were writing today. But the value of these papers 4 C. L. Herrick is quite independent of these considerations; it lies rather in the insight given into the workings of a philosophically acute mind unusually richly furnished with the concrete data of scientific observation. In 1885 Mr. Herrick was elected Professor of Geology and Natural History in Denison University, and in the course of the year following this appointment he founded the Denison Scientific Association and established the Bulletin of the Scientific Laboratories of Denison University as the organ of publi- cation of this association and the exponent of the scientific life of the college. On this, the twenty-fifth anniversary of his professorship, the Denison Scientific Association sends forth this volume, containing some of the fruits of Professor Herrick’s ripest thinking, in the belief that by the dissemination of his own words it can best honor the memory of its founder. The Editors. THE SUMMATION-IRRADIATION THEORY OF PLEASURE-PAIN Professor Herrick’s theory of pleasure-pain is significant in that it states the physiological mechanism of tension and read- justment which are required by the James-Lange theory of emotion^ especially in its revised form as stated by Professor Dewey and Professor Fite.^ There is no separate apparatus for feeling. With each act of the conscious organism there are changes of tone comparable to the accessory vibrations constituting the timber of a musical instrument. These are associated with vascular changes (varia- tion in the pressure of the blood in the capillaries and probably in the brain) . The disturbance of equilibrium in these and other ways produces the change in feeling tone, varying from mere somatic feeling to the explosive excitement of certain sense irra- diations. All sensations are experienced as pleasurable in proportion as they relieve existing strain or overcome resistance; as painful in proportion as they fail to relieve such strain or overcome accumulated resistance. In other words, pain means congestion, contraction, obstruction, disadaptation, a disproportionateness of stimulus to the conveying power of the organ. Pleasure means diffusion, expansion, irradiation, discharge. In both cases there is summation of stimuli, but in the case of pain this summation finds no overflow or discharge, or the process of inhibition is carried to the point where the subsequent discharge results in a further mal-adjustment. Often an interval of one or two seconds may elapse after the sensa- tion is perceived before pain appears. These cases, so often quoted as proving the distinct nature of pain, are in one respect fallacious. When a nerve fiber is penetrated by a pin the pain is nearly, if not quite, as promptly felt as the touch. When the finger is struck by a hammer the pain is frequently long delayed. But the acme of pain in that case is ' Cf. James, Psychology, vol. 2, p. 451; Psychological Review, vol. 1, 1894, p. 516; Fite, Psychological Review, vol. 10, 1903, p. 639; M’Lennan, Psychological Review, vol. 2, 1895, p. 466. 5 6 C. L. Herrick due to a reactionary process in the tissues, notably the vascular contrac- tions. There may be several oscillations of pain and a set of summations of a curious character. It is even possible by bringing to bear counter- irritants, to preclude these after-effects and mitigate the pain, as by rubbing or pinching the part. ” In the case of a burn the conductivity of the tissues and vascular responses are even more evident, and such attempts to differentiate pain from sensation as a modality of feeling are futile. The fact that there may be analgesia without anaesthesia, and vice versa, is tentatively explained by the recent suggestion, that thermic and painful sensations find their way to the cortex through the gray matter of the cord instead of the fibrous columns, and affords us added data for the generalization for which we are now ready, viz: Feeling is always composed of two sets of factors, first, a sensational ele- ment, and second, a cognitive element. The sensations which directly participate in feeling are non-localized (general or total sensations), or are so acute as to irradiate, and thus ally themselves with total sensa- tions. The cognitions are primarily such as identify the subjective state with the empirical ego.^ I. Feelings. Sensations. Sense gratification General or Total and pain. Feelings. II. Occasions. Normal (moderate) Super-normal stim- Diffuse (somatic) , sensory stimuli. uli, with tend- especially 'Total” ency to irradi- stimuli. ate. ‘‘Bodily changes follow directly the perception of the exciting fact, and our feeling of the same changes as they occur is the emotion. Ob- jects excite bodily changes by a pre-organized mechanism, and these changes are so indefinitely numerous and so subtle that the entire organ- ism may be called a sounding-board, which every change of conscious- ness, however slight, may make reverberate. Every one of the bodily changes is felt acutely or obscurely the moment it occurs. ” “Emotion consists (1) of general sensations of total, organic, or irra- diating varieties which have in common a lack of localization and, as a result of associational laws, are amalgamated more or less closely with the empirical ego; (2) of more or less explicate or implicate cognitions (perceptions, intuitions) of the relation between the cause of the sensa- tion and our well-being; (3) the emotion is more or less closely attached to various impulsive expressions which tend in various ways to intensify the two preceding. More in detail: The sensations are produced in ^ This, and most of what follows, is taken from “ The Physiological and Psychologi- cal Basis of the Emotions,” Wood’s Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, vol. 9, 1893, Supplement, p. 270. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 7 most cases by vaso-motor changes which, in turn, produce ^ total sensa- tions,’ usually entirely unlocalized and not necessarily distinguished apart from the feeling. Such sensations may be recognized and to some extent analyzed, by practice. They precede the emotion proper and compose its sensational element. When one lies half asleep in the morn- ing and a loud report startles him, the sudden surging of the blood to the periphery produces a familiar but indescribable sensation, which may include tingling at the finger tips, a curious twinge in the axils, a suffo- cating sensation in the chest, as more speeific accompaniments. Then a flash of fancy depicts the burglar in the kitchen and a scene of blood- shed, danger to self, and the like; now perhaps a strange ‘gone’ feeling in the abdomen, and helpless atonic condition of muscles follow; then impulse dominates, and the tendency to spring to the defensive arises; all this before judgment announced that the cook has slammed the range door. Granting that the illustration has served to indicate the meaning of the statement above, it need require but brief experiment and self- observation to show that vaso-motor and organic changes always accom- pany and afford a sensational basis for feelings It is then no Emotions. Somatic changes occasioned or ac- companied by cortical activity. i Impulses. Reflexes excited by somatic and cor- tical activity. Sentiment. Persistent cortical changes. Disposition. Reactions of corti- cal residua or new data of con- sciousness. mere figure which localizes the emotions in the heart or bowels, but a statement of sober physiological truth. A heartless man is one whose intellectual appreciation of the results of an act does not awaken sym- pathetic thrills in his physical being adequate to quicken in him a partici- patory or sympathetic state.” “The sensational elements in emotion are, first, pains and sense grati- fications; second, obscure organic and total sensations which are not usu- ally perceived as such, but are interpreted as part of the feeling; third, reproduced pains or gratifications always followed or accompanied by total sensations; fourth, representations which awaken by association either reproduced pains and gratifications which, in turn, give rise to total sensations, or the latter without the former; fifth, instincts which obey laws of association whose rational explanation lies in the devel- opment or phylogenetic history.” “Pain and sense gratification are more difficult to construe, because more direct and simple than the others named. So long as pain, etc., were regarded as simply exaggerated forms of ordinary sensation the problem was insoluble. That this is not the case is suggested by the fact that they pursue other courses in the cord, and are associated more 8 C. L. Herrick closely with thermic sensations. If a small area of the skin is isolated it is found that tickling with a feather is interpretated as warmth, and a thrust with a needle cannot be distinguished from heat. In other words, if the local signs by which position is recognized are excluded, the differ- ences break down. It may be noted that general changes in tempera- tures states are closely connected with the general feelings, as witness a shudder or the cold chills of fear, and the glow of pleasure. Briefly stated, the peculiarity of pain and the intense gratification of sense which adapt them to become sources of feeling, is their diffusive (irradiative) character. If the current suggestion that algesic stimuli pass by con- duction through the gray matter of the cord be substantiated, a much closer connection with the visceral centers than hitherto suggested may be postulated, and the thrill of pain can be readily interpreted as the sympathetic contraction wave passing throughout the vascular system. The evidence for the existence of adequate vaso-motor causes of the sen- sational element in emotion is largely subjective, but those familiar with nervous diseases will not lack for evidence that variations in circulation are powerful factors in emotional disturbances. . . . Flushes of cold and heat; tingling and palpations local and general; gusts and tor- rents in the blood; creeping, swelling, scintillation of the skin; giddi- ness and elation — ^these and indescribable ^all-over ^ sensations are easily separable from the intellectual appreciation, which may even be absent; and one may be a wondering spectator observing the irrational gyrations of his own sense to tintinnabulating stimuli upon which judgment turns the cold shoulder. Another class, afforded by the tickling and shudder- ing or irradiating sensations proper, further illustrate the necessity of diffusion in emotional sensation. The slight sensations of tickling, aided by subjective modifications, extend in most varied and irresistible sen- sations over the whole body. Its emotional character is almost wholly apart from the intellectual element. The shudder and chill which spring from a gritting sound or the velvety touch of a peach, imply in addition considerable instinctive elements.”^ The mechanism of the process of irradiation has been investi- gated by Professor Herrick (following Dogiel) in the case of certain vascular epithelia (especially in the sexual organs) whose excitation is connected with some of the most intense pleasurable experiences/ Association tracts in the cortex illustrate the mech- anism of irradiation in the case of the higher affective processes where the revival of residua plays an important part. ® Reference Handbook^ pp. 270-272. See references in Baldwin's Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, article “Irradiation^^ and cf. Journal of Comparative Neurology , vol. 7, p. 155 (March, 1898); vol. 2, 1892, pp. 111-114; vol. 5, 1895, pp. 1-32. For an illustration of the type of diffuse peripheral nerve plexus here referred to, see Herrick and Coghill, Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 7, p. 32-53 (July, 1898). The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 9 The most localized forms of pleasure are accompanied by a peculiar nervous diffusion, as in tickling and the genial effect of warmth. This effect is known as irradiation and is also characteristic of higher states of pleasurable feeling. Both pain and pleasure depend on exalted stimuli, but the reaction of the system toward the stimuli largely determines their pleasurable- ness or painfulness. The same excitation may excite one or the other feeling at different times.* This last statement contains an important thesis of the doc- trine, namely, that summation or irradiation is painful or pleasur- able only under certain conditions of intensity. As in the general statement of the equilibrium theory of consciousness of which this is a corollary, the condition of pain and pleasure is a state of relative tension or equilibrium. If pleasure meant merely ease of adjustment and pain difficulty of adjustment, then habit would carry with it the greatest pleasure and pain would be in direct ratio to the difficulty of adjustment, neither of which is uniformly the case. Up to the limit of normal functioning only, does pleasure increase with summation and subsequent irradiation. Beyond this point pain supervenes. It is only the relatively free discharge that is pleasurable. Supernormal irradiation is painful as well as supernormal summation. The limits vary from individual to individual. But the general principle holds that when the summation or resistance lies between certain limits of intensity determined by the structure and inheritance of the organism, the subsequent discharge or irradiation is pleasurable; if the summation is below or above these limits the discharge is painful. The apparent incompetence of the theory to explain ^The pains of negative states, as ennui, etc., is only apparent. Whether a stimulus is painful or not depends not on the absolute intensity of the irritation, but on the capacity of the mechanism to transmit it. In ennui the sluggish system is incapable of reacting against the slight stimuli and their monotonous char- acter causes a summation and intermittent discharge. Sensation differs from feeling in the more definite localization of the stimulus, either by eccentric projection upon the periph- ^ Journal of Comparadve Neurology, vol. 5, p. 18 (March, 1895). ^ Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 5, 1895, p. 212. See also article, “Sum- ir.ation,”in Baldwin’s Dictionary of Psychology and Philosophy. 10 C. L. Herrick ery of the organism or by externalization of the object in the outside world. ^^The finger resting on a rough surface affords a sensation of roughness referred to the object^ but a feeling of disagreeableness or pain referred to the self.^"' In common parlance no distinction is made. Experience is spoken of indiscriminately as sensation or feeling. And in fact they do not exist apart. But when this vague total sort of experi- ence comes to be cognitively controlled, that is, when it comes to be more precisely localized and referred, we call it sensation rather than feeling. The sensation does not lose all affective tone but it is subordinated to the cognitive function. In general it may be said that the prominence of the feeling element is in inverse ratio to the perfection of the localization.’’ Those sense spheres in Avhich localization is most pronounced are nearly or quite de- void of feeling.” “There is much reason to think that the feeling ele- ment is a function of the extent of the lateral propagation of the stim- ulus in the centers while the sensation is the conscious product of the reaction upon the specific center. In the healthy body all normal stim- uli as well as all responsive acts are calculated to produce pleasure, the amount of this enjoyment being dependent to a certain extent at least upon the range of irradiation or overflow of the excitement. Painful stimuli, on the other hand, are such as impose on the avenue of commu- nication or organ of reception a larger burden than it can carry, whether because the excitement itself is too intense or by reason of some reduction in the power of the organ. ” “The cognitive value of sensation, on the other hand, depends upon the series or System of brain centers called into play. No sensory im- pression passes directly from the organ of sense to the cortical center where it becomes conscious. Each sensation has an infra-cortical center where the materials from the sense organ are redistributed and combined with elements from the motor organs in the most complicated ways. ” “When a light falls on the eye and a definite change is produced in the pigment of the retina it must not be supposed that the resulting irritation of certain nervous end-organs is at once transmitted to the cortex to become the occasion of a sensation. On the contrary, the stimulus from the illuminated point passes to the coordinating appa- ratus in the quadrigemina where efferent currents arise and pass to the nuclei of the eye-muscle nerves and coordinating apparatus generally. After coordination the muscular effort involved in the coordinated act is registered; and this, with a variety of other acts below the level of con- sciousness, go together to the cortex and there affect the visual and other Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 4, December 1894, p. 226. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 11 centers so that the net result is not that of ^blueness/ let us say, but that of a particular degree of a particular kind of blueness in a definite place. Upon the equilibrium theory of consciousness it is not difficult to conceive that the tendency to coordinate and fuse various stimuli into one form of activity must be perpetually present, and as a matter of fact the most striking peculiarity of mental action is this same law of mental composition which finds its highest expression in what is called apper- ceptive action.” THE EQUILIBRIUM THEORY OF CONSCIOUSNESS Professor Herrick’s theory of consciousness, which he frequently alluded to in his writings but which he nowhere systematically worked out, is bound up with his general view of the dynamic nature of the vital equilibrium and its relation to the special func- tions of the nervous system. The idea that the living organism is a moving balance of equilibrated forces is a familiar idea in recent theoretical biology, but this notion has not been extended in any thoroughgoing way to the phenomena of brain activity where structural and descriptive categories still hold almost exclusive sway. “In no department of physical science is it so plain as in neurology that we are dealing wholly with dynamic elements. While it is true that in the structure of the brain we have to do with morphological de- tails of marvelous complexity and the descriptive side of our work is con- cerned with the varying outlines, sizes, and combinations of cells, fibers, etc., and the still more recondite structures within the cells and their dendrites, yet it is always obvious that these morphological peculiarities are but the expressions of inner forces and their responses to others from without. ” “ Correspondence in mode is the condition of identity implied by a dynamic theory, and the heterogeneity expressed in the forces of the body of a man may be expressed in the terms of the forces of a sper- matozoon equally well Does not the body preserve its integ- rity in spite of the flux of its materials? Why should not the actual materials of the nucleoplasm be in a similar flux while retaining its form, i. e., its dynamic attributes?’’ “We venture to suggest that there is no such sharp distinction between nervous functioning and the intra- cellular processes of the ordinary non-nervous cell as our present termin- ology and usage suggest.” There is in the case of many lower types of organism “ a form of vital equilibrium so resident in the general system as to give rise to much the same phenomena of nervous unity as in the case of higher animals. ” “ It, then, may be supposed that the circuit of nervous action in any part of the body passes through a variety of smaller somatic circuits and that the spheres of the two forms of activity overlap so that the return nerve current bears the influence of this interaction. The nervous equilibrium is only a central specialized part of a vital equilib- rium embracing all the activities of the body.”^^ 11 “Physiological Corollaries of the Equilibrium Theory of Nervous Action and Con- trol/’ Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 8, pp. 21-26 (July, 1898). Cf. also ^‘The Vital Equilibrium and the Nervous System,” Science, June 17, 1898, n. s., vol. 7, pp. 813-818. 12 The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 13 In an article on ^^Psychological Corollaries of Modern Neurolo- gical Discoveries Professor Herrick said that “the condition of consciousness is not topographical but consists in the form of activity” (p. 155). “It is impossible to discover a specific por- tion or a definite kind of matter in which consciousness resides, for no complexity of the material unit could make intelligible the diversity in consciousness, while any complexity destroys the objective grounds of unity. It is equally hard to discover any physiological basis for the continuity of consciousness. The idea of consciousness as a property is accordingly abandoned and it remains to conceive of it as a form, of energy. Pure energy with the attribute of spontaneity it could only be if it were in the mode of absolute equilibrium, in which its activities should be wholly reflected into themselves. This can only be predicated of infin- ite essence and it is necessary to substitute the conditions of relative equilibrium in a sphere of interfering activities. The last few years have revealed in the cerebrum a mechanism of neural equilibration of unsus- pected complexity, and all that we have recently learned of the physiol- ogy of the nerve stimulus only emphasizes the belief that the whole of the cortical complex is adapted to react as a unit, though not as an invari- able unit. The great extent of the system of associational tracts and the facility with which new channels of overflow are set up or marked out is additional evidence in favor of an equilibrium theory of consciousness. . . . . The conditions of consciousness consist in the proper equili- brium of stimuli to produce a reflection of the stimuli upon the complex of which they form a part. The mechanism of this condition is found in the cortical centers, which are in continual action in such a way that a vortex of activity is in continual flux— each element contributing to the balance of the whole. To this complex, external stimuli are contin- ually being admitted, whether as separately unobserved elements from the general-sensation apparatus of the common sensorium (giving rise simply to the implicate concept of personal existence in space), or more specific stimuli through the avenues of the special sense organs. Every sense-content with its escort of reflexly-produced associated elements causes a more or less profound disturbance of the psychical equilibrium and the nature of this disturbance depends not alone on the intensity and state of concentration, but very largely on the kind of equilibrium already existing The character of the conscious act (and the elements of consciousness are always acts), will of course depend upon the extent to which the several factors in the associational system participate in the equilibiium. Each disturbance of the equilibrium spreads from the point of impact in such a way that progressively more of the possible reflex currents enter the complex, thus producing the extension from mere sensation to the higher processes of apperceptive association. A Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 7, pp. 155-161 (March, 1898); cf. also “The Material Versus the Dynamic Psychology,’’ Psychological Review, vol. 6, 1899, pp. 180-187. 14 C. L. Herrick conscious act is always a fluctuation of equilibrium, so that all cognitive elements are awakened in response to changes rather than invariable or monotonous stimuli” (pp. 155-157). In the article on Brain in Baldwin’s Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology, Professor Herrick briefly states the theory as follows : The theory of consciousness which seems best to conform to the con- ditions of brain structure and its observed unity is that each conscious state is an expression of the total equilibrium of the conscious mechan- ism, and that intercurrent stimuli are continually shifting the equi- librium from one to another class of activities. In other words, the sen- sation accompanying a given color presentation is not due to the vibra- tions in the visual center in the occipital lobe, but to the state of cortical equilibrium or the equation of cortical excitement when that color stim- ulus predominates. Previous vestigial excitements and coordinations with the data from other cortical centers all enter into the conscious presentation. As the wave of excitation passes from the visual center to other parts, the proportional participation of other centers increases, producing a composite containing more distantly related elements (p. 135). The widely current belief in the anatomical separateness of the neurones entering into this neural equilibrium accords well with the theory and in fact either such an anatomical or some sort of a physiological barrier to the free discharge of nervous impulses is essential for the explanation of some of the facts. The theories of retraction of the neurone under varying functional conditions are particularly attractive in this connection, the education of the nervous system also being conceived as involving the develop- ment of new functional pathways as new associations are acquired and the short-circuiting of the old ones as activities become mechanized. Many of the peculiarities of inhibition or resist- ance to nerve stimuli may be explained as the result of contrac- tions of the functional processes of the nerve cells. [But much more fruitful in this connection are the more recent physiological theories of intemeural resistance, particularly the carefully elaborated doctrine of the synapse of Sherrington. — Editor.] Whether or not the theory of retraction be accepted in its present form, it is important as an attempt to state a device for breaking and making the organic circuit necessary to conscious- The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 15 ness, though this probably should be conceived as a functional rather than as an anatomical discontinuity. If a chemical or circulatory theory contains the true factor for determining these transfers of energy, as seems now more probable, the preceding conception will have to be revised to uneet the demands of the facts. But that some sort of dynamic interchange takes place at this point is made probable by the structure of the nervous elements and by many converging lines of evidence, whether the nerve cells be conceived as anatomically separate or as forming a continuous network as some eminent investigators believe. According to the dynamic theory the act of consciousness is not the result of an excitation in any cell or cells, but is produced by the impinging of an sesthesodic^-"^ upon a kinesodic system in reciprocal reaction. The transmission of nervous force does not produce a higher force; but the peculiar interference or increase of tension of nerve forces in antagonistic equilibrium does. Consciousness depends on the dynamic element — a translation of force into energy and thus, to us, there seems to be a complete hiatus between consciousness and all other phenomena. The motor reaction (in at least incipient form) is essential. The vast majority of our acts are performed without the aid of consciousness. But even in cases where the subsidiary cortical current actually passes it may awaken no consciousness. This is explained upon a dynamic theory of consciousness. The cells are indeed excited by the current but, for whatever reason, no interference or kinesodic reaction is produced. Only when an antagonistic wave is set up is consciousness possible. This does not, however, prevent an unconscious process from awaking consciousness afterwards by vestigial action Our judgment that part of our acts are unconscious means simply that the same sensory state is often combined with different amounts of kinesodic activities.^" The equilibrium theory of consciousness has to contend with a great obstacle in the form of a nearly universal popular fallacy. We have grown so accustomed to the necessity of localization of See Baldwin’s Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology for definition of these terms. Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. 5, 1895, p. 212. '^''Journal of Compara'ive Neurology, vol. 5, 1895, p. 213-214. 16 C. L. Herrick all outer experiences that the mass of non-localizable experiences has acquired the force of a negative localization — a state of not- outsidenesSj so to say, a subjectivity. The grouping of the not- j outside and the relatively constant as the empirical ego on its two sides of feeling and volition has received much study of late and it becomes apparent that the old theory of a simple central ■ sense of effort is far too sophisticated a concept. So long as it persisted, it was natural that a search for the “seat of the souh^ should be protracted even after the spatial element had been quite analytically treated by Kant and Lotze. We are driven by modern psychology to Lotze^s position that a thing is where it i acts and the being in the same place as another means that the two things have the power of interaction. It is plain that for a thing to be in a place apart from reacting upon the determinants of that place-in-which would be an impossible state to know of, if it existed, and an impossible thing to construe ontologically. Given the proper form of activity, and consciousness is given. It will make no difference whether this form is a neural equil- ibrium in the entire nervous system or restricted to the cortex. The cortex alone of the nervous structures appears to afford evidence of the arrangement securing the equilibration demanded, and for this reason it may take rank as an organ of consciousness par excellence. The brain is a prodigious mechanism for bringing diverse stimuli together in one continuum in the cortex. So far from a device for projecting stimuli upon one point, as imagined by Des Cartes and most speculative philosophers, the stimuli suffer a sort of dispersion in their path toward the field of consciousness. I discover that this mechanism is in a terrific state of activity. Currents of blood and lymph supplying highly complicated cur- rents of energy are passing through the mechanism continually and doubtless the energy actually operating in the brain, if convertible into gross forms of work, would lift many tons liter- ally miles high daily, for we deal here with what the physicist would call intramolecular types of forces as well as molecular and molar types of forces. Now all this vast activity reveals itself to us in scarcely any commensurate return. Just as the spectator looking at the solar system would see little evidence of the energy expressed ■ in the equilibrated system of planets, every molecule of which is brimful of activity in balanced con- The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 17 dition, so looking at the brain as a mechanism for mental work> we find it set on a hair-trigger, and a breath on an eyelash is adequate stimulus to liberate vast stores of readjusting energy. All questions of the nature of sensation as well as of other mental activities hinge on the view taken as to the nature of con- sciousness. As consciousness is by its nature confessedly beyond the reach of analysis, we are forced by circumlocution to describe it in terms of its neurological concomitants. From many con- siderations, especially the structural coordinations and the unitary nature of consciousness, it seems most reasonable to conclude that the physiological basis of consciousness is the bal- ance or counterpoise of the cortical stimuli. From this point of view when the sensory stimulus is admitted to a cortical station there is at once a change of equilibrium — a setting of the neural excitement in the cells stimulated toward the rest of the cortical complex. This tide of nervous activity will obey laws of force, finding paths of least resistance, etc. The brain is so formed that it is possible for a great variation in the permeability to stimuli to exist at different times without any marked modification in the number or arrangement of the elements. It may be that the extent of the neurodendrites is the most important factor. It is known that the number and divisibility of these processes increases from youth to maturit}^ While they greatly increase the range of possible coordination (association), their presence may also serve to increase the total resistance and give rise to a sort of mental inertia. Most of the problems con- nected with sensation are connected with the content of sense and in reality belong to physiology and not psychology. Yet since the method used employs introspection in the study of this content, it may find a place in the psychological domain. The reason why one sense-content finds more ready entrance to the mechanism of consciousness in any given case may be found in the intensity of the neurosis, in the frequency with which its path has been before used (habit) or the state of equilibrium at the time existing in the cortex. If the neural tide is already setting away from a point of disturbance in the auditory center it will be somewhat more difficult to force a new wave from the visual center. The psychological study of sensation reduces to the study of the laws of association, and the great bulk of matter discussed under sensation is found to belong with the study of sense-content. 18 C. L. Herrick We must distinguish the content of sense from sensation.^® Here is the source of great confusion. Too often the content of sense is confused with sense perception. The content of sense at any given time is the sum of the affections of the lower or primary sesthesodic centers. In the visual field, for example, it is the totality of the immediate central reactions corresponding to the retinal excitations. We may think of them as distributed over homologous parts of the optic tectum; but it is probable that we should add the effects of certain optic reflexes set up with their sesthesodic reactions, and not improbable that it will be necessary to include modifications or accretions due to changes in the cor- tical visual area; but as yet there is no sensation, only a sense-con- tent. Besides the contents of special senses — vision, audition, taste, smell — there is the whole sesthesodic contingent from the spinal cord, many of which never become sensations normally but may be brought into consciousness under exceptional conditions. Some perhaps are capable of entering sensation only as a quale of some other, having no localizable tag suiting them to indej)en- dent recognition or isolation. These, however, are just as real a part of the content of sense as the pre-sensational elements of color or pain. Now it is evident to ordinary experience that in many cases the act" of sensing a sense-content is really an act, not an occurrence. We fix that particular element. It is immaterial how we are impelled to the fixation. It is an expression of our spontaneity, a reaction of the subject. Many considerations justify us in supposing that an act of consciousness is a reaction of conscious- ness. There are, it is true, in the sense-content of vision focal and marginal impressions, but the physical mechanism is well known. There is something similar in the auditory field whose physical mechanism is obscure. There is nothing of the sort in the other senses except skin-sensation and there the physical origin is beautifully illustrated by the localization experiments. The localization apparatus of the senses has apparently suggested ^ the theory of focal and marginal consciousness. We believe that a proper interpretation of experience removes the ground for this assumption. The various intensities of sense-impressions con- iK Cf . ‘‘Focal and Marginal Consciousness/’ Psychological Review, vol. 3, 1896, pp. 193-195. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 19 stitute the basis for focal and marginal sense-contents. In like manner there is a perspective of vestiges presented to conscious- ness. We may consider what the effect is when one or another content of sense is admitted to the ^^synsorium. If it is a single color (let us say) then the balance is disturbed in a given charac- teristic way at the moment of admittance. We perceive a color. If instead there is a retinal picture of a landscape, the equilibrium is disturbed in a different way, and one which produces its instan- eous impression; but this is followed by the after-shower of innumerable vestigial impressions from the optic and other associated areas which each in turn affect the equilibrium of the synsorium. We insist that there must be in this ultimate mechanism of consciousness an absolute succession. A wave of consciousness with focal and marginal parts is inconsistent with any conceivable means of bringing sense-impressions to the sesthesodic and kinesodic systems of the cortex. Only so can intimate connection of various forms of innervation with per- ception be explained. The discussion of this point is difficult, and need not be attempted. Probably most psychologists will agree that consciousness is an act, not a state; and that it is a pivotal act which takes place in the very focus of our being. The unity of consciousness may be interpreted to mean that con- sciousness is only possible when the sesthesodic and kinesodic currents affect the equilibrium of the entire mechanism of con- sciousness. It seems possible to conceive of the situation as an instance of most complicated equilibrium where each element of the conscious mechanism (the synsorium) contributes its tension to the balance of the whole. However this tension is effected, a conscious state follows. Of course we encounter a difficulty at this point. Has the soul any separate existence or is energy conceived simply as a sort of spring-board against which matter or force impinges? We answer that the transformation of forces produces real changes in the career of energy. Is it possible for energy in one form to react on energy in another directly? If we say “yes,” it is natural to object that this reaction would produce resistance and so force. If we say “no, ” what becomes of a career of energy or the life of the soul. We must believe that there is no direct reaction of energy on energy — of soul on soul; but that the form 20 C. L. Herrick in which energy occurs will determine the nature of the reaction as force. If we admit that the energy of a conscious being is only a sort of via inter quam, we must insist that it is no homo- geneous medium. In the mind the forms of reaction are complex and the forms of intermediary energy are also complex. The equilibrated forces of the organ produce a stream of highly differ- ential energy by which new reactions are profoundly modified. Every translation of force is attended with production of energy, but the kind or phase of energy differs in accordance with the j nature of the force. The complete synthesis of diverse forces | of a special grade into homogeneous energy in a vital organism j produces consciousness. There may be something correspond- i ing in the case of every production of energy, but we cannot I know it; for consciousness reveals itself only in self-consciousness. Self-consciousness is the result of reflected energy becoming recon- verted into force. Will is the energy evolved in the higher sphere indicated. Here is a difficult point. Transition from force to energy under suitable conditions is conscious and the energy so set free is ivilL Will is of a sort with all energy; it is spontaneous activity and only conditioned by its own form. It becomes our will only in self-conscious states. Consciousness is not a force but a quale of the will. This was brought out somewhat more concretely by Professor Herrick in 1893 in the course of a critique of Miinsterberg ’s ^^Die Willenshandlung, where he says:^'^ Perhaps we have here precisely the difference between will and impulse that the former is ^ reinforced by the totality of our personality. ’ It is certainly not the province of physiological psychology to enquire more closely into the nature of the ego, but it appears that this science may have incidentally and perhaps unintentionally done very good service to rational psychology by showing that there is no amphibious bugaboo between the conscious element and the voluntary motion. There is no !| mongrel will with head of Jove but whose tail executes fishlike and simply li physical wriggles. For this much, thanks, and thanks too for the assur- ance that the will is born of the intelligent elements in our being and j clothed with feelings. It is no isolated ‘‘faculty’^ — no poor third of a divided personality, but it is the whole ego in its direct expression, an “The Scope and Methods of Comparative Psychology,’^ Denison Quarterly, vol. i ], Nos. 1 to 4, 1903. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 21 expression which varies in richness and significance as the horizon of our experience widens (p. 279). Looking again at the simple facts of sensori-motor response, it appears that we have neglected a most important point in the process when we say that the force is all returned, viz: that its form has changed and the nature of the change depends on the nature of the subject. We know that our responses to outward stimuli depend on the temporary as well as the permanent disposi- tion of the organism. When a reflex circuit is opened, the response depends on the anatomical structure of the spinal cord. When an automatic circuit is opened, responses follow depending on complicated reactions of ]. art on par . When conscious circuits are opened, the responses depend on whatever produces con- sciousness. Of course it will be replied that the structure of the organism is the product of previous stimuli, but that only carries us back a step or two. How organization is possible is just the problem. Organization is the formation of complicated states of equilibrium and all such states of equilibrium result in evolu- tion of energy capable of changing the mode of force (as in our illustration of impinging bodies) . These enormously complicated vortices of energy constitute the soul of the organism. We have seen that activity is the sole element of experience, and its varying forms are, in a sense, the algebraic expressions for interactions. Consciousness is one of the coordinate expres- sions of the totality of activities of certain grades. The only condition of force in which no force is lost and yet a new mode is introduced, is equilibrium. It is natural to apply the same suggestion here. Flint met steel and a simple kind of force was translated into higher and back again. There was a flash. Trace the forces and weigh them; they are all there, but the fact of change is a fact of a higher kind not weighed in your balance. Applying the same reasoning to the mental phenomena, we see that the forces whose intermittent stream feeds the psychical lose nothing in their passage through the mind; the stream is undiminished, but there has been a transformation the peculiar form of which has been the essential psychical content. The mind may be compared to a registration apparatus which regis- ters by strokes on a dial the passage of a certain quantity of fluid flowing through its chamber. Consciousness is a manifestation 22 C. L. Herrick due to a form of equilibrated energies, which particular type of energic equilibrium may only be reached after the amount of energy reaches a certain quantum. Only those forms of energy have consciousness which are adapted to converge and be reflected in harmonious modes. Could we imagine a perfect mirror which reflected every sur- rounding object but was itself invisible, we might And it difficult to make out the qualities of the mirror, even though we became very familiar with the laws of reflection. The soul is such a mirror, and all the images which it produces are, so far as we can tell, reflections of physical phenomena. BODY AND SOUL The term mental state is as ambiguous and contradictory as the more comprehensive designation mental faculty indeed, the latter is less open to criticism than the former. What we really have to do with is an activity or its absence. In the latter case there is a state’’ of non-existence or of not-being. In the former case we have an unwarranted postulate. A state of activity implies a something apart from the activity which may at some other time be in a state of inactivity. But this assumption is gratuitous. Mind is not a something which can under suitable conditions get into ^^a state,” and so produce this and that activity recognized as mental. The totality of the activi- ties constitutes the mind. But is there not a physical basis of mind of which these activi- ties may be said to be states? What the physical basis of mind is it does not here concern us to inquire. Whatever this is, mind is not a state of matter. If one chooses to describe mind as one of the forms of the activities of matter, we shall have no quarrel with him if the same treatment be applied to the other so-called qualities of matter. When this is done, we have a collec- tion of activities and nothing else. Common usage describes matter at one moment as something whose reality consists in its ability to be affected in certain ways by forces. What this property is which permits force to affect it we are not told. But plainly it is itself a disguised force, for it is able to alter the mode of force. At other times usage seems to assume that the properties of matter are forces. Without this assumption, it is impossible to treat of the phenomena of elasticity. It is evident that this whole field is clothed in densest obscurity and crudest ambiguity. It is necessary to accept one or the other basis of physical reality: (1) matter as a metaphysical generator of force, (2) force as a multiform expression of a spontaneous primal energy back of which it is impossible and unnecessary to go. Everyday experience teaches us that there is a certain seg- ment of our objective experience that has a closer relation to the ego than other portions. The child may offer to its toe a 23 24 C, L. Herrick portion of the cake it is eating with no recognition of a difference between this object and other living objects like the kitten with which it is playing; but it is difficult for the adult to avoid think- ing of the body as an integral portion of self. The child also may weep because of a fancied injury to an inanimate object with an altruism of which the adult is incapable, and, on the other hand, we might imagine a state of being in which an injury to another or an ideal or ethical wrong would excite quite as deep response as a wound to the body. We know of the existence of the body as a mass of matter’’ in the same way as we learn of the existence of other material bodies by the testimony of our externalizing senses; but in addition to this source of information we have the associated information from the partially or com- pletely unlocalized feelings of pain and effort, etc. A blow on the toe is not only seen to take place, but the feeling of pain resulting is added; while even the tactile sense is so modified that it reports the sensation as subjective, i. c., localized within the body rather than outside of it. We discover that this body is composed of a vast number of coordinated parts and do not fail to note that while the liver, for example, may be seen and felt, as any other portion of matter may be, yet in its state of coordi- nated or structural differentiation it has other functions — it secretes bile and stores glycogen, etc. Just as the tactile property is due to a peculiar arrangement of molecules whose essential nature consists in the putting forth of certain forms of activity giving rise to the resistance we feel, so the organization into the so-called structure of the organ is simply a revelation in a roundabout way of the fact that the coordination is carried fur- ther in progressively involved cycles till the result is the more obscure function of secretion. One of the processes is just as much a result of the structure as the other (and no more). It is a common practice to contrast the body, which is present to the senses, with the soul which is felt as the immediate product of consciousness. It is true that the soul is not independent of the body in our experience, but is distinctly associated with it and manifests itself in direct and indissoluble association with a special organ — the central nervous system. Materialistic psychologists have not hesitated to state that the relation between the brain and the production of thought is as direct as that between the liver and the production of bile. This is a some- The Metajyhysics of a Naturalist 25 what revolting statement^ but the method of escape from it is by the recognition of the measure of truth in it. It is possible that bile might be secreted without a liver and entirely probable that thought can exist without a brain; but in the case of man, the organ we call a brain is the evidence appealing to the senses of the existence of those marvelously complicated acts which make up the soul-life in man. When we view an object in a glass, at the same time looking at the object itself, we need not be surprised that the movements of the image are synchronous with those of the object nor invent theories to account for the explanation of the conformity observed. Still less do we seek to show that movements of the image in the glass cause those of the object itself. And yet the common attempt to indicate how the brain produces thought is not more absurd than the suppositions mentioned. The theories respecting the relation between the soul and body are, of course, much influenced by the view entertained as to the intrinsic nature of the two subjects of thought. For those who regard body and soul as distinct and disparate entities, a diffi- culty at once arises in accounting for the constant connection between the brain and thought. We are told that the nervous processes produce the phenomena of consciousness which we call sensation, feeling, perception, impulse and will. Still we are assured that these ‘^psychical activities’^ are the expression of the life of a peculiar being which is immaterial and consequently not in space and is a metaphysical unit and so indivisible that it must be in only one place at a time, and other interesting things all equally undemonstrable and unintelligible. In some way the material body acts upon the immaterial soul to cause the latter to act as it does in the processes of thought and volition and feeling. All physical analogies here seem to break down. If we attempt to employ the analogy of the transfer of a physical force from one mass of matter to another we have the difficulty con- fronting us that it is insisted that the soul is as unlike as possible to the matter of the body from which the force is supposed to emanate. But by all analogy likeness is a necessary condition for the transfer of force from one body to another and it is thought by some logicians that the predicate of likeness is really only the statement in another way of the fact that the two objects com- pared are capable of reacting on each other. Again in the view held by the advanced school of physicists, the passage of a force 26 C. L. Herrick from one body to another is really a transference of the proper- ties of the one to the other, for the properties are simply the forces resident in the individual. Still farther difficulties rise as one proceeds, one of the most serious of which grows out of the attempt to reconcile the attri- bute of freedom, i, c., the spontaneity of the souhs action, with the observation that the form of the soul’s activities seems to be conditioned by the external stimuli which affect the nervous system. Our text books are filled with endless and usually profit- less discussions intended to prove or disprove the freedom of the soul to act in any way it choses in view of given inducements. The belief that the freedom of the will requires that it should be possible for the soul to act at any time in a way determined neither by the circumstances of the environment or by the inner nature of the soul itself or by any combination or interaction of these two elements is entertained only by those who fail to see its grotesque absurdity; but the influence of some form of this dogma is felt where it would not be explicitly defended. The analogy of the conservation of energy also gives trouble, for it is plain that if the forces which act on the nervous system from without are transformed till they at last produce in the soul the sensations, etc., to which a psychical nature is attributed, then it seems superfluous to require a separate and superphysical cause for the same act. On the other hand, if the external stimulus really has no efficiency in the production of the act of consciousness, why should the stimulus seem to be a necessary prerequisite? Force is lost in either view and this is contrary to the dogma of physics. Sometimes the conscious process is called an epiphenomenon, i. e., a phenomenon or appearance not the result of the action but a shadow-like accompaniment of the activity. The difficulty also arises that we unconsciously under- mine the freedom of the will in denying the element of real energy in the psychical phenomena because it is a matter of every day experience that our psychical experiences apparently issue in voluntary acts, each of which has its material effect. The theory of the reciprocal action between the soul and body, in the crude form in which it usually appears, may accordingly be set aside for the present while we consider the claims of the theory of identity of these two elements. The claim is made that there is no real distinction between the The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 27 physical and psychical. Two forms of this theory are possible, the one assumes that matter is the only real thing and that the so-called spiritual phenomena are only properties of matter. Materialism finds no evidence of a second reality aside from the matter of a body. Its spirit can at most be but an abstraction or a special way of considering the properties of matter itself, which is fully competent to explain all the peculiarities of the conscious life. On the other hand, spiritualism replies that all that we know consists of sensations and other forms of psychical mani- festation and that matter is only an unjustifiable inference. The properties of matter, such as extension and inertia, are names for the constant form of our experiences. The second form of the identity theory is more likely to appeal to the thoughtful student than the first, yet it is in several respects unsatisfying to the critical mind. The commonest way of attempting a reconciliation of the difficulties above noted at the present time is by the supposition that the same process may have two aspects. Fechner compared the -nervous and the psychical to the outer and the inner aspects of a curve. Seen from without it is convex; seen from within, it is concave. A concave line is different from a convex one, but yet they seem to be one and the same line viewed from different points of view. This is a clever illustration, but it must not be forgotten that it is only an illustration and is not an explanation. Outside and inside of a curve are mathematical ideas implying, among other things, certain points of reference or loci without which such a distinction as that between the outside and the inside of a curve is impossible. To press the illustration is to to be guilty of a subtle form of begging the question, for it is this difference between the inside and the outside point of view that is sought to be defined. Let us see if we may not adjust the difficulties of this problem in a way that, while it shall not assume to offer a solution of a problem in its nature to us insoluble, yet shall leave us in a state of greater satisfaction with the practical relation of man to the two forms in which his experience appeals to him. First, then, the only absolute criterion of being we know is change or activity. A non-acting thing is nothing. Even an imaginary thing is an active thing. In our own experience of our purest acts we are unconscious of anything back of the act producing the act. We seem to will spontaneously. Pure activity without the ele- 28 C. L. Herrick merit of interference or resistance we may call pure energy. Such a form of activity is rarely, if ever, met with in human experience. All activities studied in physical science are found subject to resistance and are called forces. All such forces are convertible and it is a natural inference that they maybe reduced to a common form. Such a primitive or fundamental form would be pure, i. e., there would be no mixture, there would therefore be no inter- ference or resistance and such a condition of force would be the theoretical pure energy (Pure Being of the philosophers) . Materi- ality is an expression of the forces in more or less permanent equi- librium in the individuals of experience as entering our senses. The degree of complexity of such equilibrium is various and this variety expresses itself in a series of successively higher’’ prop- erties. In living matter the coordination is very extensive and complicated, and the equilibrium very perfect and tends to be self-perpetuating. The various degrees or grades of conscious- ness are expressions of successively higher forms of the coordina- tion. Such expressions in our experience are found linked with the vital equilibrium of individuals, and the cycle of psychical evolution is connected with and bound up in the cycle of vital evolution, yet there is nothing to prove that the psychical need be restricted to the association with the individual with which it is now associated. It is conceivable that the psychical differen- tiation should acquire connections with other forms of body. To sum up this discussion : It is not true that the soul and the body are disparate and wholly incapable of reconcilation, for they are different expressions of force associated as parts of one system. It is not true that the two are identical, for they differ in form and this difference is of a nature to distinguish the physical from the psychical toto coelo. It is not true that the one is the outside and the other the inside of the same curve; they are not different aspects of identity, but they are parts of a single sys- tem and so intimately related, but being different in form they are in that fact different in essence. It is to be expected that the ideas presented may seem obscure because of their unfamiliarity, but the thought is after all the simplest form of an expression of the results of unsophisticated experience. On this general subject cf. also ‘‘Recent Contributions to the Body-Mind Con- troversy/^ Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, voL 14, no. 5 (Septem- ber, 1904); and “Mind and Body — The Dynamic View,’’ Psychological Review, vol. 11, 1904, pp. 395-409. THE CONCEPT OF INDIVIDUALITY The greatest difficulty the dynamic philosophy encounters is that involved in accounting for individuality. If all energy is bound together in one universe, all being parts of the whole and the whole felt or implicate in every part, how does the part become discrete? The reply is simply that creation is the introduction of mode (diversity, heterogeneity), and so far as our universe is concerned this diversity is primary. Given rhythmical variation and it can be conceived (from physical analogies which we may accept as valid) that two centers of activity may impinge upon one another in an infinity of ways whose one limit is identity and whose other limit is opposition. The results of such interference will conceivably vary also through an infinity and these resultants will be modes of activity differing from either of the primary energic modes. When a certain number of energic centers or factors are brought, after successive trials and selections, into certain mutually har- monious phases, these may become bound into a syntheticum or inferior organism which realizes our concept of individual. Let us suppose, for example, a more or less uniform stroma or energic field within which are playing a variety of forms of energy. This, let us say, is the plastic magma of a granite. Now certain of these forces become correlated by virtue of coherencies in mode and there arises a crystal of feldspar, i.e., a certain definite aggre- gate of activities expressing themselves as properties to our senses via our scientific apparatus. The energy has become less facile, and has become compounded into a more permanent form. There were reasons for the tendency for this particular appearance in the total formula of the energy in the magma, and not one but many crystals were formed; there was a sort of feldspathic epidemic. Now the newly formed units or freshly crystallized individuals exert their reactionary energy on the magma and tend to absorb all of the appropriate forms of energy to themselves. The crystals grow. At the same time they negatively tend to polarize the residual energy in the magma and new units of syn- thesized energy appear. The new syntheticum may be horn- 29 30 C. L. Herrick blende. What remains develops certain harmonies, and quartz envelops the preformed elements filling the interspaces. The molecular^’ energies of each of these ingredients combine to form most resistant and permanent elements. Of course there is constant reaction. There is tension between the elements; there is chemical, thermal, electrical interaction, and many others of which we know nothing, and it is impossible to deny that the quartz is in constant energic communication with elements in Sirius. This ^^sociah’ relation is no bar to a high degree of individualization. In the crystal there is the power of assimilation and repro- duction. New little crystals of perfect form are formed as parts or adherents of larger ones. There is no particular reason for denying that this tendency, however weak and limited to special conditions, is analogous to the reproductive tendency of animate beings. A species of mineral, it is insisted, differs from a species of animal in that the individuals forming a species of mineral arise freely, independently of any previous individual. Thus our quartz grains arise in the magma independently of any other quartz grains, while an individual of a species of animal cannot arise independently of some pre-existing animal of the same species. To this it may be replied that it is yet unproven that spontaneous generation must not be called in to account for the origin of life (if not, there is a break in evolution) and also that the all- important thing in both cases is that there shall be a certain assemblage of properly adjusted energic forms in coadaptation: — in the undifferentiated magma of the granite on one hand and in the germinal elements or buds of the animate species on the other. Inasmuch as it is demonstrable that the presence of a crystal is a determinant to the formation of others in the magma, it is only necessary to suppose that in the more complex com- position of animate individuals this (at first adventitious) aid becomes finally a prerequisite. Thus the difference between the origin of new individuals in the two kingdoms reduces to a minimum. Now, as we saw, the possibility of variation in the manner of impingement, where two forces interact, varies between identity and opposition. But it is in accordance with physical analogy that, to our senses at least, there should be “critical angles” or “genetic modes.” In passing from identity to opposition, those stages of The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 31 interaction up to a certain point call out a sort of response in our senses having a likeness imposed by the fact (let us say) that they appeal to one organ. Another segment may find no access to our sensorium^ and so on. Now if these extrinsic reactions are capable of awakening various kinds of consciousness in the observer, may it not well be that the intrinsic element in each coordinated energic system may have a similar power and that it should have a like analytic form so that there should be varying forms of genetic modes corresponding to the several segments of intrinsic reaction as well as in the case of extrinsic reactions? But it must be observed that the extrinsic reactions imply intrinsic for their realization. In fact it seems that only in the form of intrinsic reactions within an equilibrated unit of energy can these genetic modes be formed. Among such, consciousness may rank — not simply human con- sciousness, but whatever may be possible in the way of intrinsic reaction in thing-in-itself. The resistance which Professor Herrick postulates as equally fundamental with spontaneous energy, is the parent of individ- uality.^^ Individuality consists of a particular form of expression of the spontaneity through the interfering resistance constituting the record of individual evolution. The individual is a segment only of a larger arc, the illumined portion of an endless trajectory. The basis of unity is found in the vector character of reactions. The cyclical processes constituting the individual life are not inconsistent with the idea that the individual existence is a condition of equilibrium. Just as a gyrating storm may move over a given path, its trajectory obeying the general laws of cyclones, while the inner motions of the vortex are unaltered or attain an independent maximum and minimum; so the life- history has its own laws, while the inner life preserves its integrity. On the open plains in the western desert a slender column of dust rising perhaps 150 feet in the apparently still air may be seen slowly moving at the rate at which a man might walk, sometimes pursuing a uniform path, at others suddenly turning. Sometimes this spectre hastens as though urged by a sudden impulse; again it loiters as though unable to make up its mind. ‘‘The Dynamic Concept of the Individual,” Journal of Philosophy, Psy- chology and Scientific Methods, vol. 1,, p. 374, 1904. 32 C. L. Herrick The appearance may endure for hours and may be traced for scores of miles over the trackless plain. The sand in it (that is the mate- rial) is continually changing as is the component air. The little vortex is the result of the union of equilibrated forces, and is just as much a real object as is a tree or a man. It is an individual, but its unity obviously consists in the perpetuation of a definite form of coordinated activity. The currents of air which compose it are eventually merged in the general system of atmospheric currents, and the individuality is lost. It is possible to imagine a set of intricately coordinated currents of force so adjusted as to give rise to a property which we call feeling or consciousness. The human organism is especially adapted to produce the back- ground of constant experience across which is flung the flickering image of the passing events. In a uniform medium, as has abundantly been shown, the only condition of individuality is that of vector activity. Vortex rings serve as illustrations. The discussion of vortex atoms has brought out this peculiarity. Two forms of activity appeal to our senses; first, progressive or translational or molar; second, self- centered or vector activities. In the first case the point is con- ceived as moving in a right line or some other progressive manner so that the motion is indeterminate ; in the second case the motion is cyclical and the center of reference is stable. In ordinary parlance, when a body falls, the motion is of the first sort, but when brought to rest the motion is transformed into the second state. The body is in a state of rest and with reference to adjacent bodies is in equilibrium. Vector motions have a remarkable stabilizing power, as witness, for example, the gyroscope. The two classes of motion have been called molar and molecular respectively, but this perhaps involves too large a hypothetical step. The crude illustrations used, may serve to show at least that the same force may have a conservative power in one phase and a dispersive power in another. But let one take the still simpler illustration of a solenoid. A current of electricity passing through a straight wire produces, it is true, an induction-effect on the neighboring metals ; but, when the same current is forced to pass through a spiral path, the complex acquires 2° Some of the pages which follow have appeared under the title ‘^The Nature of the Soul and the Possibility of a Psycho-mechanic/' in the Psychological Review, vol. 14, no. 3, May, 1907. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 33 an individuality — it is polarized as a whole and acts as a magnet. Similar solenoids react against it ^ and a system could be formed from innumerable solenoids in equilibrium which would vary with the currents sent through the several elements ^ while the entire system would be in equilibrium at all times. While it is not suggested that the brain cells are solenoids or anything of so crude a nature as thatj yet it is believed that the afferent currents passing into the cortex produce in more or fewer of the brain cells a system of intrinsic activities which react, each with each, in a total cor- tical equilibrium which for each instant is the dynamic aspect of a state of consciousness — an act of mind. The whole involved activity, now more now less, at any given moment, is equilibrated and forms a self-centered process of unitary nature. The struc- tural mechanism of the brain is an uninterrupted flux of activity of a vital character. Vital activities "are all analogous, rota- tional or vector, we might say (for illustration solely) as con- trasted to translational or indeterminate or progressive activities. To be more general, what we call structure is evidence of statically condensed energy (energy in vector states) and this is competent to enter into reaction with afferent impulses and convert them into vector activities. The sum of the equili- brated activities in the body form its vital continuum. One phase of the equilibrated continuum is the activitity of conscious- ness. So far as we know, the conscious continuum is associated with the total vital complex. It is not proven that any other form of equilibrated vector forces is capable of assimilating the afferent stimuli and converting them into similar terms and so converting them into a conscious activity, though it may be said that we know of nothing to the contrary, One moves a lever upon a friction-clutch, and tooth engages wheel and band moves upon pulley, till the whir of a thousand wheels follows. Could we think of the friction-pulley as gradually creating the machinery of the mill out of existing energy in resisting phases, we would have a rough image of the vital organ- ism. But do you mean that my foot is part of my soul? Yes, I mean that the vital activities in my foot form part of my vital Cf. “Mind and Body — The Dynamic View/’ Psychological Review, vol. 11, espec. pp. 406-409 (November 1, 1904.) 34 C. L. Herrick equilibrium and, in so far as these contain conscious participants in the stream of consciousness, they form part of the soul. But, if I amputate a foot, do I mutilate a soul? Certainly, though it may be better to enter into life maimed than to retain a foot and go elsewhere. By cutting off a finger a child^s soul may be maimed of musical faculty. There are organs, the amputation of which affects the entire character for life, and one does not willingly dispense with the frontal lobes of the brain even if he does not know precisely what purpose they serve. On the other hand, it is possible to add to the sphere of the vital activities, as when I place spectacles upon my nose or apply my hand to the throttle of a locomotive. Where, then, is the limit of self? It is not for me to draw it. I will not cut the narrow' isthmus of flesh which connects me with my twin — the universe. The ancients believed that the eye shot out rays to grasp the objects of the visual world. What tentacula has not modern science produced extending from all our organs to the phenomenal world? But if we may not define the outer limits of the individual life, do we not destroy individuality? Only seemingly, for we need not despair of locating its center because the periphery of its sphere of activity is indeterminate. The leaven of life may be small; but, given time and appropriate conditions, it will leaven the whole lump. Our analogy of the vector motions carried out would lead to the conclusion that, wherever such a center originated, it would tend to assimilate to itself all such activities as are capable of offering resistance to it and would, by virtue of the form or mode of its activity, cause allied activities to accumulate in harmonious adjustment about it, enlarging, and, at the same time, intensify- ing the energy in the original equilibrium. Disturbances of this equilibrium there will be, but it will be one of the hardest things to exterminate we can imagine, for it is entrenched in one of the most recondite energic conditions of the universe. Seed may be dried for years in the tombs but it will still germinate. No persecution ever succeeds in stamping out a vital truth. It is not to be wondered at that humanity has enduring faith in a life eternal, but this is not the life of the soul, if by the soul we mean the stream of consciousness.^^ In so far as our life as a whole fits into the complicated sphere of The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 35 the universal life it will be imperishable. Maimed and crippled it may be, we crawl over the threshold of one world into the fresh glory of another, but if the life be really there, it will have no difficulty in assimilating to itself a body fit for its use, as the acorn finds its own body in the crevices of the rock and builds it forth in strict accordance with the pattern set on the peculiari- ties of its own vital equilibrium. We need not look for pangens, biophores, gemmules, micella, and the like, in our study of heredity, or if we find them, w^e shall regard them as visible manifestations in some temporary form of types of equilibrated energy, vortices of specialized activity, specific in its form. The newt will grow a new leg. It is possible that the leg might grow a new newt if we were able to keep the conditions favorable, just as a branch may grow a new tree. There is nothing so violently incongruous as might appear in the childish planting of nail parings in the hope of raising a crop of men. 22 The most essential element of consciousness is its focal charac- ter. This is precisely an individualizing moment. Our point of reference about which we construct the locus formula of our life may be continually changing, but it is precisely the of consciousness and cannot be diffuse or extended. It is the intrinsic, self-reflected, epicyclic character of consciousness that creates individuals. It is the one and only individualizing moment. The self-point of consciousness is in essence unchange- able in so far as it is a point of ultimate reference, the standard of all realizing. Doubtless our activities might form part in a greater or social whole which might have its consciousness of a higher order (its more intricate equilibrium) ; but I do not see that it would follow that our consciousness would be involved in it or that the higher consciousness would be felt in ours. It would only be in so far as our activities entered into reaction with all, that we should approximate to a consciousness of the Cf. W\ E. Ritter, American Naturalist, November, 1903, in which it is stated that Miss Sarah P, Monks has succeeded with the Starfish (Phatria or Linckia fascialis) in regenerating the body from simple rays. Cf. Haeckel, Zeitschr. wiss. Zool Bd. 30, 1878. Cf. Herrick, Journal Comparative Neurology, vol. 8, no. 1, 1898, pp. 26-27. (Cf . also the posthumous article by Professor Herrick, “Application of Dynamic Theory to Physiological Problems, ’’ Journal Comparative Neurology and Psychology, vol. 16, no. 5, 1906.) 36 C. L. Herrick ^'All;’^but this would still be egocentric. There is perhaps some satisfaction in gathering those facts of our experience which appeal to our senses under one head — ^The universe’^ — and the postulates of our reason under another and calling it ^^God/^ but the dualism is in our method, not in the subject-matter. Of course it is soon discovered that many individuals are wrapped up in any one so-called individual and that units of a higher order (species, etc.) may be formed. But any given individual object, e, g., any given man, has his own individual formula descriptive of the totality of the reactions (or shall we say the trajectory or career).^^ Here is a species of social ants. That species refuses to exist if it does not express itself in drones, warriors, queens, nurses, etc.; in short the individual is not the unit but the society or colony. This interdependence is such that the species’’ cannot manifest itself except in these social terms. So with man. The social reaction has become necessary to the individual development. Life cannot continue without lateral reaction; most forms are dioecious and sexual relation is essential even to racial persistence of type. In like manner a tremendous range of coordinated (lateral) forces are fused in the individual consciousness. This transverse or social relation, then, is real. Our concept of a species finds its logical and metaphysical justifi- cation in the postulate of a unitary organism (cosmos), just as all other metaphysical verities must. Consciousness is the individualiz- ing moment, the intrinsic aspect of the career but not that career. Given a concentric, egocentric, or individualized motor complex cap- able of acting and reacting upon all other suitable complexes, one may discriminate between the inner equi- librium-stress and the reaction-phase of this energic unit. Thus the ac- companying diagram, fig. 1, illus- trates the locus of a certain vector force projected on a plane geomet- (centripetal) forces in equilibrium Cf. Psychological Review, voL 11, 1904, p. 400. The M etaphysics of a Naturalist 37 This is subject to variation as external forces, b-b, impinge on it and resultant activities (c) constitute a trajectory of the system as a whole. Now, a-a ^ consciousness, c = effect on external observer. In just so far as the locus formula of my neighbor is like mine and his external (environmental) elements are the same as mine will his consciousness be like mine. It can never be identical. The very fact that he is in another place means that his experience is Q)Nf)x not {b-h^) as mine is. His (c) will be {c)y but y may be almost negligible. Now if my locus formula grows so complex as to receive the whole series of (6 — b^ — 6'^), my consciousness will from time to time, or when complete, exhaust all (a — a'^), and your consciousness will be sensibly equal to mine, if likewise extended. Such har- mony will result as will make sympathy complete. There will be a case when (c) is sensibly parallel to (c'). There will be no conflict in our lives. This will not make your consciousness mine unless our individuality be merged. There is no such thing as summing up the consciousness or experience of two indi- viduals. Your career is to me a part of {bNf). It may be in antagonistic or in concurrent mode. When nodes of your career rhythmically correspond with my rhythm, reinforcement occurs. This produces a change in my consciousness. Music produces a delightful modification of my consciousness — perhaps also of yours — but the appreciation you have does not affect mine directly. On the above view there can be no such thing as the ^^evolu- tion of consciousness’’ as such. One idea does not generate another. We grow and, as an expression of a given state, have a type of consciousness, — a meaning” of that locus which con- stitutes the psychic mode” for that stage. corresponds to consciousness a corresponds to consciousness b C corresponds to consciousness c But (a) does not produce (6), nor does (6) produce (c). Or to be more exact, if consciousness is the egocentric (centripetal) 38 C. L. Herrick aspect of the successive phases, each such stage is intelligible dynamically only as a factor in the whole A, 5, or C. Could we properly understand the matter, A, B and C would be but instaneous photographs or ^^cross-sections’’ of our life (career), and do not exist as such; and a, h and c are but intrinsic inter- pretations of that changing movement or transition from A to B, etc. To search for the ^ Aground” for consciousness c in con- sciousness h is like finding cause for a shadow in the same shadow some time before. But the series of shadows is a reflex and gives us clues — our only clues as to movement A — C. And the reaction of C upon other motor-complexes will be quite different from that of A or B. THE FUNDAMENTAL POSTULATE OF DYNAMIC MONISM It was a geniune, if unconscious, insight which dubbed physics, oh the one hand, nature philosophy,’^ and philosophy, on the other, ^^meta-physics” — an insight which seems to have been to some extent lost or obscured as a result of more rigid specialism. In last analysis it will be found that the present needs in both spheres are identical. What is wanted is a fundamental postu- late on which to rear the superstructure in each department. It need not surprise us to find that, after all, this superstructure is one building of many rooms and that the foundation is the same in the two cases. Such a fundamental postulate must needs be beyond the limits of inductive proof and it can have for its sole credential the cri- terion of congruousness. Complete congruousness and applica- bility to the conditions of all experience is all that can be de- manded. In all branches of philosophy one of the most serious drawbacks to a satisfactory construction of the data employed is the absence of a common basis of reality — a fundamental postulate ontologically acceptable in all connections Anyone familiar with modern mathematical physics does not need to be reminded that here too the present need is such a primary postulate. In philosophy students are monists, dualists, etc., but in molecular physics men seem irresistibly driven into monism. It is only when we turn from nature to the prob- lems of subjective experience that the mind doubts the validity of its instinctive craving for unity. In saying this we are not unmindful of the fact that metaphysical dualism is strongly intrenched in the physical pseudo-dualism of matter-force. Yet, however convenient this distinction is, it does not find a place in serious modern physical speculation. The reader who has his First Principles” well in memory will recall that Spencer frankly recognized the futility of all atomistic conceptions (pp. 51 to 53, et seq.). He is apparently unable to see any recourse in the crudely expressed dynamism substituted by Boscovich. 39 40 C. L. Herrick But we turn first to the examination of the more recent results of this speculation, in the course of which we shall not hesitate to avail ourselves largely of the authoritative review of this field by Prof. W. M. Hicks, President of the Section of Mathematics at the meeting of the British Association in 1895.2^ Dr.* Hicks claims that the end of scientific investigation is the discovery of laws and that science will have reached its highest goal when it shall have reduced ulti- mate laws to one or two, the necessity for which lies outside the sphere of our cognition. These ultimate laws — in the domain of physical science, at least — will be the dynamic laws of the relations of matter to number, space and time. The ultimate data will be number, matter, space and time themselves. It would be easy to criticise this statement from a philosophical point of view. Probably the writer, if he had been using strict logical terminology, would have said, quantity, substance and relation.’’ That the connotation of the terms is that suggested appears from what immediately follows : When these relations shall be known, all physical phenomena will be a branch of pure mathematics. We shall have done away with the neces- sity for the conception of potential energy and — if it should be found that all phenomena are manifestations of motion in one con- tinuous medium — the idea of force will be banished also, and the study of dynamics will be replaced by the study of the equation of continuity. The critical reader will substitute activity” for motion” in the above passage, for it is inevitable, logically speaking, that the concepts of motion and force should disappear together. Such a statement from such a source should be convincing of the facts that, first, physical science will not remain satisfied short of a sin- gle metaphysical postulate back of phenomena, and, seconti, that the sole criterion for judging of the claim for recognition of such a postulate must be its congruousness with physical phenomena. The history of physical speculation shows that the attempts along this line have generally shattered on the predicates of materiality and divisibility. Atomic theories date from the dawn of thought. No one needs to be told that the whole fabric of modern physics and chemistry is based on the atomic theory Those interested will find the text of the address in Nature, September 12, 1895. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 41 of Dalton. It is, as history shows^ no great feat of metaphysical engineering at times to substitute a new foundation without disturbing the superstructure. The theory of a rigid atom, besides failing to explain the attraction between atoms, was found incompetent to meet the requirements of molecular physics. The luminiferous ether was postulated to meet certain of these difficulties, Farraday’s electrical ether to escape others, while MacCullagh^s rotational ether attempted a mathematical solu- tion. A rotational ether depends on the gyrations within for its energy. It seems mathematically possible to explain the laws of refraction and reflection by such a theory as the’' vortex sponge atom, but there are many objections to any form of the vortex theory yet presented, aside from the difficulty of mathematically expressing the form of motion. Thus, the problem of the density of such an atom alone is enough to disturb our confidence in the theory. Maxwell has shown that the masses of atoms on the vortex theory cannot be explained. Lord Kelvin proposed his theory of rigid vortex atoms as far back as 1867, but it has made little progress beyond stimulating to other similar attempts. The density problem has been simplified by the supposition that, just as a rigid sphere moving in a liquid behaves as though its mass were increased by half the displaced liquid, so the atom has an effective mass greatly increased by the effect of the velocity on the surrounding medium. Nevertheless we see that an explana- tion requiring to be so amended is no explanation at all, for we approach no nearer to the ultimate by interposing an interme- diary and incongruous postulate between phenomena and the unknown ultimate. J. J. Thomson has shown how vortex rings enable us to understand the laws of a perfectly elastic atom, but no form of vortex atom has yet offered a satisfactory explana- tion of gravitation, which is really the crucial point in the dis- cussion. But we must not forget that, as already stated, all these theories require an elastic ether, or, as Dr, Hicks himself admits, ^^a primitive perfect fluid. However, I am assured by a well- known mathematical physicist in a recent letter that it is still con- sidered that the ether is not imponderable, but has a certain small weight. If so, it follows that ether cannot be perfectly elastic and our search begins de novo. Now, the one thing that seems evident in the maze of conflicting 42 C. L. Herrick speculation is that the predicate of materiality has no place in the system. The theoretical primitive perfect fluid is not matter — it is not force, but a form of activity whose necessary attribute is spontaneity. Such activity we have proposed to call ^^pure energy/’ ignoring for the time being the conflicting usages of that term, and it is claimed that the postulate of spon- taneity is no more unthinkable than any other universal. Unde- monstrahle it certainly is, but it fulfils our one necessary condition of congruousness. If it appears that spontaneity is logically inharmonizable with the attribute of resistance, we admit that it is indeed destruc- tively so, but when energy is transformed into conflicting, or rather interfering, modes, force is generated, whose very essence and measure is resistance and whose laws have already become familiar as various equations of this resistance. Every instance of transformation of force involves a reconversion to energy — - an equilibrium of any kind removes resistance, and energy emerges with its own peculiar attribute of spontaneity. We submit that when the idea of a perfectly elastic medium is substituted for by that of pure spontaneity the difficulties largely disappear. Gravitation, inertia, and, in short, all so-called proper- ties of the atom, are products of the equilibrium of forces and the energy liberated. Change of direction is inexplicable upon the theory of the conservation of forces; but if we recognize the liber- ation of energy in the moment of equilibrium, and introduce the element of spontaneity, the difficulty disappears. It is con- fidently believed that, given spontaneity, or pure energy, as the fundamental concept, the domain of physics (becoming, as it does, the doctrine of resistance or tensions) has a clear field for the attainment of the goal which Dr. Hicks points out. All on the hither side of energy belongs to physics ; all on the further side of the transformation to energy is metaphysics. Empirical psychology as a branch of physics deals with the interactions of forces, but speculative psychology is not restrained from imagining the nature of the spontaneities back of the phe- nomena. The prominent mathematician already mentioned writes : I am willing to accept the hypothesis that the so-called properties of atoms, etc., are immediate and direct manifestations of divine power which created and now upholds them and that the unchanging charac- ter of natural law may l)e as much a necessity of that manifestation as The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 43 holiness, love anil mercy are, for the essence of divine manifestation would have to be perfect good faith and certainty of action. Due responsi- bility could hardly be laid upon mankind as moral beings without the conservation of energy, etc. This passage from a familiar letter is quoted as showing that it is impossible to divorce physics from higher problems. Yet it may not be amiss to seek further construction of this immediate divine in the atom. Whatever it is, it is also the element of final reference in every field of inquiry, as much as in physics. That it may and does possess many forms of manifestation is obvious; one characterization serves for all. It, if divine, is unconditioned^^ — spontaneous. If anyone objects to the use of the word divine as ambiguous, the same conclusion is reached if we substitute the word absolute. If disposed to cling to a homogeneous ether — ^^a pure fluid’’ — its necessary attributes are continuity and elasticit}^ Perfect continuity and perfect elasticity, however, require two postulates, i. e., unconditioned energy and infinity — both attributes of our postulated absolute. If the latter attribute be denied, we must ascribe limitations to ether, thus conditioning its elasticity and destroying its con- tinuity. Objection may be taken to the introduction of the spatial idea. We admit its incongruity. We did not introduce it ; but, if it be carried to its final issue, it destroys itself. iVgain reverting to the necessities of our thought, it is claimed that pure spontaneity is the most natural view of phenomena and the earliest. The child perceives movement or change. It is yet to be shown that he necessarily sets up a predicament of cause. Motion is at first an event by itself as much as (and before) an object is. Motion is first observed; change is the primary psy- chical element and always remains so. It is just as probable that the child sets up a predicament of materiality as of cause in connection with its earliest experiences. In later life, even, our instinctive apprehension of change is of something spontane- ous, as when we watch the changing hues of the sunset sky. Logical necessities growing out of the permanence of certain relations lead us to read cause into experience at a later period. We are not denying the validity of cause as a partial concept, but simply limit its application. What is now needed is a return to the naVve Not externally conditioned. 44 C. L. Herrick method of thought which accepts change as the expression of spontaneity. So only can we conceive of the operations of pure energy and universal will. Respecting the atomic theory in general, we may say that it sustains much the same relation to the science of energy that the theory of number does to the science of quantity. The mathe- matics of number is of great practical convenience — is, in fact, an indispensable tool under our present limitations; but the student of higher -mathematics feels that it is an inadequate, if not erroneous, makeshift for dealing with quantity as discon- tinuous while all quantity is really and logically continuous. So with atomic theories; they may be quite indispensable in our attempts to express the forms of kinetic manifestations, but they are all inadequate by reason of the necessary implication of discontinuity. This weakness is revealed in the fact that it has been found necessary to supplement the atom by a postulated pure fluid in which the atoms are supposed to be bathed. When claiming continuity as an attribute of energy, of course it is not spatial continuity nor precisely temporal continuity that is meant, but kinetic or dynamic continuity — an idea already familiar to students of Lotze. It must be left to mathematicians to decide whether the prop- erties of activity can be construed on this basis; but we suspect that the successful solutions of problems of molecular physics will be found capable of conversion into terms of the equation of continuity. It is true, and no disparagement, that dynamic monism is not novel — in fact it is fully as old as Heraclitus, at least. It may seem a little singular to those who know Coleridge only as a poet to discover that he was the first to clearly enunciate this doctrine in England, but that such was the fact appears in more than one passage, as witness the following: Space is the name for God; it is the most perfect image of soul, pure soul being to us nothing but unresisted action. Whenever motion is resisted, limitation begins — and limitation is the first constituent of body; the more omnipresent it is in a given space, the more that space is body or matter; and thus all body presupposes soul, inasmuch as all resistance presupposes action. For some time past monistic thinking has been content, in Eng- land and America at least, to rest satisfied with a form of analytic The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 45 monism such as that proposed by Fechner, which represents body and soul as two aspects of one reality, employing the well- worn but specious comparison between the inside and outside of the same curve. The illustration serves very prettily to show the illusoriness of such distinctions, for the outside and inside of a curve are expressions disguising a whole world of foreign impli- cations ; as, for example, the relation of the curve to some arbitrarily chosen locus and the simultaneous relation of two other points which are also observers or reference data — in short, the pretty illustration involves the whole machinery of descriptive geometry, without which the meaning of aspects” would disappear. In precisely the same way the illustration when carried into psychology implies a complicated system of ontology thinly disguised under an apparently naive appeal to experience. Returning to the illustration, the only idea of curve suited to the conditions of our problem is that which regards it as a tra- jectory and discovers in it the equation of force and resistance — spontaneity and limitation. At this point the idea of resistance inevitably gives trouble, as it always has and always will. On this head it is sufficient to note that unity of source of energy does not necessarily imply unity or monotony of form. Energy as infinite can but be self-limiting. The self-limitations of the Deity are ipso facto creative, i. e., creation is the translation of energy into force. Quite recently Professor Ostwald of Leipzig has appeared in the field as a champion of dynamic monism and has effectively presented its claims in an address at Luebeck which may be familiar to most through the translation which appeared in Science Progress” for February, 1896. He said: “If it [the mechanical construction of the universe] appears a vain undertaking, ending with every serious attempt in final failure, to give a mechanical representation of the known phenomena of physics, we are driven to the conclusion that similar attempts in the incomparably more complicated phenomena of organic life will be still less likely to succeed.” “We must give up all hope of getting a clear idea of the physical world by referring phenomena to an atomistic mechanics.” In the opinion of the writer, we shall never make much progress in the interpretation of the fundamental nature of consciousness and its correlates until we frankly recognize a dynamic principle underlying the whole. 26 cf, “The Passing of Scientific Materialism/’ The Monist, January, 1905. PURE SPONTANEITY Distinctly Lotzean in its derivation though not in its immediate formulation, is Professor Herrick^s doctrine of pure spontaneity. Activity or energy, he says, is the fundamental category of experi- ence. Reality consists in the standing in relation of things and this relation is dynamic. Realities are not simply thought to- gether; they work together.^^ The earliest method of intuition or knowing is also the most accurate. It consists in the recogni- tion of action or change, that is, a doing, as the fundamental fact of experience. The very simplest concept of reality and the first to develop in the mind of the child is pure spontaneity from which it is the work of all later education to drive him as far as possible. The child is near the appreciation of the Absolute’^ as heaven is near us in our infancy. To the child the trees just wave of them- selves and he recognizes in himself similar spontaneity; but when the idea of cause is introduced it is quite as likely that the child will think of the trees causing the wind to blow as the reverse. Causality is imperfectly understood energy. Later life is so sophisticated by the interpretations of the experience of life that language has but few relics of the primi- tive idea of being as simple action, as in the expressions, ^Tt rains, ’’ “it blows, and these are mostly cases where the applica- tion of the idea of special causes is difficult or has been late in arriving. To the child “it mews’’ and “it barks” just as, in the language of the savage, “it thunders.” We begin, as the child does, with the fundamental conception of activity. When, if ever, we are able to say something definite about the hidden ground or reason for change it will be time to speak of the thing that acts. Our knowledge of the existence of things or events is due to changes in consciousness, i. e., to activities. All we know of the external world is in the form of changes in our being. It is true 27 “The Dynamic Concept of the Individual/' Journal of Philosophy, Psy- chology and Scientific Methods, vol. 1, 1904, p. 377. 46 The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 47 that the technical jargon of science, as well as everyday language, seems to imply the existence of what are called material units or atoms. Modern molecular physics, however, has found that the attempt to analyze the nature of such units destroys them and is returning to the naive concept of childhood that forces simply are, and require no separate explanation of their ^ bare- ness. ^ ^ In other words, the tendency in physics is to identify being with activity. Ontology has not been more happy in its search for substance’’ — the metaphysical somewhat that stands under and explains all being. This search may be frankly abandoned as futile, for it has not proven possible to avoid a final admission that the ultimate cause of all being resides in the purely spontaneous activity of an absolute Being and nothing has been gained by ages of dialectic in the effort to interpose various steps between this force or activity and its expression. It is better therefore frankly to admit that human thought can go no further than to assume the existence of such a spontaneous activity as the source of being, and accordingly bend our efforts to the task of attempt- ing the analysis of the form and mutual relations of the several expressions of this energy. Modern molecular physics and chemistry as expounded by such men as Lord Kelvin and Professor Ostwald throw into strong relief the insufficiency of molecular hypotheses whose postulates require one to accept at one "and the same time the doctrine that force is inseparably associated with material elements and that these elements are capable of acting upon one another over unfilled space, or that the same imponderable ether is capable of con- veying infinite quanta of forces without offering resistance to moving masses of matter. It is not true that matter and force are in perpetual partner- ship, one being passive, the other active. Modern science knows of no such thing — can conceive of no such thing — as passive matter. The properties of matter by which alone it can be known are all forces in action. Impenetrability is an expression for molecular bombardment of opposing force. Energy is the one permanent indestructible element in our thinking. It is claimed that matter is indestructible, but this merely means that when, for example, the various forces whose common name in our nomen- clature is gunpowder change their form, their exact dynamic 48 C, L. Herrick quantum may be detected in other states of aggregation. The periodic law of chemistry suggests a rhythmical association of those forces associated with what we call elements and points to a common basis for all these forces. HISTORICAL SETTING There have always been those who apprehended being thus simply — Aristotle is the first of the Greek philosophers to grasp the dynamic element in ontology and it is even with him only imperfectly and at times contradictorily expressed. He is sufficiently under the influence of the natural philosophers to cling to the fourfold division, even when it had no significance in the system. In like manner the dualism which appears in Aristotle’s classification is purely formal and is a dualism of method and not of reality. Form (eidos) is essence and that alone which can be truly said to be. Matter has only a relative reality as a potentiality in the essence. The thought seems to be very like that expressed by the writer that energy self-limited is crea- tion, or spontaneity is transformed into terms of the universe by the introduction of resistance. Relatively, says Aristotle, matter is non-existent. It is the opposite of entelechy or Aristo- telian form which is, as Goethe calls it, the That or actus. The idea of pure matter is an abstraction. He shows great scientific insight in adding that form is at once form, end, and moving cause. That is, form is a determinant based on activity — it is the form of the activity which causes the form of the substance. Motion is the passage of the potentiality (of the energy) into reality. Aristotle’s actual cause is a pure dynamic spontaneity. The first mover must be, he says, one whose essence is pure energy, since, if it were in any respect merely potential, it could not unceasingly communicate motion to all things ; it must be eternal, pure, immaterial form, since otherwise it would be burdened with potentiality. Being free from matter it is without plurality and without parts. It is absolute spirit which thinks itself and whose thought is thought of thought. This eternal prius is evidently spontaneous and self-actuating and the essence of his being can only be energy. He clearly recognizes the doctrine of immanence and yet the resulting idea of design is limited by the obstacles offered by matter. Remembering the definition of matter, we see that the limitation is inherent in the realizing of the potential, that is, it is a self-limitation essential to the 49 50 C. L, Herrick expression of the universal in terms of the individual. In like manner the soul is a spontaneity in so far as not trammeled by its setting. As the entelechy of the body, the soul is at once its form, its principle of motion, and its end. In later times Thomas Aquinas is the first to reiterate the posi- tion of Aristotle, but with reserve by reason of the influence of the church, to whose authority he bowed in matters of apparent discrepancy. God exists as pure immaterial form, as pure actu- ality, wholly free from potentiality. It is plain that the phrase ^^free from potentiality’’ means that the inherent energy is pure spontaneity and non-conditioned, for it is added that he is ^Ahe efficient and final cause of the world.” ^^Ea res libera dicitur, quae ex sola suae naturae existit et a se sola ad agendum determinatur. ” — Spinoza. The true idea of freedom of the will lies in the absence of or inability of external coercion to prevent the expression of the nature of the free subject. Spinoza is evidently greatly indebted to Aristotle. Yet he loses much of the cogency of the older writer by failing to make the dynamic element explicit, and by a spurious mathematical form. He says, however, ^^God acts only according to the laws of his nature, constrained by no one, and hence with absolute freedom, and he is the only free cause.” As a cause God is immanent. In Leibnitz the dynamic element is fully recognized. Active force is the essence of substance. The doctrine of monads adds obscurity rather than intelligibility to a grand concept. The energy which is the essence of monads is intelligent and where the force is equilibrated or reflected upon self the subject becomes conscious. The principle of continuity necessary to any system of nature is derived from the concept of motion; but in reality it is not motion but energy which constitutes essence and it is this alone which remains constant. Extension is not predicated of the monad and position is only used in an illustrative way. Activity and limitation are the elementary conditions of individual being. Lessing elaborates these ideas and says that thinking, willing and creating are identical in God. In Herbart the dynamic element is most clearly developed and it is to this fact that Herbart’s utility in pedagogy is chiefly to be ascribed. Herbart says that the soul is a simple, spaceless essence, of simple quality. The intellectual and in fact all psychical phenomena are reactions in opposition to disturbances. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 51 (He might have added, of equilibrium.) When several such responses arise, they fuse (again in equilibrium). The souhs acts of self-preservation are ideas. That is, the form which the pure spontaneity of the soul takes in returning to equilibrium from impact or limitation is intelligent. Maine de Biran among later French philosophers most clearly formulates the dynamic position. Effort made by the will and directly perceived, constitutes the ego, the individuality, the primary fact of the inner sense.” ^^The idea of force is the corollary of that of effort.” “1 will, I think, therefore I am . I am not a vaguely thinking thing, but a definitely willing thing, which passes from will to action by its own energy, as it resolves within itself or acts beyond itself. ” The idealistic mysticism here needs to be qualified by an explicit identification of being in general as action and a proper recognition of spontaneity as a function of all unconditioned effort. The unfortunate polemics of Schopenhauer have blinded many to the force of the masterly argument in his World as Will and Idea; and many read the poetry of Coleridge without penetrating through the wordy husk to the philosophic truth it seems to obscure rather than reveal. Schopenhauer says, for example, ^‘The true being of matter is its action, nor can we possibly conceive it as having any other meaning. Only as active does it fill space and time.” Cause and effect thus constitute the whole nature of matter; its true being is its action.” Goethe, who 'was a dynamic monist so far as he was a philoso- pher at all, recognized that ^Hm Anfang war die That.’^ ENERGISM : THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMIC REALISM28 Energy we define as the pure spontaneity of activity, while force is the same activity under limitation, as we meet it in our experience. We have to do with force and postulate energy only on grounds of logical necessity. Common sense revolts at the idea that the objects about us are not real, and the position above indicated is easily misrepresented as though it were main- tained that there is no such thing as a real being apart from the process in my mind which brings it into consciousness. We are assured of the reality and objectiveness of the stone wall because of the uniformity of our experiences and the conformity of the testimony of others. What we deny is that the reality of the stone wall is any greater for adding the undemonstrable idea of material elements in the wall. Certain forces acting with uni- formity in definite relations form the only basis of reality which psychology or physics can afford. Experience is a name for the changes which take place in our conscious selves. There may be many changes in the surrounding world and in our very bodies, but none of these is a part of experi- ence until it has made itself consciously felt. Changes in our brains and in the current of our physical organism otherwise may produce alterations in the subsequent course of consciousness; but only when these conscious alterations actually appear can they be said to have entered experience. The most careful analysis which physics has been able to make of the phenomena of the physical world has resulted in nothing more than the dis- covery of a great variety of forces operating in the field of our experience. Force is simply a name for anything that affects experience. Comparatively few forces are thus known directly, but in most cases the force is inferred from the interpretation of indirect effects of forces on experience. We may think of the rays of light impinging on the retina as forces directly affecting Cf, ‘^ The Passing of Scientific Materialism/’ The Monist, January, 1905, pp' 46-84. 52 The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 53 experience and of the light rays gathered by the microscope as instances of forces indirectly affecting experience. A momenta reflection, however, will convince anyone having the slightest familiarity with physiology that the first instance is a case of exceedingly round-about affection of consciousness; for the refrac- tion in the lense and the phenomena of accommodation in the eye are but the first steps in an extraordinarily complicated process before the forces can reach the organ where they are said to enter consciousness/^ We see then that the organs of sense are simply devices for so adjusting the forces of the surrounding world that they shall produce definite and specific kinds of experience. All scientific apparatus is simply added apparatus with which the ingenuity of man has supplemented the original natural endowment. The organs of special sense are adapted to cause the experi- ences that come to us through their mediation to appear exter- nalized. Recent experiments show that a person who wears glasses so adjusted as to invert the field of vision will soon come to see the world as before, right side up, proving that the con- ception of position and relation in space is due to a reaction between the experiences of the various organs of sense and that is it not a direct ^Tntuition. ’’ Experiences which reach conscious- ness through other channels do not have this peculiarity of external reference and seem to belong more directly to us. This distinction is not a primitive one and to a man born blind who suddenly receives his sight the visible world seems to rest on the eye just as the felt object rests on the finger tip. The distinction between subjective and objective arises very early and becomes a most important element in psychological analysis, but it must not be allowed to prejudice one in the belief that there are any kinds of force known to us otherwise than the simplest forms of experience are known, i. c., as affections of consciousness. Those forms of force which appeal to us through the avenue of more than one sense with special constancy and acquire the element of localization have attained in our experience a very special coherence and reality, so that the appear- ance of one of the data from a single sense suggests or revives the data from the other sense and the feeling of reality remains. This reality is thought of apart from the sense data and gives rise to the idea of substance or a reality beneath and supporting the 54 C. L. Herrick appearance. This same reality-idea when applied to the acts that are recognized as such and are plainly forces rather than objects is termed cause. When the reality idea is applied to experiences that prominently affect the sense of touch so that the tactile or muscular sense-element preponderates, the substance is called matter. No doubt the most of us recognize matter in forms of experience in which we have not appreciated any tactile element, but these are refinements of a sophisticated science. One great gain from this form of apprehension of reality is found in the removal of a problem which has perplexed thoughtful people during the entire past, namely the property of inherence or the peculiarity of one real being which enables it to act on another. If activities are a single essence and differ only in form, they are convertible and thus any form of activity may conceivably be transformed into another and the conversion of one mode of action into that mode proper to my conscious state is a problem of interference or composition of forces, and requires no outside element or tertium quid to cause it. A rainbow in the heavens is not less a real thing than the mountain beyond it because the forces acting in the former case are evanescent and appeal to but one of our senses. A thing or object is a concept involving, in addition to the element of reality, quality or perceived relation and the act of predicating on the part of the percipient. An object implies a subject who posits it (Lotze). At this point is the critical stage in the development of a con- gruous theory of nature. Science having primarily to do in the early stages of its development with ponderable things, was founded on the idea of matter in which the forces with which it really deals were supposed to reside as properties. When these properties are removed what remains? To this question science is and ever must be dumb and makes appeal to philosophy. The rash student who ventures to doubt the reality of matter is meta- phorically (if not actually) offered the knock-down argument of having his head thrust against a wall. This proves the relative impenetrability of the wall. But the modern physicist himself has questioned the sufficiency of the old position and discovers that this property’’ of impenetrability is after all but the resul- tant of the composition of a vast multitude of molecular vibra- tions or forces of which we are not cognizant in their individual The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 56 capacity. The question which arises at once is, there are motions, motions of what?’’ But this is, as we have seen, per- haps simply the begging of the question. Is there any reason why a vibration must be a vibration of something? We learn of vibrations which pose for a time as essential properties of some portion of matter being transferred to some other portion of matter and there becoming properties of that object. Evidently this is a region of great obscurity which would be greatly simpli- fied if we could think of the force as the essential ^^sub- stance” and confine ourselves to the task of tracing its transfor- mations. This in fact is the present tendency of molecular physics, and atoms and molecules are soon to be recognized as convenient words to express states of aggregation of forces. We shall pro- ceed, so far as possible, from this point of view and in speaking of matter and organs, distinctly disavow the implication of reality in matter as apart from the expression of forces which constitute its properties. ” In like manner, we shall seek no special definition of cause” as distinct from the force. It is the nature of force to act and a non-acting force is non-existing force. A force can be altered but not neutralized. The search for the cause of a certain event is a tracing of the genealogy of its forces. Science has shown with a great deal of probability that forces are all convertible without loss. There are many facts which seem to show that the persistence of matter is relative and that the serial or periodic arrangement of the properties of the series of elements are hints of the dynamic progression of which they are the expres- sion. The physicist says he can ^^get it all back” without loss. But respecting transformation of energy Dr. Magnusson^^ finds that the old formulae (all including mass with its matter implications) directly contradict the conservation of energy and introduce time-elements in electro-dynamic equations where they mani- festly do not belong. His results materially strengthen the dynamic view; he cuts matter out of the dimensional equations, substituting for it energy in every case, with results which are very suggestive. “ Dimensional Equations and the Principle of the Conservation of Energy/’ Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, vol. 1, no. 12, June 9, 1904, pp. 316-320. 56 C. L. Herrick The final stage in synthesis is the recognition of the incompleteness of the concepts of matter and force and the determination of the ground of force in pure energy. It is on this last step that dy- namic monism is based. The doctrine of pure energy is not and can never be based on observation. It sustains the same relation to metaphysics as that sustained by the metaphysical concepts of inertia and ether to physics of force and matter. As a pure postulate it must satisfactorily fit and explain the observed facts and must leave no incomplete synthesis. We believe that, properly understood, the postulate of energy may serve to remove the hiatus existing between the physical and metaphysical sciences. Anyone familiar with physics will admit that no construction of matter and force is satisfactory. The two are made to play into each other’s hands in a very illogical way so that, at one moment, force seems a property of matter and, - at another, matter appears as a product of equilibrated forces. Neither accounts for all the phenomena so that it is necessary, on one hand, to postulate ether which abrogates the properties of matter and, on the other, to associate with force inertia which has other char- acteristics than force is supposed to possess. Neither matter or force is directly presented and neither is self-evidently conceivable. We have become familiar with the terms and they perhaps have come to seem simple concepts. We are led in physics to the idea of completely elastic media, but this is obviously inconsistent with the supposed properties of matter. We should substitute the idea of pure spontaneity. If it is objected that it is not con- ceivable, we reply that, strictly speaking, all of that class of pre- dicables are inconceivable. Activity not residing in matter and not subject to the limitations of force becomes conceivable, if at all, just as matter and force have, by construing the relation to phenomena. The concept of pure energy — of action devoid of resistance — is necessary to the proper explanation of physical phenomena as well as the so-called metaphysical. Philosophically the ultimate is existence (being). From the phenomenal point of view the ultimate is activity or pure energy. The two may be identified. Energy and being are one and the same. Look at the physical side. A purely elastic medium is a postulate rendered necessary by the phenomena ot radiant force. In like manner the phenomena of continuous psychical The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 57 life require the postulate of pure spontaneous energy. Again, let us enquire what phenomena are thought to require pure elas- ticity in the ether. They are phenomena of propagation, e. g., all ponderable substances transmit various vibrations at rates depending, among other things, on the elasticity of the substance. But the rate of propagation in the unfilled spaces’’ bears no relation to such elasticity. It is necessary to assume that the medium is perfectly elastic but is more or less modified by the admixture of an imperfectly elastic substance. Now we submit that upon a dynamic theory this difficulty disappears. We sub- stitute for density, resistance and for elasticity, spontaneity. Under certain conditions of interference or resistance, forces pass from antagonistic equilibrium to concordant phases. Resist- ance (the criterion of force) disappears and unconditioned energy appears. This energy has no such temporal limitations as force has, and the result is the same as is conceived in the case of a vibration in a perfectly elastic medium. It would be interesting to trace the application of a dynamic theory to inertia and allied problems, but we notice one other point. When two moving elastic bodies impinge, the bodies suffer an alteration of their course and pursue the new path with unaltered velocity. No force has been lost, nothing has been gained; yet the whole fate of the bodies is changed, and their relation to the environment Here is something from nothing — an unthinkable proposition. What is it that has produced the great change. Change of direction or position is a very real thing. It is unnecessary to take into account the molecular changes. Let the two bodies be molecules if preferred. Again, if a bell be struck by a hammer it gives forth a tone and the force is, let us say, all employed in the process. The tone will depend on the figure and structure of the bell. Whatever it is, it is a differ- ent form of force from the blow. All the force is returned, but what produces the change? The fact of change is the paramount one, yet it is unexplained. Force is transformed without loss and might be collected again; then what is the essence of the change? Our answer is that every change of force is a death of force. Force can only change by passing through its precon- dition— energy — and in passing t) rough it obeys new laws. That which physics would fain explain by an appeal to elasticity is better explained by the idea of pure energy. The natural 58 C. L. Herrick condition of being is free unimpeded activity. Now think for a moment of two equal forces in a state of antagonistic equilibrium. Force is not a state of matter, though a state of rest is undoubtedly an instance of hostile forces. A state of rest is not a state of inactivity. In such a state of equilibrium as we have supposed there is a constant escape of force — equilibrium is only relative. But theoretically there is an instant (not of time but of state) when all resistance is removed and the two forces are annihilated as force. They are then replaced by energy, pure spontaneity. This passage through energy is, we believe, the sine qua non for the transformation of force. When a tower is held in place by gravitation, there is a constant transformation of force. One form in which the force issues is inertia or resistance to change. Such inertia shows that energy is continuously being converted. The concept of ether reduces under strict analysis to energy. The laws of elasticity, which Maxwell assumes are not those of ordinary matter, may be taken, in so far as they go, as descriptive of the nature of energy. This is the perfect liquid of Kelvin. Hinton says : It can be proved that it [this elastic ether] possesses the properties of a vortex. It forms a permanent individuality The con- sideration of four-dimensional rotations shows the existence of a kind of vortex which would make an ether filled with an homogeneous vortex- motion easily thinkable. Vortex-motion may be most complicated and may generate high degrees of independence and give rise to properties which cannot be represented in terms of molar motion. This type of equilibrated motion has its highest expression in forms of con- sciousness. Intrinsic, as contrasted with extrinsic, phenomena belong here. The higher (4-N) dimensions are non-molar and intrinsic. THE POSTULATE OF RESISTANCE Energy is known and can be known only by its form or mode. Behavior is the thing. Dynamic realism definitively abandons the search for the unknown ground of behavior and claims that for any human philosophy the activity itself is the ultimate. But this energic form or mode may be viewed in two ways. All activity in a world of reaction expresses itself in two classes of modes, one of which we may call intrinsic, the other extrinsic. This is the direct result of a law, which is clear enough from the popular side, but has hardly been sufficiently appreciated in philosophy; namely that activity is meaningless without resist- ance. Any expression of energy in a universe is dual in its mani- festation. We could perhaps imagine, or at least, speak about unimpeded energy or ^^pure spontaneity,’^ which would possess only an intrinsic mode. But its meaning would be for itself alone. No such manifestation of energy is possible. Physically, action and reaction are constantly associated and equal. A single or isolated force is impossible. Is there difficulty in this concept of ^ Resistance?” Is it that an energy that has no material tag to it and ^^goes of itself” could not be limited? That seems a little like the idea that because Father owns a bank he can get all the money he wants” or Because I have a cheque-book I am forthwith rich.” The self-limitation of creation settles that. However, there is another way of looking at it. In any genetic way of conceiving of a universe any part must be implicated in the whole and the whole in every part. There must be a teleo- logical or rational unity. This would be manifestly impossible if the energy were erratic, sporadic or variable. More closely thought out, the conservation of energy means that the doing that I now perceive is all of it bound up with the doing that was and that is to be. Our measures are all psychological.^^ So far Psychological Review, vol. 11, 1904, p. 405. lUd., p. 406-407. See Monist, January, 1905, p. 78. 59 60 C. L, Herrick as the externals are concerned, the various forms of force are incommensurable. There is no way to show that so many foot- pounds = so many calories. All that we mean is that these cohere in a system in such a way that such and such phenomena in one domain result from such and such transformations in the other. If twice as many foot-pounds had been found to equal the calories, we should have been in no way surprised. The point is that all energy is related to all other energy : there is an organism. The question might be asked (in fact it has been asked) ^^How is it possible to get the resistance or limitation necessary for the objects of our experience out of pure energy?’’ ^Ts the element of tension and opposition in your very conception of energy?” The reply to this should be based upon an examination of the nature of the energy concept more detailed than is germane to our present purpose. The difficulty is, probably, like nearly all philosophical perplexities, a result of our unhappy logical faculty for splitting things that ought not to be divided. We may un- doubtedly think of the word, ^^doing,” apart from the expres- sion, “doing of something,” but it is to be doubted whether we can think of pure energy at all. We think by ^'affirming attribute.” It is still more energetically to be insisted thad no real severance of the doing from the thing done is permissible. It is the old matter fallacy or the cause-effect fallacy in a new guise. If energy is to be set up in the place of matter as a power behind the throne let us alone and we will return to our idols. Viewed from a physical point of view, given no resistance to action, there is no energy. If we mean anything by energy, it must be valid in that it is acting. If the sum-total of universal energy were in like phase, it would be the same as if there were no energy so far as making a universe is concerned. Herbert Spen- cer has not lived in vain. Pure being is the same as non-being. We have had our Hegel. A non-acting deity would not even potentially be a God. Practically, energy is called into and remains in existence only under condition of resistance. Resistance is varied and gives rise to mode in energy. The writer has defined creation as the self- limitation of creative power. This is not subject to further analy- sis. Having no experience with universal or infinite modes of Monist, January, 1905, pp. 85-86. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 61 being, we do not expect to understand what we must nevertheless postulate. If this view is open to the taunt that we take out no more than we put in and so are no better than prestidigitators, our reply is ready. If other people take out of their logic more than they put in, the^^ lay themselves open to the charge of dis- honesty. The taking out of more than is put in is called in logic ^Tallacy.^^ DYNAMIC MONISM AND HEREDITY Nearly all writers on heredity in recent times have found it necessary to postulate some form of material vital units as gem- mules (Darwin), physiological units (Spencer), pangenes (De- V ries) , plasomes ( Wiesner) , biophores ( W eismann) . These biolog- ical units are necessarily regarded as different from the struc- tural units or molecules and composed of aggregates of them. A few authors have, indeed, seemed to identify the biological unit with molecules, but the way in which the concept was em- ployed shows that such identification was due to a confusion of ideas and not to any logical identification of the two elements. It is only necessary to indicate that the properties of molecules cannot rise above the nature of chemical reactions while the biological unit is postulated to explain an entirely different set of phenomena. All the attempts to cause these units to serve the purposes of heredity have served to illustrate the inherent weakness of the concept. Thus when the gemmules were required by Darwin to explain the fact that the germ in some way seems to represent the totality of the organism, he came to the absurd result that, if the gemmules were at least as large as molecules and every cell in an oak is represented in its germ, an acorn would need to be as large a bushel basket, not to mention the curious fact that every cell in every acorn would need to be represented in the germ of every other acorn. Various forms of corpuscular emanation theories avoid this absurdity only by falling into others. Even if a fundamental distinction is made between somatic and germinal elements and a continuity of germ-plasm alone is demanded to explain heredity, the problem is not rendered more intelligible, while it must be admitted that facts seem to prove conclusively the educability of the germ. The phenomena of everyday experience tend to show that the organism is a whole and that the germ up to a definite point in its history is as much a part of it as any other cell or organ. The solution offered for the problem of heredity by dynamic monism is as follows : The individual is a composition of cyclical 62 The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 63 forces equilibrated in a vastly complicated aggregate of inter- dependent series. As in other cases of equilibrated forces there is a nucleus of energy which may be regarded as the real being of the individual. This nucleus grows out of the fact that forces in equilibrium are constantly changing and each change involves a passage through a state of removed resistance when spontaneity or pure elasticity emerges. So far as the energy is in harmonious phases we have a unitary development; so far as these conflict resistance occurs and force is evolved which adds to and modifies the equilibrium of the whole. The constant tendency is thus towards perfect adjustment of the energy, and this is accom- panied by a constant change in the force-complex. Every new influence (environmental) affects first the equilib- rium of the adjacent force aggregates {i. e., those of similar sort), but the change must then affect the equilibrium of the whole. The form which this change may take depends largely on the form of the existing equilibrium, so that no reaction of the envi- ronment can fail to cause a readjustment of the whole. When an organism, for example, passes from a warm to a cold climate it is not merely the integument which is altered but the whole organization is readjusted. This corresponds with what Roux means by a struggle of the parts. From the point of view of dynamic monism such a struggle is inevitable ; the balance of the organism is so delicate that no touch anywhere can fail to modify the whole. Now the germ so long as it still forms a part of the organism and participates with it in nourishment, etc., is more or less implicated in the readjustment. If we conceive the equi- librium of the organism in the form of vortex-motion, for example, it can be understood that when symmetrical partition of the figure of motion occurs for any reason, the two resulting vortices will be like vortices in opposite modes. The fusion of two such vortices would reestablish the original motion. Minor differ- ences could be overcome and would result in variation in the rate or figure of motion. In the simple case of organic multiplication and conjugation of entire animals this is what actually takes place. When the differences have become too great, fusion is impossible. Now in higher animals the vortices are multiplex and yet the elements are similar and interdependent. Finally the complexity is increased and only certain vortices retain the typical form and 64 C. L. Herrick reflect the fundamental law of motion of the species. Such are sexual elements. The great difficulty which has hitherto existed in construing natural selection has been the necessity of discovering some cause for variation. According to a dynamic hypothesis the core of energy constitutes a nucleus of spontaneity or unconditioned activity. The form of expression of this activity will be deter- mined in part by the structure’’ of the organism and this is dependent on its phylogeny, and in part by the extraneous impressions (environment). Unconditioned spontaneity has in the course of phylogeny become conditioned by its own past as well as the present of its environment; yet there is the element of spontaneity, and what is to be explained is not why it takes such or such a form or direction but why it does not take any of all other directions. The original unconditioned spontaneity was, then, a tendency to express itself in all ways or, in other words, infinite variability. This variability is no longer infinite in so far as the results of previous activity have precluded many forms of expression. The mathematical expression for the activity of any organism is composed of a vast number of factors mostly too complex for our analysis. Heredity is a comprehensive term for those factors connected with past activities which have modi- fied the figure of present activity. If we could comprehend the expression for the existing activities in any organism we might hope to predict the range of its variability and the effect of changes of environment on such variability, or, in other words, the actual variation. In attempting to understand the effect of selection one must have regard: (I) to the status presens of the organic activity and its cyclical alterations ; (2) to the balance of element with element or part with part which will be disturbed when any new force enters the environment; (3) the direct tendency of that force. For example, a condition of darkness may directly interrupt certain visual processes and alter the circulatory and nervous equilibrium, but indirectly it may cause compensatory changes in nutrition of other organs ; or the development of antlers in one part may be correlated with changes in other parts of the integu- ment quite independent of the necessary changes in muscular control due to the added weight. In such matters as the forma- tion of color-patterns this law may be very important. DYNAMIC APHORISMS The point of view of Professor Herrick may conveniently be summed up in the following list of propositions (which, however, it must be remembered were written at widely separated inter- vals and never revised by their author and might, therefore, have been stated differently today) : 1. Existence (being) and energy are identical. 2. Energy is pure spontaneity. 3. Unimpeded infinite energy would to us seem indistinguishable from non-existence. 4. Force arises from interference of energy and implies resist- ance. 5. The complexity of resistance measures the quality of the force; the degree of resistance measures the quantity of force. 6. A thing or phenomenon is a manifestation of force to our apprehension and involves a thinking together or synthesis. 7. Substance is a reality or cause posited behind the thing. To the monist this reality is energy. 8. The introduction of resistance is creation. Creation is the self-limitation of energy. 9. The systematic increment of resistance — hence complexity — ■ is evolution. There is no creation of energy, only evolution of force. 10. Matter is a subjective interpretation of forces in a state of relative equilibrium — it is imperfect or incomplete synthesis. For human beings this equilibrium must involve at least two of the forces appealing to our senses. (A rainbow is not interpreted as matter because the equilibrium subsists for vision only.) 11. All forces appealing to us in ordinary experience are either directly or indirectly associated with matter, because all these forces tend to equilibrium. 12. Vital equilibrium is the highest common form in which equilibrated forces are presented to sense. 13. Consciousness is the focusing of diverse forces upon the complicated neural equilibrium — an equilibrium of dissimilar forces of a special kind, i. e., the synthesis of antagonistic forces 65 66 C. L. Herrick into homogeneous energy. It is a complete synthesis rather than a mechanical equilibrium. 14. Will is the energy so liberated. 15. Self-consciousness is the result of resistance encountered by this energy growing out of disparity between the normal modes of subjective energy and the results of the new synthesis, converting it anew into force and reflecting it. Psychologically, that is to say, self-consciousness is the reaction of the will in its expression upon the empirical ego. 16. Will is pure spontaneity in the form proper to the indi- vidual nature and is only indirectly in consciousness. As pure energy it is free (that is, to express the real being or character of the individual), but in its expression as force it is conditioned like any other force. What in psychology is termed will is a com- plex consisting of a variety of conscious elements, — feelings, judgments, etc., — and sundry impulses with their trains of reflex feeling. It does not therefore obey any simple law. 17. The soul of a finite being is the totality of the energy involved in a conscious being. Its activity is not, as such, con- scious. The mind — the souk’ of psychology — is the sum of the conscious manifestations. It is not correct to state that one mental state is evolved out of the preceding, for one act of consciousness has no direct connection with any other. Yet it is true that the mental processes give us the only clue to the sequence of soul processes. The conscious states are epiphenomena due to the constant becoming between energy and force. 18. Removal of all resistance would destroy all consciousness : Nirvana. Perfect equilibrium would make all energy con- scious, as there would be a rhythmical alternation between energy and force : Panconsciousness. A soul can be immortal only in a resistant (responsive) medium: Heaven. 19. The greater the complexity of the impinging forces, equi- librium being preserved, the greater the psychical activity. 20. Forms of complexity tending to perpetuate the activity and preserve the equilibrium are pleasurable; the reverse are painful. 21. Personality is the unit of consciousness. Consciousness can never seem discontinuous, because that would imply a second consciousness ad interim. 22. We create the objective world in accordance with forms The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 67 inherent in our subjectivity.^^ The three fundamental categories or forms of thinking are mode, time and space which afford us the ^This-now-here’’ of experience. This is the psychic present experience. The psychological past and future experience is always a ^That-then-there’’^" 23. Time and extension.^® Time is a pregnant illustration of the tendency of the mind to effect a complete synthesis and to set up an abstraction as a symbol of the synthesis. Time is not given in experience. It is not seen to be the necessary form of inner experience until the synthesis is effected. What we really have is a series of sequences. Time as continuous is reached by the same kind of process as gives us number or quantity as continuous — a late and com- plicated acquisition. Every possible interpolation in the series of sequences finds the organism receptive. We are not, for exam- ple, conscious of our organic sensations as continuous; but, when- ever attention is directed to them, they emerge. They are, we conclude, continuous. This is not an immediate apprehension, but a synthetic judgment. Our experience is indeed discon- tinuous, but various considerations lead us to fill the hiatuses. It may be added that we only incidentally become aware of the discontinuity. What then is the neurological basis of sequence? Something perhaps like the following. Vestige a in cell I awakens a certain interneuritic reaction. Upon this the similar vestige h is superposed without introducing any new reaction. This state affects consciousness in the manner interpreted as identity. Again upon vestige a vestige c, which tends to produce a different reaction, is imposed; and this change is interpreted as The same thing is true if the cortical image be objectively caused and then repeated. If I gaze on an object and after closing my eyes a moment again view it, a sense of identity is produced. If again we superpose upon a, which is now a vestigial image, an objectively produced image of the same kind. A, the resultant is not pure identity nor is it dissimilarity. Vestige a has not the same penumbra of subcortically produced elements which A has. In the first case the presentation is 0 and in the second ^^Psychological Review, voL 11, 1904, p. 401. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, vol. 1, 1904, p. 373. Cf. Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, October 27, 1904, p. 602; and Monist, January, 1905, p. 79. 68 C. L. Herrick O + The dog whose vestigial image is repeatedly revived is not conceived of as a series of dogs or the same dog at different times: it is simply ^That dog;’’ but if the dog comes into my field of view, it is the same dog seen again or recognized. If I view an object in motion, it may produce one of two effects: if it passes too rapidly to be accommodated for, it produces the effect of changing position without change of time (extension). If the motion is slower, the jerky motion of the eyeball in accommodation produces a succession of images. The hiatus between these images is subjectively filled and we get the concept of continuous motion. The modalities of presentation here noticed are, then, (1) position (the act of positing), (2) absence, (3) recognition, (4) distinctness, (5) succession. In the higher sphere of judgment these become (1) existence, (2) nega- tion, (3) identity, (4) difference, (5) time. . The difference between the two categories is that one has a particular the other a general application. A synthesis of a visual impression gives us position (place). A synthesis of several places having an identical content gives us the idea of extension and thence figure, etc. The final syn- thesis results in the universal — space. In time the vestigial predominates; in space, the objective. Both are, in a sense, the necessary forms of our thinking, but the necessity is not an inexplicable or arbitrary one. It inheres in the nature of the presentative process and the synthetic necessities of thought. It may not be necessary to illustrate further. We have gone thus far into detail simply to indicate the way in which the dun- damental postulates are applicable to the problems of psychology and metaphysics. Everything could not be said in any one of cases cited. Enough has been said to show what further use could be made of the idea of energy. Psychologically speaking, space is certain stresses and strains, certain tensions in the effort to move. It is a question of posi- tion with respect to my organism as a center. Our primary experience of space is angular. Visual, i. e., retinal, space is in two dimensions. Such space is closed. Our visual life is in one surface only. The eye does not shoot forth visual tentacula in search of the object as the ancients supposed. We gain the idea of the third dimension only by going toward The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 69 and from objects. Secondarily we gauge them as they go from and approach us. The born blind, on recovering their sight, seem to lack depth in their space. The axes of reference, fore-aft, right-left, up-down, are partly gravitational and partly anatomical, and do not express the dynamic standards actually employed by the mind (for example, in the metageometry, with its fourth and even N dimensions). Now, says Hinton (in his book on The Fourth Dimension), if some hypothetical plane (two-dimensional) being should be in- formed of the existence of a third dimension and it were explained to him that a cube could be thought of as a square repeated in this third dimension an infinite number of times, or as a square moving in a certain unknown (to him) direction for a certain period, we get some notion of what the fourth dimension is to us who live in three dimensions. So in the case of the fourth dimension, there may be a direc- tion normal to all three of the known dimensions in which move- ment is possible ; and, in the absence of the ability to make molar motions in that direction in the ordinary way, we can form no notion of the fourth dimension. It does not become a dimension or spatial element, but must be represented in temporal or intentional terms. Physical research seems to prove that there are ^Things doing” in nature that cannot be conceived of as done in tridimensional space, and this fact gives zest and meaning to this metageometry. The metageometry seems to show us that moving to infinity in a radius drawn from my organism as the center of experience would be to return to the starting-point— that going far enough from self as a center would be to return — that is, the radius, after all, is but a great circle of the universe. We call motions molar which are capable of giving rise to space conceptions. Molecular and intramolecular motions, cohesion, gravitation, etc., do not produce these perceptions directly. If the speculations with reference to vortex activity, which is supposed to give to energy the static character constituting materiality, are to be trusted, we may have in these the clue to the fourth dimension. 24. Causation as such cannot be defined, because it does not exist in the form of a plurality of causes. What does exist is .such an indissoluble linking together of all realities in fixed rela- 70 C. L. Herrick tions as makes of the whole a complete organism, every part being implicate in every other. The complete organism is the ground’’ of all being, and is the only thinkable cause.^^ 25. Reality is the affirmation of attribute. Reality in terms of experience reduces to an affirmation (subjective) of attri- bute (objective) and the attribute is always a^^doing”oractivity.^^ Lotze says : We cannot make mind equivalent to the infinitive ^‘to think,’’ but feel that it must be that which thinks; the essence of things cannot be either existence or activity; it must be that which exists and acts. Thinking means nothing, if it is not the act of a thinker; acting and work- ing mean nothing, if, in endeavoring to conceive them, we leave out the conception of a subject distinguishable from them from which they proceed. On the contrary, it is impossible to conceive of a subject dis- tinguishable from its acts or properties The doing of things in a constant way or according to some law of action is the most real thing we know of. A modern printing-press with its bewildering multitude of activities is a very real thing, and the most real thing about it is the doing of all these correlated acts for a common end. We may say that these processes are the products of certain wheels and levers. But these wheels and levers produce their result primarily by virtue of their arrange- ment, the result of activities; and even the properties of the metals, to which in our search for the subject it at last reduces, prove to be activities. In fine, we discover that the printing-press, so far as we can know it, reduces to correlated activities working harmoniously to some intelligible end. So of energy and matter, ^^Wliat has our postulated material entity done to it? It has added no matter to it. It has sub- tracted no force from it. . . . All that remains of our postu- lated materiality is form of motion or activity. . . . The impossibility of discriminating essence from form or kind of activity. . . . The discrimination of essence from attri- Discussed at length in the Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, vol. 1, 1904, pp. 596-600. See Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, vol. 1, 1904, p. 377; also “The Logical and Psychological Distinction between the True and the Real,’’ Psychological Review, vol. 11, no. 3, May, 1904, pp. 205-210. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 71 bute is a psychological impossibility. , . . And . . . essence must include the past and f uture as well as the present of the thing. To return to Lotze’s quibble, the mind is not equivalent to the infinitive ^To think/ ^ but is a thinking thing. It would not be thinking if it were not a thing, and if it would not be a thing if it were not thinking. Indeed, it is the kind of a thing it is because of its thinking and the only knowledge we have of a thinker is his thinking The tone emitted by a bell when struck is the result of activity, and this tone is also a more or less constant expression of the constitution of the bell. When I say ^^Lo, light!’’ I do not mean ^‘Lo, I recognize light out there as an external reality.” I mean Light, a real effect, is.” When I go on to say it is something out there, I have introduced the substance element. This may or may not be true, but so far as light is an experience solely, it has that about it which constitutes immediate reality: self-affirming attribute. Considered ah extra, as a logician, I discover that it is possible to see in this two aspects: (1) the affirming, which is essence according to the old logic, and (2) the attribute or mode affirmed. Neither of these is real, but the joining of these is the essence of reality; it is experience. Whether Professor Herrick was a realist or an idealist is a good deal the same sort of a question as when asked concerning Lotze. Professor Herrick himself says in one of his letters in reply to a question of this kind: I suppose I am a realist in the sense (say of Fichte) that the phenom- enal world has an existence independent of the mind or that there is a world of existence independent of the mind corresponding to the phenom- enal world. I am an idealist in admitting that my world is phenomenal, but I am not prepared to say that being exhausts itself in revealing itself to me as real. I may admit that the sun gives light only to the seeing eye; nevertheless the sun exists as an active source of the phenomenal and by spiritual parallax (judgment) I may ascertain this fact as true. The idea is not something archetypal nor does being exhaust itself in individual reality The solution of the problem involved be- tween realism and idealism seems to be this: Viewed extrinsically the universe is real; intrinsically, it is ideal. There is nothing in the world that has not a rational basis, and out of this grows the possibility of realizing it. To God the world is ideal. To man there is a progressive realization. Our limitations make us realists. We shall be pure ideal- ists only when individual limitations disappear.^^ On this question see further, “ The Law of Congruousness and its Logical Appli- cation to Dynamic Realism,’’ Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and Scientific Methods, vol. 1, no. 22, October 27, 1904, pp. 595-603. THE FREEDOM OF THE WILL Let us examine the matter first psychologically. First, there is the concept of an act. Every vivid concept of action creates or borrows from the energetic side of the mind an impulse to perform the action. A second alternate action is conceived. The mind is, as it were, in suspense. Impulses to one or the other act appear with fluctuating vividness. There results a sense of suspended judgment. The energetic side of the mind is inhibited. We have the feeling of being able to do either. The concept is real rather than an imaginary one in either case. Were the conflict between the concept of jumping over the horse-block and jumping over the moon no such feeling of free alternative would exist. The inhibition is felt as an internal restraint rather than an external coercion. Judgment having been passed upon the viability of the two impulses, then moral judgment compares the issues of the two acts with the self-ideal. One act will conduce to my physical well-being, the other will not : the one act is good, the other bad. One act will contribute to the greater welfare of the community or of an ideal abstraction cause’’) connoted with self, the other will not; the former act is right, the latter wrong. One act will bring approval of some constituted author, ity to which we owe allegiance, the other not ; the first-mentioned act is lawful, the latter unlawful. On such considerations as these one act is approved and the other disavowed. Inhibition ceases — the impulse to act, rein- forced by all the added motives adduced by intelligent consider- ation, issues in the midst of expensive, irradiative (pleasurable) psychical accompaniments. We have performed a voluntary act approved by conscience. I am a free moral agent because my acts are j udged to agree with the demands of my being or of my character independently of any external coercion. But was it, after all, a simple algebraic sum of various motives which my mind performed? By no means. It was more like a case of greatest common divisor, the common dividend being my ^ character. 72 The Meiaphtjsics of a Naturalist 73 But could I have chosen otherwise? Yes, but only by violat- ing my own conscience and degrading my own character. That would, however, have indicated that my character was not what I supposed it to be or was not in accord with the ideal self. I could not have done otherwise than I did being what I was. Thus arise the continual antinomies of the real and ideal self.^^ Here we have a reconciliation of the law of determinism and the Doctrine of Sin. The old Hebrew idea of sin etymologically was that of missing a mark. Sinning is a mistake or failure. The concept of self increases faster than the impulses proper to its preservation. These impulses grow as character grows; but character is always behind a growing ideal, though it may be a long way in advance of a diminishing one. Conviction of sin is possible only in a growing stage of moral life. A failure correctly to estimate the results of a line of con- duct may result in our standing aghast at the results of an uncon- sidered act, but this does not affect the moral value of the act. Remorse is often but the belated realization of results. Such feelings are educational in effect and are substituted for in society by the punishments which form the sanctions of law. The cul- tured man suffers more by remorse than from any punishment, but his remorse is not capable of acting as a deterent to others. If sinning is a mistake, where is the responsibility? Why was the act wrong? Because I now perceive that the act was not performed in conformity to the demands of my ideal nature. We say that my lower nature prevailed; nevertheless nature, since life began, has been building up these very impulses and appetites. These are essential to self-preservation. Our clearer vision now sees that they are but partial. The ideal self is larger, loftier, better. We ought to act in its behest. But, alas, it does not possess the strong body-guard of inherited im- pulses and requires to be guided by the clearer but colder light of reason. <0 “Everyone regards himself a priori as free in his individual actions, in the sense that in every given case every action is possible for him and he only recognizes a posteriori from experience and reflection upon experience that his actions take place with absolute necessity from coincidence of his character with his motives. Hence it arises that every uncultured man, following his feeling, defends his freedom in particular actions; while the great thinkers of all ages, and, indeed, the more profound systems of religion, have denied it.^’ (Schopenhauer, World as Will, Book IV.) 74 C. L. HerncJ'c But to whom the larger self has once been revealed, any act carried out at a lower behest than this highest brings a sense of self-degradation and of shame. In spiritual evolution woe to those whose ideal so far exceeds the executive impulses that life becomes but a succession of lost battles! Two classes are possible, saints and sinners — those who pre- serve the will to protect the highest self and those who consciously abandon the effort. The controversy which has raged as to the freedom of the will versus determinism results from a mistaken idea of freedom, complicated by a perverted application of the idea of causation. As Schelling says : to be able to decide for A and non- A without any motive whatever would, in truth, simply be a prerogative to act in an altogether irrational man- ner. Leibnitz says, more bluntly, that to desire such irrational free- dom would be to desire to be a fool. Let us analyze our feeling of freedom in volition. We first must have an alternative, to be, or not to be, to do or not to do, to do this or that. The two acts compared are measured by our powers and adjudicated in this respect. We do not will to achieve what is manifestly impossible. The child but not the man cries for the moon, but the moon is not unattainable in the mind of the child. This produces a sense of alternative. The second judgment is as to the value to self, a comparison of suitability, not of possibility. The essence of freedom is in the idea that I may do it, not that the thing is permissible or may do itself. The idea of uncaused action violates the fundamental thing in our feeling of personal freedom. It is precisely the ego-activity in action that makes it free. The unhindered expression of self in relation to an act or, better, the act issuing in conformity to the structure of self or character constitutes freedom. The indeterminist ignores the vital element in freedom in the search for that impossibility, an uncaused cause. Cause is an abstraction convenient as a category, but cause can only mean the immediate expression of one being in relation to another. If we conceive of a cause unpreceded by another cause, we deny prior time. Efficiency and being are the same. Even the being of the Absolute Cause, viewed as man must view it in segments, is The Meta'physics of a Naturalist 75 a sequence of causes. When viewed otherwise, as an omniscient being might view it, it is conceivable that the idea of cause would altogether disappear. The only conceivable kind of human freedom is that which consists in the unhindered expression of self in response to exter- nal motives. It is idle to suppose that the ego could go back of self and fabricate a feeling of cause prior to its own being, or construct a mechanism for deciding behind the deciding agent. It is left for deterministic philosophers to imagine such a deus ex machina. But if it be true, as Tyndall says, that it is admitted generally that the man of today is the child and product of incalculably antecedent times. His physical and intellectual textures have been woven for him during his passage through phases of history and forms of existence which lead the mind to an abysmal past, then the ego is not only caused, but it is one of the most compli- cated webs of causation. With what made me what I am, I have nothing to do; but, being what I am, I am responsible for my acts in so far as they conform or fail to conform to this ego. Responsibility is the strongest argument against the indeter- minist position in its narrower sense. To admit that I am to blame is to admit that the act was chosen with reference to self. To claim that the act was directed arbitrarily by some other power than one’s own character would be to absolve the only ego we know from responsibility. THE PROBLEM OF EVIL Why is evil permitted in the world? This is the great unan- swered question in human experience. The only general answer is that of Job and the only recourse is submission to the inevitable. For any approximate answer it is first necessary to define evil; it may be that, if properly defined, the question regarding evil would not need to be asked. We know that life is physically over-shadowed by pain. How- ever bright the dawn, few days lack this blighting experience, and many a life is foredoomed to drag out weary years of agony. Nothing is so real as pain. The buoyant youth strives to realize some bright ideal. All are pressing toward the mark of a high calling. But how seldom does our most strenuous endeavor achieve success. Rather, how inevitable is failure in the end. Every man is thrust into life-long conflict with a superhuman foe and acknowledged defeat from the start. Death with its un- fathomed possibilities is the portion of us all. Still again, we are all artists painting, with such skill as we pos- sess, our own portraits. Daily we toil at the growing ideal of self. Hourly the vista of life opens before us and the universe grows large and pregnant with new possibilities. New relations are discovered and our self-ideal adapts itself to new possibilities of reaction. This almost subconscious activity may be likened to the instinc- tive assimilation of self to the hero of an interesting story we may be reading. That we do not formulate such a self-estimate is because it is so fundamental a condition of our conscious life and lies as a rule too deep for words and is clothed in that modesty that is the external aspect of self-respect. But with what a shock do we discover that in the hour of trial our self-hero fails to display heroism! We conceived our self as rescuing the perishing, but discover with shame that in an agony of fear we have pushed to their death those who clung to* our garments. We conceived ourself as resenting the bribe, but find the inducement so alluring that we temporize with the tempter. 76 The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 77 We may at last, in utter self-abasement, lay our mouths in our hands and our hands in the dust and pronounce ourselves unclean — the worst of sinners. But if character keeps growing, sinners we shall always find ourselves to be. Nothing is a surer sign of moral stagnation than the smug self-sufficiency which admits no sin. Sanctification and freedom from sin may mark the end of a holy life, for surely further growth is impossible. Pain, failure, sin; these we call collectively evil. A stone falls on the foot and produces pain. A stone is not evil. Gravita- tion is not evil. But gravitation acting on a stone may produce in my foot maladjustment of processes not in themselves evil. The circulation and its concomitant nervous processes are phy- siologically good. It is no accident that wrongly adjusted phy- siological processes are painful. Natural selection has doubtless brought about this result. The burnt child dreads the fire ; it is easy to say that pain is monitory and so good, but self rebels against it as evil. We per- ceive that, as pleasure is not good but its usual accompaniment, so pain is not evil but its permanent concomitant. Most deep seated diseases and fatal injuries are not especially painful. Pain has developed where it has a utility to the race. But, it is said, pain is not a guide to the correction of the evil. True, it is but a voice crying out from nature Beware!’’ How our utmost soul goes out in sympathy at sight of a suffering child. We can scarce avoid raising clenched hands defiantly against Heaven and cursing the injustice that causes agony to a helpless and innocent babe. The voice of the babe is the cry of the race. It speaks to the best in humanity, imploring aid, impelling to research. By and by a Jacob Biis hears the piteous wail of the human child, and iniquitous tenements tumble to ruin or grassy oases arise in the desert of Manhattan, or factories cease to grind out their grist of human suffering. In a happy world there must be sorrow and pain, and in a moral world the knowledge of evil is indispensable. — Fiske. Failure admits of a similar analysis. As pain indicates an im- perfect adjustment, so sense of failure in the intellectual sphere is the maladjustment of effort to object. If the iron be dull and thou whet not the edge, put to the more strength. Sense of 78 C. L. Herrick failure is the spur which rides a good horse to success. But the goal is ever receding, the success of today is the failure of tomor- row. He who counts himself to have achieved will train no more and run no more. Let us bury successful men, they are all dead men. What if we must all fail? How many crushed corpses were flung into the trench that other legions of the one army might rush over to victory? If our self ideal is large enough, we may view life as the hero views death, a mere incident in the triumphant flow of a great cause. Savage legends picture happy hunting grounds. Mohammed promised his followers paradise and bright-eyed houris. Christian authors have foretold streets of gold and joy unspeakable. Older religions thought it sufficient incentive to right living to look forward to such oneness with the creative Power and directive Intellect that self shall expand to embrace the all-will and the all-purpose. The insignificance of the finite is thus absorbed in the infinite and shares in its fulness. By such scaffolding has humanity buoyed itself up under the weight of failure. Be it what it may, it is incumbent upon us, as Margaret Fuller expressed it, ^flo accept the universe, con- tent to believe that while it has not entered into the heart of man to conceive of what awaits the contrite, yet finally we shall be satisfied. And do not snatch away the child’s painted toy because it is but a poor image of the reality. In good time he will put away childish things. Ah, but about sin? Surely there can be no good arising from that terrible sense of defilement which follows recognition of sin. We have seen that, for the old Hebrew, sin was but failure, a missing of the mark. The Greek had little or no idea of sin in our modern sense. Sin is failure, but of a peculiar kind. Ordinary failure grows out of error of judgment. Our estimate of the effort necessary, for example, was wrong. The object was more remote than we thought. In sin the failure in adjustment is in the citadel of self, the will. The higher self required a certain act, moral judg- ment approved the act, but recalcitrant will performed another. Otherwise expressed, the ideal self which we pictured, is found not to exist, and the self we loathe is found dominant. The ideal and the actual are conflicting. This maladjustment is most humili- Th^ Metaphysics of a Naturalist 79 ating because in the highest sphere. We could and did endure the pain we could not avoid, we expect to improve on the failure; but ^^who shall deliver us from the body of this death’’ in our inner heart chamber, with which we must live sleeping and wak- ing? I, the soul of honor, brave and true, my life-long hero uncon- fessed— I a poltroon — a cheat? No, a thousand times no; rather any pain, any failure than this. Even the outer simulacrum of this heroic ego, the man we hope others think us to be, is worth dying to preserve. No wonder that any charlatan can gain followers if he can but persuade them that he can deliver them from sin! Sin, the supreme failure, the extreme of pain, the crime of the traitorous self — can this also be a concomitant of good? Cer- tainly it must be so, for no single human being has been without it. So long as the disparity between the ideal self and the self of our present volition causes pain there is spiritual life. Happy sufferer, blessed torment, which stirs the blood of our soul to fresh endea- vor! Sin-sorrows are the growing pains of the soul. Evidently, then, no act can be a sin, though it may be a sin- ful act. Criminality may attach to an act the commission of which is not a sin. To the objection that we have defined evil by denying it, the reply is that evil is truly evil to the sufferer, sin is truly sin to the sinner; but in the higher view, both are seen necessarily to belong to a general scheme the ends of which are good. Perhaps the most fateful question remains to be asked. If we are all sinners, what are we to do about it? Must we continue to bear the burden of conscious sinfulness, or is there a way to be freed from it? We long with unspeakable desire to be free from three things: (1) our sins, (2) the sense of guilt, (3) the conse- quences. Almost all of religion is the outgrowth of this fervent desire. Who shall deliver us from the body of this death? But stay: (1) all men are sinners and all men will continue to be sinners; (2) all moral beings conscious of falling below their ideal of self-perfection will feel a sense of degradation (should they feel otherwise it would mean that moral growth had ceased) ; (3) the consequences of this failure, primarily, in so far as they are realized, are powerful motives toward a more strenuous 80 C. L. Herrick endeavor to realize the ideal. The evils resulting to others are no part of our moral life except in so far as our realization of these evils affects our motives. We come then to the unexpected result that sin, the sense of guilt, and the objective effects of sin are good instead of evil. Distinguish between sin and the sinful act. The drunken man is guilty of no sin while committing the most shocking violations of the moral code, for he is irresponsible. With returning con- sciousness the enormity of his act produces a sense of guilt. In fact, he might be persuaded that he had committed crimes which had not been perpetrated at all and he would then feel all the remorse proper to the act. The habitual indulgence in vice with no sense of guilt betrays moral death rather than sin, which was its author. On the other hand, if one sets up a false ideal, conscience may conduct a sensi- tive soul through purgatory for sins wTich seem to 3"ou or me but innocent pastimes. But these reflections are ex cathedra and might be proper to a god — or a philosopher. The important thing for us, as practical men, is that every sense of guilt is an added weight to the burden of responsibility. It lays another brick in the structure of char- acter. Should the next occasion fail to elicit from us a more strenuous effort, guilt grows. Making of our dead ideals stepping stones to higher things is no empty poetic fancy. Sin is very real. Guilt is, and no logic can avoid it. Were we all-powerful, as philosophers, we would not attempt to destroy it, but in our individual capacity our true self drives us to eternal conflict with this and all evil, and this conflict is the good. But two attitudes are possible. The one finds us face to the front, undaunted, though defeated. There is perfect, uncon- querable allegiance to the higher, larger self as it grows within us. The other attitude finds us either supinely fallen, helpless and hopeless, neglecting the ideal self, or wilfully combatting, while recognizing its demands. The world contains only saints and sinners. The change from one moral attitude to the other, whatever may be the accompanying machinery, is moral conver- sion. The attendant circumstances, such as the acceptance of some creed or the recognition of some savior, may be exalted above the essence of conversion. Great emotional convulsions or extatic visions may seem to be the prominent feature, but one The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 81 may see visions and not be converted or be converted and not indulge in violent emotional contortions. Some, like the child who was exhorted to seek Jesus, may truthfully say, never lost him. But our definition is not that exactly of theology. It would be sufficient to reply that theology is not now our topic, yet every man is religious and religion certainly ought to assist in right liv- ing which is also the object of ethics. We go back to our ques- tion. Is there any help other than a reluctant resignation to sin and to be sorry on the little plane of our individual endeavor? It is riot in the nature of the human soul to be content with a part where every part logically suggests a whole. The social soul recognizes the existence of a vast all-inclusive unit, the ideal whole of which it is a part. If every other being has claims upon me, then my entire, perfect allegiance is due to this absolute whole. We may conceive it as design, or will, or intellect, or we may clothe it with all of our own attributes carried up toward infinity as far as our imaginations can go. Every man, be he pantheist or deist, has his god. We may, with Margaret Fuller, call it ^The universe.’’ What do you suppose her ^ffiniverse” looked like? As students of psychological ethics this Absolute assumes the form of the greatest self — that perfection of attribute and fulness of action that means the fulfilment of all tendencies and the completion of all evolution. The fitness of self to form a part in that highest union becomes the criterion of every act. The failure to realize or approach the ideal causes sharpest pain. Without this view of perfection progress would be impossible. The pull is from above. In terms of Christian theology, no man can come to the Son (the perfect exemplification of human per- fection) unless the Father draw him.^^ The term “pull from above’’ may require explanation. It may be objected that, when the largest possible self has been attained, it is composite, a mass of efforts of the individual. Are not our highest aspirations reflected as from a heaven of brass above us? Did any one ever prove to the satisfaction of the skeptic that prayer was ever objectively answered? The objection must be accepted for what it is worth. When the indivdual sets up for himself an independent self-existence, the only proof he has of its validity grows out of the impossibility of thinking more than one universe. If our minds were not part and parcel of other activities and bound up with all other activities in one organism, then there would be no compulsion to accept 82 C. L. Herrick Again, the consciousness of repeated failure, the cumulative degradation of a life of sin, is fatal to successful conquest of new ideals. The load of past sin must be removed. Stripped of all refinements of technical phraseology, the purging of the individ- ual ideal from those defects, the creation of the new self, this is the new birth and is likewise from above. Every sin reveals a discrepancy^ between the ideal self and the self of experience, and such sin casts a smirch upon the ideal which must be washed away before the will can act in view of the ideal perfection. The like- ness of the perfect self must be set up afresh for each new effort. the data of our mental activities as valid. Coherence is the criterion. Yet we are not going about denying our personal existence. So later, when the socms-ideas arise, we discover our experiences to be one with the generalized experience of society or “society-experience,’’ i.e., we discover that all others also have certain feelings, susceptibilities, rights and responsibilities. All of this comes to us through our own experience and the validity of the society-experience rests on the same law of coherence. But no one will deny that we are influenced by society, even though we recognize that social influence must first be reflected in our individual socms-sense. Finally, when we recognize the universality of laws, when we discover that we are part of a great universe which expresses a great movement or has a vast significance, even though we imperfectly understand it, and even though we may be as pagan as Marcus Aurelius, yet this recognition of the greatest of all realities is reflected back with great power into self. We say, “O Universe, I will as thou wiliest.” But, you say, this power is from within. In one sense^ Yes, but in a truer sense, No. It emanated from within, but it is reflected back with new power from with- out— from the truth we discover. It is a pull from above just as truly as the social impulses are pulls from without. If this great meaning — this significant career or teleology of the universe be anthro- pomorphized and endowed with human attributes, it still is a response to human longing and its real proof is its power to cause reactions (regeneration) in the indi- vidual life and the philosophical consideration above stated that it is impossible for us to live in two universes. The going out on the part of our nature is indispensable; but, if there were nothing to respond to this going forth, there would be no “ pull from above.” A stone could experience no change of heart, but even the exploring dove must find land before it can bring back the olive branch of peace to the soul. If humanity at large finds a response to its interpretive out-goings, it attempts a flight into the unknown. If it catches glimpses of design and recognizes that we are part of some destiny that embraces all, and if thereby mankind at large is helped “ Im ganzen, guten, schonen, Resolut zu leben, ” as Goethe says, then the same law of congruousness or coherence that obliges us to believe in self and in society obliges us to recognize this greater reality and its “ pull from above.” The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 83 So long as we find in the universe only a hostile array of antago- nistic forces thrusting us down, our case may well seem hopeless. But, not so; even in the very sense of sin there is revealed the fact that there is a helping Hand let down. It is only in the limited view that nature is a ^^foe to grace; the clearer eye will discern the fatherhood of God, the suggestion of forgiveness and the promise of ultimate success, where at first there only seemed a losing fight. Forgiveness and regeneration appear, therefore, to be facts of ethical experience. Accepting the above view, we may admit with Bacon that The world’s a bubble and the life of man Less than a span; In his conception wretched, from the womb So to the tomb; Curst from his cradle and brought up to years With cares and fears. Who then to frail mortality shall trust But limns on water, or but writes on dust. But, however unlovely the units, when we contemplate them as organic parts of the majestic pageant of history, necessary stones in the temple of the omnipotent, they are clothed with the borrowed beauty of the completed whole. How small a value does nature place upon the individual! Life is prodigal of its forces and wasteful of its products, but with what grim persistency does nature cling to its real gains. The new organ, once developed, reappears with mechanical infallibility and, even when rendered unnecessary by change of habitat, may remain for thousands of generations as a vestigial structure. For it is not the individual but only the species, that nature cares for, and for the preservation of which she so earnestly strives, providing for it with the utmost prodigality through the vast surplus of the seed and the great strength of the generative impulse. The individual, on the contrary, neither has nor can have any value for nature; for her kingdom is infinite time and infinite space and, in these, infinite multiplicity of possible individuals. Thus nature naively expresses the great truth that only ideas, not individuals, have, properly speaking, reality, i. e., are the complete objectivity of the wiU. {Schopenhauer, The World as Will, Book IV.) 84 C. L. Hernck But there is another side which is much more important for us practically. As expressed by Schopenhauer, the statement may be characterized as most misleading. Our individual lives are the concrete expressions of segments of the great dynamic unity of nature without which the manifestation of the energic idea we call species or genus would be but an empty abstraction ; the reality of nature is made up of just these infinitesimal units of which nature seems so prodigal. The individual is a part and a necessary part of the sublime progressive revelation of the universe. If only a link, we are a necessary link in a chain as long as eternity and as strong as omnipotence. However small our isolated value, that value is affected by infinity as a coeffi- cient. Still farther, it will be seen that, refiexly, our conscious life is capable of being influenced by as much of the idea revealed in nature as we are able to receive. With our growing capacity, our contact with the infinite increases beyond assignable limits. It is not too much, therefore, to say that the value of the human soul is infinite and that the measure to which we realize this contact is the measure of our sympathy. As Fisk says: The Darwinian theory, perfectly understood, replaces as much tele- ology as it destroys. From the first dawning of life we see all things working together toward one mighty goal, the evolution of the most exalted spiritual qualities which characterize humanity. THE SPIRITUAL PARADOX: A METAPHYSICAL STUDY OF IMMORTALITY He that findeth his life shall lose it. — Christ. The cleaving to self is a perpetual dying. — Buddha. During the past few years many questions once considered peculiarly pertinent to theology have come to be appropriated by philosophy, and students of the latter science do not hesitate to apply to the critical investigation of topics formerly considered wholly as matters of exegesis the methods and laws proper to metaphysics or even of psychology. Among these topics is the general question of immortality. Foundations have been endowed for the express purpose of secur- ing for the discussion of human immortality the services of the most eminent minds in diverse fields. It is plain that the propriety of such study is wholly determined by its feasibility. The belief which one entertains respecting the future life may and often does, greatly influence his present life and the use which he attempts to make of daily opportunities. But at the present time the average individual possesses no opinion, though he may entertain a hope or be goaded by ill- defined but haunting fears. It is commonly implied that no knowledge respecting that beyond the grave is possible and that faith is its legitimate substitute. As cautious a writer as Pro- fessor Paulsen says: For it cannot be denied that this belief (in a future life) is becoming more and more unsettled in our times; and the future will hardly succeed in strengthening it. On the other hand, it is plausibly argued that knowledge of the beyond might unfit us for the life that now is and that our eyes are holden in order that our short-sighted vision may be the better focused on daily duties and the lesser but necessary duties of the immediate future. The fallacy of thinking and speaking of a future life in terms of our present limited sense-knowledge has given rise to extremely foolish 85 86 C. L. Herrick visions of heaven, and made many gentle and religious minds incredu- lous.— Edwin Arnold. But the fact that a conclusion is deemed impossible never yet acted as a deterrent to philosophical speculation; and, even if the main question must remain forever unanswered, there remains the possibility of a closer definition of its bearings. Nor is it alto- gether unprecedented that sufficiently close analysis of a ques- tion has set at rest the curiosity which asked it. In the present case humanity finds itself in the position of a man who is awakened from sleep by the cry of ^^Fire’’ to the certainty of loss of his possessions and who must make instant choice of the precarious salvage of precipitate flight. Such choice as one makes in the emergency of our illustration is not more unpredictable or more irrational than the good the average human aspirant for immortality would select to take with him into the other world, if the selection were permitted to him. Witness the ideas of various peoples as to the nature of ^^heaven.^’ It will, however, be very instructive and helpful toward further dis- cussion to examine briefly the bare conception of immortality, and especially what it is that should possess this property. Perhaps the most immediate reply would be that people generally desire immortality each for his own self. Ordinarily it is not even felt to be necessary to inquire what this self is or what elements it contains, nor yet as to the completeness of its independence of others; but such inquiry is a necessary pre- liminary to any true conception of immortality. When confronted with the phenomena of dissolution, the idea of the self which is a candidate for immortality is at once deprived of a large and important portion of the empirical self. The savage who is visited in dreams by his departed ancestor, while con- vinced of the reality of the apparition, is also forced to conclude that the vision lacks the corporeal presence of a living man and presents to our sense only a shadowy vestige of the bodily self once laid away in the grave or consumed upon the funeral pyre. So the consensus of humanity is that the inviolable self is spirit- ual; and even though this spirit be endowed with the power of assimilating to itself a body such as may be suited to the sphere within which it resides, yet, at any rate, the body which now clothes myself is of the earth earthy. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 87 Thus early in our search we are brought face to face with the evasive problem of the relation between body and soul. Postponing this question for the present and simply admitting that our flesh and blood cannot inherit eternal life and must be left behind along with our lands and our gold, let us ask ourselves seriously for what do we desire perpetuity. Naturally they will be things which we most prize here. Sense-gratifications, appetites and passion we must be content to resign; and, if experience has been of the average sort, we may console ourselves by the thought that with such resignation we also escape the harrassing wear and tear, the pains and myriad woes incident to bodily existence. In all descriptions of the other world it is almost surprising to note that emphasis is very strong on the negative advantages — advantages v/hich would accrue equally in the case of annihilation. There will be no more tears and no more pain over there. But, positively, there operates the great vital law of self-pre- servation. We shudder at the thought of losing our identity — we cannot bear to think of being blotted out. True the daily experience of temporary annihilation has been clothed by poetry with all the honeyed praise of which language is capable — nature’s sweet restorer, balmy sleep.” A very little reflection, however, will show that this instinctive love of life, as a product of natural selection, refers to the ph^^sical existence and only by a sort of analogy is made to apply to the soul. To the young life presents itself as a career, not*as a possession; there are joys to experience, victories to gain, achievements to attain, and all by virtue of the powers springing in the life of the present as the seed of the life yet to be. To think of the loss or curtailment of this career, the birthright of all men, is inexpress- ibly terrible. Even the mourner over the too early dead finds in the abridgment of a promising career the most poignant occasion of grief. The idea that the apparent destiny of the human career is thwarted by death is a most common and potent argument for belief in immortality. It is inconceivable, we say, that nature or God should permit such preparations to be wasted or such promises to be disappointed. Somehow, somewhere, these prophe- sies are fulfilled and the sun that here has its setting will cer- tainly rise in undimmed glory elsewhere. To the man in middle life, who has witnessed the failure of so many individual plans and the futility of individual hopes, life 88 C. L. Herrick becomes more and more the annex of some cause. ’’ There are perennial things which endure and bear fruit year by year while death reaps its frequent harvests of brief human life. The indi- vidual life becomes of value chiefly as a factor in some such power- ful instrument for the betterment of collective humanity. Finally, when the forces of life are so far spent that one’s parti- cipation in the ‘‘cause” becomes insignificant and the enjoy- ments of life cease to lure to linger in paths which no longer please, the instinct of self-preservation grows less assertive and the fear of the death agony perhaps yields to evidence like that of Dr. Hunter who, in his latest moments, ‘ ‘ grieved that he could not write how easy and delightful it is to die.” Still the thought of individuality, if it no longer affrights us or menaces with the loss of good naturally our right, appears a solemn and melancholy possibility, repellent to our feelings. Memory supplies what hope no longer affords, and it seems incredible that we who have formed so large a part in worthy undertakings should perish while the impress of our lives, by a spiritual law of conservation of energy, continues forever. Of the kind of immortality implied in the perpetuity of effort when once exerted, there seems to be no doubt. We are intellec- tually convinced that our influence is immortal; but, like Kuta- danta, the disciple of Buddha, we care little for any other immor- tality but that of the individual self. Nor does the statement of the Buddha that “he who cleaves to self must pass through the endless migrations of death, he is constantly dying; for the nature of self is a perpetual death,” nor yet the word of a greater than Buddha that “he who would save his life shall lose it” cause us to subdue the craving for an immortal life in which there may be continued the memories and experiences of our pres- ent individual self. The attribute of individuality is one which gives, and since the time of Aristotle, has given the logicians much uneasiness. In the Ingersoll lecture for 1899, Prof. Josiah Boyce, in the course of a discussion of “The Conception of Immortality” devoted practi- cally^ the sum of his endeavor to the settlement of this vexed question, rightly judging it to be a necessary preliminary to the broader theme. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 89 Professor Royce states that our human type of knowledge never shows us existent individuals as being truly individual. Sense, taken by itself, shows us merely sense qualities — colors, sounds, odors, tastes. These are general characters. Abstract thinking defines for us types. ^^Even if by comparisons and discriminations we had found how one being appears to differ from all other now existent beings, we should not yet have seen what it is that distinguishes each individual being from all possible beings. Yet such a difference from all possible beings is presupposed when you talk, for instance, of your own individuality.’’ “For I must still insist, — not even in case of our most trusted friends, — not even after years of closest intimacy, — no, not even in the instance of Being that lies nearest to each one of us, — not even in the consciousness that each one has of his own Self, — can we men as we now are either define in thought or find directly presented in our experience (italics mine) the individual beings whom we most of all love and trust, or most of all presuppose and regard, as somehow certainly real. For even within the circle of your closest intimacies our former rule holds true, that, if you attempt to define by your thought the unique, it transforms itself into an unsatisfactory ab- straction,— a type and not a person, — a mere fashion of possible existence that might as well be shared by a legion as confined to the case of a single being. ” If one were limited to the abstract and objective logic or were to attempt the problem simply as a speculative attempt to form individuals out of algebraic combinations of qualities, this would be true. But it is far otherwise when we turn to what is directly presented by our experience.’’ The fallacy of Dr. Boyce’s entire discussion crops out finally, as we conceive, in his defini- tion of reality. The conclusion is that ^^you must define the whole Reality of things in terms of Purpose.” Accordingly individ- uality is a conception expressible only in terms of satisfied will. ^^An individual is a being that adequately expresses a purpose.” Such limitation as this would imply that a sense of reality is possible only after a complicated process of ratiocination quite out of the question in most cases. We wonder whether the mother is not a ^ Teal being ’ ’ and an ^ ^ individual” to her babe. Asa matter of fact, reality and with it individuality are among the first attri- butes consistent with mentality. We may insist that our con- cept of individuals does not wait on a philosophical analysis of teleology. Nor are we denying that in Dr. Royce’s statement there is an important element of truth. When we as philosophers begin to seek the last ground of validity and to drive skepticism into its last ditch, that arch enemy of philosophy is driven out only by the recognition of a teleology or coherence in an organized 90 C. L. Herrick universe; but this is not how we come by realities. No skepti- cism ever makes a ^^reak^ any less real, nor does philosophical investigation make it more real. Nor is this statement to be dismissed as a psychological generalization out of place in meta- physics. Reality we have defined as affirmation of attribute. It implies the union of objective and subjective. The philosoph- ical concept of Pure Being we can think of apart from a subject; but reality is a realizing, it is dynamic. We may think of the abstraction shining’^ apart from the light that shines, but the light is the shining. In this process (of realizing) a limitation of the pure spon- taneity of being is implied and this produces individuality. What produces the individuality of the subject no one can say — the eye may not view itself — but certain it is that, the subject being what it is, the world can and must present itself only as a succession of individuals. Dr. Royce finds it impossible for the most gifted lover to explain why the object of his affection is unique among women; for he is able to express the height of her individual perfections, which makes her all the world to him, in no other terms than those which all other lovers use. But Touchstone had no such difficult}^ with his Audrey, when he introduced her as ^^an ill-favored thing, sir, but mine own. In a moment of candor the supposed lover might admit that some other maid might have all the charms of his Helen (he is frequently forced to hear that ^Hhere are fish as good in the sea as have ever been caught”) but he is undisturbed, she is ^ffiis own.” In other words, the essence of individuality lies in relation to the subject. The lover finds the uniqueness of his inamorata in the relation she sustains to him. We distinguish objects as individual because of relations between such objects and ourselves. There may be a thousand peas exactly alike, but this particular pea is in my shoe, and is a very particular and individual pea. Any other pea might be there; but, by virtue of its immediate assail- ment of consciousness, this pea is individualized, I realize its presence. No amount of philosophical speculation as to the lack of individualizing properties will prove convincing so long as the relation of this pea to my ^ immediate experience” remains what it is. The discovery of some particular fleck of color upon one out of a thousand leaves would not, as Dr. Royce shows, make of it an individual; for at an}^ moment we might find its duplicate. The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 91 but the commonest kind of leaf now seen becomes ^^mine own’^ and a unique leaf thereby. I may thrust my cup a thousand times into the ocean and each cupful of water will be an individual till it flows back into the immensity of the infinite. The ultimate criterion of validity is, we repeat, congruousness. We must believe that the world is an organism or we cannot begin to think, and so, as philosophers, we admit that individuals which are creatures of our experience must have an external validity; but how we are to construe the relations which are perceived as individual is a large question. It is easy to learn that the objects which we perceive as discrete lose this discreteness when we learn more about them. Their relations to us are but insignificant as compared to the relations they sustain to the universe at large. The present is but a drop when seen in relation to past and future ■ — in fact when so compared, it is not. Individuality is depend- ent upon the now; but there is no now, only a forever. So far from the purpose creating the individual as we know it in experience, it destroys it by converting it into continuous quantity. You cannot photograph the movement of the train — individuality is an instantaneous photograph, while purpose is the train conceived in motion; it is a trajectory. But, it is asked, Could you not trace out the single thread in the tangled skein and would not the thread, though endless, be an individual? The illustration is faulty; for really the continuity of the thread is as much lateral as longitudinal, except that we fail to perceive the lateral connections. Strict analysis might follow the lines of force in the stream passing over Niagara, though each particle is under equal pressure at all times in all directions from its adjacent portions of the stream. In this sense purpose does individualize. It serves to express the share of one part of the universe in its total purpose. Here, as before, it is an analysis imposed from the mind instead of something inherently individual. Individuality thus appears as a limitation. We cannot con- ceive of existence without it, but Where wast thou when I laid the foundation of the earth?’’ ^^Knowest thou the ordin- ances of heaven?” Perhaps there are things not dreamed of in our philosophy, and it may yet be true that it hath not entered into the heart of man to conceive of many things the truth of which we have no right to den}^ Because our consciousness requires individualizing as a condition of its functioning, it does 92 C. L. Herrick not follow that consciousness might not exist in forms not requir- ing such limitation. But the self which we sought to preserve would seem to have disappeared with other forms of individuality under strict meta- physical inquiry. To get at this matter in a different way, let us consider what self is. In your case and mine, what self do we wish to take into the other world; that which was our self at ten, at twenty or at sixty years? It is not the decrepit body, ready to welcome the grave, not yet is it the immature and ill- balanced self of early youth. Is there any moment of life of which we can say this is the stage which we desire to perpetuate to all eternity? Evidently there is no such stage. We think rather of the ideal self — what we dream we might be if permitted to outlive the effects of our follies and to realize the best without suffering the worst of our experience. A purified spirit in a glorified body is what we crave, but this is not immortality, it is reincarnation. Very suggestive and illuminating is the discussion of identity and non-identity attributed to the Buddha (see Carus, Gospel of Buddha, chap. LIII). By the parable of the lights the futility of defining individuality is well illustrated. The Buddha says : ‘^Self is death and truth is life. The cleaving to self is a perpetual dying, while moving in the truth is partaking of Nirvana, which is life everlasting.’’ “Thy self to which thou cleavest is a constant change. Years ago thou wast a babe; then thou wast a boy; then a youth, and now a man. . . . Now which is the true self, that of yesterday, that of today, or that of tomorrow, for the preservation of which thou dost clamor. . . . ” Practice the truth that thy brother is the same as thou. Walk in the noble path of righteousness and thou wilt understand that while there is death in self, there is immortality in truth. ” The two greatest teachers of religious truth, the Buddha and the Christ, in whose doctrines (shorn of what is obviously local color) the essential agreement is so unmistakable as greatly to enhance their intrinsic influence, earnestly strove to minimize the concept of individual immortality in the crude form in which it was entertained by their followers. The greater success of the Buddha in this direction is to be ascribed to the more favorable soil upon which his teaching fell and not to the greater purity of his doctrine. It was inevitable that the teaching of Jesus The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 93 should be distorted to the support of the complicated beliefs of the Jewish doctrinaires in stages and grades of future existence into which much of the grossness of this life was transported. Sidartha, on the other hand, had but a sect as it were of the Saddu- cees for his propagandists — men accustomed by contemplation to distinguish the real under the phenomenal. Christ warns that in the other world men neither marry nor are given in marriage; that they do not seek emoluments or high stations, but are like the heavenly influences or Angels of God;’’ and, while using ever}^ vehicle of expression and illustration to convey the idea of superior felicity of the other world, clearly teaches that this felicity in some way consists in oneness with God. He informs his disciples of a great gulf fixed between the other world and this, and it is legitimate to conclude that this gulf is a natural result of the extreme divergence of the two stages of existence. Far different the teaching of the Church, which carries the extreme of individuality characteristic of its relations in this life into the next world with little change. This tendency of the teachers of religion and its poets illustrates the desire for an immortality of earthy consciousness and associations. Assuming that immortality must be of this sort, viz: a per- petuation of our soul as the thinking, remembering, and feeling function of self. Prof. William James attempts, in his Ingersoll lecture for 1897, to remove two important objections to such belief. The first objection grows out of the psycho-physiological dictum that thought is a function of the brain. This is again the body-mind problem which we at first agreed to waive for a time. But let us see how a representative psychologist meets this issue. In his own words: I must show you that the fatal consequence is not coercive, as is commonly imagined; and that, even though our soul’s life (as here be- low it is revealed to us) may be in literal strictness the function of a brain that perishes; yet it is not at all impossible, but on the contrary quite possible, that the life may continue when the brain is dead. The supposed impossibilit}^ of its continuing comes from too superficial a look at the admitted fact of functional dependence. But there are other kinds of function besides productive or gener- ative functions, there are transmissive functions. 94 C. L, Herrick When we think of the law that thought is a function of the brain, we are not required to think of productive function only; we are entitled also to consider 'perniissive or transmissive function. Our brains may be transparent spots in the surface veil of phenomena, hiding and keeping back the world of genuine realities. The brain might be an 'independent variable, the mind would vary with it. Consciousness does not have to be generated de novo in a vast number of places. It exists already, behind the scenes coeval wdth the world. One argument which seems to have more weight with Pro- fessor James than he may care to admit, is the supposed value of such a theory in explaining or permitting a belief in the occult, to which he stands committed. This theory is like the Sweden- borgian idea of ^Tnflux’’ and may be acceptable in theological circles as consistent with the activities of ^^The Spirit.’’ The question here is whether the theory is consistent with itself. Let us examine it more closely. Consciousness is assumed as coeval with the world. Consciousness is, let us say, somehow a product or rather a general mode of all energy or, at least, of universal energy. But this state of complete spontaneity or universality cannot be assumed to have any specific consciousness until limitations are imposed upon it. This limitation must be from within or from without. If universal energy be restrained from without, there is other energy not comprised in the universal energy and we are confronted bj^ the logical fallacy of a divided universe. The limitation is then a self-limitation and conse- quently teleological. The existence of modes of consciousness results from the limi- tations of energy which thus in certain specific forms manifests itself as sensations and the like — in short, in thought. If the brain is the name given to the sum of the limiting conditions or determinants of energy by which modes of consciousness arise, then the brain produces thought just as truly as anything can be produced. It is not permissive or transmissive in the sense that sundry thoughts exist behind the veil and some of these filter through, but it acts in the sense that the water-wheel generates forces. It does not create energy but it does create the mode of energy. Creation is, after all, but the self-limitation of energ}". The Meta'physics of a N’aturalist 95 Still, this form of expression is also more or less misleading. What we call the brain is as truly a phenomenon of experience as what we call mind, — only a step farther removed, and it accords better with the facts to consider both as correlative expressions of energic forms (life) which reveals itself in various modes, though to our direct apprehension it only reveals itself as psychic acts or modes. Applying the necessary corrective to Professor James^ theory, it appears that no gain is secured, for the kind of immortality which we crave and he proposes is not that of undifferentiated energy back of the brain and the mind but that of the modes determined, as he would say, by the brain. The naive assurance that the brain is only a thin spot that lets consciousness through fails; for, certainly, the size and position of this thin spot must have all to do with the kinds of modes of energy involved in thought. One would not say that the shape of the orifice had nothing to do with the generating of specific energy by a turbine, for example. Otherwise, if thoughts are ready made and are in no wise determined by the brain, why do we have one? The argument is an ingenious non sequitur. But with the modification that brain and thought are simul- taneous expressions of life, i. e., an organized self-limited form of energy having a teleological ground and a career expressed in its form, we discover two series of variables whose tie is their common relation to an existence of which they are more correctly described as appearances. From the series of thought-variables we may, by experience, learn to predict the brain-variations and vice versa; but it does not follow that brain-processes cause thought-processes. Lest we should be prematurely drawn into a discussion of causation, from which pit escape is well-nigh impossible, we may hasten to admit that causation in this sphere must be identified with coherence in a system or organism, and so becomes an aspect of teleology as in natural science it is but one form of statement of the law of conservation of energy. But whatever be the nature bf the being constituting the basis of coherence, of brain and mind, it is subject to change; thought in a connected series bound together by memory into a unitary experience or personality is not apparently necessarily continuous. Life may go on in its absence for a time. Not every kind of brain-process is continually functioning. In some sense life 96 C. L. Herrick which we now live has descended to us from our ancestors. Such significance as our life has for the universe is not limited to either a conscious continuum or a brain continuum. The perishing of our body may render the presumption so high as to resemble a certainty that the forms of conscious existence we now have shall cease with it, but the vanishing of these by no means proves that the teleological unit which formed the ground for these appearances has been destroyed. As well might the chemist whose knowledge is limited to what he can see deny that water exists in the gaseous state because he can no longer discover it. It can hardly be assumed that so complex and important a center of force as a man leaves no trace besides those we experience, and has no properties besides those we have discovered. The utter destruction of the life back of the phenomenal is inherently very improbable from a purely scientific point of view. Without arrogance man can claim that his advent into the world has changed the whole character of the universe. If those centers of energ3^ which we (in our ignorance) call molecules of matter have such a high degree of persistence as to give rise to a theory of imperishability of matter — in so much that these molecules will pass through all the mutations of experimental treatment we can give them and through numerous phases and chemical compositions — it were strange indeed if the unit, ^^man, ’’ should be so unstable that a breath would annihilate him. An heavenly alchemy may indeed change him from one state to another as the ice passes into the clouds, but is still water. ^^But’^ breaks in some impatient listener, ^Ahis is beside the point; what we want to know is, shall we know our friends over there? As James says, what we all wish to keep is just these in- dividual restrictions, these self-same tendencies and peculiarities that define us to ourselves and constitute our identity, so-called. Our finiteness and limitations seem to be our personal essence; and when the finiting organ drops away, and our severed spirits revert to their original source and assume their unrestricted condition, will they be anything like the sweet streams of feeling which we know, and which even now our brains are sifting out from the great reservoir for our enjoyment here below. The only answer given is by way of suggestion: ‘‘It might prove that the loss of some of the particular determinations which the brain imposes would not appear a matter for such absolute The Metaphysics of a Naturalist 97 regret/’ With this suggestion we too may, for the present, rest content. The second obstacle discussed Professor James is merely that growing out of the overpopulation of the universe in event of general immortality ; but this is no longer a difficulty, if the results of the foregoing discussion are accepted, even if we go to the full length indicated by the following passage from Edwin Arnold’s ^^Death — and After:” ‘Tf the Bathybius — nay, even if the trees and the mosses, — are not, as to that which makes them individ- ual, undyiug, man will never be.” But, in general, we may say with the author last quoted, ^Sve have to think in terms of earth- experience, as we have to breathe in terms of earth-envelope. We ought to be reassured rather than disconcerted by the fact that nobody can pretend to understand and depict any future life, for it would prove sorely inadequate if it were at present intelligible. ” Our conclusion, drawn from a purely metaphysical considera- tion is not at variance with that expressed by Paulsen, in his Ethics. A The temporal life is the phenomenal form of a life which is eternal as suchl' To the objection above urged that one does not care for an existence without consciousness, Paulsen replies: Well, who says that reality is without consciousness? May not the All-Real have an absolute consciousness of itself, of its essence?. And who will claim that individual beings, who have a temporal con- sciousness, could not have an eternal consciousness. To this we may add that so far as w^e know the possibility of reality in a strict sense is bound up with that of consciousness. The practical consequences of such a view as that to which we seem driven by purely metaphysical considerations may detain us for a parting word. Our life we find is not a possession, but a career. It consisteth not in the abundance of what one posses- seth. It is more than meat, i. e., it is more permanent than the sensuous joys which it affords. If we may believe that the little segment we can foresee on the earth may determine the direction of the future course of an eternal life, as the aim of the gun deter- mines the angle of trajectory of the missile, it becomes a matter of transcendent interest to see that the^aim is right, if we only can be convinced by any means that we have anything to do about it. For him who does not care to enter the mazes of ethical 98 C. L. Herrick theory it may suffice to remember that the universal beliefs of humanity always have some justification. As Paulsen says: The time will come, even though not until you are on your death-bed, when one thing alone will be material to you : whether you have honestly done your work in this world, however great or small it may have been, as a righteous man; whether you have fought the battle of life as a brave and faithful soldier. We may differ from this author in thinking that we shall not be indifferent to whether we have tasted joy and sorrow here below and may believe that we should rejoice to enter as fully as possible into the range of human experience ; we may remember thankfully our victories and rejoice that we have dipped into the sea of knowledge. For is not this segment, albeit small, a real part of the whole life we are living? We may not sympathize with those who would have us depreciate the good which nature so carefully purveys for us here; but, still, it will ever be of vastly greater importance to us to feel that we have neglected no pre- caution so to direct our bark that, when it passes out into the night, it shall not depart from its destined course nor miss of attaining the harbor of a blessed immortality. ETHICAL CONCLUSIONS Ethical living passes through three stages, the individual, the social and the religious. These are not mutually exclusive but represent the form of the summum honum most efficacious in each. In the individual stage natural selection is the determinant and self-preservation is the motive. Acts are good or bad as they tend to conserve the individual existence or fail to do so. Self- consciousness emerges from the animal consciousness clothed with the armor of protective instincts and impulses derived from natural selection. In the social stage conscious selection is the determinant and social development is the motive. Self has enlarged by continual accretions of mine to me. Family, clan, country and the great round world, successively fall under the conquest of the victori- ous self. Self-renunciation as the supreme act of selfishness becomes the way to the summum honum or the highest good of my universe. Acts are right or wrong as they serve society or not. In the religious stage the divine will is the determinant and self-absorption in the deity is the motive. Man becomes con- scious of self as part of a universal system. He feels partici- pation in the divine plan. He not only thinks God’s thoughts after him but he wills his acts with him. ^^Thy wiU be done” becomes his supreme desire. Nature and humanity become of one family with me, not because thay are mine but because they are God’s and I am God’s. Sympathy is universal. Sin is no longer rebellion, it is treason. To love God is joy and to love God is to love all created things, because we see as he sees. We have participated in creation as it was and is and shall be revealed. Nirvana^2 begins on earth. The kingdom of heaven is within you. Acts are not good or bad, right or wrong, but loj^al or disloyal as they conform to the suprema lex, the will of God, or fail to do so. The Buddhist conception of Nirvana is in one passage interpreted by Professor Herrick in these words: Nirvana is deliverance from evil. It is not a heaven of golden streets; it is not annihilation; but it is a state of unmixed satisfaction; it is permanence as contrasted with present fluctuations. 99 4