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US ISSN: 0025-4231

BULLETIN OF THE

f7Harylanb

f)crpetologkal

©oriety

Department of Herpetology
The Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

FIdHS . A FOUNDER MEMBER OF THE

Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League

MARCH 1980

VOLUME 16, NUMBER 1

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 Number 1

March

CONTENTS

HERPETOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ELMS SITE, ST. MARY'S COUNTY, MARYLAND . . . .
. Marie Van Deusen and Robert H. Johnson

HERPETOFAUNA OF THE PEDREGAL DE SAN ANGEL, D.F., MEXICO . . . .

. Oscar Sanchez-Herrera

PREY- INDUCED CAUDAL MOVEMENTS IN BOA CONSTRICTOR WITH COMMENTS ON THE

EVOLUTION OF CAUDAL LURING .

. Charles W. Radcliffe, David Chiszar and Hobart M. Smith

ADDITIONS TO AND NOTES ON THE KNOWN SNAKE FAUNA OF THE ESTACION DE BIOLOG I A

TROPICAL MLOS TUXTLAS", VERACRUS, MEXICO . . . Gonzalo Perez-H igareda

CHECKLIST OF FRESHWATER TURTLES OF VERACRUZ, MEXICO. II. CENTRAL PORTION
OF THE STATE (Testudines: Cvyptodira ) . Gonzalo Perez-Higareda

NEWS £ NOTES

A Saharan Suprise and a Desert Mystery . Gilbert C. K1 ingel

Reptile Symposium .

Forty Herpetological Reprints . .

Herpetological Slide Bank For Your Use . Thomas Vermersch

Corregenda . . Thomas Vance

EDITORS NOTE: Due to difficulties beyond our control , we have changed
printers. Our format had to change as reflected with
this issue. We hope for your continued support.

HSH

The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland , Inc .
2643 Horth Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218

BULLETS N

OF THE

Volume 1 6 Number 1

March 1980

The M ary 1 and

Herpetol og i ca 1 Society

Department of Herpetology, Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

Bulletin Staff

Executive Editor

Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Steering Committee

Donald Boyer

Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Frank Groves

Jerry D. Hardy, Jr.

Jeff Thomas

Off i cers

President .

V i ce-Pres i dent ,

Secretary .

Treasurer .

Library of Congress

Catalog Card Number: 76-93^58

Membership Rates

Full membership in the Maryland Herpetol ogi cal Society is $12.50 per year,
subscribing membership (outside a 20 mile radius of Baltimore City) $10.00
/year. Foreign $12.00/yr. Make all checks payable to the Natural History
Society of Maryland, Inc.

Meet i nqs

The third Wednesday of each month, 8:15 p.m. at the Natural History
Society of Maryland (except May-August, third Saturday of each month,
8:00 a.m.). The Department of Herpetology meets informally on all other
Wednesday evenings at the NHSM at 8:00 p.m.

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16

31 March 1980

Numer 1

HERPETOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ELMS SITE,
ST. MARY'S COUNTY, MARYLAND

Marie Van Deusen and Robert H. Johnson

A field survey of the reptiles and amphibians inhabiting the Elms Property in
St. Mary's County, Maryland was conducted from May 1978 through March 1979- This
property is part of the Maryland Power Plant Siting Program land bank of potential
future power plant sites. The herpetological survey was part of a larger, preliminary
ecological evaluation of the site (Van Deusen et al. 1979). The purpose of the survey
was to provide general information on species present, their relative abundances and
habitat preferences.

The Elms Property consists of approximately 990 acres (402 ha) bordering the
western shore of the Chesapeake Bay, six miles southeast of Lexington Park (Figure 1).
The eastern two-thirds of the property is lowland plain dissected by several marshes
and ponds. This plain rises to about 40 feet above mean sea level (MSL) and is sep¬
arated from the upland plateau (-110 ft. above MSL) by a ridge rising 60 feet in ele¬
vation over about 0.1 mi. Habitats onsite include several ponds ranging from <1 to
~13 acres, brackish marsh, shrub swamp, fields managed for wildlife and several types
of coastal plain forest.

Methods

Our field survey began with a thorough foot search of the entire Elms tract
aimed at locating particularly likely habitats for herptiles. Once these were iden¬
tified, we actively searched the selected habitats on subsequent visits, and only
cursorily explored other areas. Field collections were made by turning over logs,
stones and other surface debris, raking through leaf litter, removing bark from dead
trees and logs, digging, picking through rotted lots and searching low-hanging
branches, tree trunks and basking sites. Dipnets and waders were used in aquatic
habi tats .

Animals were identified primarily by visual inspection of adults and larvae
and eggs in season with the aid of Conant (1975). Many frogs and toads were iden¬
tifiable by voice, especially during breeding season.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 1

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

Fig. 1. Map of the Elms Property,

St. Mary's County, Maryland

Results and Discussion

Amphibians: Seven species of salamanders, 2 toad species and 9 species of frogs

were observed (Table 1). This represents -86% (18/21 ) of the amphibians known to
occur in St. Mary's County (Harris 1975)- Relative abundances are also given (Table

Page 2

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

March 1 980

I Volume 16 Number 1

Uncommon

Abundant

Rare

Common

found in large numbers

found in fairly large numbers and/or frequently encountered
found in small numbers and/or infrequently encountered
single sightings

These estimates of abundance are based on our field observations; however, in several
cases, we felt our observations erroneously estimated abundances because of marked
seasonality, specific habitat affinities or cryptic nature of indivisual species.

For example, spadefoot toad and pickerel frog were uncommon by our observations, but
probably are common on the site; certainly there is a profusion of appropriate habi¬
tat .

Several species of amphibians deserve special mention. The spotted salamander
C Ambystoma maculatim) was never encountered as an adult, although hundreds of egg
masses were found during a mid-March trip, occupying virtually every available body
of water on and near the site. Of all the red-backed salamanders (Plethodon c.
cinereus) encountered, only one was in the red-backed phase, the rest being lead-
backed. Fowler's toads (Bufo woodhousei fowleri) were found everywhere on the site
and on every visit. Acris and the three Eyla species were heard in great numbers
and seen in every pond, marsh, pool and stream in the area; their abundances ap¬
peared to be quite high.

Absence of marbled salamanders (Ambystoma opacum) from the site is surprising
as there appears to be ample adult and breeding habitat, and they frequently use
the same ponds as their congeners (A. maculatum) which were abundant. The red-
spotted newt ( Notophthalmus v. viridescens ) has been reported from only the northern
part of St. Mary's County (Harris 1975); permanent wooded ponds necessary for breed¬
ing are absent from the site. The eastern narrow-mouthed toad ( Gastrophryne
carolinensis ) was of special interest because of its endangered status in Maryland
(Maryland Non-Game and Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1975). We did not
find any specimens of this small and inconspicuous anuran, whose habitat require¬
ments are not well-known (Conant 1975). This toad has been reported from an area
west of the Elms and its absence from the site cannot be presumed.

Reptiles. Among the reptiles, we found 4 lizards, 10 snakes and 4 turtles
during the Elms survey (Table 2), which represent ~58% ( 1 8/3 1 ) of the reptiles oc¬
curring in St. Mary's County (Harris 1975). Relative abundances were designated
as for amphibians, with the same caveats, e.g,9 eastern worm snake, eastern ribbon
snake and spotted turtle were all uncommon by our observations, but have ample
suitable habitat. All four lizard species were infrequently encountered, but are
probably common to abundant.

Eastern box turtle (Terrapene c. Carolina) was found nearly everywhere on the
site and on every visit. Northern water snakes, black racers and black rat snakes
were particularly abundant, as were mud turtles.

Several species generally regarded as common were absent from our survey:
eastern hognose snake (Eeterodon platyrhinos) , coastal plain milksnake (Lampropeltis
triangulum temporalis) , eastern garter snake (Thamnophis s. sirtalis) , common snap¬
ping turtle (Chelydra s. serpentina) and eastern painted turtle (Chrysemys p. picta) .
These snakes are habitat generalists and probably present. The turtles are common
species of swamp and marsh, which are abundant on the site.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Page 3

Table 1. Amphibians of the Elms, St. Mary's County, May 1978 to March 1979-
(Taxonomy from Conant 1975)

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Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Page 7

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

Acknowledgments

Support of the Maryland Power Plant Siting Program, Detailed Site Evaluation
Section (Dr. Robert G. Otto, Chesapeake Bay Institute, Principal Investigator) is
gratefully acknowledged.

Literature Cited

Conant, R.

1975- A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North
America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston , 429 pp-

Harris, H. S., Jr.

1975- * Distributional survey (Amphibia and Reptilia): Maryland and the District
of Columbia. Bull. Md. Herp. Soo. 11(3): 73- 1 67 -

Maryland Department of Natural Resources.

1975. The Maryland Non-Game and Endangered Speciew Conservation Act of 1975,
10-2A01. Division of Wildlife Administration ,

Van Deusen, M. , R. G. Otto, J. K. Mount and L. S. Kaufman.

1979. Terrestrial ecological survey of the Elms Property, St. Mary's County,
Maryland. Chesapeake Bay Institute , The Johns Hopkins University,

Spec. Rept. 71, Ref. 79-2.

MVD , Chesapeake Bay Institute, The Johns Hopkins University , Baltimore,
Maryland 21218 and RHJ , Department of Pathobiology, The Johns Hopkins
University, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205 ,

Received 1 October 1979
Accepted 20 December 1979

Page 8

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

HERPETOFAUNA OF THE PEDREGAL DE SAN ANGEL,
D.F. , MEXICO

Oscar Sanchez-Herrera

ABSTRACT

The herpetofauna of the Pedregal de San Angel, D.F., Mexico, now
endangered by man's activities, is summarized for the first time. New
records for this locality, amphibians among them, are included together
with some notes on the Natural History and Ecology of the species oc¬
curring here.

The Pedregal de San Angel area, adjacent to Mexico City, in spite of its close
proximity to the urban complex and its accessibility, has not yet been thoroughly
investigated from the zoological point of view, although other biological aspects
have received some attention.

Rzedowski (195*0 defines the Pedregal de San Angel as all the lava field de-
scending from the nearby Xitle volcano to the south and southwest of Mexico City,

In the present study, it will be restricted to the vegetational community named by
Rzedowski himself "Senecionetum praecocis" in reference to the dominant plant species
{Senecio pvaeoox > Compositae). This association can be found up to 2500 m above sea
level .

He characterizes the area as "Open heath with an heterogeneous structure, pre¬
senting great differences in its florlstlc composition. The arbustive, herbaceous
and grazing strata are well represented, but the true arboreal stratum is absent".

The annual mean temperature ranges from 14 to 15°C.

Diaz (1961) recognized some-of the most conspicuous reptilian species in the
locality; three saurians (Iguanidae: two Soelopovus and one Phrynosoma ) and three
snakes (Colubridae: Pituophis and Salvadova , and Crotalidae: Cvo talus ) , She does
not mention amphibians, and unfortunately, does not present direct data on the
Natural History of the recorded species. Duellman (1970) cites a specimen of Eyla
avenicotov from this locality, but does not discuss it.

Field work by the author and some associates between 1973 and 1978, as well as
review of other previously collected material, have revealed the presence of addi¬
tional species in the area.

Presently, the herpetofauna 1 list of the Pedregal de San Angel can be summarized
as follows, with new records marked by an asterisk:

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Page 9

Volume 1 6 Number 1

March 1 98C

AMPHIBIA
Order Caudata
PLETHODONTIDAE

Pseudoeurycea cephalica cephalica (Cope) *

Order Sal i ent ia
LEPTODACTYL I DAE

Tomodactylus angustidigitovum Taylor *

HYLIDAE

By la arenicolor Cope

REPT ILIA
Suborder Sauria
IGUANIDAE

Phvynosoma ovbiculare ovbiculare (Linnaeus)

Scelopovus grarmicus micvolepidotus Wiegmann
Scelopovus torquatus torquatus Wiegmann
Suborder Serpentes
COLUBRIDAE

Diadophis punctatus dugesi Villada *

Pituophis deppei deppei (Dumeril)

Rhadinaea laureata (Gunther) *

Salvadova baivdi Jan

Thamnophis dovsalis cyolides Cope *

Toluca lineata lineata Kennicot *

CROTAL I DAE

Crotalus molossus nigrescens Gloyd

It is not unlikely that additional field work, especially at night, when many
species are active, could increase the number of species recorded. The rugged ter¬
rain makes it difficult to search for specimens in the numerous crevices by day.

Account of Species

The greatest part of the material examined belongs to the Herpetolog i ca 1 Collec¬
tion of the Instituto de Biologia de la Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico ( I BH ) ,
other specimens are deposited in the author's collection (OSH) and one in the collec¬
tion of the Facultad de Ciencias, U,N.A.M. (LIHFC).

Page 10

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

Measurements were taken to the nearest tenth-millimeter; the letters SVL are for
snout-to-vent length. The data on the Natural History were obtained from direct ob¬
servation in the field as well as in captivity.

Pseudoeuvyoea oephalica oephalioa

One subadult female ( I BH01 023), col lected 12 October 1976, measures 36.9 mm SVL
and 28 mm ta i 1 1 ength

The tips of the toes and fingers in maximal approximation are separated by four
costal folds. This specimen has whitish flecks on the venter, closely resembling in
this aspect Pseudoeupyoea oephalioa manni as described by Smith and Taylor ( 1 9^+8) ;
but it is here assigned to P. o, oephalioa based on geographical considerations. It
was collected by day (1100 hrs) among leaf litter and pebbles clustered near the base
of a "palo. loco" ( Seneoio ppaeoox) .

This species has frequently been collected in nearby localities such as the
Ajusco mountains and the lakes of Cempoala; but in these higher areas, the vegetation
is mainly coniferous forest and the area has a different climatic regime, especially
in relation to humidity. Thus, P, o. oephalioa seems to be a more eurytopic (Udvardy,
1969) salamander than has been formerly thought.

Tomodaotylus angustidigitopum

One adult male (0SH0107), collected 13 June 1977, measures 28,6 mm SVL, tibia
11. A mm and tympanum 1.7 mm.

The two outer digits are neither truncate nor widened at the tip. Following
Taylor (1939), the specimen has been determined to be angustidigitopvan . Some colora¬
tion features (in life) include sparse dorsal pustules with a light apex, a dark
canthal stripe extending to the insertion of arm, a light loreal surface continued to
the tympanum, a bi-colored iris, the upper half of eye being golden bronze with dark
reticulations, and the lower half dark brown.

The specimen was collected at night (1900 hrs) just after the first heavy rain,
and seems to be the first reported from this physiographic area.

Many of these toads were calling, and several of them were discovered by our
lights while perched on top of rocks, as described by Davis and Smith (1953) for
Tomodaotylus nitidus and T. fusdus in warmer areas in the State of Morelos. The voice
of this species is a single whistling, abruptly initiated and terminated, its intent
sity and tone remaining seemingly constant during the emission. This call lasts for
almost a second and Is followed by a silence of A to 6 seconds.

The extreme drought of several months during the year at San Angel could not be
an obstacle for the reproduction of these toads if they share the direct developmental
pattern recorded by Martin del Campo ( 1 9 A0 ) for T, nitidus from Tres Cruces, Morelos.

In relation to the species to which Martin del Campo's account refers; I believe
that It is probably T. fusous not nitidus , since Tres Cruces (Tres Cumbres) is not far
from Huitzilac, near the type of locality of fusous (Davis and Dixon, 1955). T.
nitidus generally inhabits lower regions.

Hyla arenioolor

Two young individuals, females, IBH01777 and IBH01777~2, collected by Biol.
Alberto Gonzalez R. on 29 August 1977. Another specimen (uncatalogued) is from LIHFC,

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 1 1

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

Measurements :

No.

SVL, mm

tibia, mm

tail, mm

tympanum, mm

IBH01777

20. A

10.9

reabsorbed

1 . 1

1 BH01 777-2

19.6

9-0

2

not apparent

LIHFC

45,0

24.0

___

2.1

The presence of Eyla avenicolov in the Pedregal was only known from one specimen
in the collection of the Instituto Politecnico Nacional in Mexico City, as noted by
Duellman (1970), but it is probably more common than records indicate. A sight record
by the author in August 1973 (an adult observed in full activity in the evening, after
a moderately intense rain) indicates crepuscular habits.

Duellman (op. cit.) states that "... In the mountains rising from and bordering
the Mexican Plat.eau, this species occurs in pine and oak forest, and in the lower
slopes of the highlands the frog occurs in scrub oak and dense thorn forest. However,
throughout its range it is always closely associated with small rocky streams; Eyla
avenioolor inhabits ravines and canyons."

The occurrence of Eyla avervicolov in our lava field is interesting since in the
Pedregal there are no permanent water courses or temporary ones. There are also no
canyons in the vicinity.

The great majority of the species of Eyla inhabiting temperate areas in Mexico
need water to lay their eggs; but surface streams are lacking in the natural areas of
the Pedregal, so the frogs must have another aquatic medium in which to lay the
eggs. The seasonal accumulations of rainwater into the rock crevices could provide
such a microhabitat, but the porous basalt tends to percolate this water, and thus
the development of the young tadpoles must adapt to the short duration of these
"ponds" .

Zweifel (1961) afforded interesting data on the reproduction of the species. He
records oviposition between 12-13 July and a span of 50-60 days for larval develop¬
ment. The newly metamorphosed individuals having a snout-vent length of nearly 15 mm.

The specimens from the Pedregal enhance the evidence for oviposition between
June and July, but the smallest of the two young has a 19-6 mm SVL, plus 2 mm of
still unabsorbed tail, as well as a poorly developed tympanum. These data differ
from Zweifel 's, but the wide distribution of the species could account for a greater
intraspecific variability than expected.

Phrynosoma orbioulare orbioulare

Two specimens, females, IBH00781 and I BH 00782, collected in June 1959-

Apparently, this species has been dramatically reduced in numbers in the last
several years. Since 1973 no additional individuals have been recorded from the area.
This seems to be related to the accelerated rate of urban expansion, which increases
the human interaction with this species (i.e. collecting, in order to keep the animals
as children's pets). Due to the scarcity of material, I do not attempt to discuss its
Natural History.

Page 12

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

See loporus tovquatus tovquatus

Three males, I BH 00251, I BH00927 and 0SH0130; three females, 0SH0127 to 0SH0129.

These lizards are the most conspicuous element of the local herpetofauna . A few
of their main ethological and reproductive features can be indicated.

They spend the early hours of the day basking on the rocks until they become
fully active, displaying territorial behavior.

During the rainy season, they are frequently observed climbing among the branches
of the tepozan plants ( Buddleia amevieana , Loganiaceae) or the palo loco ( S . pvaeeox)
where they pursue the insects attracted by the inflorescences.

Newly born individuals have been recorded in May and June, and the observed
clutch siz*es range from A to 6 young.

Seelopovus gvammicus micvolepidotus

One male, I BHOO898 collected on 6 May 1965, and 15 uncatalogued specimens in
OSH; 6 males and 9 females collected throughout the year.

These lizards are common in the periphery of the area, and they are active
through all seasons; unlike S. t. tovquatus , which in the colder months is hardly
detectable.

S. g. miorolepidotus , in other localities, is frequently found active on the
trunks of live trees; while in the Pedregal, due to the scarcity of suitable perches,
the species utilizes some areas where the rocks covered by bushes offer adequate pro¬
tection. However, if any trees are present, such as pi rules ( Schinus molle ,
Anacardiaceae) or eucalyptus ( Eucalyptus globulus , Myrtaceae) the lizards will
make use of them preferentially. The fact that both of these trees are introduced,
and are spreading, indicates the possibility of this lizard spreading into areas of
the lava not yet colonized by them.

Diadophis punotatus dugesi

One male, IBH009^9, collected in a Campus building in February 1970.

This specimen agrees well with dugesi , and its general scutellation follows:

17 dorsal rows, 179 ventrals, 60 subcaudals.

Measurements were not recorded due to the poor condition of the specimen avail¬
able.

It seems to be a rather uncommon snake in the study area, or at least an in¬
conspicuous one. Nevertheless, an observation in June 1975, appears to indicate
crepuscular or nocturnal habits.

In captivity one D. p. dugesi consumed a ground snake {Toluca lineata lineata)
at night, while during the day it showed no interest in it.

Besides the typical defensive attitude of this genus (coiling up the tail above
soil and showing the red-orange color of the underside) dugesi exhibits abundant
salivation when roughly handled. The reasons for this behavioral trend, observed
in several released individuals, are not clear but it is also evident when the snakes
are swallowing prey.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Page 13

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

Pituophis deppei deppei

Two females, IBH00735 and 1 BH 00982; and eight males, I BH00736-738 , IBH00866,

I BH00892 , IBH00979 and IBH00983.

All the specimens can be readily assigned to P. d. deppei as defined by Smith
and Taylor (1945). Very little is known about its local ecology and habits, except
that they are extremely wary.

Rhadinaea lauveata

Two specimens: IBHOO985, male, collected 20 July 1976 (field no. 0SH0056) and

another whose label reads only "Pedregal

The general squamation follows:

de San Angel"

( 1 BH00986) .

nos .

dorsal rows

ventral s

subcauda 1 s

IBH00985

17

155

91

1 BH00986

17

160

96

This snake had been recorded from the vicinity, but always in ecologically
different areas.

Myers (197^) in his careful revision of the genus gives no data on the natural
history of the species. The male collected in July was found near a rock in the
evening. Another caged juvenile snake showed signs of activity only near the end of
dayl ight.

R. lauveata kept in the laboratory refused all food except small frogs ( Eyla
piota) ; thus, in the study area it probably preys on Eyla avenieolov and/or
Tomodactylus angustidigitowm.

Salvadova baivdi

Four males (IBH00786, I BH0093 1 , I BH00972 and I BH 1 078) and one female: IBH00776.

These snakes are not commonly seen, although they must be abundant. In adjacent
localities, lizards comprise the main food for this snake, but in captivity some
specimens readily accepted newly born laboratory mice. In the Pedregal, Soelopovus
t , tovquatus is likely to be the selected prey species owing to its abundance.
Salvadova baivdi is diurnal in habits, and I have recorded these snakes actively
chasing lizards and devouring them while still alive.

Thamnophis dovsalis ey elides

One specimen, 0SH0126, male, collected 14 August 1976. This snake measured 570
mm total length, 156 mm tail length and had dorsal scale rows of 19"19~17, 1 64
ventrals and 94 subcaudals.

Some problems still exist concerning the identification of some Mexican
Thamnophis, particularly those in the dovsalis group. Thus several populations
can not be referred with certainty to any subspecific entity. In the present case,
considering Smith (19^2 and 1951), Smith and Taylor (1945), Conant ( 1 963 ) and Smith
and Smith (1976), this specimen has been tentatively identified as T. d. cyelides
Cope .

Page 14

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

The snake was collected in a vertical crevice
readily crawled into the crevice when discovered,
snakes and their amphibian prey may well coincide,
similar hours of activity for Hyla and Thamnophis.

on a cloudy, rainy afternoon. It
The activity patterns of these
but data are scarce indicating only

Toluca lineata lineata

Two specimens: 0SH0418, female; and 0SH0419, male, collected 26 June 1978,

These fossorial snakes are rather common in the neighborhood of Mexico City,
though in the Pedregal they have been collected only in empty lots to which the
basalt extends.

They are only conspicuous during the rainy months, when they hide under loose
stones which they leave at night to go in search of prey (mainly orthopterans and
some col eopteran larvae).

T. lineata never attempts to bite; at most it coils up into a ball around one's
fingers or tries to escape.

Cro talus molossus nigrescens

Four males, I BH007^5 , I BH007^7, IBH00748, 0SH0105; and four females, IBH00742,
IBH007i*3 and IBH00844.

These rattlesnakes are fairly common in the area and can be encountered roughly
from March to October. They are not especially agressive, and usually retreat into
hiding at the slightest indication of danger.

One stomach (of 0SH0105) contained the remains of Rattus rattus , the common rat.
Due to the size of newly born and adult snakes of this species (about 300 and 900 mm
respectively) it seems likely that many other mammals in the area could serve as
suitable prey. Among the most probably we can include the following (pers. comm.

M.S. William Lopez-Forment C.): Baiomys musculus 3 Microtus mexioanus > Mus musculus 3
Neotoma mexicana3 Peromyscus boy Hi 3 Peromyscus maniculatus, Peromyscus truei3
Reithrodontomys megalotis 3 Spermophilus mexicanus 3 Spermophilus variegatus , and
Sylvilagus floridanus.

The mammalian predators are comparatively scarce in the Pedregal, including
skunks ( Spilogale3 Mephitis and Conepatus) and opossums {Didelphis) . The only avian
predators are the barn owls ( Tyto alba pratincola) and occasionally a red tailed
hawk ( Buteo jamaicensis) . Thus, the Crotalus and Pituophis must be responsible for
much of the predation on small mammals in this ecosystem.

The habitacula of C, m. nigrescens frequently include horizontal crannies under
basaltic plates, which on a sunny day readily warm up as to permit the snakes to be¬
come ‘active thigmothermlcal ly. Nevertheless, some individuals can be found basking
in direct sunl ight.

On 24 June 1973 an adult female gave birth to six young whose total lengths at
birth ranged between 270 and 310 mm (X = 290.8), three more were born dead. The
young snakes increased in length between 10 and 40 mm in two months. Six years
after Its birth, one of these snakes has attained a length of 870 mm. Other gravid
females have been recorded on 13 June 1977, as almost ready to give birth. All the
snakes born in 1973 shed the skin for the first time one week after birth, and
shortly after, they began to eat suckling albino mice. On the contrary, rattle¬
snakes collected as adults or as juveniles in the field, seldom are white mice, but
quickly accepted wild Mus and Microtus ; still others completely refused food.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 15

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

Cons 1 us ions

The Pedregal de San
areas can harbor several

Angel is a good example of how some apparently well known
additional species than those previously recorded.

Some of the species
vicinity of Mexico City,
seem to be restricted to

recorded in this paper are present in many locations in the
but others such as Thamnophis dorsalis and Hyla arenicolor
the biotic community of the Pedregal,

Among the herpetolog i ca 1 species of the area, only Crotalus molossus could
represent some potential danger to the nearby human population, but the only two
known cases of envenomation were produced by irresponsible handling of the snakes.

C. molossus exists in its local habitat, away from man, and has no important
interactions with him, except for the help it offers devouring rodents.

Oppositely, some species tend to be more or less anthropoph i lous , Soeloporus
grammicus colonizing even fences and trees in house gardens and Toluca lineata in-
habitating idle ground in the city.

The near future is all that is left to attempt ecological studies on this
interesting herpetofauna ; so close to one of the greatest urban concentrations on
Earth, and threatened by the unrestricted growth of this human aggregation; which
carries forward an ever increasing alteration of the environment.

Acknowledgments

I am indebted to the Instituto de Biologia of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma
de Mexico, and especially to the following staff members: M. S. Zeferino Uribe for
his permission to utilize the Herpetolog i ca 1 Collection and the loan of laboratory
space to develop this study. Dr. Rafael Martin del Campo, who provided some litera¬
ture otherwise difficult to obtain, M, S. William Lopez-Forment C, for his valuable
information on mammals, and finally, I must recognize the kindness of Biol, Alberto
Gonzalez R. (Forestry and Wildlife Subsecretary biologist) and Mr. Guillermo Lara G.
for their permission to include data from specimens collected by them.

Literature Cited

Conant, Roger.

1963. Semiaquatic snakes of the genus Thamnophis from the Isolated Drainage
System of the Rio Nazas and adjacent areas in Mexico, COPEIA, 1963

(3): m.

Davis, William B. and J. R. Dixon.

1955. Notes on Mexican toads of the genus Tomodactylus with the descriptions
of two new species. HERPETOLOGICA 11(2): 154-160.

_ and H. M. Smith.

1953. Amphibians of the Mexican State of Morelos, HERPETOLOGICA 5(4): 144-149.

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Diaz Gonzalez, Ma. Esther.

1961. Contribucion al conocimiento de la Herpetologia del Pedregal de San
Angel. Tesis Profesional U.N.A.M, , 43 h.

Duel Iman , William E , .

1970. The hylid frogs of Middle America. Monograph no. 1 of the Mus. of Nat.
Hist., The University of Kansas, ( M ) : 514-519.

Martin del Campo, Rafael.

1940. Una observacion sobre el desa rrollo de Tomodaetylus nitidus. AN. INST.
BIOL . MEX. 9(2)i 745-746.

Myers, Charles W.

1974.* The systematics of Rhadinaea (Colubridae) , a Genus of New World Snakes,
BULL. AM. MUS. NAT. HIST. 153 ( l): 1-262.

Rzedowski, Jerzy.

1954. Vegetacion del Pedregal de San Angel (D.F., Mexico). AN, ESC, CIEN,
BIOL . I.P.N. MEX. 8 (1-2) : 59-129.

Smith, Hobart M.

1942, The synonymy of the garter snakes (Thamnophis with notes on Mexican and
Central American species. Z00L0GICA 27(304): 97" 123.

1951. The identity of the ophidian name Coluber eques Reuss, COPEIA , 1951 (2):
138-140,

_ _ and E. H. Taylor,

19^*5. An annotated checklist and key to the snakes of Mexico. BULL, U, S, NAT.
MUS. (187) : 1-239.

1948. An annotated checklist and key to the amphibians of Mexico. BULL. U, S.
NAT. MUS. (194): 1-11 8.

_ _ and R, B. Smith.

1 97^. Synopsis of the Herpetofauna of Mexico, John Johnson 3 North Bennington 3
pp, S-A-l to S-G-l .

Taylor, Edward H.

1939. Herpetological Miscellany no. I, UNTV. KANSAS SCI. BULL. 26 ( 15): 494-496.
Udvardy, Miklos D. F,

1969. Dynamic Zoogeography, Van No strand Reinhold Co. New York, i-xviii +

445 pp.

Zwei fel , R i chard G .

1961. Larval development of the tree frogs Hyla arenioolor and Hyla wrightorum.
AMER. MUS. NOVIT. (2056): 1-19-

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Departamento de Biotogia, Facultad de Ciencias 9
Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico.
Present Address: Av. 507 No. 226 Uni dad Aragon, D. F. ZP 14

Received 5 November 1979
Accepted 22 February 1980

Mexico ,

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PREY- INDUCED CAUDAL MOVEMENTS
IN BOA CONSTRICTOR WITH COMMENTS
ON THE EVOLUTION OF CAUDAL LURING

Charles W. Radcliffe, David Chiszar and Hobart M. Smith

ABSTRACT

Two specimens of Boa constrictor occidentalis were observed to emit
caudal movements during feeding episodes. When the prey (a mouse) wan¬
dered ‘out of the predators' sight, all forward movement by the snakes
ceased and worm- like wriggling movements of the snakes' tails were seen.
It is possible that certain kinds of prey (esp., birds and lizards) might
be attracted to such movements. Accordingly these movements are hypoth¬
esized to represent a primitive type of caudal luring. It is further
hypothesized that caudal movements evolved as a displacement response
engendered by a conflict or thwarting situation that characterizes pred¬
ators relying on ambush tactics. That is, the initial sight of prey
probably arouses a strong tendency to attack which must be inhibited
until the prey enters striking range; premature movement might frighten
the prey. Caudal movements might provide a behavorial outlet for the
impulse to attack while at the same time inhibiting all gross movements
of the predators' anterior parts. The fact that caudal movement can
lure certain prey provides the selective pressure for the ri tual ization
of this displacement response.

Heatwole and Dawson (1976) reviewed caudal luring and defined it as the wrig¬
gling or waving of a conspicuous tail, by an otherwise cryptically marked snake,
which serves to attract prey within striking range. Caudal luring has been described
in very few species of non-crota 1 i ne snakes. Two vipers, Cerastes vipera (Heatwole
£ Dawson, 1976) and Vipera russelli { Henderson, 1970) have been reported to lure, as
has the viper-like elapid, Acanthophis antarcticus (Carpenter, Murphy, S Carpenter,
1978). With the exception of Cerastes vipera and Bothrops bilineatus (Green &
Campbell, 1972) caudal luring has been limited to juvenile snakes. Neil (i960) sug¬
gested, strictly on the basis of caudal coloration, that caudal luring may occur In
some juvenile boids, but no behavior observations were reported. Murphy, Carperter,
and Gillingham (1978) observed caudal luring in juvenile Chondropy thon viridis when
anoles were visible to the snakes. The authors here report some unusual tail move¬
ments in Boa constrictor occidentalis that may be interpreted as a primitive state
of luring behavior.

Two juvenile Boa constrictor occidentalis were acquired in November 1977, when
they were probably less than three months of age. The snakes were maintained in 38
liter reptile tanks (with sliding aluminum tops) at a daytime temperature of 29-32° C

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and a night temperature of 2k-27° C. They were fed one small mouse at weekly inter¬
vals. The high temperatures and small feedings kept the snakes extremely hungry as
evidenced by their general alertness, orientation toward movement, and readiness to
feed .

Both snakes responded to the sight of food with wriggling tail movements on at
least four occasions but could not always be induced to wriggle the tail under stim¬
ulus conditions that were seemingly identical to those which presumably caused the
reactions on other occasions. The tail movements were quite wormlike, and they were
enhanced by the fact that the tails were marked somewhat more vividly than the body
with narrow yellowish brown lines outlining dark brown saddles. The movement of the
tail might be described as irregular sine waves originating in the proximal portion
of the tail and moving distal ly. The amount of the tail involved varied with the in¬
tensity of the wriggling movements.

The actual sequence in which the behavior occurred was somewhat unusual, in the
sense that* the tail movements most often occurred when the prey moved out of the
snakes' line of sight. Upon the introduction of a live mouse into asnake's cage,
the snake would very slowly start to crawl toward the mouse, keeping the head and

neck in an S-shaped striking position. At this point if the mouse went behind a rock

or stopped moving at some distance from the snake, the boa would initiate the tail
movements and stop all movement in the rest of the body. When the mouse became vis¬
ible again the snake would begin advancing and stop moving the tail. This same se¬
quence was induced twice by just moving a finger along the bottom of the glass front
of the aquarium. The snake would start to approach and then stop and begin the
stereotyped tail movement when the movement of the finger ceased.

Although not as well developed as the elaborate luring behavior in Acanthop'is
or Agkistrodon bitineatus , we believe that even these primitive tail movements could
be useful as a caudal lure and that they are a normal, if not invariable, part of
the feeding sequence for the following reasons:

1. The movements were quite worm-like and might attract a lizard or small bird

which even these juveniles could eat. (An adult B, o, oecidentalis in the
first author's collection fed exclusively on birds.) Even though these tail

movements seem to occur much more frequently when the prey has left the

field of vision of the snake, they could still be effective in attracting
the prey back into striking range.

2. The tail movements were easier to elicit when the snakes were hungry and
very difficult to elicit when they had been recently fed, suggesting that
the motivational state of the snake was a critical factor.

3. The behavior was elicited by the sight of mice or by hand movements near
the cage which may have been interpreted as prey; but the behavior was never
elicited by disturbing the snake in ways that were clearly not prey re¬
lated (e.g., cage cleaning, replacing water).

Perhaps more important than the question of the effectiveness of these tail
movements as a lure, is the fact that these rather primitive and, seemingly poorly
timed movements may be representative of the first step in the phylogenetic events
leading to the elaborate caudal luring seen in other species. The occurrence of this
behavior almost exclusively just after the prey has gone out of sight suggests very
strongly that the behavior arose as a displacement activity.

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Vo

lume 16 Number I

We postulate that when the boa sees the prey, neurological and physiological
reactions occur (e.g. , hyperventilation and tachycardia) which prepare the snake to
attack. The snake moves toward the prey and suddenly the external stimulus, sight
of the prey, is no longer present; however, the internal preparations for attack have
been set in motion and these may predispose the snake to go through the entire feed¬
ing sequence (Chiszar, Radcliffe S Scudder, 1977; Chiszar, Radcliffe & Smith, 1978).
The snake is now getting two conflicting behavorial signals. Internally, it is pre¬
pared to attack, while externally the stimulus for that attack has been removed.

What occurs is the irrelevant behavior of tail wriggling which we believe may be a
displacement activity. The relevant behavior in this case might be for the snake to
move toward the spot where the prey was last seen and begin chemosensory searching;
however, with active alert prey like lizards, birds or rodents this would be more
likely to frighten the prey away than to yield a meal. The tail wriggling then could
be a behavioral outlet for the preparations to attack and may inhibit searching move¬
ments that would likely be wasteful of energy and frightening to prey. A perhaps
analogous situation occurs in crotalids where chemosensory searching is not released
by sight or smell of the prey, but only by striking which would render the prey in¬
capable of escaping (Chiszar et al . , 1977, 1978, and Chiszar, Simonsen, Radcliffe
& Smith, 1979).

One of the first evolutionary steps away from active-search hunting tactics and
toward ambush hunting tactics must have been the inhibition of the tendency to move
toward the prey when it is first spotted. This inhibition of a powerful attack moti¬
vation would result in a conflict or thwarting situation which could result in a dis¬
placement activity.

Caudal luring behavior seems to be limited to species that would be des¬
cribed as ambush predators as opposed to active search predators. This is consistent
with the idea that the need to inhibit the attack provides the conflict situation
which can produce a displacement activity.

We believe that this explanation of the origin of tai 1 -wr iggl ing movements as a
behavioral consequence of the conflict situation involved with ambush hunting is more
parsimonious than assuming that caudal luring was evolved "de novo" at least three
times, in the elapids, the crotalids (including viperine), and in the boids.

We gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the M, M. Schmidt Foundation.

Literature Cited

Carpenter, C. C., Murphy, J. B., and Carpenter, G. C.

1978. Tail luring in the death adder, Aoanthophis antarcticus (Reptilia,
Serpentes, Elapidae), J. Herpetol3 12: 57^-577.

Chiszar, D., Radcliffe, C, W. , and Scudder, K. M,

1977. Analysis of the behavioral sequence emitted by rattlesnakes during

feeding episodes. I, Striking and chemosensory searching. Behav , Biol.3

21: 418-425.

Chiszar, D , , Radcliffe, C. W. , and Smith, H. M.

1978. Chemosensory searching for wounded prey by rattlesnakes is released by
striking: A replication report. Herp. Rev,3 9: 54-56,

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Chiszar, D. , Simonsen, L., Radcliffe, C. W. , and Smith, H. M.

1979- Rate of tongue flicking by cottonmouths ( Agkistrodon piscivorus) during
prolonged exposure to various food odors, and, str i ke- i nduced chemo-
sensory searching in the cantil ( Agkistrodon bilineatus) . Trans. Kan.
Acad. Sci. 3 82: k3~5k.

Green, H. W. and Campbell, J. A.

1972. Notes on the use of caudal lures by arboreal green pit vipers.

Eerpetologica 3 28: 32-3^.

Heatwole, H. and Dawson, E.

1976. A review of caudal luring in snakes with notes on its occurence in the
saharan sand viper, Cerastes vipera. Eerpetologica 3 32: 332-336.

Henderson, R. W.

1970. Caudal luring in a juvenile Russell's viper. Eerpetologica 3 26: 276-277.

Murphy, J. B. , Carpenter, C. C., and Gillingham, J. C.

1978. Caudal luring in the green python, Chondropython viridis (Reptilia,
Serpentes, Boidae). J. Eerpetol. 3 12: 117-119-

Neill, W. T.

I960. The caudal lures of various juvenile snakes. Quart J. Florida Acad.

Sci, 3 23: 173-200.

CWR, Denver Zoological Gardens 3 Denver 3 Colorado) 80205 3 and
DC & HMS, University of Colorado 3 Boulder 3 Colorado 80309

Received 19 November 1979
Accepted 23 December 1979

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March 1 980

ADDITIONS TO AND NOTES ON THE KNOWN SNAKE FAUNA
OF THE ESTACION DE BIOLOGIA
TROPICAL "LOS TUXTLAS", VERACRUZ, MEXICO

Gonzalo Perez-Higareda

The herpetofauna of the Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los Tuxtlas" was recently
summarized as it had been sampled over a period of more than a year of intensive sur¬
vey (Perez-Higareda , 1978). To the list there given of 31 species of snakes known to
occur at the Estacion, six additional species may now be recorded.

Typhlops tenuis Salvin

One specimen captured in August 1979, has the characteristics noted by Smith and
Taylor (19^5): preocular separated from anterior section of nasal by contact of
posterior (upper) section with second labial, no subocular, and 18 scale rows.

Leptotyphlops goudoti phenops (Cope)

One speciman captured in July 1979, exhibits the normal characteristics of the
subspecies: dorsal pattern dark brown in life, with longitudinal lines and the
supraocular much larger than prefrontal; rostral not contacting supraocular. Total
length 1 10 mm.

Amastridium veliferum socppevi (Werner)

The specimen is a female, taken by the Biologist Enrique Gonzalez S., in Novem¬
ber 1978, and presents the following characteristics: 17-17-17 scale rows, 152 ven-
trals, 77 caudals, 6-6 supralabials , 8-8 infralabials, 1-1 loreals; coloration black
dorsal ly and ventral ly; top of head orange, frontals and parietals spotted with black
and white; two yellow scales on each side of nape (posttemporal region); 3rd and Ath
supralabials entering orbit; total length 370 mm (270 s-v, tail 100), The specimen
was found on a humid tree trunk. The stomach contained a number of small myriapods.

The specimen here described conforms in all particulars with the northern popu¬
lations of the species to which Smith (1971) suggested that the subspecies named
sapperi be applied, based largely upon the data supplied by Wilson and Meyer ( 1 969) .
Most importantly* the loreal is present and the ventrals are numerous, falling well
within the previously recorded range for females (14A-170) of the subspecies.

Coniophanes fissidens fissidens (Gunther)

This subspecies was not mentioned in my previous list ( op.cit ,); in that work I
reported only C. imperialis olavatus, Three specimens of C. f. fissidens were cap¬
tured in April 1977, and February 1978 (2 females and 1 male). The females exhibit

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19-21-17 and 21-21-17 scale rows, 127 and 130 ventrals, 75 caudals, 8-8 supralabials
(the 4th and 5th entering orbit in both), 8-8 i nf ra 1 abia 1 s , loreal present, anal
divided, total length 270 and 275 mm. The male has 22-21-17 scale rows, 1 1 6 ventrals,
tail incomplete, 8-8 supralabials (4 and 5 entering orbit), 10-10 i nf ra 1 ab ia 1 s ,
loreal present, anal divided, length 320 mm. Those characteristics coincide with
records for specimens from southern Veracruz, except in number of ventrals and cau¬
dals, which usually are 120 to 122 and 8l respectively, whereas 126 to 133 ventrals
and 51 to 61 caudals occur in males of f. proterops from Central Veracruz (Xalapa).

The specimens here reported also possess the pattern characteristics of f.
fissidens , as: no light temporal stripe through top of orbit, dorsolateral white
stripe extending posteriorly a considerable distance on neck, and head and neck not
black. Smith and Taylor ( op.cit . ) mention this subspecies from San Andres Tuxtla,
Veracruz .

Stenorrhina degenhardti mexicana (Stei ndachner)

This subspecies was cited in my previous list {op.cit. ), but is included in the
present account since it is a young specimen with remarkable differences from re¬
corded adults, warranting description.

The present specimen is a female taken June 1976, and was identified by Dr.
Hobart M. Smith; it has 17-17-17 scale rows, 139 ventrals, 42 caudals divided, anal
divided, rostral separated from frontal and prefrontals, internasals fused with
anterior section of nasal, 1 loreal, 1 preocular, 1 supraocular, 2 postoculars, pre¬
frontals broadly separated from labials, 6-6 supralabials (3rd and 4th entering
orbit), 7-7 i nf ra 1 ab ia 1 s , 1 anterior temporal; dorsal color red; 33 transverse dark
bars on body and tail, reaching edges of ventrals; belly not pigmented, but with a
dark spot in middle of each ventral, forming a longitudinal black line from 6th ven¬
tral to end of tail; belly red in life; tail short, less than one fifth length of
body; top of head brown; gular scales more or less spotted; 1 65 mm total length
(135 + 26).

Micrurus diastema sapperi (Werner)

One female was captured in February 1978, in the Station area; this specimen has
15-15-15 dorsal scale rows, 202 ventrals, 45 caudals divided, anal divided; 7_7 supra¬
labials, 7-7 infralabials, 2 temporals; 14 black rings around body and 8 on tail,
black rings on two scales; nuchal black band covering 3 to 4 scales; body with black
and yellow rings between red aread, and only black and yellow rings (no red areas) on
tail. Red areas wide, with very dark dorsal spots, as noted by Roze (1967) in M. d.
macdougalli ; total length 750 mm. I have found other specimens of M. d, sapperi also
in the Coyame area at 340 m above sea level.

Micrurus limbatus Fraser

Two females were captured in June and December 1978. The specimens have 15-15“
15 dorsal scale rows, 194 and 204 ventrals, 26 and 28 caudals divided, anal divided;
7-7 supralabials (3rd and 4th entering orbit), 7~7 i nf ra 1 ab i a 1 s , 1 anterior temporal,
2 preoculars, 2 postoculars, supralabial border light, except for the dark first
three labials (only part of third dark in one specimen); scales in red areas lightly

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March 1980

dark marked; 40 black rings on body and tail (including nuchal), the black rings cov¬
ering 2 to 3 dorsal scales on body, 4 to 5 scales on tail; a black dorsal spot on
some read areas (one scale); no yellow rings on body and tail (uniformly red with
only black rings); red areas short. ^ Maximum total length of 650 mm. This species
was^reg i stered from Vol can San Martin Tuxtla by Fraser (1964), and mentioned by
Ramirez (1978) from Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los Tuxtlas", in an unpublished
work. My specimens were found at 160 m above sea level.

With these additions, the known snake fauna of the Estacion de Biologia Tropical
"Los Tuxtlas" now includes thirty-seven species and subspecies; however, additional
species certainly occur.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to Dr. Hobart M. Smith of the University of Colorado, for his
help and for the revision of the manuscript; to Biol. Oscal Sanchez of the Facultad
de Ciencias (U.N.A.M.), for his bibliographic aid; and to Lucia Munoz for her col¬
laboration in translation.

Li terature Ci ted

Fraser, D. G.

1964. Mi'crurus limbatus , a new coral snake from Veracruz, Mexico. Copeia3
1964 (3): 570-573, tables 1-3.

Perez-H i gareda , G.

1978, Reptiles and amphibians from the Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los
Tuxtlas" (U.N.A.M.), Veracruz, Mexico. Bull. Maryland Eerpet. Soc.3
14 (2) ! 67-74.

Ramirez, B.
1977.

A.

Algunos anfibios y reptiles de la Region de Los Tuxtlas.
Veracruzana, Xalapa, Receptional thesis ,

Univers i dad

Roze, J. A.

1967. A checklist of the flew World venomous coral snakes (Elapidae), with
descriptions of new forms. Am. Mus. Novitates3 (2287): 1-60.

Smith, Hobart M.

1971, The snake genus Amastridium in Oaxaca, Mexico. Gr, Basin Nat.s 31
(4): 254-255.

Smith, H. M. and E. H. Taylor.

1945. An annotated checklist and key to the snakes of Mexico. Bull. U.S. Nat.
Mus. 3 (187): 1-239.

Wilson, L.
1969.

D, and J. R. Meyer.

A review of the colubrid snake genus Amastridium,
Acad. Sci, 3 68 (3): 145-159, figs. 1-3,

Bull. So. California

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Estacion de Biologia Tropical " Los Tuxtlas ",

Instituto de Biologia , Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico,
Apartado Postal 51, Catemaco, Veracruz, Mexico .

Received 12 November 1979
Accepted 14 April 1980

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March 1 980

CHECKLIST OF FRESHWATER TURTLES OF VERACRUZ
MEXICO. II. CENTRAL PORTION OF THE STATE
(TESTUDINES: CRYPTODIRA)

Gonzalo Perez-Higareda

The present work comprises the second part of a statewide study of the fresh¬
water turtles of Veracruz, which due to the complexity of adequately thorough surveys
of the complete fluvial net throughout the state, was subdivided into three parts.

The first part covered the southeastern portion of the state (Perez-Higareda, 1978),
between the basin of the Rio Papaloapan and Rio Tanala. This, present, second part
pertains to the central portion of the state, from Rio Nautla in the north to Rio
Papaloapan. Both rivers pass entirely through the state, from Puebla and Oaxaca re¬
spectively on the west, to Barra de Nautla and Laguna de Alvarado, respectively, on
the Gulf of Mexico (see map, Fig. l). The third part of this work will pertain to
the northern portion of Veracruz,

These three subdivisions were adopted strictly for their practical values in
conduct of field work; they do not necessarily reflect natural biotic regions. Hence
in the central region here treated some taxa have northern affinities, and some
southern.

This survey was undertaken to clarify in greater detail than before the distri¬
bution of non-marine turtles of Veracruz, since previous knowledge was extremely
sketchy, as summarized by Smith and Taylor (1950) and Casas Andreu (1967).

The studies thus far completed, in southern and central portions of Veracruz,
have made abundantly evident the detrimental affect upon turtles of the state of the
progressive perturbation of their habitats. Also, absence of such large species as
Dermatemys mawei and Chelydra serpentina rossignoni in the central area has caused
the focus of persecution to fall upon the "spotted turtle" and "jicotea" ( Pseudemys
scripta venusta and P. s, cataspila ) due to their nutritional values. For these rea¬
sons these two subspecies, as well as Dermatemys and Chelydra , little by little are
disappearing from the places where they used to be abundant.

Of the eleven taxa of freshwater or land turtles listed by Smith and Taylor {op.
oit.) for Veracruz, nine occur to the central portion; Kinostemon integrum does not
occur in the state at all, and Terrapene Carolina mexicana is limited to the northern
part of the state. However, two taxa have been added: Kinostemon scorpioides
cruentatum and Pseudemys scripta venusta , both also ranging throug the southern por¬
tion. Hence eleven taxa are now confirmed as occurring in the central portion of the
state.

There are reports of Kinostemon herrerai in the vicinity of Xalapa (Dr. Hobart
Smith, personal communication), but I did not find it in that region, and doubt its
occurrence there; my only collections are confined to localities in the basin of Rio
Nautla in the northern part of the central region.

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March 1980

General Characteristics

The central portion of Veracruz consists of an extensive eastern area of low
plains with warm climate, limited on the west by two important mountainous regions
that project beyond the boundaries of the states of Puebla and Oaxaca, and which are
part of the Sierra Madre Oriental. These two regions (Orizaba Alpine Region and Re¬
gion of Xalapa), attain heights of up to 5,500 m (o.s.l.) and embrace a variety of
climates from moderate to extreme cold with an annual median temperature between -2
and 0° C (cf. Garcia, 1970).

In the coastal plains, the basins of the rivers Nautla, Actopan, Jalcomulco,
Atoyac, Blanco and Papaloapan enclose elevations no greater than 500 m o.s.l., as in
the regions of Martinez de la Torre, Misantla, Zempoala, Soledad de Doblado, etc.,
where for the most part secondary vegetation and grassland are predominant with some
vestiges of rainforest. Toward the south the humidity and warnth increase, culmi¬
nating in the great low regions of Papaloapan, composed over most of its extent of
palm tree and swamp zones, with remnants of rain forest also (cf. Gomez-Pompa, 1978).

The confluent regions of Orizaba and Xalapa are continuous northeasterly as a
mountain extension that nearly reaches the coast, dividing the state of Veracruz near
the middle, at approximately paralled 20°, in the Palma Sola region. Here the foot¬
hills create a barrier thru the littoral zone several kilometers long. The resultant
corridor, not more than one kilometer wide between the mountains and the coast, is
cut by the Palma Sola river, creating the Platanal and Palma Sola basins invaded by
brackish currents. Therefore, the coastal plain of the state is divided into two
parts of great orographic importance, with remarkable biotic influence (see map,

Fig. 2).

Localities Sampled

Attempts were made to collect turtles at all of the following localities, listed
with the nearest town or the containing municipality (arranged in alphabetical order)
and elevation. An asterisk indicates sites where no turtles were found.

Town or Municipality

Loca 1 ? ty

Elevation (in m)
Above Sea Level

Alvarado

La Encantada

Alvarado

Camaronera

9

9

Apazoapan
Boca del Rio
Boca del Rio
Candel era

Rio Jalcomulco

5 km W of

Rio Jamapa

Rio M. de la Torre

3

3

Cardel , Villa
Carlos A, Carri 1 lo
Col i pa

Cosamaloapan

streams

Rio Papaloapan
Rio Col i pa
Rio Papaloapan

6

8

6

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March 1980

Town or Municipality

Emi 1 io Carranza
Encantada, La
Espuma

Fortin de las Flores
! Hu i loapan
Huana 1
Ixhuatlan

Juchique de Ferrer
Mata Espino
Medel 1 i n
Medel 1 \ n
| Naranjos, Los
Nogales
Nopal tepee
Palma Sola
Paso de la Anona
Paso de Ovejas
Paso del Toro
Plan de Las Hayas
San Antonio
Soledad de Doblado
Tejar, El
Telaya
Tezonapa
Teocelo
Tlacotal pan
Tlapacoyan
Veracruz
Veracruz
Veracurz
Veracruz
Veracruz

Elevation (in m)
Locality Above Sea Level

Rio Juchique

-

Rio Papaloapan

9

Rio Actopan

-

* Rio Blanco

1030

* Rio Blanco

1 240

Rio Misantla

-

Rio Atoyac

-

Rio Juchique

800

Rio Atoyac

-

ponds

18

Rio Jamapa

18

Rio Hondo

-

* Rio Blanco

1 240

Rio de Nopal tepee

322

Rio Palma Sola (R, Limon)

6

Bajos Rio Atoyac

-

Rio Panoaya

160

streams

22

Rio Juchique

10

Rio Papaloapan

6

Rio Jamapa

77

swamps

18

Rio Nautla

-

2 km S of

500

“Rio Teocelo

1218

Lag . El Corral i 1 lo

6

Rio M, de la Torre

5

La Matamba (Mata Tambora)

-

streams Playa Norte

16

swamp "Lagartos”

16

Road to Matamba

70

Laguna Norte

15

lletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 29

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

Town or Municipality

Loca 1 i ty

Elevation (in m)
Above Sea Level

Yanga swamps 700 ?

Zempoala Rio de Zempoala 25

List of Species

In the following list, the first paragraph for each account cites the localities
at which the species was found in the present survey. The second paragraph summa¬
rizes published information on distribution, both within and extraneous to central
Veracruz.

Dermatemys mawei Gray

Localities of capture. Alvarado: La Encantada. This species is at present
virtually absent in the central portion of the state

Additional data. Veracruz, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Yucatan and Campeche (Smith and
Taylor^ 1 950) . Tabasco: Basin of Rio Usumacinta; Veracruz: Minatitlan, Arroya
Hondo; Basin of Rio Papaloapan (Casas Andreu, 1967). Northern and northeastern
Chiapas (Alvarez del Toro, 1972).

Chelydra serpentina rossignoni (Bocourt)

Localities of capture. Boca del Rio: 5 km W; Tezonapa: 2 km S .

Additional data. Atlantic slopes south to the Yucatan Peninsula; recorded only
from the states of Veracruz and Campeche (Smith and Taylor, 1950). Veracruz: Basin
of Rio Papaloapan, probably near Alvarado, and Catemaco-Acayucan road (Casas Andreu,
1967), Chiapas (Alvarez del Toro, 1972). Veracruz: Isla, San Andres Tuxtla,
Catemaco; Oaxaca: Valle Nacional (Perez-Higareda , 1978),

Kinostemon acutwn Gray

Localities of capture. Nopaltepec: Rio Nopaltepec; Carlos A. Carrillo: Rio
Papaloapan .

Additional data. Central Veracruz and Tabasco (Smith and Taylor, 1950).

Kinostemon soorpioides omentatum (Dumeril and Bibron)

Localities of capture, Boca del Rio: Rio Jamapa; Paso de Ovejas: Rio Panoaya;
Soledad de Doblado: Rio Jamapa; Ixhuatlan: Rio Atoyac; Espuma: Rio Actopan.

Additional data. Atlantic and Pacific drainages in Oaxaca, Tabasco, Campeche
and Chiapas; Cozumel Is!.; Progreso and Telchac Puerto, Yucatan (Smith and Taylor,
1950), Between Tehuantepec and San Mateo del Mar, and Tamaulic>as (Casas Andreu,
1967). Chiapas: Tonala and Tapachula (Alvarez del Toro, 1972).

Page 30

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 1 6 Number 1

March 1980

Kinostevnon leucostomum leuoostomum (Dumeril and Bibron)

Localities of capture. Boca del Rio: Rio Jamapa; Veracruz: Matamba and
streams of the Playa Norte; Tlacotalpan: Laguna El Corral illo; Yanga: swamps;
Tezonapa: 2 km S of; Paso de Ovejas: Rio Panoaya,

Additional data. Puebla, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche and Chiapas (Smith and
T ay 1 or, 1 050 ) . Tabasco: Teapa, and Tepi julapa, El Chico Zapote, V i 1 1 ahermosa ;
Veracruz: Alvarado, Minatitlan and Coatzacoa 1 cos (Casas Andreu, 1967). Northern
Chiapas (Alvarez del Toro, 1972).

Kinostevnon hevvevai Stejneger

Localities of capture. Tlapacoyan: Rio Martinez de la Torre; Candelero: Rio
M, de Ta Torre; Telaya: Rio Nautla,

Additional data. La Laja (Smith and Taylor, 1950),

Claudius angustatus Cope

Localities of capture, Boca del Rio: Rio Jamapa; El Tejar: swamps; Veracruz:
Bajos Playa Noi;te and Matamba; Paso del Toro; Cardel ; Zempoala; Mata Espino: Rio
Atoyac; Medellin; Paso de la Anona : Bajos Rio Atoyac.

Additional data. Southern Veracruz to Honduras; Tabasco and Campeche (Smith and
Taylor^ 1 950) , Alvarado and Tlacotalpan, Ver,,; El Chico Zapote, Tab. (Casas Andreu,
1967). Juarez, Chiapas (Alvarez del Toro, 1972).

Stauvotypus tvipovcatus (Wiegmann)

A

Localities of capture. Medellin; Boca del Rio; Veracruz: swamps of Matamba;
Paso del Toro; El Tejar; Soledad de Doblado; Mata Espino.

Additional data. Veracruz coasts and Tabasco (Smith and Taylor, 1950), Alva¬
rado, Minatitlan, Laguna de Catemaco, Ver.,; V i 1 1 ahermosa , Tab.; Laguna de Agua Fria,
near Emiliano Zapata, Chis. (Casas Andreu, 1967). Northern Chiapas (Alvarez del
Toro, 1972),

Pseudemys sovipta venusta (Gray)

Localities of capture, Medellin; Veracruz; Boca del Rio; Alavarado; San
Antonio; Cosama loapan ; Los Naranjos: Rio Hondo; Palma Sola: Rio Palma Sola (Rio
Limon); Zempoala: Rio Zempoala and Mozomboa.

Additional data. Veracruz (Smith and Taylor, 1950, lumped with P. s. cataspila).

Pseudemys sovipta oataspila (Gunther)

Localities of capture. Emilio Carranza and Juchique de Ferrer: Rio Juchique;
Colipa; Huanal: Rio Misantla; Candelero: Rio M. de la Torre.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 31

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

Additional data. Recorded from the states of Tamaulipas and Veracruz (Smith
and Taylor, 1 950) .

Rhinoclemys aveolata (Dumeril and Bibron)

Localities of capture. Not found in the central portion.

Additional data. Recorded from central Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan
and Quintana Roo (Smith and Taylor, 1950). Veracruz and Alvarado (Dr. H. M. Smith,
personal communication).

i

Fig. 1. Map of central Veracruz, showing localities of collection of turtles

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Page 32

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

Fig 2. Hap illustrating the barrier formed by the minor elevations of the Sierra
Madre Oriental, dividing in half the state of Veracruz near parallel 20
(adapted from Operational Navigation Chart ONC J~25) •

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 33

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

Acknowl edgments

I thank Dr. Hobart M. Smith of the University of Colorado for his aid throughout
all my herpetol og i ca 1 work, his help in the identification of the Kinosternon species,
and for the manuscript revision. Thanks are due also to my colleague resident of the
Estacion de Biologfa Tropical, Biol. Daniel Navarro L., for his collaboration in the
field and laboratory; to Biol. Enrique Gonzalez S., head of the Station, for the
facilities given to develop the present work; and to Lucia Munoz for her participa¬
tion in translation.

L i terature C i ted

Alvarez del Toro, M.

1972. Los Reptiles de Chiapas. Segunda Edicion. Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas,
Gohiemo del Estado. v, 178 pp., 15A figs.

Casas Andreu, G.

1967. Contribucion al conocimiento de las tortugas du 1 ceacu i col as de Mexico.
Mexico, D.F,, Univ. Nal. Aut. de Mexico, Fac. Ciencias, Dept, de
Biologia, thesis. (vii), 96 pp. , 19 pis., 7 maps.

Garcfa, Enriqueta.

1970. Los Climas de Veracruz. Ann. Inst. Biol. Univ. Mex., Ser. Bot. , 41 ( 1):
3-22.

Gomez -Pompa, A.

1978. Ecologfa de la Vegetacion del Estado Veracruz. CECSA, Mexico.

91 pages.

Perez-Higareda , G.

1978a. New localities and a state record for Chelydra s. rossignoni (Testudines:
Chelydridae) in Mexico. Bull. Md. Herp. Soc ., 14 ( 1 ) : 47 -

1 978b . Checkl i st of freshwater turtles of Veracruz, Mexico. I. Southeastern
portion of the state (Testudines: Cryptodira). Bull. Md. Herp. Soc.,
14 (A) : 21 5-222 .

Smith, H. M. and E. H. Taylor

1950. An annotated checklist and key to the reptiles of Mexico exclusive of
snakes. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus ., (199): i-iv, 1-253-

Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los Tuxtlas",

Instituto de Biologia, Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico,
Apartado Postal 51, Catemaco, Veracruz, Mexico.

Received 15 January 1980
Accepted 2A April 1980

Page 3A

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1980

News & Notes

A Saharan Surprise
and a Desert Mystery

In the spring of 1979 (Apr i 1-May) for the second time the writer was afforded
the chance to travel in the Algerian Sahara Desert back of the Atlas Mountains far
beyond Metropolitan Algiers. Once over the crest of the mountains strung along the
Mediterranean littoral the North African landscape becomes more and more arid with
each mile, the vegetation increasingly sparse until about fifty to seventy-five
miles Inland the true desert begins.

Contrary to popular belief the Sahara, or at least the Algerian portion of it,
is not made up of endless sand dunes - although there are large areas where dunes
occur - but rather of vast stretches of bare rock supporting little or no soil;
much of the rock is sharp and jagged; there are bleak sun-drenched low mountains,
brown and eroded, deep ravines and worn gullies testifying to rare floods or the
former courses of vanished creeks and rivers. There is evidence that in the distant
past much of the present desert was wel 1 -watered ; on the northern reaches there are
even a few ruined Roman cities complete with aqueducts, now completely dry.

The Algerian Sahara, like other regions of the great desert has a number of
widely scattered oases, some large, some quite small, often a hundred or more miles
apart. They are typically North African, some possessing only a few date palms and
other desert vegetation; others are some miles in extent with many thousands of date
trees growing in clusters or strung out along hidden underground moisture pockets.

One of these oases, Bou Saada, located over 150 miles beyond the Atlas range is
in true desert country and is surrounded by low, bleak rock mountains, and to the
east and south by miles of rose-colored sand dunes, very beautiful and very desolate.
Bou Saada owes its existence to a small stream of water which gushes out of the rocks
about three or four miles to the south, flows through a deep rocky gorge, then enters
the oasis itself, which encloses a small desert town, and which then disappears into
the thirsty sand dunes just beyond the village. Except on rare occasions of rain
the stream is little more than twenty feet in width and possibly five miles in total
length. It has, however, been flowing to some degree for several centuries because
on its banks, above the oasis of Bou Saada itself, is an ancient mosque with an at¬
tached Arab village dating back to about the l*tth century. Neither the village nor
the mosque could have existed without the life-giving waters of the ancient stream.

Along its course it drops precipitously from a small plateau over a waterfall of
about fifty feet in height. It is a picturesque scene, but less than a hundred feet
from the falls the desert takes over and all vegetation except for a few thorn bushes
disappears. It was startling then, against the background of falling water and the
enclosing desert silence, to hear the unmistakeable calling of mating frcjs! At
first the voices were thought to be the notes of desert birds, but they were not; the
pools above the waterfall were alive with small frogs. They were about two-thirds
the size of our common pickerel frogs and with much the same reticulated pattern.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Page 35

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

The species, however, was unknown to the writer and, today, I have no clue to their
precise identity or even if they have ever been collected and properly classified.

One does not ordinarily expect frogs in the middle of the Sahara Desert, even in an
oasis. Being completely unprepared for this unexpected event no preserving equip¬
ment or materials were available and, so, no specimens could be collected.

These frogs pose some intriguing questions. First, how did they get there? The
Bou Saada stream centuries ago conceivably could have been one of a system of active
rivers when the Sahara was relatively wel 1 -watered , and conceivably these frogs may
have been widespread when the river systems were flowing. Then, as the rivers slowly
dried through the centuries and the water table fell, the frogs retreated, perpetu¬
ating themselves in whatever residual water was left until only the exceedingly short
Bou Saada stream remained. The present frog population is restricted to less than
one half mile of water. If ever there was an organic population existing on the
ragged edge of survival it is these frogs of Bou Saada. Are these amphibians an un¬
known species? Are they endemic to Bou Saada alone? Or were they, at some moment in
the oas i s 1 * history , artificially introduced, perhaps to grace the garden of some
well-to-do Arab villiger who had a liking for frog voices in the spring? Possible,
but unlikely in view of the miles of desert to be traversed from the coast until a
few years ago only by camel, horseback or on foot.

The question of the Bou Saada frogs was compounded several days later when the
much larger oasis of Biskra was visited. To get to Biskra from Bou Saada one must
traverse another 125 miles or so of completely arid desert, a region again of inter¬
mittent rocks and sand dunes almost 1 i ke a moonscape in bleakness. Except for a
rare nomad tent in the distance and a few sand-colored desert birds, there is no
life; nothing moves, nothing breaks the infinite distance of dry, parched land. Yet,
Biskra and its companion oasis of Tolga supports thousands of date palms and a very
considerable Arab town of quite ancient lineage. The old portion of Biskra is a
veritable maze of stone walls protecting groves of date palms and gardens. For a
desert oasis there is a reasonable supply of water welling up from underground and
carefully led by an intricate series of ancient irrigation ditches to the gardens
enclosed by the walls. While there is not much water, there is enough to create a
limited number of small semi -stagnant pools and tiny rivulets. On one side Biskra
is bordered by a dry river bed of some size. At times it must temporarily run with M
water but none was remotely visible during my sojourn. But back in old Biskra, in
the stagnant pools, the frogs were there, very similar to those at Bou Saada and, in
addition, another smaller species. Again no collecting was possible.

The Biskra frogs are not in quite the same danger of extinction as the Bou Saada
population but their chances are still exceedingly thin. The oasis is rapidly chang¬
ing due to an ever-expanding human population and the days of the Biskra frogs may be
severely numbered.

Beyond Biskra, even deeper in the Algerian desert are the even more remote
oases of Laghout, Ourgla, Ghardia, Timoum and Tamarasset, to mention only a few of
the more important; some of these are hundreds of miles from water and have been in
desert isolation for long centuries. Do they have frog populations, too? It would
be interesting to know.

--Gilbert C. Klingel, Grimstead, Virginia

Received 23 January 1980

Page 36

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

REPTILE SYMPOSIUM
on

CAPTIVE PROPAGATION & HUSBANDRY

REQUESTS SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
for the

4th REPTILE SYMPOSIUM to he held
June 13-15, 1980
RAMADA INN
Monroe, LA. 71201

Papers relating to herpetological diseases, husbandry, and propagation techniques are invited.

Deadline for Abstract Submission
April 30, 1980*

Pre-registration information:

Lynn McDuffy
Host Committee
LA. Purchase Gardens & Zoo
Box 123

Monroe, LA. 71201

(318) 322-8966

PLEASE POST

Contact:

Richard A. Hahn
Reptile Symposium
Co-ordinator

13019-A Catoctin Furnace Road
Thurmont, Md. 21788
(301) 271-7U88

* We realize the untimeliness of this announcement, however we would welcome your
participation. A title and 2£-£0 word synopsis of your presentation would be
acceptable at this time.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 37

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

Forty Herpetological Reprints on following subjects:

Fresh Water Dolphins - Softshelled Turtles - Snakes Cuba - Frogs -Salamanders - Newts - Gecko -
Snakes British Honduras - Venom in Cuban Snakes - Snakes North America - Bradycardia in Human
Divers - Herpetological Notes - Tortoise - Spadefoot Toads - Snakes Food Items - Mineralization of
Organic Remains - Collecting Lizards - Florida Snakes - New Frog - Coral Snakes - Mexican Beaded
Lizard Bite - Tree Frogs - Air Plants - Leticia, Colombia Frogs - Algae on Turtles - Everglades Rat Snakes -

Price $5.00 plus $1.00 postage - Total: $6.00

24 reprint publications purchased from the International Crocodilian Society about alligators,
crocodiles, caimans, feeding, care and farming. Sixty-five pages, thirty-six black and white illustrations.

Bound together with see through cover. Limited number.

Price $5.00 plus $ .20 Florida State Tax plus $1.00 postage - Total $6.20

For students: Eighteen bulletins on snakes with thirty pages, fourteen illustrations, bound together
with illustrated cover. Excellent for student science projects.

Price $2.00 plus $ .08 Florida State Tax plus $ .75 postage - Total $2.83

Send this order (and - - additional lists): Enclosed is payment of:

To: Name: _ _ $

Address _ (U S A- Dollars>

including postage and 4% State Tax

City - State _

MAIL TO:

Zip Code - Country _

^ I—, ROSS ALLEN

Crocodilian note book U 13 Marilyn Avenue

Note book of bulletins on snakes □ St- Augustine> Florida 32084

Scientific reprints □ Phone: (904> 824'2798

Page 38

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

Herpetological Slide Bank For Your Use

The Living Jungle Herpetological Exhibit has embarked on am important project
for regional herpetological societies. As we know, currently there are several films
available to herpetological societies. But there is no major 35mm slide project on
each Family of Reptiles currently being organized for regional societies.

In January of this year we started our contribution to this area of 35mm slide
programs. Each year these presentations will be expanded by four or five presenta¬
tions, of 280 slides each. We are nearing completion of our first presentations on
Crotalus, Sistrurus, and Boidae as well as Elaphe and Lampropel t i s .

Our Herpetological Slide Bank has over 2000 slides currently, but it is just
starting to grow. We need your help if the project is to reach its goal of providing
quality herpetological programs for regional societies worldwide. It needs your
extra or duplicate 35mm slides on habitat, behavior, comparison, close-ups, and
aberrancies, which occur in each species. Most important of course, are the current
presentations underway that are listed above.

Your help, however large or small, is vital to this project's success, even if
it is only a couple of slides. Our budget is limited to designated duplication costs
which may occur on your part as well as postage for slides sent to our slide bank.

We will pay in some cases for slides which are in vital need to complete a project,
however, we are sorry that we cannot pay for duplication costs on all slides.

To qualify your favorite herpetological society, please send your slides to our
worldwide slide bank. After they are received your society will be eligible for this
free project in December 1980 (starting date).

You will be given credit on each slide selected to be used in our program, and
there will be no duplication of your slide permitted without permission of the con¬
tributor. The rules will be strict for societies using your contributed slides in
order to insure the continued enjoyment of these slides for generations of fellow
amateur and professional herpetologists.

Your comments will be appreciated.

Please give this contribution your utmost consideration.

--Thomas Vermersch, Herpetological Slide Bank , o/o Living Jungle, 5118 Anna Maria,

San Antonio, Texas 78214 . (512)923-1761

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 39

Volume 16 Number 1

March 1 980

CORREGENDA

Vance, Thomas. 1978. A Field Key to the Whiptail Lizards ( Genus Cnemidophovus) .
Part I: The Whiptails of the United States. Bull. Md . Herp. Soc. : 1—9-

Page 3: 1. Delete last half of each statement of couplet 13.

2. Substitute C. tigris reticuloriens for C. tigris marmoratus of

couplet 22.

3. Substitute C. tigris marmoratus for C. tigris reticuloriens of

couplet 24.

Page 5-* Fig. 2 #4 should read C. t. stejnegeri

Page 40

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

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Herpetolog ical Society, where available, may be
obta i ned by wr i t i ng the Execut i ve Editor. A list
of available issues will be sent upon request.
Individual numbers in stock are $2.00 each, un¬
less otherwise noted.

The Soc i ety a 1 so pub 1 i shes a News 1 etter on a
somewhat irregular basis. These are distributed
to the membersh i p free of charge. Also published
are Maryland Herpetofauna Leaflets and these are
available at $. 05/page.

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Major papers are those over 5 pages (double
spaced, elite type)andmust i ncl ude an abstract .
The authors name should be centered under the
title, and the address is to fol low the Li terature
Cited. Minor papers are those papers with fewer
than 5 pages. Author's name is to be placed at
end of paper (see recent issue). For add i t iona 1
information see Style Manual for Biological
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Reprints are available at $.03 a page and
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to proof, and must return proof preferab 1 y w i th i n
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The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland 9 Inc .
2643 Horth Charles Street
Baltimore s Maryland 21218

US ISSN: 0025-4231

BULLETIN OF THE

fiTftarylanb

fierpetofogtcal

0onety

Department of Herpetology
The Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

FIdHS . A FOUNDER MEMBER OF THE

Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League

JUNE 1980

VOLUME 16, NUMBER 2

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 Number 2 June 1980

CONTENTS

CHECKLIST OF FRESHWATER TURTLES OF VERACRUZ, MEXICO. III. NORTHERN

PORTION OF THE STATE (TESTUDINES: CRYPTODIRA) . . .

. Gonzalo Perez-Hlgareda 43

A RANGE EXTENSION FOR THECADACTYLUS RAPICAUDUS (GEKKONIDAE) IN MEXICO,

AND NOTES ON TWO SNAKES FROM CHIAPAS . . .

. Oscar Sanchez-Herrera and Miguel Alvarez del Toro 49

NOTES ON NESTING OF CROCODYLUS MORELETI IN SOUTHERN MEXICO . . .

. Gonzalo Perez-H igareda 52

THE FAUN I ST 1C DISTRICTS OF THE LOW PLAINS OF VERACRUZ, MEXICO, BASED ON

REPTILIAN AND MAMMALIAN DATA ... .

. Gonzalo Perez-H igareda and Daniel Navarro L. 54

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS IN THE VICINITY OF VIENNA, MARYLAND .

. Robert H. Johnson and Marie Van Deusen 70

NEWS & NOTES

Announcing the Publication of IDENTIFICATION GUIDE TO PENNSYLVANIA SNAKES. 77

Edward H. Taylor: Recollections of an Herpetologist . 78

Fourth Annual International Wildlife Film Festival . 79

Synopsis of the Herpetofauna of Mexico . 80

The South American Herpetofauna: Its Origin, Evolution & Dispersal .... 81

The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland , Inc .
2643 north Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218

BULLETI N

OF THE

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

The Maryland Herpetol og i ca 1 Society
Department of Herpetology, Natural History Society of Maryland, !nc.

Bulletin Staff

Executive Editor

Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Steering Committee

Donald Boyer

Frank Groves

Jerry D. Hardy, Jr.

Herbert 5. Harris, Jr.

Jeff Thomas

Off i cers

Pres i dent ......

V i ce-Pres i dent ,

Secretary . .

Treasurer . .

Library of Congress

Catalog Card Number: 76-93^58

Membership Rates

Full membership in the Maryland Herpetol ogi cal Society is $12.50 per year,
subscribing membership (outside a 20 mile radius of Baltimore City) $10.00
/year. Foreign $12.00/yr. Make all checks payable to the Natural History
Society of Maryland, Inc.

Meetings

The third Wednesday of each month, 8:15 p.m. at the Natural History
Society of Maryland (except May-August, third Saturday of each month,
8:00 a.m.). The Department of Herpetology meets informally on all other
Wednesday evenings at the NHSM at 8:00 p.m.

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16

30 June 1980

Number 2

CHECKLIST OF FRESHWATER TURTLES OF VERACRUZ, MEXICO
III. NORTHERN PORTION OF THE STATE (TESTUDINES: CRYPTODIRA)

Gonzalo Perez-Higareda

The present work is the third and last part of a statewide survey of the fresh¬
water turtles of Veracruz, Mexico, which for logistic reasons was developed in three
more or less equal parts, representing southern, central and northern Veracruz. In¬
tensive field work was carried out in each of these three regions. The only pre¬
vious list for Veracruz is that of Smith and Taylor (1950).

The southern portion of the state (Perez-Higareda, 1978) extends between the
basins of Rio Tonala at the south, the Rio Papaloapan in the north. The central
portion (Perez-H igareda , 1 980) extends northward from Rio Papalopan through Rio
Nautla. This third part of the study covering the northern portion of the state
concerns the area between the basins of Rio Nautla and Rio Tamesf, at the northern
boundary of the state (Fig. l).

Of the 11 taxa cited for Veracruz by Smith and Taylor (op. oit.) , 4 occur in
the northern portion ( Kinosternon integrum does not occur in the state at all), and
two more have been added in the present study. Kinosternon f. flavesoens was not
found by myself, in spite of the fact that it was persistently sought; however, two
registries of this species are known from the northern extreme of Veracruz: 35 mi
S and 51 mi S Tampico, Tamaulipas (Dr. Hobart M. Smith, pers. comm.). Gopherus
berlandieri has not been found in Veracruz before the present study; the previously
know registries for this species are limited to the northern desert regions from
Brownsville, Texas, to Nuevo Leon and Tamaulipas (Smith and Taylor, op. oit.) . One
specimen was captured by myself in the region of Chi jol , and I am aware of another
specimen taken near Chapaco Nuevo, Veracruz. These specimens are the basis for a
new state record, and at the same time a new southernmost range limit. Six species
or subspecies are now known from northern Veracruz, and 14 taxa for the state as a
whole.

Although the three surveys now reported in this series constitute by far the
most intensive undertaken for turtles in the state (and indeed in all of Mexico),
they cannot be considered as the last word on the subject. A careful exploration
of the high plains of the state, for example west of Orizaba, Xalapa and Perote, is
almost sure to reveal the existence of species, particularly of Kinosternon , char¬
acteristic of that region, distinctive for its high elevation but moderate climate.

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In my survey of Veracruz, turtles were sought in 50 localities in the southern
zone, kb in the central part, and 28 in the northern region, making a total of 122
localities scattered over the whole State. I trust that the. data derived from this
survey may serve as a stimulus for future work on the freshwater and land turtles
of Veracruz.

General Characteristics

The northern portion of the state is characterized by low plains of more or
less uniform contour, and with an elevation in general no more than 300 or 400 m
above sea level, except for the small Sierra de Tantima near parallel 21°, with a
maximum elevation of 700 m (a . s . 1 . ) .

The coastal plain has a warm humid climate, and only in the regions near the
borders of Hidalgo and Puebla, to the west, do moderate climates occur (cf. Garcia,
1970).

The dominant vegetation, as in most other parts of the state, is secondary
growth among palm trees and grassland. In the extreme north a desert zone occurs
between the basins of the rivers Panuco and Tames f ; for more information see Gomez-
Pompa (1978).

This portion of the state is irrigated by a fluvial seine coming from the
rivers Tamesf, Panuco, Tuxpan, Cazones, Tempoal, Tecolutla, and Nautla principally
(see map, Fig . 1 ) .

Local i ties Sampled

Attempts were made to collect turtles at all of the following locatities,
listed with the nearest town or the containing municipality (arranged in alphabeti¬
cal order). An asterisk indicates sites where no turtles were found.

Town or Municipality Local i ty

Acuatempa
Agua Du Ice
Alamo
Calavera
Cas i tas
Casi tas
Cazones
Calahui te
Chapa co Nuevo
Chi jol
Crucetal

Rio Cazones
Rio Tecolutla
Rio Tuxpan
* Rio Calabozo
near Tres Bocas
near town
Rio Cazones
Rio de la Barra
near town
near town
Rio Tantoyuca

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Town or Municipality

Gutierrez Zamora

Gutierrez Zamora

Llano de Bustos

Mata, La

Ozu 1 uama

Panuco

Pa i sabel

Poiutla, N de

Santiago de la Pera

Remol i no, El

Tempoa 1

Teti 1 las

Tres Bocas

Tr i n i dad

Vado, El

Volador

Zacamixtle

Loca 1 i ty

Rio Tecolutla
swamps

Rio Tamacui 1

* Rio Vi nazco
Rio de Encino
3.5 km S
Arroyo Hondo
Rio Tenextepec
near Rio Tuxpan
Rio Tecolutla

* Rio Tempoa 1

* Rio Tantoyuca
Arroyo Tres Bocas
Rio Ponin

* Af 1 . Rio Tames f
stream "El Ferrocarril"
Rio Tancochfn

List of Species

In the following list, the first paragraph of each account cites the localities
at which the species was found in the present survey. The second paragraph summa¬
rizes published information on distribution.

Kinostevnon soovpioides ovuentatwn (Burner il and Bibron)

Localities of capture. Trinidad: Rio Ponin; El Volador: stream "El
Ferrocarr i 1 " .

Additional data. Atlantic and Pacific drainages in Oaxaca, Tabasco, Campeche
and Chiapas; Cozumel I s 1 . ; Progreso and Telchac Puerto, Yucatan (Smith and Taylor,
1950). Between Tehuantepec and San Mateo del Mar, and Tamaulipas (Casas Andreu,
1967). Chiapas: Tonala and Tapachula (Alvarez del Toro, 1972).

Kinostevnon hevvevai Stejneger

Localities of capture. Acuatempa; Rio Tecolutla; Rio Cazones, Rio Tenextepec;
Rio Tantoyuca; Rio Tancochfn; Rio Tuxpan; localities of Volador, Gutierrez Zamora,
Cazones, Poiutla, Crucetal, Paisabel: Arroyo Hondo, Zacamixtle, Agua Dulce, Alamo.

Additional data. La Laja (Smith and Taylor, 1950).

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June I960

Kinostemon flavesoens flavesoens (Agassiz)

Localities of capture. Was not found by myself.

Additional data. 35 mi 5 and 51 mi S Tampico, Tamps. (Dr. Hobart M. Smith,
personal communication). Northern Mexico from Coahuila to Tamau 1 i pas (Smith and
Taylor, 1950).

Gop herus ber landi eri (Agassiz)

Localities of capture. Chijol and Chapaco Nuevo. This ?s a new record for
Veracruz.

Additional data. Nuevo Leon, Tamaulipas and Coahuila (Smith and Taylor, 1950).

Pseudemys script a oataspila (Gunther)

Localities of capture. Gutierrez Zamora, El Remolino, Zacamixtle, Ozuluama,
Cazones , Llano de Bustos, Tres Bocas, Chalahuite and Alamo; rivers Tecolutla,
Tancochfn, De Encino, Cazones, Tamacuil, De la Barra, Tuxpan, and Arroyo de Tres
Bocas .

Additional data. Recorded from the states of Tamaulipas and Veracruz (Smith
and Taylor, 1 950) .

Terrccpene caro lina . mexicana (Gray)

Localities of capture. Casitas, Santiago de la Pera, Panuco, Ozuluama: Encino.

Additional data. Atlantic slopes from central Tamaulipas and eastern Nuevo
Leon to northern Veracruz (Smith and Taylor, 1950, under the name T. m. mexicana ).

Acknowl edgments

I want to thank Dr. Hobart M. Smith of the University of Colorado for his
editorial help with all three parts of the present series. Thanks go also to my
field colleague Biol. Daniel Navarro L. and to Lucfa Munoz for her participation
in translation.

Literature Cited

Alvarez del Roto, M.

1972. Los Reptiles de Chiapas. Segunda Edicion. Tuxtla Gutierrez 3 Chiapas 3
Gobiemo del Estado , 178 pp., 154 figs.

Casas Andreu, G.

1976. Contribucion al conocimiento de las tortugas dulceacufcolas de Mexico.
Mexico j D. F. s Univ. Nat. Aut. de Mexico 3 Fac. Ciencias3 Depto. de
Biologia3 thesis. [vii], 96 pp. , 19 pis., 7 maps.

Garcfa, Enriqueta.

1970. Los climas de Veracruz. Ann. Inst. Biol. Univ. Mex. , Ser. Bot.3 4l[ 1):
3-22.

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June 1980

Gomez -Pompa, A.

1978. Ecologfa de la Vegetacion del Estado de Veracruz. CECSA 3 Mexico.
91 pp.

Perez-Higareda , G.

1978. Checklist of freshwater turtles of Veracruz, Mexico. I. Southwestern
portion of the state (Testudines: Cryptodira). Bull. Md. Her*pet. Soc.
14 (4) : 215-222.

1 980 . Checklist of freshwater turtles of Veracruz, Mexico. II.
portion of the state (Testudines: Cryptodira). Bull. Md.
(In press)

Central

Herpet. Soc.

Smith, H. M. and E. H. Taylor.

1950. An annotated checklist and key to the reptiles of Mexico exclusive of
snakes. Bull. U. A. Nat. Mus .3 (199): i-iv, 1-253-

Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los Tuxtlas "3
Instituto de Biologia 3 Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico 3
Apartado Postal 51 3 Catemaco3 Veracruz 3 Mexico.

Received 15 January 1980
Accepted 27 April 1980

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June 1980

A RANGE EXTENSION FOR Thecadactylus rapicaudus (Gekkonidae)
IN MEXICO, AND NOTES ON TWO SNAKES FROM CHIAPAS

Oscar Sanchez-Herrera and Miguel Alvarez del Toro

Thecadactylus rapicaudus is added to the herpetofaunal list of Chiapas.

This gecko was known from some localities in Southeastern Mexico: Chichen !tza,
Puz Cave, Oxkutzkab, Chakxix Cave and Tekax in Yucatan according to Smith and Taylor
(1950) and from Quintana Roo (Smith and Smith, 1976). Another published record is
from Guadalajara, Jalisco, by Cope in 1 887 (cited by Smith and Taylor, op. cit.) but
we feel that the occurrence of this species in Jalisco must be ruled out on a geo¬
graphic-ecological basis.

One specimen in the collection of the instituto de Historia Natural del Estado
de Chiapas, an adult female (cat. number 1147) collected 25 July 19/8, extends the
known range of this lizard nearly 350 km to the SW of the nearest recorded locality
(Tekax) .

The specimen was taken in the tropical rainforest surrounding Palenque, from a
tree trunk coated with moss and lichen,

Fitch (1970) has already reported arboreal habits for this species, but almost
nothing is know about its ecology.

This female measures 101 mm in standard length plus 45 mm tail length. It shows
two light dorsolateral stripes from the posterior margin of eye to above the inser¬
tion of the foreleg; this stripe continues interruptedly to the inguinal area. The
dorsal pattern comprises 11 dark crossbands terminating at the nape.

Upon dissection, we found an egg 9 mm in diameter; this fact supports the idea
of an egg-laying period in the midst of the rainy season, implicit in a record by
Beebe (1944) of a female from British Guiana laying an egg 25 August 1922.

Concerning snakes, three Thamnophis proximus rutiloris were caught on 15
December 1972 in the sand dunes on the beach of Puerto Arista.

This subspecies has been collected near Ocozocoautla (Alvarez del Toro, 1973)
but the habitat there is mainly tropical deciduous forest with a nearby swampy area,
while at Puerto Arista, the coastal sand dunes are covered by scattered halophilous
plants, and there are no permanent freshwater bodies.

All this points towards an extremely wide environmental tolerance of T. proximus
ruti loris.

Given the distribution of rutiloris and that of the remaining subspecies of
proximus , mainly in the Atlantic versant; the most suitable passageway for rutiloris
to arrive to the Pacific coastal plains, seems to be the low area at the NW end of
the Sierra de Chiapas range on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec,

Not enough data exist to define the ways in which these snakes have adapted to
such different habitats.

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Our

specimens

are assigned to

rutiloris

(table 1 ) .

Table 1. Comparison between T. P. rutiloris from
Arista and Ocozocoaut la .

Nos .

Sex

Local i ty

Dorsal s

Ventrals

Caudals

Lateral

Str i pe/Rows

1 1 1 6 1 HN

?

Arista

19-17

152

92

3-4

1 1 1 8 1 HN

0*

1 1

19-17

153

107

3-4

1 1 17IHN

$

1 1

19-17

147

90

3-4

071 5 1 HN

a*

Ocozocoaut la

19-17

158

109

3-4

07 1 4 ! HN

0*

19-17

161

muti lated

3-4

Finally, a female coral snake ( Miorurus diastema sapperi ) from Rancho Alejandrfa,
Mpio. Juarez (cat. number 10121 HN ) was collected 12 May 1970, under leaf litter in a
cacao plantation 60 m above sea level.

This specimen has a total length of 890 mm and it appears to be a record size
for this subspecies (and seemingly for the species).

its general squamation follows: 15 dorsal rows, 222 ventrals, 4l subcaudals

The nuchal ring is continuous on the chin and the black pigment of the snout
involves the supralabial borders.

L i terature C i ted

Alvarez del Toro, M.

1973. Los reptiles de Chiapas. Gobierno del Estado de Chiapas. Tuxtla
Gutierrez . p . 171.

Beebe, W.

1944. Field notes on the lizards of Cartago, British Guiana, and Caripito,
Venezuela. Part 1. Gekkonidae. Zoologica 29: 145-160.

Fitch, H. S.

1970. Reproductive cycles in lizards and snakes. Misc. Pubis. Mus, Nat. Hist
Univ. Kansas s 52: 1-247. figs. 1-16.

Smith, H. M. and E. H. Taylor.

1950. An annotated checklist and key to the reptiles of Mexico exclusive of the
snakes. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus. 199: 49.

Smith, H. M. and R. B. Smith.

1976. Synopsis of the herpetofauna of Mexico. John Johnson 3 North Bennington.

Vol . Ill p. L-B- 158.

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June i960

OSCAR SANCHEZ-HERRERA,

Departamento de Biologia3 Faeultad de Ciencias3
Univevsidad Nacional Autonoma de Mixieo.

Present address: Av. 50? no . 226 3 U. Aragdn 3 ZP 14 D.F. Mexico 3 and

MIGUEL ALVAREZ DEL TORO 3

Institute de Historia Natural del Estado de Chiapas.

Apdo. Postal no. 63 Tuxtla Gutierrez3 Chiapas3 Mexico .

Received 16 January 1980
Accepted 24 March 1980

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June 1980

NOTES ON NESTING OF Crocodylus moreleti IN SOUTHERN VERACRUZ, MEXICO

Gonzalo Perez-Higareda

The present notes report some nesting characteristics of the swamp crocodile,
Crooodylus moreleti (Dumeril and Bocourt), observed in the vicinity of Arroyo Agrio
(Lago de Catemaco) , Municipality of Catemaco, southern Veracruz, Mexico. Very few
data have been recorded on the reproduction of C. moreleti , and discrepancies exist
among the references that do exist.

My observations are based on the finding of a next, in August 1979, constructed
over an accumulation of aquatic lilies in a marshy area, near the lake edge but in
water, not on firm land. This system of aquatic nesting coincides with Campbell's
(1972) report for this area, but differs from the behavior pointed out by Alvarez
del Toro (1972) for the same species in Chiapas.

The area occupied by the nest had a diameter of about 3 m and contained more
than 70 eggs dispersed and exposed. A large, robust female of nearly 3 m total
length, about 2.5 m away from the water's edge, was guarding the nest. Angered by
the proximity of the boat, the female shook her tail nervously. At present speci¬
mens of this size rarely can be found at Catemaco, although medium-sized speciments
are often seen.

Five white eggs with a resistant shell, and similar in shape to hen's eggs, were
taken from the next. They measured 10 cms. in length, and were transported for incu¬
bation on humid sand at ambient temperature (26-27°C) . All hatched 6 September, the
hatchlings measuring between 16 and 17 cm in total length. They were of yellow
coloration with dark bars and spots, and are retained alive for observations on
growth .

1 have not observed the nesting behavior of C. moreleti in other localities.
Perhaps the difference between the Chiapas nesting behavior and that of the Catemaco
region may be explained by habitat peculiarities of the latter area as compared with
the swamps where the species usually is found.

Acknowledgments

I thank Dr. Hobart M. Smith of the University of Colorado for the manuscript
revision, and also Mr. Walfer Oranista, fisherman from Catemaco, Ver., for discovery
of the next and for his help in the collection of the eggs.

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Literature Cited

Alvarez del Toro, M.

1972. Los reptiles de Chiapas, segunda edicion. Tuxtla Guti&rrez, Chiapas 3
Gobiemo del Estado. v, 178 pp., 15^ Tigs.

Campbell, H. W.

1972. Preliminary report: status investigations of Morelet's crocodile in
Mexico. Zoological 57(3): 135-136.

Gonzalo Perez-Eigareda, Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los Tuxtlas " 3
Apartado Postal 51 3 Catemacos Veracruz 3 Mexico.

Received 23 February 1980
Accepted 3 March 1980

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June 1980

THE FAUN I STIC DISTRICTS OF THE LOW PLAINS OF VERACRUZ, MEXICO,
BASED ON REPTILIAN AND MAMMALIAN DATA

Gonzalo Perez-H igareda and Daniel Navarro L.

in consideration of the importance in zoogeographic studies of the elevations
which, as part of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains, bisect the coastal plain of
Veracruz, from the state of Puebla to the littoral of the Gulf of Mexico (on parallel
2Ce , approximately), and which consequently create a coastal “strait", we have at¬
tempted to evaluate and quantify the widely neglected nature and significance of the
responsible physiography, based on the distribution of reptiles and terrestrial mam¬
mals. !n this context, species of wide distribution throughout the coastal plain of
Veracruz were found to be especially important as for example, in reptiles, the
“tortuga verde" (green turtle) Pseudemys soripta cataspita of the northern region,
and the “tortuga pints (spotted turtle) or “jicotea" ( Pseudemys script a venusta) of
the southern region of the state. !n mammals, the rodent known as “serete" or
“agutf" ( Dasyprocta mexicana) , conforms in distribution, occurring through the
plains and lowlands of Tabasco to Paraje Nuevo, Veracruz (Hall and Kelson, 1959).

The limit of the above mentioned geographical barrier is precisely parallel
19°50! latitude North, between the town Plan de las Hayas (or Punta Morro) and the
harbour-bars Plantanal and Palma Sola, in Palma Sola, Veracruz. Our observations
coincide in many respects with the data provided independently by various other
authors, and it is our intention, in this work, to document on the basis of the dis¬
tribution of terrestrial vertebrates, the existence of two faunal Districts in the
coastal plain and the lowlands of the Veracruzan Biotic Province.

Veracruz as a Biotic Province

Moore (1945:218), Goldman (1951:115) and Goldman and Moore (1946:357) regard the
Veracruzan Biotic Province as embracing from the lowlands of San Luis Potosf, south¬
ern Tamaulipas and northeastern Puebla, southward through Veracruz and Tabasco, in¬
cluding small portions of northern Oaxaca and Chiapas. These are the limits we have
accepted for this work, including the whole of the coastal plain of the state of
Veracruz. Lowery and Dalquest (1951) and Hall and Dalquest ( 1 963 ) follow, approxi¬
mately, the same interpretation as Goldman and Moore ( 1 946) , but partition Veracruz
into what they name Upper Tropical Life-Zone and Lower Tropical Life-Zone. The
boundary of the first is located at 1,830 meters of altitude and of the second at 560
meters; they correspond to a part of Moore's Transverse Volcanic Biotic Province.

Smith (1941 ) , using the distribution areas of the genus Sceloporus for the de¬
limitation of the Biotic Provinces of Mexico, places northern Veracruz in the Vera¬
cruzan Biotic Province and southern Veracruz in the Peten Province, considering the
parallel 20° as the approximate boundary between the two Provinces. This boundary is
the same as the one we have discerned, formed where the Sierra Madre Oriental moun¬
tains divide the coastal plainof Veracruz into northern and southern sections.

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On a much broader scale, Cabrera and Will ink (1973) included most of Veracruz in
what they called "Pacific Province", south of parallel 20°, north of which is their
"Mexican Xerophile Province"; the high regions of the Sierra Madre Oriental they
placed in a "Mesoamer i can Mountain Province." This division is rather general and
was therefore not utilized in the present account; it is nevertheless of interest in
the importance assigned to parallel 20°.

General Data on the State of Veracruz

The state of Veracruz is limited northward by the state of Tamaulipas. To the
west It includes the Sierra Madre Oriental in the states of San Luis Potosf, Puebla
and Oaxaca, and to the southeast it borders the state of Tabasco. Fundamentally It
consists of a coastal plain interrupted, in certain extent, by the Sierra de Tantima
in the northern part, where there are elevations of nearly 700 meters; the eastern
tip of the Sierra Madre Oriental, with elevations up to 5,7^7 meters, in the central
part; and the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, with elevations of 1,700 meters, In the southern
part of the state. Mostly, it presents altitudes lower than 300 meters and the most
notorious alteration of this pattern is at the point near parallel 20° where the
Sierra Madre Oriental extends virtually to the Gulf coast (Figure l).

C 1 imate

There is a great variety of climates in the state, going from those of cold type
(ETH, according to the Kdppen System, modified by Garcfa, 1970), to the cal id humid
climates Am and Af(m). In order to represent the climatic conditions in relation to
altitude and latitude, we have indicated in Figure 2 the climatic characteristics at
3 meteorolog i cal stations: one north of parallel 20° (Tuxpan); another at the point
of said parallel (Perote) at high altitude; and one south of the same parallel
(Coatzacoalcos) .

A climatic character of extraordinary importance for the distribution of animal
organisms is the number of frost days a year. Soto (1969) presents an interesting
map which we reproduce in Figure 3, in which she separates the state in 3 sections,
of which two have 0 frost days a year, and one from 0 to 1 0 a year, reaching a maxi¬
mum of 40 days, in the high regions of the mountains.

Hydrology

There are many rivers in Veracruz, all flowing into the Gulf of Mexico. The
most important ones, because of their volume, are: Panuco, Tuxpan, Tecolutla,

Nautla, Jamapa, Papaloapan and Coatzacoalcos. A small fluviatic net is formed mainly
by the Palma Sola river, which contains a considerable proportion of brackisk water
and causes, at its mouth, the formation of the harbour-bars Palma Sola and Platanar.
This river comes down from the mountainous region of the Sierra Madre Oriental and
closes the orographic belt which divides the low regions in the state.

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Fig. 1. Altimetric map of Veracruz. From USAF Navigation Chart,
after Gomez-P., 1978.

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TUXPAN Aw"2(e) PEROTE BS1 k 'wn ( I ' )g

Fig, 2. Comparative temperature and precipitation at three stations representing
the North Veracruzan District (Tuxpan), the South Veracruzan District
(Coatzacoal cos) , and the Sierra Madre Oriental barrier (Perote) between
them.

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Fig. 3- Isobars of days of frost per year (after Soto, 1969).

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Vegetat i on

The general features of the vegetation have been amply studied and summarized by
Gomez-Pompa (1978). The vegetational regions are very diversified going from high
jungles (in the low regions of Coatzacoa 1 cos and in the Sierra de Los Tuxtlas) and
pine woods (in the high regions of the Sierra Madre Oriental), to a variety of asso-
ciations including the gum-oak forest (Huatusco and Orizaba), the savannah (at Las
Choapas), mangrove (Sontecomapan and Coatzacoalcos) , palms and dunes (in the coastal
region), etc.

Gomez-Pompa {op. cvt.) reviews the change in the types of vegetation from the
Sierra Madre mountains (in Teziutlan, Puebla), to the Gulf coast (Nautla) , along
parallel 20°. The succession goes from Liquidambav woods in the high regions, to
Pinus. strobus woods, tropical rain forest, oak woods and finally mangrove in the
coastal regions.

Faunal Analysis

We have pointed out the natural division of the coastal plain of the state of
Veracruz by an orogiaphic barrier located exactly at ]9°50' N and 96°25* W. This
orographic character imposes consequences on the vegetation and the climate and,
therefore, on the fauna

This area forms a strait which is hardly wider than one kilometer, along several
kilometers and through which the southern and northern Llanura Costera communicate
(Hall and Dalquest, op. eit. : 173) . North of this critical area lies what we consider
the North District of the Veracruzan Province, including northern Veracruz, the low
regions of San Luis Potosf (Xilitla, Tamazuncha 1 e) and southeastern Tamaulipas, all
with neotropical influence as already observed by Alvarez (1963:373).

The South District includes, fundamentally, southern Veracruz, the low regions
of northern Oaxaca, a fraction of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, the basin of the
Coatzacoalcos river and the low regions of Tabasco.

In order to analyze the degree of similarity, the Simpson equation was used, ex¬
pressed as follows: SV = 100 C/ (Nj + N2 “ C), where SV is the similarity value in
percentage; C is the number of taxa common to both districts; Ni is the number of
taxa in the district with the lowest number of species; and N2 is the number of taxa
in the district with the highest number of species.

This equation has been used by various investigators to establish the limits of
the Biotic Provinces (Barrera, 1962; Alvarez, op. oit.\ Ryan, 1963) and, even though
it is usually used in faunas where Ni and N2 are similar, we have utilized it in
order to make comparisons with the studies above mentioned.

This equation is here applied only to reptilian and mannalian taxa since they
are the ones for which we have the greatest personal collection data and the most
complete bibliographic information.

In our analyses the scientific trinomial name has been taken into consideration
because the criterion of subspecies is normally used in the determination of a
Faunistic District (Barrera, op. cit.) . Likewise, only the reptiles and mammals oc¬
curring in the coastal plain of Veracruz, with a range of altitudes of 0 to 300
meters, have been included in the analysis, automatically excluding the taxa of the
high regions of the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Sierra de Tantima and Sierra de Los
Tuxtlas .

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Class Repti 1 la

in this group of vertebrates, the similarity value of the two districts is 32.2%
- notibly low if it is considered that the value of 50% is sufficient, in some cases,
to establish a Faunal District (see Barrera, op, cit.) . The taxa serving for this
calculation are basically those listed for the low regions of Veracruz by Smith and
Taylor (1945 and 1950), and by Perez-Higareda (1978a and 1978b), excluding those of
the regions with elevations higher than 300 meters above sea level

In the North District occur some species not yet found in the South, beyond the
region of Palma Sola, such as the turtles Kinosternon f. flavescens and Terrapene
Carolina mexicana , and the snake Pliocercus bicolor.

in the South District there is a greater influence of neotropical species, with
35 species; and, although there are 17 species common to both Districts, 3 of them
are represented by different subspecies (6 in all, see Table 1) delimited geograph¬
ically by the barriers of the Sierra Madre Oriental and the region of Palma Sola.

Particularly pronounced are the subspecies Pseudemys scripta cataspila and P. s.
venusta, both located in the coastal plain at elevations lower than 300 meters above
sea level, but separated from each other in the Palma Sola region, where only portion
of land with plain characteristics is furrowed by the Platanal and Palma Sola
harbour-bars, whose rivers near the littoral contain a great proportion of brackish
water (see Figure 4).

Class Mammal ia

For the analysis of mammals, we have used data by Hall and Dalquest {op. cit.) ,
Villa (1966), Hall and Kelson {op. cit.) and Navarro y Martfnez (1979, in prep.).

All the mammals of the low regions have been included, omitting the aquatic and those
introduced by man.

The SV obtained is 29-9%, in comparison of the North and South Districts. This
value is very low, inferior to the 33% mentioned by Barrera {op. cit.) to separate,
biogeographical ly , the Yucatan Peninsula from the Peten Province; and Ryan {op. cit.),
in his delimitation of the Biotic Provinces of Central America, finds that the lowest
values are 28%, but a value of 40-50% is used to separate one Biotic Province from
other.

However, the SV obtained for mammals in this study is biased since Nj = 49 and
N2 = 103, hence rather dissimilar, but it is obvious that the value is rather low and
similar to the one obtained for the reptiles.

The taxa are distributed in the two Faunistic Districts as summarized in Table
II. In the North District are 49 subspecies, among which the following can be con¬
sidered typical: Lasiurus seminolus3 Sciurus deppei negligens 3 Nycticeus humeralis
mexicanus 3 Lyomys irroratus pretiosus. In the South District Heteromys lepturus,
Alouatta villosa and Eira barbara are notable examples.

Conspicuously common to both Districts are Philander opossum pallidus 3 Cynomops
malagai and Sciurus deppei deppei.

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June 1980

Fig. 4. Diagram of minor elevations of the eastern arm of the Sierra Madre Oriental,
where it acts as a barrier between the North and South Veracruz Districts.
The coastal strait is permeated by a brackish river net.

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The Palma Sola barrier separates two species of Liomys: L. irroratus and L.
piotus. The following species form different subspecies, starting from the orograph¬
ic barrier: Oryzomys oouesi 3 Nasua narioa, Felis yagouaroundi 3 Musteia frenata and
Heterogeomys hispidus .

The influence of this barrier is less apparent in the Chiroptera due, surely, to
i ts f 1 ight ability.

We regard the correlation of mammalian distribution with the number of frost
days a year as a first order factor, because since the mammals have neotropical af¬
finities, they lack, as a general rule, the adaptations, such as hibernation, dense
pelage, etc., which are character i st i c of organisms adapted to cold climatic condi¬
tions .

Discussion and Conclusions

On the basis of analysis of quantitative data on reptiles and mammals of the low
plains of Veracruz, we have reached the conclusions that two Faunistic Districts
exist, here designated the North Veracruzan and South Veracruzan Districts (Figure 5).

For said analysis, the formula of similarity value (SV) has been used, whose
utility in studies of zoogeographic type is ample, notwithstanding some inherent
limitations. The values obtained (32.3% and 29-9%, for the Reptilia and Mammalia,
respectively) show a low level of similarity justifying the designation of Districts.

The transition area of these two Districts is located near Palma Sola, Veracruz,
and is an orographic barrier (close approximation of the Sierra Madre Oriental to the
sea), hydrological barrier (an extensively brackish fluvial net from the Sierra Madre
Oriental), a climatic barrier (frost days, low temperature and heavy rainfall), and a
vegetational barrier (a drastic shift correlated with coastal dunes, from more mesic
to more zeric types).

The influence of this composite barrier on the fauna is particularly conspicuous
in the case of Pseudemys soripta (Reptilia: Testudines), since P. s. oataspila oc¬
curs to the north of it, P. s. venusta to the south. Equally impressive is the sep¬
aration of two species of Liomys (Mammalia: Rodentia), L. irroratus occurring north¬
ward, L. piotus southward. This barrier delimits a total of 12 subspecies of rep¬
tiles and 10 of mammals.

In proposing two Faunal Districts in the low regions of Veracruz it is necessary
to note the existence of a third District in the Veracruzan Biotic Province, in the
Sierra de Los Tuxtlas, as proposed by Firschein and Smith (1956). The Los Tuxtlas
zone, whose grade of endemism is high, was designated as a Faunal District called
"Catemacan" , based on its physiographic and biological particularities. It is char¬
acterized by a vein of basaltic rocks, of a different geological origin from that of
the coastal plains. Likewise, there is a range of altitude from 0 to 1,700 meters,
presenting a very abrupt topography. Its soil has abundant pyroclastics and volcanic
ash (Andrle, 1964; Sousa, 1963). The Los Tuxtlas region is also distinctive cli¬
matically, with areas having the highest rainfall in the state, reaching to over
4,000 mm a year.

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June 1S80

Fig. 5* Map of the three Faunal Districts of the Veracruzan Biotic Province.

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As Firschein and Smith {op. oit.) have pointed out, this region is rich in en¬
demic species, the most important ones being Miorurus limbatus , Lepidophyma pajap-
anense (Rept Ilia), Cryptotis nelsoni and Eetevomys lepturus (Mammalia). More de¬
tailed studies on the reptiles of the Los Tuxtlas region can be found in Perez-
Higareda {op. oit.) and on mammals in Navarro et at. {cp. oit.) .

Accordingly, the Veracruzan Biotic Province is represented by 3 Faunistic Dis¬
tricts: The North District, the South District and the Catemacan District, whose
limits are indicated in Figure 5- Similar analyses of other regions of Mexico are in
urgent need as an essential prelude to the understanding and conservation of the
Biotic Provinces of Mexico.

Acknowledgments

We wish to express our appreciation to Dr. Hobart M. Smith of the University of
Colorado, not only for his suggestions, but for his editorial help and the revision
of the manuscript. We are also grateful to Biol. Enrique Gonzalez S., former head
of the Estacion de Biologfa Tropical "Los Tuxtlas", for the facilities extended for
the development of these studies; to Biol. Edna Naranjo Garcfa of the Facultad de
Ciencias of the U.N.A.M., for her bibliographic assistance; and to Lucfa Munoz for
her collaboration in translation.

Comparison of the Reptiles of the Lowland
Districts of Veracruz

Table 1 .

District North
Kinosternon F. flavescens
Terrapene Carolina mexicana
PI iocerus bicolor

District South
Dermatemys mawei
Chelydra serpentina rossignoni
kinosternon acutum
Kinosternon 1. leucostomum
Claudius angustatus
Staurotypus triporcatus
Rhinoclemys areolata
Anolis tripidonotus
Anolis lemur inus bourgeaei
Corytophanes hernandezii
Corythophanes cristatus

Sceloporus teapensis
Lepidophyma f. f lavimaculata
Cnemidophorus g. guttatus
Adelphicos q. quadr i v i rgatus
Conophi s 1 , 1 i neatus
Dendrophid ion vinitor
Drymobius chloroticus
Fi cimia publ i a

Imantodes cenchoa leucomelas
Imantodes splendidus lucidorsus
Lampropeltis triangulum polyzona
Leptophis occidental is praestans
Ninia diademata nietoi
Ninia diademata diademata
Ninia sebae sebae
Pseustes poecilonotus argus

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June 1980

District South (continued)

Rhadinaea decorata
Sibon nebulatus

Stenorrhina degenhardti mexicana
Tantilla phrenitica schistosa
Xenodon mexicanus
Micrurus diastema sapperi
Micrurus e. elegans

Species common to both Districts

Kinosternon herrerai

Kinosternon scorpioides cruentatum

Anol i s ser i ceus

Laemanctus serratus

Basi 1 iscus vittatus

Sceloporus serrifer plioporus

Eumeces tetragrammus

Cnemidophorus deppei

Boa constrictor

Elaphe f. flavirufa

Leptophis m. mexicanus

Masticophis m. mentovarius

Oxybel i s aeneus

Spilotes pullatus mexicanus

Nerodia rhombifera blanchardi

Bothrops atrox

Subspecies separated by strait of Palma Sola

District North District South

Pseudemys scripta cataspila Pseudemys scripta venusta

Cnemidophorus sackii gularis Cnemidophorus sackii communis

Coniophanes imperial is imperial is Coniophanes imperial is clavatus

Drymarchon corais erebennus Drymarchon corais melanurus

Pliocercus elapoides celatus PI iocercus elapoides elapoides

Ficimia olivacea streckeri Ficimia olivacea olivacea

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Table 2. Comparison of the Mammals of the
Lowland Districts of Veracruz

North District

Didelphis marsupialis californica
Lasiurus seminolus
Nycticeus humeralis mexicana
Sciurus deppei negligens
Liomys irroratus pretiosus
Peromyscus leucopus mesomelas
P. maniculatus fulvus
Baiomys t. taylori

South District

Didelphis marsupialis tabascensis
Caluromys derbranus aztecus
Cryptotis micrura
Rhynchonycter i s naso
Saccopteryx bilineata
Peropteryx k. kappleri
Centronycter i s maximil iani
Balant iopteryx p. plicata
B. io

D i cl i durus v i rgo

Noctilio leporinus

Pteronotus parnell ii mesoamer i canus

P. personatus psilotis

P. davyi fulvus

P. gymnonotus

Mormoops m. megalophylla

Micronycteris brachyotis

Mimon cozumelae

Phyllostomus discolor verrucosus
Trachops cirrhosus coffini
Chrotopterus a, auritus
Vampyrum spectrum

Hy lonycter i s underwood i
Choeroniscus godmanl
Leptonycter i s n. nivalis
Carol 1 ia castanea
Uroderma bilobatum molaris
Vampyressa pusilla thyone
Chiroderma vMlosum jesupi
Artibeus t. toltecus
A, p. phaeotis
A. watsoni
Myotis fortidens
M. nigricans extremus
M. argentatus

Pipistrellus subflavus seraecrucis

Molossus ater nigricans

Alouatta v i 1 losa

Ateles geoffroyi vellerosus

Tamandua tetradactyla mexicana

Cyclopes didactylus mexicanus

Dasypus novemcinctus mexicanus

Liomys pictus veraecrucis

Heteromys lepturus

Heteromys temporalis

Oryzomys alfaroi palatinus

Tylomys nudicaudus gymnurus

Nyctomys s . sumi charast i

Baiomys m. musculus

Coendou mexicanus

Agouti paca nelsoni

Dasyprocta mexicana

Eira barbara senex

Galictis allamandi canaster

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June 1980

South District (continued)

Mephitis macroura eximius
Conepatus semistriatus
Lontra longicaudis annectens
Felis concolor mayensis
Felis pardalis pardalis
Felis wiedii oaxacensis
Tap i rus ba i rd i ?

Tayassu pecari
Mazarha americana temama

Species common to both Districts

Philander opossum pallidus
Marmosa mexicana mexicana
Cryptotis parva. pueblensis
Pteronotus parnelli mexicanus
Carol lia perspici 1 lata azteca
Sturnira 1 ilium parvidens
Artibeus jamaicensis yucatanicus
Artibeus lituratus intermedius
Glossophaga soricina leachii
Desmodus rotundus murinus
Natalus stramineus saturatus

Subspecies separated

District North

Oryzomys couesi peragrus

Nasua narica molaris

Felis yagouaroundi cacomitli

Heterogeomys hispidus latirostris

Mustela frenata tropical is

Eptesicus brasiliensis propinquus
Rhdogeesa t, turn i da
Sylvilagus brasiliensis truei
Sylvilagus floridanus connectens
Sciurus deppei deppei
Sciurus aureogaster aureogaster
Heterogeomys hispidus torridus
Liomys pictus obscurus
Oryzomys melanotis rostratus

O. f. fulvescens
Peromyscus m, mexicanus

P. leucopus incensus

Rei throdontomys m. mexicanus
R. fulvescens tropical is
Sigmodon hispidus toltecus
Canis latrans cagottis
Urocyon c i nereoargenteus orinomus
Procyon lotor hernandezii
Felis onca veraecrucis
Trichechus manatus latirostris
Dicotyles tajacu crassus
Odocoileus virginianus veraecrucis

by Strait of Palma Sola

District South

Oryzomys c. couesi

Nasua n. narica

Felis yagouaroundi fossata

Heterogeomys hispidus isthmicum

Mustela frenata perda

Bulletin Maryland Herpeto logical Society

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June 1980

Literature Cited

Alvarez, T.

1963. The recent mammals of Tamaulipas, Mexico. Univ. Kansas Publ. 3 Mus. Nat
Hist.s 14 { 15:363-^73.

Andrle, R. F.

1964.

A biogeographical inventigation of the Sierra de Tuxtla in Veracruz,
Mexico. Ph.D. Thesis. Louisiana State University . x+207-30.

Barrera, A,
1962.

La Penfnsula de Yucatan como Provincia Biotica. Revista Soc. Mex. Hist.
Nat. 3 23: 71-105.

Cabrera, A.
1973.

L . and A. Wi 1 1 i nk

Biogeograffa de America Latina. 0EA3 Serie de Biologia3 Monografia 13 3
v+117.

F i rsche i n ,
1956.

1 . L. and H. M. Smith

A new f r i nge- 1 imbed Hyla (Amphibia: Anura) from a new Faunal District of
Mexico. Herpetologica 12: 17-21.

Garcfa, E.
1970.

Los Climas del Estado de Veracruz. An. Inst. Biol. , Univ. Nal. Aut. Mex.
413 Ser. Botanica ( 1 ) : 3-42 .

Goldman, E.
1951.

A.

Biological investigations in Mexico. Smithson, Miscl, Coll. 116:
v i i i+476.

Goldman, E.
1946.

A. and R. Tf Moore

The Biotic Provinces of Mexico. J. Mammal. 26{k) : 347-360.

Gomez-Pompa, A.

1978. Ecoiogfa de la vegetacion del Estado de Veracruz. CECSA3 Mexico. 91 pp
Hall, E. R. and K. R. Kelson

1959- The mammals of North America. The Ronald Press, 2 vol. xxx+ 1083+79.
Hall, E. R. and W. W. Dalquest

1963. The mammals of Veracruz. Univ. Kansas Publ.3 Mus. Nat. Hist. 3 14 { 4):
165-362.

Lowery, G. H. and W. W. Dalquest

1951.

Birds from the state of Veracruz. Univ. Kansas Publ. 3 Mus.s Nat. Hist. 3

3: 531-649.

Moore, R. T.

1945. The Transverse Volcanic Biotic Province of central Mexico and its

relationship to adjacent provinces. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat. Hist.3
22(12) : 2 1 7-236.

Page 68

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

Navarro, L. D. y A. Martfnez G.

In Los marrnferos de la Estacion de Biologfa Tropical "Los Tuxtlas", Veracruz,
prep.

Perez-Higareda, G.

1978a. Reptiles and amphibians from the Estacion de Biologfa Tropical "Los

1978b.

Tuxtlas" (U.N.A.M.), Veracruz, Mexico. Bull. Md. Herp. Soc. 74(2):67~74.

Checklist of freshwater turtles of Veracruz, Mexico. 1. Southeastern
portion of the state (Testudines: Cryptodira). Bull. Md. Herp. Soc.

14{ 4):215-222.

Ryan, R. M.
1963.

The Biotic Provinces of Central America, Acta Loot, Mex. 6 (2-3) : 1 "55 •

Smith, H, M.

1941. Las Provincias Bioticas de Mexico, segun la distribucion geografica de
las lagartijas del genero Scetoporus. An. Esc. Nac. Cienc. Biol.

2: 103-110.

Smith, H. M. and E. H. Taylor

1945.

An annotated checklist and key to the snakes of Mexico, U.S. Nat. Mus.3
Bull . 187 : i v+239 .

1950.

An annotated checklist and key to the reptiles of Mexico exclusive of the
snakes. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 199 253.

Soto, M.
1969.

Cons ideraciones ecocl imat i cas del Estado de Veracruz, Tesiss Facultad de
Ciencias, U.N.A.M .3 43 pp.

Sousa, M.
1968.

EcologTa de las Leguminosas de Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz. An. Inst. Biot.
Univ. Nat. Aut , Mex: 39 Ser. Botanica (l) : 121-161 .

Villa, B.
1966.

Los murcielagos de Mexico. Univ. Nac. Aut, Mexico 3 Inst. Biot.,
xvi+3-491, 171 figs., 98 maps.

Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los Tuxtlas" y

Instituto de Biologia y

Universidad Nacionat Autonoma de Mexico 3

Apartado Postal 51y Catemaco3 Veracruz 3 Mexico

Received 27 February 1980
Accepted 24 April 1 98O

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

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June 1980

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS IN THE VICINITY
OF VIENNA, MARYLAND

Robert H. Johnson and Marie Van Deusen

Reptiles and amphibians in the vicinity of Vienna, Dorchester County were sur¬
veyed. from summer 1978 through spring 1979. This field survey was part of a larger
ecological survey of the area conducted in consideration of expansion of the Del-
marva Power and Light Vienna Steam Electric Station (Van Deusen and Otto 1979). The
survey attempted to (l) identify habitats that might be especially favorable for herp-
tiles; (2) compile a species inventory of reptiles and amphibians in the study area;
and (3) assess the potential presence or absence of two amphibians (eastern narrow¬
mouthed toad and eastern tiger salamander) previously reported from Dorchester County,
which are endangered in Maryland (Maryland Department of Natural Resources 197-5).

The survey site lies on the Eastern Shore of the Chesapeake Bay, west of the
Nanticoke River and north of U.S. Route 50 and the town of Vienna (Figure l). The
approximately 787 ha of land surveyed included -“31 ha occupied by the existing steam
electrical generating plant, ~ 396 ha of primarily forested area lying west of Mary¬
land Route 331 and -360 ha of primarily agricultural land lying east of Route 331.

The forested area has a high water table and a large number of ephemeral ponds occur
here seasonally. East of the highway there are also small amounts of old-field
habitat along a right-of-way and brackish marsh and wooded swamp bordering the
Nanticoke River and Chicone Creek. Two permanent ponds occur in the area.

Previous surveys have reported 4 species of salamander, 13 species of anurans, 3
species of lizards, 11 species of snakes and 8 species of turtles in Dorchester
County (Harris 1975).

Methods

Our study commenced with a broad habitat survey of the area, conducted on foot,
to locate "particularly likely" herptile habitats. These areas were then intensively
searched at approximately 4-6 week intervals, although not to the exclusion of other
less-likely areas. Standard herpetological search techniques were employed -- turn¬
ing over stones and logs, raking through leaf litter, seining ponds (for tadpoles and
caudate larvae), removing bark from dead trees, picking through rotted logs, and
searching likely basking sites for snakes and turtles. On Chicone Creek, a canoe was
used to investigate shorelines and low branches for basking reptiles. On every site
visit, 2-6 hours were spent in listening for calling frogs (followed by capture for
positive identification, if necessary). All roadkills were carefully examined.

Animals were identified primarily by visual inspection of adults, although eggs
and larvae were identified in season and many species of frogs and toads were recog¬
nized by voice, particularly in spring and summer. Conant (1975) and Smith (1978)
were used to confirm species identifications and as nomencl atura 1 authorities.

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

Fig. 1. Map of the Vienna survey site with approximate area

included in the study outlined. Forests are stippled
marsh is designated by marsh symbol. Solid white
areas within boundary are cultivated lands; old-field
occupies the railroad right-of-way and road edges.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

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Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

Results and Discussion

We encountered one species of salamander, 8 species of anurans, 2 species of
lizards, 3 species of snakes and 4 species of turtles (Table 1), which represents 53%
of the county's amphibians and 4 1% of the county's reptiles. Table 1 also lists hab¬
itats in which species were found, seasons in which they were encountered and an es¬
timate of relative abundance.

Amphibians: The only salamander encountered was the red-backed salamander
(. Flethodon o. oinereus) , and both color phases were equally abundant. This species
was found in all wooded areas, but was most prevalent in the wet woods to the west of
Rte. 331. Typical habitat was in or under rotting logs. The four-toed salamander
( Hemidaotylus scutatum ) was not found, despite the fact that appropriate habitat (low
wet woods with an abundance of Sphagnum ) exists on much of the property. The many
ephemeral woodland ponds of the mixed deciduous-pine woods west of Rte. 331 were not
used for breeding by either marbled or spotted salamanders (A. opa.cum and A. macula-
tum) .

A particular effort was made to assess possible presence of the eastern tiger
salamander ( Ambystoma t. tigrinum) on the site because of its endangered status in
Maryland. The first record of this species in Maryland comes from Vienna in 1933,
where it reportedly was recovered from under debris Mnear a water works in Vienna"
(Netting 1938). Despite extensive searching of the area and many questions to local
residents, we have been unable to locate said waterworks, appropriate breeding habi¬
tat or specimens of tiger salamanders. Late winter-early spring efforts focused es¬
pecially on searching for the distinctive egg masses of this species, but none were
found either on the study site or in any temporary or permanent pond in the area.

Several species of anurans were frequently encountered: Fowler's toad ( Bufo
woodhousei fowleri) , spring peeper ( Hyla oruoifer) , New Jersey chorus frog ( Pseudaoris
triseriata kalmi) , bullfrog ( Rana oatesbeiana) , green frog (Sana ciamitans melanota)
and southern leopard frog ( Rana u. utricularia) . One adult pickerel frog ( Rana p.
palustris) was captured on mud flats of Chi cone Creek at low tide, and egg masses of
the wood frog ( Rana s . sylvatioa) were found on the study site. (Van Deusen and
Johnson 1979)- This last species had not been previously recorded from Dorchester
County although its distribution includes all surrounding counties (Harris 1975) -

Conspicuously absent from the list of species encountered are the northern cric¬
ket frog ( Aoris a. crepitans) , green treefrog ( Hyla cinerea) and eastern grey tree-
frog ( Hyla V. versicolor). Appropriate habitat for these usually ubiquitous species
occurred on the site. Also absent were the eastern narrow-mouthed toad ( Gastrophryne
oarolinensis) , the carpenter frog ( Rana virgatipes) and the eastern spadefoot toad
(i Scaphiopus h. holbrooki) . The narrow-mouthed toad is know from western Dorchester
County and presumably the Vienna area falls within its range, but it is a rare and
secretive animal, listed as endangered in Maryland. Similarly, the carpenter frog is
not common in the state. On the other hand, the spadefoot toad is often abundant,
where it occurs, after heavy rains in summer. The fact that no site visits coincided
with these conditions may account for our failure to find this species.

Reptiles: The reptile fauna of the Vienna property was surprisingly sparse.

While five-lined skinks ( Eumeces fasciatus) were commonly encountered (under bark or
basking), only one specimen of the ground skink ( Soinoella lateralis) was found. The
only other skink known from Dorchester County, the broad-headed skink ( Eumeces lati~
ceps) , was not encountered.

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Volume 1 6 Number 2

June 1980

Several species of turtles were found on the property. Many shells of box tur¬
tles ( Terrapene c. Carolina ) were seen, although no living specimens were ever found.
In Chicone Creek and the other waterways of the property, snapping turtles ( Chelydra
s. serpentina ), eastern painted turtles ( Chrysemys p, picta) and redbellied turtles
( Ckrysemys rubriventris ) were seen swimming or basking. These three species appear
to be common on the site. Spotted turtles ( Clemmys guttata) and mud turtles ( Kino -
sternon s. subrubrum ) were not seen, nor was the diamondback terrapin ( Malaclerrrys t.
terrapin) found, although it probably occurs in the lower marshes where Chicone Creek
meets the Nanticoke. Local people report that this last species is still harvested
and sold in the area. Stinkpots ( Stemotherus odoratus) were not seen.

Although Harris (1975) reported 11 species of snakes from Dorchester County, we
found only 3 species on or near the study area. Water snakes (Matrix s. sipedon)
were commonly seen near Chicone Creek, and two juvenile black rat snakes (Elaphe o.
obsoleta) were found, one sunning in a tree over 6 feet off the ground. Worm snakes
( Carphophis a. amoenus) were frequently found in rotting logs.

Several species are presumed to occupy the site, although they were not seen.
These include the garter snake ( Thar/mophis s. sirtalis) , ribbon snake ( Thamnophis s.
sauritus) , northern ringneck ( Diadophis punctatus) , black racer ( Coluber c. constric¬
tor) and northern brown snake ( Storeria d. dekayi) . In addition, it is possible that
the hognose snake (Heterodon platyrhinos) , rough green snake ( Opheodrys aestivus) and
eastern king shake ( Lanrpropeltis g. getulus) inhabit the area, it is more difficult
to comment on the probability of occurrence of the corn snake ( Elaphe g. guttata) or
red-bellied water snake (Matrix e. erythrogaster) on the property. Despite the ap¬
parent impoverishment of Vienna ophidiofaunal (27% of known Dorchester County species),
this may be merely an artifact of our failure to sample extensively in summer, when
snakes are most commonly encountered.

Despite the amount of field time invested at the Vienna site, we were able to
list fewer than half the total species known from Dorchester County, And, unfortu^
nately, our field efforts were not uniformly distributed throughout the year. These
results quite eloquently underscore the roles that when, where and how much one sam¬
ple plays in analyses of natural distributions and abundance of species.

Acknowledgments

Support of the Maryland Power Plant Siting Program, Detailed Site Evaluation
Section (Dr. Robert G. Otto, Chesapeake Bay Institute, Principal Investigator) Is
gratefully acknowledged. The advice of Mr, Herbert Harris and the typing of Ms,
Shirley Suit and Cindy Fitzgerald are also appreciated.

Bulletin Maryland Herpeto logical Society

Page 73

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ica 1 Society

Page 75

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

L i terature C i ted

Conant, R,

1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North
America. Houghton Mifflin Co.3 Boston 3 429 pp .

Harris, H. S . , Jr,

1975- Distributional survey (Amphibia and Reptilia): Maryland and the District
of Columbia. Bull. Md. Herp. Soo. 11(3): 73”! 67.

Maryland Department of Natural Resources,

1975- The Maryland Non-Game and Endangered Species Conservation Act of 1975,
10-2A01. division of Wildlife Administration.

Netting. M. G.

1 938 . ART. Xi. The occurrence of the eastern tiger salamander, Ambystoma
tigrinum tigrinum (Green), in Pennsylvania and near-by states, Ann.
Carnegie Mus. 27: 159-166,

Smith, H. M.

1978. A Guide to Field Identification. Amphibians of North America, Golden
Press 3 New York3 160 pp.

Van Deusen, M. and R. H. Johnson

1979. A new county record for the wood frog, Rana sylvatica sylvatioa , in
Maryland. Bull, Md, Herp. Soo , 75(3): 86-87.

Van Deusen, M. and R. G. Otto.

1979. Terrestrial flora and fauna In the vicinity of the Delmarva Power and
Light Station and proposed expansion site. Chesapeake Bay Institute 3
The Johns Hopkins University > Spec. Rept. 77, Ref. 79"8, 27 pp.

RHJ , Department of Pathobiology 3 The Johns Hopkins University s
615 N. Wolfe Street 3 Baltimore 3 Maryland 21205 and
MVD, Chesapeake Bay Institute 3 The Johns Hopkins University 3
Baltimore 3 Maryland 21218.

Received 8 March 1980
Accepted 24 April 1 98O

Page 76

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

News & Notes

ANNOUNCING THE PUBLICATION

OF

IDENTIFICATION GUIDE TO PENNSYLVANIA SNAKES

BY DR. C. J. McCOY, illustrated by Michael Antonoplos

April, 1980

Published by the Benedum Resource Project, Section of Education.
Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Carnegie Institute
Under a grant from the Claude Worthington Benedum Foundation

Identification Guide to Pennsylvania Snakes by Dr. C.J. McCoy Jr.;
Illustrated by Michael Antonopolos

Price: . $1.50

PA residents add 6% sales tax . .09

Non Members: $1.59 $

For mail orders, add . .25

_____ $

TOTAL : $

Return order form to:

Benedum Resource Project
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Carnegie Museum of Natural History
Carnegie Institute
Pittsburgh, PA 15213

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

Page 77

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

Dr. Edward H. Taylor pioneered scientific research in all
parts of the world including North America, Central and South
America, Africa, Mexico, Southeast Asia, Indonesia, and the
Phillippines .

Few monographs exist on amphibians and reptiles that do not cite
the work of Edward H. Taylor. So, in tribute to this noted
herpetologist, the University of Kansas Museum of Natural History
has published:

EDWARD. H. TAYLOR: RECOLLECTIONS OF AN HERPETOLOGIST

containing:

Phillippine Adventures: An Autobiographical Memoir
by Dr. Edward H. Taylor

Edward Harrison Taylor: The Teacher
by A. Byron Leonard

The Blazing of a Trail: The Scientific Career of Edward Harrison Taylor

by Hobart M. Smith

The Published Contributions of Edward H. Taylor
by George R. Pisani

Remaining copies are now available at the special price of $4,00]

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Page 78

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

The University of Montana Student Chapter of The
Wildlife Society will sponsor the Fourth Annual Inter¬
national Wildlife Film Festival in the spring, 1981. We initiated
the Festival to encourage film makers to produce better
wildlife films, both in technical quality and content.

Such films are essential in teaching ecological and environ¬
mental concepts to the public. These films may be the only
contact many people have with wildlife>and so the messages
they convey are critical.

The deadline for submission of applications and films
is March 14, 1981. All entries must have a predominantly
wildlife theme and have been produced or released during
calendar year 1980. Judging will be held prior to the
Festival. A panel of highly qualified film makers, humanists and
biologists will judge both amateur and professional
categories of wildlife films. Winning entries will receive
certificates and the results will be Internationally publicized.

The winning films will be shown to the public on
April 10, 11, and 12,1981, at the University of Montana campus
in Missoula. Panels and workshops of film makers and biologists
will also be a feature during this weekend, along with an
art exhibit of wildlife paintings and photos.

Information, rules of eligibility, application forms, and
the Festival agenda can be obtained by writing or calling:

WILDLIFE FILM FESTIVAL
WILDLIFE BIOLOGY PROGRAM
UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA
MISSOULA, MONTANA 59812
(406) 243-5272

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog I cal Society

Page 79

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1980

NEW VOLUME READY

SYNOPSIS OF THE HERPETOFAUNA
OF MEXICO

BY

HOBART M. SMITH and ROZELLA B. SMITH

VOLUME VI GUIDE TO MEXICAN TURTLES

BIBLIOGRAPHIC ADDENDUM III

64 plates and line drawings. 46 maps. 1064 pages. No. Bennington,
Vt . 1979. £CWO $2.00 for shipping & handling) $40.00

The book contains thorough synopses of 130 taxa at all ranks
from subclass to subspecies, 63 being different species-group taxa
confirmed or expected with confidence in Mexico. For each taxon
a complete synonymy as well as a list of localities and sources
of museum and published records, as appropriate, is given. Literature
lists under each taxon are arranged by subject. There is also a
resume of name usages updating those cited in Volume III, detailed
reviews of nomenclatural history, and discussions of present taxo¬
nomic status. Incorporated in the locality lists and statements of'
range is a discussion of the growth of knowledge of the distribution
of each taxon.

An index to the nearly 1500 different scientific names cited
in the synonymies follows the systematic accounts.

A gazetteer lists all known collecting sites for different
species of turtles in Mexico (about 2826) . Under each locality is
a list of the turtles taken there.

Computer generated maps show sites of collection of each
species, subspecies, genus, and three groups differing in habitat
(land, sea, river-pond turtles) . Computerized data retrieval has
permitted inclusion of -state lists (with localities) and an analysis
of areas in need of field work. Distributional analyses of several
sorts on the basis of computerized data-sorts of small geographic
units ("quadrants") with locality records provide novel departures in
biogeography.

Plates illustrate most of the species-group taxa.

The bibliography is not confined to turtle literature, but
updates the running bibliography in the previous volumes (which
amounts to about 12,000 items) by 76? additional items.

Publisher

John Johnson

J{orth ^Bennington, ‘TJt.

05257

Page 80

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 2

June 1380

_ ^

MoNoqRApk *7

UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS

of the MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

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T H E

SOUTH AMERICAN
HERPETOFAUNA:

Its Origin, Evolution & Dispersal

WILLIAM E DUELLMAN
Editor

Embodying results of sysposium held in Lawrence in August 1977.

Sixteen chapters by noted authorities: Introduction — W.E. Duellman;
Cenozoic faunas of South America and faunal relationships with
Africa and Australia — A.M. Baez, Z.B. Gasparini, R.F. Laurent,
and M.J. Tyler; Quaternary biogeography of South America- —
A.M. Baez, G. Scillato Yane, J. Haffer, B.B. Simpson;
Regional analyses of herpetofaunas— J.D. Lynch, J.R. Dixon,
M.S. Hoogmoed, C. Rivero-Bianco, J.M. Gallardo, J.M. Cei,
J.R. Formas, W.E. Duellman; Conservation — T.E. Love joy.

******* ORDER FORM
MAKE CHECKS PAYABLE TO:

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Please add7.5% for postage and handling.

Kansas residents add 3.5% sales tax

The South American Herpetofauna : A panoramic view
W.E. Duellman

The South American Herpetofauna: An evaluation of
the fossil record - Ana Maria Baez and Zulma B.
de Gasparini

Herpetofaunal relationships between Africa and
South America - R.F. Laurent

Herpetofaunal relationships of South America with
Australia - Michael J. Tyler

Quaternary biogeography of tropical lowland South
America - Jurgen Haffer

Late Cenozoic environmental changes in Temperate
Argentina - Ana Maria Bliez and Gustavo Juan
Scillato Yan<^

Quaternary biogeography of the montane regions of
South America - Beryl B. Simpson

The amphibians of the lowland tropical forests -
John D. Lynch

To : Name _ _

Address

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University of Kansas
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may be obtained by contacting, Publications
Secretary at the above address.

M7SM79

Origin and distribution of the reptiles in lowland
tropical rainforests of South America - James R.
Dixon

The herpetofauna of the Guianan region - M.S.
Hoogmoed

The origin and distribution of the herpetofauna of
the dry lowland regions of northern South
America - Carlos Rivero-Bianco and James R. Dixon
Composicion. distribucion y origen de la
herpetofauna chaquena - Jose M. Gallardo
The Patagonian herpetofauna - Jose M. Cei
La Herpetofauna de los bosques temperados de
Sudamerica - J. Ramon Fomas

The herpetofauna of the Andes: Patterns of

distribution, origin, differentiation and present
communities - W.E. Duellman
Refugia, refuges and minimum critical size: Problems
in the conservation of the Neotropical
herpetofauna - Thomas E. Lovejoy

PRICE Postmarked Before Sept 30 After Oct 1
* Hard Bound copies $25.00 330.00

Paper Bound copies 20.00 25.00

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

Page 81

Page 82

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Back issues of the Bulletin of the Maryland
Herpetol og i ca 1 Society, where available, may be
obta i ned by wr i t i ng the Execut i ve Editor. A list
of available issues will be sent upon request.
Individual numbers in stock are $2.00 each, un¬
less otherwise noted.

The Soc i ety a 1 so pub 1 i shes a News 1 etter on a
somewhat irregular basis. Theseare distributed
to the membersh i p free of charge . Also published
are Maryland Herpetofauna Leaflets and these are
available at $. 05/page.

Information for Authors

All correspondence should be addressed to
the Executive Editor. Manuscripts being sub¬
mitted for publication should be typewritten
(double spaced) on good quality 8? x 1 1 inch
paper, with adequate margins. Submit original
and first carbon, retaining the second carbon.
Indicate where illustrations or photographs are
to appear in text. Cite all literature used at
end in alphabetical order by author.

Major papers are those over 5 pages (double
spaced, elite type) and must i ncl ude an abstract .
The authors name should be centered under the
title, and the address is to fol low the Li terature
Cited. Minor papers are those papers with fewer
than 5 pages. Author's name is to be placed at
end of paper (see recent issue). For add i t iona 1
information see Style Manual for Biological
Journals ( 1 964 ) , Amer i can I ns t i tute of Biological
Sciences, 3900 Wiscons in Avenue, N.W. , Washington,
D.C. 20016. Price is $6.00.

Reprints are available at $.03 a page and
shoul d be ordered when manuscripts are submitted
or when proof s are returned . Minimum order is 100
reprints. Either edited manuscr i pt or proof will
be returned to author for approval or correct ion .
The author wi 1 1 be res pons ible for al 1 corrections
to proof, and must return proof preferably wi thi n
7 days.

The Maryland, Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland > Inc .
2643 Horth Charles Street
Baltimore s Maryland 21218

t)

2P|3 bulletin of the

i-

THarylanb

US ISSN: 0025-4231

f)erpetological

©ociety

Department of Herpetology
The Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc,

RdHS. FOUNDER MEMBER OF THE

Eastern Seaboard Herpetologtcal League

September T980

Volume 16 Number 3

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 Number 3

September 1980

THE LIZARD ABRONIA DEPPEI (SAURIA, ANGUIDAE) IN THE
STATE OF MEXICO, WITH THE RESTRICTION OF ITS

TYPE LOCALITY . 0. Sandez-Herrera and W. Lo-

pez-Forment C . . . , » . 83

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF SELECTED LAKE ERIE STREAMS

IN NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA . Donald M.

McKinstry and Harry N. Cunningham, Jr . 88

OBSERVATION OF OPHIOPHAGY IN THE WESTERN HOOKNOSE

SNAKE GYALOPION CANUM . Randy H. Vaeth . 94

ALBINISM IN CORYTOPHANES HERNANDEZ1 ( LACERT ILIA: IGA-

NIDAE) . Gonzalo Perez-Hi gareda . * . 97

DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS FOR MARYLAND HERPETOFAUNA .

Robert Miller . 99

NEWS & NOTES

BOOK REVIEW: Amphibians and Reptiles of the Carolinas and

Virginia . C.K. Dodd, Jr . 106

Tarichatoxin : A unique toxin isolated from Western American

Newts. .... S .C. Baker . 109

The absence of sea snakes in the Atlantic Ocean..,,. C.A.

Cozzi . * . 113

Autecology of the copperhead . 119

The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland, Inc .
2643 North Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218

BULLETI N OF THE

Volume 16 Number 3

September 1980

The Maryland Herpetol og i ca 1 Society
Department of Herpetology, Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

Bulletin Staff

Executive Editor Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Steering Committee

Donald Boyer Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Frank Groves

Jerry D. Hardy, Jr. Jeff Thomas

Off i cers

President .

Vi ce-Pres i dent

Secretary .

Treasurer .

Richard Czarnowsky
Beth E . Cline

Les Chaikin
Les Chaikin

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 76- 93^58

Membership Rates

Full membership in the Maryland Herpetol ogi cal Society is $12.50 per year,
subscribing membership (outside a 20 mile radius of Baltimore City) $10.00
/year. Foreign $12. 00/yr . Make all checks payable to the Natural History
Society of Maryland, Inc.

Meet ? ngs

The . third Wednesday of each month, 8:15 p.m. at the Natural History
Society of Maryland (except May-August, third Saturday of each month,
8:00 a.m.). The Department of Herpetology meets informally on all other
Wednesday evenings at the NHSM at 8:00 p.m.

BULLETIN OF THE MARYLAND HERPETOLOG I CAL SOCIETY

VOLUME 16

SEPTEMBER 1980 NUMBER S

THE LIZARD ABRONIA DEPPEI (SAUR1A; ANGUIDAE) IN THE STATE
OF MEXICO, WITH THE RESTRICTION OF ITS TYPE LOCALITY

Oscar Sanchez-Herrera and William Lopez-Forment C.

The presence of Abronia deppei north of the Balsas
River Basin is documentea, and tne type locality of the species
is restricted to Temasca I tepec-Rea I de Arriba, State of Mexico.

Abronia is a genus of Central American sauria particularly
difficult to study due to its almost strictly arboreal and
secretive habits, as well as its apparently low population
densi ty .

Abronia deppei Wiegmann, 1828, is one of the best
known species in the genus, despite having been collected
only occassiona 1 1 y in the State of Guerrero. Bogert and
Porter (1967) recorded 6 specimens present in four American
Museums: Mus. Comp. Zool . no. 33750 and Amer. Mus. Nat.
Hist. no. 72543 from Chi Ipancingo; U.S. Nat. Mus. no. 113172,
Mus Comp. Zool. nos. 42716 and 85248, C.N.H.M. (sic) no.

105600, all from Omilteme. These are in addition to the

type and cotypes in the Zoologischen Museum of Berlin (nos.
1149, 1150 and 1151 respectively).

One of us (WLF) collected one specimen on 11 May 1980,

1 km SSW Valle de Bravo, State of Mexico. This lizard is
undistinguishable from the type specimens of A . deppei as
described by Wiegmann (1828 and 1834), and redescribed
by Bocourt (1878). When it was compared to the Chi Ipancingo
and Omilteme material we were again unable to find significant
differences; thus, all specimens are assignable to the monotypic

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September 1980

species A. deppei (see Table 1).

COMPARED OMILTEME - CHILPANCINGO

CHARACTERS ( n=6 )

VALLE DE BRAVO
( n = 1 )

No. of anterior
temporals

3, rarely 4

3

Temporals reaching
postocu lars

1

1

Anterior superci 1 1 i ary
separated from loreocanthal

usually variable

yes

Subocu 1 ars

2 (variable?)

1

Supralabial reaching
orbit

penultimate

penul timate

Postmentals

2

2

Fewest nuchal scutes
in any row

6

6

Whorls of scales on
unregenerated tail

79(77-81 )

78

No. of transversal scale
rows from first nuchal to
posterior insertion of leg

26.7(26-28)

27

Table 1. Comparison between Abronia deppei from the
Sierra Madre del Sur of Guerrero and from
the Sierra de Temascal tepee, State of Mexico.

(Data for Omi I teme-Chi Ipancingo, Guerrero after Bogert and
Porter, 1967; except suboculars taken from Bocourt, 1878).

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September 1980

The specimen here reported aroused our interest in

view of Bogert and Porter's (1967) opinion concerning the
supposed absence of Abronia north of the Balsas River Basin.
These authors stated that its absence could be related to
the apparent scarcity of epiphytes, which in turn may be

caused by the lack of an adequate moisture supply. On
the other hand, they conjectured that the "northward dispersal
of Abronia was halted by disjunctions in the forested areas

or the increasing paucity of epiphytes." But there is one

fact that Bogert and Porter seem to have overlooked; the

Balsas River Basin has an arrangement of moderately high
mountains at its western portion, where ash-oak or pine-

oak forest with epiphytes occur.

These mountains, as well as those of the Cordillera

Volcanica Transversal were formed in early Pliocene times,
and if one considers Udvardy's (1969) idea that, theoretically,

the life-span of the morphological characters of a species

can approach one to one and half million years, one could

believe that Abronia occupied both these mountain areas

just before the Balsas River Basin began to play its present
role as a barrier, splitting the population. The striking

phenotypical coincidence of the two known populations may
be explained by Stebbins' (1971) statement that when the

environment in two or more recently separated areas exerts

similar selective pressures on the organisms of each disjunct
population of the same species, the morphology may remain
practically unchanged. A parallel situation has been dealt
with by Myers (1974) on the distribution of the snakes Rhadi-
naea t. taeniata and Rhadinaea taeniata aemula.

The habitat of Valle de Bravo can be defined as highly

suitable for Abronia ; the trees are covered with plenty of
bromeliads, mosses, lichens and even epiphytic cacti, which

provide adequate shelter and food. These animals seem to
live near clearings of the forest or near its edges as indicated
by the single specimen and a shed skin, collected later in
a nearby area. A tendency for climbing high up the trees
is presumed because the shed skin was discovered hanging
among thin branches 3 m above ground. The live specimen
however, was taken near the base of a tree.

When Wiegmann's descriptions appeared (1828 and 1834)
as well as when Bocourt (1878) redescribed the species, the
precise locality where the type and cotypes were collected

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September 1980

was unknown (Bocourt states only 'Mexico* ). Smith and

Taylor (1950 restricted the type locality of the species to

Omilteme, State of Guerrero, where the majority of the specimens
have been obtained. However, as Taylor (1969) has stated,
"All of Wiegmann's material was obtained in Mexico by German

collectors. Ferdinand Deppe . collected most of the material

on two separate trips." Stresseman (1954) points out that
F. Deppe never traveled in the State of Guerrero. Abundant
material, however, was obtained by him near Temasca I tepee
and Real de Arriba, both in the State of Mexico (see also
Sibley and Davis, 1946).

Thus, as the type specimens of A. deppei were collected
by Deppe himself, they came from the State of Mexico and
not from Guerrero. As Temascal tepee and Real de Arriba

are two localities only 18 km SSE from Valle de Bravo, we

regard Temascaltepec-Real de Arriba as the appropriate type
locality for Abronia deppei ,

Acknow ledgments

We are indebted to M.S. Rafael Martfn del Campo who
loaned us some critical historical literature.

Literature Cited

Bocourt, M.F.

1878. Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dans I'Amerique
Centrale. Recherches Zoologiques. Etudes

sur les Reptiles. Li vr . pp. 325-327 pi. 21-

A figs. 3-3a.

Bogert, C.M. and A.P. Porter.

1967. A new species of Abronia (Sauria, Anguidae)
from the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca, Mexico.
Am. Mus. Novit. (2277): 1-21 .

Myers, C.W.
1974.

The systematics of Rhadi naea (Colubridae) , a
Genus of New World Snakes. Bull. Amer.

Mus. Nat. Hist. 153 (1 ): 1-262.

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September 1980

Sibley, C.G.
1946.

and J. Davis.

Real de Arriba,
Condor 48: 279.

Mexico,

as a Deppe locality.

Smith, H . M . and E.H. Taylor.

1950. An annotated checklist and key to the reptiles
of Mexico, exclusive of the snakes. U.S. Nat.
Mus. Bull. 199:1 -253 .

Stebbins, G.L.

1971. Processes of organic evolution. 2nd Ed. Prentice-
Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 61-88.

Stresseman, E.

1954. Ferdinad Deppe ' s travels in Mexico, 1824-1829,
Condor 56: 86-92.

Taylor, E.H.

1969. Wiegmann and the Herpetology of Mexico. in:

Facsimile reprints in Herpetology No. 23. Society
for the Study of amph. and re~pt~ ( I ntrod . ) .

Tihen, J.A.
1954.

Gerrhonotine lizards recently added to the American
Museum Collection with further revisions of the genus.
American Mus. Novit. (1686): 1-26.

Udvardy, M.D.F.

1969. Beytrage Zoogeography. Van Nostrand . Reinhold
Co., N.Y., 445 pp. (Chapt.2) .

Wiegmann, A.F.A.

1828. Dynamic zur Amphibienkunde. Isis Von Oken.
21 . (3/4) : 364-383.

1834. Herpetoiogia Mexicana Seu descriptio amphibiorum
Novae Hispaniae. Pars Prima. Saurorum Species.
Berlin, Luderitz., vi, 54 pp.lOpIs.

Laboratorio de Mastozoologia, Institute de Biologfa, UNAM.
Apdo. Postal 70-153, Mexico 20, D.F. Mexico.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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September 1980

REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF SELECTED LAKE ERIE STREAMS
IN NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA

Donald M. McKinstry and Harry N. Cunningham, Jr.

ABSTRACT

The occurrence of reptiles and amphibians inhabiting
selected Lake Erie streams in northwestern Pennsylvania

was surveyed. Three species of snakes, five species of frogs
and toads, and six species of salamanders were observed.

Data as to abundance and habitat are presented.

In northwestern Pennsylvania a number of shale-bottom
streams meander through woodland areas and fields. These
streams enter the southern side of lake Erie. During the
summer and autumn of 1974 and the spring of 1975, we conducted
a survey of the reptiles and amphibians inhabiting some
of these streams and their flood plains. The purpose of this
this survey was to supply information to the Northwestern

Pennsylvania Environmental Data Center. This base-line

data may be useful in the formulation of future environmental
impact statements.

Collection sites representing the mouth regions, mid
regions, and upper regions of selected streams were chosen.
Each site is approximately 200-500 m long. The name, location,
and nature of each site is as follows: Site A, Four Mile

Creek mouth region, Lawrence Park, golf course; Site B,
Four Mile Creek mid region, Behrend College campus, woodland

gorge; S'te C, Four Mile Creek upper region, above Hartman
Rd., field with brush and trees; Site D, Six Mile Creek
mouth region, Cowell residence near Rt. 5, woodland; Site
E, Six Mile Creek mid region, Hannon Rd. below Rt. 90,
woodland gorge; Site F, Six Mile Creek upper region, Depot
Rd., woodland; Site G, Eight Mile Creek mouth region, Shades
Beach, woodland; Site H, Eight. Mile Creek mid region, King
Rd., open field and brush; Site I, Eight Mile Creek upper

region, Rohl Rd., woodland; Site J, Twelve Mile Creek mouth
region, Moorehead Rd., open grassy area; Site K, Twelve Mile
Creek mid region, Penn Central railroad tracks, open grassy
area; Site L, Sixteen Mile Creek mouth region, Orchard
Beach, open area with houses; Site M, Sixteen Mile Creek

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September 1980

upper region, Smith Reservoir, woodland; Site N, Twenty
Mile Creek mouth region, Rt. 5, open area with houses; Site 0,
Twenty Mile Creek mid region, Penn Central railroad tracks,
above Gage Gulf, woodland gorge (Note: In south-western

New York ) .

All collecting trips were made in the daytime and involved
both authors searching for about 1 hr. per site. Traditional
collecting methods, i.e. search of logs, boards, and flat
rocks as well as inspection of exposed stream banks and
stream beds were employed.

The following species of snakes were the only reptiles
observed: eastern garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis ;

northern water snake. Nerodia sipedon sipedon; northern
ringneck snake, Diadophis punctatus edwardsi. Specifics
as to numbers of specimens collected appear in Table 1.
The eastern garter snakes and northern water snakes were
usually observed on or under flat rocks in sunny areas along
the streams. The northern ringneck snakes were observed
under flat rocks which were overgrown with vines.

The following species of amphibians were observed: eastern
american toad, Bufo americanus americanus ; green frog, Rana
clamitans malanota; pickeral frog Rana palustris ; northern leo¬
pard frog, Rana pipiens ; wood frog, Rana sylvatica; northern
two-lined salamander, Eurycea bislineata bislineata ; mountain
dusky salamander, Desmognathus ochroohaeus I northern dusky sa¬
lamander, Desmognathus fuscus fuscus (species determination not
made); spring salamander, Gyrinophilus porphyriticus porphyriti-
cus; slimy salamander, Plethodon glutinosus glutinosusi redback
salamander, plethodon oinereus oinereus’, northern red salaman¬
der Pseudotriton ruber ruber. Specifics as to numbers of speci¬
mens collected (approximations in some cases) appear in Tables
2 and 3. The frogs and toads were generally observed under/on
flat rocks of the stream beds or along the stream banks. The
salamanders were usually observed under flat rocks and decay¬
ing logs along and in the streams.

The three species of snakes and eleven species of amphibi¬
ans reported in this survey are known to occur in northwestern
Pennsylvania (Conant, 1975). Thus the survey does not add
new information as to the range of these animals. However,
the specific data presented in this report may be useful
in evaluating the effect of any future alterations of the

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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September 1980

Table 1. Reptiles observed in selected Lake Erie Stream areas

during the summer and autumn of 1974 and the spring
of 1975.

N urn ber of Specimens Observed

Site and
No. Visits

A 2

B 4

C 3

D 1

E 4

F 3

G 3

H 1

I 2

J 1

K 1

L 1

M 3

N 1

0 3

P 2

T.s.

sirtalis

0

2

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

2

N.s. D.p.

sipedon edwardsi

0 0

0 2

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

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September 1980

Table 2. Frogs and toads observed in selected Lake Erie stream
areas during the summer and autumn of 1974 and the
spring of 1975.

Number of Specimens Observed

Site and B»a . R.c. R. R. R *

No. Vis. americanus malanota palustris pipiens sylvatica

A 2
B 3
C 2
D 1
E 3
F 3
G 3
H 0
I 2
J 1
K 0
L 0
M 3
N 1
0 3

P 1

8

0

0

0

5

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0 o

0 o

9 0 0

6

0 0 0

0

0 0
0 0

0 0

0 0

0 o

0 25

0 0

0

0

0

0

0

ooo

0

0

0

0

0

1 0 1

ooo
0 <.io o

0 6 0

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September 1980

Table 3. Salamanders observed in selected Lake Erie stream

areas during the summer and autumn of 1974 and the
spring of 1975.

Site and

No. Visits

Number of Specimens Observed

2

(0 (/■) . ’r

* S Ct 2 ?

CL 3

s •§ " a

ticus

p.g.

glutinosus

D.f. fuscus/

ochrophaeus

A

2

0

0

0

0

0

do

B

3

0

15

0

0

0

50

C

2

<10

10

0

0

0

10

D

1

do

0

0

0

0

0

E

3

15

0

1

0

0

do

F

3

11

1

0

0

0

10

G

3

15

20

0

0

0

<10

H

0

-

-

-

-

-

-

1

2

0

0

0

1

1

35

J

1

0

0

0

0

0

dio

K

0

-

-

-

-

-

-

L

0

-

-

-

-

-

-

M

3

15

10

0

3

0

10

N

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

3

0

1

0

0

0

1

P

1

0

0

0

0

0

<10

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September 1980

stream environments.

The assistance of Dr. L.R. Eckroat during portions
of this survey is appreciated.

Literature Cited

Conant, R.

1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of
Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin
Co., Boston , 429 pp .

DMVI & HNC, Department of Biology, The Behrend College of The
Pennsylvania State University, Station Road, Erie, Pennsylvania,
16563.

Received 31 October 1980
Accepted 6 December 1980

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September 1980

OBSERVATION OF QPHIOPHAGY IN THE
WESTERN HOOKNOSE SNAKE,
Gyalopion canum

The few primary literature accounts that discuss the food
habits of Gyalopion canum indicate that the diet consists exclu¬
sively of arthropods, specifically spiders, scorpions, and centi¬
pedes (Bogert and Oliver, 1945; Webb, 1960; and Hardy,

1975), These dietary determinations were based primarily upon

stomach analyses of rather small samples of preserved material.
In the one reference concerning captive feeding observations,
Kauffeld (1948) reported that a specimen from Texas accepted
only spiders and centipedes. That individual refused all verte¬
brate food items that were offered, including small frogs, li¬
zards, snakes (all unidentified as to species), and mice. My

note constitutes the first report of a captive G, canum accept¬
ing ophidian prey.

An adult male G. canum (22.2 cm s-v) captured under
a rock near Lantry, Val Verde County, Texas, on 19 May 1979
was maintained in a plastic shoebox cage along with a Phyl-
lorhynchus decurtatus (29.2 cm s-v). During its confinement,
the Gyalopion refused numerous living and freshly killed spi¬

ders that were provided as food. It also apparently ignored
the Phyllorhynchus , which in view of the subsequent events
may have been due to the considerable discrepancy in size
between the two snakes.

On 4 June 1979, a dead Diadophis punctatus (18.3 cm
total) from Payne County, Oklahoma, was placed in the cage
with both snakes. Several hours after this introduction the
Gyalopion swallowed the somewhat dessicated Diadophis tailfirst
This particular feeding technique is unusual in that several
of the typically ophiophagous snake species employ headfirst
ingestion, guided by scale orientation cues, to swallow prey
(Greene, 1976). The Diadophis was too large to be completely
en ulfed initially, and its head was visible through the partial¬
ly opened mouth of the Gyalopion for over 14 hr after it was
swa I lowed .

On 7 Ju ne, the Gyalopion was found dead, and was subse-

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September 1980

qently preserved and catalogued into the collection of the Lousi-
anna State University Museum of Zoology (LSUMZ 37069). A
postmortem examination revealed that the posterior third of
the body of the Diadcphis had been digested. Presumably,
the cause of death was related to engulfing too large a meal;
however, specific toxicity to Diadophis could also have been
involved (Kauffeld, 1967).

While it must be conceded that behavioral observations
on one captive individual are of limited value, this observation
suggests that Gyalopion canum may possess a greater dietary
flexibility than is indicated by our limited knowledge of the
natural history of this species. Confirmation of the importance
of ophiophagy in wild populations must await further field
observations and stomach analyses. Additional research with
captive specimens and with live Diadophis as well as other
small sympatric snake species such as Sonora and Tantilla
might also prove enlightening.

I wish to thank Dr. Douglas A. Rossman and Morris D.
Williams for their reviews of the manuscript and helpful criti¬
cism.

Literature Cited

Bogert, Charles M., and James A. Oliver.

1945. A preliminary analysis of the herpetofauna of

Sonora. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 83(6) :297-
426. ' “

Greene, Harry W.

1976. Scale overlap, a directional sign sti mulus for
prey ingestion by ophiophagous snakes. Z.

Tierpsychol . 41:113-120.

Hardy, Lawrence M.

1975. A systematic revision of the colubrid snake genus
Gyalopion . J. Herp. 9(1 ): 107-132.

Kauffeld, Carl F.

1948. Notes on a hook-nosed snake from Texas. Copeia
4:301 . .

1967. Snakes: The keeper and the kept. Doub leday

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September 1980

and Co. , I nc. New York . 248 pp.

Webb, Robert G.

1960. Notes on some amphibians and reptiles from north¬
ern Mexico. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 63:289-
298. . ~

—Randy H. Vaeth, Museum of Zoology, Louisiana State Univer¬
sity, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70893 .

Received 4 June 1980
Accepted 29 June 1980

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September 1980

ALBINISM IN COR Y TO PH A NFS HERNANDEZI
(LACERT ILIA: IGUANIDAE )

Knowledge of the occurrence of albinism in North American
reptiles and amphibians has been summarized by Hensley
(1959). Most species cited in that report are restricted to
the neartic region, and snakes predominate. Subsequent re¬
ports in Diadophis punctatus arnyi (Earle, 1958), Thamnophis
elegans vagrans (Tanner, 1966; Smith et a_l_. , 1975) and Ari¬

zona elegans (Harris and Simmons, 1 96^7 continue the same
trends. Reports for tropical lizards are, however, extreme!
rare.

In September 1980, I collected an albino specimen of Cory-
tophanes hernandezi in a tropical rain forest 10km N La Palma,
municipality of San Andres Tuxtla, Ver . , at 180 m (a.s. I . ) .

This specimen is an immature male, 100 mm snout-vent
length. Head white-pink (including the rostral and gular
regions), in dorsal view only a small dark zone representing
the eye evident through the transparent skin above the orbit.
Iris pale blue in life. Dorsal, lateral, and ventral regions
of body, as well as tail and limbs, white-pink, without pigmen¬
tation. When observed in transmitted light, the belly and
the limbs have some transparent areas.

The specimen lived in captivity for ten days with other
specimens of normal colour, but no change in its coloration
occurred. Its scale characteristics are normal.

Literature Cited

Earle, Alvin M.

1978. Albinism in the prairie ring-necked snake. Her-
petologica 13:272.

Harris, Herbert S. and R.S. Simmons.

1968. Albinism in the glossy snake, Arizona elegans
Kennicott. Bu I i . Md . Herp . Soc . 4(4) : 79-80.

Hensley, Max M.

1959. Albinism in North American amphibians and reptiles.

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September 1980

Pub I . Mus . Michi gan State Uni v . , Biol . Ser . J_ (4): 133-159.
Smith, Hobart M. _et_ al .

1975. Another albinistic wandering garter snake. Utah
Herp . League J. 2 (2): 1-3.

Tanner, Wilmer W.

1966. An albino wandering garter snake. Proc. Utah
Acad. Sci. Arts. Lett. 43 ( 1 ) : 1 63 .

— -Gonzalo Perez-Higareda, Estacion de Biologfa Tropical "Los
Tuxtlas", Veracruz, Apartado Postal 51, Catemaco, Veracruz,
Mexico.

Received 11 November 1980
Accepted 8 December 1980

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September 1980

Distributional Records for Maryland Herpetofauna

Distributional records and comments on Maryland amphib-
ians and reptiles are presented below. Specimens are deposited
in the following collections: Natural History Society of Mary¬

land (NHSM) , Towson State University ( TSU ) , National Museum
of Natural History (USNM) . BZ refers to the former Baltimore
Zoo collection (now NHSM).

Siren " lacertina n (NHSM A 4574; formerly TSU 1132).
Harris (1975) tentatively accepted a record for a siren purport¬
edly from Battle Creek Cypress Swamp, Calvert County, and
assigned it to the species most likely to occur in Maryland,
S. lacertina . Subsequent x-rays of the specimen have shown
it to be 5. intermedia (H.S. Harris, Jr., pers. comm.). The
acceptance of this specimen as valid would necessitate a north¬
ward range extension of roughly 260 km from the northernmost
known locality in the eastern United States (Palmer et al.
1974). Owing to the uncertain provenance of the specimen,
the inability to collect additional material, and the consider¬
able range extension involved, it seems best to disregard this
locality. Technically Siren is not known from Maryland; the
only record north of the Potomac River is based on USNM 12573,
an adult 5. lacertina from "Potomac Flats," District of Colum¬
bia. This specimen was first mentioned anonymously (1882)
and later by Hay (1902).

Ambystoma maculatum (TSU 2677). An egg mass was col¬
lected .by J.F. Cover and the writer from a woodland depression
6.7 km E Easton, Talbot County, on 1 April 1979. The locality
adds slight definition to the Eastern Shore distribution as plot¬
ted by Harris (1975).

Ambystoma tigrinum tigrinum (NHSM* A 4779; formerly BZ
498). This enigmatic specimen, which has been mentioned sev¬
eral times in local publications (e. g . , Cooper 1965; Harris
1969, 1975; Committee ... 1973), has only just recently been

catalogued into a permanent collection. It was collected on
5 September 1962 by a resident of P i nes-on-Severn (S Arnold),
Anne Arundel County. Accompanying data state that it was
"Found crossing walk of collector's home." This is the only
known individual from the county and only the second locality
for Maryland's coastal plain west of the Chesapeake Bay.
Despite attempts to locate suitable breeding sites in the area,

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September 1980

none have been found (Committee.... 1973). This locality is
separated by some 70 km from the only other known Western
Shore, Maryland population (near LaPlata, Charles County,
since extirpated).

Desmognathus ochrophaeus (TSU 3890-3894). Cooper (1960)
first restricted this salamander^ distribution in Maryland
to the Alleghany Plateau (Garrett and extreme western Allegany
Counties), and Franz (1972) later reaffirmed this. Recently,
however, G. Walker collected five specimens from Piclic Run
at Fifteen Mile Creek Road, Green Ridge State Forest, Allegany
County, on 13 May 1979. The locality (elevation 220 /n) is in

the heart of Maryland’s Valley and Ridge Province, and while
within the species’ range as shown by the maps of Tilley

(1973) and Conant (1975), is nearly 30 km east of Franz's

(1972) nearest Allegany County site. Piclic Run is notable

also as the only known locality in the interior of the Valley
and Ridge of Maryland where Gyrinophilus porphyriticus has

been taken (Platania 1976).

Eurycea longicausa guttolineata. This form (considered
a species by many workers — e.g., Martof et al. 1980) was

stated in a book review by Suttkus and Gordon (1956) to

"range into Maryland," but this article has been overlooked
by compilers of distributional data on Maryland herpetofauna
(viz., Cooper 1960, 1965; Harris 1969, 1975). The Suttkus-
Gordon statement was based on a conversation Gordon had with
J A. Fowler, who left Gordon with the impression that he had
collected guttolineata in Frederick County sometime prior to
1950 (R.E. Gordon, pers. comm.). J.A. Fowler has informed

the writer (pers. comm.) that he has never collected this sala¬
mander in Maryland and that the Suttkus-Gordon comment un¬
doubtedly resulted from a misunderstanding.

More recently, Ireland (1979) has plotted a locality and
mapped this form as ranging throughout Maryland's piedmont.
Ireland (pers. comm.) has collected two specimens "between
Church Hill and Mountvi I le" (ca. 11 km SW Frederick), Freder¬
ick County, presumably from a tributary to Tuscarora Creek.
The site lies in the piedmont at- an elevation of 120 m and
in very close proximity (1.5 km) to the Blue Ridge escarpment.
Details regarding this first valid record of guttolineata in
Maryland are not available; the material is in Ireland's per¬
sonal collection and will eventually be deposited in the Amer¬
ican Museum of Natural History.

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September 1980

While the three- 1 i ned salamander may now be added to
Maryland's faunal list, there is little likelihood that, as
mapped by Ireland (1979), guttolineata is widespread in this
state. Ireland's map as it pertains to E. 1. longicauda in
Maryland is in error; Conant (1975) and Harris (1975) correctly
show its range limits.

Of additional interest is a specimen of Eurycea in the
Harris-Simmons collection ( NHSM/HSH-RSS AS 466) from Great
Falls, Montgomery County, about 42 km southeast of Ireland's
site. While closer to E. 1. longicauda the dorsa I marki ng s
of typical longicauda have coalesced to the point of imparting
a guttolineata- 1 ike appearance, and there is also a small a-
mount of ventral flecking. This is the only potential inter¬
grade (or hybrid) from Maryland which the writer is aware
of.

Hemidactylium scut at um (TSU 3645). An attendant female
and her clutch of 43 eggs were collected by the writer 3.8
km SE Millers on 25 April 1980, providing the first locality
for the species in Carroll County. The specimen (37 mm SVL;
76 mm TL) was taken from the edge of a woodland pool and

was principally using the bryophyte Bryhnia novae-angliae
as nesting material Small quantities of Leptodictym riparium
and Thuidium delicatulum were also present in the sample (J.A.
Snider, pers. comm.). Several other brooders were noted in
the area, which lies in the piedmont at an elevation of 240
m.

Bufo woodhousei fowler i (TSU 1787). A series of four
Fowler's toads was collected along Custer Gulch Trail, Mertens
Avenue, 1.2 km S JCT Mertens Avenue and Twigg Road, Green

Ridge State Forest, Allegany County, on 12 June 1977 by J.D.

Forester, at an elevation of 300 m. These currently represent

the westernmost positively identified specimens from the state.
The report of this species from Jennings, Garrett County (Fow¬
ler 1925) is not substantiated by material in the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the institution Fowler was
associated with (R. Cummins and C.L. Smart, Jr., pers. comm.).

Gastrophryne carolinensis (TSU 3896). An eighth record
for Maryland and a second locality for St. Mary's County are
represented by a specimen from SE Beauvue, Md. Route 244,
0.5 km W JCT Md. Route 244 and McKay's Road. It was col¬
lected in early September 1979 by M. Tegges.

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Rana virgatipes (NHSM A 4781). A carpenter frog, taken
on 1 June 1979 by W.S. Sipple and W. Klockner, was collected
ca. 1.5 miles (0.9 km) NE Baltimore Corner and represents
the first specimen from Caroline County. Additional data ac¬
companying the specimen state that it was collected from an
acidic, glade-type, pothole wetland dominated by Caiex cf.
rostrata and sphagnum, with one large area of Woodwardia
virginica. Sipple (1976) provided the first locality for Caro¬
line County (ca. 1.0 mile [l.6km]N Hollingsworth Crossroads)
and noted a second loca I i ty for the county in an environmental
impact statement by other workers (by i nterpretation , vicinity
of Mount Zion), but apparently no material was collected from
these sites.

Sternotherus odoratus. (TSU 1694-1695). Two specimens
from Beaver Branch, 1.0 km W Rocky Ridge, Frederick County,
suggest that this species is extensively distributed in the Monoc-
acy River drainage. The nearest previously plotted site
(Potomac River or immediate vicinity thereof — Harris 1975) is
some 50 km downstream from the present locality. The speci¬
mens were collected on 5 May 1977 by J.F. Cover and G. Grail,
at an elevation of 120 m.

Carphophis amoenus amoenus (TSU 1842). A juvenile,

107 mm TL, was collected along Piclic Run at Fifteen Mile
Creek Road, Green Ridge State Forest, Allegany County, on
3 October 1975 by D.C. Forester et al., at an elevation of
220 m. The specimen is the second record for the county.

The other locality for Allegany County and westernmost station
for the state are based on USNM 141385 from Christie Road,
3.0 miles (4.8 km) "from” Cumberland.

Cemophora coccinea copei (NHSM R 2361). A juvenile,

153 mm TL, received from Chesapeake Biological Laboratory
and collected by :a resident of Olivet, Calvert County, represents
only the tenth valid record for this species in Maryland.
It was found in a basement window well on 14 September 1977.

Elaphe guttata guttata (NHSM R 2474; formerly BZ 85).
Like NHSM A 4779 above, this Baltimore County specimen, one
of the more perplexing records for the state, has just recently
found its way into a permanent collection. This snake, col¬

lected on 8 June 1957, has been stated in an appendix by Har¬
ris to Cooper (1965) to have been collected "about 4 mi. S.
of Loch Raven Dam" and by Harris (1969,1975) to be from "4

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September 1980

mi. s. Loch Raven," but the Baltimore Zoo catalogue card ac¬
companying the specimen states that it came from 4.0 miles
(6.4 km) above (north) Loch Raven Reservoir Dam. A conversa¬
tion with the collector of the snake, W.J. Sentz, indicated that
the Baltimore Zoo catalogue card information is correct, and
provided further clarification of the site, which may now be
stated to be a (then) field off the south side of Blenheim Road,
0.5 km E JCT Blenheim Road and Md. Route 146. This clari¬
fication notwithstanding, the writer agrees with Harris (1969,
1975) that this corn snake most probably represents a released
or escaped pet.

It is perhaps also worth clearing up one other particular
regarding the specimen. It was noted by Harris in his appen¬
dix to Cooper (1965) that this snake "laid fertile eggs," while
the Baltimore Zoo data card states it "deposited 13 eggs (ap¬
pear to be infertile)." F. Groves (pers. comm.) has informed
the writer that, while in the possession of Sentz, the specimen
deposited 13 eggs on 13 June 1957. Upon being brought to
the Baltimore Zoo the next day (14 June), Groves noted that
the eggs appeared fertile, if somewhat dehydrated. Sentz re¬
tained the eggs, which never hatched, and apparently never
opened them to check for fertility.

For providing information relevant to this note, I thank
the following: Jack F. Cover, Ronald I. Crombie, Raymond

Cummins, Don C. Forester, James A. Fowler, Robert E. Gordon,
Frank Groves, Herbert S. Harris, Jr., Patrick H. Ireland, Ar¬
nold W. Norden, William J. Sentz, Charles L. Smart, Jr., Jerry
A. Snider, Mark Tegges and Greg Walker.

Literature Cited

Anonymous .

1882. [Siren lacertina recorded from District of Colum-
bia.j Proc. Biol . Soc . Washington 1:36.

Committee on Rare and Endangered Amphibians and Reptiles
of Maryland.

1973. Endangered amphibians and reptiles of Maryland.
Bu 1 1 . Maryland Herp. Soc. 9(3) :42-100.

Conant, R.

1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of east-

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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September 1980

ern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin
Co. , Boston . 429 pp.

Cooper, J.E.

1960. Distributional survey V: Maryland and the Dis¬

trict of Columbia. Bull. Philadelphia Herp . Soc.
8(3) : 18-24.

1965. Distributional survey: Maryland and the District

of Columbia Bu 1 1 . Mary I and Herp . Soc . 1(1): 3—

14. Revised byH.S. Harris, Jr.

Fowler, H.W.

1925. Records of amphibians and reptiles for Delaware,
Maryland and Virginia. II. Maryland. Copeia
1 925 ( 145) :61~64.

Franz, R.

1972. Dusky salamanders and the Alleghany Front of
Maryland. Bull. Maryland Herp. Soc. 8(3) :61 —
64.

Harris, H.S., Jr.

1969. Distributional survey: Maryland and the District

of Columbia. Bull. Maryland Herp. Soc. 5(4): 97t-

161. " ——

1975, Distributional survey (Amphibia/Repti I ia) : Mary¬

land and the District of Columbia. Bull. Mary-
land Herp. Soc. 1 1 ( 3 ) : 73- 1 67 .

Hay, W.P.

1902. A list of the batrachians and reptiles of the Dis¬
trict of Columbia and vicinity. Proc. Biol. Soc.
Washington 1 5 ( 25 ) : 1 2 1 - 1 45 .

Ireland, P.H.

1979, Eurycea longicauda . Cat. Amer. Amphib. Rept.

(221 ) : 1-4. ” “ ~ "

Martof, B.S., W.M. Palmer, J.R. Bailey and J.R. Harrison III.

1980. Amphibians and reptiles of the Carolinas and Vir¬
ginia. Uni versi tyof North Carolina Press, Chapel

Hill. 264 pp.

Palmer, W.M., A.L. Braswell and D.L. Stephan.

1974. Noteworthy herpetological records from North Carol i-

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September 1980

na. Bull. Maryland Herp. Soc . 10(3):81-87.

Platania, S.

1976. A comment on the distribution of Gyrinophilus por-
phyriticus in western Maryland. bu 1 1 . Mary I and
Herp. Soc. 12(3) : 1 01 .

Sipple, W.

1976. The carpenter frog ( Rana virgatipes ) in Caroline

County, Maryland. Bull. Maryland Herp. Soc.
J_2 (4) : 129-130.

Suttkus, R.D. and R.E. Gordon.

1956. Review of: Guide to the reptiles, amphibians,

and fresh-water fishes of Florida, by A. Carr
and C.J.Goin. Copeia 1 956 ( 3) : 1 99-200.

Tilley, S.G.

1973. Desmognathus ochrophaeus . Cat. Amer. Amphib.
Rept. ( 1 29 ) : 1 -4 . ~~ ~

—Robert Miller, Museum of Zoology, Towson State University,
Towson, Maryland 21204.

Received 4 December 1980
Accepted 8 December 1980

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September 1980

BOOK REVIEW:

AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES OF THE CAROL I NAS AND VIRGINIA.
By Bernard S. Martof, William M. Palmer, Joseph R. Bailey,
and Julian R. Harrison III. Photographs by Jack Dermid.
Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press. 264 pp. ill.
(color). Hardbound. $14.95.

This beautifully illustrated book is the first attempt at
presenting a general non technical field guide to the reptiles
and amphibians of this long neglected and herpetologica 1 1 y
rich section of the country. It is fittingly dedicated to the
late Bernard Martof. The book begins with three well written
and interesting chapters covering a general introduction, a
history of the herpetology of the Carolinas and Virginia, and
a description of the physiography, vegetation, and climate
of the region. The introduction includes a well written discus¬
sion of the conservation of amphibians and reptiles, a section
particularly suited to an amateur herpetologist or naturalist
in the area. There is a list of endangered, threatened, and
concern amphibians and reptiles which was put together based
on recent endangered species symposia within each state, al¬
though, unfortunately, there is no mention as to which of the
species receive federal or state protection, and there is no
mention in the reference section to any of the three symposia
volumes (admittedly, Virginia's symposium proceedings have
recently been published and South Carolina's may have come
out after submission for printing. However, both should have
been referenced as in press). A list of amphibians and rep¬
tiles of the Carolinas and Virginia, with order, family, common
and scientific names, completes the first section of the book.

The remainder, and bulk, of the book is given to descrip¬
tions and discussions of individual species. Classes and or¬
ders are mentioned briefly at the beginning of each group.
Each species is then presented, including a color photograph,
range map within the region, general description, a few life
history notes, and miscellaneous information. At the end of
the book is a glossary of terms and a list of useful references.

One can only call the photographs outstanding; they
are the best I have ever seen in any scientific or non tech¬
nical publication. The reproduction is top quality and the

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September 1980

high quality paper used in printing enhances their attractive¬
ness. The range maps, however, leave a little to be desired.
For instance, Ambystoma j efferson ianum is given too broad
a range in the map although the range in the text is correct;
the range of Plethodon punctatus is incorrect since it straddles
the border of West Virginia and Virginia; the Scott County,
Virginia, record for Plethodon dorsalis is overlooked; while
the text correctly states that Nerodia erythrogaster occurs on
the Delmarva Peninsula, the map is not shaded; the range
of Tantilla coronata is not nearly as continuous within Virginia
as indicated. Perhaps these are minor criticisms in a non
technical book, but they should be updated in future editions.

My major criticisms involve the information presented
on the sea turtles. With regard to the log g erh ea d , i t i s i noor-
rect to state that mating occurs just beyond the surf. Various
sea turtle researchers have reported mating far off the coast

of the eastern United States although where regular mating

takes place is virtually unknown. To say an individual lays

on a 2 or 3 year cycle is also an oversimplification as was

repeatedly brought out at the recent World Conference on Sea
Turtle Conservation. While some females do nest on such a

cycle, the vast majority would appear, as unlikely as it

seems, to nest on I y 0nce, based on tag returns. The loggerhead
also still regularly nests in Virginia at Chincoteague and on
the other barrier islands; in fact, it nests occasionally as

far north as New Jersey. A map showing major loggerhead

rookeries, such as at Cape Remain, the southern barrier is¬
lands in South Carolina, and Bear Island in North Carolina,

would have been appropriate. The tendency of some green
turtles to bask in Hawaii, which is mentioned in the text,

is insignificant to the Virginia-Carol ina area while the signifi¬
cant use of the Chesapeake Bay by loggerheads and perhaps

other species is overlooked. To say that the green turtle oc¬
curs in large numbers in the Caribbean is also relative. Many
rookeries no longer exist, and numbers no where near approxi¬
mate the vast numbers reported by early explorers. The Cari¬
bbean green turtle is in serious trouble.

Perhaps the most bothersome account to me concerns the discus¬
sion of the Kemp's ridley { Lepidochelys kempi ) . While the
authors correctly point out the critical state of the survival
of this species (p . 170) , one wonders why this is so considering
40,000 females come ashore to nest during an arribada, with
as many as 10,000 females on the beach at one time (p . 169) .

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September 1980

What is not stated is that these numbers were based on 1947
data. In 1978, only 500-600 females nested at Rancho Nuevo
with an estimated world population of about 1000 females and
still declining. It is also debated as to the importance of
the eastern coast to the ecological requirements of this species:
are those Kemp's ridleys found off the east coast waifs or
are they making periodic migrations? Some parts of the Virgin-
ia-Carolina area, such as the Chesapeake Bay, may indeed
be important to Kemp's ridley. And to be picky, both olive
ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea) and hawksbiils (Eretmochelys
imbricata ) regularly nest during daylight hours in parts of
their ranges.

The alligator account is particulary trivial and anecdo¬
tal. There is a wealth of interesting behavior and ecology
of this important species which could have been discussed,
yet wasn't. And for the record, some females challenge intru¬
ders to their nests, but many do not.

Finally, I found the glossary to be useful, but would
have liked to see diagrams illustrating such things as where
loreal and labial scales are located, such as in Barbour's
"Amphibians and Reptiles of Kentucky" (Univ. Press of Kentucky,
Lexington, 1971), as well as a dichotomous key. Both would
be exceptionally valuable to amateur herpetologists and natura-
I ists.

In spite of my biases with regard to the sea turtle ac¬
counts, I strongly recommend this book to both the scientific
and non scientific public. It's strengths outweigh its weakness¬
es; the color photography alone makes the book worth the price.

We can only hope the authors have a good technical book in
mind on the herpetology of this important region.

. Kenneth Dodd, Jr., Office of Endangered Species, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 20240.

Received 3 September 1980

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September 1980

Tarichatoxin: A unique Toxin Isolated from

Western American Newts

Many salamanders are known to have substances in their
bodies which are toxic to other animals. Those poisons are
generally secreted by specialized glands in the skin or the

mouth and are not extremely toxic when taken in small or mod-
derate amounts. In the family Sa I amandr i dae, however, an

extremely potent toxin called Tarichatoxin, named after the

genus Taricha in which it was first isoloated, has been found
to be completely different from the toxins of all other salaman¬
ders. Tarichatoxin occurs not only in the skin of Western
American newts (genus Taricha) but throughout their entire

bodies. This toxin has also been determined to be deadly,
even in very small amounts, to animals coming in contact with
them. Finally, Tarichatoxin has been discovered to be identi¬
cal to a toxin called Tetrodotoxin isolated from the Japanese
puffer fish.

Tarichatoxin was first isolated by Twitty (reviewed in
1937), when he was studying various aspects of the California
newt, Taricha torosa . He noticed that when eye vesicles from
T. torosa were transplanted into an embryo of Amhy stoma ti-
grinum , the latter became paralyzed for several days. After
further experiments, Twitty was able to show that the toxin
was present in all tissues of T. torosa. embryos as well as
in the blood of some adult females. In later experiments,
Wakely et al. (1966) were able to show that Tarichatoxin was
found only in the family Salamandridae and particularly in
Taricha torosa , Taricha rivularis , and Taricha granulosa.

Smaller amounts of the toxin were also found in Notophthalmus
viridescens and Cynops pyrrhogaster , as well as some others.
They also found that in adult T. torosa the toxin is concen¬
trated in the skin, ovaries, ova, muscles, and blood. It may
also be found in trace amounts in the liver, viscera and tes¬
tes. These salamanders are the only ones known in which
a toxin may be found concentrated in such large amounts in
pats of the body other than the skin.

Tarichatoxin is also one of the deadliest nonprotein tox¬
ins known. In studies done by Mosher et al. (1964) it was
shown that the minium lethal dose of toxin injected in the
intraperi tonea I cavity of mice is approximately 8 mg of toxin/
kg of body weight. The only nonprotein toxin with a lower-
minimum lethal dose is Koki venom from the frog Phyllohates
bicolor , at 2.7 mg/kg administered intravenously. It compari¬
son with other nonprotein toxins, strychnine has a minimum
lethal dose of 500 mg/kg and sodium cyanide 10,000 mg/kg.

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September 1980

Tarichatoxin acts as a neurotoxin by blocking the action
potentials of desheathed frog nerves when applied in concentra¬
tions as low as 1 to 10 mg/l (Mosher et al., 1964). It has

also been shown that in lobster (Homarus americanusj giant
axons Tarichatoxin blocks the conductance of socium which
is necessary for the action potential to travel across synapses

(Takata et al., 1966). Because of this blockage of action
potentials, Tarichatoxin, when injected into mammals, causes
paralysis of muscles, a fall in blood pressure, respiratory

arest, and death, even when only small amounts are injected
(Mosher et al., 1964). However, when desheathed sciatic

nerves from T. granulosa are treated with the toxin at a con¬
centration of 30,000 mg/l for 20-30 minutes, only a partial

blockage of the actin potential was recorded (Mosher et al.

1964). It is not known how Taricha is able to withstand such
high concentrations of the toxin.

It was long believed that this toxin was only found in
one family of amphibians, namely the Sa I amandri dae . Experi¬
ments by Mosher and others, however, showed that a toxin

called Tetrodotoxin, which is found only in one suborder of

fish (Tetraodontidae) and mainly in the puffer fish, Tetraodon
lineatus is chemically and pharmacologically equivalent to
Tarichatoxin. Puffer fish poisoning has been known for some

time to ocur in men who eat the fish. The symptoms of this

type of poisoning • include paralysis, fall of blood pressure,
respiratory failure, and death. These are the same symptoms
which occur in poisoning from Tarichatoxin.

A direct link between the two toxins could not be estab¬
lished, however, until 1964 when Mosher was able to obtain
enough Tarichatoxin in a crystalline form to compare with crys¬
talline Tetrodotoxin. He was then able to perform chromato¬
graphy tests using spots of Tarichatoxin, Tetrodotoxin, and

a mixture of the two toxins. All three spots behaved identical¬
ly and rose to the same point on the chromatography paper.

Other chemical identifications were performed on the two toxins
and on their degradation products. Both toxins have the same

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September 1980

molecular weight, the same chemical formula, and give the
same degradation products. Both toxins also react with the
same chemicals in the same way. Neither structure had been
positively worked out as of 1964, but both toxins had been

narrowed down to just a few possible structures. Based on

these works, it may be shown that Tarichatoxin and Tetrodotox-
in have either identical structures or differ only in the ar¬

rangements of certain chemical groups in the molecules.

In summary, Tarichatoxin is a toxin unique to amphibi¬
ans, found only in the family Sal amandridae. It is the only
toxin found concentrated throughout the entire body of any
amphibian, and it is one of the most lethal nonprotein toxins
known. It is either the same toxin or is very similar to Tetro-
dotoxin found only in one suborder of fish. These facts sug¬
gest that other families of amphibians and fishes might have

the same or similar toxins in their bodies. However, none
have been found to date and it is still a mystery why these
toxins are limited in distribution as they are.

Literature Cited

Mosher, H.S., F.A. Fuhrman, H.D. Buchwald and H.G. Fisher.

1964. Tarichatoxi n-tetrodotoxin : a potent neurotoxin.

Science 144: 1100-1110, figs. 1014.

Takata, M., J.W. Moore, C.Y. Kao and F.A. Fuhrman.

1966. Blockage of socium conductance increase in lob¬
ster 'Homarus americanusj giant axon by taricha¬
toxin ( tetrodotoxi n ) from newt Taricha torosa . Gen.
Phys. 49 . ( 5 ) : 977-988 .

Twitty, V.C.

1937. Experiments on the phenomenon of paralysis pro¬
duced by a toxin occurring in Trituru s embryos.
J. Exp. Zoo 1 . 76: 67-104.

Wakely, J.F.,
H.S. Mosher.

G.J.

Fuhrman,

F.A

. Fuhrman,

H.G. Fischer

and

1966.

The

occurrence

of

tetrodotoxi n

( tar ichatox i n )

i n

amphibians and

the

distribution

of the toxin

i n

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 16 Number 3

September 1980

the organs of newts (Taricha) . Toxicon 3(3)

195-203.

—Steven C. Baker, 5295 West Plymouth Drive, Littleton, Color¬
ado 80123.

Received 11 Jume 1980
Accepted 30 June 1980

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September 1980

The Absence of Sea Snakes in the Atlantic Ocean

The Atlantic Ocean, a seemingly ideal habitat for sea
snakes, is completely devoid of these otherwise widespread
marine reptiles. The barriers that have blocked their disper¬
sal into the Atlantic are not so obvious and pose questions
that end only with additional questions.

Until only recently there has been very little interest
and study of these unique reptiles, perhaps because sea snakes
are tropical and biologists are not, or because of .the general
fear and myths associated with the sea snake and its highly
potent venom, or as a result of the general inaccessibility
of the ocean for herpetologists. Whatever the reason, know¬
ledge is sparse. Sea snake paths of dispersal, radiation,
and colonization are of treat interest, especially in light of
their possible future migration through the Panama Canal if
it is ever built to sea level. The barriers that result in their
confinement within certain oceanic areas are here discussed.

Certainly physical land mass barriers that were present

during radiation of sea snakes are of utmost importance, and
so are temperature, salinity, currents and predation.

Snakes are believed to have diverged from the dibamid

lizards or close amcestprs tjerepf diromg the Cretaceous period,
about 120 million years ago. At this time Laurasia and Gond-
wana had each formed two separate land masses and the earth
began to take the shape it has today.

The Columbridae, Viperidae, and Elapidae became esta¬
blished during the Miocene period. The elapids (coral snakes,
cobras, mambas, kraits) are the direct ancestors of the hydro-
phids (sea snakes). During the Pliocene, which immediately

followed the Miocene and began about four million years ago,
the Panama land bridge was permanently closed. Access to

the Atlantic thereafter was possible only around the tip of

South America or Africa. Therefore the hydrophiids had to
have migrated eastward from the western Pacific after this

time, else they would presumably have entered the Atlantic

Ocean through the Panamanian portal.

The Hydrophiidae family is divided into two subfamilies:

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September 1980

Lat icaud i nae, which has an Afroasian lineage with one genus,
and the Hydroph i i nae, of Australian lineage and eleven genera
as recognized by Dowling and Duellman (1978). There are
about 55 kinds in ail.

Hydrophiids are widely distributed between South Africa
and Japan, including Madagascar, the Gulf of Aden, the mouth
of the Persian Gulf, the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, South
China Sea, Yellow Sea, China Sea, Philippines, Indonesia,
New Guinea, Australia, New Zealand, Coral Sea, Tasmania Sea,
New Hebrides, Fiji Islands, and Gilbert Islands. From the
western Pacific and Indian Ocean they are found eastward
between southern California and southern Ecuador. The Red
Sea, Medi terranean and Atlantic have none.

The tropical Indo-Pacific provides an optimal habatat.

Sea temperatures are around 25 degrees C and never fall be¬
low 20 degrees C. Salinity is fairly uniform, about 3.4%.

The richest benthic fauna of the world is present here.
Broad continental shelves, great reefs, 10,000 kilometers of
coastline and a magnificent diversity of food exist. This pro¬
vides the basis for the extensive endemism, diversification
and specialization evident in sea snakes.

Excepting Pelamis platurus from consideration, all are
benthic feeders. Diving depth is usually 15-20 meters. They
have an amazingly high tolerance to anoxia. Pickwell (1972)
indicated that Pelamis tolerated 5 hours of submergence and
Laticauda surfaced every 10-20 minutes under laboratory con¬
ditions. Increasing temperature lowers their submergence time.
Most are thus confined to regions of depths less than 100 fa¬
thoms. Laticauda > however, seems to have an amazing ability
to cross areas of great depth.

A few species are land-locked in inland lakes and sever¬
al flourish along river mouths and estuaries.

Small migrations are common, involving seasonal weather
patterns, shifts in currents, prey and reproductive cycles.

During the monsoon season, snakes are abundant along
the coasts and estuaries of southeast Asia. They are probably
seeking cooler waters or lower salinity levels or are following
shifts of prey abundance. During the dry season they are
more commonly found in the open ocean. Many species go in-

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September 1980

shore to lay their eggs in the shallows or sands.

Pelamis platurus , the yellow-bellied sea snake, is the
only snake that has successfully and abundantly colonized
the eastern Pacific, although there are a few reports of Lati-
cauda off the coast of Mexico and Central America. Pelamis
has also reached Cape Town in South Africa, as well as New
Zealand and Tasmainia. Being a surface feeder, it drifts
with the surface currents as if completely planktonic.

Often the Yellow-bellied sea snakes accumulate by the
hundreds and thousands in large surface slicks or Langmuir
circles. These are large rotating areas of converging and

diverging currents where debris, fish and upwellings accumu¬
late, serving as an excellent food source for the pelagic Pela¬
mis. This snake must wait for its prey and feeds in a frenzy
when food is near, biting at whatever is detected.

Pelamis has the most efficient and effective salt gland
of all sea snakes. It has a large sublingual gland and se¬
cretes salt very rapidly, enabling it to live indefinitely in
full strength sea water.

The open ocean tends to be higher in salt content than
coastal regions, where rivers actively flush fresh water. Also
evaporation tends to be quite high without strong precipitation

except at equatorial regions where there is heavy rainfall
and therefore lower salinity. However surface waters tend
to be warm and saline.

Pelamis seems to be very sensitive to high temperatures,
having an upper limit of 33 degrees C. In the tropical Pacific

temperatures often get as high as 31 degrees C and possibly
higher. It is rarely found in coastal waters of the western
Pacific and Indian Ocean, possibly avoiding high temperatures
and low salinity or perhaps some kind of predation or heavy

competition for food resources since it lacks the ability to
actively pursue food, as do otehr sea snakes.

There seems to be no real predation upon Pelamis except
by occasional sea birds, eels and sharks. Its aposematic
coloration of brightly colored yellow belly and spotted tail
certainly acts as a warning, for its venom is highly deadly.
The snake seems to be perfectly adapted for its pelagic I ife-

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 16 Number 3

September 1980

style. Since it bears its young at sea it never wilfully crawls
onto land, although currents often beach them on the eastern
Pacific coast, leaving them helpless.

What if the Panama Canal were made sea level? Pelamis
platurus could most certainly make the passage. Tidal cur¬
rents would carry the snake in.. Survival in the fresh water
would be no real threat. It ’has been kept in tap water for
up to six months without ill effects (Dunson and Ehlert, 1971).

The major inhibiting factor would be initial predation.

Tests performed by Rubinoff and Kropach (1972) showed that
no Pacific predataory fish would attack Pelamis whereas Atlan¬
tic fish readily attacked. Nine percent of attacks by Atlantic
fish led to their death. Selection pressures against predators
of Pelamis wouid no doubt eventually lead to avoidance. BAsed
on temperature, an area from North Carolina to Brazil could
theoretically become colonized.

As far as elimination by humans is concerned, virtually
no threat exists. Sea snakes do have highly potent venoms
but rarely attack unless strongly provoked, and even then
do not inject a full dose of veno. Kropach (1972) was bitten
six times without any envenomation . Pelamis is relatively
abundant on the Mexican coastline where human activity is
fairly heavy. Most people don't even realize this snake is
venomous and there are no reported deaths. Fishermen insouth¬
east Asia seem to fear only a few kinds and Malaysian child¬
ren play with them frequently. This is not to say that sea
snakes are harmless, for they most certainly are not, but there
is no reason for a great amount of fear to be generated by
them .

The main current that blocks off entry into the Atlantic
by way of southern South America or Africa is the Antartic
circumpolar cugrent^ It has the largest transport of any cur¬
rent (330 X 10 m /sec). It is extremely cold and flows east¬
ward, with branches flowing northward on both sides of South
America and on the west side of Africa.

The currents on western sides of oceans are swifter than
on the eastern sides because of prevailing west wind drift.
There is a general counter clockwise circulation pattern in
the Southern Hemisphere which prevents entry westward into
the Atlantic.

Page 116

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 Number 3

September 1980

The Humboldt current travels up the western coast of
South America, flowing westward just south of Ecuador. It
is fed by the cold Antartic waters and acts as an effective
block to any travel southward.

The Benguela current flows northward along the western
African coast. The Antarctic circumpolar current feeds and
merges with this current, effectively acting as a barrier to
any northward movement from the western Pacific by a warm
water surface dweller. Pelamis is carried to Cape Town bythe
Aguthas current, a relatively warm flow that follows southward
off the eastern African coast around the Cape of Good Hope
until it hits the Benguela current. Pelamis would die quickly
once entering this cold body of water.

The Red Sea was never colonized because of high temper¬
atures and high salinity (3.8% - 4.1% whereas the open ocean
is 3.5%). The Med i terranean gets far too cold to support sea
snakes even if there were access to it. Of course any north¬
erly interchanges between the Pacific and Atlantic are totally
precluded by the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean.

In conclusion, it appears that the absence of sea snakes
in the Atlantic Ocean is a result of (1) origin of sea snakes
in the western Pacific and Indian Ocean; (2) their nearly uni¬
versal (excepting only Pelamis and perhaps Laticauda) limi¬
tation to shallow, warm waters near the continental shelf,
thus limiting dispersal; (3) the absence of any warm water

portal between Atlantic and Pacific after a very few species

of sea snakes did manage to disperse to the eastern Pacific;
and (4) the flow of lethal I y cold currents of Antarctic origin
in the south Atlantic Ocean at both the African and South Ameri¬
can capes, completely preventling access to the ATIantic Ocean
in these areas.

We also conclude that any sea-level portal constructed

in Central America would soon result in colonization of tropi¬
cal parts of the Atlantic Ocean by Pelamis , despite moderately
heavy initial predation by fishes that eventually would be

expected to evolve avoidance behaviors as have exposed fishes
the Pacific.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetologicai Society

Page 117

Volume 16 Number 3

September 1980

Dowling, G.H. and W.E. Duellman.

1978. Systematic herpetology:

and higher categories.
cat ions . 118. viii pp.

a synopsis of families
New York , H i ss Pub I i-

Dunson, W.A.

1975. The biology of sea snakes. Uni versi ty Park
Press. xi, 530 pp., ill.

and G.w. Ehlert.
'1971. Effects of
water flow
Pel amis.
845-853.

temperature, salinity, and surface
on distribution of the sea snake,
Limnology and Oceanography 1 6 :

Goin, C.J., O.B. Goin and G = R. Zug.

1978. Introduction to herpetology. San Francisco,

Freeman . xiii, 378 pp., ill.

Gross, M.G.

1977. Oceanography: a view of the earth. Englewood

Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall Inc. xi,

497 pp., “ill.

Kropach, C

1971 Pelamis platurus as a potential colonizer of

the Caribbean Sea. Bull. Biol. Soc. Wash.

2:267-269.

Pickweli, G.V.

1972. The venomous sea snakes. Fauna 4: 16-32.

Rubinoff, II, and C. Kropach.

1972. Differential relations of Atlantic and Pacific
predators to sea snakes. Nature 228: 1288-

1290.

Stowe, K.S.

1979. Ocean science. New York, Wi ley . 284 pplk ill.

■«~Carol A. Cozzi, 705 Nekik View, Huron, Ohio, 44839.

Received 11 June 1980
Accepted 30 June 1980

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 118

Volume 16 Number 3

September 1980

MUSEUM SERIES

Museum of Natural History
The University of Kansas
Vol, 13 j No, 4

AUTECOLOGY OF THE COPPERHEAD

BY HENRY S, FITCH

limited softcover
print i ng.

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September 1980

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AMS Publications

announces

TURTLES IN KANSAS

by

Janalee P. Caldwell and Joseph T. Collins

This book presents complete and concise information on the fourteen
kinds of turtles currently known to occur in Kansas. Each of these
turtles is treated in an account which contains one or more color
photographs, common and scientific name, and descriptions of its
size and identifying characteristics, habitat, breeding habits, food
preferences, predators, defense mechanisms, general range, species
with which it might be confused, how to observe it in the wild, and a
detailed map of its distribution in Kansas.

In addition, this book contains a non-technical key for identifying
living turtles, and an illustrated technical key to preserved specimens
of turtles for use by biology classes.

Approximately
13 figures;
and 14 maps.

80 pages

16 color photographs

Retailers and wholesalers:
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Bulletin Maryland Herpetol og i cal Society

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Society Publications

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Individual numbers in stock are $2.00 each, un¬
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The Soc iety a 1 so pub 1 i shes a News 1 etter on a
somewhat irregular basis. Theseare distributed
to the membersh i p free of charge . Also published
are Maryland Herpetofauna Leaflets and these are
available at $. 05/page.

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Major papers are those over 5 pages (double
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The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Natural History Society of Maryland j Inc .
2643 North Charles Street
Baltimore 3 Maryland 21218

US ISSN: 0025-4231

'L/0

BULLETIN OF THE

THacylanb

f)erpetolog'tcaI

0ociety

Department of Herpetology
The Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

FIELD KEY TO THE WHIPTAIL LIZARDS (GENUS: CNEMIDOPHORUS )
PART II: THE WHIPTAILS OF MEXICO

Thomas Vance

MdHS . A FOUNDER MEMBER OF THE

Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League

DECEMBER 1980

VOLUME 16 NUMBER 4

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 Number k

December 1 980

CONTENTS

A F I ELD KEY TO THE WH I PTAI L
PART II: THE WH I PTA I LS

LIZARDS (GENUS: CNEMIDOPH ORUS )

OF MEXICO . . Thomas Vance 121

The Maryland Herpetological Society
department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland, Inc .
2643 North Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218

BULLETI N OF THE

Vo 1 ume 1 6 Numbe r b

Decembe r 1980

The Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society
Department of Herpetology, Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

Bulletin Staff

Executive Editor Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Steering Committee

Donald Boyer Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Frank Groves

Jerry D. Hardy, Jr. Jeff Thomas

Officers

President . Richard Czarnowsky

Vice-President . Beth E. Cline

Secretary . Les Chaikin

Treasurer . Les Chaikin

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 76-93^58

Membership Rates

Full membership in the Maryland Herpetol ogical Society is $12.50 per year,
subscribing membership (outside a 20 mile radius of Baltimore City) $10.00
/year. Foreign $12. 00/yr . Make all checks payable to the Natural History
Society of Maryland, Inc.

Meet ? nqs

The third Wednesday of each month, 8:15 p.m. at the Natural History
Society of Maryland (except May-August, third Saturday of each month,
8:00 a.m.). The Department of Herpetology meets informally on all other
Wednesday evenings at the NHSM at 8:00 p.m.

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 16 31 DECEMBER 1980 Number 4

A FIELD KEY TO THE WHIPTAIL LIZARDS (GENUS: CNEMIDOPHORUS )
PART II: THE WHIPTAILS OF MEXICO

Thomas Vance

ABSTRACT

The key presented is for identification of
cnem i dopho r i ne lizards of Mexico. A short
bibliography which summarizes current identi¬
fication data of the whiptails and racerunners
is included as well as series of maps with
estimates of ranges.

The diversity of whiptail and racerunner lizards pre¬
sents many problems for the taxonomist. The major problems
are involved with overlap of morphological characters and
with ontogenetic changes, especially in adult males, which
are known to take place in many species. Other factors which
could be considered are found in bibliographic entries.

This key is the second of a series, the first having
been prepared for whiptails of the United States (Vance,
1978). The purpose of constructing keys for geographical
or political regions is to aid with the identification by
eliminating many taxa which would otherwise key out improp¬
erly. Having been devised for use in the field, the coup¬
lets include only concise characters which are most consis¬
tent for the species in question.

This manuscript has been based on the species-groups
concept; however, several forms are known to possess char¬
acteristics of other groups. For this reason, some taxa
appear with more than one of the couplets. One such ex¬
ample was reported by Smith and Brandon (1968) for certain
members of the deppei species group. Other members are also
difficult to identify because of a wide overlap of morpho¬
logical characters. The members of the hyperythrus group

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 121

Volume 1 6 Number 4

December 1 980

are identified by color and pattern while identification of
members of the tesselatus sexlineatus and deppei groups are
based on color, patterns, and scalation differences.

Many variations exist in this genus. Populations of
subspecies may show enough variation in isolated communities
to be considered recognizable taxa. Hendricks (1975) and
Walker (1967) named several new subspecies in their disser¬
tations which are available, commercially, in the form of
microfische. The populations described appear to be close
to the subspecific level of organization. For this reason,
the two new names proposed by Hendricks, and the two names
proposed by Walker may very well represent these populations
Investigators should be advised, however, that these names
presently have no formal taxonomic validity due to the fact
thay they have not been officially published along with des¬
criptions, and if used in print, become momina nuda (Webb,
1970), but Smith and Smith (1976) and Williams (1976) recog¬
nize such names as being legitimate, consequently a ruling
concerning this problem is much to be desired. Of the above
C. t. vetiouloriens Hendricks, was included in a previous
key (Vance , 1978).

One recently discussed problem involves the recogni¬
tion of C. t. stegnegevi which has been synonymized with
C. t. multi s out atus . The two names are included in the key
because they may represent two separable forms. This prob¬
lem is discussed by Burger (1950), Smith and Taylor (1950),
Stebbins (195^, 1966), Cochran and Goin (1970) and Behler
and King (1979). Zweifel (1958, 1 9 6 5 ) is of the opinion
that stegnegevi should be the name applied to the mainland
form while multis cutatus would refer to the Cedros Island
populations as do Smith and Taylor (1966). Another problem
regards the ranges of C. t. aethiops and C . t. gracilis
which have been questioned by Burger (1950), Smith and
Taylor (1950, 1966), Duellman (1955), Zweifel (1958),
Williams (i960), Stebbins ( 1 9 5 4 , 1966), Walker, et al.

(1966) and Cochran and Goin (1970). Vance (1978) had
extended the range of aethiops into southern Arizona, but
most authorities restrict it to Mexico. • Its inclusion in
the United States key and maps was due to its relatively
unknown distributional status and the possibility of it
occurring within the boundaries of Arizona. Smith and Smith
(1976) provide full specific rank to C . t. canus 3 C. t.
martyris and C. t. maximus , and had recognized C. t. dicker-
sonae as did Smith and Taylor (1966) and Soul and Sloan
(1966). More research is needed to substantiate these
changes of nomen c 1 a t o r a 1 status. Hendricks ( 1 975) presented
a thorough account of the tigvis subspecies which occur east

Page 122

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Vo 1 ume 1 6 Number 4

December 1 980

of the Continental Divide, but the taxa west of this line
are in need of a revisionary study.

The classical keys of Burt (1931, 1935) were compli¬
cated to use and included only species which were recognized
at the time. Other significant keys which have recently ap¬
peared and are concerned with the United States-Mexi can
species were published by Smith (1946) , Smith and Taylor
(1950), Stebbins (195*0, and Savage (1959). Zweifel (1959)
prepared a key for buvti 3 communis 3 and sacki; Duellman and
Wellman (i960) for the deppei species group; Lowe, et al.
(1966) for the striped and unspotted representatives of the
southwest United States and northern Mexico, and Wright
(1968) prepared a thorough key for inovnatus 3 velox3 and
unipavens. Identification matrices of major importance were
prepared by Duellman (1962) for the taxa of Michoacan;
Duellman and Zweifel (1962) for the sexlineatus group;

Walker and Taylor (1968) for the caevuleus- like species and
subspecies; Lowe and Wright (1964) for exsanguis 3 flagelli-
caudus 3 and sonovae ; Maslin and Walker (1965) for alpinus 3
scalavis 3 gulavis and mexicanus ; and Walker (1980) for
alpinus 3 costatus 3 mexicanus 3 and pavvisocius . Due to the
abundance of recent literature, a revisionary key is neces¬
sary in order to accomodate the newly named species and
s u bs pec i es .

A total of 32 species and 56 subspecies are recognized
by the author which are known to range into, or be endemic
to Mexico. The following representatives are included in
the key: C. alpinus Maslin and Walker, C. angusticeps
angusticeps Cope, C. bacatus Van Denburgh and Slevin, C.
buvti buvti Taylor, C. b. stictogvammus Burger, C. calidipes
Duellman, C. catalinensis Van Denburgh and Slevin, C . ceval-
bensis (Van Denburgh and Slevin), C. celevipes Dickerson,

C. communis communis Cope, C. c. maviavum Gunther, C. co¬
status costatus Cope, C. c. bavvancovum Zweifel, C . c. gvi-
seocephalus Zweifel, C. c. huico Zweifel, C. c . mazatlanen-
sis Zweifel, C, c . nigvigulavis Zweifel, C, c. occidentalis
Gadow, C. c . zweifeli Duellman, C. cozumela cozumela Gadow,
C, c. maslini Fritts, C. deppei deppei Wiegmann, C. d. in-
fevnalis Duellman, C. d. schizophorus Smith and Brandon,

C. exsanguis Lowe, C. gularis gularis Baird and Girard, C.g,
colossus Dixon, Lieb and Ketchersid, C.g. sub. sp. (Walker),

C. g. sub. sp. (Walker), C. guttatus guttatus Wiegmann, C.g .
flavilineatus Duellman and Wellman, C. g. immutabilis Cope,
C. hyperythrus hyperythrus Cope, C. h. beldingi (Stejneger)

C . h. caeruleus (Dickerson), C . h . danheimae Burt, C . h .
espiritensi s (Van Denburgh and Slevin), C. h . francis censis
(Van Denburgh and Slevin), C. h . pictus (Van Denburgh and Sl¬
evin), C. In. schmidti (Van Denburgh and Slevin), C. inovnatus

Bulletin Maryland He rpe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Volume 1 6 Number b

December 1 9 8 0

inornatus Baird, C. i. heptagrammus Axtell, C, i . paululus
Williams, C. labialis Stejneger, C. lineattis simus lineat-
tissimus Cope, C. 1. duodecemlineatus Lewis, C. 1. exoris-
tus Duellman and Wellman, C. 1. lividus Duellman and
Wellman, C, mexicanus Peters, C. motaguae Sackett, C. neo-
mexicanus Lowe and Zweifel , C. opatae Wright, C. parviso-
cius Zweifel, C. rodecki Me Coy and Maslin, C. sacki sacki
Weigmann, C. s. gigas Smith and Davis, C. scalaris scalar¬
is Cope, C. s. pallidus Duellman and Zweifel, C. s. semi-
fasoiatus Cope, C. s. septemvittatus Duellman and Zweifel,

C. sonorae Lowe and Wright, C. tesselatus (Say), C . tigvis
tigris Baird and Girard, C. t. aethiops Cope, C . t. oanus

Van Denburgh and Slevin, C. t. estebanensis Dickerson, C.t.
gracilis Baird and Girard, C. t. marmoratus Baird and
Girard, C. t. martyris Stejneger, C. t . maximus Cope, C.t,
multiscutatus Stejneger, C. t. sub. sp. (Hendricks), C. t,
pulcher Williams, Smith, and Chrapliwy, C. t. punctatus
Walker and Maslin, C. t. sub. sp. (Hendricks), C. t. rubi-
dus Cope, C. t. stejnegeri Van Denburgh, C, t. variolosus
Cope, and C. uniparens Wright and Lowe.

In order to avoid repetition, investigators should re¬
fer to maps with the United States Key (Vance, 1978), which
include the following taxa that are known to range into Mex¬
ico: C. burti stictogrammus C . exsanguis 3 C, gularis gula-

ris3 C . hyperythrus beldingi 3 C. inornatus heptagrammus 3 C.
neomexicanus C. scalaris septemvittatus 3 C. sonorae 3 C .
tes selatus 3 C . tigris tigris3 C. t, aethiops 3 C. t. gracilis 3
C. t. marmoratus 3 C. t. stejnegeri 3 C. t. reticuloriens 3
and C. uniparens . The reader is also advised to consult the
map of Harris and Simmons (1977) and Soule and Sloan (1986)
in order to pin point islands in the Gulf of California.

In conclusion, the following key must be used in con¬
junction with the maps and bibliographic materials in order
to attain proper identifications. It should also be used,
when possible, on adult specimens which are alive or freshly
killed, and for which specific collection sites are known.

A TENTATIVE KEY TO THE WHIPTAILS OF MEXICO

1. Presence of only one frontoparietal scale (scales par¬
tially divided are considered as one scale) .... 2

Presence of two frontoparietal scales . 10

2. Mesoptychial scales small . ..... 3

Mesoptychial scales abruptly enlarged . 7

Page Mb

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 1 6 Number A

Decembe r 1980

3. Presence of anterior bifurcation of dorsal stripe, if
present . 5

Absence of anterior bifurcation of dorsal stripe, if
present . A

A. Presence of A evenly defined stripes on a black dor¬
sum; hindlimbs are black with bold white spots. . .

. C. ceralbensis

Dorsal stripes very pale or lacking posteriorly; hind-
limbs are uniform gray,. ... C. hyperythrus pictus

5. Tail unstriped; dorsal stripes are bluish-white to

grayish-blue . C. hyperythrus eaeruleus

Tail distinctly striped; dorsal stripes are white,
cream, or b rown i s h -y e 1 1 ow . 6

6. Paravertebral stripes are predominantly black; ventrum
is dark blue to b 1 u i s h - g r ay . . C. hyperythrus danheimae

Paravertebral stripes are predominantly brown; ventrum
is white to grayish-white.C. hyperythrus franciscensis

7. Presence of 6 dorsal stripes . C. hyperythrus beldingd

Presence of 5 dorsal stripes . 8

8. Usually 2 or 3 longitudinal light lines on vertebral

area . C. hyperythrus hyperythrus

Usually, median dorsal light line . 9

9. Dorsal stripe not of same intensity and not as wide as

lateral stripes but fainter and usually narrow . . . .

. . . • . C. hyperythrus sehmidti

Dorsal stripe of same intensity and as wide as lateral

stripes or wider and diffused . . . .

. C. hyperythrus espiritensis

10. Supraoculars normally 3 . 11

Supraoculars normally A or 5 . 2 A

11. Presence of one pair of dorsolateral stripes ... 12

Presence of 2 or more pairs of dorsolateral stripes lA

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Vo 1 ume 1 6 Number 4

December 1 9 8 0

12. Vertebral stripe single; other stripes not replaced by

spots . C. guttatus flavilineatus

Vertebral stripe paired; other stripes show some evi¬
dence of being replaced by spots . 13

13. Supraorbital semicircles complete; most stripes are

fragmented into spots . C. guttatus guttatus

Supraorbital semicircles not complete; spots are pre¬
sent but do not replace stripes C. guttatus immutabilis

1 k . Presence of accessory scute between the frontoparietal
andparietal . . . . . . .15

Absence of accessory scute between the frontoparietal
andparietal . . . . . 17

15. Usually one enlarged preanal scale flanked laterally

by granules . C. vodecki

Usually 2 enlarged preanal scales . 16

16. Brown dorsal fields; stripes wavy or broken or con¬
nected by transverse bars . . . . C . cozumeta oozumeta

Greenish-brown dorsal fields; all stripes straight and
not interrupted; absence of transverse bars .

. C. oozumeta maslini

17. Spots present on lateral stripes . 19

Spots not present on lateral stripes . 18

18. Usually 8 stripes present; 88-120 dorsal granules

around midbody . C. deppei infernatis

Usually 10-11 stripes present; 125-1^2 dorsal granules
around midbody . . Q. lineattis simus duodecemlineatus

19. Absence of distinct vertical bars on flanks . . . .20

Presence of distinct vertical bars on flanks . . . .21

20. Presence of 3 supraocu 1 ars ; c i r cumo r b i t a 1 s extend an¬
teriorly to frontal . C. deppei deppei

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Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 1 6 Numbe r k

December 1 980

Presence of k sup raocu 1 a rs ; c i rcumorb i t a 1 s normal . .

. C. deppei s chizophorus

21. Paravertebral stripes fused to form middorsal stripe;

lateral stripes not usually fragmented .

. C. tineattis simus exovistus

Paravertebral stripes separate from middorsal stripe;
lateral stripe sometimes fragmented . 22

22. Flanks and lateral fields are dark brown to black 23

Flanks and lateral fields nearly same color as other
fields . C . tineattis simus tineattis simus

23. Supraorbital semicircles not complete; vertebral
stripes bordered by black. . C. tineattis simus tividus

Supraorbital semicircles complete; vertebral stripes
not bordered by black C . tineattissimus duodecemtineatus

2k. Enlarged scales immediately preceding gular fold large
(more than 3 times diameter of smallest scales of pre-
gular fold); Po s t a n t e b r a ch i a 1 s enlarged or slightly
enlarged; a lined pattern in juveniles and usually
adults; usually 5-8 light lines or stripes present;
fields are dark; barring is usually limited if present
. 25

Enlarged scales immediately preceding gular fold small
(not 3 times diameter of smallest scales of pregular
fold); or if larger, a reticulated pattern is usually
evident on the dorsum of adults from northern Mexico,
a lined pattern on a dark dorsum in southern Mexico;
Postantebrachials granular; dorsal pattern consisting
of stripes with spots and/or bars and/or reticulations

. . . . . 62

25. Supraorbital semicircles extend anteriorly past fron¬
tal scute . 26

Supraorbital semicircles normal . 28

26. Bars restricted to flanks and are brownish to cream

colored . . . . 2 7

Bars extend onto dorsum and are bluish . . C. catidipes

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27. Stripes persistent in adult males; absence of barred
dorsum; 3 3- ^9 femoral pores . . . . C . parvis ooius

Stripes fade on nape of neck in adult males; presence
of barred dorsum; 29-37 femoral pores . . C. alpinus

28. Stripes vague or broken; spots or bars present . . .3^

Stripes distinct; absence of spots or bars . 29

29. Scales bordering anterior of gular fold enlarged and

angular . . . 30

Scales bordering anterior of gular fold neither en¬
larged nor angular, or only slightly so . 31

30. Ventrum is brilliant blue of males; chin is immaculate

white of females . C . labialis

Ventrum is white; males not known to exist; chin is
bluish . C. uniparens

31. Lack of blue pigment on ventral surfaces . . C. opatae

Presence of blue pigment on ventral surfaces . . . .32

32. Dorsal pattern consisting of 8 or 9 light lines on a

gray to b rown i s h -g reen dorsum, dorsum unicolored . .33

Dorsal pattern consisting of 7 light lines on a dark
gray to blackish dorsum . . C. inornatus heptagrammus

33. Presence of 38 or more femoral pores; 68 or less

scales around midbody; dorsum never unicolored . . . .

. C . inornatus paululus

Presence of 35 or less femoral pores; 69 or more
scales around midbody; dorsum may be unicolored . . .

. C . inornatus inornatus

3^. Pos t an teb rach i a 1 s slightly enlarged . . 35

Pos t an teb rach i a 1 s greatly enlarged . 40

35. Presence of a bar pattern or reticulations .... 36

Absence of a bar pattern or reticulations .... 39

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36. Dorsum greenish-tan with brown or black crossbars re¬
stricted to sides or involving most of the dorsum . 37

Dorsum dark brown; crossbars present on only anterior
part of dorsum . C . communis maviavum

37. Stripes not persistent; reticulations or crossbars

present on dorsum . 38

Stripes persistent; reticulations only on sides . . .

. C. angusticeps angusticeps

38. Dark crossbars on a tan dorsum; chin of males tan

colored . C. sacki sacki

Dark reticulations on a tan dorsum; chin of males pink

. C, sacki gigas

39. Stripes persistent to some degree; dorsum grayish-

green or entirely green with or without yellow spots

. C. communis communis

Stripes not persistent; dorsum g ray i s h - b rown anterior¬
ly and g ray i sh -g reen posteriorly with yellow spots . .

. C. motaguae

40 . Anterior nasal in contact with second upper labial .58

Anterior nasal usually separated from second upper
labial.... . . . A 1

41 .

42 .

43.

Stripes persistent along body length, never replaced
by bars or spots although they may be present . . .42

Stripes not persistent along body length, replaced by

bars or spots or completely absent . 47

Ventral coloration pale or immaculate . 44

Ventral coloration light blue or dark blue . 43

Ground color greenish at least anteriorly; dorsum not
completely spotted; ventrum is dark.C. gulavis gulavis

Ground color brownish; dorsum completely spotted, ven¬
trum is light to moderate blue . . C. gulavis colossus

44. Dorsal granules 68-80 . 45

Dorsal granules 81-115 . . . . . . 46

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45. Ventrals white and tinged with blue; reddish spots on
hatchings; spots on nape tends to be present; spots on
body very distinct . . C. exsanguis

Ventrals white and immaculate; spots absent on hatch¬
ings; spots on nape tend to fade; spots on body vague

. C. sonovae

46. Stripes not persistent; granules between paraverte¬
bral stripes 5 - 1 1 ; Dorsal granules 98-115 .

. C. buvti stictogvammus

Stripes persistent; granules between paravertebral
stripes 0-7; Dorsal granules 85-101. . . C . buvti buvti

47. Pos t a n t eb r a ch i a 1 s small or moderate; preoculars in

contact with supralabials . C . mexicanus

Pos t an t eb rach i a 1 s large; pi eocul ars not in contact
with supralabials . 48

48.

Chest

and

abdomen

predominantly

dark . . . .

... 49

Chest

and

a bdomen

predom i nan t 1 y

light . . .

... 55

49. Chin color black, but never light ..........

. C. costatus nigvigulavis

Chin color light, never black . 50

50. Presence of bars or reticulations on trunk, or at

least on sides . 51

Absence of bars or reticulations on trunk .... 54

51 .

Presence
s t r i c t ed

of

to

small

rump

light

spots

on

trunk,

spots not re-
. 52

Presence
s t r i ct ed

of

to

small

rump

light
only. .

spots

on

, C.

trunk, spots re -

costatus occidentalis

52. Middorsal stripe twice as wide as lateral stripes;

crossbars present on dorsum . 53

Middorsal stripe absent or nearly as wide as lateral
stripes; crossbars present only on sides .

. C. costatus huico

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Decembe r 1980

53. Dorsal coloration of fields is greenish, brown, or tan

. C. costatus costatus

Dorsal coloration of fields is dark brown or black . .

. . C. scalaris scalaris

54 . Dorsal granules 71-10 3 ; chin pinkish or reddish . . .

. C. gularis sub. sp .

Dorsal granules 97-119; chin light blue .

. C. costatus griseo cephalus

55. Presence of reticulations or bars . 56

Absence of reticulations or bars . 57

56. Granules around midbody 74-96; ventral coloration is

white; chin pinkish or white . . . C. gularis sub. sp .

Granules around midbody 91-117; ventral coloration is
cream; chin pinkish with a blue spot or bar .

. C. costatus zweifeli

57. Ventral coloration of chin and chest is orange; black
spots may be present on chin C . scalaris s emifas ciatus

Ventral coloration of chin and chest is white, bluish

or black with or without spots . 58

58. Chin without black spots or markings . 59

Chin with black spots or markings . 6 1

59. Stripes present; some spotting may or may not be pre¬
sent; dorsum without traces of reddish pigment . . .60

Stripes vague or absent; heavy spotting present; dor¬
sum with some traces of reddish pigment. . 46

60. Granules around midbody 71 - 9 6 ; chin is bluish white .

. . . . . . . . . . . . C. scalaris pallidus

Granules around midbody 91-119; chin is white ....

. . . . . . C . costatus barrancorum

61. Granules around midbody 78-97. .

. . C. scalaris septemvittatus

Granules around midbody 95-121 .

. C. costatus mazatlanensis

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62. Mesop ty ch i a 1 s moderately or considerably enlarged,

more than 3 times diameter of smallest scales in
median part of pregular fold . . 63

Mesop ty ch i a 1 s small . 68

63. Dorsal surface without a barred or checkered pattern;

stripes persistent or body heavily spotted . 64

Dorsal surface with a distinct barred or checkered
pattern; stripes vague and appear as narrow lines. . .

. C, tesselatus

64. Supraorbital semicircles extend anteriorly to frontal

. . . . 67

Supraorbital semicircles normal . . . .65

65. Presence of 6-7 stripes; 2 enlarged preanal scales . .

. C. opatae

Presence of 8 stripes; 4-9 enlarged preanal scales .66

66. Spots within or in place of lateral stripes .

. C. deppei sehizophorus

Spots absent in broad and distinct lateral stripes . .

. C. deppei infernalis

67. Dorsum with evidence of 4 light stripes, or stripes
completely absent and dorsum unspotted . C . catalinensis

Dorsum with evidence 7 “ 1 0 stripes which are clearly
visible and spotting may be present. .C. deppei deppei

68. Ventrum white or pale blue . C. neomexicanus

Ventrum with evidence of dark pigmentation . 69

69. Gular region entirely black . 70

Gular region with at least a few light markings,
mottling may be present . 74

70. Presence of bars and/or spots on hind limbs . . . .71

Presence of reticulations on hind limbs . 73

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71. Absence of barring on dorsum . 12

Presence of barring on dorsum . . C. tigris gracilis

72. Femoral pores 40-50; melanistic and reticulated . . .

. C. tigris variolosus

Femoral pores 30-42; melanistic and spotted C. bacatus

73. Stripes absent or not persistent; ventral coloration

predominantly black . C . tigris sub. sp .

Stripes present and persistent; ventral coloration of
anterior 2/3 black . C. tigris aethiops

lb. Presence of a striped pattern, body may be unicolored;

spotting may be present in linear series . 78

Absence of a striped pattern; body not unicolored;
spotting may occur at random . 75

75. Spots on dorsum forming a barred pattern; gular region

marbled # . C . tigris pulcher

Spots, if present, on dorsum not forming a barred
pattern; gular region spotted . 76

76. Venter chiefly white, or pale yellow, but washed in

peach on throat . C . tigris marmoratus

Venter chiefly black or gray . 77

11. Gular region bluish gray with small black dots; color
of fields light gray or brown . C. tigris canus

Gular region black with small white dots; color of
fields black C. tigris martyris

78. Presence of barring . 80

Absence of barring ................ 79

79. Venter with large amount of black pigmentation . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C . tigris cstebanensis

Venter with small amount of black pigmentation . . . .

. . . . C . tigris punctatus

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80. Presence of a reddish or pinkish pigment on ventrum,

disregarding gular and chest region . 8l

Absence of a reddish or pinkish pigment on ventrum,
disregarding gular and chest region . 82

81. Granules from interparietal to rump 214-236; stripes

persistent . C . celevipes

Granules from interparietal to rump 181-220; stripes

not persistent . C. tigvis vubidus

82. Presence of 6-8 stripes which are persistent to some

deg ree . 85

Presence of 4-5 stripes which may not be persistent 83

83. Granules around midbody 75-109; granules from inter¬
parietal to rump 150-227 . 84

Granules around midbody 112-134; granules from inter¬
parietal to rump 220-269 . C, tigvis maximus

84. Presence of a black ventral tail band C. tigvis tigvis

Absence of a black ventral tail band .

. C. tigvis mavmovatus

85. Presence of a black ventral tail band. . .

. C . tigvis multi s cut atu.s

Absence of a black ventral tail band . 86

86. Presence of 8 persistent stripes; dorsum not reticu¬
lated, but may be barred .... C. tigvis stegnegevi'

Presence of 4-7 stripes which may not be persistent;
dorsum reticulated . . . 87

87. Dorsal spots form a linear pattern, or body unicolored

. ,C. tigvis sub . sp .

Dorsal spots not forming a linear pattern; body never
uni colored . C . tigvis mavmovatus

Page 134

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Volume 1 6 Number h

Decembe r 1980

Fig.l. Distribution of C. opatae (1), C. inovnatus
inovnatus (2), C. inornatus paululus (3), C.
gulavis sub. sp. (4), C. gulavis sub. sp. (5),
C. gulavis colossus (6), C. calidipes (7),

C. alpinus (8) .

Fig. 2. Distribution of C. hypevythvus schmidti (1),

C. hypevythvus hypevythvus (2), C . bacatus (3),
C . hypevythvus caevuleus ( h ) , C , hypevythvus
pictus (5) » C. catalinensis (6), C . hypevythvus
danheimae (7), C. hypevythvus fvanciscensis
(8) , C . hypevythvus espivitensis (9) .

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Volume 1 6 Number 4

December 1980

Fig. 3- Distribution of C . tig vis punctatus (1), C . la -
bialis (2), C. tigvis canus (3), C. tigvis est -
ebanensis (4), C. tigvis mavtyvis (5), C. tigvis
vubidus (6), C . oelevipes (7), C. cevalbensis
(8),C. tigvis maximus (9).

F i g . -4 . Distribution of C. tigvis pulohev (1), C. tig¬
vis vaviolosus (2), C. tigvis sub. sp. (3).

Page 136

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 4

Decembe r ] 9 8 0

F i g , 5 . Distribution of c, communis communis (1), C%
sacki gigas (2), C, sacki sacki (3), C. mota-
guae {k) , C% mexicanus (5) , C, angusticeps
angusticeps (6) ,

Hg. 6. Distribution of C . costatus mazatlanensis (1),
C, co status huico (2) , C . communis maviavum
(3), C. costatus occidentalis (b).

Bulletin Maryland He rpe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Volume 1 6 Number k

Decembe r 1980

Fig. 7. Distribution of C. burti burti (l), C. costatus
barrancorum (2), C. costatus griseocephalus
(3), C. costatus nigrigularis (4) , C. scalaris
scalaris (5), C. scalaris pallidus (6), C . sea -
laris semi fas ciatus (7), C. costatus zweifeli
(8), C. costatus costatus (9), C. parvisocius
(10).

Fig. 8. Distribution of C. deppei schizophorus ( 1 ), C.

deppei infernalis (2), C . deppei deppei (3), C.
rodecki (4), C. cozumela cozumela (5), C. cozu-
mela maslini ( 6 ) .

Bulletin Maryland He rpe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Volume 1 6 Numbe r b

December 1 9 B 0

Fig. 9. Distribution of C . line at tis simus duodecemline -
atus (1), C . lineattis simus 'I'ineattiss'imus (2),
C. line attis simus lividus (3) » C. lineattissi-
mus exovistus {b) , C. guttatus guttatus (5),

C.' guttatus immutabilis (6), C. guttatus flavi-
lineatus ( 7 ) .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author extends his gratitude and thanks to Dr.
James Dixon, Dr. Fred Hendricks, and Dr. Ray Telfair of
Texas ASM University for reviewing and commenting upon an
earlier interpretation of this report. Mr. Wayne Seifert of
the Dallas Museum of Natural History provided important in¬
formation regarding these lizards. Dr. Donald Ingold of
East Texas State University and Mr. Irvin W. Rushing of
Navarro College devoted their time to proof reading and
correcting the manuscript. Mr. Edward Schaefer of East
Texas State University provided valuable field assistance.
Dr. Stanley Trauth of Georgia Southwestern College and Mr.
Lee Grismer of San Marcos, California have provided the
author with useful taxonomic and distributional information.
Mrs. Lanall Brown of Navarro College kindly typed the final
version of this paper.

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 139

Volume 1 6 Number 4

Decembe r 1980

Blbl iography

Axtell, Ralph.

1961. Cnemidophorus inornatus 3 the valid name for the
little striped whiptail lizard, with the des¬
cription of an annectant subspecies. Copeia 2:
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1366. Geographic distribution of the uni sexual whip-

tail Cnemidophorus neomexicanus ( s a u r i a : t e i i dae )
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Beargie, Kathleen and Clarence J. McCoy, Jr.

1964. Variation and relationships of the Teiid lizard

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Behler, John and J. Wayne King.

1979. The Audubon Society field guide to North Ameri¬
can reptiles and amphibians. Alfred A . Knopf ,
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Burger, Leslie.

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American whiptailed lizards, genus Cnemidophor¬
us. Chicago Acad. Sc.3 Nat. Hist. Misc. 65: 1-9

Burt, Charles.

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1970. The new field book of reptiles and amphibians.

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Conant , Roger .

1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of
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I960.

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1 960 .

A new subspecies of lizard, Cnemidophorus
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10

1961 .

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co. Univ. Kansas Pub. 15(1) : 1 - 1 4 8 .

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and John Wellman.

i960.

A systematic study of the lizards of the deppei
group (genus: Cnemidophorus) in Mexico and Gua¬
temala. Mi sc . Pub . Mus . Zool. 3 Univ .Mich. 1 1 1 : 1 -80 .

and Richard Zweifel.

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Dy rkaez , Stanley.

1972. An investigation into the Cnemidophorus of Mex¬
ico. Bull. Chicago Herp. Soc. 7 (1-2) ; 1 1 -39 .

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca l Society

Page 1%!

Volume 1 6 Number 4

December 1980

F r i 1 1 s , Thomas .

1 969.

The systematics of the parthenogenet i c lizards

of the Cnemidophorus cozumela complex. Copeia .
3:519-535.

Harris, Herbert S., Jr. and Robert S. Simmons.

1977.

A preliminary account of the insular rattle¬
snake populations, with special reference to
those occurring in the Gulf of California and
off the Pacific coast. Bull . Md. Herp . Soc .
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Hend ricks,
1975.

Fred.

Biogeography, natural history and systematics
of Cnemidophorus tigris ( s a u r i a : t e i i d ae ) east

of the Continental Divide. (Ph.D. dissertation

Texas ASM University, pp. xv + 227).

Lew is, Thomas

1956.

A new lizard of the genus Cnemidophorus from
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Species of the Cnemidophorus exsanguis subgroup
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1966.

, and Kenneth Norris.

Analysis of the Herpetofauna of Baja California
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McCoy, Clarence J. and T. Paul Maslin.

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A review of the teiid lizard Cnemidophorus coz -
umelus and the recognition of a new race,
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Maslin, T .
1965.

Paul and J. Martin Walker.

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lizard from Puebla, Mexico. Univ . Colorado

Stud. 19:1-8.

1973 .

Variation, distribution and behavior of the
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( 1 ace rt i 1 i a : te i i dae) . Herpetologica . 29(2):

128-143.

Page 142

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Decembe r 1 9 8 0

Savage , Jay M .

1959.

An illustrated key to the turtles, lizards and
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G .

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Sexual behavior of a male checkered whiptail
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west. Nat. 1 3 (4) : 454-455 .

, H. G. Applegate and J. M. Inglis.

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Male Cnemidophorus tesselatus Say from Presid¬
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Smith, Hobart

: M.

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- T3T5~. -

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and Roze 11a Smith.

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Synopsis of the herpetofauna of Mexico. Volume

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Biogeography and distribution of the reptiles
and amphibians on islands in the Gulf of Cali¬
fornia, Mexico. Trans. San Diego Soc. Nat.

Hist. 14(11): 137-156.

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Vo 1 ume 1 6 Number 4

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Stebbins, Robert C.

1954. Amphibians and reptiles of western North Ameri¬
ca. McGraw-Hill Book Co.j Hew York. pp. xxii +
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Morphology, habitat,
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and behavior of the teiid

labialis . Copeia. 41644-

Page 1 4 4

Bulletin Maryland He rpe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Decembe r 1980

Walker, James.

1970. Morphological variation and clutch size in a
population of Cnemidophorus lineattissimus
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and Harry L. Taylor.

1968.

Geographical variation in the teiid lizard

Cnemidophorus hyperythrus . 1. The caeruleus-

1 i ke subspecies. Am. Mid. Nat. 80(1) :1— 27-

and T . Pau 1 Maslin.

1966.

Evidence for specific recognition of the San
Esteban whiptail lizard ( Cnemidophorus este-
banensis) . Copeia. 3:^98-505.

1966. Morphology and relations of the teiid lizard,

Cnemidophorus ceralbensis. Copeia. 3:585-588.

Webb , Robe rt G .

1970. Reptiles of Oklahoma, Univ. Oklahoma Press ,
Norman, Oklahoma, pp. xi + 370.

Willi ams , Ernest.

1976. South American Anoles: the species groups.

Papeis Avulsos Zool. , S. Paulo. 29 (26) : 259-268 .

Willi ams , Kenneth L .

I960. Taxonomic notes on Arizona herpetozoa. South¬
west. Nat. 5(0:25-36.

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 1A5

Volume 1 6 Number 4

December 1980

Willi ams , Kenneth L .

1968. A new subspecies of the teiid lizard Cnemido¬
phorus inornatus from Mexico. Journ. Herp.

1 ( 1 -4) : 2 1 -24 .

_ , Hobart M. Smith and Peter Chrapliwy.

i960.

Turtles and lizards from northern Mexico.

Trans. Illinois Acad. Sci. 53:36-45.

Wright, John
1967.

W.

A new uniparental whiptail lizard (genus Cnemi-
dophorus) from Sonora, Mexico. Journ . Arizona
Acad. Sci. 4:185-193.

1 968 .

Variation in three sympatric sibling species
of whiptail lizards, genus Cnemidophorus .

Journ. Herp. 1 (1-4) :l-20.

1971 •

Cnemidophorus neomexicanus . Cat. Amer. Amphib .
Rept. 109.1-109.3.

Zwe ifel, Richard G.

1958. Results of the Pur i tan-Amer i can Museum of

Natural History Expedition to western Mexico.

2. Notes on reptiles and amphibians from the
Pacific coastal islands of Baja California.

Am. Mus. Hovit. 1895:1-17.

1958V

Cnemidophorus tigris variolosus 3 a revised sub¬
species of whiptail lizard from Mexico.
Southwest. Hat. 3:94-101.

1959.

Variation in a distribution of lizards of
western Mexico related to Cnemidophorus sacki.
Bull. Am. Mus. Hat. Hist. 1 1 7 ( 2 ) : 6 1 - 1 1 6 .

I960.

A new species of lizard (Genus Cnemidophorus)
from Mexico. Am. Mus. Hovit. 1998:1-8.

1 962 .

Analysis of hybidization between two subspecies
of the desert whiptail lizard, Cnemidophorus
tigris. Copeia. 4:749-766.

Page 146

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t 0 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 16 Number 4

Decembe r 1 9 8 0

Zwe i f e 1 , Richard G .

1965. Variation in and distribution of the unisexual
lizard, Cnemidophorus tesselatus. Am. Mias.
Novit. 2235 : 1 -^9 .

Present Address: Biology Department, Navarro College

Corsicana, Texas 75110.

Received: 17 May 1978.

Accepted: 20 February 1980.

Note: Data from Wal ker ( 1 980 ) added in proof.

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 147

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>43 BULLETIN OF THE

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herpetologtcal

©ociety

Department of Herpetology
The Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc,

THE VENOMOUS SNAKES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

PART I 1

ELAPIDAE AND HYDROPH I DAE

MdHS . A FOUNDER MEMBER OF THE

Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League

March 1981

Volume 17 Number 1

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

March 1981

Volume 17 Number 1

CONTENTS

THE VENOMOUS SNAKES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
PART I I

ELAPIDAE AND HYDROPH I DAE

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March 1981

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BULLETIN OF THE MARYLAND HERPETOLOG I CAL SOCIETY

VOLUME 17 31 MARCH 1981 NUMBER 1

THE VENOMOUS SNAKES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA
PART 2

ELAPIDAE AND HYDROPHIDAE

By

W.R. BRANCH

As with vipers and pit-vipers, the familial or sub-
familial relationships of terrestial elapids and sea snakes

has been the subject of much debate. Although Smith

(1926) in his monograph treated sea snakes as a family

separate from the Elapidae, Underwood (1967) was more
conservative, considering them as only a subfamily of
the Elapidae. Recently McDowell, in a series of intensive

studies on the relationships of elapids and sea snakes
(1967, 1968, 1969a, 1969b, 1970, 1972), had demonstrated

fundamentally different forms of palatine kinesis between
sea snakes ("palatine draggers") and most terrestial elapids
("palatine erectors"). Surprisingly , Australian elapids are "pa¬
latine draggers", leading McDowell (1969, 1972) to postulate

that sea snakes (with the exception of Laticauda, which
he considers to have underone a separate marine radiation)
are derived from the Australasian elapid radiation, most
probably from the Demansi a group. The Hydrophidae as
thus recognised by McDowell (1972) includes sea snakes
(other than Laticauda) as well as the terrestial Australa¬
sian elapids.

Such a drastic re-arrangement of the Elapidae is
still a subject of active debate, although it has been
formally accepted by Smith et al. (1977) in their recent

classification. Fortunately it need not worry us too much

here, as all researchers are agreed that African elapids
form a natural group within the Elapidae.

In a stimulating paper, the importance of which
seems to have been partly ignored by African herpetologists,
McDowell (1968) has discussed the familial relationships
of Elaps, the type genus of the Elapidae. The genus,

which comprises only the two species lacteus and dorsal is,
is endemic to South Africa. These small, brightly coloured
snakes, which are somewhat confusingly known as dwarf

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

garter snakes, are largely fossorial, preying on small
burrowing reptiles, and perhaps also termite larvae and
eggs (FitzSimmons, 1962).

Although Elaps possesses a pair of deeply-grooved
fngs, that are positioned on an otherwise toothless maxilla,

and which are connected with a well-developed venom gland,
McDowell (1968) has presented a suite of characters that
differentiate the genus from all other elapids. Many of
these characters are shared with aparal lactine colubrids,
particularly the genera Polemon and Chi lorhinophis, and
it is with these snakes that McDowell feels the true affini¬
ties of Elaps lie. This conclusion has been questioned
by Kochva and Wollberg (1970), who have demonstrated
that the venom gland of Elaps is histologically similar
to that of elapids. Duvernoy's gland (from which McDowell

derives the venom gland of Elaps) , however, is very variable
in aparal lactines. Amblyodipsas unicolor and Xenocalamus
mechowi i have glands very similar to those of Disphol idus
and Thrasops, respectively (Kochva and Wollberg’7 1 970 ) .
Similar glands in such completely unrelated snakes as
these, must severely limit the taxonomic usefulness of this
character in resolving the affinities of aparal lactines to
other snakes.

The close affinities that Elaps shares with aparal lactines
and elapids would be resolved if elapids evolved from
an aparallactine or protoaparal lactine stock. McDowell

(1970) has suggested that Elapsoidea may be among the
most primitive of existing elapids. It is perhaps not
fortuitous that this fossorial elapid is widely distributed
in the Ethiopian region, and like many aparal lactines
is a specialist feeder on fossorial reptiles. The absence
in elapids of apical pits and a loreal are indicative of

a fossorial ancestor, and aparal I actines, unlike most other

colubrids, lack both structures. “This interesting subject
has still to be satisfactoral ly resolved, and fresh lines
of approach are currently being investigated (Branch,
in prep.). The author feels, however, that McDowell (1968)
has presented a good case for the removal of Elaps from
the Elapidae, and these snakes will not be considered
further in this paper. To avoid the taxohomic chaos that
would ensue following the removal of Elans (the type genus)
from the Elaoidae, McDowell (1968) has Fecommended that the
two South African dwarf garter snakes, lacteus and dorsalis
be known by the junior synonym Homo re laps Boulengery even
though this conflicts with nomenclatural rules. Dr. G. Underwood
(in lit.) has informed me, however, that Homorelaps Boulenger
is not a valid name, and if a junior synonym is to be used
for these snakes it should more correctly be Homoroseiaps Jan.

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

ELAPIDAE

Cobras, mambas and related elapids have undergone an
extensive radiation in the Ethiopian region, with representati ves
occupying terrestial, fossorial, arboreal and aquatic niches.
Nine genera, containing approximately 24 species, occur in the
region. The majority of species are restricted to sub-Saharan
Africa, although two species of Naja ( haje and nigricol I is) ex¬
tend along the Nile valley into Egypt. The Egyptian cobra
(N. haje) is also represented by a separate subspecies, arabica,
in the Arabian peninsula. The rare desert elapid Wa I ter i nnesi a
aegypti a is mainly distributed in the Middle East, although
a number of specimens, including the type which came from
the vicinity of Cairo, are known, from west of the Suez canel.

McDowell (1969) has suggested that E I apsoi dea, Boulenger-
i na and Paranaja are the most primitive of living elapids.
The latter genus is monotypic, containing the single species
multifasciata. Distributed in western central Africa, little is
known of the biology of this rare snake. Its short (less than
600 mm), stocky build is indicative of a fossorial habit. The
two species of water cobra, Bou lengeri na annu I ata and B. Chris¬
ty ? , range through central Africa, from Tanzania to the Congo
and Cameroun. Found only in or near water, they feed almost
exclusively on fish. Despite their large size (over 2 metres)
they are generally considered inoffensive to man, which is fortu¬
nate as no antivenin is produced for snakes of this genus.

With the exception of Wal teri nnesia, Bou lengeri na and Para¬
naja, the six remaining African elapid genera all have represen¬
tatives in southern Africa, and the biology of these snakes will
be considered in the following systematic account.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Fami I y :
Subfami ly :
Tribe:
Key to Genera ii

E I apidae
Bunger i nae
Naj ini

i Southern Africa

1. Preoculars (3) widely separated from nasal; prefrontals ex¬
panded laterally to touch labials; subcaudals over 90 .

. . . Dendroaspis

Preoculars (1 or 2) in contact with nasal (except some
Pseudohaje which may occasionally have a loreal); subcau¬
dals less than 90 (except in Pseudohaje goldii which may

reach 96) . 2.

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March 1981

2. Rostral very large and shield-like, concave below and separ¬

ated from other scales on sides . . . Aspidel aps

Rostral not greatly enlarged or conca,ve below, and in con¬
tact with other scales on the sides . .....3.

3. Dorsals distinctly keeled . Hemachatus

Dorsals quite smooth . 4.

4. Tail short; fewer than 40 subcaudals . E I apsoi dea

Tail moderately long, more than 45 subcaudals . 5.

5. Eye very large; dorsals 13-15 rows at mid-body. Pseudohaje

Eye very small to moderate; dorsals in 17 (rarely 15 in
Naja haje anchietae) or more rows at mid-body . Naja

CORAL AND SHIELD-NOSE SNAKES
Aspidelaps A. Smith

These relatively small, robust elapids are instantly recogni¬
zable by their much-enlarged, shield-like rostral. Two species,

I ubricus and scutatus, each with three races, comprise the genus,
which is restricted to southern Africa. Usually irrascible when
first encountered, like cobras they rear up and flatten the neck
region, which in I ubricus may form a narrow hood. In common
with Hemachatus, which is also a southern African endemic,
the maxilla bears no teeth other than a pair of deep I y-groved
fangs, while scutatus also has keeled scales, and will sham
death when threatened. These morphological and behavioral
similarities may indicate a close relationship between the two
genera .

Although usually considered relatively harmless, this belief
may stem from their small size, and the presence of few pub¬
lished case-histories. However, A, 1 . i nfuscatus, at least, has
a highly toxic venom, and is capable of inflicting a potentially
dangerous bite.

In habits both species are semi-fossorial , and to this
end the enlarged rostral may be likened to a bulldozer-blade,
aiding the snake in burrowing through loose soil. This charac¬
ter is shared by a number of other semi-fossorial shakes, notice¬
able the coiubrids Ly torhynchus and Phy I llorhynchus. A. I ubricus
has a less well-developed rostral than scutatus, and this may
be correlated with the more arid regions that it inhabits.

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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March 1981

Key to the Aspidelaps of Southern Africa

1. Internasals in contact with one another behind the rostral;

3rd and 4th upper labials entering the orbit; scales smooth
throughout . . . 2.

Internasals completely separated by the very large rostral;
4th upper labial only entering the eye; scales keeled, at
least on posterior half of body . 3.

2. Ventrals 142-168 (average 152, exceptionally over 160); sub-

caudals 20-28 (average 23); length of tail 9.2 to 10.2 times
into total length; conspicuously banded or barred alternate¬
ly with red and black . . . . I ubr icus I ubr icus

Ventrals 149-172 (average 158); subcaudals 28-36 (average
31); length of tail 7.3 to 9.6 times into total length; dirty
white to greyish above, with blackish crossbands above us¬
ually less well-marked . I ubricus i nf uscatus

3. Subcaudals 25-30 in males, 20-24 in females .

. scutatus scutatus

Subcaudals 32-39 in males, 27-33 in females . 4.

4. Dark makings poorly defined; snout-vent length rarely ex¬
ceeds 500 mm; ventrals 108-113 in males, 117-121 in females;

subcaudals 32-35 in males, 27-31 in females .

. scutatus i ntermed i us

Dark markings clear and extensive; snout-vent length of
adults often exceeds 500 mm; ventrals 114-120 in males, IIS-
125 in females; subcaudals 33-39 in males, 30-33 in females.
. scutatus fulafula

Aspidelaps I ubricus I ubricus (Laurenti)
Southern Coral Snake Fig. 2.

I dentif ication :

A small, br i ght I y-coloured snake, which may reach 750 mm
in length, although adults usually average up to 600 mm. The
enlarged rostral, that characterizes the genus, is not as large
as in scutatus, although it still remains the most distinctive
feature of the head, which is small and not distinct from the
neck. The eye is of moderate size, and the 3rd and 4th upper
labials enter the orbit. The body scales are smooth throughout,
and in 19 rows at mid-body. Ventrals range from 142-168, but

rarely exceed 160. The anal is entire, and the subcaudals
20-28. The tail is short.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

Beautifully marked in alternating bands of orange to coral
red and black (from which the snake derives its common name),
it is possibly southern Africa's most attractive snake. 20-47
bands (15-39 on body, 3-10 on tail) occur, the first black band
forming a broad nuchal collar, from which a forward I y-di rected
chevron extends onto the crown of the head. The black bands
are always narrower than the red interspaces, and may form
anter ior I y-di rected chevrons. The head is reddish, with a black
crossbar between the eyes, that may extend through the eyes
onto the labial margin. A second black crossbar may extend
in a chevron over the head, connecting the angles of the mouth,
although this may be reduced to two oblique bars on the poster¬
ior temporals. The ventrum is yellowish, except for at least
the first two or three black crossbands, which completely encir¬
cle the body. Occasionally the remaining black crossbands
extend, in paler form, across the ventrum. This is particularly
so in juveniles, but fades with growth.

Distribution :

The race is endemic to the west and central regions of
the Cape Province, South Africa (a single record from Smithfield
in the southern Orange Free State requires confirmation), extend¬
ing east as far as the Albany district.

Biology :

A semi-fossorial snake, restricted to sandy, arid regions,
and emerging at night to forage. Apparently catholic in its
diet, small rodents, lizards and even reptile eggs have been
recorded as being consumed. Oviparous, nothing further is
known concerning reproduction in the genus. Very irrascible
when first captured, and rarely becoming completely tame in
captivity, the snake rears up in cobra fashion, spreads a very
narrow hood, and hisses dramatically. Nothing is known con¬
cerning the nature or toxicity of their venom (see i nf uscatus
for what little data is available for the species.)

Aspidel aps I ubricus infuscatus Mertens
Western Coral Snake, Fig. 3.

I dentif ication :

A slightly larger snake (adults may reach 800 mm), that
is not as brilliantly coloured as the typical race, and further
distinguished in having more ventrals (149-172, average 158),
subcaudals (27-36, average 31), and proportionate! y longer,
and more pointed tail. All the brilliant orange/coral red colour¬
ation of the typical race has been lost, leaving a dull dirty
white to yellowish, pinkish to smokey grey, or grey dorsum,
the scales of which are usually dark-edged to give a checkered
appearance. From 27-44 dark crossbars or transverse bars,
extend along the body, although in northern specimens these
may be greatly reduced, or even absent. The head may be

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

uniformly black, or pale with similar dark markings to those
of the typical race. The dirty cream ventrum may bear dark
vestiges of the anterior crossbars.

Distribution ;

Throughout South Africa, from Great Namaqualand in the
south to the Kaokoveld in the north. Another subspecies, cow-

lesi, characterized by an almost complete absence of pattern,
broader head, and more pointed tail, occurs north of the Kunene
river in southern Angola.

Biology :

Presumably as for the typical race, although perhaps
slightly less fossorial. A large male when milked gave from
27-71 (mean 55) mg of wet venom (28% solid). Mice injected
i ntraven iousl y initially showed distress, lack of coordination,

and involuntary limb movements, then rapidly became semi-pros¬
trate, with laboured breathing. Death followed shortly, presum¬
ably from respiratory failure (Branch, unpub. observ.). An
LD50 of 317 mg/Kg was calculated, and in view of the venom
yields obtained, it is obvious that i nf uscatus has the ability
to inflict a potentially dangerous bite on man. Whether existing
antivenoms will neutralize Aspi del aps venom Is unknown. No
documented case histories of bites of the Western Coral snake
are known. However, a coral snake was found in a Bushman's
hut in the Etosha Park, following the death of two children

from snake bites received during the night (W. Haacke, pens,
comm.) This anecdotal report emphasizes the findings of high
toxicity for the venom of i nf uscatus, and its potential danger

to man.

Aspidelaps scutatus scutatus (A. Smith)

Shield-nose snake, Fig. 4.

I dentif ication :

A small, stocky snake, with a short, broad head, that

bears a greatly enlarged, shield-like rostral, from which the
snake derives its common name. The eye is of moderate size,
with a single upper labia! (4th) entering the orbit. Dorsal

scales usually in 21 rows at mid-body, smooth or faintly keeled
anteriorly, becoming strongly keeled posteriorly, and tubercular
on the tail. Ventrals are slightly more numerous in females

(115-122, mean 119) than males (110-118, mean 113), while the
subcaudals show a well-defined sexual dimorphism (25-30, mean
28, in males; 20-24, mean 22, in females). The anal is entire.
The dorsum ranges in colour from pale grey-brown or yellowish,
to salmon pink or orange, with a series of usually ill-defined
dark, dorsal blotches. The scales are often dark edged The
head and neck are almost entirely black in adults, but in juve¬

niles there are one or two white chevrons on the nape. The

Bulletin Maryland Herpetologica I Society

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Vdume 17 Number 1

March 1981

ventrum is a uniform white.

Distribution :

In a wide belt extending across the northern regions of
Southern Africa, from South West Africa in the west, through
Botswana and southwestern Zimbabwe, into the north-western
Transvaal. It is replaced in the eastern Transvaal and Mozam¬
bique by other subspecies.

Biology :

A snake of sandy, stony areas, it is semi-fossorial , spend¬
ing the day in rodent burrows, or under loose stones or dead
trees, beneath which it tunnels using its enlarged rostral like
a bulldozer. It emerges at night, particularly after rain, to
forage for food, eating small mammals and amphibians, but
also lizards and occasionally snakes. When disturbed it rears
up, lunging forward to strike, and giving an almost explosive
hiss. A dramatic, though somewhat comic performance, albeit
one that is potentially dangerous if the warnings are not heed¬
ed. Oviparous, although as with I ubricus nothing further is
known about their reproduction . No details of the yield, toxi¬
city or composition of scutatus venom are available. Rose

(1950) records the only identified bite by this genus. It pro¬
duced in an adult male swelling of the arms for several days,
which completely resolved.

Aspi del aps scutatus i ntermedi us Broadley

I dent if icat ion :

Similar in appearance and build to the typical race, but
differing in a number of details of scutelation. In both sexes
there are higher subcaudals (32-35, mean 33, in males; 27-31,
mean 29, in females). As in typical scutatus dorsal scales
rows are usually in 21 rows at mid-body, although a higher
percentage (25%) have 23 rows at mid-body in intermedius.
Colouration, and other aspects of scutel lation are as for the
typical race. Both races rarely exceed 500 mm.

Distribution :

Restricted to the eastern Transvaal, i.e. the area lying
between the Drakensberg escarpment and the Lebombo Mountains.

Biology :

Pienaar's data for specimens from the Kruger National
Park (which are referable to intermedi us) reveal no differences
from typical scutatus, adding only that they may be fond of
moles — a snake having been found in a trap set for rodent- moles.

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

Asp ide laps scutatus fu I af u I a ( Bi ancon i)

I dentif ication :

Differs from the previous races in its extensive dark mark¬
ings, larger size, and higher subcaudal counts. Specimens may
reach almost 750 mm in length, while subcaudals range from 33-
39 (mean 36) in males, and 30-33 (mean 31) in females. The
majority of specimens also have 23 rows of dorsals at mid-body,
as opposed to 21 rows in the other races. The ground colour
of the dorsum is pale buff, with a dorsal series of large, black¬
ish, blotches, and extensive black blotches on the flanks that
extend onto the ventrals. The ventrum is white, the head black¬
ish, with white patches laterally.

Distrib ution :

The southern part of the Mozambique
ing into Zululand), and the Gona re Zhou
babwe.

Biology :

Broadly (1968) (who recognized this subspecies) collected
a series of specimens from shallow pans in the Gona re zhou Na¬
tional Park, following a December thunderstorm . It is possible
that the snakes, all but one of which were collected at night,
may not only have been foraging for food, but also searching
for mates. Captive specimens ate mice and toads ( Bufo regularis) .

plain (but not extend-
i n south-eastern Zim -

GARTER SNAKES
E I apsoi dea Bocage

The common name of these small to moderate-sized, fossorial ela-

pids, will cause some confusion to North American herpetologists,
who usually associate the name with harmless natricines of the
genus Thamnophis. However, the name, which presumably al¬

ludes to the banded colo ration of these elapids, is in common
usage throughout east and southern Africa. The alternative of
"burrowing cobra" is descriptive, but unfortunately already ap¬
plied to Paranaja . The genus is widely distributed throughout

sub-Saharan Africa, and somewhat of a taxonomic nightmare, due
in no small part to the relative uniformity of scale counts in
the genus, and the confusing ontogenic changes in colour pat¬
tern. Broadley (1971) has analyzed the genus throughout its
range, stabilizing the taxonomy, and summarizing reproductive
and feeding data. The following section draws heavily on his

findings.

Six species are currently recognized in the genus, of which
three, guentheri , semiannulata and sundeva 1 1 i i , occur in South¬
ern Africa. E_. guentheri shows affinities with E_. nigra (a mono-
typic species, restricted to montane evergreen forest in north¬
east Tanzania, and which may be specialized for feeding on

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caeci 1 1 ians) , and inhabits forest-savanna mosaic in the lower Con¬
go region, reaching its southern limit in Zimbabwe C_. semiannu-
I ata inhabits dry savanna, and has the widest distribution in
the genus, extending from Senegal in the west, through Congo-
Kinshasa (represented throughout this region by the subspecies
moebi usi ) , and down the eastern half of the region, through Tan¬
zania, Zimbabwe and as far south as Kimberly in the Cape Pro¬
vince (the subspecies bou lengeri ) . The southern species sunde-
va 1 1 i i inhabits open country including the South African highveld
the Kalahari, and the south-eastern coastal plain. No less than
5 races occur in the region, and the probable evolutionary rela¬
tionships of these forms have been discussed by Broadley (1971).

The remaining species, I atici ncta and lover i dgei , are both
extral imi tal ; the former inhabiting dry savanna, from southern
Sudan, west through northern Congo-Ki nshasa to the Central Afri¬
can Republic; the latter being represented by three races

col leti , sea I aris and loveridgei ) that inhabit evergreen

forests and montane grassland regions around the great lakes
of central Africa.

Garter snakes are relatively catholic in their diet, al¬
though most forms appear to feed predominately on fossorial rep¬
tiles, occasionally taking small mammals and amphibians. E.
nigra may have a specialized diet of caecillians.

Little is known concerning the venom of these snakes. Very
few bites have been reported, and these appear to be somewhat
contradictory . All have involved intense localized pain, al¬
though this was not always assciated with swelling. Classic neu¬
rotoxic symptoms, when present, were of relatively minor conse¬
quence.

Key to the Elapsoidea of Southern Africa

Due to the relative uniformity of scale counts in the genus,
and ontogenic changes in colour pattern, it is often difficult to
identify individuals. Ideally series including males, females,
and juveniles are required for accurate identification of popula¬
tions. Knowledge of the locality will restrict the number of
forms to be considered from any specific region.

1. Sexual dimorphism in ventrals not strongly marked (difference
rarely more than 6); snout blunt to moderately pointed; range
mainly north of Latitude 20 degrees S. . . . 2

Males with much higher ventral counts than females (averaging
15 more) ; snout obtusely pointed; range south of Latitude 20
degrees S . . . .4

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2. Juveniles have 16-20 pale crossbands as broad, or broader

than, dark bands; these markings usually not strongly con¬
trasted and rarely persisting as paired transverse white lines
in adults; snout rounded; usually four lower labials border¬
ing the anterior subl i nguals . guentheri

Juveniles have 9-15 pale crossbands usually narrower than dark
bands; these markings usually strongly contrasted and often
persisting as paired white transverse lines in adults; snout
moderately pointed; usually three lower labials bordering the
anterior subl inguals (if 4, the fourth is usually in short con¬
tact) . 3

3. Ventrum uniform white, sharply distinguished from dorsal col¬

oration; range Angola and northern South West Africa, east to
western Zambia . sem i a n n u I a t a semiannulata

Ventrum usually grey to black, not sharply distinguished from
dorsal coloration; range Mozambique north-west to Zambia,
south through Zimbabwe and the Transvaal to Kimberley in the
Cape Province... . semiannu I ata bou I enger i

4. Juveniles and adults with 19-34 pairs of well-defined light

transverse lines on body; range Natal to southeastern Trans¬
vaal . . . . sundeva 1 1 i i sundeval I i i

Juveniles with 16-23 pale crossbands, adults usually devoid of

markings . 5

5. Subcaudals 19-23 in males, 13-20 in females . 6

Subcaudals usually 26-33 inmales, 22-28 in females . 7

6. Ventrals 157-168 in males, 140-154 in females; range Transvaal,

Orange Free State and northern Cape Province .

. sundeva 1 1 i medi a

Ventrals 167-180 in males, 156-161 in females; range Botswana
and South West Africa . sundeva 1 1 i i f i tzsimonsi

7. Ventrals 152-159 in males; 138-144 in females; subcaudals 26-

28 in males, 22-26 in females; range southern Mozambique and
Zu I u I and . . . sundeval I i i decoster i

Ventrals 164-179 in males, 148-156 in females; subcaudals usu¬
ally 29-33 in males, 24-28 in females; range northern Trans¬
vaal, south-eastern Zimbabwe and adjoining Mozambique .

. sundeval I i i longicauda

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Elapsoidea guentheri Bocage

Gunther's Garter Snake , Fig. 5.

I dentif ication :

A small slender snake, rarely exceeding 600 mm, that has a
rounded snout, and a short tail. The eye, which is relatively

small, has a rounded pupil, while the scales, which are smooth
and shiny, are in 13 rows at mid-body. Ventrals, unlike subcau-

dals, show little if any sexual dimorphism, males having 135-

152, females 135-142. The anal is entire, and the paired subcau-

dals range from 19-24 in males, and from 17-19 in females. Juve¬

niles black with 16-20 light bands (that are as wide, or wider
than the black interspaces) on the body, and 2-4 on the tail.
Snakes 300-400 mm long have usually lost all traces of these
bands (which darken from the centre), although they may persist
in some individuals as ill-defined paired white-dotted transverse
lines. Adults are usually a uniform grey to black above, but
paler below.

Distribution :

Usually associated with Brachystegi a (miombo) woodland
throughout the central watershed of Zimbabwe Extral imi tal ly ex¬
tending north-west to the forest-savanna mosaic of the Lower Con¬
go region, reaching as far west as Cabinda.

Biology :

Like all other members of the genus, a shy secretive
snake, that forages at night, spending the day- under rocks or
in burrows. Small snakes ( Apara 1 1 actus and Lycophidion) , skinks
(Riopa and Mabuy a ) and amphibians have been recorded in the
diet. Little is known concerning reproduction, save that a
snake captured in January held 10 eggs.

E I apsoidea semi annu I ata semi annu I ata Bocage
Western Half-banded Garter Snake

I dentif ication :

Perhaps the smallest member of the genus, the largest male
measures 532 mm, the largest female only 467 mm. The snout
is moderately pointed. As usual in the genus the dorsal scales,
which are smooth and shiny, are in 13 rows at mid-body, while
in approximately 70% of the race there are also 13 rows in the
neck region. The ventrals (137-161 in males, 136-152 in females)
show no well-defined sexual dimorphism. Sexual dimorphism, how¬
ever, is apparent in the subcaudals (20-28 in males, 13-19 in
females). The anal is entire, the subcaudals paired. Juveniles
are black with 12-17 white bands (that are usually half the
width of the black interspaces) on the body, and 2-3 on the
tail. Ventrum (and often part of the outer scale row) uniform
white. The white bands begin to darken from the center when

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the snake is c. 200 mm, to form a pattern of well-defined paired
white transverse lines, that persists in snakes up to 450 mm.
In larger snakes even these white lines may become faint.

Pi stri but ion :

Inhabiting upland savanna between 500-2000 metres through¬
out Angola, southwestern Congo-K i nshsa , western Zambia, and
only entering the area of discussion in northern South West Afri¬
ca, including the Caprivi Strip.

Biology :

Similar in most respects to that of guentheri . Usually inof¬
fensive, if provoked they will coil and hiss, but do not flatten
the neck region. Although possessing a small gape, being front-
fanged they can give an effective stab-bite. Fortunately their
venom appears mild, although painful.

E I apsoi dea semi annu I ata bou I enger i Boetger

Boulenger's Half-banded Garter Snake Figs. 6 and 7

I dentif ication :

Similar to the typical race, with the exception that ven-
trals range from 140-161 in males, and 138-155 in females, and
that subcaudals range from 18-27 in males, and 14-21 in fe¬
males. In addition only 8% of the snakes have 13 rows of
scales in the neck region, the vast majority having 15 rows.
Juveniles have 8-17 white or lemon yellow bands on the body and
0-3 on the tail, only half to one third the width of the black
interspaces. The head is white, with a prolongation of the
black nape band extending forward along the parietal suture on¬
to the frontal. Chin and throat white, rest of ventrum usually
dark grey, sometimes bordered with a white lateral strip. A few
specimens (mainly from southeastern Zimbabwe have a uniform
white ventrum. The light bands darken from the centre when
the snake reaches c. 200mm, persisting as paired white trans¬
verse lines until c. 300 mm, when they usually disappear, al¬
though persisting in some populations, e.g. central Mozambique.

Distribution :

Inhabiting savanna from sea level upto 1500 metres. South¬
eastern Africa, from southern Tanzania south to southern Mozambi¬
que (but not yet recorded from Zululand), extending west to Zam¬
bia, and again south throughout Botswana, Zimbabwe and the
Transvaal, reaching as far south as Kimberly in the Cape Pro-
vi nee.

Biology :

Often associated with open flood plains and mopane wood¬
land, its biology is similar to that of the typical race. Specific
food items include; the amphibians Breviceps, Phrynomerus, He¬
rn i su s and Afrixalus; the skinks Mabuya and Af roab I epharus ; and
the snakes Crotaphopel tis and Causus. Oviparious, from 4-8
eggs being recorded.

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Elapsoidea sundevallii sundeva 1 1 i i (A. Smith)

Natal or Sundevall's Garter Snake Fig. 8.

I dentif ication :

The largest species of E I apsoi dea, character ized by an ob¬
tusely pointed snout, with the rostral broadly visible from a-
bove. There is a surprising sexual dimorphism in size, males
being almost half as big again as females (maximum snout-vent
length, male 930 mm, female 580 mm). Associated with this
males have more ventrals (163-181) than females (147-156), and
also have more subcaudals (males, 20-28; females 16-21). The
anal is entire, subcaudals paired, and scales in 13 rows at mid¬
body. Juveniles have 19-34 clearly-defined white-edged pale
brown bands on the body and 2-4 on the tail, that are narrower
than the slate-grey interspaces. The head is pale, with a dark
forward prolongation of the nape band onto the frontal. The ven-
trum pale brown mesial ly, bordered with cream. Adults over 500
mm snout-vent length retain well-defined pairs of light trans¬
verse lines.

Dis tribution :

Savanna from sea level to about 1600 metres on the eastern
plateau slopes of Natal, southeastern Transvaal and Swaziland.

Biology :

As for other members of the genus. FitzSimons (1962) re¬
corded lizard eggs (especially gecko's) in the stomach contents,
while a Natal snake contained an amphibian (Breviceps). Pre¬
sumably oviparous, no reproductive data exists for any races of
the species.

E I apsoi dea sundevallii media Broadley

High-veld Garter Snake . Fig. 9.

I ndentif ication :

A small race (largest male 590 mm) in which the obtusely
pointed rostral is more prominent than in any other form of Elap-
soi dea. Ventrals (males 157-168; females, 140-154) and subcau-
da I s (males, 19-23; females, 13-18) are fewer than in the typical
race. Juveniles have 16-23 clearly defined pinkbands on the bo¬
dy and 2-3 on tail, about three-quarters width of black inter¬
spaces. Head pale, with black forward prolongation onto fron¬
tal. Ventrum and lower half of outer scale row pale brown.
The pale bands, which may still be faintly visible in snakes
over 400 mm, but absent in larger snakes, appear to darken
from the edges of each scale, and do not form pairs of white
transverse lines.

Distri but ion :

The high-veld grasslands (1250-1800 metres) of' the Trans¬
vaal and Orange Free State, extending into the northern Cape
Province at Kimberley.

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Biology :

As for other members of the genus.

Elapsoidea sundeval I i i f i tzsimonsi Loveridge
Fi tzSimons ' Garter Snake

I dentif ication :

A western form, similar to neighboring media in having low
subcaudals (males, 22-23; females 17-20) but differing in its

higher ventral counts (males 167-180; females, 156-161). Juve¬
niles have 18-21 white crossbands on the body and 2-3 on the

tail, subequal in width to black interspaces, but narrower later¬
ally. Ventrum and outer row of dorsals uniform white. All
traces of dorsal bands disappear before snout-vent length

reaches 375 mm.

Distribution :

Inhabiting wooded steppe on Kalahari sand (900-1500 me¬
tres) in South West Africa and western Botswana, extending into
the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park (Cape Province).

Biology :

Presumably as for other forms. Recorded in the vicinity
of vleis and pans, a Kalahari Gemsbok National Park snake con¬
tained a snake — Psammoph i s leighton i tr i nasa I ? s ♦

E I apsoi dea sundeval I i i long icauda Broad ley
Long-tailed Garter Snake

I dentif ication :

A northeastern race characterized (as its name implies) by
its longer tail (subcaudals; males 21-33; females 24-28). Its
ventral counts (males 164-179; females, 148-156) are similar to
those of neighboring f i tzsimonsi , but higher than adjoining media
and decoster i . A male from Mapinhane, Mozambique, is the lar¬
gest known E I apsoi dea (1290 + 90 =1380 mm). As with all other
races of sundeval I i i the majority of specimens have 15 scale rows
on the neck, reducing to 13 rows at mid-body. Juveniles have
17-20 buff crossbands on the body and 2-3 on the tail, about
two-thirds width of black interspaces. Head white with a black
median marking which reaches the anterior edge of the frontal.
Ventrum and (usually) outer scale row uniform white. The light
bands begin to disappear in snakes of 3-400 mm, with no develop¬
ment of paired white transverse lines. Adults are uniform black
above, outer scale row pink with a white ventrum, and a salmon
pink outer row of dorsals.

Distribution :

Inhabiting dry savanna on deep aeolian or alluvial sands
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from sea level to about 900 metres, in the Northern Transvaal,
southeastern Zimbabweand adjoining Mozambique.

Biology :

Sympatric with semiannulata bou lengeri around the Malugwe
Pan in the Gona re zhou National Park, southeastern Zimbabwe,
The larger size of sundeval I i i longicauda may allow the adults
to exploit different food resources to that of bou lengeri , thus re¬
ducing ecological competition. This may be indicated by the dis¬
covery of two Malugwe Pan longicauda in the runs of golden
moles (Amblysomus obtusi rostris) . Captive specimens have fed
on snakes, while a skink was found in the stomach of a Trans¬
vaal snake.

E I apsoidea sundeva 1 1 i decosteri Boulenger
De Coster's Garter Snake

I dentif ication :

A southeastern race, with a very restricted distribution,
it differs from neighboring longicauda in having fewer ventrals
(males, 152-159; females 1 38-144) , and from adjoining media and
sundeval I i i in having more subcaudals (males 26-28; females 22-
26) . Juveniles with 19-21 white-edged pale brown bands on the
body and 3-4 on the tail, subequal to or slightly narrower than
the darker interspaces. A dark lancehead mark on the crown
covers most of the parietals and frontal. Ventrum and outer row
of dorsals uniform white. The light bands persist as paired
white transverse lines up to a snout-vent length of c. 320 mm,
then disappear entirely.

Distribution :

Restricted to coastal alluvium from sea level to about 100
metres, in the extreme south of Mozambique and adjoining north¬
ern Zululand.

Biology ;

As for typical sundeval I i i .

MAMBAS

Dendroaspis Schlegel

Next to the Puff adder, mambas are perhaps the most char¬
acteristic venomous snakes of Africa. Due to their large size, alert
movements, and toxic venom, which is produced in copious a-
mounts, these snakes are justifiably feared. Fortunately, being
diurnal, and for the most part arboreal (the exception being po¬
ly lepis which is mainly terrestial) they rarely come into contact
with man, and bites are infrequent. The large fangs of Dendro-
aspis (which are not proportionately longer than in other el a-
pids) may reach a length of 7-8 mm, and are borne on the

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front of an otherwise toothless maxilla. There is an exceptional
degree of maxi I lo-prefronta ! articulation, which allows the fangs
to be very effectively used for delivering quick stabbing bites.

Only four species are currently recognized in the genus,
which ranges throughout tropical Africa, extending from Somalia
to Senegal, and south to the Transkei in southern Africa. The
three green mambas, angusticeps, Jameson i and viridis, are ail
arboreal and for the most part restricted to tropical rain forest.
Jameson i and viridis are west African species, the latter being
restricted to the forests from Gambia to Dahomey, and unlike the
former, which ranges from Ghana to western Venga and Angola, does
not cross the Dahomey gap.

D . angusticeps is represented in southern Africa by isola¬
ted populations in the lowland forest and bamboo thickets of the
eastern coastal plain, reaching as far south as northern Trans¬
kei. To the north it ranges as far as Kenya. D. poly lepis is the
widest ranging mamba, and throughout its range is basically ter¬
restrial, favoring rocky outcrops in thick bush, and riverine
forest at low altitude. For a long time these two species, known
respectively as the "green" and "black" mambas, were considered
as simple color variants, and that the green coloration was lost
by large adults. However, in 1946, Dr. V. FitzSimons demonstra¬
ted that two species were involved, and that the larger black
species ( pol y lepis) could be further distinguished by the dark
lining to its mouth, and more numerous ventrals and mid-body
scale rows.

Key to the species of Dendroaspis in Southern Africa

1. Scales usually in 23-25 rows at mid-body; ventrals 242-282;
inside of mouth blackish; adults olive brown to dark brown
but never bright green . . . . . . . . pol y lepi s

Scales usually in 19 rows at mid-body; ventrals 201-232;
inside of mouth white to bluish white; adults bright
green . . . . . . angusticeps

Dendroaspis polylepis Gunther

Black Mamba Fig. 10 and 11.

I dentif ication :

By far the largest venomous snake in Africa, adults usual¬
ly average 2.5 - 3.0 metres in length, and exceptional individu¬
als may exceed 4 metres. Although commonly called the black
mamba, this is somewhat of a misnomer as individuals are usual¬
ly brown to grey, or even olive green, with often a heavy mot¬
tling of darker markings (which may form oblique crossbars) on
the posterior half of the body. The ventrum is a greyish whi te,
often tinged with yellowish or greenish, and again frequently

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with darker mottlings towards the tail. The head is elongate
and square-sided and has been aptly, although perhaps dramati¬
cally, called 'coffin-shaped.' The 3 preoculars are widely separ¬
ated from the nasal by the enlarged prefrontal that contact the
labials, and of the 7-10 upper labials only the 4th (usually)
enters the eye. There is no sexual dimorphism in either the ven-
trals (242-282) or subcaudals (105-131). The anal is divided.
The scales are smooth and usually in 23-25 rows at mid-body.

Distribution :

In southern Africa the black mamba is widespread

throughout the lowveld areas of the Transvaal and Zimbabwe,
particularly along the valleys of the major rivers. Extending
down the coastal plain of Natal, it reaches as far south
as southern Transkei. Skirting the northern boundry of
the Kalahari it ranges throughout the central and northern
regions of South West Africa , thence northwards through
Angola to the lower Congo. Along the east coast of Africa
poly lepis extends into the Horn and Eritrea. This northern

form, extending as far south as northern Kenya, has been
recognized as a separate subspecies ( anti nor i i Peters),

character ized by a small 2nd upper labial that is not in
contact with the prefrontal, and having 25 scale rows at
mid-body. The northern Kenya — southern Somalia region

is poorly collected, and whether such relatively minor dif¬

ferences will simply form the extremes of a cline only further
collecting will resolve. It is likely, however, that polylepis
is monotypic (Broadley, pers . comm . ) .

Biology :

A large, active diurnal predator, the black mamba

forages for its prey among the undergrowth of rocky outcrops
and riverine forest. Often associated with specific territories,
a mamba may have a favored resting place, such as a

disused termite's nest or hollow tree, to which it will return
each night. Of catholic tastes, mammals, birds and possibly
even reptiles form its diet, although there appear to be
no reliable records of the latter. These are actively pursued,
the mamba giving numerous quick bites until the potent
neurotoxic venom immobilises the prey.

Oviparous, up to 14 large (70 X 35mm) elongate eggs

are laid in November-December, the new-born young measuring
from 400-600mm in length.

When foraging the mamba often carries as much as

the front third of its body off the ground. Even in this

position it can move speedily, and it is a frightening exper¬
ience to be confronted with such an adversary, for even
an average-sized mamba may rear its head as much as

a metre from the ground. However, the famed aggressiveness
of the black mamba is greatly exaggerated, and the author
still vividly recalls the occasion when a mamba, disturbed
whilst foraging near a granite koppie, sped off through
the undergrowth and actually passed between the legs of
an African assistant, but made no attempt to bite. When

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cornered, a mamba will rear up, gaping to display the
black lining of the mouth, and spreading a narrow hood.

Emitting a hollow-sounding hiss, any unwise movement on

the part of the intruder is likely to be met with a quick,

powerful strike. The venom, like that of most elapids,
contains a powerful neurotoxin, that effects a peripheral

blockade of nerve endings, death ensuing from respiratory

collapse. 10-15 mg of venom is fatal to humans, and as

much as 100-400 mg of venom may be delivered in a single

bite. Such a toxic venom, injected in large amounts, often

on the torso of the victim, and deep into the tissues due

to the large size of the fangs, results in a rapid and serious
envenomation . Until the advent of high-titre mamba antivenin

the prognosis of such
in almost 100% fatality.

victims was very poor, and resulted

Dendroaspis angusticeps (A. Smith)

Eastern Green Mamba Fig. 12.

1 dentif ication :

A smaller snake than the black mamba, rarely exceeding

2 metres in length, and of generally lighter build. It

may also be distinguished by the fewer rows of scales at

mid-body (17-21, usually 19), lower ventral counts (201-
232), white to bluish- white mouth lining, and bright green
coloration. The head scalation is similar to that of poly iepis,
the anal is divided, and the paired subcaudals range from
99-126, and show little evidence of sexual dimorphism.

The adult coloration is a brilliant emerald green, sometimes
with scattered yellow scales. The ventrum is yellowish-

green. Juveniles are bluish green.

Distribution :

Inhabiting the East African coastal plain from Kenya
to southern Natal. In the area under discussion it reaches
its furthest point inland in the scattered remnants of rain
forest along the Zimbabwe— Mozambique border.

Biology :

A completely arboreal species, that previously inhabited
the lowland evergreen forests of the eastern coastal plain

of southern Africa, but which seems to survive relatively

well in the tea, mango and sugar-cane plantations that

have replaced much of its former habitat. Feeding apparently

solely on warm-blooded prey (small mammals and birds),

neither arboreal lizards or amphibians are eaten. Oviparous,
up to 10 white, elongate eggs (measuring 65X35mm) are
laid in October-December in hollow trees or leaf litter.

Shy and elusive, it is much more placid than the black

mamba, and only rarely threatens by gaping. It will strike
if molested but fortunately the venom is considerably less

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toxic than that of poly lepis, in additon to being injected
in smaller quantities (60-1 OOmg ) . Symptoms of the few bites
recorded have involved mild neurotoxic signs, that readily
responded to antivenin, or even resolved themselves without
such treatment.

RINKALS

Hemachatus Flemming

A monotypic genus, coi
machatus. A southern Af

north as Zimbabwe, it is
closely-related Naja, by its
solid teeth on the maxilla,
It is famed for its ability
that it shares with four other

Hemachatus hae

taining the single species hae-
ican endemic, ranging as far
readily distinguished from the
keeled scales, the absence of
and in producing live young,
to spit venom, a character i st ic
African species of Naja .

machatus (Lacepede)

Rinkals Figs. 13 and 14.

I dentif ication :

A medium sized elapid that averages about a metre
in length, although exceptionally may reach 1.5 metres.

It is robust, with a short tail and a pointed head that
is not distinct from the neck. The scales on both body
and tail are strongly keeled, and arranged in 19 (17-19

in Zimbabwe) oblique rows at mid-body. There is little

indication of sexual dimorphism in either the ventrals (11 6—
150) or paired subcaudals (33-47). The anal is entire.

The head bears 8-9 lower labials, and 7 upper labials
of which the 3rd and 4th enter the orbit. The coloration

is somewhat variable. The dorsum may be black to dark
brown, spotted, variegated or with irregular bands of creamy
white to yellowish or pale brown (the banded pattern is

particularly common in the eastern Cape Province and Eastern
Zimbabwe); or brown above, uniform or spotted with black.

The ventrum is dark brown to black, usually with 1-2 pale
crossbands on the neck, the anterior of which is usually

narrower (1-2 ventrals) than the posterior (up to 7 ventrals).
In some specimens these bands fade with age. In Zimbabwean
specimens the stretched skin between the scales on the neck

is bright vermillion or yellow.

D i str i but ion :

Basically restricted to the eastern regions of South
Africa, ranging from the southern Cape Province, northeast¬
wards through the Orange Free State, Lesotho, Transkei,
Natal, western Swaziland and Transvaal (although absent
from the western and northern Transvaal). There is an
isolated population centered around I nyanga on the Z i mbabwean
Mozambique border, and a single (probably doubtful) record
for Charre on the Zambezi in Mozambique.

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Biology :

Basically nocturnal, although occasionally basking
during the day, the rinkals is relatively catholic in its
diet; taking small mammals, birds, and large numbers of
toads. Inhabiting a wide variety of habitats, from sea

level to over 2,500 metres, in some regions (e.g. the highveld
of southeastern Transvaal) it is particularly common. Unique

among African elapids in being viviparous, it gives birth
to 20-30 (exceptionally 60, but as few as 9 in Zimbabwe
young, from 1 60-1 70rnm long, in January-March .

When distrubed, a cornered rinkals has the ability
to spit venom accurately (and usually at the head of an

intruder) a distance of 2-3 metres. Venom entering the

eyes of the intruder causes intense pain and temporary
blindness, thus allowing the rinkals to make its escape.
Should this fail the rinkals can sham death, rolling onto
its back with its mouth agape, in a posture very similar
to that undertaken by the harmless hog-nose snakes (Heterodon)
of North America, or the grass snake (Natrix natrix) of
Europe. If the intruder is fooled by this performance and
departs, the rinkals will slowly turn onto its belly and
crawl away. The venom is less toxic than most other African
elapids, and human envenomation responds promptly to poly¬
valent antivenin, and fatalities are rare.

TREE COBRAS
Pseudohaje Gunther

The inclusion of tree cobras in this discussion rests
solely on Mertens ' (1955) report of a single specimen of

P. goldi i from Okavango, on the northern border of South
West Africa. However, considerable doubt exists as to the
correct identity of this specimen, which is based on a headless
skin, that moreover also has a truncated tail. The brownish
skin has glossy scales in 15 rows at midbody, and presumably
on this basis was assigned to Pseudohaje. However, Naja

haje anchietae also occasionally has 15 scale rows at mid¬
body, as do some species of Gray i a (i.e. thol Ion i and caesar,
whi 1st smy thi and ornata usually have 17 rows at mid-body,
but may be expected to occasionally have only 15 rows).
The possibility that this problematic skin may indeed represent
a specimen of Gray i a is strengthened by the aquatic habitat
of the Okavango from which it was collected.

The species, gol di i and nigra, comprise the genus

Pseudohaje; the latter being basically restricted to the

Liberian forest, from Sierra Leone to Togo; the former having
a wider distribution in the Congolese forest, ranging from
Nigeria to Kenya, and south to Angola possibly as far as
the Okovango. Recently Hughes (1976) has shown that both
species are sympatric at two localities in Ghana, whilst

n i gra also extends as far east as Enugu in Nigeria. Both

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Volume 17 Number 1 March 1981

species are similar in appearance and ecology. Adults
average 2 metres in length, exceptionally reaching 2.5 metres.
The head is short and narrow, and only slightly distinct
from the neck, whilst the tail is long. The eye is very
large, and the single elongate preocular may occasionally
have a vertical suture to form a "loreal." The body scales
are large and glossy, and in only 13-15 rows at mid-body.
The last four characteristics readily distinguish Pseudohaje
from cobras and mambas. Able to spread only a very narrow
hood at most, tree cobras are considered dangerous although
very little is known about their venom, and bites are very

rare, due to their arboreal habits. A sample of venom
tested by the South African Institute for Medical Research
(Annual Report, 1970) was, however, among the most toxic
they have tested. As tree cobras do not normally range

into the area of discussion, they will be considered no
further .

COBRAS
Naja Laurenti

The genus Naja comprises some 6-9 species, that are
widely distributed throughout Africa (excluding the Sahara)
and southeastern Asia, and is also known from Upper Miocene
deposits in France (N_. roman i ) . The taxonomy of Naja

in Asia is chaotic. Most authors conservatively place all
Asian cobras (with the exception of the King cobra, Ophio-
phagus hannah) in the species N. naja, recognizing a number

of races, i.e. oxiana, kaouthi a, atra, sputatrix, miolepis
and ph i 1 1 i pp i nensi s . Others, notably Deran i yanga I a (1960,
1961), recognize 3-4 species and many more races. Fortunately
the taxonomy of African Naja is in a much healthier condition,
mainly due to the studies of Broadley (1968 & 1974). Currently
7 species are recognized, all but two of which occur in southern
Africa. The exceptions, katiensis and pallida were treated

by Broadley (1968) as subspecies of the eastern spitting
cobra mossambica, although the ranges .of all three forms
do not adjoin.

Roman (1969) has demonstrated that in Upper Volta,
where the ranges of katiensis and the western spitting cobra
nigricol I is overlap, that the forms act as good species.

An inhabitant of the sub-Saharan Sudan savanna belt,
katiensis extends from Senegal to Nigeria.

Of the remaining species, the Cape Cobra, N_. n i vea,

is the most well-defined, being endemic to southern Africa.

Although occuring in a variety of color forms, no races
are recognized. The forest cobra, N_. mel anoleuca, is widely
distributed in forested or formerly forested areas, from
Senegal to Natal, South Africa. Laurent (1955) recognized
a savanna race, subfulva, but this has been rejected by
Broadley (1968). The Egyptian cobra has an unusual distri-

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March 1981

button in Africa, and four races are recognized (Broadley,
1968) . Typical haje is widespread in northeastern Africa,
extending along the Nile valley, and both north and south
of the Sahara to the Atlantic coast. In east Africa it is
patchily distributed, reaching its southern limit in northern
Tanzania. The subspecies N. h. arabica is distributed

in the semi-desert of western and southern Arabia. The
Egyptian cobra is absent from the forest belt of central
Arica, but represented in southern Africa by western (anchietae)
and eastern (annul ifera) races, that intergrade in northwestern
Zimbabwe. . . . . . . . . .

were long considered
a number of races,
forms, which may be
superspecies, comprise
mossambica, pallida

The spitting cobras of Africa
to comprise a single species, with
However, it is now known that these
termed the nigricol I is complex or
at least four species (nigricol I is,

and katiensis). Broadley (1968) originally considered nigri¬

col I is to be monotypic, but recognized 5 races of mossambica
Twood i , nigricincta, pa 1 1 i da,
c^TT~~However ,

after discovering sympatry
at Maconjo in Angola
T969)"~ elevated katiensis

katiensis, and typical mossambi-
he later transfered the races woodi and nigricinc¬
ta to nigricollis,
ca and
whilst Roman

nigricincta

to full

between
(Broadley
species.

mossambi

V974T

Pallida

is restricted
from mossambica

to north-eastern Africa, and
in the south by an intervening

spearated

population of nigricol I is nigricol I is. Like katiensis it proba¬
bly deserves specific recognition. Both mossambica and

all three races of nigricollis occur

in southern Africa.

All cobras are large snakes, ranging in length from
1.5 - 3.0 metres, stockily built, and with smooth scales.
They are all capable of rearing the forepart of the body
and spreading a hood, although this is not so wel I -developed
in mel anoleuca . There are differences in the toxicity and
nature of the venoms of African Naja, and it now appears
that the less-toxic venoms of the spitting cobras nigricollis
and mossambica are not neurotoxic, but rather produce
local swelling and necrosis, haematolog ica I abnormalities
and complement depletion. Conversely the venoms of the
non-spitting cobras haje, mel anoleuca, and particularly
ni vea, contain a powerful neurotoxin and death usually
results from respiratory failure.

Key to the Naja of Southern Africa

Upper labials usually excluded from the orbit by suboculars

One or two upper labials entering the orbit
2. Scales usually in 17 rows at mid-body

2.

3.

haje anchietae

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March 1981

Scales usually in 19 rows at mid-body, . . haje annul ifera

3. Sixth upper labial largest and in contact with the postoculars;

a si ngle preocu I ar . . . . . . 4.

Sixth upper labial not the largest and not in contact with
the postoculars; two preoculars . . . ..............5.

4. Rostral about as broad as deep; internasals as long as the

prefrontal s. . . . . . . . . n i vea

Rostral much broader than deep; internasals shorter than the
prefrontals . . . . . . mel anoleuca

5. Mid-body scale rows 23-25, usually 23; dorsum pale grey to
olive brown, with dark-edged scales; ventrum salmon pink

to cream, with a series of black bands or blotches on throat.
. . . . . . . mossambica

Mid-body scale rows 17-21 (except occasionally 23 in some
South West Africa specimens); dorsum either uniform dark
olive to black, or dirty white, olive or reddish with numer¬
ous narrow black crossbands; ventrum yellow to pink, or
grey to black, with a single broad dark band on throat... 6.

6. Dorsum uniform dark olive to black... . . . ...7.

Dorsum dirty white, olive or reddish with numerous narrow
black crossbands; northern half of South West Africa and
southwestern Angola, extending along the coast as far north
as the Cuanza River . . . nigricol I is nigricincta

7. Ventral s 216-228; southern South West Africa south to Citrusdal,

Western Cape Province . nigricol I is woodi

Ventrals 182-196; Caprivi Strip . . . . . n igricol I is nigricol I is

Naja haje annul ifera Peters
Banded Egyptian Cobra Figs. 15 and 16.

I dentif ication :

A large snake, adults averaging nearly 2 metres, and
occasionally reaching 2.5 metres. The body is moderately
stout, but tapers gently to a moderately long tail. The
rather broad head is flattened, has a rounded snout, and
is only slightly distinct from the neck. The scales are
smooth, with a dull sheen, and in 19 (occasionally 21) rows
at mid-body. The moderately large eye has a round pupil
and is separated from the upper labials (7-8) by 2 or 3
suboculars. There is little indication of sexual dimorphism
in either ventrals (males, 175-201; females; 180-203) or
subcaudals (males; 51-64; females, 55-65). The anal is

entire. The head is dark brown to black, with a yellow
chin; dorsum grey-brown, dark grey or blue-black (rarely
yellow or reddish with pink interstitial skin); ventrum

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March 1981

yellow, mottled with brown, often darkening to uniform

blackish; a broad (6-12 ventrals) dark brown band is always
present on the throat. A banded phase (after which the

race is named) occurs sporadically throughout the range,

and is surprisingly apparently partially sex-linked, about
70% of banded cobras being males.

The head is brown, body blue-black with 7-11 bright
yellow to whitish crossbands, which are usually half the
width of the black interspaces; ventrum uniform yellow, or

more often blotched with black opposite the black interspaces
(rarely completely ringed in yellow and black). Subadults
are more brilliantly colored, being dull yellow and bright

yellow except for the jet black throat band.

Banding is barely discernible on hatchlings (300mm),

but is fully developed at 600 mm.

Distribution :

An eastern race found throughout most of Zimbabwe (except
northwest) and the Transvaal, extending south to Zululand
and along the extreme eastern region of Botswana to the
northern Cape Province. Northern limit unclear; present

in Zambezi valley, and Shire valley of Malawi.

Biology :

A basically savanna species, found at altitudes from

sea level up to 1,600 metres, and particularly common in
bush and lowveld. Frequently found in disused termite's
nests, they are nocturnal, emerging at night to forage on

a wide variety of prey. They often establish preferred
retreats, outside which they may be found basking in the
early morning sun. Lizards, snakes, small mammals, amphi¬
bians, and birds and their eggs are all readily taken,
although toads seem the staple diet. Oviparous, 8-25 eggs
(55mm X 25mm) are laid in loose soil or disused termitaria,
the hatchlings measuring about 300mm in length.

When disturbed, and unable to retreat, it adopts the
classic cobra posture, spreading a broad hood. Like the
Rinkals it may also sham death, even allowing itself to

be handled. It is not, however, able to spit venom. Bites
may be relatively common in some districts, and often occur
on the lower leg when the snake is distrubed at night,
whilst foraging around houses for food. A burning pain
and slight swelling are the first indications of envenomation,
followed in serious cases by a rapidly developing sequence
of neurological disturbances, culminating in untreated cases
with respiratory failure and death. Venom yields may range
from 175-300 mg, of which from 25-35 mg may be fatal in
humans.

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Naja haje anchietae Bocage
Anchieta's Cobra

I dentif ication :

A large, thickly-built snake, with a short wide head,
that is not distinct from the neck. The eye is moderately

large, with a round pupil, and is separated from the upper
labials (7-8) by 3 or 4 suboculars. The scales are smooth,
with a dull sheen, and usually in 17 rows at mid-body.

The tail is moderately long. There is little indication

of sexual dimorphism in the paired subcaudals (males;
56-60; females, 54-66), but females may have slightly more
ventrals than males (females 187-195; males, 182-190).

The anal is entire. The coloration is similar to that described
above for annul ifera . A banded form occurs very occasionally.
Adults average 1 .5-1 .7 metres, but may reach 2.1m.

Distribution :

Southern Angola, northern South West Africa, western
and central Botswana, northwestern Zimbabwe, and western
Zamb i a .

Biology :

Inhabiting dry savanna in the west, it is often associated
with swamp or flood-plain conditions in the east. Its biology
is similar to that of annul i fera,

Naja mel anoleuca Hallowell
Forest Cobra Fig. 17.

I dentif ication :

The largest of southern African cobras, with a maximum
recorded size of 2690mm, although most adults average 1.8-
2.1 metres. Of slender build, it is easily distinguishable
from other cobras by the highly-polished dorsal scales.

The head is blunt and hardly distinct from the neck, and

the moderate to small eye has a round pupil. There are
7 upper labials (3rd and 4th entering orbit) and 8 lower

labials. Sexual dimorphism in both ventrals (197-226) and
paired subcaudals (57-74) is ill-defined, whilst the mid¬

body scales are in 19 (occasionally 17 or 21) rows. The
anal is entire. The head and fore-part of body yellowish-
brown, heavily-flecked in black and occasionally white,
that becomes increasingly more dense until the latter half

of the body and tail are often uniform black; ventrum bright
yellow to creamy-white, heavily blotched with black; some,
or all of labials white to yellowish-white, edged with black
(from which it derives its other common name— black-and
white-lipped cobra).

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March 1981

Distribution :

Similar to that of the green mamba and Gaboon adder,
occuring in the forested areas (or previously forested areas)

of the easern border of Zimbabwe into northern Natal, as
far south as Mtunzini. Extral imi tal I y extending as far

as Senegal and western Ethiopia.

Biology :

Although known by the common name Forest cobra this
snake appears to adapt readily to deforestation, living
in the tea and sugar cane plantations that replace the

evergreen forests. Its diet is varied, consisting of small

mammals, birds, toads and other snakes. In addition it
takes readily to water, and has been reported feeding on

slow-moving fish, such as catfish (Cl arias) .

Oviparous, up to 26 eggs (60 X 30mm) are deposited
in hollow trees, under rotting logs, etc. Like other southern
African cobras, it will when molested spread a long narrow
hood. Its venom is intermediate in toxicity between that

of haje and ni vea, and like these two venoms basically
neurotoxic. Although fatalities have been reported elsewhere
in Africa, few bites have been recorded in Southern Africa, pre¬
sumably because of their restricted distribution and shy habits .

Naja n i vea (Linnaeus)

Yellow or Cape Cobra Fig 18.

I dentif ication :

A relatively small (adults rarely reach 2 metres in

length), slender cobra, with a head broader than the neck,
moderate-sized eye, and round pupil. Of the 7 upper labials

the 3rd and 4th enter the orbit. There are 9, occasionally
8 or 10 lower labials. There is no sexual dimorphism in

either ventrals (195-227) or paired subcaudals (50-68),
and the anal is entire.

Mid-body scales in 19-21 rows, smooth but with a dull

sheen. A number of different color varieties (some of which
occur regionally) are known, but no subspecies are recognized.
The dorsum ranges from yellow to yellowish, reddish, dark
brown to black. The better known color varieties (of which
intermediates may occur) are: a) Yellow Cobra — yellow above
uniform or often speckled with light and dark brown, eye
reddish brown— w i del y distributed, and the only variety
found in Botswana; b) Brown or Speckled Cobra — bright
shiny reddish to dark mohogany above, uniform or with
darker and paler markings— southwestern Cape Province; etc.

c) Black Cobra - shiny purplish black above and below — northwest
Cape and Great Namaqualand. A dark throat band (up to 17 ven¬
trals wide) is distinct in juveniles, but may be indistinct or ab¬
sent in adults.

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Distribution :

A Cape endemic, ranging throughout the Cape Province,
and extending into the neighboring regions of the Orange
Free State, Lesotho, southwestern Transvaal, Botswana,
and South West Africa.

Biology :

The most dangerous of African cobras, due to the high
toxicity of its venom, and the frequency with which it is
found around human habitation. An active, nocturnal snake,
it is often attracted to farm-houses and stock-pens in search
of rodents, that form an important part of its diet. Lizards,
amphibians and other snakes are also readily taken. Ovipar¬
ous, from 8-20 eggs (60 X 30mm) are laid in mid-summer
(December — January) in an underground hole, or other suitable
location. They are found in a wide variety of habitats,
including the riverline valleys of the soutehrn Cape Province
and the mountain slopes (up to 2,400 metres) of western
Lesotho. They are particularly common in the dry savanna
of the Karoo. Spreading a broad hood when disturbed,
it is more nervous than most other cobras and will strike
readily. During the mating season (September to October)

it has even been observed to advance on intruders. The
venom is highly neurotoxic, and the most potent of African
cobras. 120 mg is an average venom yield, although large
snakes may exceed 250 mg. Only slightly less toxic than
black mamba venom, from 15-20 mg may be a lethal dose
in adult humans.

Naj a mossambica Peters
Mozambique spitting cobra Fig. 19.

I dentif ication :

A small cobra, adults averaging a metre in length

and rarely exceeding 1.5 metres. The blunt head is barely
distinct from the neck, whilst the moderate-sized eye has
a round pupil. There are 6 upper labials (occasionally

7 or 8), the 3rd entering the orbit, and 9 lower labials.
On average females have slightly higher ventral counts

(188-207) than males (180-196), but there is no sexual dimor¬
phism in the paired subcaudals (females, 55-68; males,
53-71). The anal is entire. Mid-body scale rows usually
23, but may range from 21-27, the scales being smooth with

a satiny texture on the back, but shiny below. The dorsal
coloration varies from pale grey to dark olive,- with each
scale edged in black; the ventrum ranges from salmon pink
to yelowish, with a series of irregular black crossbands

and blotches on the throat.— never a single broad dark band.

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March 1981

Distribution :

Distributed in south-eastern Africa from southern Tanzania
to Natal, and west through the Transvaal, Botswana and
north-eastern South West Africa to Maconjo in southern Angola.

It inhabits savanna from sea-level to 1,500 metres. Replaced
in north-eastern Africa by the species pallida.

Biology :

Perhaps the commonest cobra of the low-veld regions
of the Transvaal and Zimbabwe, Basically nocturnal (although

often found basking during the day), it emerges at dusk
from its hiding place among rock crevices, hollow logs,
termitaria, etc., to forage for food. Catholic in its tastes,
small mammals, birds, lizards, snakes, even grasshoppers

are eaten. However, like the Rinkals and Egyptian cobra,
it preys heavily on toads. Oviparous, from 10-20 eggs

(35mm X 20mm) are laid in mid-summer.

In common with Naja nigricol I is and Hemachatus haemacha-
tus it has the ability to accurately spit venom two to three
metres into the face of an intruder. Amazingly large amounts
of venom are produced, and may be quickly replaced.
On entering the eyes it produces an immediate acute burning
sensation, the conjuctiva quickly becoming oedamatous and
inflamed. Ulceration of the cornea, leading to blindness

may follow in untreated cases. If spitting does not deter
an intruder, like the Rinkals it may sham death. Bites

are relatively rare (although in some regions they may
be among the commonest cobra bites), and the venom of
low toxicity and lacking major neurotoxic effects.

Naja nigricol I is n igr icol I is Reinhardt
Black-necked Spitting-cobra

I dentif ication :

The largest spitting cobra, adults may exceptionally
reach 2.8 metre in length. The broad head has a rounded
snout, and is hardly distinct from the neck. The eye is
of moderate size with a rounded pupil. The ventral and
subcaudal counts of southern populations range from 182-
196 and 54-66, respectively, with little indication of sexual
dimorphism. Mid-body scale rows range from 17-21 (usually
19 in Western Zambia, and 21 in southern Angola), but
are higher in West Africa. The dorsum ranges in coloration
from dark olive-brown, slate-grey or black, whilst the ventrum
ranges from yellow to red with a broad dark band on the
throat and usually dark infuscations or uniform blackish
posteriorly. Juveniles are usually lighter in color than
adu I ts .

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Distribution :

Basically extra-1 imi ta! to the area under discussion,
it ranges from Senegal east to Kenya and south to Western
Zambia, Tanzania, and southern Angola, being recorded
in soutehrn Africa only from a single female collected at
Katima Mulilo in the eastern Caprivi.

Biology :

Unlike the two southern races, woodi and nigricincta,
which inhabit noticeably arid regions, typical nigricol I is
is largely confined to the relatively moist savannas which
border the equatorial forests. Basically nocturnal (although
juveni les

behavior,
however,
in large
ly less
humans)
Again like
eyes of an

are more diurnal) it is similar in much of its
diet, reproduction, etc. , to mossambica. It may,
be slightly more aquatic. Its venom is produced
amounts (yields averaging 200-350 mg) but is relative-
toxic (40 -50 mg being an average lethal dose in
than other cobra venoms, except mossambica.
mossambica the venom is usually spat into the
and in the few bites recorded neurologi-

i ntruder .

cal symptoms have been noticeably lacking, local pain,
swelling and necrosis predominating. Haematolog ica I abnormali¬
ties and complement depletion have also been noted following
nigricollis en venomat ion .

Naja nigricol I is woodi Pringle
Western Black Spitting-Cobra

I dentif ication :

A medium-sized cobra, adults averaging 1.2

1 . 5 metres

in length, and exceptionally reaching 1.8 metres. Head
scalation is similar to typical n i gr icol I i s, from which it
is readily distinguished by the higher ventral counts (221 -
228; intergrades with neighboring nigricincta may have
ventral counts as low as 216) and black coloration. Mid¬
body scales are consistently in 21 rows, whilst the paired
subcaudals range from 65-78, and like the ventrals show
little evidence of sexual dimorphism. Adults are usually
uniform black above and on the chin and throat, the rest
of the ventrum being dark grey streaked with black. Juveniles
between 550-700mm in total length are grey with the head
and neck black. Specimens from the Kuiseb River in central
South West Africa may show faint banding, indicative of
intergradation with nigricincta.

Distribution :

Inhabiting the semi-desert regions of southern South
West Africa, extending from the Kuiseb River south through
Great Namaqualand to Citrusdal in the Gape Province.

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Number 1

March 1981

Biology :

Very little is known about this rare snake, which for
some time was confused with the black variety of Cape cobra.

Naja nigricol I is n i gr ici ncta Bogert

Western Barred Spitting-Cobra Fig. 20.

I dentif ication :

A small spitting-cobra, adults averaging 1.2 metres
and rarely exceeding 1.5 metres in total length. Head

scalation is similar to typical nigricollis, from which it
is immediately recognizable by virtue of its striking banded
pattern. Mid-body scale rows usually number 21 (occasionally
22 or 23), whilst the ranges of the ventrals (males, 1 92—
218; females 196-226) and paired subcaudals (males, 59-

73; females, 57-71) are intermediate between neighboring
wood i and typical nigricol I is. In adults the ground color
of the dorsum ranges from light greyish brown to pinkish

or reddish brown, with 51-86 black bands on the body and
13-32 bands on the tail. The bands are generally irregular
and subequal in width (although occasional specimens have
much narrower black bands), and much more intense in

juveniles, tending to become less clearly-defined in adults.
The black bands extend across the ventrum (sometimes in
paler form), the ground color of which ranges from yellowish
white to light reddish brown. A broad (up to 17 ventrals)
black band, that is particularly striking in juveniles,
extends across the throat.

Distribution :

Inhabiting the dry savanna and semi-desert regions
of Central and northern South West Africa and south-western
Angol a .

Biology :

Presumably similar in its behavior and diet to typical
nigricol I is, very little is known about the habits of this
attractive cobra. Due to its ability to spit and its strongly
banded pattern, it was for some time confused with the
Rinkals.

HYDROPHIDAE

As discussed in the introduction to this chapter the
content and relationships of the Hydrophidae has been the
subject of much recent debate. As currently defined by
McDowell (Smith et al., 1977) it includes all true sea snakes
(sensu Smith, 1926) (excluding the sea kraits of the genus

Bulletin Maryland Herpetologica I Society

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Volume 17 Number

March 1981

Laticauda) and the terrestial elapids of Austra
pros and cons of this rearrangement need not
as southern Africa is peripheral to the main
of sea snakes, with only a single, possibly vagran
tive, Pelamis platurus.

lasia. The
concern us,
distribution
t representa-

SYSTEMAT I
Fami I y :
Subfami I y :

Tribe:

C ACCOUNT

Hydrophidae
Hydrophi nae

Hydrophi ini

Pel amis p I aturus (Linnaeus
Yellow-bellied Sea Snake

I dentif ication :

The only
waters, it is

marine snake found

southern African coastal
bright

instantly recongizable by virtue of its
yellow and black coloration, and lateral I y-compressed, oar¬
like tail. Adults average 600-750mm in length, although
females may exceptionally reach a metre. The head is narrow,
flattened, hardly distinct from the neck, and has an elongate
snout. As with elapids there is no loreal, the 2nd upper

labial contacting the prefrontal. There are 7 to 8 upper
labials, the 4th and 5th entering the orbit when not excluded
from it by 1 or 2 suboculars, and 10 or 11 lower labials.

The body is strongly compressed, especially posteriorly,
and covered in small polygonal scales, that are usually

smooth, except in males in which the scales of the outermost
rows on either side each bear two or three small tubercules.
There are 49-67 scale rows around athe thickest part of
the body. The ventrals total 264-406, and are small, usually
divided, and scarcely wider than the adjacent body scales.
There is no enlarged anal plate, rather a moderately enlarged
preanal scale. Coloration is extremely, variable with up
to 7 recognized variants, and many intermediate conditions.
Basically the color pattern consists of a black or dark
brown dorsum, that contrasts with a cream, yellow or pale

brown ventrum, the colors being sharply disjunct along
a mid-lateal line. The tail is yellowish, with varying
degrees of black spots or bars. All yellow and all black
variants are known from eastern pacific waters.

Distribution :

The only truely pelagic sea snake, it has an immense

range in the tropical and warm-temperate waters of the
Indo-Pacific region. Due to its pelagic nature it is subject
to waif dispersal and has been recorded from a wide variety

Page 32

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

of localities, including the east coast of Africa as far south
as Cape Town, New Zealand, and the eastern Pacific.

Biology :

In recent years there have been a number of ecological
(Kropach, 1971, 1975), physiological (Graham, 1971, 1974;

Seymour, 1974; Dunson, et al., 1971) and zoogeographical
(Dunson and Ehlert, 1971) studies on Pelamis* particularly
on specimens from the Gulf of Panama. Data for Southern
African specimens (Vissor, 1967; Van Bruggen, 1961) is
sparse, but does not conflict with that of Panamanian snakes.

In the following account it is assumed that the biology
of Pel ami s throughout its extensive range is basically the
same, and thus applicable to southern African snakes.

Pel amis swims using lateral undulations similar to that
used in locomotion by terrestial snakes. However, due
to its laterally compressed body, and reduced ventrals,
it is helpless washed ashore. Usually observed swimming

slowly or lying motionless at the surface, it can sustain
short rapid bursts of swimming, either backwards or forwards.
Subject to the vagries of surface currents, Pel amis is often
found in association with sea-slicks — smooth, narrow, long
lines on the ocean surface, where surface currents converge
and floating vegetation and debris accumulate. Associated
with these slicks are numerous small fishes on which Pel amis
exclusively feeds. Lying in ambush at the surface, often
partly hidden in the floating vegetation, it may stalk individu¬
al fish, seizing them with a sudden lunge, or when a shoal
of fish approaches swim frenziedly among them indiscriminately
biting anything in its path.

Few large marine predators (fish or porpoises) prey

on Pel amis, and many potential predators on Pelamis in

the Gulf of Pan ama were observed to actively avoid these

snakes. When Atlantic predatory fish (who would not normally
encounter Pel amis) were tested, they readily attacked and

ate Pe I am i s^ (Rub i nof f and Kropach, 1970). However, 1

in 12 of these fish were bitten and died following feeding,
leading these authors to suggest that the unique yellow

and black coloration of Pelamis may be aposematic. In
an unusual record van Bruggen (1961) observed a captive

Pelamis (washed ashore near Port Elizabeth, South Africa)
consumed by an Octopus. However, similar examples of

such predation in the wild must be very unlikely in view
of the different habitats occupied by the two species.

>

Like other sea snakes (excluding the sea kraits Laticauda)
Pelamis is viviparous, giving birth at sea to 3-8 young,

approximately 250mm inlength. Pregnant females have been
collected off the South African Coast from March to October
(Visser, 1967), with little indication that reproduction is

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 33

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

seasonal. However, a high percentage of specimens collected
from the Pacific coast of Costa Rica in the dry season (Decem¬
ber to April) are gravid females (Bolanos et a!., 1974),
suggesting seasonal reproduction .

Little is known of the venom of Pel ami s . Bolanos et
al. (1974) obtained venom yields of 0.87 mg crystallized
venom from adult snakes from Costa Rica. The maximum
yield obtained was 4.4 mg from a 750 mg snake. At least
10 mg dry venom were required to kill a 60 kg sheep, and
it was concluded improbable that even a full-grown sea snake
could kill an adult human. However, F. FitzSimons (1919)
records a number of fatalities following bites by Pelamis
washed ashore on the South African coast, although giving
few details of the symptoms of envenomation . Whether the
venom of South African Pel ami s is more toxic than Costa
Rican sea snakes is not known.

Fig. 1. A dwarf garter snake, Homorosel aps (Elaps) I acteus,
from the Eastern Cape Province. These small
brightly colored semi-fossorial snakes have recent¬
ly been removed' from the Elapidae, and are be¬
lieved to be related to Aparal I actine colubrids.

Photograph by the author.

Page 34 Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

Fig. 2. The southern Coral snake, Aspidelaps I ubr icus
I ubricus, in its typical threat posture.

Photograph by A. Bannister

Fig. 3. A large western Coral snake, Aspidelaps I ubricus
i nfuscatus, spreading a narrow hood.

Photograph by the author.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetologica I Society

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March 1981

Fig. 4. An adult shield-nose snake, Aspidelaps scutatus
scutatus, from Vivo in the Northern Transvaal,
South Africa. Photograph by A. Bannister.

Fig. 5.

Page 36

A juvenile Gunther's garter snake, E I apsoi dea
guentheri, from Chibi, Zimbabwe.

Photograph by D.G. Broadley.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

Fig. 6. A juvenile Boulenger's garter snake, Elapsoidea
semiannulata bou lenger i , showing the typical
black and white banded pattern of young snakes.

Photograph by the author.

Fig. 7. A large Boulenger's garter snake, Elapsoidea semi¬
annulata bou lengeri showing the uniform gun metal
coloration of adults.

Photograph by the author.

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March 1981

Fig. 8. A large Sundevall's garter snake, Elapsoidea sunde-
valli sundevalli, showing the faint paired lignt
bands that are retained in adults of this race.

Photograph by the author.

Fig. 9.

Page 38

A juvenile High veld garter snake, El apsoidea
sundevalli media.

Photograph by the author.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ica I Society

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

Fig. 10. A large black mamba, Dendroaspis pol y lepis, from
the northern Transvaal, South Africa.

Photograph by A. Bannister.

Fig. 11. The head of a large black mamba, Dendroaspis

poly lepis, showing the large fangs (and replace-
ment fangs), dark lining to the mouth, and the
extensive maxi I lo-prefrontal articulation.

Photograph by the author.
Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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March 1981

Fig. 12.

A green mamba, Dendroaspis angusticeps, from
Malawi.

Photograph by D.G. Broadley.

Fig. 13. A strikingly banded young ringhals, Hemachatus
haemachatus, from the eastern Cape Province.

Photograph by the author.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

Fig. 14. A ringhals, Hemachaus haemachatus, shamming death.

Photograph by W. Haacke.

Fig. 15. A young Egyptian cobra, Naja haje annul ifera,
from the Transvaal, South Africa, showing the
faint wide bands that frequently occur in this
race.

Photograph by the author.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society Page 41

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

Fig. 16.

An unbanded Egyptian cobra, Naja haje annulifera,
in typical threat posture. ~~ ~

Photograph by the author.

Fig. 17. A large forest cobra, Naja mel anol eUca, from the
Dukuduku forest, Natal, showing the typical
coloration and glossy scales.

Photograph by A. Bannister.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetologica I Society

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March 1981

Fig. 19. A young Mozambique spitting cobra, Naja mossam-
bica.

Photograph by A. Bannister.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

'< X is> y-,' s' ' A

Fig. 20. A western barred spitting cobra. Naja nigricol I is
nigricincta, showing the narrowly banded pattern.

Photograph by W. Haacke.

Acknow ledgement

I would like to thank Donald G. Broadley for reviewing
this manuscript.

LITERATURE CITED

Bolanus, R., A. Flores, R.T. Taylor and L. Cerdas (1974):

Color patterns and venom characteristics in Pel amis platurus.
Copeia, 1974(4): 909-912. — ~

Broadley, D.G. (1968a): .A revision of Aspidelaps scutatus (A.
Smith) (Serpentes: Elapinae). Arnoldia (Rhodesia), 4(2):
1-9.

Page 44

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ica I Society

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

Broadley, D.G. (1968b): A review of the African cobras of the
genus Naja (Serpentes: Elapinae). Arnoldia (Rhodesia), 3
(29): 1-14.

Broadley, D.G. (1971): A revision of the African snake genus

Elapsoidea Bocage (Elapidae). Occ. Pap. Nat. Mus. Rhodesia,
4 (32B): 577-626.

Broadley, D.G. (1974): A review of the cobras of the Naja
nigricol I is complex in southwestern Africa (Serpentes:

Elapidae) . Cimbebasia, Ser. A. V2 (14): 155-162.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1960): The taxonomy of the cobras of
southeastern Asia — Parti. Spolia Zeylanica, 29: 41-63.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1961): The taxonomy of the cobras of
southeastern Asia — Part 2. Ibid, 29: 205-232.

Dunson, W.A. and G.W. Ehlert (1971): Effects of temperature,
salinity, and surface water flow on distribution of the sea
snakes Pelamis platurus. Limnol. Oceanog., 16 (6): 845-

853.

Dunson, W.A., R.K. Packer and M.K. Dunson (1971): Sea

Snakes : an unusual salt gland under the tongue. Science,

173: 437-441 .

F.W. FitzSimons (1919): The Snakes of South AFrica, Their
venom and the treatment of snake bite. Maskew Miller.

Cape Town, i-xv, 550pp.

FitzSimons, V.F.M. (1946): Notes on some South African snakes,
including a description of a new sub-species of Xenocalamus.
Ann . T ransvaal Mus. 20, 379-393.

FitzSimons, V.F.M. (1962): Snakes of Southen Africa, Purnell,
Cape Town, 423pp.

Graham, J.B. (1974): Aquatic respiration in the sea snake
Pel ami s platurus. Resp . Physiol . 21 : 1-7.

Graham, J.B., I. Rubinoff and M.K. Hecht (1971): Temperature
physiology of the sea snake Pelamis platurus: An index of
its colonization potential in the Atlantic Ocean. Proc. Nat .
Acad. Sci. USA, 68 (6): 1360-1363.

Hughes, B. (1976): Zoogeography of West African False Cobras
(Pseudohaje spp.). Bu 1 1 . I .F.A.N. Ser A. _38 (2): 457-466.

Kochva, E. and M. Wollberg (1970): The salivary glands of

Aparal I actinae (Colubridae) and the venom glands of Elaps
(Elapidae) in relation to the taxonomic status of the genus.
Zoo I . J_. Linn. Soc., 49: 217-224.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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March 1981

Kropach, C. (1971): Sea snake (Pelamis p I aturus) aggregations
on slicks in Panama. Herpetologica, 27 : 131-135.

Kropach, C. (1975): The yellow-bellied sea snake, Pel amis, in
the Eastern Pacific. In The Biology of^ Sea Snakes 1 , Ed. W.
A. Dunson, University Park Press.

Laurent, R.F. (1955): Diagnoses prel i mi nai res de quelques
serpents venimeux. Rev . Zoo I . Bot . af r . , 51 : 127-139.

McDowell, S.B. (1967): Aspidomorphus, a genus of New Guinea
snakes of the family Elapidae, with notes on related
genera. JL_ Zoo! . London, 1 51 : 497-543.

McDowell, S.B. (1968): Affinities of the snakes usually called
Elaps lacteus and E. dorsalis. Zool . J. Linn. Soc. Lon-
don. 47: 561-578.

McDowell S.B. (1969a): Notes on the Australian sea snake

Ephalophis grey i M. Smith (Serpentes: Elapidae, Hydro-
phi nae) and the origin and classification of sea snakes.

Zool . J_. Linn. Soc. London , 48: 333-349.

McDowell, S.B. (1969b): T oxicoca I amus, a New Guinea genus

of snakes of the family Elapidae. J. Zool. London., 159:
443-511.

McDowell, S.B. (1970): On the status and relationships of

the Solomon Island elapid snakes. J. Zool. London., 161:
145-190. ~ " “ ~

McDowell, S.B. (1972): The genera of sea snakes of the Hydro-
phis group. T rans. Zool . Soc . London , 32 ( 3 ) : 189-247.

Mertens, R. (1955): Die Amphibien und Reptilien Sudwestafri-
kas. Abh . senckenb . naturf . Ges. , 490: 1-172.

Roman, B. (1969): Les Naja de Haute-Volta. Rev. Zool. Bot.
afr., 79: 1-14.

Rose, W. (1950): "The reptiles and Amphibians of South Africa"
(Cape Town): pp xxv + 378.

Rubinoff, I. and C. Kropach (1970): Differential reactions of

Atlantic and Pacific predators to sea snakes. Nature ( Lon¬
don), 228: 1288-1290.

Seymour, R.S. (1974): How sea snakes may avoid the bends.
Nature (London), 250: 489-490.

Smith, H.M., R.B. Smith and H.L. Sawin (1977): A summary of
snake classification (Reptilia, Serpentes). J_* Herpetol . ,

(2): 115-122.

Page 46

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ica I Society

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March 1981

Smith, M. (1926): Monograph of the Sea Snakes, Oxford Univer¬
sity Press, London.

Underwood, G. (1967): A contribution to the classification of
snakes. Brit. Mus.~ (Nat. Hist.), London, pp 179.

Van Bruggen, A.C. (1961): Pel amis p I aturus, an unusual item
of food of Octopus spps. Basteria, 25 (4-5): 73-74.

Visser, J. (1967): Color varieties, brood size, and food of
South AFrican Pelamis platurus (Ophidia: Hydrophidae) .
Copeia, 1 967 ( IT: 219.

Port Elizabeth Museum
P.0. Box 13147
Humewood 6013
South Africa

Received 7 August 1978
Accepted 20 November 1978

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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March 1981

Volume 17 Number 1

NOTES

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Page 48

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

-l-L- 1.

Volume 17 Number 1

March 1981

NOTES ;

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 17

NOTES:

Page 50

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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The Maryland, Herpeto logical Society
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BULLETIN OF THE

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f)ecpetological

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©oriety

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Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League

JUNE 1981

VOLUME 17 NUMBER 2

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 2 June 1981

CONTENTS

ANOTHER EPIPHYTIC ALLIGATOR LIZARD (ABRONIA) FROM MEXICO,

Hobart M. Smith and Rozella B, Smith ...... 51

ADDITIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE AMPHIBIANS OF THE ESTACION
DE B I 0 LOG I A TROPICAL "LOS TUXTLAS" (U.N.A.M,), VERACRUZ,
MEXICO . . . Gonzalo Pe r ez - H i g a r ed a . 6l

THE OCCURRENCE OF PITUOPHIS MELANOLEUCUS SAYI IN VERACRUZ
(SERPENTES: COLUBRIDAE) . . Gonzalo Pe r ez - H i g a r ed a . , . 64

A. S. PEARSE'S DENSITY ESTIMATES FOR TURTLES: THE CORRECTION
OF A LONG-STANDING ERROR . . Peter J. Petokas . 68

NESTING AND INCUBATION TIMES IN CORYTOPHANES HERNANDEZ I
(LACERTILIA: IGUANIDAE) . . Gonzalo Pe rez - H i g a red a . . 71

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON LOCOMOTOR PATTERNS IN THE WOOD TURTLE
CLEMMYS INSCULPTA . .Terry E. Graham & Jean Dadah-Tosti 74

SCELOPURUS AND EUMECES IN THE DIET OF AMEIVA UNDULATA
AMPHIGRAMMA (LACERTILIA: TEN DAE)

Gonzalo P e rez - H i g a r ed a . . 78

OV I POSITION OF KINOSTERNON D LEUCOSTOMUM IN CAPTIVITY
(TESTUD I NESS : K I NOSTERN I DAE) Gonzalo Pe rez -H i g a red a . . 80

NOTICE OF FIFTH ANNUAL REGIONAL HERPETOLOGICAL SOCIETIES

CONFERENCE . . 83

NOTICE OF SYMPOSIUM AT TOWSON STATE UNIVERSITY . 84

ORDER FORM FOR PROCEEDINGS OF THE MELBOURNE HERPETOLOGICAL
SYMPOSIUM HELD IN VICTORIA, AUSTRALIA, MAY 1980. .... 85

NEWS OF NEW BOOK RELEASE: POISONOUS SNAKES . 86

NOTICE OF BOOK: THE CARE AND FEEDING OF CAPTIVE REPTILES 88

NEW BOOK RELEASE. VETERINARY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE OF
CAPTIVE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES by Leonard Marcus, V.M.D, 89

HANDBOOK INFORMATION: REPTILES OF THE SOLOMON ISLANDS . 91

The Maryland Herpetological Society
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BULLETIN OF THE

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 2

June 1981

The Maryland Herpetolog i cal Society

Department of Herpetology, Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

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Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17

30 June 1981 Number 2

ANOTHER EPIPHYTIC ALLIGATOR LIZARD
(ABRONIA) FROM MEXICO

Hobart M. Smith and Rozella B. Smith

Abstract

Abvonia ohiszavi is described from rain¬
forests uf the Sierra de Tux 1 1 a , 2.5 mi E
Cuetzalapan, Veracruz. It is a member of
the deggei group and closely similar to
bogevti3 a species of the cloud forests of
the Pacific slopes of southern Oaxaca.

A survey of non-iguanid lizards from Mexico in U.S.
museums, preparatory for a review in the series summarizing
present knowledge of the herpetofauna of Mexico (e.g., Smith
and Smith, 1980), has revealed a hitherto unreported species
of Abvonia from the rainforests of the Sierra de Tuxtlas
near Laguna de Catemaco of southern Veracruz, whence no
other anguid has been taken. We here name it

Abvonia ohiszavi sp. nov.

Ho 1 o type . University of Texas at Arlington, Collec¬
tion of Vertebrates, R-3.195, an immature male from 2.5 mi E
Cuetzalapan, 18 Aug. 1962, William F. Pyburn. No other
specimens known.

re 1 at ed
dorsals
i mum of
b road 1 y
panded ,

Diagnosis-Definition. Very similar and presumably
to Abvonia bogevti , having Al transverse rows of
between occipital and base of tail, more than a min-
six scales in a transverse row of nuchals, parietals
contacting supraocular 3 and 4, supranasals unex-
one temporal reaching oculars, two temporals

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 51

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

contacting s u p ra 1 a b i a 1 s , one pos t s u bocu 1 a r supralabial, 11
dark crossbars from occiput to base of tail (as in veidi and
the auvita g rou p ) ; d i f f e r i ng from bogerti in having cantho-
loreal separated from frontonasal by contact of prefrontal
and canthal, 3 - 3 anterior temporals, two anterior inter¬
nasals, an azygous internasal between anterior and posterior
pairs, s u pe rc i 1 i a r i es narrowly contacting or narrowly sepa¬
rated from prefrontal, anterior supraocular narrowly contact¬
ing or narrowly separated from can t ho 1 o rea 1 , minimum number
of nape scales in a transverse row seven.

Description of holotype. In addition to character-
states mentioned in the diagnosis-definition , supranasal not
enlarged on one side, slightly on other, the two widely
separated; posterior internasals widely separated, left
twice size of right, an asymmetrical azygous internasal
between, contacting both supranasal and frontonasal; latter
larger than either prefrontal, bounded on each side by a
canthal; prefrontals broadly in contact; supraoculars 5 - 3 on
each side; two superimposed, contiguous postnasals; one
loreal; one can t ho 1 o rea 1 ; s u pe r c i 1 i a r i e s in a complete
series, broadly contacting cantholoreal and preocular; a
large subocular, anterior tip split off as a separate scale
on one side; two postoculars, lower broadly contacting sub¬
ocular; three anterior temporals, upper two small, lowermost
enlarged, not contacting subocular; 3 ~ 3 secondary, 4-4 ter¬
tiary temporals; frontal broadly contacting interparietal;
frontoparietals small; one large occipital, larger than
interparietal; 9 - 9 s u p r a 1 a b i a 1 s ; 8-8 i n f r a 1 a b i a 1 s ; one con¬
tiguous pair of chinshields, followed by three split pairs,
only one scale separating members of first.

Paravertebral scales in one transverse nape row fused,
partially fused in two other rows, producing a minimum of
seven scales in those rows; all other transverse rows on
nape with eight or more scales; dorsals in 1 6 , ventrals in
12 longitudinal rows at midbody; 56 ventrals between post¬
mental and anus; five preanals bordering anus; tail incom¬
plete, 32 whorls on remaining base£ Osteoderms not discern¬
ible due to immaturity, but presumably absent posterior to
nape, as in bogerti.

Measurements in mm: s-v 40.5; incomplete tail, 24;
maximum head width, 6.5; foreleg 10; axilla-groin, 23; hind

leg, 11.5.

Page 52

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Bulletin Maryland He rpetol og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

Each dark crossbar, dark tan in color, three scales
long, dark-edged posteriorly, separated from adjacent bars
by a paler brown space 1£ scales long; head dark tan above;
venter very pale brown, unmarked but with tiny dark dots.

Compa r ? son s . A remarkable resemblance of chiszari
and bogerti exists - so great that if the specimens now
known (one of each) had been taken from localities of shared
habitat and physiography, we would assume with confidence
that they represent one species. !n reality, there is an
extensive physiographic and habitat discontinuity between
the localities represented - bogerti from the upland cloud
forests on Pacific slopes of extreme southeastern Oaxaca,
some 75 km from the coast, chiszari from the lowland rain¬
forests of the Sierra de Tuxtlas of southern Veracruz, of
strictly Atlantic drainage and some 15 km from the Gulf of
Mexico. Between these two localities lies a vast expanse of
lowland savanna totally uninhabitable by Abronia , so far as
is now recorded for the 14 known taxa. It is unlikely that
even all of the intervening uplands are hospitable to the
genus. Indeed, on the basis of geographic proximity, the
present specimen should represent reidi , the species re¬
corded for Volcan San Martin Tuxtla, only some 20 km away.

On the contrary chiszari is widely different from reidi3
which has 38-37 dorsals, a minimum of six scales in a trans¬
verse nuchal row, three temporals contacting orbital scales,
lower temporal contacting subocular, two po s t s u boc u 1 a r sup-
ralabials, supranasals in contact medially, no canthal, etc.
(in chiszari 3 respectively, 4l dorsals, seven in a nuchal

row, one temporal to orbit and not contacting subocular, one
pos t s u bocu 1 a r labial, supranasals separated and not enlarged,
an anterior canthal).

The similarities of chiszari to bogerti extend to
some of the most distinctive features of the latter species:
the greatest number of dorsals (4l in each), and the great¬
est minimum number of scales in a transverse row of nuchals
(seven and eight, respectively) known in the genus. No
other species has more than 39 dorsals, so far as recorded
at present, and no other has more than six as the minimum
transverse nuchal count. It is uncertain whether chiszari
matches bogerti in its greatest number (105) of caudal
whorls known in the genus, since part of the tail is miss¬
ing. Other similarities are noted in the preceding diagno¬
sis-definition.

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Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 2

June 1981

Nevertheless a number of distinct differences between
ohiszari and bogerti exist; how many will prove to be con-'
stant in larger series remains to be established, but at
least some of them are of a nature that has been shown to
be reliable in distinction of other species. The most
likely to be constant are (l) separation of cantholoreal
from frontonasal by contact of prefrontal and canthal, and
(2) three primary temporals, the upper two very small, in
ohiszari (cantholoreal contacting frontonasal, and two pri¬
mary temporals, the upper one very small, in bogevti) . Less
likely to be constant are differences in the internasal area
(two anterior internasals and an azygous median internasal
in ohiszari ; four anterior internasals and no azygous inter¬
nasal in bogevti) and the nuchal region (seven minimal trans
verse count in ohiszari 3 eight in bogevti) . Probably eight
is the normal minimal transverse nuchal count in both taxa.
What differences may exist, if any, in adult coloration,
osteoderm development and number of caudal whorls is unknown
The brownish, cross-barred adult pattern of bogevti is
assured, but ohiszari could be green in adults since the
young of the green species of the genus are c ros s -ba r red ,
and other closely related pairs of taxa are known to differ
in this respect ( e.g ., taeniata and fusoolabialis from
gvaminea 3 tythvoohila from oohotevenai3 oaxacae from mv.xteoa
- the green taxon cited last for each pair).

Hab i t at . The most amazing revelation of ohiszari is
documentation of occurrence of the genus not only in high-
altitude cloud forests characterized by abundant bromeliads,
as first noted by Bogert and Porter (1967: 1 5 - 1 6 ) , but also
in similarly humid and b rome 1 i ad- i n f es ted , moderately low-
altitude rainforests. Abvonia ohiszari is the only member
of the genus known to exist in the latter habitat. The
notes taken by the collector, Dr. Pyburn, and kindly trans¬
mitted by Hr. Karges, reveal that the holotype was actually
captured by a companion's (Dr. Robert F. Anderle) son on the
bumper of Dr. Pyburn's car as it was parked by a trail
through a typical rainforest of tall, buttressed trees and
abundant lianas, at an elevation no more than a few meters
above that of Laguna de Catemaco at 360 m above sea level.
Rainfall can exceed 4000 mm/yr (Anderle, 1967: 164) and has
been recorded at 5248 mm in Coyame (Edwards and Tashian,
1959: 326), which like the type locality is on the east side
of Laguna de Catemaco.

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It is our opinion, however, that the existence of
ohiszari in a moderately low-altitude rainforest (bastonal)
is not necessarily indicative of possible occurrence of
Abronia in all lowland rainforests of southeastern Mexico,
but is a product strictly of the moderate altitude and the
continuity of that particular segment of rainforest with the
upland cloud forests of the Sierra de Tuxtla. The whole up¬
lift 9 including Laguna de Catemaco, is completely surrounded
by lowlands of less than 100 m altitude, very expansive in
all directions except toward the coast, where the uplift is
but a few kilometers from the shores of the Gulf of Mexico.
The seasonal extremes of wet and dry seasons are accentuated
at lower altitudes, less evident in the Sierra de Tuxtla.

It is highly likely that ohiszari does not range beyond the
Sierra.

It does appear, however, that even within the Sierra
de Tuxtla there is a segregation of Abronia species. A.
reidi is known only from the crater rim of Volcan San Martin
Tuxtla, at 1550 m. Whether it ranges to altitudes as low as
that of ohiszari is unknown, and whether the latter spe¬
cies ranges to the crest of the nearby ^Cerro Campanario
(1180 m) , Cerro Cintepec (890 m) , Volcan San Martin Pajapan
(1145 m) remains to be determined. Each peak could possibly
harbor a distinct species, since reidi and ohiszari success¬
fully exist in such close proximity in isolated and dis¬
tinctive, although narrowly limited, habitats.

In tall forests Abronia appears very likely to be a
canopy inhabitant; the ho 1 o type of ohiszari undoubtedly
fell from heights far above the ground, and Alvarez del Toro
(Smith and Alvarez del Toro, 1963: 103) reports a specimen

of another species ( lythroohi la) dropping to the ground at
his feet from a tree whose lowest limbs were "some hO meters
from the ground." He also reported observing many specimens
with binoculars at inaccessible heights in tall trees.

It is thus not surprising that several species of
Abronia are extremely rare; special effort is required to
detect and capture at least those that live in the high
canopy of rainforests. Undoubtedly species other than those
now known exist, and knowledge of range of even the latter
is woefully deficient. Unfortunately, all such species are
so severely threatened by rapid rainforest destruction that
their present distribution and even their existence may
never be known.

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Useful maps and habitat photographs of the Sierra de
Tuxtla region, including a figure of the type locality,
appear in Anderle (1967: 169, fig. 5).

This species adds another to the growing list of en¬
demics of the Sierra de Tuxtla, and strengthens the justifi¬
cation for recognition of it as a biotic district, as pro¬
posed by Firschein and Smith (1956), although certainly not
all supposed endemics will prove to be as d i s t r i bu t i on a 1 1 y
limited as assumed (e.g.y Hyla valancifer, formerly thought
to be limited to the Sierra de Tuxtla, is now recorded from
Guatemala, of. Due 1 1 man , 1978). If ehiszari does occur

beyond the limits of the Sierra de Tuxtla, the Guatemalan
localities (4-5 km S. Purulha, 1490-1760 m, Baja Verapaz)
for Hyla valancifer would be a likely possibility. On the
other hand, the two populations now referred to valancifer
may well represent cryptically different species, for a
continuity of range, or a brief or narrow separation of
ranges, is highly unlikely.

Phy 1 ogeny . Tihen (1954: 6) has postulated that
bogerti is the most generalized species of the genus, and
we have suggested (in prep.) that with equal validity matu¬
dai of Volcan Tacana of extreme southeastern Chiapas could
be so considered. The discovery of ehiszari, so remarkably
like bogertiy leads to the thought that all three taxa, and
reidi , are separate remnants of the ancestral stock of
Abronia3 with the aurita group radiating eastward into
Central America, the deppei group westward into Mexico. Both
bogerti and chiszari (as well as reidi) belong to the
latter group, of which they appear to be in most respects
the most primitive members, whereas matudai belongs to the
aurita group, of which it in turn appears to be the most
primitive. We remain convinced that matudai represents the
nearest living approach to the ancestral stock of the genus.

Rema r ks . The species honors Dr. David Chiszar of the
Psychology Department of the University of Colorado, Boulder;
it is dedicated to him in gratitude for the privilege of his
faithful support surpassing mere friendship, in recognition
of his pioneer behavioral studies on rattlesnake behavior,
and in admiration of his unique administrative talents and
scientific productivity.

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Fig. 1. Dorsal view of the holotype of

Abronia chiszavi .

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Fig. 3- Lateral view of the head of the holotype

of Abronia ohiszari .

Fig. 2. Dorsal view of the head of the holotype

of Abronia ohiszari .

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Acknowl edgment s

We are greatly indebted to Dr. William F. Pyburn,
collector of the holotype and Director of the museum in
which it is housed, for the privilege of describing the
species and for his field notes on the specimen; to John P.
Karges, also of the University of Texas at Arlington, for
obtaining and transmitting the field notes, preparing speci¬
men lists and handling loans; to Mr. Richard Carter and Mr.
Ralph Black of C.U.B. for photographs of the holotype; and
to Dr. Alexander Cruz of C.U.B. for gracious help with the
1 i terature.

Literature Cited

Anderle, Robert F.

1967. Birds of the Sierra de Tuxtla in Veracruz,

Mexico. Wilson R ill. 79: 1 63- 1 87 , figs. 1-8.

Bogert, Charles M. and Ann P. Porter.

1967. A new species of Abronia (Sauria, Anguidae)

from- the Sierra Madre del Sur of Oaxaca, Mexi¬
co. Am. Mus. Novit. (2279): 1-21, figs. 1-7.

Due 1 1 man , William E .

1978. The f r i nge- 1 i mbed tree frog, Hyla valancifer
(Amphibia, Anura, Hylidae) in Guatemala.

J. Herpet. 12 (3) : 407.

Edwards, Ernest P. and Richard E. Tashian.

1949. Avifauna of the Catemaco Basin of southern

Veracruz, Mexico. Condor 61 : 325-337 , f i gs . 1-6.

Firschein, I. Lester and Hobart M. Smith.

1956. A new f r i nge- 1 i mbed Hyla (Amphibia: Anura)

from a new faunal district of Mexico. Herpe-
tologioa3 12( 1): 17-21.

Smith,

Hobart M. and Miguel Alvarez del Toro.

1963. Notulae he rpe to 1 og i cae chiapasiae IV.
tologioa 19(2): 100-105.

Herpe-

_ _ and Rozella B. Smith.

1980 . Synopsis of the herpetofauna of Mexico.

Volume VI. Guide to Mexican turtles, biblio¬
graphic addendum III. North Bennington 3
Vermont 3 John Johnson, xviii, 1044 pp., 46
maps , 64 pis.

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T i hen , Joseph A .

195^. Gerrhonotine lizards recently added to the
American Museum collection with further re¬
visions of the genus Abronia . Am . Mus . Novit.
(1687) : 1-26, figs. 1-7.

Department of Environmental 3 Population and
Organismio Biology 3
University of Colorado 3
Boulder 3 Colorado 80309

Received 11 March, Iy8l
Accepted 22 March, 1981

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ADDITIONS TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE AMPHIBIANS OF THE
ESTAC ION DE BIOLOGIA TROPICAL "LOS TUXTLAS" (U.N.A.M.),
VERACRUZ, MEXICO

I n the preliminary list of reptiles ^and amphibians
from the Estacion de Biologia Tropical (Perez-Higareda,
1978), thirteen species of amphibians were recorded for the
eastern zone of the Station. Faunistic surveys conducted
since then have revealed the occurrence of eight additional
amphibian species , here recorded on Station grounds.

Although the Los Tuxtlas region as a whole embraces
different topographic levels from sea 1 eve 1 to 1 700 m» as
well as diverse types of vegetation and climates ( Gomez -
Pompa, 1978), much less variation exists in the nLos Tux¬
tlas 11 Biological Station itself. Elevations there range
only from 1 6 0 to 500 m above sea level (Lot-H, 1976) , and
Tropical Rain Forest is the predominant vegetation. Between
the eastern and central zones secondary vegetation
("acahual") is prominent due to the perturbations or i g i na ted
by man .

Comparative field studies in all three s t a t ion zones
revealed no conspicuous difference between their herpeto-
faunae, essentially the same species occurring throughout,
and in essentially the same habitats.

The f o 1 lowing species bring the total known for the
Station to 21, including the families P 1 e t hodon 1 1 dae ( 3 ) ,
Bufonidae ( 3 ) , Leptodac ty 1 I dae (4), Hylidae (6), M i c rohy 1 i -
dae (2) and Ranidae (2).

Bolitoglossa platydactyla (Gray)

This Is probably the most abundant species of sala¬
mander in the forested areas with a wide distribution from
San Luis Potosi to southern Veracruz and Oaxaca (Smith and
Ty 1 or , 19^8). Twelve specimens were collected in May, June
and July, with a mean snout-vent length of 5^ mm, total
1 engt h 1 06 mm .

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Lineatriton lineolus (Cope)

Five specimens were collected in February, in humid,
rotted tree trunks; their mean snout-vent length is 32.5 mm,
tota 1 1 ength 88 mm.

Leptodaotylus melanonotus (Hall owe 1 1 )

Two specimens were taken in October under dead
leaves. They have a snout-vent length of bb mm, tibia 15
mm, foot 30 mm, eye diameter 2 mm, tympanum 2 mm.

Hyla loquax (Gaige and Stuart)

Although widely distributed in lowlands from Central
America to southern Veracruz, this species is not common at
the Biological Station; only two specimens were captured,
found on leaves at the edge of a stream in the eastern zone.
Their mean snout-vent length is 40 mm, tibia 47-5 mm, tym¬
panum diameter 0.57 mm, eye 2 mm, foot 20 mm.

Hyla valancifer (Firschein and Smith)

Duellman (1970) pointed out that only four specimens
are known from Volcan San Martin, in the Los Tuxtlas region.
Discovery of this species at the Biological Station is of
considerable interest because the specimens previously
recorded were found at elevations above i 2 0 0 m (a.s.l.).

One specimen was captured at night on a branch of the
palm tree Astrocharium mexicanum during. The specimen, a
juvenile, has a snout-vent length of 27 mm, tibia 18 mm,
foot 15 mm, tympanum diameter 2 mm, eye b mm.

The habits of this species are unknown.

Gastrophryne usta (Cope)

Ten specimens were collected in February under dead
leaves, in forested areas. Mean snout-vent length 21.4 mm,
tibia 8.72 mm, foot 10 mm, eye diameter 0.5 mm.

Rana berlandieri (Baird)

This is the species most abundant in the altered
areas where there are streams or grasslands. In lakes
Zacatal, Azul and Emilia of the eastern zone, it occurs with

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R. palmipes. Some specimens were collected In September,
October and November, and have a mean snout-vent length of
69 mm, tibia 31*3 mm, tympanum diameter 6.2 mm.

Ac know ledgments

i wish to express my appreciation to Dr. William E.
Duellman of the University of Kansas for the identification
of the species cited in the present work, as well as for
other specimens in our he rpe to 1 og I ca 1 collection; and to
Dr. Hobart M. Smith of the University of Colorado for final¬
ization of the manuscript.

Literature Cited

Duellman, W .

1 970.

E.

Hylld frogs of Middle America. Mono .
Nat . Hist. Univ . Kansas (1): 1-753.

Mus .

Gomez - Pompa ,
1978.

A.

Ecologia de la vegetacion del estado de Vera¬
cruz. CECSA3 Mexico 3 91 pp.

Lot-Helgueras, A.

1976. La Estacion de Biologfa Tropical nLos Tux-

tlas11, Pasado, presente ^ future, In: A. Gome z-
Pompa et at. y Regeneracion de selvas , Cons .
Nac. Ens . Biol. : 31-53.

Perez-H i gareda , G .

1978. Reptiles and amphibians from the Estacion de
Biologfa Tropical "Los Tuxtlas" ( U . N . A . M . ) ,
Veracruz, Mexico. Bull. Maryland Herp . Soc.
14 (2): 67-74.

Smith, H . M . and E. H. Taylor.

1948. An annotated checklist and key to the amphib¬
ians of Mexico. Rill. U.S . Nat. Mus . (194):

1-118.

— Gonzalo Pe r ez - H i g a r ed a , Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los
Tuxtlas " 3 Instituto de Biologia 3 Universidad Nacional Auto¬
noma de Mexico 3 Apartado Postal 51 3 Catemaco 3 Veracruz _,
Mexico .

Received 9 December 1980
Accepted 3 February 1981

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THE OCCURRENCE OF PITUOPHIS MELANOLEUCUS SAY I IN VERACRUZ
(SERPENTES: COLUBRIDAE)

Pituophis melanoleucus sayi (Schlegel) is widely dis¬
tributed in central and southern U.S., ranging from Illinois,
Indiana, and Wisconsin to southern Alberta, southward as far
as western Texas and northeastern Mexico, inhabiting plains,
desert or semiarid prairies and sand plains (Conant, 1975).
Smith and Taylor (1945) reported the distribution of this
subspecies (under the name P. catenifev sayi) in Mexico if.
the states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo Leon and Tamauli-
pas . Stebbins (1966) summarized the distribution of the
species as a whole as extending from New Jersey and Virginia
to the Pacific Coast and from southwestern Canada to Florida
and the Gulf coast, and in Mexico to central Veracruz and
southern Sinaloa, sea level to above 9,000 ft. He did not
specify what subspecies reaches Veracruz, and in fact, no
precise record exists for the species in that state.

In December, 1977, I captured, at the locality of
sand dunes known as "El Bajo del Ingeniero," one specimen of
P. m. sayi. This point is located at approximately 5 km
south of the city of Veracruz, between Veracruz and Mocambo
beach (specimen number 173 deposited in the he rpe to 1 og i ca 1
collection of Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los Tuxtlas").

A year later I collected another specimen of this subspecies
in the same region (15 km N of Veracruz), in the vicinity of
San Julian. Scale counts as well as coloration of these
specimens agree completely with those of P. melanoleucus
sayi. In addition, still another specimen from the same
region exists in the Museum of Natural History of the Jni-
versity of Kansas, taken at Boca del Rio, 13 km S of Port of
Veracruz ( KU 39703) .

These three records span approximately 20 km (Fig.l).
This highly restricted, isolated distribution in central
Veracruz is strongly suggestive of introduction, in any of
several possible ways. P. melanoleucus sayi has long been
popular in the pet trade (Dr. Roger Conant, pers. comm.),
and examples could thereby have accidentally escaped or been
negligently abandoned in this region by tourists or even by
local residents. Secondly, the state of Veracruz, with its

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Fig. 1 ,

Map showing the localities of capture of
Pituophis melanoleueus sayi .

large coastal expanse on the Gulf of Mexico, has many ports
accessible to commercial ships, and for this reason the
areas surrounding such ports are sometimes occupied by un¬
usual, non-native snakes. I have captured some species
which were clearly introduced this way, e.g., Agkistrodon
contortrix mokeson in the vicinity of Alvarado and Miovuvus
sp. in a bunch of bananas in a market of Mexico City. Simi¬
larly, a Cemophora coceinea was collected at Catemaco by Dr.
Fred S. Hendricks (pers. comm). Thirdly, it is possible
that some of these exotic snakes sourced from the serpentar-
i urn that was located at Boca del Rio some years ago, working
on the extraction of snake venom to make antivenin. Many
snakes, both venomous and non-venomous , were no doubt
shipped In to the serpentarium from far and wide, and used

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not only for venom extraction but for exhibit. It is 1 i ke 1 y
that some escaped, and when the establishment closed, all
may have been released.

That on the other hand a natural range extension of
P. m. sayi into central Veracruz exists seems highly un¬
likely in view of the tropical humid climate so very differ¬
ent from the usual habitat for this species. However, the
capture of three specimens suggests an indeed "successful
introduction" and a remarkable adaptation to a new and wide¬
ly different habitat.

Nevertheless additional collecting is required to
demonstrate that a se 1 f -ma i n t a i n i ng population exists in
central Veracruz, and that it is not in continuity with more
northern populations in Tamaulipas. However knowledge de¬
velops in the future, for the present it is convenient co
accept that, introduced or not, P. m. sayi is now a part of
the ophidian fauna of the state of Veracruz, in some ways
perhaps a parallel of the puzzling populations of Crotalus
atrox and Thamnophis mavcianus on the Isthmus of Tehuan¬
tepec.

Acknow 1 edgmen t s

Thanks are due to Dr. Hobart M. Smith of the Univer¬
sity of Colorado for suggestions and finalization of the
manuscript; to Dr. Roger Conant of the University of New
Mexico for counsel; to Dr. William E. Duellman for a list
of snakes from Veracruz in the University of Kansas Museum;
and to Biol. Daniel Navarro L. of the National University
of Mexico for his invaluable collaboration.

Literature Cited

Conan t , R .

1975. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians of
eastern and central North America. Houghton
Mifflin 3 Boston 3 xviii + 429 p.

Smith, H. M. and E. H. Taylor.

1945. An annotated checklist and key to the snakes
of Mexico. Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus ( 1 87) : 1 -239 -

Stebb i ns , R .

1966.

A field guide to western reptiles and amphib¬
ians. Houghton Mifflin 3 Boston 3 xvi + 279 p .

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— Gonzalo Perez-H i gareda , Estacion de Blologia Tropical "Los
Tuxtlas ” j Instituto de Blologia , Universidad Eacional Auto¬
noma de Mexico 3 Apartado Postal 51, Catemaco3 Veracruz 3
Mexico .

Received 9 December 1980
Accepted 6 January 1981

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June 1981

A. s. pearse's density estimates for turtles:

THE CORRECTION OF A LONG-STANDING ERROR

Arthur Sperry Pearse published one of the first sci¬
entific papers dealing with the population ecology of fresh¬
water turtles (Pearse, 1923), and ever since, his paper has
been cited by numerous authors in reviews and in original
reports on similar topics ( see3 e.g.3 Cagle, 19^^; Sexton,
1959; Froese and Burghardt, 1975; and Bury, 1979). In his
report, Pearse estimated the density of Chrysemys picta and
Chelydra serpentina in a large bay of Lake Mendot a , Wiscon¬
sin. Inasmuch as I had conducted similar population studies
in New York on these same species (Petokas, 1979), it was
inevitable that I would review Pearse's (1923) report and
compare his density estimates with mine.

After reviewing the original literature on turtle
population ecology, I pondered the low density estimates
reported by Pearse (1923) for what appeared to be excellent
turtle habitat at the Lake Mendota site. The area had been
described as shall ow (0 . 5“ 1 • 0 m) and weedy (Myriophyllum 3
Ceratophyllum _, etc.) with a soft mud bottom (Pearse, 1 923;
Ream and Ream, 1966). These are all characteristics which
typify habitat preferred by C. pieta and C. serpentina ( see
Cagle, ]Skk; Sexton, 1959 ; and Froese, 1978); yet Pearse
reported only 5.02 C . picta per acre ( 1 3 - 55/ha) and 0.7 C .
serpentina per acre (0. 19/ha) of lake-marsh habitat. I
proceeded to re-estimate the size of Pearse's study site,
since the area reported was much larger than that calculated
by Bayless (1975) for a second, but more recent turtle study
(Ream and Ream, 1966) conducted in the same bay of Lake Men¬
dota, and it was readily discovered that Pearse has mis¬
placed a decimal point when determining the size of his
study site. Upon re-calculation from data in his paper
(Pearse, 192 3:24) , the study area is actually 20.25 ha,
rather than 202.5 ha as reported.

The corrected density estimates for Pearse's (1923)
study are 135-5 C . picta and 1.9 C. serpentina per hectare
of lake-marsh habitat. Ream and Ream (1966) studied C . picta
in the same portion of Lake Mendota investigated by Pearse,
but they did not estimate turtle density. However, an esti¬
mate was readily obtained by dividing their population size
estimates (891 in July and 878 in August 1962; Ream and

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Ream, 1966:335) by the total area of their study site (26.7
ha; as determined by Bayless, 1975:175) to yield a density
of about 32.8"33.3 C. picta per hectare of lake-marsh habi¬
tat. This estimate is considerably less than the corrected
density estimate for Pearse, suggesting that the number of
C, picta in Lake Mendota had decreased during the 40 years

between Pearse1
study In 1 962 .

's study In 1917-1921 and the Ream and Ream

Literature Cited

Bayless, Laurence E.

1975.

Population parameters for Chrysemys picta in
a New York pond. American Midland Naturalist
93 ( 1 ) : 1 68- 1 76 .

Bury, R . Bruce,
1979.

Population ecology of freshwater turtles.
Pages 571-602 in M. Harless and H. Morlock,
eds. Turtles: perspectives and research.

John Wiley and Sons 3 New York .

Cagle, F red R .
1944.

Home range, homing behavior, and migration in
turtles. University of Michigan 3 Museum of
Zoology 3 Miscellaneous Publication No. 61 3

34 pp.

Froese, Arnold
1978.

D.

Habitat preferences of the common snapping
turtle, Chelydra s. serpentina ( Rep t i 1 i a ,
Testudines, Che 1 yd r i dae ) . Journal of Herpe¬
tology 12 {]) : 53-58 .

F roese , Arnold
1975.

D.,and Gordon M. Burghardt.

A dense natural population of the common
snapping turtle ( Chelydra s. serpentina) .

H erpetologica 31 (2) : 204-208 .

Pea rse , Arthur
1923.

S.

The abundance and migration of turtles.
Ecology 4(l):24-28.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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June 1981

Petokas , Peter J .

1979. The turtles of Cranberry Creek Marsh: popula¬
tion and morphological parameters. M. So .
Thesis , State University of New York j College
of Environmental Science and Forestry ,
Syracuse 3 151 pp.

Ream, Catherine, and Robert Ream.

1966. The influence of sampling methods on the esti¬
mation of population structure in painted
turtles. American Midland Naturalist 75(2):
325-338.

Sexton , Owen J .

1959. Spatial and temporal movements of a popula¬
tion of the painted turtle, Chrysemys picta
marginata (Agassiz). Ecological Monographs

29 (2) :1 13-1^0.

— Peter J. Petokas, U . S . Fish and Wildlife Service , 100
Grange Place 3 Room 202 Cortland 3 New York 15045.

Received 21 January 1 9 8 1
Accepted 25 February 1981

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NESTING AND INCUBATION TIMES

(lacertilia:

IN CORYTOPHANES HERNANDEZ I

iguanidae)

The known data about the nesting and reproductive
cycle of Corytophanes hernandezi are few. Stuart (1935
and 1958) obtained a hatchling and a juvenile in Hay and
March respectively in El Peten , Guatemala. Alvarez del Toro
(I960) pointed out that in Chiapas this species lays three
or four eggs between May and July. These are the only
recorded observations for this species, and were summarized
by Fitch (1970) .

On September 10, 1980, near Coyame, Municipality of

Catemaco, Veracruz, Mexico, in an humid and shady area of
tropical rain forest, 1 watched a robust female of C. her¬
nandezi for about 90 minutes in the process of oviposition
on the ground, not in an excavation, near a tree. Upon com¬
pletion of egg-laying, the female covered the eggs with dead
leaves, utilizing a side of the body and with help of the
head, then departed. Seven white eggs, delicately shelled,
were taken from the nest. Their mean dimensions were:
length 30 mm, width 20 mm, and weight 15 gms . All were
placed in humid sand and kept in an obscure place at ambient
temperature ( 22 - 30°C ) to incubate.

On 16 November, after 67 days, the first two eggs
hatched, and the others over the next three days. The time
elapsed between first rupture of the eggs and emergence of
the hatchlings was about 16 hours. All emerged during the
day, none at night. All hatchlings were at once of normal
coloration: lustrous brown or gray with a dark brown spot

on the lateral pectoral region and a part of the humerus ; a
small anterior middorsal spot; transverse bands on the tibia
and tail; and two to four white labials. Mean dimensions
(mm) of the hatchlings: length s-v 35; tail 55; femur 10;

tibia 10; foot 15; head 13; head width 9; eye diameter
1. From the moment of hatching the yound had the ability to
run and climb. The seven are still retained alive.

At an earlier time (in 1979), a captive female laid
five eggs in m i d - Sept embe r also, but they were not discov¬
ered until after they were infected with fungi, which killed
t hem .

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 71

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

These and other personal observations on the nesting
season of reptiles in the Los Tuxtlas region are not in
accordance with observations on the same species by others
elsewhere. In Corytophanes hernandezi , for example, Stuart
( loo . cit.) and Alvarez del Toro ( loc . cit.) give the o v i -
position dates as March and July in Guatemala and Chiapas
respectively. If two months are required for incubation (as
I observed), the hatching date in the two cases would be in
the hot season with summer rains. In my observations, how¬
ever, the oviposition dates fall in the last and most rainy
month of the year, with hatching in the still rainy but
coldest months of the winter. Very likely, the species lays
several clutches over an extended breeding period, as is
known for numberous other oviparous species (Fitch, 1970).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanks are due to Drs. Hobart M. Smith and Louis J.
Guillette, Jr. of the University of Colorado for their aid
in the manuscript revision, and to Biol. Daniel Navarro L.
of the Estacion de Biologia "Los Tuxtlas," for his collabo¬
ration.

Literature Cited

Alvarez del Toro, M.

I960. Reptiles de Chiapas. Tuxtla Gutierrez 3

Chiapas 3 Instituto Zoologico del Estado3

2 0 A p p .

Fitch, H.S.

1970. Reproductive cycles of lizards and snakes.

Misc. Publ. Univ . Kansas Mus . Nat. Hist.
(52): 1-247.

Stuart , L . C .

1935. A contribution to a knowledge of the herpe¬

tology of a portion of the Savanna Region
of Central Peten , Guatemala. Mis. Publ.
Mus. Zool. Univ. Michigan (29) : 1-56.

Stuart, L. C.

1958. A study of the herpetofauna of the Uaxac-

tun-Tikal area of northern El' Peten, Guate¬
mala. Contr. Lab. Vert. Biol. Univ. Michi-
gan. (75): 1-30.

Page 72

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

— - Gonzalo Pe rez - H i g a red a , Estacion de Biologia Tropical
"Los Tuxtlas " , Instituto de Biologia , Universidad Nacional
Autonoma de Mexico , Ap artado Postal 51, Catemaco , Veracruz ,
Mexico .

Received 21 January 1981
Accepted 23 February 1981

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 73

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 2

June 1981

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON LOCOMOTOR PATTERNS
IN THE WOOD TURTLE, CLEMMYS IN SCULPT A

According to Ernst and Barbour (1972) the wood turtle
Clemmys insculpta, is diurnal and often wanders about on
land during midday. The same authors indicate that next to
box turtles {Terrapene) and tortoises {Gopherus) , this is
the most terrestrial turtle in the United States. The phase
of the locomotor activity in the freshwater turtles, Chrys-
emys picta, Clemmys guttata , Emydoidea blandingii , and Stern-
otherus odoratus has been shown to shift in response to
changing ambient temperature (Graham, 1979; Graham and Hut¬
chison, 1979). The present study examines the locomotor
rhythm of the more terrestrial emydid, Clemmys insculpta at
constant (25 and 1 5 C ) and transitional ( 2 5~ 1 5 C ) temperature.

Three adult female wood turtles, Clemmys insculpta,
were collected from Oakham and Rutland, Worcester County,
Massachusetts in April and May, 1979. They were acclimatiz¬
ed in a constant temperature incubator for ten days at 2 5 C ,
LD 14:10. The incubator (Freas 815, Low Temp) was equipped
for twilight simulation (Graham and Hutchison, 1977) and the
animals were wired for activity recording per Graham and
Hutchison (1978), except that epoxy instead of vinyl elec¬
trical tape was used to secure the mercury microswitch to
the carapacial dome of each animal.

Turtle movements were recorded for five days at 25C,
five days during a transition to 1 5 C ( 2 C /d ay ) , and three
days at 1 5 C . The resultant activity of one typical female,
graphed as mean hourly percentage of the 2b h. total, is
presented in Fig. 1.

At 25C (constant) these turtles, as evidenced by the
female record in Fig. 1, showed multiple activity peaks.
During the five day temperature transition, the number of
peaks in the daily cycles became reduced until at 1 5 C (con¬
stant) the records were distinctly unimodal (single peak).
This phase response is quite similar to that of Emydoidea
blandingii, tested under very similar conditions, but the
resultant unimodality in Clemmys insculpta at 1 5 C is much
more clearly defined. This is probably due to the more pro¬
nounced te r res t r i a 1 i ty of C. insculpta because terrestrial
environments are much more t he rmo- 1 a b i 1 e than aquatic en¬
vironments. We might therefore expect terrestrial species

Page lb

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

MEAN PERCENT ACTIVITY

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

Fig. 1. The effect of downward temperature shift (days
6-10) from 25C (days 1-5) to 1 5 C (days 11-13)
on the locomotor rhythm of an adult female
Clemmys insculpta. Activity is expressed as
mean percent of diel activity for each hour;
the scotophase is indicated by the black bars
atop the stacked records.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetol og i ca 1 Society

Page 75

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 2

June 1981

to demonstrate greater sensitivity to temperature change,
and thereby adjust their activity cycles sooner to changing
ambient temperature. This adjustment can be seen from Fig.l
where the transition from multiple activity peaks to a
single dominant peak took place during the temperature tran¬
sition period, not after it as was the case with E. blandin-
gii (Graham, 1979).

Additional data, not included in Fig. 1, indicate
that this animal was 96-97% diurnal at 250, but was 100% di¬
urnal (no movements occurred in the darkness) at 1 5 C . The
temperature drop thus enhanced the highly day-active tenden¬
cies as the activity became more confined near midday.
Activity was spread over an average of 18. A h/day at 250 ,
11.6 h/day at 25- 1 50 , and 6.7 h/day at 1 5 C . Average move¬
ments per hour were 108.8 at 250, 1 53. A at 25- 1 50, and 8 A . 7

at 150. These results indicate that not only was this indi¬
vidual strictly day-active, but she was also active over far
fewer hours at 150; her level of activity (average movements
per hour) was reduced by the lower temperature. It is inte¬
resting that activity level during the temperature transi¬
tion increased from 108.8 to 153. A. This response may rep¬
resent avoidance behavior whereby the turtle was attempting
to seek shelter or select a higher ambient temperature level
by relocating. The suppressed activity (hours and movements
per hour) would be expected as a consequence of the metabo¬
lism being lowered by decreased body temperature. The phase
response of the activity rhythm of C. insculgta to changing
ambient temperature may be adaptive, because by confining
movement toward the middle of the photophase at 1 5 C (Fig.l),
this animal would be moving when field temperature would be
more optimal for activity.

We thank Madelene Linck and Joe DePari for the loan
of their specimens. Worcester State College provided a
mini-grant for the purchase of the event recorder and
s upp 1 i es .

Literature Cited

Ernst, C. H., and R. W. Barbour.

1972. Turtles of the United States. The Uni¬
versity Press of Kentucky 3 Lexington .

Page 76

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 2

June 1981

Graham , T. E.

1979. Locomotor activity In the B 1 and I ng 1 s turtle,
Emydoidea b landingii ( Rep 1 1 1 i a , Testudlnes,
Emydidae): the phasing effect of temperature.
J. Herpetology IS (3):365“366.

__________________ and V. H. Hutchison.

1977. A device for simulating twilight In studies
of animal activity. Behav . Res . Meth . &

Instru. 9: 395-396.

and .

TsTB". Locomotor activity in Chrysemys picta : re¬
sponse to asynchronous cycles of temperature
and photoperiod. Copeia 1978: 36A-367.

_____ anc* .

1979. Turtle diel activity: response to different
regimes of temperature and photoperiod.
Comp. Bioehem. Physiol. 6SA : 299-305.

— Terry E. Graham. Department of Biology s Worcester State
College 3 Worcester 3 MA 01601s and

Jean M. Dadah-Tosti, 96 Washington Street s Mendon, MA 01756

Received: 18 February 1981

Accepted: 28 February 1981

Bulletin Maryland Herpetol og I cal Society

Page 77

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 2

June 1981

SCELOPORUS AND EUMECES IN THE DIET OF
AMEIVA UNDULATA AMPHIGRAMMA

(lacertilia: teiidae)

The known feeding habits of the lizards of the genus
Ameiva indicate a diet consisting of arthropods. A. festiva >
A. undulata3 and A . quadrilineata of Costa Rica (Fitch,

1973) contained amphipods, tenebrionid beetles, pupae and
eggs of insects, and lycosid spiders in their stomachs. A .
undulata podarga of northeastern Mexico is reported (Axtell,
1958) to feed upon beetles, larvae, spiders and roaches. A.
undulata of southern Mexico is said (Alvarez del Toro, 1972)
to prey on insects, and we have observed the same for A. u.
amphigramma from Veracruz. It is accordingly surprising and
of interest to note the occurrence of small vertebrates in
the diet of Ameiva.

In March, 1 9 8 0 , some specimens of A. u. amphigramma
were collected by students of biology in the vicinity of
Balzapote (Km 32 of the Ca t ema co-Mon t ep i o road), southern
Veracruz. The larger specimens were examined by me. One
had a lizard (Seeloporus teapensis) in the stomach, another
the body of an small skink ( Eumeees sumiehrasti) . The
stomach contents were still well conserved, but both food
specimens had lost the tail. It may be surmised that any
lizard capable of caudal autotomy would lose its tail when
attached by a predator, but it would be of interest to docu¬
ment that assumption. Some relation with the feeding sys¬
tems used by predators is likely. Moll and Smith (1967)
found two lizards in the stomach of a caecilian, both with
an i n comp 1 e te tail.

Seeloporus teapensis is active in open areas, while
Eumeees inhabits forested areas, but A. u. amphigramma

occurs in both habitats.

Ameivas frequently exhibit aggressiveness towards
other small reptiles which are competitive with them, but
our observations do not indicate whether such attacks are
motived for territorial defense or predation.

Page 78

Bulletin Maryland He rpe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 2

June 1981

Ac know 1 edgemen t

Thanks are due to Dr. Hobart M. Smith of the Uni¬
versity of Colorado for revision of the manuscript, and to
M.en C. Andres Resendiz of the Instituto de Bioloqfa
U.N.A.M., for collection of the specimens here reported.

Literature Cited

A1 va rez del Toro, M .

1972. Los reptiles de Chiapas. Gobierno del E s -

tado, Tuxtla Gutierrez,. Chiapas. 178 pp.

Axt e 1 1 , R . W .

1958. A northward range extension for the lizard

Anelytropsis papillosus , with notes on the
distribution and habits of several other
Mexican lizards. Herpetologica 14:189-191.

Fitch, H.S.

1973. A field study of Costa Rican lizards.

Univ. Kansas Science Bull. 50(2): 39-126.

Mol 1 , E. 0 and H. M. Smith.

1967. Lizards in the diet of an American caecil-

ian. Nat. Hist. Misc. Chicago Acad. Sci.
(187) : 186-187.

— Gonzalo Re rez- H i g a reda , Estacion de Biologia Tropical "Los
Tuxtlas" 3 Instituto de Biologia > Universidad Nacional Auto¬
noma de Mexico 3 Apartado Postal 51 Catemaco 3 Veracruz 3
Mexico .

Received 18 March 1981
Accepted 31 March 1 9 8 1

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Vo 1 ume 17 Number 2

June 1981

OVI POSITION OF KINOSTERNON L. LEUCOSTOMUM IN CAPTIVITY
(Testud i nes : K i n os t e r n i d ae )

Few observations have been recorded on nesting or
oviposition of the tropical species of the genus Kinosternon
in Mexico. Most data on the reproductive cycles in this
genus pertain to species of North or Central America; not¬
able is the work of Iverson (1977, 1 979 A , 1 9 7 9 B ) , on K. sub -
vubrum and K. baurii; Christiansen and Dunham (1972), on K.
f. flavescens; Legler (1966), on K> angustipons ; Sexton
(I960), on K. scorpioides ; and Medem (1961), on K. dunni .
The only known observations on Mexican species are those of
Alvarez del Toro (1972), for K, abaxillare and K. cruentatum
of Chiapas. The following notes on K.l. leucostomum are
accordingly of special interest.

An adult female of the latter species was collected
in August, 1980, in Lake Catemaco, Veracruz, and kept in
captivity in a small and improvised tank. On September 28,
one month after capture, the specimen deposited six eggs on
the surface of sand in the tank. They were white, with a
rigid but fragile shell. Three were recovered in perfect
condition (the other three were destroyed); they measured
37-^0 mm in length, 23 mm in width, and weighed 1 4 - 1 6 gms .
Although the species is smaller, its eggs are larger and
heavier than those of Pseudemys scripta I have observed in
Veracruz. The three eggs recovered were incubated in humid
sand but did not hatch.

Kinosternon 1. leucostomum is distributed in Mexico
in the states of Veracruz, Tabasco, Oaxaca and Chiapas
(Smith and Smith, 1 9 8 0 ) , and is abundant in almost all the
lakes, streams and swamps of the low plains in central and
southern Veracruz, from the basin of the Panoaya river
southward ( Pe rez - H ? ga re d a , 1978, 1 9 8 0 ) . Villagers in Vera¬

cruz report that in their vicinity this subspecies deposits
its eggs on land near water in nests a few centimeters in
depth, but I have no personal observations on nesting beha¬
vior in the natural ambient, nor on the number of eggs load.

Page 80

Bulletin Maryland He rpe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Numbe r 2

June 198]

Acknowledgement

Thanks are due to Dr. Hobart M . Smith of the Uni-
verslty of Colorado , for his help in revision of the man u -

script.

Literature Cited

Alvarez del Toro, M .

1972. Los reptiles de Chiapas. Gobierno del Es~

tado de Chiapas 3 Tuxtla Gutierrez . 1 7 8 pp .

Christiansen, J.

1 972.

L . and E . E . Dunham .

Reproduction of the ye 1 low mud turtles
(Kinosternon flavescens flavescens) in New
Mexico. Herpetologica 28(2): 130-137.

Iverson, J . B .

1 977.

Reproduction in terrestrial and freshwater
turtles in North Florida. Herpetologica

33: 205-212.

1979a.

The female reproductive cycle in North
Florida Kinosternon baurii (Testudines :
Kinosternidae) . Brimleyana 1 : 37-46.

1979b.

Reproduction and growth of the mud turtle,
Kinosternon subrubrum (Repti 1 ia , Testudines ,
Kinosternidae), in Arkansas. J» Herp, 13
(1 ) : 105-111.

Leg 1 e r , J . M .

1 966.

Notes on the natural history of a rare
Central American turtle, Kinosternon angus-
tipons . Herpetologica 22(2) : 118-122.

Medem . F .

1961 .

Contribucion al conocimiento sobre la mo r-
fologia, ecologia y distribucion geografica
de la tortuga Kinosternon dunni . Novedades
Colombianas 1 (6): 446-476.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetol og i ca 1 Society

Page 8 1

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 2

June 1981

Perez-HIgareda, G.

1978. Checklist of freshwater turtles of Vera¬

cruz, Mexico. I. Southeastern portion
of the state (Tes t ud i nes : Cryptodira).
Bull. Md. Herp. Soc. 7 4 (4) : 215-222.

1980. Checklist of freshwater turtles of Vera¬

cruz, Mexico. II. Central portion of the
state (Tes tud i nes : Cryptodira). Bull Md .
Herp. Soc. 16 ( 1 ) : 2 7-3^.

Sexton , 0 . J .

I960. Notas sobre la rep roducc i on de una tortuga

venezolana, la Kinosternon scorpioides .
Mem. Soc. Cienc. Hat. La Salle 20(57):
189-197.

Smith, H. M. and R. B. Smith.

1980. Synopsis of the herpetofauna of Mexico..

Vol. VI. Guide to Mexican turtles. John
Johnson 3 North Bennington 3 Vermont. 104*4
PP •

— Gonzalo Pe rez - H i g a red a , Estacion de Biologia Tropical " Los
Tuxtlas " j Instituto de Biologia 3 Universidad Nacional Auto- -
noma de Mexico 3 Apartado Vostal 51 3 Catemaco 3 Veracruz 3
Mexico .

Received 25 March 1981
Accepted 7 April 1981

Page 82

Bulletin Maryland He rpe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Numbe r 2

June 1981

NEWS AND NOTES

ATTENT I ON :

FIFTH ANNUAL REGIONAL H E RP ET 0 L OG I C A L SOCIETIES
CONFERENCE

DATE: 9 August 1981

TIME: 1300 Hours

PLACE: Psychology Auditorium

Memphis State University
Memph is, TN

TOPIC: Symposium - Alien Amphibians and Reptiles:

The Problem of Introduced Species.

After the presentation, there will be a dinner and a
slide show .

Speakers are still needed for the alien herp. sympo¬
sium. If one of your members has been working with intro¬
duced herps and is interested in giving a presentation, they
should contact: John C. Murphy, 201 Peerless Drive, Plain-
field, IL 60544. Phone 815/436-816?.

It is hoped that all regional societies will send at
least one representative to the conference. People attend¬
ing are encouraged to bring their best dozen slides for the
evening slide presentation.

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 83

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Numbe r 2

June 1981

News and Notes

The Sigma Xi Club of Towson State University will
host a symposium on the 3rd and 4th of this coming September
to consider endangered plants and animals in Maryland.

Thirty five authoritative presentations will be made,
discussing a wide variety of species and groups of plants
and animals (including invertebrates, vertebrates, crypto¬
grams and vascular plants), areas and types of habitat that
are critical to the survival of these species in Maryland,
and applicable private, state and federal programs.

Of special interest to Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1
Society members will be individual presentations concerning
the Green Salamander, Hellbender, Jefferson Salamander,
Tiger Salamander, Bog Turtle, Coal Skink and Mountain Earth
Snake .

For additional
(301/685-3105) or Don

information, contact Arnold Norden
Forester (301/321-2385) .

Arno 1 d Norden

Natural History Society of Maryland
2643 North Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218

Page 84

f

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

Proceedings of the

Melbourne Herpetological Symposium.

hel d a t

The Royal Melbourne Zoological Gardens,
V i c tor ia , Au s tra 1 ia

19 - 21 May, 1980.

Edited by Chris B. Banks and Angus A. Martin, and published by
the Zoological Board of Victoria.

a collection of 35 papers and expanded abstracts covering
Australian frogs and lizards, venom research, tortoises
and turtles,- and Australian crocodiles. Further papers
discuss such topics as reptile diseases, herpetological
communities, conservation and taxonomic studies. Many
noted herpetologists are represented.

. an important addition to any herpetologist's library.

ORDER FORM

Copies are availaDie for $12.00 (Australian) each, including

I postage and handling.

from Symposium Secretary, The Royal Melbourne Zoological Gardens,
P.0. Box **4 , Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia.

please make cheques payable to : Zoological Board pt Victoria

Please send

To: Name:

Address

copies 0 $12.00 (Aust.) each

Total : $

Postcode

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 85

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

NEW BOOK RELEASE:

BOOK NEWS FROM BLANDFORD: NOTED EXPERT PRESENTS IN¬
TRIGUING PORTRAIT OF POISONOUS SNAKES IN AUTHORITATIVE NEW
GUIDE.

TITLE :

POISONOUS

SNAKES

PRICE:

$27.50

PUB. DATE:

APRI L 27 ,

1 981

ISBN:

0-8069- 989^-6

When most people see a snake, they very quickly head
in the opposite direction. Tony Phelps is an exception to
that rule. In fact, he chases after them, searching through
fields and even climbing trees in hot pursuit not merely of
snakes in general, but specifically the poisonous species --
and he's been doing this since age 8, when he caught his
first adder. Now, 15 snakebites and well over 5,000 cap¬
tures later, Mr. Phelps serves as curator of one of the
world's largest collections of venomous snakes, and has
taken some time away from his slithery charges to write an
immensely readable guide to their true nature. POISONOUS
SNAKES, published April 27 by Blandford Press and distrib¬
uted by Sterling ($27.50), dispels common myths and miscon¬
ceptions and reveals the secrets of handling, capturing, and
caring for poisonous snakes, a topic which the public rarely
hears about .

Drawing on his extensive firsthand experience, Phelps
covers each species in detail, describing their physical
characteristics, habits and habitat, with special attention
to their feeding and breeding patterns, and the ecological
balance between the snakes and their natural predators. His
extensive discussion of the relationship between snakes and
man features a fascinating analysis of the effects of venom
on the body, along with a survey of snake handling ranging
from snake charmers to laboratory researchers, with profiles
of the great "snakemen" of our time. The last two sections,
dealing with the ins and outs of capturing poisonous snakes
in the field - - and keeping them in captivity -- will be as
valuable to professional herpetologists as they are intrigu¬
ing to the general reader.

cont . .

Page 86

Bulletin Maryland Herpetol og i cal Society

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 2

June 1981

Complete with 33 close-up color photographs of
venomous specimens and numerous black-and-white photos and
line drawings, POISONOUS SNAKES is an eye-opening account
of some of the world's most talked-about but little under¬
stood creatures.

Represented and distributed by:

STERLING PUBLISHING CO., Inc., Two Park Avenue, New York
10016 (212/532-7160)

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 87

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

THE CARE AND BREEDING OE CAPTIVE REPTILES

Edited by: S. Townson, N.J. Millichamp, D.G.D. Lucas and A.J. Millwood

A collection of papers published by the
British Herpetological Society. (ISBN 0 9507371 0 0)

This new paperback volume contains 100 pages,

22 photographs and numerous figures and tables.

CONTENTS

Captive Breeding of Crocodiles
H. R. Bustard

The Captive Breeding of Mediterranean Tortoises in Britain
P. W. P. Collins

The Successful Breeding of Lizards from Temperate Regions

B. A.W.A. Langerwerf

Notes on the Maintenance and Breeding of the Common Iguana
( Iguana iguana iguana) at Twycross Zoo.

C. 1. Howard

Maintenance and Breeding of Phelsuma guentheri (Boulenger 1885)
Quentin Bloxham and Simon Tonge

Breeding Gaboon Vipers, Bit is gaboniea gabonica, in Captivity
J. Akester

Keeping, Breeding and Raising Garter Snakes ( Thamnophis radix )

P. Zwart and B. Van Ham

Observations on the Reproduction of the Indian Python in Captivity,
with Special Reference to the Interbreeding of the two Subspecies,
Python molurus molurus and Python molurus bivitt'atus.

Simon Townson

Medical Aspects of Disease in Reptile Collections
N. J. Millichamp

To Order: To BHS Members, £3.00

Non members, £5.00

Postage is an additional 50p worldwide (surface mail).

Please send cheques or international money orders (made payable to the British
Herpetological Society) to:

SIMON TOWNSON, 23 Fladgate Road, Leytonstone, London, FI 1 1LX
England.

Page 88

r

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 2

June 1981

VETERINARY 810106V
AND MEDICINE

OF CAPTIVE AMPHIBIANS

AND REPTILES

LEONARD C. MARCUS, V.M.D., M.D.

Dipl ornate, American Coilege of Veterinary Pathologists
Assistant Director of Health Services
State Laboratory Institute, Massachusetts department of Public Health
Clinical Associate Professor of Preventive Medicine and Epidemiology and Chief, Section of International Health
Tufts University School of VeterJnqryTMedicine

Associate Clinical Professor of Pathology and of Pediatrics (joint appointment), Tufts University School of Medicine

Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Tufts- University
Associate Staff, New England Medicat Center
Affiliate, Angel I Memorial Hospital

This important new book provides the veterinary clinician and stu¬
dent with the background and specific data needed to maintain health,
and to diagnose and treat disease in reptiles and amphibians, especially
those kept as pets. The book also contains useful information for the
care and treatment of reptiles and amphibians kept in laboratory col¬
onies and zoos.

Presented in three sections, VETERINARY BIOLOGY AND MEDI¬
CINE OF CAPTIVE AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES logically pro¬
gresses from discussion of the normal amphibian and reptile, including
phylogenetics, applied anatomy and physiology, through principles
of husbandry and veterinary care, to specific diseases of herpeto fauna.
Coverage of diseases includes etiology, symptomatology, differential
diagnosis, pathology, treatment and public health considerations. Pri¬
vate veterinary clinicians, zoo veterinarians, veterinary pathologists,
comparative pathologists, and herpetologists will find this book to
be a practical reference, concisely written, well illustrated, with an
extensive bibliography and a critical review of the literature.

239 pages (7 x 10), illustrated, tables

$25.50 (Canada $30.50)

ctq}elli) with severe spirorchiasis.

Published March, 1981
ISBN : 0-8121 -0700-4 L.C. No. 80-24859

Lea & Febiqer- Washington Square -Philadelphia, Pa. 19106

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 89

Volume 17 Number 2

June 1981

A

Fig. 3-79. A. Tick with mouthparts
imbedded in the lateral canthus of
the eye in an Agamid lizard. B. Adult
female ixodid tick feeding on the
carapace of an East African tortoise.

Fig. 3-51. Spirorchid eggs (arrows) in a western painted turtle (Chrysemys
picta belli). 125X. A. In a thrombus, with a giant cell formation, mesenteric
artery. B. Intestine. C. Spleen. D. Kidney. Similar lesions were seen in the
heart, thyroid, pancreas, liver, and lung of this animal.

Phylogenetics • - General Principles of Diagnosis

A’pplied Anatomy and Physiology , . Temperature and Humidity

VV' - Growth, Metamorpbdjis,-and Longevity - • j

" Musculoskeletal. System >

m.-

1. THE NORMAL AMPHIBIAN AND REPTILE
^Introduction • < • /

2. PRINGIPLES.OF HUSBANDRY AND-
VET ERINARY CARE OF HERPETO FAUNA

. ' Lighting

•V ~ * Caging • .'

| . * Circulatory, System | p ' ^ " ^ ( Hygiene

•v . Lymphoid and Hematopoietic Systems: . Feeding and Nutritiorj .

Hematology. and Immunology Supportive Therapy

• Blood Chemistry , Antibibticjherapy

Respiratory System Physical Examination and Restraint

| Digestive System and Feeding I, ; i’n»cth«ia 5nrl <;nni«v

I;, ; > / . Urinary System and Fluid Balance '
Reproductive System ,

Endocrine System
Nervous System > - ■

*' Special Senses
Integurpeht

■9

A nesthesia and S urgery.

" i -

3. SPECIFIC DISEASES OF HERPETQFAUNA

Infectious Diseases
Bacterial Infections
Viral Infections
'Algal and Mycotic Infections

Parasitic Diseases ^

- Protozoan Diseases
Cestodes . ... *

Trematodiasis '

Acanthocephalan Infections .
Nematode infections ,

Leeches > - . v-

Pentastomiasis

A carias/s . • • ;

Parasitic Copepods
Diptera

Nonrnfecti'ous and Neoplastic' Diseases
Nutritional, M etabblic, and idiopathic
■ Diseases ■ . ■

Toxicology * '

. Neoplastic Diseases , ...

mm

■m

m

Index

.•5-

m

■mm

Page 90

Bulletin Maryland He rpe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 2

June 1981

WAU ECOLOGY INSTITUTE

Handbook No. 7
1981

REFT ILL'S OF THE SOLOMON ISLANDS
Michael McCoy

This well-illustrated handbook treats all of the reptiles known from the
Solomon Islands (including Bougainville I. which is part of the nation of
Papua New Guinea), Seventy-two species are described with information on
distribution, characteristics, color in life, ecology and life-cycle. There
are keys to ail categories. Many of the species are illustrated both in color
and half-tone. In addition, there are diagrams to assist in the use of the
keys and descriptions. There is a glossary, a bibliography, instructions for
preserving specimens and an index.

80 pages
8 color plates
12 half-tone plates

Price*

Kina3.00
Sol. In 00

us$ 5.00

Order from:

Bishop Museum Press
Box 19000-A
Honolulu, HI 96819

OR

W.E.I.

Box 77, vau
Papua New Guinea

Other handbooks on frogs, beetles, birds, rodents, local environment and
pidgin glossary. Also publications on mammals, and on conservation.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 91

Page 92

Bulletin Maryland Herpetologicai Society

r , ,

Society Publications

Back issues of the Bulletin of the Maryland
Herpetol og i ca 1 Society, where available, may be
obtained by wri ting the Executive Editor. A list
of available issues will be sent upon request.
Individual numbers in stock are $2.00 each, un¬
less otherwise noted.

The Soc i ety a 1 so pub 1 i shes a News 1 etter on a
somewhat irregular basis. Theseare distributed
to the membersh i p free of charge . Also published
are Maryland Herpetofauna Leaflets and these are
available at $. 05/page.

Information for Authors

All correspondence should be addressed to
the Executive Editor. Manuscripts being sub¬
mitted for publication should be typewritten
(double spaced) on good quality 8? x 1 1 inch
paper, with adequate margins. Submit original
and first carbon, retaining the second carbon.
Indicate where illustrations or photographs are
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Major papers are those over 5 pages (double
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The authors name should be centered under the
title, and the address is to fol low the Li terature
Cited. Minor papers are those papers with fewer
than 5 pages. Author's name is to be placed at
end of paper (see recent issue). For add i t iona 1
information see Style Manual for Biological
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Sc i ences , 3900 Wi scons i n Avenue, N.W. , Washi ngton ,
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Reprints are available at $.03 a page and
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reprints. Either edited manuscr i pt or proof will
be returned to author for approval or correct ion.
The author wi 1 1 be res pons ible for al 1 corrections
to proof, and must return proof preferably wi thin
7 days.

The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland, Inc .
2643 North Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218

US ISSN: 0025-4231

w</0

1 V BULLETIN OF THE

TRarylanb

f)erpetoIogica!

©ociety

Department of Herpetology
The Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

MdHS.. . A FOUNDER MEMBER OF THE

Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League

SEPTEMBER 1981

VOLUME 17 NUMBER 3

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

/ oiume 17 Number 3 September 1 9 8 1

CONTENTS

AN ANNOTATED CHECKLIST TO THE SNAKES OF THE MOYAONE
RESERVE, PRINCE GEORGE'S COUNTY, AND CHARLES
COUNTY, MARYLAND . Timothy H. Geddes 93

A RECORD SIZE FEMALE AND EGG CLUTCH FOR THE BOG

TURTLE, CLEMMYS MUHLENBERGI . John J. Ryan 102

AN OBSERVATION ON WINTER EMERGENCE OF A GARTER SNAKE,

THAMNOPHIS RADIX. .Hobart M. Smith and David Chiszar 107

TWO NEW REPTILE COUNTY RECORDS FOR MARYLAND .

. William L. Grogan, Jr. 110

SNAPPING TURTLE PREDATION ON RING-BILLED GULLS ....

. . . Peter J. Petokas 111

BOOK REVIEW - "SYNOPSIS OF THE HERPETOFAUNA OF MEXICO,

VOL. VI: GUIDE TO MEXICAN TURTLES: BIBLIOGRAPHIC
ADDENDUM III" By Hobart M. Smith and Rozella B. Smith
. . . Rog er Con ant 116

BOOK REVIEW - "HANDBOOK DER T E R RA R I E N KU N D E :

TERRAR I ENTYPEN , TIERE, PFLANZEN, FUTTER" BY Paul
Heinrich Stettler . Hobart M. Smith 120

NEW BOOK RELEASE . 122

NEWS AND NOTES: ADDENDA . 123

The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc .
2643 Horth Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218

BULLETI N OF THE

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

The Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

Department of Herpetology, Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

Bulletin Staff

Executive Editor

Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Steering Committee

Donald Boyer

Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Frank Groves

Jerry D. Hardy, Jr.

Jeff Thomas

Pres i dent . .

Off i cers

V i ce-Pres i dent ,

Secretary. . . . . ,

Treasurer . .

Library of Congress

Catalog Card Number: 7 6-93^+58

Membership Rates

Full membership in the Maryland Herpetol ogi cal Society is $12.50 per year,
subscribing membership (outside a 20 mile radius of Baltimore City) $10.00
/year. Foreign $ 1 2 . 00/y r . Make all checks payable to the Natural History
Society of Maryland, Inc.

Meet i ngs

The third Wednesday of each month, 8:15 p.m. at the Natural History
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Wednesday evenings at the NHSM at 8:00 p.m.

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 50 September 1981 _ Number 3

AN ANNOTATED CHECKLIST TO THE SNAKES OF THE
MOYAONE RESERVE, PRINCE GEORGE'S COUNTY,

AND CHARLES COUNTY, MARYLAND

The only publication of which I am aware that makes
any reference directly to the snakes of the Moyaone Reserve
and surrounding area is entitled "Land Use Survey of Piscat-
away Park,", 1963, prepared by the National Park Service.

The publication states "Only two species of snakes were
seen, the banded watersnake along the Potomac and in the
artificial lake, and a black snake, either the blue racer or
a black rat snake." I think the above quotation points to a
large gap in the knowledge of the serpent life of this area.
Consequently, this "Checklist" has been prepared.

This paper is a preliminary account of the occurrence
and distribution of serpent populations in the Moyaone
Reserve and its environs. The material presented is based
largely on the author's personal observations and is there¬
fore unavoidably biased in its content. Finding snakes is
often a matter of chance and certain species may be much
more abundant than is indicated. Included are several spe¬
cies that should occur here (Conant, 1975; Harris, 1975;
Kelly, 1936; McCauley, 19^5), but as yet have remained unob¬
served.

A number of common names are given for each species.
In the notations, a general description of size and pattern
is given. Remarks on the habits, habitats, and relative
abundance are presented. The author has attempted to add
interesting comments concerning the natural history of each
snake in the area.

A brief description of the region's geologic struc¬
ture,. dominant vegetative types, and associated vertebrate
animal populations is given.

It is hoped that the human residents of the Moyaone
Reserve will gain an ever increasing interest in and appre-
cation for the serpent life with which they share the envir¬
onment .

I n t roduct i on

The Moyaone Reserve is situated in southern Prince
George's County and extreme northwestern Charles County, and
is located northwest of the town of Accokeek, Maryland. The
Reserve and environs cover a land area of roughly six square
miles including about seven miles of waterfront along the
Potomac River and Piscataway Bay. The area is on the West¬
ern Division of southern Maryland's Coastal Plain Province
and is included in the Carolinian Life Zone.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 93

Volume. 17 Number 3

Sept embe r 1 98 1

D u r i n g

oceans and the
tion of marine
cong 1 ome rates ,
Potomac , often
graphic series
present cou rse

past geologic time the region was inundated by
underlying strata is predominantly a deposi-
sediments consisting of unconsolidated clays,
marls, sand, and silt. Later, the ancestral
flooded by the ancient sea, formed a topo-
of terraces which slope toward the River's

A number of small streams and dry washes form wide
gullies and steep hillsides across the old terrace forma¬
tions, and extensive erosional effects are readily apparent.
Swamps and tidal marshes typically occur where the larger
streams empty into the River. Often floodplains and accumu¬
lations of tidal debris are evident far up the streambeds
indicating frequent periods of high water.

The deciduous forest is dominated by oak, hickory,
beech, sycamore, and yellow poplar. The understory is com¬
monly comprised of dogwood, sweet gum, and holly. Honey¬
suckle, poison ivy, greenbr iar , and grape are often conspic¬
uous floral elements. Stands of pine often occupy the
better drained ridges. The arrow arum and the broad-leaved
cattail grow profusely in the tidal marshes.

The woodland
verted to farmland,
of climax forest and
generally favorable

areas have been largely cut and con-
thus providing the region with a blend
agricultural cultivation that is
to the wildlife community.

A number of hawks and owls make a home in the Reserve
an c, a host of insectivorous and seed-eating birds are common
and abundant here. Mammals including foxes, raccoons,
rabbits, rats, and mice are plentiful. Various kinds of
lizards and turtles inhabit the region as well as several
species of salamanders, frogs and toads. Carp, catfish,
perch, and minnows abound in the area's waterways.

Snakes form an invaluable predator/prey function in
the economy of nature. The various species of serpents ful¬
fill intermediate links in the food chain. All snakes are
carnivorous and prey upon a number of smaller animals.

Snakes in turn fall victim to several larger predators.

Serpent distribution in the region has been greatly
influenced by the physiographic and climatic changes which
have occurred during or since the glaciation of the North
American continent during the Pleistocene Epoch. Today with
mankind's increasing numbers and his subsequent demand for
living space, snake populations are often decimated because
of habitat destruction. Many species have been exterminated
from large parts of their former range.

Page 9^

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

September 1981

ACCOUNT BY SPECIES - FAMILY COLUBR 1 DAE

Natrix sipedon sipedon , Linnaeus

Northern Water Snake* Common Water Snake, "Banded Water
Snake", "Water Moccasin"

Adults average from 2 to 3i feet in length and are
usually a plain brownish hue above, however, bands are evi¬
dent when the body is wet. A semi-aquatic serpent; common
and abundant along the area's permanent waterways. Several
individuals will congregate on brushy points or under debris
along the River. Tidal marshes and woodland pools are
favored habitats. The species feeds on fish, frogs, and
some carrion. Often parasitized by a small roundworm that
encysts itself under the skin.

Matrix septemvittata , Say

Queen Snake, Striped Water Snake, Leather Snake

A brownish snake with yellow stripe along each side
of the body. The venter is light yellowish and has two rows
of darker spots. Usually averages under 2 feet in length.

A semi-aquatic snake that prefers swift flowing streams and
feeds largely on crayfish. The species is found principally
north of the Fall Line and is included in this Checklist as
possibly occurring in the area. There are no specimens on
record from the Reserve.

Carphophis amoenus amoenus , Say
Eastern Worm Snake, Ground Snake

Plain brown above, pink below; scales smooth and
shiny. Adults 10-12 inches in length. A subterranean spe¬
cies often found under stones and stumps in moist woodland
areas. Sometimes seeks concealment inside rotting logs
where it follows the tunnels of the horn beetle. Very
common and abundant, although not usually seen above ground
except at night, especially after heavy rains. Feeds on
ea rthworms .

Opheodry s aestivus , Linnaeus

Rough Green Snake, Keeled Green Snake, Grass Snake

A slender light green snake that averages 2-3 feet in

Bulletin Maryland He r pet o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 95

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Numbe r 3

Sept embe r 1981

length. This primarily arboreal snake is difficult to see
in the vines and brush of its normal habitat. Usually ob¬
served lying along the roadside where many are killed by
passing cars. A common and abundant species. Feeds on
insects and spiders.

Heterodon platyrhinos , Latreille

Eastern Hognose Snake, Puff Adder, Blowing Viper, Spread-
Head Viper, Hissing Viper

A heavy-bodied snake about 2-2\ feet in length when
adult. Variously blotched and spotted; sometimes quite
colorful. Defensive behavior of this species includes puff¬
ing, hissing, and neck spreading. Will often feign death
when disturbed. A terrestrial snake, frequenting dry woods
and fields, where it feeds primarily on toads. Not uncommon
in the Reserve. Hatchling specimens are usually found from
late August through early October.

Diadophis punctatus edwardsi , Merrem
Northern Ringneck Snake, "Racer"

Black or slate grey above with a yellowish ring
around the neck. Belly yellow, sometimes with rows of
spots. Averages about 12-15 inches in length. A secretive
species found beneath rocks and logs in moist woodland situ¬
ations. A fairly common snake in this area. Food consists
of small amphibians, notably the red-backed salamander.
Earthworms and various other invertebrates are also con¬
sumed .

Farancia ery trogramma ery trogramma , Latreille
Rainbow Snake, "Eel Moccasin"

A shiny red and black striped snake, 3 or A feet in
length. A burrowing serpent found near streams and clear
springs. The species is quite rare in Maryland. Only a
few specimens are on record from the state, none from the
Reserve. Feeds primarily on eels.

Coluber constrictor constrictor , Linnaeus
Northern Black Racer, Blacksnake, "Blue Race r ,r

Page 96

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

A dull black
on th roa t and chin,
feet i n 1 eng t h . An

color above, sometimes marked with white
Smooth scaled. Ad u 1 t s usual 1 y under 5
active species found from swampy low¬

lands to forested hillsides and dry fields,
served climbing bushes and trees. A common
tributed snake in this area. Food includes
of animal life from mice and frogs to small
sects. Not a constrictor as its scientific

Frequently o b -
and evenly d i s -
a wide variety
snakes and in¬
name i mp 1 i es .

Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta , Say

Black Rat Snake, Blacksnake, Pilot Blacksnake, Mountain
Blacksnake, Black Chicken Snake

A shiny black hue on back and sides with belly
patterned with black and white markings. The species aver¬
ages 4-5 feet in length, but larger specimens are occasion¬
ally found. This species is probably the most abundant
snake in the Reserve. It may be found in fields, woods,
around barns and outbuildings, or crossing a road. The
species is active day or night and often climbs large trees
to heights of twenty feet or more. Consumes large numbers
of rodents and occasionally birds and bird eggs. Large
individuals of this snake often show scars and evidence of
old wounds, possibly from fox or dog bites.

Elaphe guttata guttata , Linnaeus

Corn Snake, Red Rat Snake, Mouse Snake, House Snake

This attractive snake is patterned with a series of
black-bordered red blotches on back and sides of body. The
venter is black and white checkered. Usually 3 or 4 feet
in length. A congener of E. obsoleta and should be found in
similar habitats, but thus far the Corn Snake remains unre¬
corded from the Reserve. Possibly the prevalence of the
Black Rat Snake limits the distribution of the Corn Snake in
our area. Feeds mainly on mice. Young specimens may eat
lizards or small frogs.

Cemophora coccinea eoeoinea , Blumenbach
Northern Scarlet Snake

Colorfully marked with red "saddles" bordered by
black along the back. Venter is white. Appears ringed when
viewed from directly above. This snake averages under 2

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 97

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

feet in length. This species is extremely secretive and
quite rare. It has not been recorded from the Reserve, but
it does occur at localities not too far distant. It should

be looked for under shelter in well drained soils. Reported
to feed on reptile eggs.

Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis , Linnaeus

Eastern Garter Snake, Common Garter Snake, Striped Snake,
Garden Sna ke

An 18 to 24 inch brown or greenish snake, typically
with three yellowish stripes running the length of the body.
Sometimes appears more spotted than striped. A common and
abundant snake found in a wide variety of habitats, but
usually near moisture of some form. Individuals of this
species have been observed in early March basking in the sun
near a flowing spring. Feeds mainly on frogs, salamanders,
and earthworms.

Thamnophis sauritus sauritus , Linnaeus

Eastern Ribbon Snake, Riband Snake, "Garter Snake"

A chocolate brown snake with three yellow stripes on
back. The tail may comprise up to one-third of the total
length, which is about 2 feet. The species is apparently
less common than the Eastern Garter Snake as only a few
specimens have been found in the Reserve. The Eastern
Ribbon Snake is inclined towards aquatic habitats and feeds
on fish and f rog s .

Virginia valeriae valeriae , Baird and Girard

Eastern Smooth Earth Snake, Brown Snake, Valeria's Snake,

"G round Snake"

This 7-10 inch reddish brown or grey snake is very
secretive. At times uncovered as it rests beneath boards,
stones, or fallen logs. The species has a spotty distribu¬
tion and seems to be uncommon locally. Food consists of
various small invertebrates.

Storeria oooipitomaoulata oooipitomaoulata , Storer
Northern Red-Bellied Snake, Storer 1 s Snake

Page 98

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

A grey or brown snake above with four thin dark lines
on back and sides of body; bright red belly. Usually under
10 inches in length. A secretive species sometimes found
beneath debris in woodland habitats. May be found under
cover as much as three feet above the ground. A fairly
common snake, one of the first to emerge from hibernation;
often seen in late March. Food includes earthworms and in¬
sects.

Storeria dekayi dekayi3 Holbrook

Northern Brown Snake, Dekay's Snake, "Garter Snake"

Brown or tan above with two rows of small dark spots
along back. Average length under 12 inches. Often found to
be abundant under boards, tarpaper and trash heaps that pro¬
vide hiding places in open areas or around houses. The spe¬
cies occasionally seems to occur in colonies. Feeds on
earthworms and insects.

Lampropeltis triangulum temporalis , Cope

Coastal Plain Milk Snake, Milk Snake, Red King Snake, House
Snake

With an average length of 2-3 feet, this attractive
snake is patterned with a series of b 1 a c k- bo r d e r ed red
blotches on back and sides. A very uncommon species of the
L. triangulum complex. No specimens are recorded from this
area, although the form may very well occur here. The snake
is apparently inclined towards burrowing habits in pinewoods
associations. Small rodents and probably lizards and small
snakes are included in its diet.

Lampropeltis oalligaster rhombomaoulata , Holbrook
Mole Snake, Brown King Snake

A reddish brown snake with a faint pattern of narrow
red markings across middle of back. About 3 feet in length
A burrowing species occasionally found in recently plowed
fields and under cover. Sometimes seen active above ground
in the evening shortly before dark. A fairly common snake,
but not often observed. Feeds on moles and mice.

Bulletin Maryland He r pet o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 99

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

Lampropeltis getulus getulus , Linnaeus

Eastern Kingsnake, Chain King Snake, Wampum Snake, Thunder
Snake

A yellowish "chain-1 ike" pattern on a shiny black
ground color. Adults 3 to 3i feet in length. This species
displays a fondness for moist environments, but also occurs
in dry fields, often hidden beneath scrap metal and other
such shelter around old barns. Usually found active in late
afternoon or evening. A fairly common snake in this region.
Feeds largely on mice and young rats. Also eats other spe¬
cies of snakes, although not strictly venomous forms as is
sometimes believed.

FAMILY VIPERIDAE - SUBFAMILY CROTAL I NAE

Agkistvodon oontortrix mokeson, Daudin

Northern Copperhead, Highland Moccasin, Chunk-Head

Patterned with distinctive "hou
along back. A copper red tinge on top
2 or 3 feet in length. This snake is
ations along the area's streams where
cover. It is interesting to note that
amoenus, is often a habitat associate
Although nocturnal and not often seen,
uncommon at certain localities in the
has been known to feed on mice, other

r-g 1 ass" ma rk i ngs
of head . Ave rages
partial to moist situ-
it can find suitable
the Worm Snake, C .
of the Copperhead.

the Copperhead is not
Reserve. The species
snakes, and insects.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to take this opportunity to thank
Margery L. Geddes who proofread and typed this manuscript
in its various forms.

Literature C i ted

Conant, Roger.

1975. A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of
Eastern and Central North America. Houghton
Mifflin Company , Boston 3 MA. xviii + 429 pp.

Harris, Herbert S., Jr.

1975. Distributional Survey (Amph i b i a/Rept ilia):
Maryland and the District of Columbia.

Bull, Md. Herp. Soo. 11 ( 3 ) : 7 3 ~ 1 6 7 .

Page 100

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1981

Kelly, Howard A, Audrey W . Davis, H. C. Robertson.

1936. Snakes of Maryland, Natural History Society

of Maryland, Baltimore, MD . , 103 pp., 10 pi.,

33 figs.

McCauley, Robert H.

1975. The Reptiles of Maryland and the District of
Columbia, Published by the Author, Hagers¬
town, Maryland. 1 3k PP-, i 1 1 u s .

— T i m o t h y H. Geddes, 765 East Scenic Drive, Pass Christian,
MS 39571

Received 9 April 1 9 8 0
Accepted 25 June 1 9 8 1

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 101

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

A Record
and Egg Clutch

Clemmys

Size Female

for the Bog Turtle

muhlenbergi

The bog turtle, Clemmys muhlenbergi , occupies a
unique niche in the chelonian fauna of North America. Be¬
cause of its specialized habitat, secretive habits, attrac¬
tive size, and concern for its conservation, a wealth of
information is available on this diminuative reptile. In¬
deed the literature, both scientific and s em i - popu 1 a r , is as
voluminous for this turtle as for most other single species.
Because of the interest in this turtle, I am prompted
to report my observations on an unusual specimen of this
species.

Babcock (1919, p. 4 0 1 ) mentioned that a carapace
length of b^ inches [ 1 1 4 mm] is occasionally attained in
this species, but gave no details. This maximum value
appears frequently in several field guides (Conant, 1975;
Behler and King, 1979) and reference texts (Ernst and Bar¬
bour, 1972; Ernst and Bury, 1977; Pritchard, 1979). Based
on actual measured specimens, Barton and Price (1955)
observed the largest of 51 bog turtles to have a carapace
length of 1 0 8 mm for a male (22 specimens) and 9^ mm for a
female (29 specimens). More recent data of Nemuras (1967)
gave values of 106 mm for males and 95 mm for females from
a total of 17 specimens from Pennsylvania and New York.

Ernst (1977) reported a maximum of 105.5 mm for numerous
Pennsylvania specimens (sex unspecified). The New Jersey
specimens of Holub and Bloomer (1977) attained a length of
101 mm for a male and 91 mm for a female. Arndt's (1972)
measurements of Delaware bog turtles had a maximum length of
96.3 mm for a female.

As regards the number of eggs in the single yearly
clutch in this species, the maximum number quoted is usually
five (5) (Arndt, 1972, 1977; Eglis, 1967; Ernst and Barbour,
1972; Zapplorti, 1978). A compilation of egg clutch size
from both wild and captive specimens from the above and
other literature sources shows an average of 3.72+ 0.93 S D
(n=50) , range 2-5 with a mode of 3. However, Behler and
King (1979) mentioned a clutch size of six (6) eggs in the
bog turtle but gave no details.

In May, 1971, I obtained an unusually large female
specimen of Clemmys muhlenbergi from Lebanon County, Penn¬
sylvania. The shell measurements of this turtle taken with
calipers to the nearest 0.1 mm are tabulated in the Table
(values given are the longest straight line measurements).

Page 102

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 urne 1 7 Number 3

September 1 9 8 1

The carapace length of this "giant11 female bog turtle is al¬
most 11 mm longer than the largest female so far recorded
and just over 2 mm shorter than the largest male definitely
known. At the same time, measurements of three other sped -
ments from Pennsylvania are included in the Table. One of
th-se is believed to be a normal sized female and the other
two are large males and, although they are above average
size, they are smaller than the large female. As observed
by Barton and Price (1955), sexual dimorphism is expressed
in a lower carapace to plastron length ratio in the female.
This ratio is also apparent with these four turtles.

On 1 July, 1971, a hot ( 2 5 ° C ) and .sultry day, this
same large specimen laid, outside in a mossy substrate, a
record clutch of six (6) eggs which measured 28.3 +. 0.8 mm
in length and 15.1+ + 0.5 mm in width. All six eggs were
fertile and, after ¥8-50 days incubation at 25~28°C, all
hatched although one embryo was stillborn. Dimensions of
the five surviving hatchlings ten days after birth were:
carapace length of 28.6 + 0.5 mm and plastral length of
22.4 + 0.5 mm. Moll (1979), in his excellent review of
reproductive cycles in turtles, states that clutch size
increases with body size and age, although the trend is not
always evident and may be absent in species laying small
clutches. It is interesting that the large clutch size
reported here also originated from an oversized specimen.

The female specimen did appear to be relatively young as the
concentric markings on the carapace were well-defined and
not smooth as would be expected for an older specimen.

A similar type record size female specimen from the
Emydid family, Terrapene Carolina Carolina , has been found
recently in upstate New York (Cook, Abb and Frair, 1972).

In this instance, the box turtle was a female and surpassed
by over 14 mm in carapace length the largest member, either
male or female, of this subspecies. Again, from its shell
characteristics, it did not eppear to be much past its prime
although its shell was abnormal in being somewhat bilobed.
Unfortunately, the large female was not reported to lay eggs
so a clutch size is not available. Recently, Pritchard
(1980) gave some interesting examples of record size speci¬
mens from Florida, among which were the genera Terrapene ^
Graptemy s 3 and Pseudemy s .

In the last few years, evidence has accumulated
(Arndt, 1977; Behler and King, 1979; Pitts, 1978) that the
bog turtle is more common than imagined although it is sec¬
retive. The observations presented here add to our knowl¬
edge of this species in particular and to unusual sized
specimens in general.

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 103

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1981

Table 1.

S he 1 1

Mea s u r emen t s
f rom

(mm) of Four Bog
Pennsylvania

Turtles

Specimen

cl'

PL2

CW3

pw"

CL/PL

Large Fema 1 e

00

LA

O

9^-9

76.6

53.9

1.11

Norma 1 Female

90.7

82 . 3

68.8

46 . 7

1.10

Large male 1

101.7

88.5

73.4

48.0

1.15

Large male 2

99.4

84.8

74.2

45.6

1.17

1 - Ca rapace 1 ength

2 - P 1 as t ron length

3 - Carapace width at widest point

4 - Plastron width at femoral scute just posterior to bridge

Literature Cited

Arndt, Rudolf G.

1972. Additional records of Clemmys muh lenbergi in
Delaware, with notes on reproduction.

Maryland Herp. Soc . 8:1-5.

Arndt , Rudo If G .

1977. Notes on the natural history of the bog tur¬
tle, Clemmys muhlenbergi (Schoepff), in Dela
ware. Chesapeake Sci. 18:67-76.

Babcock , Harold L .

1919. Turtles of New England. Mem. Boston Soo .
Natural History 8:325-431.

Barton, A. J. and John W. Price.

1955. Our knowledge of the bog turtle, Clemmys
muhlenbergi , surveyed and augmented.

Ccpeia 1955:159-165.

Behler, John L. and F. Wayne King.

1979. The Audubon Soc. Field Guide to North Ameri¬
can Reptiles and Amphibians, Alfred A. Knopfs
New Yorkj 719 PP •

Page 104

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

Sep t embe r 198]

Conan t , Roge r .
1975.

A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of
Eastern and Central North America, 2nd Ed.

Houghton Mifflin Co.3 Boston 3 429 pp .

Cook , Stephen ,
1972.

Donald Abb, and Wayne Frair.

A new record size box turtle. International
Turtle and Tortoise Soe. J. 6:9-17.

Eg 1 i s , Arsene .
1967.

Clemmys muhlenbergi-^ Rarest of North Ameri¬
can turtles. Animal Kingdom (Hew York Zool.
Soo.) 70:58-61.

Ernst, Carl H .
1977.

Biological notes on the bog turtle, Clemmys
muhlenbergi. Herpetologica 33:241-246..

Ernst, C. H. and R. Bruce Bury.

1977.

Clemmys muhlenbergi (Sehoepff) 3 Turtle.
Catalogue of Amer. Amphibians and Reptiles 3
204:1-2.

Ernst, Carl H.
1972.

and Roger W. Barbour.

Turtles of the United States. Univ . Press.
Kentucky 3 Lexington 3 347 pp .

Ho 1 ub , Richard
1977.

J. and Tom J. Bloomer.

The bog turtle, Clemmys muhlenbergi3 a

natural history. Bull. Hew York Herp ♦ Soc.
13:9-23.

Moll, Edward 0.

1979.

Reproductive Cycles and Adaptations. Chap.

1 6 , 305-331, in "Turtles, Perspectives and
Research", Marion Harless and Henry Morlock,
ed., John Wiley 6. Sons3 Hew York.

Nemuras, Kenneth T.

1967.

Notes on the natural history of Clemmys muhl¬
enbergi. Bull. Maryland Herp. Soc . 3:80-96.

Pitts, Nadine E.

1978.

Soil maps on trail of bog turtle. Soil Con¬
servation (U.S. Dept. Agric.) 43:22-23.

Pr i tchard , Peter C . H

1979.

Encyclopedia of Turtles, TFH Publications 3

Hew Jersey 3 895 pp .

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society Page 105

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

Sep t embe r 1981

Pritchard, Peter C. H.

1980. Record Size Turtles from Florida and South
America. Chelono logioa (Netherlands) 1:
113-123 .

Zappalorti, Robert T.

1978. The bog turtle, smallest of North American

turtles. Bull. Chicago Herp . Soc. 13:75-81.

— John J. Ryan, 60 Avocado Street, Ottawa, Ontario. K1V
9C6 CANADA.

Received 3 June 1 98 1
Accepted 15 July 1981

Page F06

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1981

An Observation on Winter Emergence
of a Garter Snake, Thamnophis radix

Occasional records are puzzling of winter emergence
at unseemly temperatures of some reptiles, all of which are
known to be unable to survive freezing and to be capable of
only limited movements at temperatures well below their nor¬
mal activity range. A recent local observation on the
Plains garter snake, Thamnophis radix haydeni (Kennicott),
is suggestive of an explanation for at least some abnormal
winter emergences of reptiles.

The winter of 1980-1 in Boulder, Colorado, was an ex¬
ceptionally mild one with no night temperatures recorded
below -11 C prior to 2 February, 1981, and day temperatures
almost always rising above 0 C. The night of 2 February,
1981 had an official low of -14 C. The following day warmed
to 4°C, with occasional periods of sunshine (all tempera¬
tures courtesy NOAA) . On that day a subadult Thamnophis
radix (female, 410 mm s-v, 5^3 mm total length) was found
lying immobile in the grass opposite a hidden recess under
the sidewalk two feet away. That species is quite common in
that area of the city, local children catching dozens of
them during warm parts of the year, particularly in the fall
when neonates are abundant.

It may be conjectured that until 3 February, the
snake had successfully survived the winter in the recess
opposite which it was found.

When the snake was observed 3 February, it was taken
into a house and kept under observation in a cage warmed
with an incandescent bulb to about 23c and provided with
shelter and water. Food (earthworms) was offered but re¬
fused, although local garter snakes apparently thrive large¬
ly upon that diet. Even when warmed, the snake exhibited
abnormal movements characterized by periods of normal loco¬
motion alternating with periods of partial loss of the
righting reflex. It would briefly move sinuously upside
down before righting Itself, and often held its body at an
angle. Although capable of coiling, It spent most of its
time stretched out with just one or two juxtaposed (hairpin)
loops in the body. In general the snake's locomotion could
be characterized as spasmodic and uncoordinated. The snake
died 6 February despite maintenance under favorable condi¬
tions.

The behavior of the snake when found and as kept in
captivity suggests that neuromuscular damage had been

Bulletin Maryland He r pet o 1 og i ca l Society

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Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

Sep tembe r 1 98 1

suffered, presumably from exposure to cold insufficient to
kill outright, but sufficient to induce uncoordinated move¬
ment that resulted inadvertently with emergence onto the
surface of the ground where the snake, had it remained un¬
discovered, undoubtedly would soon have died with direct
exposure to subzero temperatures.

These observations suggest that some unusual winter
emergences of reptiles may follow brief exposure to immedi¬
ately sublethal cold temperatures when followed by a. warming
trend. The effect is apparently the production of uncoordi¬
nated movements that end either soon with exposure to lethal
cold, or somewhat later as a result of irreversible neuro¬
muscular impairment. The novelty of this hypothesis lies
primarily in the possibility that exposure to cold can, in
at least some reptiles and at certain temperatures, actually
induce movement instead of progressively paralyzing it as
may be deduced under controlled conditions to be the
expected result of temperatures decreasing to lethal levels.

Undoubtedly the induction of movement as a result of
partial freezing requires thawing temperatures; maintenance
of the freezing temperature would presumably cause death
without movement. However, a partially frozen snake, such
as the observed garter snake, will apparently start moving
when subjected to rising temperatures, at much colder levels
than a snake that was not partially frozen. Such movements
would be the equivalent of the death throes of a mortally
injured animal -- movements physiologically unrelated to
survival but occurring as a result of lethal changes that,
once effected, initiate a chain of events dictated by the
particular sort of physiological degeneration characteristic
of the given animal. Death throes in endotherms are charac¬
teristically intense and brief; in reptiles they are notori¬
ously protracted and less vigorous.

Alternatively it is possible that adaptive rather
than necrogenous movement may be induced by warming tempera¬
tures after near-lethal as well as lethal cold exposures. A
survival value of movements induced by cold is certainly
conceivable if they were frequently to lead to a longer
reproductive life than would be possible otherwise. Whether
movement can be induced in snakes or other reptiles by
slight temperature increases after near-lethal cold exposure
is not known, however. It merits experimental exploration.

Experimental studies on the congener T. eques (Low e,
Lardner, and Halpern, 1^71:127) revealed a lowest tempera¬
ture tolerance of -5*^8 C. The presumed hibernation site of
the garter snake reported here obviously protected it from
temperatures 5.5 C below that recorded as lethal, but not

Page 108

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

September 1981

*

8 . 5°C . These authors likewise showed (op. c i t . : 1 3 2 ) "that
species of snakes and lizards may temporarily survive
limited superficial freezing (ice formation) but are, never¬
theless, ecologically dead, since they show severe neuro¬
muscular d i s coo r d i n a t i on to the extent that they can neither
feed themselves nor remove themselves from immediate unfav¬
orable environmental events." The actual induction of move¬
ment, uncoordinated or not, was not noted in the report of
Lowe jLL £_L* nor 'n Spel lerberg's (1976) review and remains
to be confirmed by further studies of the effects of limited
freezing.

The work by Lowe et_ a_K also documents the astonish¬
ing ability of reptiles to withstand subfreezing tempera¬
tures even as low as -8 C (their experiments) in some spe¬
cies, without freezing (i.e., by supercooling). The phenom¬
enon loses its mystery with recognition that, depending on
the solutes present, ice may not form in water until the
temperature reaches as low as -39°C (o_p. c i t . : 1 3 0 ) . It is
apparently the actual formation of ice in tissue fluids that
wreaks irreversible injury, not the temperature itself.

Thus it can be concluded that the garter snake here
reported was not exposed to its supercooling limit until the
night of 2 February, when it suffered partial freezing that
was irreversibly although protractedly lethal.

Literature Cited

Lowe, C. H., P. G. Lardner and E. A. Halpern.

1971. Supercooling in reptiles and other verte¬
brates. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 3 9 A : 1 2 5 - 1 3 5 ,

fig. 1 .

Spel lerberg, Ian F.

1976. Adaptations of reptiles to cold. Pp. 261-
285, figs. 1-11, in A.d'A. Bellairs and C.
Barry Cox, Morphology and biology of rep¬
tiles, London, Academic Press. 290 pp., ill.

—Hobart M. Smith and David Chiszar, Department of Environ-
mental3 Population and Organismie Biology 3 and Department of
Psychology, University of Colorado , Boulder , 80309.

Received 24 June 1 9 8 1
Accepted 3 August 1 9 8 1

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 3

September 1981

Two New Reptile County Records for Maryland

According to Harris (1975), the eastern garter snake,
Thamnophis s. sirtalis 3 has been recorded from every county
in Maryland except Wicomico County. Since moving to Wicomi¬
co County in late 1978 my son, Charles Grogan, and I have
encountered numerous specimens of this species in the Salis¬
bury area where it is apparently very common. An adult
female found DOR on 2 May 1981 in Parsonsburg, Wicomico
County, is catalogued R2606NHSM in the collection of the
Natural History Society of Maryland and represents a county
record for Wicomico County.

Harris (1975) also indicates that the northern fence
lizard, Sceloporus undulatus hy acinthinus 3 has been recorded
from every Maryland county except for Garrett, where it
probably does not occur, and Dorchester. During late June,
1979 my son Charles was attending the Nanticoke Boy Scout
Reservation, 2.5 miles SW of Galestown in Dorchester County.
He and his friends captured several fence lizards which were
apparently fairly common on the loblolly pines near the Nan¬
ticoke River. A juvenile male of this species taken at the
above locality on 30 June 1979 by William Morgan III is cat¬
alogued R2607NHSM in the Collection of the Natural History
Society of Maryland and represents a county record for Dor¬
chester County .

Literature Cited

Harris, H.S., Jr.

1 975. Distributional Survey ( Amph i b i a /Rep t i 1 i a ) :
Maryland and the District of Columbia.

Bull . Md. Herp . Soc. 11 (3) : 73-167 .

— William L. Grogan, Jr., Department of Biological Sciences 3
Salisbury State College 3 Salisbury 3 Maryland 21801.

Rece ived 15 July 1981
Accepted 20 July 1981

Page 110

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

SNAPPING TURTLE PREDATION ON RING-BILLED GULLS

The snapping turtle ( Chelydra serpentina) has been
known to feed on a variety of vertebrates, especially fish
and waterfowl (Surface, 1908; Pell, 19^0; Alexander, 19^3;
Lag 1 e r , 1943; Coulter, 1957; and Hammer, 19&9); but while
snapping turtles seem capable of capturing live waterfowl
as well as other vertebrates, there is little information
on their predatory habits in natural settings. Published
observations of snapping turtle predation on wildlife
include those of Edminster (1953) for the ring-necked pheas¬
ant ( Phasianus colchieus ) and Abbott (1884) for the mink
(Mustela vison) . The following report details observations
of snapping turtles capturing and feeding on ring-billed
gulls (Larus delawarensis) .

Observations of the natural foraging behavior of
snapping turtles were made during 1977 while conducting
turtle studies at Cranberry Creek Marsh in Jefferson County,
New York (Petokas, 1979). Cranberry Creek is a s 1 ow- f 1 ow i ng ,
meandering tributary of the St. Lawrence River, the creek's
channel averaging about two meters in depth. Littoral areas
are vegetated primarily with cattail ( Typha spp. ) , big bur-
reed (Sparganium eurycarpum) , tussock sedge ( Carex striata) ,
and swamp loosestrife ( Decodon vertioillatus) . The upland
areas are predominately forested and have been described
elsewhere (see Petokas and Alexander, 1980). Flocks of
ring-billed gulls foraged daily in summer at a garbage dump
adjacent to the marsh. The gulls regularly left the dump
in flocks of 10-40 to settle along a 100-meter section of
the creek where they drank and preened. The gulls rarely
flew to other parts of the creek; all observed predation
occurred in the more regularly used section of creek
channel .

The first sign of predation by snapping turtles was
recorded on 3 July 1977* A single ring-billed gull, appear¬
ing to be freshly killed, was observed floating at the
margin of the creek channel at 1145 hours. Directly beneath
the gull was a large a 1 g ae- cove red snapping turtle lying on
the creek bottom. Capture of the turtle was attempted, but
this individual and others observed subsequently escaped
successfully because of their extreme wariness while feeding
and the obvious difficulty of hand capture in water depths
of 1-2 meters. Other ring-billed gull carcasses were
observed on 11 and 13 July in the same general area. On
both occasions, the gulls appeared to have been freshly
killed. A fourth ring-billed gull carcass was found
floating on the creek on 15 July at 08 00 hours. This indi¬
vidual was apparently one of several gulls that frequented

Bulletin Maryland Herpeto logical Society

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Volume 17 Number 3

September 1981

the marsh for extended pe r i od s , s how i n g signs of poor health.
The gull was intact, showing no sign of predation, but later
the same day (1300 hours) a painted turtle ( Chrysemys picta)
was observed feeding on the floating carcass. It was a
common occurrence to see painted turtles feeding on the re¬
mains of predated gulls; however, painted turtles and snapi-
ping turtles were never observed concurrently in the vicini¬
ty of gull carcasses.

Actual prey capture was observed on 15 July at 1755
hours. A large snapping turtle (presumably an adult male)
was seen with its jaws clamped over the posterior body sec¬
tion of an adult ring-billed gull. The bird flapped wildly
and emitted vocalizations (squawks) until weakened (or poss¬
ibly in shock), after which the turtle released its grip on
the gull and submerged. The turtle resurfaced several times
near the gull, which was still flapping weakly; but by then
the turtle seemed aware of my presence and it did not
attempt to feed on the disabled bird. I then left the site
to continue other field studies and made no further observa¬
tions on this activity.

On 17 July at 07^0 hours, a large snapping turtle was
observed feeding on a ring-billed gull at the center of the
creek channel in close proximity to the 15 July observation
site. As I neared the floating gull carcass, the turtle
submerged and resurfaced nearby, only to again submerge and
not to be seen again. I examined the gull carcass and noted
that the posterio-ventral portion of the body, including
part of the breast, had been torn away. The condition of
this particular individual was typical of most gull car¬
casses examined at Cranberry Creek Marsh. Additional ring-
billed gulls were found in the same area and in a similar
condition on 20 July (Fig. 1) and 3 August.

The even temporal spacing and localized site specifi¬
city of the above described predation suggests that a single
individual turtle may have been responsible for the majority
of gull predation at Cranberry Creek Marsh. The repeated
observation of a single adult male snapping turtle in the
area supports this presumption; however, there was no means
of identifying the individuals sighted, since they could not
be caught during their predatory activities. Large (old?)
adult snapping turtles seem to restrict their activities to
small, well-defined areas (Abbott, 1884; Surface, 1908;

Pell, 1941; and Kiviat, 1980), and it is possible that one
individual turtle encountered gulls several times while for¬
aging, thereon developing a search image for an avian food
resource.

Page 112

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

Figure 1, Ring-billed gull carcass showing pos te r i o- ven t ra 1
portion of body and right leg torn away by a
snapping turtle (0700 hours, 20 July 1977

A recent observation at Goodale Lake in central New
York demonstrates that snapping turtles also prey on live
adult waterfowl. On 17 June 1980, at 1915 hours, an adult
female mallard ( Anas platyrhynoos ) was observed flapping her
wings wildly in a stand of swamp loosestrife. As I ap¬
proached, a snapping turtle raised its head from the water
with the neck of the mallard grasped between its jaws. The
turtle relowered its head and held the mallard submerged
long enough to drown her. Nearby, the mallard's brood lay
hidden among swamp loosestrife tussocks. It is possible
that I had frightened the mallard, causing it to take the
brood into a vegetation stand where the snapping turtle lay
submerged, or perhaps the hen was captured while dabbling.
The latter alternative seems more plausible; however,
initial prey capture was not observed.

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Vo 1 Lime 17 Number 3

Sep t embe r 1 98 1

Acknowl edgements

The author is grateful to Susan H. Archer for provid¬
ing field assistance and to Maurice M. Alexander and Dale M.
Madison for reviewing the manuscript.

Literature Cited

Abbott, Charles C.

1884. A naturalist's rambles about home. D.

Appleton and Co ., New York, 485 pp .

Alexander, Maurice M.

1943. Food habits of the snapping turtle in

Connecticut. Journal of Wildlife Manage¬
ment 7 ( 3) : 27 8 -28 2 .

Coulter, Malcolm W.

1957- Predation by snapping turtles upon aquatic

birds in Maine marshes. Journal of Wildlife
Management 21(1):17-21.

Edminster, Frank C.

1953. Snapping turtle catches pheasant. Journal

of Wildlife Management 17(3): 383.

H amme r , Donald A .

1969. Parameters of a marsh snapping turtle popu¬

lation Lacreek Refuge, South Dakota.

Journal of Wildlife Management 33(4): 995-
1005.

Kiviat, Erik.

1980. Low tides and turtle trails. Hudson Valley

9(5) :27-29.

Lagler, Karl F.

1943. Food habits and economic relations of the

turtles of Michigan with special reference
to fish management. American Midland Natur¬
alist 29(2) :257-312.

Pell, S. Morris.

1940. Notes on the food habits of the common

snapping turtle. Copeia 1940(2): 131.

1 94 1 . ~~ Notes on the habits of the common snapping

turtle Chelydra serpentina (Linn.) in cen¬
tral New York. M.Sc. Thesis, Cornell Uni¬
versity, Ithaca, 85 pp .

Page 114

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 3

Septembe r 1981

Petokas , Peter J .

1979. The turtles of Cranberry Creek Marsh: popu¬

lation and morphological parameters. M.Sc.
Thesis y State University of New York 3
College of Environmental Science and
Forestry 3 Syracuse s New York, 151 pp .

y and Maurice M. Alexander.

The nesting of Chelydra serpentina in
northern New York. Journal of Herpetology
14(31:239-244.

First report on the economic features of
the turtles of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania
State Department of Agriculture 3 Division
of ZooloqUy Zoological Bulletin 6(41:105-
196 + 12 plates .

—Peter J. Petokas, U.S, Fish and Wildlife Service 100
Grange Place 3 Room 202 3 Cortland 3 New York 13045 and Depart¬
ment of Biological Science s 3 State University of New York 3
Binghamton 3 New York 13901 .

Received 15 July 1981
Accepted 23 July 1981

1980.

Surface, H . A .
1908.

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 3

September 1 98 1

BOOK REV I EW

SYNOPSIS OF THE HERPETOFAUNA OF MEXICO, VOL. VI: GUIDE TO
MEXICAN TURTLES: BIBLIOGRAPHIC ADDENDUM III. By Hobart M.
Smith and Rozella B. Smith. North Bennington, Vermont, John
Johnson, 1044 p p . , 64 pis., 46 maps, 1 9 8 0 . Hardbound, $40.

No reviewer, with the limited space available to him,
could possibly do justice to this extraordinary volume and
the immense amount of detail it contains. Its scope and
magnitude are awesome, and it stands as yet another monument
to the encyclopedic knowledge of Hobart M. Smith, one of the
great herpetologists of all time, and the skill and devotion
of his wife, Rozella B. Smith, whose competence with comput¬
ers enabled her to record and manage an incredible mass of
information for retrieval in many different ways.

Unquestionably this book qualifies as an indispens¬
able unit in the library of any se r i ou s -m i nded cheloniolo-
gist. The largest portion of the text (622 pages) is con¬
cerned with systematic accounts and supporting data for the
130 taxa, ranging from subclass to subspecies, that are used
by the authors, and all of which are treated in great detail.
This section includes 63 kinds of turtles considered to be
part of the Mexican fauna, among them one recently extinct
form ( Trionyx spiniferus ater) and two others (Chelydra ser¬
pentina serpentina and Terrapene ornata ornata) that cer¬
tainly are indigenous even though they are as yet undocu¬
mented by specimens. Comment is made on the possibility
that two additional genera, Graptemys and Malaelemys , both
of which are represented in southern Texas, eventually may
be found to occur in northeastern Mexico.

Other sections of the text include an informative
preface and introduction, a gazetteer with subsections
arranged in a variety of ways for easy reference, maps show¬
ing approximations of the ranges of the many kinds of tur¬
tles, and illustrations depicting about t h r ee - f ou r t h s of the
s pec i e s - g r ou p taxa. There is an index to the scientific
names that appear in the synonymies and ch resonym i es , and a
general subject index. An appendix, entitled "Bibliographic
Addendum I I I 11 lists 767 papers that supplement the collec¬
tively lengthy bibliographies published in previous volumes
of this great opus. To find most of the references listed
in the text the reader must turn to earlier parts of the
"Synopsis of the Herpetofauna of Mexico," an unavoidable
inconvenience in view of the enormity of this massive,
mu 1 t i - vo 1 umed work. All papers are indicated by serial
numbers, however, which facilitates locating them.

Page 116

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1 9 8 1

There are keys for the identification of families,
genera, species, and subspecies. References to the many
taxa , at all levels, are subdivided under a variety of
headings. The first species to appear in the book, Claudius
angustatus , may be used as an example to show the very wide
range of subjects covered. First, there is a complete
chresonymy and then the following subheads: Type, Type-
locality, Content, Nomen c 1 a t u r a 1 History, Literature, Diag¬
nosis-Definition, Localities, Range, Etymology, Nomenc 1 a t -
ural Status, Con se r va t i on a 1 Status, and Remarks. The sub¬
section on Literature is subdivided into Comprehensive
accounts, Popular literature, Habits in captivity, Mexican
records, Belize records, Guatemala records, Anatomy, Hema¬
tology, Karyology, Parasites and diseases, Taxonomy, (addi¬
tional) Literature surveys (presumably added after the main
list had been completed), and illustrations. The subsection
on Localities includes all known Mexican collecting sites by
states, accompanied by the "acronyms" of museums in which
specimens are represented, as well as references to papers
in which specific localities are mentioned. The task of
assembling and sorting all these data was obviously a
colossal chore, even with computer help. This is especially
true when it is considered that a great many of the species
also range into the United States or Central America, and
the literature for those areas was also sifted, although not
in such depth, and incorporated into the appropriate por¬
tions of the text .

The information on the individual turtle species in
this work, although much more detailed in many respects, is
comparable with that appearing in the accounts of the Cata¬
logue of North American Amphibians and Reptiles currently
being published piecemeal by the Society for the Study of
Amphibians and Reptiles. (This statement should not be con¬
strued, however, as a suggestion that future catalogue
accounts for Mexican turtles be abandoned; their loose-leaf
nature and individual small size make them highly useful,
and they will provide an opportunity for updating the
present opus as additional information accumulates.)

Unlike the "dry as dust" text of most reference works
this one is delightfully leavened with an abundance of
interesting and informative comments from Hobart Smith's
vast store of knowledge. These range through a wide variety
of topics, such as brief biographical sketches of some of
the early naturalists, Baur and Berlandier for example, the
squabbling of nineteenth century taxonomists about the
proper names for various taxa, and the bizarre use of
Kinosternon herrerai for the idiot tourist trade.

Bulletin Maryland Herpeto 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 3

September 1981

(I have personally seen, in shops both in Mexico City and
Ciudad Juarez, large orchestras of these turtles dried and
crudely positioned to resemble musicians performing on vari¬
ous instruments, an asinine practice reminiscent of the
small stuffed alligators with electric light bulbs screwed
into their mouths that once were vended as souvenirs in
Florida.) There are also discussions of the peregrinations
of the scientific names through veritable mazes of changes
in the literature, cogent interpretations of the code of the
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature, numer¬
ous statements on derivations, endings, etc. for Latin and
Greek words, and a profusion of similar items on a variety
of subjects. To use a colloquialism, this book is a gold
mine of information.

After becoming familiar with this huge work and the
many subjects the authors have investigated in depth, it is
difficult to select the most outstanding of its many contri¬
butions. Candidates, however, would include its up-to-date
summary of all known turtle material from Mexico, greatly
augmenting any previous compilation; the up-to-date review
of the literature; the careful survey of nomen c 1 a t or i a 1
complexities, with attention directed to many overlooked
actions in the past; and the section of the gazetteer de¬
voted to the species recorded from each locality. Also,
there is the intriguing innovation of using quadrants for
locality listing, biogeographic analysis, and computer-based
maps. These follow the index system of the American Geogra¬
phical Society's Millionth Maps for Hispanic America by
assigning numbers to each of the four quadrants surrounding
the intersection of a line of latitude with a line of longi¬
tude. Any locality falling within the limits of any one of
the quadrants is assigned to it, and by using this system,
the distribution maps could be delineated by computer.

It is customarily the prerogative of a reviewer to
make critical comments, but I shall keep mine few and brief,
although in view of the several additional anticipated vol¬
umes in this master work, I do offer some constructive crit¬
icisms.

It is disappointing to find the term "lamina" used
for certain of the epidermal, horny shields in spite of the
recommendation of Zangerl that it should be avoided (Biology
of the Reptilia, 1969, 1:315). The illustrations are the
weak part of this otherwise extremely admirable work. The
line drawings reproduced well, but the photographs fared
rather poorly, presumably because of the type of paper used
and the method of reproduction. Also, it is unfortunate

Page 118

Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Mo 1 ume 17 Number 3

September 1981

that the authors d4 d not succeed in finding more pictures of
living Mexican animals, a number of which were available,
instead of depending in many cases on photographs of pre¬
served specimens. These defects could be remedied in future
volumes by using coated paper for printing the illustrations
and by widely indicating well in advance the need for good
photographs of live Mexican lizards, snakes, and amphibians.

The lack of diacritical marks is disconcerting, espe¬
cially for a reviewer who has tried, in preparing his own
manuscripts, to use with care the accent marks and tildes
required by so many Mexican place names. A useful improve¬
ment would be to provide running heads by subjects. Inas¬
much as the text pages are prepared in camera-ready condi¬
tion, it would be a simple matter to put the names of the
taxon under discussion at the top of each page. Because the
word "Testud I nes11 appears on all odd-numbered pages from 1
to 6 5 9 ? inclusive, browsing through this book or trying to
find a reference without consulting the index or table of
contents is frustrating.

A few words of praise should be directed to John
Johnson, the publisher, for his success in making possible
a modest price. Where else, in these days of inflation,
could one expect to purchase a technical volume of more than
a thousand pages for forty dollars? If it had been issued
by one of the large commercial publishing houses, either in
the United States or Europe, it conceivably could have cost
triple or more that amount.

The Smiths, whom I have seen in action working on
this stupendous project, certainly must rank among the most
dedicated and industrious hu s band -and -wi fe teams in literary
history. Their many friends and peers are unanimous in
hoping they will remain in excellent health and a full state
of vigor to complete their unprecedented se 1 f -a s s i g nmen t .
Because Dr. Hobart Smith will retire in about two years from
his academic and administrative duties, the pace at which
the remaining volumes will appear should accelerate. When
all the parts are finished, the "Synopsis of the Herpeto-
fauna of Mexico" will stand as a monumental contribution of
two extraordinary people. They will have created a superbly
detailed compendium, the like of which does not exist for
any other part of the world.

—Roger Conant, Department of Biology 3 University of New
Mexico3 Albuquerque s N.M . 87131,

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Page 119

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

Sept embe r 1981

NEWS £ NOTES
BOOK REV I EW:

HANDBUCH DER T E R R A R I E N KU N D E : T E R RA R I E NT Y P E N , TIERE, P F LAN -
ZEN, FUTTER. By Paul Heinrich Stettler. 1979. Stuttgart,
Franckh. 228 pp . , 142 figs, (color), sof t bound . DM 34

($19.31, from Frankhsche Ve r 1 ag shand 1 ung , Kosmos - Ve r 1 ag Abt.
15, Postfach 640, C 7000 Stuttgart 1, West Germany).

Nowhere in the world is private husbandry of amphib¬
ians and reptiles honed to higher professional standards
than in Germany and Switzerland. The popularity of home
terraria has led to a succession of exhaustively thorough
handbooks, the most recent and in many ways the best of all
being Stettler 1 s beautifully and extensively illustrated,
condensed but thorough treatment of the subject. The com¬
pletely slick paper of this edition has permitted publica¬
tion of one of the largest arrays (90) of superb color
photos of amphibians and reptiles that has ever appeared.
They constitute the chief value of the book for users unfa¬
miliar with German, in which the entire text is written, but
the investment is nevertheless thereby justified.

The other illustrations include 10 color photos of
distinctive habitats in various parts of the world; 1 4 maps
of seven biogeographic realms, a climatic and a vegetation-
region map for each realm; and 25 line drawings and 2 black-
and-white photos illustrating details of terraria, accesso¬
ries and preservation techniques.

Seventy pages are devoted to a succinct review of the
fundamentals of terrarium design, animal maintenance, and
snakebite treatment, with considerable emphasis upon
achievement of a na t u r a 1 - a p pea r i n g habitat with use of
plants appropriate to the animals maintained. The diagrams
provide exceptional detail. There is a brief but thorough
coverage of illnesses and treatment thereof, and an unusual
section on preservation of reptiles and amphibians upon
their death.

Most (124 pp.) of the rest of the book is devoted to
a condensed review of plants and herbs most desirable for
terraria, or most characteristic of the seven biogeographic
realms around which the review is organized. For each
realm, or major subdivision thereof, a list of characteris¬
tic plants is given, followed by a list of characteristic
amphibians and reptiles. For each animal species at least
the family, scientific name and distribution are given, and
often also the habitat, abits, appearance and food.

Page 120

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

For North America, for example, 18 species of amphib¬
ians and 39 (including subspecies) of reptiles are listed;

4 and 3 respectively are illustrated. For Mexico and Central
America, 21 amphibian and 50 reptile species and subspecies
are listed, 7 and 3 respectively illustrated. The emphasis
throughout is upon exotic (to Europe) regions and biota,
hence there is very little about Europe.

The Biogeographic section is followed by a list of
addresses of commercial sources for equipment, plants and
animals, and of terrarium societies. Six pages are devoted
to a bibliography of te r ra r i urn- re 1 a ted literature, followed
by 15 pages of a "systematic overview", summarizing plant
and he r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 classification insofar as pertinent to
terrarists. A quite thorough index to subject and to scien¬
tific names terminates the book.

The features that combine to make this work outstand¬
ing are the excellent illustrations, the biogeographic orga¬
nization with emphasis upon the plants and habitats properly
associated with representative herps, and the authoritative
detail and thorough coverage compressed into so few pages.

The result is a handbook of highest quality that does not
exceed in size (approximately 15.5 x 23 x 13 cm) the expec¬
tation engendered by the name.

—Hobart M. Smith, Department of Environmental 3 Population
and Organismio Biology 3 University of Colorado _, Boulder 3
Colorado 3 80309.

Received 15 July 1981

Bulletin Maryland He r pet o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 121

Vo 1 urne 17 Number 3

September 1 98 1

NEWS AND NOTES:

ANNOUNCING

the

INVENTORY OF LIVE REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS
IN

NORTH AMERICAN COLLECTIONS. CURRENT JANUARY ls 1981

by

Frank L, Slavens

This book contains approximately 200 pages of information
compiled from 160 (70 public and 90 private) reptile and
amphibian collections. Detailed information, such as the
location and sex of all individual specimens of 1,244
forms of 927 species; a list of species bred during 1980;
and miscellaneous breeding information (including dates of
egg laying and hatching, types of incubation media used,
and temperatures); is included. To order please fill out
the form below and return it to: Frank L. Slavens, P.0.

Box 30744, Seattle, Washington, 98103.

ORDER FORM =======

Inventory of Live Reptiles and Amphibians in North
American Collections, Current January 1, 1981.

Paper cover $ 15.50 (INCLUDES $ .50 handling)

Plain brown hardcover $ 22.50 (INCLUDES $ 1.00 handling)

Order from:

Frank L. Slavens
P.O.Box 30744
Seattle, Washington
98103

Date_

Name

Address

city

state

zip

, for

copies

Enclosed is my check in the amount of $_
paperbound and/or _ _ copies hardbound of the 1981 inventory.

L _ _

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 122

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 3

September 1981

NEWS AND NOTES:

Add end a

Vance, Thomas. 1980. A field key to the whiptail lizards
(Genus Cnemidophorus) . Part II: The whiptails of
Mexico. Bull. Md . Herp. Soc. JjS_(9): 121-14?.

Page 138: fig. 8; C . deppei deppei should be illu¬
strated as ranging from the Pacific versa n.t of SW
Michoacan southward to the Pacific versant of NW
Costa Rica and on the Gulf of Mexico versant of SE
Veracruz to W Campeche and on the Caribbean versant
of N central Honduras.

Bulletin Maryland He r pe t o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 123

September 1 98 1

.

■

Bulletin Maryland He r pet o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 124

Society Publications

Back issues of the Bulletin of the Maryland
Herpetolog i cal Society, where available, may be
obta i ned by wr i t i ng the Execut i ve Editor. A list
of available issues will be sent upon request.
Individual numbers in stock are $2.00 each, un¬
less otherwise noted.

The Soc i ety a 1 so pub 1 i shes a News 1 etter on a
somewhat irregular basis. These are distributed
to the membersh i p free of charge . Also published
are Maryland Herpetofauna Leaflets and these are
available at $. 05/page.

Information for Authors

All correspondence should be addressed to
the Executive Editor. Manuscripts being sub¬
mitted for publication should be typewritten
(double spaced) on good quality 8? x 1 1 inch
paper, with adequate margins. Submit original
and first carbon, retaining the second carbon.
Indicate where illustrations or photographs are
to appear in text. Cite all literature used at
end in alphabetical order by author.

Major papers are those over 5 pages (double
spaced, elite type)andmust i ncl ude an abstract .
The authors name should be centered under the
title, and the address is to fol low the Li terature
Cited. Minor papers are those papers with fewer
than 5 pages. Author's name is to be placed at
end of paper (see recent issue). For add i t i ona 1
information see Style Manual for Biological
Journals (1964) , Amer i can I ns t i tute of Biological
Sciences , 3900 Wi scons in Avenue, N.W. , Washington,
D.C. 20016. Price is $6.00.

Reprints are available at $.03 a page and
shou 1 d be ordered when manuscripts are submitted
or when proofs are returned . Minimum order is 100
reprints. Either edited manuscr i pt or proof will
be returned to author for approval or correction.
The author wi 1 1 be responsible for al 1 corrections
to proof, and must return proof preferably wi thin
7 days.

The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland > Inc .
2643 Horth Charles Street
Baltimore 9 Maryland 21218

43

PjA

BULLETIN OF THE

THacylarib

f)ecpetoIogical

US ISSN: 0025-4231

©oriety

Department of Herpetology
The Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

MdHS . A FOUNDER MEMBER OF THE

Eastern Seaboard Herpetological League

DECEMBER 1981

VOLUME 17 NUMBER 4

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 4 December 1981

CONTENTS

VENOMOUS SNAKES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

3. Concluding Part: Colubridae . . . W. R. Branch 125

NOTICE OF ANNUAL MEETING - ESHL . 1 51

NEW BOOK RELEASE . 152

NEW BOOK RELEASE . . 153

The Maryland Herpetological Society
Department of Herpetology
Hatural History Society of Maryland, Inc .
2643 Horth Charles Street
Baltimore, Maryland 21218

BULLETIN OF THE

Vo 1 ume 17 Number 4

December 1 981

The Mary 1 and

Herpetolog ical Society

Department of Herpetology, Natural History Society of Maryland, Inc.

Bui let in Staff

Executive Editor

Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Steering Committee

Donald Boyer

Herbert S. Harris, Jr.

Frank Groves

Jerry D. Hardy, Jr.

Jeff Thomas

Officers

President . .

Vi ce-Pres i dent .

Secretary . .

Treasurer . .

Library of Congress

Catalog Card Number: 78-93458

Membership Rates

Full membership in the Maryland Herpetol ogi cal Society is $12.50 per year,
subscribing membership (outside a 20 mile radius of Baltimore City) $10.00
/year. Foreign $12.00/yr. Make all checks payable to the Natural History
Society of Maryland, Inc.

Meet i ngs

The third Wednesday of each month, 8:15 p.m. at the Natural History
Society of Maryland (except May-August, third Saturday of each month,
8:00 a.m.). The Department of Herpetology meets informally on all other
Wednesday evenings at the NHSM at 8:00 p.m.

:

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 31 December 1981

Number 9

Venomous Snakes of Southern Africa

W. R. Branch

3. Concluding Part: Colubridae

The Colubridae as traditionally understood, consists of a massive
assemblage of more than 1500 species, double the number of species in
any other reptile or amphibian family. It is not surprising therefore
that there exists disagreement over the size and content of the family.
This confusion stems in no small measure from the inordinate emphasis
placed for years on snake fangs and their associated venom structures.
Colubrid snakes were long grouped as much for the front fangs (erectile
or fixed) they lacked, as any other features they shared. It is now
evident that the evolution of fangs and associated venom delivery sys¬
tems has strong selective advantages, and is therefore likely to have
occurred independently in diverse snake groups. Back-fanged (Qphisto-
glyph) snakes are thus po i yphy 1 et i c , and only recently have researchers
looked at other features to determine their relationships.

The renaissance in Colubrid systematics has led to a plethora of
differing views. Comparison of the recent familial arrangements of
Bourgeois (1965), Underwood (1967, 1979) or Dowling and Duel lman (1978)
with the more traditional content of Boulenger's Catalogue of Snakes
(1893) will exemplify this point. It is probably too optimistic to
expect an imminent breakthrough in the analysis of the relationships of
these snakes, but the application of a number of new approaches promises
much. Increasingly such diverse techniques as electrophoresis, cytosys-
tematics, m i crodermog 1 yph i cs , etc., are being used, while detailed anal¬
yses of internal anatomy, particularly of the skull, lungs, and hemi-
penes, give new insights a’most daily. Soon it should be possible to
synthesize these data, and with the aid of modern numerical techniques,
arrive at a more rationalized concept of the group.

Venomous colubrids in southern Africa are numerous and diverse.
Their clinical importance ranges from inconvenient to deadly; at least
two have documented fatalities; bites from three others have been
responsible for hospitalization with consequent mild to severe morbid¬
ity; while three to four other species have venoms that cause mild but
discernable localized symptoms. All have enlarged fangs and associated
Duvernoy's glands, and were previously placed in the subfamily of
Boigninae or other families. Current taxonomic opinion would place
them in three, possibly four, different colubrid subfamilies.

Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

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Volume 17 Number 4

December 1981

No key Is presented to distinguish these snakes. All come from
diverse groups, and no useful key could be devised to distinguish them
from other closely-related, but harmless species. Clinically two points
should be stressed. A) Only for the booms lang, Dispholidus typus , is
there a specific antivenom. This offers no paraspecific cross-protec¬
tion against snake bites from other back-fanged species. B) Side-
stabbing snakes (Atractaspis - previously called mole or burrowing
vipers) may be confused with true vipers - both possess erectile front
fangs. They can be distinguished from true vipers by their long, thin,
usually black bodies and typical colubrid head shields. Only the night
adders (Causus) among viperids possess the latter, but have basically
brown, patterned bodies. Atractaspis venoms are not neutralized by
existing antivenoms, and so care should be taken not to confuse them
with viperids.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Fami ly :
Subfami ly :
Tribe:

Col ubr i dae
Col ubr i nae
Di sphol idini

Dispholidus Duvernoy Booms lang

The genus is monotypic and in southern Africa unlikely to be con¬
fused with any other snake. It bears a strong external similarity,
however, to the central and west African arboreal genus Thrasops (in¬
cluding Rhamnophis - considered by some authors to merit generic recog¬
nition). The similarity is so striking as to confuse even expert herpe¬
tologists, and indeed the 'new1 subspecies Thrasops jacksoni mossambic-
us was based on a m is i dent i f ied boomslang. Both genera are of similar
build, size and colouration, although Thrasops does not develop the
bright sexual dichromism of the male boomslang. Both inflate the neck
region in threat. These similarities probably confer on Thrasops
mimetic benefits, but the similar morphologies of the two genera are
probably due to close evolutionary relationship and not convergence.

This is supported by the congruence of their skull and hemipeneal mor¬
phology, features that would not be subject to mimetic convergence.

Bourgeois (1965) placed Dispholidus 3 Thelotomis3 Rhamnophis

(considered by her to be generically distinct) and Thrasops in a sepa¬
rate subfamily, Di sphol id i nae, due to shared osteological characters.
This conflicts with Dowling's inclusion of Thrasops and Rhamnophis in
a different tribe (Phil othamn ini) from Dispholidus and The lotomis
(Boigini) within the subfamily Colubrinae (Dowling and Duel lman , 1978).
Recently Underwood (1979) has placed all these genera into a subfamily
Colubrinae - but one of greatly reduced content. The tribal concept
recently redeveloped by Dowling (1974) and McDowell (Smith, et. al. 3
1977) has much to recommend it. Perhaps the Di sphol id inae of Bourgeois

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetol og ica 1 Society

Volume 17 Number k

December 1981

Figure 1. The boomslang (Dispholidus typus typue) • Note the very large
eyes. (Photograph by the author)

should be incorporated as a separate tribe within the Colubrinae.

Long considered monotypic, a number of races of boomslang have
recently been recognized (Laurent, 1955). Following an analysis of
Central African material, Laurent (1955) revised the name viridis A.
Smith, and described two new races - kivuensis and punetatus. It now
seems that viridis is inseparable from typical typus . The other races
have lower subcaudal counts than typus . Male punotatus are black with a
yellow spot on each scale, while kivuensis males are green, with or
without black scale edging. Only typical typus occurs in southern
Africa.

Dispholidus typus typus. (A. Smith)

ident if icat ion:

The boomslang ranges through much of the Afro-Tropical region. Its
common name in Afrikaans means simply 'tree snake'. Although non-spe¬
cific, the choice is apt as the species is almost wholly arboreal, and
the word has become adopted into general English usage. It is a large
species, approaching 2 m in length, with a conspicuous short head and
very large eyes. The body is covered in strongly-keeled, overlapping
scales, that are arranged in marked diagonal rows, of which there are
1 7“21 (usually 19) at midbody. The tail is reasonably long (87-131
paired subcaudals) with an obvious hemi peneal bulge in adult males.

There is little difference in scale counts between the sexes, the anal

IS ^4 l W 1 <**r*rf*‘l 4° U 4- v* 1 "7 — 0 A A 1 t-°

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

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Volume 17 Number 4

December 1 98 1

Colouration is very variable and complicated by the existence of
sexual dichromism, ontogenic change and regional colour variants. Juve¬
niles have a dorsal body colouration somewhat similar to that of Thelo-
tomis , i.e. , a fine stippling of browns and greys. The dorsum often
bears small blue flecks (particularly anteriorly), and the intestitial
skin in the neck region is yellow/orange. The pale belly is usually
covered with black flecks. The conspicuous head is chocolate-brown
above, immaculate white below, with a brilliant emerald eye. At approx¬
imately a metre in length the juvenile colouration changes gradually to
that of the adult. Hales are more vividly coloured than females, which
are usually a uniform drab olive or brown. The male livery is bright
green, while in thickly vegetated regions the body scales are often
bordered in black to give a chequered or barred appearance. In some
areas even brick red (e.g. Port Elizabeth) or black/yellow (southern
and southwestern Cape) specimens can be found in conjunction with more
normally-coloured individuals.

Di stri but ion

Occurs over much of Southern Africa with the exception of montane
grasslands, the central highveld, and the waterless wastes of the arid
western regions and central Karoo.

Biology

Few herpetol og i ca 1 sights compare with that of the boomslang
gracefully gliding through bushes in search of food. The alert head is
cocked and held motionless while lateral waves sweep the anterior body.
The snake may freeze when prey is spotted, then slowly gather itself
for a switft strike or pursuit through the foliage. The prey - usually
chamaeleons, although birds particularly fledglings, small mammals, even
frogs are also eaten - is held tightly in the jaws and no attempt is
made to constrict. The large fangs are worked into the victim by a
chewing motion, and it quickly succumbs to the potent venom.

All activities, e.g., feeding, basking, mating, etc,, are per¬
formed aloft, although the snake will occasionally come to earth to
cross clearings, and females often lay their eggs in rotting logs on the
forest floor. As many as 25 white, elongate (40 x 20 mm) eggs may be
laid and take 10-14 weeks to hatch.

The snake is notably unaggressive and was handled for many years
before it was realized to be potentially dangerous. When first cap¬
tured, it gives a characteristic threat, inflating the neck and forepart
of the body. Due to its wide gape and relatively large back fangs, it
can give an effective stab-bite, but serious envenomation usually
requires the snake to chew for a few seconds. The venom is an extremely
potent blood coagulant, and after a variable period that may last from
1-24 hours, leads to a progressive disseminated intravascular

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Bulletin Maryland Herpetological Society

Volume 17 Number 4

December 1981

coagulation, that may terminate in death. Viscous and produced in
minute amounts (approximately 1 mg, but up to 17 nig may be milked from
the glands of dead snakes), the venom has an LD n in mice of 720 ng/kg.
The factor responsible for the main coagulant activity is a thermo-
labile glycoprotein, with a molecular weight of from 55,000 to 67,000
(Hiestand and Hiestand, 1979).

A potent boomslang antivenom is available from the South African
Institute of Medical Research, and is dramatically effective even 3 to 4
days after envenomat ion .

Thelotomis A. Smith Vine, Twig, or Bird Snakes.

The taxonomy of Thelotomis has recently been reviewed by Broad-
ley (1979). He recognizes 2 species: kivtlandi , a rainforest inhabi¬
tant found in Central and West Africa; oapensis , a savanna species
(which occasionally invades the forest periphery) that occurs from
Central and East Africa southwards, entering the northern regions of
southern Africa, but absent from the Cape Province and Orange Free State
of South Africa. Three races of oapensis are recognized, and all
enter the area under discussion.

Key to tne races of Thelotomis oapensis

1. Top of head uniform green or with black speckling; temporals
usually with dark stippling ...... .oapensis mossambioanus.

Top of head blue-green, with black and pink speckling often
restricted to a 1 Y1 shaped marking; temporals pink margined with
black

2. Ventrals usually more than 162; top of head always blue-green with

black and pink speckling restricted to a ' Y1 shaped marking with
its base along the parietal suture and the arms extending on to
the supraoculars . oapensis oatesii.

Ventrals usual 1 y less than 1 62 ; top of head with dark speckl ing

extensive or restricted to a 1 Y1 shaped marking . . .

. . ...... oapensis oapensis.

Thelotomis oapensis oapensis Southern V i ne Snake (Fig. 2)
Identification:

Once known , thi s snake can hardly be confused with any other spe¬
cies. Of moderate size, but very slender build, it is readi ly mi staken
for a dead twig or vine. The head is long and lance-shaped , with a

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i cal Society

Page 1 29

Volume 17 Number 4

December 1 981

large eye and characteristic keyhole-shaped pupil. The body scales are
narrow, feebly-keeled and arranged in 19 oblique rows at midbody. Ven-
trals range from 1 44 to 162 with a cl inal decrease in counts in southern
populations. The anal is divided and the very long, slender tail has
numerous paired sub-caudal s (127-152). These may even exceed the ven-
trals in number. Due to its thinness, the tail is delicate, and almost
50% of individuals have truncated tails. Males on average have higher
subcaudal counts, but lower ventral counts than females.

The body is ash-grey or grey-brown in colour with diagonal bands
of pale blotches and flecks of black, pink and/or orange. One or two
black blotches occur on the sides of the neck, while the belly is pink-
grey with numerous dark grey blotches. The top of the head is blue-
green and usually heavily speckled with black and some pink. A 1 Y 1 -
shaped concentration of speckles may occur along the parietal suture and
supraocu 1 ars , but may be obliterated by other speckling. The temporal
scales are usually pink, margined with black. Juveniles often have
poorly-developed head markings. The chin and lower labials are white,
speckled with black. There is no sexual dichromism.

This is the smallest race, and averages 600-800 mm in snout-vent
1 ength.

Di st ri but ion :

A southern race, extending from southern Natal, through the east¬
ern and northern Transvaal, Swaziland, and eastern Botswana, to inter¬
grade with oatesii in Zimbabwe, and mossambicanus in Mocambique.

Figure 2. The southern vine snake ( Thelotomis capensis capensis) . Note
the long head and keyhole-shaped pupil of the eye, (Photo¬
graph by the author)

Page 130

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog i ca 1 Society

Volume 17 Number k

December 1 98 1

Biology:

The vine snake ambushes its prey, relying on its cryptic coloura¬
tion and twig-thin body to escape detection.. Potential food coming
close to the snake is carefully stalked, the long body inching slowly
towards the prey. Although lizards, particularly chamaeleons, form a
major part of the diet, fledgling birds, small mammals (including bats),
and even other snakes are eaten. It has been suggested that the bright
red and black tongue may be used to lure birds. Indeed the generic name
Thelotovnis may even mean "bird-charmer" (Goodman and Goodman, 1976 a).
The inflated neck of the threat posture also gives the vine snake a
striking resemblance to a fledgling bird, and this may confuse parent
birds, tempting them to fly too close and render them vulnerable to
predation (Goodman and Goodman, 1976 b) . When caught, the prey is held
fast and the snake's jaws rapidly chew backwards and forwards to
inject venom. No attempt is made at constriction. On death, the prey
is consumed, usually as the snake hangs down headfirst from the
branches.

Up to 13 small, elongate eggs (3 4-38 x 14-18 mm) are laid in mid¬
summer, and take about 3 months to hatch.

Like the booms lang, the toxicity of vine snake venom was not
appreciated until many years after the discovery of the snake. It was
not until 1958 that the first recorded fatality occurred (FitzSimons
and Smith, 1 958) .

Several more fatalities have been subsequently recorded, including
that of the famous herpetologist Robert Mertens in 1 975 -

Due to the confused taxonomic history of Thelotovnis , a number of
case histories attributed to T, kivtlandii are now known to be due to
T. oapensis .. The first case from Tanzania described by FitzSimons and
Smith (1958) was due to T.c. mossambioanus ; the second case (Fitz¬
Simons and Smith, 1958) and that of Blaylock (i960) was caused by T.c .
oatesii; while the recent non-fatal case of Atkinson et. dl. (1980) was
from T.c. oapensis. The similar aeitiology of all these cases suggests
that the venom of all three races is identical in composition and toxic¬
ity.

The venom, like that of the boomslang, causes a consumptive coagu¬
lopathy, and appears to have the same mechanism of action, being able to
activate prothrombin and Factor X (Atkinson, et.al. , 1 980) . It is also
a single-chain polypeptide, containing one or more interchain disulphide
bonds, and with a molecular weight around 55,000. Despite these simi¬
larities, it is not neutralized by specific boomslang antivenom or poly¬
valent SAIMR antivenom. Bites should be treated systematically with
transfusions of platelets and fresh plasma.

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Thelotomis capensis oatesii (Gunther) Oates Vine Snake (Fig. 3)

Identification:

Distinguished from the typical race by its higher ventral counts
(158-177). The top of the head is blue-green with coarse pink and black
speckling that is restricted to a 'Y'-shaped marking. It is the largest
race, usually with a snout-vent length of 700-900 mm, and exceptionally
reaching 1 050 mm.

Pi str i but ion :

Found in Namibia, northern Botswana and most of Zimbabwe, inter¬
grading with mossambicanus along the eastern highlands of Zimbabwe,
and with typical capensis in southern Zimbabwe. Extra-1 imi tal ly it
extends through Angola and Zaire to Lake Malawi.

Biology :

As for the typical race. It may be found in moist miombo wood¬
lands and riparian forest, as well as dry savanna with mopane and acacia
trees (Broadley, 1979).

Figure 3. Oates vine snake (Thelotomis capensis oatesii) in threaten¬
ing posture, with the head held erect and the throat region
partially inflated. (Photograph by the author)

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The lotomis capensis mossconbioanus (Bocage) Mocambique Vine Snake

Ident if i cat ion :

A slender race, having scutel lat ion similar to capensis but char¬
acteristically having a uniform green head, sometimes with scattered
black speckling that may also extend onto the temporals. Usually with
a snout-vent length of 65O-85O mm, it does not exceed 950 mm.

Pi str i but ion ;

Mocambique, intergrading with capensis in Zulu land and southern
Mocambique, and with oatesii in the Zimbabwe eastern highlands.

Extra-1 imi tal ly it extends along the east coast of Africa to Kenya and
Somalia, reaching inland as far as Lake Tanganyika.

Biology:

As for the other races, but inhabiting moist savanna and evergreen
forest .

Subfamily: Aparal 1 act inae

These peculiar African colubrids form a discreet group of basi¬
cally fossorial or semi -fossor i al snakes. Many are specialist feeders,
most taking various burrowing reptiles, particularly amphi sbaen i ans ,
some taking invertebrates, e.g. , centipedes. They lack apical scale
pits and a loreal scale, and their hemipenes have a centripetal sulcus.
All of these are unusual colubrid features. Their relationship to
elapids which also share these features, is intriguing. Bogert (1940)
notes that posterior hypopophyses are absent in some aparal lact ines
(his Group VII), but present in natricines and elapids. They are
present, but greatly reduced in Atractaspis . McDowell (1968) suggests

that ElapSj the type genus of the Elapidae, is not an elapid, but
rather has aparal lact ine colubrid affinities. Similarly, Borgeouis
(1965) and Branch ( 1 981 ) have shown that Atractaspis is not a viperid,
but again has apara 1 1 act i ne colubrid affinities. If these genera are
included in the Aparal 1 act inae , the detitional phenomena in this one
subfamily ranges from aglyphous (Aparallactuc modestus) to clinically
important opisthoglyph {Macrelaps microlepidotus) , proteroglyph (Homo-
roselaps lacteus) , and solenoglyph (Atractaspis microlepidota) species.
It should serve as the 'death knell' of classifications based solely on
fangs.

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Macrelaps micro lepidotus (Gunther) Natal Black Snake (Fig. b)

Ident i f i cat i on :

A medium-sized burrowing snake, with a stout body, small head and
minute eyes. The body scales are in 23~27 rows at midbody, and smooth
except in the cloacal region where they are faintly keeled. Small white
supracaudal tubercules have been reported in males, possibly associated
with breeding. The shortish tail bears 35“50 unpaired subcaudals, with
little indication of sexual dimorphism in counts. As in other aparal -
lactines (but unusual for most other colubrids) there is no loreal
scale or even a preocular. The prominent enlarged fang is preceeded by
b smaller teeth and sits on the maxilla adjacent to the rear margin of
the eye. Body colouration is a uniform black or dark grey, slightly
lighter on the ventral surface of some individuals. Adults average
600-900 mm but may exceptionally exceed 1 metre in length.

Distribution:

Extending along the east coast of southern Africa from Zu 1 u land to
East London, usually in association with riverine forest. There is a
record from the forest at Katberg in the eastern Cape Province, South
Africa, but this has not been confirmed in recent years. Much of the
indigenous forest in this region has been removed, and suitable habitat
for the species must now be restricted or absent. The species has not
yet been recorded from the southern Mozambique flood plain.

Figure b. The Natal black snake {Macrelaps microlepidotus) .
(Photograph by the author)

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December 1 981

Biology:

Little is known of this cryptic species, save that it appears to
prefer damp situations, and has occasionally been observed swimming in
forest streams. It does not seem to be restricted to an amphibian diet,
however, and in captivity readily takes small mammals and even other
snakes. Like all apara 1 1 act ines it is oviparous, laying up to 10 eggs
in summer. The white eggs are largish (38-56 x 23-28 mm) and take 6 5” 7 0
days to hatch. The young measure up to 290 mm in length.

Often relatively docile when handled, it may still bite suddenly,
even after having been in captivity for a long period. The potential
danger of this species is still problematic. Fi.tzSimons (1919, 1929)
treated it as harmless, but later his two sons noted cases of severe
symptoms following bites by Maere laps (FitzSimons and Smith, 1958;
FitzSimons, 1962). Exasperat ing 1 y they gave no further details. This
frustrating situation continues. Chapman (1958) recorded a single case
in his extensive Natal snakebite survey. It caused only slight local
pain and swelling. This conflicts with the later observation of
"Complete loss of consciousness and collapse for up to thirty minutes
has resulted in che two instances recorded when the species has in¬
flicted a bite" (Visser and Chapman, 1978). The topic requires
investigation .

Homoroselaps Jan Dwarf Garter Snakes

These small, colourful snakes were for long considered to be
elapids. McDowell (1968) demonstrated that they shared many character¬
istics with aparal lact ine colubrids, particularly the genera Polemon
and Chi lorkinophis . Their removal from the Elapidae causes nomencla-

tural problems as Elaps 3 the species correct generic name, is the
type genus of the family. McDowell (1968) has recommended adoption of
the junior synonym Homoroselaps Jan to avoid unnecessary disruption
of well-known existing names.

Key to the species of Homoroselaps

Ventrals 160-215; moderately stout in build; variously marked
with yellow or red on a black background . lacteus

Ventrals 215-240; very slender in build; black above with a
single, well-defined yellow vertebral stripe from the tip of
the snout to the end of tail . - . dorsalis

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Homoroselaps lacteus (Linnaeus) Spotted Dwarf Garter Snake (Fig. 5)

I dent i f i cat i on :

The snake has a blunt rounded snout, with a relatively small eye.
The smooth body scales are in 15 rows at midbody, and there is a well
defined sexual dimorphism in scale counts: ventrals, 160-190 (average
175) in males and 184-209 (average 197) in females; subcaudals, 34-41
(average 38) in males and 2 5~33 (average 30) in females.

Colouration is very variable, and a number of colour varieties may
be distinguished: Variety 1 - Common in the Eastern Cape. Yellowish-
white above with 30-50 transverse black bars on the body and 4-5 on the
tail; the bars may be disrupted and equal or unequal in width to the
white interspaces; a bright orange-yellow to orange vertebral streak
usually runs from the back of the head to the end of the tail; the head
is black above and on the sides, except for the 1st and 2nd (or 1st
only) and 4th and 5th (or 5th only) upper labials, which are yellowish
white. Below, yellowish white, with or without a continuous or inter¬
rupted median black stripe, or sometimes uniformly black; when under¬
parts are pale, the dark bars of back obtrude on to the sides of the
belly and completely encircle the tail, and conversely when underparts
are black, the pale interspaces of back do likewise.

Variety 2 - Above, black, with irregular yellowish white crossbars
or interspaces and a vertebral series of orange to red spots which are
usually more or less confluent into a streak from head to tail; reticu¬
late markings of red and yellow along the sides. Head black, with indi¬
vidual shields spotted in varying degree with yellow. Below, ventrals
and subcaudals black at base and yellow behind, giving thus a barred
effect; chin and throat pale with scales dark-edged in varying degrees.

Variety 3 ~ Above, black, with each scale bearing a yellow dot and
a bright orange yellow vertebral streak from back of head to end of
tail; on sides of body the three outer rows of scales are yellow with a
narrow black edging. Head black, each shield bearing a yellow spot of
variable size. Below yellow, ventrals black or dark brown at base.

It usually reaches a length of 300-400 mm but large specimens of
nearly 600 mm have occasionally been found.

Distribution:

Throughout the coastal areas of the Cape Province from Namaqualand
to Natal, entering the eastern Orange Free State, Transvaal, Swaziland
and Lesotho.

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December 1 981

Figure 5. The spotted dwarf garter snake ( Homoroselaps lacteus) ; colour
variety 1. (Photograph by the author)

Biology:

A semi-fossor ial species, often found under stones on sandy soil
and in old termite nests. It feeds on other small reptiles including
worm snakes (Leptotyphlops) , blind snakes (Typhlops) , slug eaters
{Duberria tutrix ), and fossorial skinks ( Scelotes and Acontias) . Up
to 6 small eggs are laid in midsummer.

When captured, the snake rarely bites, but often wriggles violent¬
ly. Few case histories have been recorded. In one, a young boy was
bitten on the webbing between the thumb and fore-finger by a garter
snake of 250 mm length. The snake hung on for a few seconds before
being removed. There was immediate pain at the bite-site with progress¬
ive swelling involving the thumb, fore-finger and palm of the hand. The
swelling did not begin to decrease until day 3, and the patient was only
released from hospital on the fifth day, still experiencing pain. Anti¬
venom was injected subcutaneously at various sites in the bitten limb,
but did not appear to give relief. (J. Marais pers. comm.)

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Homoroselaps dorsalis (A. Smith) Striped Dwarf Garter Snake

Ident i f icat ion :

One of the smallest snakes in southern Africa (excluding Leptoty-
phlops) . It rarely exceeds 300 mm, and is also of very slender build.
The smooth body scales are in 15 rows at midbody. Ventrals are numerous
(215"239) and rarely exceed 220 in males, or are less than 225 in
females. The anal is entire, and the paired subcaudals also show sexual
dimorphism, i.e., 29 or over in males, less than 27 in females. The
body is black with a conspicuous yellow vertebral stripe extending the
length of the snake. The anterior belly, adjacent scale rows, chin and
throat are pale yellow. The posterior part of the body and underside of
tail are chrome yellow.

Distribution:

Found in the northern regions of South Africa from the Transvaal,
southwards into Natal and central Orange Free State.

Biology:

A very rare snake and details of reproduction, feeding, etc., are
unknown. Due to its very small gape, it is unlikely to be a danger to
man. There are no recorded bites.

Atraotaspis (A. Smith) Side-Stabbing Snakes

As has been noted earlier in this series (Branch, 1978), these
peculiar burrowing snakes, previously called mole-vipers, are not now
considered to be viperids (Bourgeois, 19&5; Branch, 1981). Their erec¬
tile front fangs represent an interesting case of parallel evolution
to the condition found in viperids. Because of their unusual ability to
erect a single fang without opening the lower jaw, the descriptive and
more appropriate name of side-stabbing snake has been proposed (Branch,

1 978).

These snakes share many similarities with apara 1 1 act i ve colubrids,
but also possess major differences, including the osteological features
associated with the erectile fangs, the development of the venom glands,
and the retention of posterior hypopophyses (albeit greatly reduced).
Placing them in a separate monotypic subfamily within the Colubridae
obscures their relationship to aparal 1 act ines . They are perhaps best
placed in a separate tribe within the Aparal lactine.

The genus was reviewed by Laurent (1950) who recognized 12
species and 32 races. Others have been subsequently described. It is

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December 1981

possible that a modern revision of the genus will reduce the number of
accepted taxa. Only a single species occurs in southern Africa.

Atraotaspis bibroni (A. Smith) Bibron's side-stabbing snake (Fig. 6)
Identification:

A small snake with a slender body and flat head that is not dis¬
tinct from the neck. The eyes are small with round pupils and the
scales are smooth and in 21-23 rows at midbody. Ventrals range from
196-260, with little differences between the sexes. The anal is entire,
and followed by unpaired subcaudals, that are more numerous in males
(21-27) than in females (18-25). The short tail ends in a spine.

Like most other members of the genus, the snake is a uniform
purple-brown to black above, with a belly that may be uniform brown to
black, uniform white, or mottled with brown and white. Usually 350-450
mm in length, they may exceptionally exceed 600 mm.

Pi stri but ion:

Extending through Natal and Transvaal into Zimbabwe, and further
north to southern Kenya. It also occurs widely in Botswana and Namibia,
but is absent from very arid regions. It enters the Northern Cape
Province around Kimberley, and there is a recent record from Colesberg
that may represent a relict population.

Figure 6. Bibron's side-stabbing snake (Atraotaspis bibroni) , showing
the strong morphological similarity between this genus and
that of other aparal lact i ne colubrids, e.g., Maorelaps , Note
the absence of the loreal scale. (Photograph by the author)

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December 1981

Biology:

A burrowing species that is usually found under stones, rotting
logs or in old termite nests. It feeds on a wide variety of prey, in¬
cluding other burrowing reptiles (particularly Typhlops) , and small
mammals. Many lizards are also eaten, and these are probably caught by
the snake as they sleep in their burrows at night. The unusual cranial
kinesis, that allows the long fangs to be erected independently by com¬
pressing the slender lower jaw, is probably an adaptation to the enveno-
mation of prey within the confines of burrows. The snakes may frequent
well established burrows, and be found lying in shallow chambers under
flat stones, where they derive heat from the sun-warmed rock. In cap¬
tivity they can occasionally be observed excavating a chamber by hooking
the earth out from under a stone, using the side of the head as a scoop.
Up to six elongate (35 x 12 mm) eggs are laid in midsummer.

Due to its similarity to a number of harmless species, e.g., Cape
Wolf Snake ( LyoophicLion capense) or Purple-gloss snake ( Amblyodipsas
ooncolor) , the snake is often mistakenly handled by herpetologists.

Bites on the hands are thus frequent. In some regions, e.g. Zululand,
Atraotaspis bites may exceed those of such common species as the puff-
adder ( Bitis arietans) . Most occur at night when the snake enters the
huts of sleeping Zulus, or is trodden on as it moves around the surface
on damp nights. Fortunately, bites result in little direct morbidity,
and fatalities are unknown. Symptoms are characterized by initial in¬
tense pain, local swelling (see Fig. 7), sometimes with associated small

Figure 7. Localized swelling 24 hours after a bite to the affected

finger by Bibron's side-stabbing snake ( Atraotaspis bibroni).
(Photograph by C. Tilbury)

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December 1981

blood bl Isters , and lymphadenitis. Unless compounded by tourniquets or
inc i s ion , necrosis is rare. Polyvalent antivenom is Ineffective as it
does not cross-react with Atraetaspis venoms. Elect rophoret ical 1 y the
venom behaves more like v i per id venoms than elapid venoms, migrating
toward the anode at pH 8.6. Venom yields range from 1 .2-7 • 4 (average
4.2) mg of wet venom.

Other Southern African col ubr ids with mild venoms

A number of colubrids in southern Africa have been responsible for
mild envenomat ion , but in no cases have symptoms approached clinical
importance. In view, however, of recent overseas experience of severe
symptoms developing after bites from generally accepted "harmless" colu¬
brids (see Minton, 1978, for a review), it is stressed that these snakes
should be treated with caution. All venoms are, at the least, foreign
proteins and can possibly illicit sensitization with potentially harmful
immunological sequelae in future bites. The actual toxicities of most
colubr id venoms are unknown, but some indication of potential severity
can be gauged from their effectiveness in killing prey items. Although
venoms are known to have different toxicities in different animals,
rapid death in mammalian prey following a bite should be taken as a
warning of possible danger to man. Currently our knowledge of the
potential toxicity of colubrid venoms originates, in nearly all in¬
stances, from case histories of bites to careless herpetologists from
their captives. This is to be expected as to achieve envenomat ion ,
these snakes have to be handled, often roughly as they are behavioral ly
non-aggressive, and to have time to "chew" as their fangs are situated
at the rear of the mouth, and are not cannulated as in viperids or
elapids. The resultant 'illegal' bites may be considered almost as
experimental data, and the natural epidemiological risk from these
snakes to the population at large is almost negligible.

It is often difficult to differentiate between primary symptoms
attributable to the direct action of the venom components, and immuno¬
logical responses in sensitized patients. It is in herpetologists that
the likelihood of multiple bites is greatest.

Ampl.orhinus multimaculatus (A. Smith) Cape Many-spotted Snake (Fig. 8)

This small, montane snake is of problematic taxonomic affinities
and may be related to natricine snakes. It reaches a length of approxi¬
mately 700 mm and feeds mainly on amphibians, although small mice and
lizards may be taken. It Is viviparous and gives birth to 4-8 young,
up to 200 mm in length. Restricted to damp, marshy situations, often
on mount in slopes, it occurs in the eastern regions of southern Africa
from Cape Town to Inyanga, Zimbabwe. Its distribution is almost identi¬
cal to that of the berg adder Bitis atropos .

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December 1 981

Figure 8. The Cape many-spotted snake (Amplorhinus multimaculatus) .
(Photograph by the author)

The only recorded bite (Blake, I960) produced local symptoms of
pain, inflammation and slight swelling, that resolved within a short
time. The bite also bled freely at first, but did not develop severe
hemmorrhages. Natricines are poorly represented in Africa, with only
two monotypic genera ( Afronatrix and Hydraethiops) in central and west
Africa. Bites from these species are unknown, but those recorded for
two species of the Asian natricine genus Rhabdophis have involved
serious hematological abnormalities, that resulted in the death of one
patient (Mittleman and Goris, 1974, 1978; Mather, et ats 1978).

Psammophis and related genera

Sand snakes (Psammophis and related genera) are common throughout
much of Africa, and several species also enter Europe, the Near East and
even Madagascar. Their taxonomic affinities remain debatable, and they
may be related to colubrines (Underwood, 1979) or lycodontines (Dowling
and Duellman, 1978). Their unusual 'vestigial1 hemipenes give little

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December 1 981

insight into their relationships, but their increased chromosomal number
and morphology suggest lycodontine rather than colubrine affinities
(Branch, unpublished observations).

It has been known for many years that some psammophines have toxic
venoms. The common Afrikaans name for Psammophylax rhombeatus , i.e.,
skaapsteker, alludes to its presumed habit of biting sheep. With its
small gape and small back fangs, however, it could hardly give an effec¬
tive bite to such a large animal.

Two species of Psammophylax occur in southern Africa, and the
genus has recently been reviewed by Broadley (1976). The spotted skaap¬
steker, P. rhombeatus (Fig. 9) extends through most of South Africa in
savanna situations, and is known from scattered localities in Namibia.

A distinct race P.r. oeellatus occurs in southern Angola. The striped
skaapsteker, P. tritaeniatus extends from the northern regions of
South Africa, through Botswana, Namibia and Zimbabwe, extending extra-
limitally to southern Angola and southeastern Zaire and southern Tan¬
zania. Specimens from Natal are now known to be attributable to the
striped form of P. r. rhombeatus . A third species, variablis , with 3
races, occurs in the montane grasslands from Malawi to Ethiopia. All
the species are small to medium-sized (maximum length 1.5 m) , diurnal
foragers, that take a wide range of prey. Except for P.v. variablis 3
all forms are oviparous; rhombeatus laying up to 30 eggs measuring up
to 35 x 18 mm; tritaeniatus laying from 5“ 18 eggs up to 25 x 12 mm.

Both the latter, however, have been observed to occasionally coil around
their eggs, which may be partly incubated when deposited. P.v. varia¬
blis may extend this reproductive strategy further and become ovo-vivi-
parous, retaining the eggs until nearly ready to be born.

Figure 9. The spotted skaapsteker ( Psammophylax rhombeatus).
(Photograph by the author)

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December 1981

In 1919 F. W. FitzSimons reported some crude experiments that in¬
dicated that Psconmophylax rhombeatus had a toxic venom, possibly neur¬
otoxic in nature. He allowed skaapstekers to bite bare patches on the
legs of 11 chickens and noted that three died within IO-36O minutes. In
one fowl that did not die, the bite site turned greenish/yellow and the
whole limb was swollen. In a later publication FitzSimons (1929)
recorded that "skaapsteker venom is both a nerve and a blood poison.

The symptoms are giddiness, lassitude, cold clammy skin and cold sweat
on the forehead, A little swelling occurs at the site of the fang
punctures, with discolouration of the surrounding tissues." These pre¬
sumably describe symptoms occuring in humans. However, his basis for
these observations and others, including that weight for weight, skaap¬
steker venom was "more poisonous than those of the dreaded cobra or
mamba", remains obscure. In none of his scientific publications did
FitzSimons give fuller details, and many of his observations were sub¬
jective and based on badly-designed, uncontrolled experiments. The
subject requires modern analysis. Chapman (1968) observed "a slight
local reaction of bruising and swelling, one with a rigor" in 3 Psammo-
phylax bites in Natal, and similar symptoms were observed following a
bite from an East Cape specimen (Fig. 10).

Figure 10. Localized symptoms at the fang puncture sites 48 hours

after a spotted skaapsteker ( Psamnophylax rhombeatus) had
"chewed" the affected area for several seconds.
(Photograph by A. Batchelor)

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December 1981

The large sandsnakes ( Psammophis ) of southern Africa can give a
quick and painful bite. Their taxonomy has recently been reviewed by
Broadley (1977), who has shown that the large eastern form previously
called P. sibilans (which may exceed 2 m in length) should be
correctly called P. phillipsii . Typical P. s. sibilans is restricted

to north Africa, being represented in southern Africa by a small race,

P. s, brevirostris (Fig. 11). Confusion now exists in the literature
concerning the species responsible for published bites. Following bites
from Zimbabwe P. phillipsii , Broadley and Cock (1975) noted only local
pain and inflammation, that usually disappeared within an hour, although
slight swelling occasionally persisted for 2b hours. FitzSimons (1962)
records more extensive symptoms of "severe pain, swelling, cold shivers
and nausea lasting for several days". Detailed documentation, however,
is lacking, and the species responsible (i.e., phillipsii or sibilans)
is now unknown.

Figure 11. The short-snouted sand snake {Psammophis sibilans bvevivos-
tris) . (Photograph by the author)

That serious symptoms may exceptionally occur from psammophine
bites is suggested by recent experience with the European species
Malpolon monspessulanus . This large psammophine, which likeP.

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December 1 98 1

phillipsii , may exceed 2 m in length, has a venom that quickly subdues
mammalian prey, but which *n man was considered to cause only slight
pain and swelling. Recently, however, Gonzales (1979) records 10 cases
of envenomation in Spain. Nine cases had local symptoms of oedma, para-
sthesia around the bite area and lymphangitis. A more severe case
involved ptosis and difficulties in swallowing and respiration. The
patient was treated with antihistamines and corticosteroids, and the
symptoms disappeared in 48 hours.

Spawls (1979) records mild hemorrhagic symptoms following enveno¬
mation from a smaller species, Psarmophis biseriatus. The snake
managed to chew on his finger for 10 seconds before being extricated
from a thorn bush, and therefore had ample time to engage its back
fangs. The fang marks bled for some time after the bite, and the finger
became very swollen with purple discoloration around the puncture. This
was accompanied by lymphadenitis. Symptoms slowly resolved over 24
hours.

Other genera

Bites from a number of other small species having back fangs have
been noted to result in minor localized symptoms of swelling and minor
pain at the bite site. These include the Tiger snake (Telesoopus semi -
annulatus) (Fig. 12), the red- lipped or Herald snake (Crotaphopeltis
hotamboeia) and the marbled tree snake ( Dipsadoboa aulious) . All are
closely related and placed in the tribe Boigini of the Colubrinae
(Dowling and Duellman, 1978).

Figure 12.

Page 1 46

The tiger snake ( Telesoopus semionnu latus ) . (Photograph by
the author)

Bulletin Maryland Herpetolog ical Society

Volume 17 Number 4

December 1 981

Extral imi tal ly a number of other colubrines have been reported to
have toxic venoms. Mamonov (1977) noted swelling, pain and bleeding in
4 bites from the mountain racer ( Coluber ravergieri) in Russia. Pain
and swelling took 2-3 days to resolve. Milder symptons were experienced
following a bite from Coluber rhodorhachis from Saudi Arabia (Branch,
unpublished observations).

Besides th^se venomous species, bites from all snakes cause physi¬
cal damage, which from large species such as the mole snake ( Pseudaspis
oana) may require sutures. An attendant risk of infection is always
present. Finally, at least one species in southern Africa - the rock
python (Python sebae) grows big enough (up to 6 m) to consider small
humans edible, and a recent wel 1 -documented fatality due to this snake
is known (Branch and Haacke, 1980).

Literature Cited

Atkinson, P.M. , B.A. Bradlow, J.A.M. White, H.B.W. Greig S M.C.Gaillard
1980. Clinical features of Twig Snake (Thelotomis oapensis)
Envenomat ion . S. Afr . med. J., 58 , 1007"! 011.

Blake, D. K.

I960. Bite from an Amplorhinus multimaculatus . J. Herpetol.
Assoc. Rhodesia. 9-1 0, 17*

Blaylock, R,S.

I960 A Bite from a Vine Snake in Bulawayo. J. Herpetol. Assoc.
Rhodesia, 12 , 8-9.

Bogert, C.
1940

Herpetolog ical Results of the Vernay Angola Expedition.

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 57(1), 1-107.

Bou lenger ,

1893

Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum
History ), 1 , xiii + 448, PI. i-xxviii.

(Natural

Bourgeois, M.

1965 Contribution a la morphologie comparee du craner des
ophidiens de l'Afrique Centrale. Publio. Univ. Off.

Congo, Lubumbashi, 18, 1-293.

Branch, W. R.
1978

The Venomous Snakes of Souther Africa. Part
tion and Viperidae. The Snake, 9, 67-86.

Introduc

Bulletin Maryland Herpetol og ical Society

Page 147

Volume 17 Number 4

December 1981

Branch, W. R.
1981

Branch, W. R.
1980

Broad ley, D.
1976

Broad ley, D.
1977

Broadley, D.
1979

Broadley, D.
1975

Chapman, D.S.
1968

Dow ling, H .

1974

Dow ling, H .
1978.

F i t z S i mon s ,
1919

The taxonomic position of Atractaspis: a chromosomal
appraisal. (Submitted for publication)

and D. Haacke

A fatal attack on a young boy by an African rock python,

Python sebae. J , Herpetol., 14 ( 3), 305~307 .

G .

A revision of the African Snakes of the Genus Pscomophylox
Fitzinger (Colubr idae) . Occ. Pap. Natn. Mus. Rhod. , B 6
(1), 1-44.

G.

A review of the genus Psammophis in Southern Africa
(Serpentes: Colubridae). Amoldia (Rhodesia) , 5(12),

1-29.

G .

Problems presented by geographical variation in the African
vine snakes, genus Thelotomis. S. Afr. J. Zool. , 14(3).
125-132.

G. and E. V. Cock

Snakes of Rhodesia. Bundu Series, Longman Rhodesia,

Sal i sbury .

The symptomatology, pathology, and treatment of bites of
venomous snakes of Central and Southern Africa. Venomous
animals and their venoms, 1, Academic Press, New York,
463-527.

G.

A classification of reptiles. Yearbook of Herp¬
etology, 1974, 163-173, Hiss Publications, New
York.

G. and W. E. Duel 1 man

Systematic Herpetology . A synopsis of families
and higher categories. irreg. pagin. Hiss Pub¬
lications, New York.

F. W.

The Snakes of South Africa. Their venom and the
treatment of snakebite, xvi + 550 p. Maskew
Miller, Cape Town .

Page 148

Bulletin Maryland He rpe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

Vo 1 ume 1 7 Number 4

December 1 98 1

F i t z S i mon s ,

1929

F i t z S i mon s ,
1 962

F i t z S i mon s ,
1958

Gonza 1 es , D
1979

Goodman , J .
1976/a

Goodman , J .

1 9 7 6 / b

Hiestand, P
1979

Laurent, R .
1950

F. W.

Snakes: and the treatment of snakebite.

Specialty Press, Cape Town, 1-70 p.

V. F. M .

Snakes of Southern Africa. Purnell, Cape Town,
1-423 p.

D. C. and H. M. Smith

Another Rear-fanged South African Snake Lethal
to Humans. Herpetologicaj 14, 198-202.

B i ssver 1 etzu rgen durch Malpolon monspes sulanus

(Reptilia: Serpentes: Colubridae). Salamandra
15(h) , 266-268.

D . and J . M . Goodman

Contrasting Color and Pattern as Enticement Dis¬
play in Snakes. Herpetologicaj 32y 145-148.

D . and J . M . Goodman

Possible mimetic behavior of the twig snake,

Thelotornis kirtlandi kirtlandi (Hallowell).
Herpetologica3 323 148-150.

. C. and R. R. Hiestand

Dispholidus typus (Booms'lang) snake venom: puri¬
fication and properties of the coagulant princi¬
ple. Toxicon3 17j 489-498.

F v

Revision du genre Atractaspis A. Smith. Man.
Inst. Roy. Sci. Hat. Belgique (2), 38 , 1-49,
figs. 1-18.

Laurent, R.F.

1955 Diagnoses preliminaires de quel ques serpents
venimeux. Rev . Zool . Bot. Afr . 3 51, 127-139-

Mamonov , G .

1977 Case report of Envenom at ion by the Mountain
Racer Coluber ravergieri. The Snake j 5(1),
27-28.

Mather , H .
1978

M., S. Mayne and T. M. McMonagle
Severe envenomation from "harmless" pet snake.
Brit. med. J.3 1324-1325-

Bulletin Maryland He r pet o 1 og i ca 1 Society

Page 1 49

Volume 17 Number 4

December 1 9 8 1

Me Dowe 11, S . B .

1 968

Affinities of the snake usually called Elaps
lacteus and E. dorsalis . Zool. J, Linn . Soc.,
London , 47, 561-578.

Minton, S .
1978

A . , Jr.

Beware: Nonpoi sonous snakes. Natural History

New York, 87 (9) , 56-63 .

Mittleman, M. B. and R. C. Goris

1974 Envenomation from the bite of the Japanese colu-
brid snake Rhabdophis tigrinus (Boie).
Herpetologica, 30(2), 113-119.

Mittleman, M. B. and R. C. Goris

1978 Death caused by the bite of the Japanese colu-
brid snake Rhabdiphis tigrinus (Boie) (Rep-
tilia, Serpentes, Colubridae). J. Herpetol .,

12( 1), 109-111.

Smith, H. M., R. B. Smith and H. L. Sawin

1977

A Summary of Snake Classification (Reptilia,
Serpentes). J . Herptol 27(2), 115-121.

Spawl s , S .
1979

Sun, Sand, and Snakes. Collins and Harvill

Press. London, pp. 179.

Underwood ,
1967

G.

A contribution to the classification of snakes .

London, Brit. Mus. Nat. Hist, x, pp. 179, 14
figs.

Unde rwood , G .

1979 Classification and distribution of snakes of the

Vi sser , J .

1978

world. Snake Venoms. Ed. C. Y. Lee, Handbook
Exp. Pharm. 52, 1 5 “ 4 0

and D . S . Chapman

Snakes and Snakebite. Purnell, Cape Town, pp.
152.

--Port Elizabeth Museum, P.0. Box 13147, Humewood 6013,
Sou t h Africa.

Received 2 September 1981
Accepted 17 October 1981

Page 1 50

Bulletin Maryland He r peto 1 og i ca 1 Society

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Bulletin Maryland He r pe to 1 og i ca 1 Society

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