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SEAR, | a > ay ex ‘ — ee ee eh WSS WAS ; = Vee Soe x FARE - NPs Sea oF ma Oe k Se a 7 4 ay = ‘. 2 Sates ona ee Ais sO E- Se LOCKPORT AK IRON BERTIE ie COBLESKILLE CLARENCE TYPICAL LAP CSUAES OF THE ONONDAGA RCH FALTAT/ ONS of LAIE COUNTY oro CA BUFFALO mae CAIILLUS EDAD BERTIE a LUDLOWVILLE be pp CARDE, SWANEATELES “a DLOW VILLE 710 \ipyor : GEuER DEWA RHIMESTREET mer ZZ, cere! HaouNien irestaw castlacua bs CARLOI‘E CEVON Cae BHINERSTREET EAST. MAIPEATELES “Tay Neeser; {WORE cash -teua | RHINESTR Era St JOHNS ONS EH. \ RHINES JTRL: Pulls WS Ht wawAKan . wT rot ANG(oLA see MwA HAYIBURG GRIFFINSIULLS htt Ae tage ae ‘ wesr ar a Agn TpeUA LaninesraPer WEST [EFALLS TeAANEA Cen Sahota NN HANOVER u SF FAS) ch EDEW i VARLEY pris | anengia ORTH BRITON | RHINESTREE Gar\oesu LAONA DUNIAIRK Te 5 CU BEEE, HAN\QVER = HOLLAVD | ANGOLA DUNNSIAK COX LEN ! CLARA BURG : | ANGOLA: HANOVER Mi GAR\OEAU ! DUNKIRK vax NORTHS COLLINS ! wiscor 2 | ' ‘HANOVER, SILVER CREEK —— PUN (AIRE DUN’ MIRA (P93) VERS WLLES> CARNQEAY 1 > DUNKIA; DUNKIRK can yoerau SAPRIWCUILL A € CK C OUNAIR as Whe ie! FOREST HVILLE WS “esau? Te LAONA GOW RKRQA G Ld GARDEAUY A (mor a o Ww Pp AREDONA Bar ee +. Sr et ceten eeveets sas See Ae tall VOLUME XI Neo | Beeb LE TIN OF Wve —= Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences r arr | (ae ern | Be Cent wm AVIG BUFFALO, NEW YORK 1914 CONTENTS. V7 7X The Geology of Erie County. by FREDERICK HOUGHTON, M. S. Description of Some New Siluric Gastropods. By MARJORIE, O'CONNELL, ALM: SUL LE TiN of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences VOLUME XI. No. 1 The Geology of Erie County. By FREDERICK HouGHTON, M. S. The Geology of Ene County. The geology of Erie county hasto do with the consolidated rock formations which are exposed in the county and with their overburden of unconsolidated detritus, the result of erosion. The Consolidated Rock Formations. The consolidated rock formations belong to the Siluric and Devonic systems. The edges: of the formations extend approximately northeast and southwest, and the county stretches north and south athwart these. Consequently in it are shown a large number of formations which rise like steps to the southward. List of Formations Exposed in Erie County. These are arranged from upper to lower, as they would appear in crossing the county from south to north. GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Carbonic System Devonic System Siluric System 4 | oo) —$—— a ———— Portage Genesee Beds Tully Horizon Hamilton Beds Marcellus Beds Onondaga Beds Salina Beds { Wicoy shale Laona sandstone | Gardeau shale [Dunkilehale } Hanover shale lWAtreclatchale Rhinestreet shale | Cashaqua shale Middlesex shale | West River shale + Genundewa limestone Genesee shale Pyrite layer 7" ( Moscow shale | Tichenor limestone | Ludlowville shale Skaneateles shale Cardiff shale 4 Stafford limestone Marcellus shale Onondaga limestone Cobleskill limestone ( Bertie limestore | Camillus shale BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 5 The Unconsolidated Deposits. Owing to the long period of time during which erosive agencies were at work upon the rocks of Erie county and to the effects of the great glacier which overrode this area, planing the surface, transporting, depositing and mingling the detritus, the rock formations of the county have been in most places buried from view by their overburden of earth. ‘The problems presented by the unconsolidated detritus are extremely complex. Topography of Erie County. Topographically the county is divided into three rather distinct areas, the lines dividing which are more or less well marked. Its topography depends primarily upon the underlying rock formations, partly upon the erosion which these have undergone, partly also upon the modifying action of the great glacier which at one time covered them. The first area comprises the northern part of the county. It is limited at its southern edge by the “‘ Ledge,’’ an escarpment marking the outcrop of the Onondaga limestone. ‘This ‘‘Ledge’’ extends from the Niagara river at Buffalo to Akron, and beyond into Genesee county. Northward from the ‘‘Ledge’’ to Tonawanda creek, the boundary of the county, the land is low and flat and is a portion of the southern part of the valley of Tonawanda creek. The second area lies south of the “‘Ledge’’ and is bounded on the south and east by the ranges of hills, which constitute the southeastern corner of the county. It slopes gently upward towards the south. Along the eastern border of the county it extends approximately from Akron to Wales. On the western edge it contracts to a narrow plain lying between the hills and Lake Erie. The third area comprises the hills of southeastern Erie county. These rise slowly from the low-lying plain and reach at Concord the altitude of 1500 feet. ‘Through these high lands numerous streams have cut deep valleys. The Rock Formations. All the rocks of Erie county are sedimentary, that is, they were laid down in water, either as detritus derived from the erosion of some land, or the minerals abstracted by living 6 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY organisms from sea water and built up into their skeletons, or the minerals originally dissolved in sea water but deposited because of the drying up of the water containing them. The detrital rocks in Erie county areshales and sandstones. ‘These shales represent both deep-sea and off-shore deposits of mud and fine silt, and perhaps, also, marsh deposits at sea-level. The sandstones are nowhere (extensive enough in Erie county) to warrant the belief that they were beach deposits. They are, like the shales, off-shore sea-bottom deposits of fine detritus andsand. ‘The great limestone formations of northern Erie county represent two methods of deposition. First, the Bertie limestone with the underlying shale seems to have been laid down, partly at least, by the precipitation of the minerals in sea water consequent upon the drying up of the water containing them. ‘The great deposit of Onondaga limestone in the northern part of the county is the accumulation of carbonate of lime abstracted from sea water by corals, crinoids and molluscs, and of silica by sponges, diatoms and other organisms. CACHARD PARA Fic. |. Diagram to show how the southerly dip of the rocks of Erie county bring those exposed at the surface in the northern part far below the surface in the southern part. All the rocks of Erie county dip to the southward, those in the northern part at the rate of about twenty five feet in a mile, those in the southern part probably at a greater inclination. As a consequence of this southward dipping, rocks which crop out at the surface at the northern edge of the county are brought by this inclination deep below the surface in the southern part. Thus the Onondaga limestone, which is encountered in northern Buffalo when cellars are being dug, is reached in drilling for gas at Orchard Park at from 600 to 700 feet below the surface, and at the northern bank of Cattaraugus creek at 1925 feet. Only part of this depth is due, however, to the inclination of the strata. Part is due tothe difference in altitude between Buffalo and the other two places. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 7 All the formations lie bedded as they were originally laid down, being neither folded nor, excepting in some few instances, faulted. With one exception all the beds meet conformably, the one inconformity being at the junction of the Onondaga and the Cobleskill, and representing the division between the Devonic and Siluric systems. The rock formations of Erie county can be traced far to the eastward through the state. Some disappear west of Seneca lake. Others persist as far as the Hudson river. Nearly all are thicker at their eastward extension than in their Erie county exposures. Westward the formations in the middle of the section are terminated by Lake Erie under whose waters they disappear. The most northern formations cross Niagara river and enter Ontario then bend southward under the lake and reappear in northern Ohio. ‘The most southern formations in the county, the strike of which is parallel to the south shore of Lake Erie, extend across northwestern Pennsylvania and northern Ohio. Camillus Shale. This thick formation of the upper Salina beds, named from Camillus, in Onondaga county, should be the surface rock of all that portion of Erie county north of a line connecting Buffalo and Akron. It is, however, almost entirely covered with drift and is occupied in this county by the southern side of the wide valley of Tonawanda creek. Few outcrops are visible and these are insignificant representatives of the great formation which is concealed from view. Eastward it extends as far as Albany county. The Camillus shale is limited below by the Guelph dolomite of the Niagaran group. Above, it merges into the more calcareous and magnesian layers of the Bertie limestone which it joins without any definite line of demarcation. In its eastward extension it is characteristically a grayish-green shale, weathering to a light pink. It contains gypsum in nodules and in thick beds. A few of its upper layers may be seen on the Canadian side of the Niagara river below the International bridge and at the southern end of Grand Island. Lower beds are exposed at Edgewater on the eastern side of Grand Island. Irving Bishop has described these exposures as follows: 8 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY (1) Black shale in the river bed. (2) Greenish shales containing nodules of gypsum, one and one-half feet. (3) Light colored, soft, friable, gypseous shales, five feet. The Camillus shale is of great economic importance owing to its included deposits of gypsum. ‘This is mined and calcined, and marketed under the name of plaster or plaster of Paris. It is the basis of the ‘‘hard wall plaster’? in common use in the building trades, and combined with wood fibre it forms ‘wall boards’’ which have nearly supplanted lath and plaster in the construction of wooden houses. — It is essential in mold making in potteries and in the manufacture of casts. It enters into the manufacture of cement. In Erie county the mining of gypsum has been carried on extensively in the vicinity of Akron. In 1913, however, only one plant was at work and this was shipping the crude mineral to other places to be calcined. Bertie Limestone. The upper Camillus shales become more and more calcareous and magnesian in content toward the top and finally by gradual stages take on the nature of dolomitic limestone. ‘This has received the name of Bertie limestone from the outcrops at Bertie, in Ontario. It extends eastward to Otsego county. A well core in the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences shows this limestone to be 55 feet thick where the formation crosses Main Street, Buffalo. The upper layers constitute a natural cement rock which has been burned for hydraulic cement. ‘This cement rock les in beds a foot thick or less, separated by thin, dark layers. The limestone is dark gray when first exposed but becomes lighter when exposed to the weather. Freshly exposed blocks tend to break with a decided conchoidal fracture when struck with a hammer. The upper beds of this rock are exposed in the Barber Asphalt Company’s quarry on Fillmore Avenue, Buffalo, where they may be seen to advantage. ‘They are exposed in nearly all the deeper quarries along the ‘‘Ledge’’ from Buffalo to Akron. At Falkirk, 16 feet of the upper beds are exposed to advantage in the falls of Murder creek, and lower beds are to be seenin the creek bed between the falls and the railway bridge. A F. Houghton, Photo. é Fic. 2. Cliff at Murder Creek, Falkirk, Showing A. Onondaga limestone, B. Cobleskill limestone, C. Bertie limestone. 10 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY The Bertie limestone beds in the quarries of the Buffalo Cement Works are characterized by the occurrence in them of an abundant and peculiar Eurypterid fauna. These eurypterids were crustaceans of the type of which the horse-shoe crab is a modern representative. Their fossil remains have been found in five colonies in New York, all in Siluric rocks. Of these five, the colony at the Buffalo Cement quarry has produced the finest and most numerous remains, and through the kindness of Mr. Lewis J. Bennett the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences has acquired a large and exceptionally fine collection of these. Besides the eurypterids a few other fossils have been described from the Bertie limestone. A list follows: Eurypterida E. remipes Dekay. E. lacustris Hall. E. lacustris var. pachychirus Hall. E. dekayi Hall. E. pustulosus Hall. Eusarcus scorpionis Grote and Pitt. Dolichopterus macrochirus Hall. D. siluriceps nov. Pterygotus buffaloensis Pohlman. Re copper’ P. grandis Pohlman. Ostracod Leperditia scalaris Jones. Brachiopoda Orbiculoidea. Lingula. Plants (Sea weed) Bythotrephis lesquereuxi. Grote and Pitt Analysis of cement beds, Bertie limestone, furnished to the State Education Department by Mr. Lewis J. Bennet. Silica 11.48 Iron .90 Alumina 17a50 Carbonate of lime 42.75 Magnesia (carbonate ) 20.35 Potassium 1.00 Sodium .80 Combined water and loss S22 BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES ial Cobleskill Limestone. The Cobleskill limestone is a layer of limestone lying beneath the thin, shaly stratum representing the Oriskany horizon and separated by this shale from the overlying lower layers of the Onondaga limestone. It is the uppermost member of the Siluric system. Its contact with the overlying beds of the Devonic system is unconformable. This limestone is the upper portion of the Waterlime group of Vanuxem and Hall. It was called the Coralline limestone by Gebhard and Hall. It was referred by Clarke and Grabau to the Manlius limestone. In 1902 Hartnagel considered it a western extension of the Cobleskill limestone, named from Cobleskill creek, Schoharie county. Amongst quarry owners and workers it is known as ‘‘bull-head rock.’’ In Ohio this formation is included in the Columbus (Onondaga) limestone (Stauffer, Geol. Sur. Ohio, 4th series, Bulletin 10). The eroded surface that marks the junction of the Cobleskill and the overlying Onondaga in Erie county does not exist in Ohio. Instead there is an eroded surface in all ways similar at the base of the Columbus limestone. This disconformity is regarded as marking the junction of the Siluric and Devonic systems. ‘Therefore the Cobleskill of Erie county which is below this inconformity has been placed in the Siluric, although the similar beds in Ohio are placed in the Devonic. This inconsistency makes our present classification of these beds unsatisfactory. The Cobleskill limestone in the exposures in Erie county is dark when freshly exposed and presents in a cross section a distinctly banded effect, its light surface being crossed by darker bands. It becomes lighter under the weather and after long exposure turns to a buff or even light yellow. It is saccharoidal and porous, and contains numerous, small, irregular cavities lined or partly filled with calcite crystals. These cavities seem to be in most cases molds of small corals, Cyathophyllum, hydraulicum, which have been dissolved out. The rock burns to a natural cement and has been quarried and burned in Buffalo for this purpose since 1850 and in Erie county at Williamsville since 1825. The Cobleskill limestone may be seen to advantage in quarries at many points along the ‘‘ Ledge.’’ Its best exposures (1913) are in the Barber Asphalt Company’s quarry on Fillmore Avenue, Buffalo, and at the Lockwood quarries east of Akron. F, Houghton, Photo. Fic. 3. Contact of Onondaga and Cobleskill limestones. A. Onondaga limestone with included chert concretions. B. Contact of Onondaga with eroded surface of Cobleskill, marking junction of the Devonic and Siluric systems. C. Cobleskill limestone, showing characteristic banded effect and small cavities. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 1S The contact of the Cobleskill limestone with the underlying Bertie limestone is not well marked. Between the two there is a gradual transition through two feet or more. The contact of the Cobleskill with the overlying Onondaga limestone is very definite and well marked. Wherever the upper layers of the Cobleskill are exposed, as in quarries, the upper surface is found to be wavy or hummocky, an effect caused by irregular depressions of a depth of a foot or more. ‘These depressions, and some channels observed in the Bennett quarry, seem to mark a period of erosion. ‘The depressions are coated with a thin deposit of green shale, which follows the contours of the hollows and ridges to the depth of an inch or less. Above this shale the lowest layers of the Onondaga limestone follow the contours of the depressions in the Cobleskill, being separated from it by the thin shale. The Cobleskill was formerly of much economic importance owing to its burning to a cement. Portland cement has now supplanted it. It is also used in a limited way as a building stone. This formation attains a thickness of 9 feet at Falkirk and 14 feet at Akron which is the greatest thickness in Erie county. In the Buffalo quarries it ranges from 2 to 5 feet. Onisskany Honzon. In southeastern and eastern New York are heavy deposits of sandstones, conglomerates and limestones which have received the name of Oriskany sandstone from their exposure at Oriskany, Oneida county. These arenaceous deposits are underlain in eastern New York by the heavy beds of the Helderbergian group which constitute the lowest members of the Devonic system. In Erie county the Oriskany sandstone is absent. The upper surface of the Cobleskill presents an eroded appearance. Its regular horizontal bedding is broken by irregular hollows and depressions similar in all features to the erosion features of a limestone surface exposed to the action of streams or waves. In the bottoms of the depressions are thin layers of green shale and a conglomerate of water-worn fragments of limestone cemented together with quartz. This green shale and the accompanying breccia seem to represent the detritus of a somewhat prolonged erosion of a large superficial area of the Cobleskill limestone and this erosion is supposed to correlate with the beach deposits of Oriskany time. FIG. 4, Eroded surface of Cobleskill limestone, considered to represent form the contact between the Devonic and Siluric systems A. Lowest beds of Onondaga. B. Eroded surface of Cobleskill C. The Cobleskill limestone F, Houghton, Photo. the Oriskany horizon and to BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 15 In Ohio this breccia is represented by a conglomerate of ‘‘large and small water-worn pebbles of the underlying formation embedded in a matrix of Columbus limestone.’’ ‘This has been included in the Columbus (Onondaga) limestone. Onondaga Limestone. Lying above the Cobleskill limestone and forming the cap of the escarpment which extends from the Niagara river to Akron is a heavy formation of limestone to which has been given the name of Onondaga limestone. _ The name Onondaga limestone was used by Professor Hall to designate a layer of limestone lying between the Oriskany sandstone and a great mass of flinty limestone which lay in contact with the Marcellus shale above it. The flinty mass he named the Corniferous limestone. At thesame time he expressed his opinion that the two limestone masses, the Onondaga and Corniferous, “‘for all practical purposes, may be regarded as one formation.’’ Professor Eaton described them together as the Corniferous limerock. Dr. Clarke has abandoned the use of the name Corniferous and has applied the name Onondaga to all the deposits between the Marcellus shale and the Oriskany sandstone or its horizon, embracing the former Onondaga, Corniferous and Seneca. In Ohio this is called Columbus limestone. The Onondaga limestone is the last great deposit of limestone in New York. It was preceded by the great deposits of Trenton, Clinton, Niagara and Salina times but was followed by minor beds only, intercalated between the tremendous deposits of shale of later Devonic time. It attains athickness of 162 feet measured in a well of the Lackawanna Steel Company, but it thins eastward and in Onondaga county it is but 65 feet thick. It extends westward into Ontario. At all points it is constant in its lithological structure and its fossil content. The Onondaga limestone is a mass of hard, compact bluish-gray limestone bedded in layers from a foot to two feet in thickness, usually separated by thin seams of carbonaceous material. Incorporated in the limestone are irregular nodules and layers of chert which in some of the layers make up a large proportion of the rock mass. ‘The chert is black to bluish-gray in color, sometimes translucent in thin sections. It is extremely resistant to erosive agencies. In weathering, the lime in the F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 5. Onondaga limestone, in Barber Ashphalt Company’s quarry, Buffalo. Note weathered surface at the top. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 7/ rock dissolves away and leaves the cherty constituents behind on the eroded surface as a jagged, rough, sharp-edged coating. This jagged appearance of weathered Onondaga limestone is characteristic and not easily to be mistaken. The upper beds are of purer calcareous content and freer from chert. The lowest layer of Onondaga limestone is a stratum of limestone entirely distinct lithologically and in fossil content from the beds above it. This is the layer originally called the Onondaga as differentiated from the upper flinty layers which had received the name of Corniferous. The lower bed differs in thickness at different points in the county. A good section in the Barber Asphalt Company’s quarry shows it to be two feet thick there. . At the Carroll Bros.’ quarry at the spur of the West Shore Railway, near Clarence, the whole face of the quarry seems to be of this bed, which must have an approximate thickness of 30 feet. At the Fogelsonger quarry in Williamsville it is 35 feet thick. At Akron this bed thins again to 4 feet. It appears to be a great lentil, thickest at Williamsville and thinning rapidly toward the east and west. The characteristics of this lentil are steadfast. Everywhere it is a hard, gray limestone containing chert, but unlike the overlying beds this chert is not disseminated throughout the mass but is in concretions. ‘The rock is a coral reef rock and is one great mass of corals and crinoidal stems. ‘The corals are Cyathophylloids and Favositids. Where the surface of the bed is laid bare in quarrying operations it is found to undulate and on it are to be seen corals in the position in which they stood when living. The rocks of the Onondaga formation, taken together with the underlying beds of the Cobleskill and Bertie, constitute the most valuable mineral asset of Erie county. They furnish excellent stone for buildings, and for heavy abutments and rip- rap work, or wherever a rough but obdurate stone can be used. They are unfitted for finer work as their flinty constituents make them extremely hard todress. Thelayers most free from chert have been burned for lime for nearly a century. For ballast and road metal they can hardly be surpassed. Crushed stone for these purposes is an important product of the quarries in the formation. ‘The lowest bed is quarried for furnace flux. [2] 18 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY The Onondaga limestone can be observed at nearly any point onthe Ledge’’ where it is broken by streams or where quarrying has been conducted. It crops out at Fort Erie and Erie Beach where its beds are at water level. It obstructs Niagara River forming rapids and maintaining the base level for Lake Erie. Black Rock derived its name from a ledge of Onondaga rock which jutted into the river there. An excellent section of fifty feet of its lowest layers is exposed in the Barber Asphalt Company’s quarry, and smaller sections are exposed in various other quarries nearby. The lowest, or coral, layer can be seen to good advantage in the quarries at Williamsville, and better still at the Carroll quarry at Clarence. This lowest layer and about twenty feet of the upper layers are exposed in the Kelly Island quarry at the bend of the brick road just west of Akron and good exposures occur in all the quarries at Akron. Murder creek flows over the Ledge at Falkirk and exposes 15 feet of the lowest beds in an excellent section. Smaller sections of higher beds may be seen in Cayuga creek at Depew and in Buffalo creek at Winchester. Cellars excavated in the northern part of Buffalo reach to the lower beds of the rock and cellars in South Buffalo occasionally find the upper beds. The formation is highly fossiliferous, but owing to the obdurate character of the rock it is very difficult to separate its fossils from their matrix. As a consequence the palaentology of this formation has been studied less than any other of the county. For the formation in the Canandaigua quadrangle Dr. Clarke lists the following : Fishes, 3 species. Crustaceans, 39 species. Cephalopods, 13 species. Pteropods, 3 species. Gastropods, 38 species. Lamellibranchs, 15 species. Brachiopods, 48 species. Crinoids, 4 species. Corals, 30 species. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 19 Marcellus Shale. Lying above the Onondaga limestone is a mass of black shale which has been given the name of Marcellus shale, from Marcellus, Onondaga county. This name was originally given by Vanuxem to the black shales, now known as the Marcellus and Cardiff and the intercalated limestone bed; now known as the Stafford. The name Marcellus is now applied only to the lowest member of the old Marcellus. It extends eastward to Schoharie county and westward it probably correlates with the Olentangy shale of Ohio. The Marcellus shale thus limited is a dense, black, slaty shale, highly bituminous and pyritiferous. It contains numerous concretions, often of large size, and occasional thin limestone layers. lLithologically it resembles the later Middlesex and Rhinestreet shales but it differs radically from them in fossil content. Its thickness is given as 49.6 feet in the well of the Lackawanna Steel Company. Few outcrops of the Marcellus shale occur in Erie county. Exposures in Cayuga creek show only a few feet in two layers and these layers are separated by 15 feet vertical distance in which the shale is not exposed. The following description of the beds immediately underlying the Stafford limestone is given by Miss Wood: Stafford limestone E. 12 inches gray calcareous shale with Orthis subula- tum, Chonetes scitulus. D. 12 inches gray, fissile shale with Liorhynchus limitare, Strophomena truncata. 6 inches calcareous, dark gray shale with nuculites. B. 4 inches extremely fissile gray shale, with Lunuli- cardium fragile, Chonetes mucronatus, Strophalosia truncata. A. 4 inches gray calcareous shale breaking irregularly, with Styliolina fissurella. Fifteen feet lower in the section there is a bed of dense black shale with iron pyrites and concretions. ‘This is overlain by a bed of limestone a foot thick. 20 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Stafford Limestone. Bedded between the two black shales of the Marcellus beds is the Stafford limestone which, though present in Erie county, is a meager representative of its eastward extension. Hall described this thin limestone layer with which he limited upward the lower black (Marcellus) shale. He traced it from Flint creek, Ontario county to Le Roy, but seemingly he missed the exposure at Lancaster. He included it in the Marcellus. In 1888 Dr. Clarke designated this the Stafford limestone from its excellent exposure at Stafford, Genesee county. F. Houghton, Phot o. Fic. 6. Contact of Stafford limestone and Marcellus shale. New York Central Railway cut, north of Gardenville. The Stafford limestone in its Erie county exposures is but eight feet thick. It lies between the black Marcellus shale below and the dark Cardiff shale above. When fresh it is of a dark chocolate color but becomes light gray afterexposure. It splinters under the hammer, yet is substantial enough for building stone for which it has a limited use. Much of it is concretionary and at least one layer contains pyrite and chert. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 73k Any outcrop of the Stafford along Lake Erie is deeply buried under drift. Stony Point probably marks its location there. It crosses Cazenovia creek an eighth of a mile below the Cazenovia street bridge and has been exposed there by sewer excavations. It forms a ledge across Buffum street at Seneca Indian Park where it is concealed by only two feet of soil. It crops out in Buffalo creek near the junction of Indian Church Road and Mineral Spring Road. Its lowest beds and its contact with the underlying Marcellus shale are shown ina cut made by the New York Central . Railway a mile north of Gardenville. At Lancaster it is exposed in Cayuga and Plumbottom creeks. At Lancaster it comprises eight beds as follows: (Woods. ) 12 inches. 14 ee Bee ORS an os WZ, These beds have been the subject of a special study by Miss Elvira Woods who lists 72 species of fossils. Cardiff Shale. Following the Stafford limestone upward is a deposit of dark gray shale which forms the uppermost member of the Marcellus beds. This was called by Vanuxem ‘“The Upper shales of the Marcellus.’’ Because of its exposure in the village of Cardiff, Onondaga county it has been designated by Dr. Clarke the Cardiff shale. It extends eastward to Schoharie county. The Cardiff shale comprises a series of dark gray, calcareous, or dense black shales including a few very thin limestone layers and spheroidal coneretions in rows. In fresh exposures this shale is usually dense and black but it weathers after exposure toa dark, ashen gray. It is extremely fissile and breaks after exposure into thin, hard laminae with sharp edges. It weathers slowly in cliff sections and forms sheer ragged-edged cliffs. It is cut by cleavage planes at nearly right angles which cause its exposed surfaces to assume the appearance of lozenge shaped parallelo- grams. 2D GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY At its base it rests directly upon the Stafford limestone. Its lowest beds contain limestone layers. Its uppermost layers merge insensibly into the Skaneateles shale, and no line of demarcation can be set down between them. Lithologically the two are identical. Dr. Grabau describes a hard layer containing Pteropods as the upper layer of the Cardiff. Regarding the division between the Cardiff and the Skaneateles, Hall says: (Geolog. 4th Dist. p. 177.) Xa ae 5 F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 7. Cardiff shale, Cazenovia creek, Gardenville. ‘‘For practical purposes there is little advantage in separat- ing the upper division of this shale from the Hamilton group. The line of separation is nowhere well marked, the change in lithological character being gradual, while some of the fossils continue down from one to the other.’? ‘The “‘upper division’’ spoken of is the Cardiff. The Cardiff shale is exposed in the lake cliffs at Bay View. In the bed of Cazenovia creek below the bridge on Cazenovia , Street its lower beds are to be seen, and at and above the bridge on the brick road in West Seneca its upper beds make a long ; rapid. Its upper beds, with the Pteropod layer which Grabau BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 23 designates as its uppermost bed, crop out in Cazenovia creek a quarter of a mile below Lein’s Park. A long exposure begins below Gardenville in Buffalo creek and extends up to the dam at Blossom. Fossils are not abundant in the Cardiff shale. In the lower beds immediately above the Stafford Miss Wood has found the following: Ceratopora Dichotoma Grabau. Brachiopods : Chonetes lepidus Hall. Liorhynchus limitare Vanuxem. Atrypa reticularis Linne. Ambocoelia umbonata Conrad. Meristella barrisi Hall. Pterochaenia fragilis Hall. Styliolina fissurella Hall. Orthoceras aegea Hall. Phacops rana Green. Dr. A. Grabau adds to this the following from the Bay View and Athol Springs cliffs: Tentaculites gracilistriatus Hall. Lunulicardium fragile Hall. Nautilus marcellensis Vanuxem. Chonetes mucronata Hall. A few carbonized plant remains. Skaneateles Shale. This name was applied by Vanuxem to the shales exposed at the northern end of Skaneateles lake. --Hall gave it-no name, merely referring to it as © an olive often bluish fissile shale.’’ Dr. Grabau calls it the ‘‘’ Transition shale.’ The Skaneateles shale lies between the Cardiff shale below and the Ludlowville shale above. It is the lowest member of the Hamilton beds. In Erie county it is a mass of light gray shales from 30 to 60 feet thick. Its lowest beds are dark, almost black, but it becomes lighter upward and its uppermost beds are a light, Photo. Houghton, F ia creek above Ebenezer. , Cazenov s shale ff of Skaneatele Chi 8 FIG BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 25 olive gray. It contains numerous small concretions from an inch to a foot in diameter, many of which are composed wholly or partly of iron pyrites. It is cut by two series of cleavage planes at an angle a little greater than 90 degrees. In cliffs, these cause a series of smooth faces and angles sometimes extending vertically for ten feet or more. The Skaneateles shale merges into both the Cardiff below and the Ludlowville above. No definite line of contact can be distinguished. Dr. Grabau has designated a bed called the Pteropod bed as the bed limiting it below and a calcareous bed containing Strophalosia truncata as its uppermost bed. The Skaneateles is exposed in the Lake Erie cliffs at Athol Springs and in the lower part of Avery’s creek. In Smoke’s creek almost the entire formation is shown at the Town Line Road on the south branch. In Cazenovia creek it forms sheer cliffs almost continuously from below Lein’s Park to the cliffs above the bridge at the terminus of the Buffalo Southern Railway. At this latter point the cliff is 42 feet high. Six feet from the top of the rock section is a six inch layer of limestone which is probably the layer designated by Grabau as terminating the formation upward. At Blossom on Buffalo creek is a four foot ledge of limestone which Bishop referred to the Skaneateles as a ‘basal layer.’’? In many respects it is unique. It is made up of four layers, all concretionary. Below these are about four feet of gray shale. The shale layers immediately below the limestone are exceedingly rich in fossils, mainly cyathophylloids of large size with a few brachiopods and some trilobites. The fauna resembles in every respect that of the Moscow and Encrinal, yet the ledge is certainly near or at the junction of the Skaneateles and Cardiff. Ludlowville Shale. Superimposed upon the gray mass of Skaneateles shale and merging downward into it is a somewhat similar gray deposit of shale which of late years has regained the original name assigned it by Hall. He named it the Ludlowville shale, partly from its exposure at Ludlowville, Cayuga county, partly because he believed this shale was of the same age as that of Ludlow, England. This name later gave place to Vanuxem’s designation, the Hamilton shale and has been so called until recently. It has now regained Hall’s designation, the Ludlowville shale. Fic. 9. Cliff at Bullis Road, Buffalo creek. A. Moscow shale. B. Tichenor limestone. C. Ludlowville shale. F. Houghton, Photo. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 27 The Ludlowville shale is a heavy mass of bluish gray, calcareous shale extending from Lake Erie eastward to beyond Cayuga lake and at all points keeping the same characteristics of color, texture and content. It is often without strong cleavage planes but is somewhat fissile. It weathers into a sticky, gray clay. It includes several rather constant layers of limestone and abundant small concretions. Its upper beds lie in contact with the Tichenor limestone. Its lower beds merge into the Skaneateles below it. So gradual is its transition that no line of demarcation can be set. Grabau has considered the line of division to be immediately beneath a bed containing Strophalosia truncata, 50. feet below the Encrinal limestone. The Ludlowville is exposed in Eighteen Mile creek for the first mile of its course, in the lake cliffs at its mouth and as far north as Avery’s creek. "The whole formation is shown in the south branch of Smoke’s creek at Windom and in the north. branch at Town Line Road where it forms a cascade. In Cazenovia creek it appears in cliffs from the bottom of the dam at Springbrook to the Skaneateles cliff at the terminus of the. Buffalo Southern Railway. In Buffalo creek its upper beds show at the bridge at the Bullis Road and the shales exposed in the cliffs north of Springbrook station are probably in the middle’ beds. The whole formation is characterized by an abundance of fossils, and because of the softness of the matrix these may be removed with ease in perfect condition. A few thin beds are exceptionally rich. The lowest of these, the Nautilus bed, yields Nautilus magister of large size. Above this, within a vertical distance of eight feet, are the Pleurodictyum beds and the Trilobite beds, all exceedingly rich in fossils, many of which are rare in other formations. At the top of the formation and immediately below the Tichenor limestone are two beds, the Stictopora bed and the Demissa bed which yield an immense number of beautifully preserved fossils in great variety. Tichenor Limestone. Limiting the Ludlowville shale above is a thin but constant bed of limestone which was named by Hall the Encrinal limestone. This has been rechristened by Dr. Clarke the Tichenor limestone from its exposure at Tichenor Point on Canandaigua lake. It extends eastward to Cayuga county. 28 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY In Erie county the Tichenor limestone varies from a foot to four feet in thickness. It occurs in layers which vary in number at different outcrops. At Windom it consists of two layers, each a foot thick. At Springbrook it comprises six layers totaling three feet. At Bullis Road it is four feet thick and is made up of ten layers. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 10. Tichenor limestone at Town Line Road, north branch of Smoke’s creek. It is highly pyritiferous and in weathering shows iron stains. At Springbrook the bottom surface of its lowest layer is coated with a half inch of iron pyrite. It is impregnated with petroleum which fills all cavities and oozes out from its surfaces. It is semi-crystalline in structure and refractory under the hammer. It is durable as a building stone but unsightly because of its iron stain, but it is used in a small way locally for bridge abutments and cellar walls. It is highly fossiliferous. Its bulk is mainly coarsely comminuted fragments of crinoids, corals and shells, and enclosed in this matrix are entire fossils of many species. Favosite corals abound, many being a foot or more in diameter. ‘The rock is BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 29 sufficiently obdurate to make it very difficult to separate the fossils from the matrix. The Tichenor limestone is exposed at Eighteen Mile creek below the railway bridges and in the lake cliffs south of the mouth of the creek. It dips under the lake just north of the mouth of Pike creek. It forms cascades in the south branch of Smoke’s creek at Windom and in the north branch at the Town Line Road. It is the base of the dam at Springbrook and forms a series of cascades in Buffalo creek at Bullis Road. ‘The Bullis Road outcrop of this limestone is perhaps the best in Erie county. Here the layers are separated by thin, shaly layers and the upper layers are more nearly hard calcareous shale than limestone, yet the entire formation, including the shaly separations, is hard enough to have allowed a block nearly four feet thick to drop out of the cliff at one point. The middle layers are composed entirely of fossils mostly large cyathophylloids, favositids and crinoidal stems with an abundance of the characteristic lamellibranch Mytilis, the Spirifer granulosus, and bryozoa. ‘The favositids form large heads often more than a foot in diameter and many of the crinoidal stems are a foot or more long and three-eighths of an inch thick. Moscow Shale. The uppermost member of the Hamilton beds is the gray shale which has taken its name from a fine exposure at the village of Moscow, in Livingston county. ‘This shale lies immediately above the Tichenor limestone and is limited above in Erie county by a pyritiferous layer of shale. It includes in its upper layer a band of concretionary limestone two inches thick at Springbrook but varying with the locality. The shale is uniformly gray, rather free from cleavage planes and it weathers to asticky, gray clay. The bottom layers, especially those immediately above the Tichenor limestone, are highly calcareous and firm enough to break out in rough blocks. It contains occasional thin layers of concretions or concretionary limestone. The lowest layers immediately above the Tichenor limestone are very fossiliferous. Its contact with the underlying Tichenor limestone is well defined. Its upper limit is well marked by a pyritiferous band, which shows in a cliff face as a brown band. Middlesex Shale West River Shale Genesee Shale Genundewa Limestone Concretions Moscow Shale Moscow Shale F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 11. Succession of formations from Middlesex shale downward to the lowest layers of Moscow shale. Cazenovia creek, Springbrook, BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAI, SCIENCES Sil The Moscow shale is exposed in the Lake Erie cliff from Pike creek to Wanahkah and in Kighteen Mile creek between its mouth and the railway bridges. In the south branch of Smoke’s creek it is well exposed in the stream bed and in cliffs from the small cascade formed by the Tichenor at Windom to the bridge over the Benzing Road. Its lowest beds, with an abundance of fossils, crop out in an obscure gully opening into Smoke’s creek at Windom and also just above the cascade where the contact between them and the Encrinal is well shown. ‘The upper beds and their contact with the pyritiferous layer are exposed in a small gully on the east bank, and also just below the bridge over the Benzing Road. The lower and middle beds are well exposed in the north branch of Smoke’s creek for a half mile above the cascade at the Town Lineroad. The entire formation, excepting about three feet of the lower beds, is shown in one cliff section at Springbrook in Cazenovia creek, where the beds are limited above by a four inch bed of pyrite. In Buffalo creek a cliff section at the Bullis road bridge includes all the lower and middle beds. The Moscow shale thickens rapidly eastward in the county. At Eighteen Mile creek it is seventeen feet thick, at Smoke’s 52 feet, and at Springbrook nearly 50 feet are exposed above the lower beds. Pynte Layer, Tully Horizon. In the central part of New York the Hamilton beds and the Genesee beds are separated by a stratum of limestone which from its exposure at Tully in Onondaga county has been designated the Tully limestone. This limestone is absent in Erie county but its horizon is marked by a layer of shale strongly impregnated with iron pyrites. At some exposures this laver becomes a solid layer of pyrite from an inch to four inches thick. This pyrite layer is well shown in Cazenovia creek at Springbrook. ‘The upper beds of the Moscow are well shown and capping these is a four inch layer filled with pyrite, above which are the black shales of the Genesee beds. At one point cf this exposure the shale disappears and in its place is a four inch layer of solid pyrite. This is a lentil about 30 feet long in the cliff. This projects from the cliff as a ledge, and on the stream bed are large blocks broken off as the softer shale is undermined. ‘The 32 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY pyrite is extremely hard and is a mass of casts of fossils which have been replaced by the pyrite. Fossils from this layer at other points have been the subject of a monograph by Frederick B. Loomis. A B Cc D de) F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 12. Section of cliff, Cazenovia creek, south of Springbrook. Genundewa limestone, overhanging. Concretions imbedded in black shale, Genesee black shale. Pyrite layer. Moscow shale. BOOP The pyritiferous shale, also, is filled with fossils all of which have been replaced by the pyrite. Genesee Beds. James Hall considered the Tully limestone a line of demarca- tion. The fauna of the beds above the Tully differs radically from that below it. Conditions favorable to the great profusion of marine life which characterized the seas of the period during which the Hamilton beds were laid down seem to have come to an end with the deposition of the Tully limestone. The difference is more marked in the western part of the state than in the eastern where there is more or less mingling of the faunas of the Hamilton and Genesee beds. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 33 Lithologically the beds above the Tully differ radically from those below it. The deposits of lime in western New York which characterized the lower members of the Devonian come to an end with the Tully and thereafter the beds are characterized by an ever increasing sandiness which in Erie county culminates in the heavy bedded sandstones of the upper Portage. The Genesee beds begin above the Tully limestone, or where, as in Erie county, this is absent, above the pyritiferous layer representing the Tully. The lowest beds are of dense black shale. These end abruptly with a thin bed of limestone which is followed by sandy dark gray shales. The beds attain in Erie county a thickness of not more than 20 feet. ‘They thicken eastward until at Mt. Morris on the Genesee river they are 180 feet thick. Genesee Shale. At two localities in Erie county there appears above the pyrite layer a thin band of black shale. This is the dwindled representative of a mass of dense, black, slaty shale which in the F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 13. The Genesee shale. Genundewa limestone. Concretionary layer. Black shale, 19 inches. Pyrite layer (Tully horizon). Moscow shale. BOOP . [3] 34 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Genesee valley lies between the Tully and the Genundewa limestone. At Naplesthis bed is 95 feet thick but it thins toward the west and eastward it merges with the West river shale in Chenango county. At Mount Morris it is 82 feet thick. In Erie county this formation has practically disappeared. At Springbrook it shows in the cliff face as a dark band from 19 to 26 inches thick. At Smoke’s creek it is absent but is repre- sented by a row of concretions. At the mouth of Pike creek in the lake cliffs it is 12 inches thick. At the Springbrook outcrop where it shows to the best advantage the shale is dense, black and slaty. It lies directly upon the layer of pyritiferous shale. Its upper layer is a layer of flat concretions a foot or less in diameter which le in direct contact with the Genundewa limestone above. The Genesee shale is nowhere abundantly fossiliferous. No fossils have been described as having been found in the formation in Erie county. Numerous land plant remains found by the writer at the mouth of Pike creek in loose, black shale were referred by him to the Genesee. Genundewa Limestone. Lying in the middle of the black and dark gray shales of the Genesee beds is a thin but persistent layer of limestone which, because of the presence in it of innumerable shells of Styliolina fissurella, came to be known. as the Styliola band or the Styliolina limestone as named by Dana. ‘This name has been changed to Genundewa limestone due to its exposure at Bare Hill, on the east side of Canandaigua lake, the alleged Genundewa of Seneca tradition. The Genundewa limestone, where exposed in the gorge of Eighteen Mile creek, is from four to six inches thick and concre- tionary in character. It is made up of two layers, the Styliola and the Conodont. The Conodont bed lies in immediate contact with the Styliola or it is separated by thin layers of dark shale. ‘The Styliola is composed almost entirely of the microscopic shells of Styliolina fissurella. It is argillaceous and gives off the characteristic clayey odor when breathed upon. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES So) The Conodont bed is concretionary and irregular in its bedding. At some exposures it is absent altogether. Its surface undulates and the resulting hollows are filled with thin laminae of shale. Newly fractured surfaces show a coarsely crystalline structure, and weathered surfaces are rough owing to the weathering out of the tiny fossils which make up the bulk of the mass. ED Me. CGN VA | F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 1t. Cliff at railway bridges, Eighteen Mile creek, Lake View, showing Cashaqua shale. Middlesex shale. West river shale. Genundewa limestone, which forms the bed of the creek at this point. felts Included in the Genundewa limestone is a band of dark shale and thin limestone layers totalling in all twelve inches thick. This lies immediately above and in contact with the Styliola layer. 36 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY The Genundewa limestone is extremely fossiliferous. ‘The Conodont layer, especially, is rich in fish remains and in the peculiar organisms which have given it its name. The limestone layers immediately above the Styliola layer and included in it show abundant remains of a peculiar crinoid. West River Shale. Lying above the Genundewa limestone is a mass of dark gray shale which is the uppermost member of the Genesee beds. To this has been given the name West river shale from its occurrence in the valley of West river at the head of Canandaigua F. Houghton, Photo. Fic..15. Cliff showing West river shale and Genundewa limestone, Smoke’s creek, at Benzing road. A. West river shale. B. Thin limestone and shale layers. C. Genundewa limestone. D. Moscow shale. lake. It was included by Hall in his Genesee slate and to distinguish it from the lower black Genesee shale it was later named the gray Genesee shale. It is recognized as far east as Cayuga lake. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES Si) The West river shale in Erie county is composed of dark gray or chocolate colored shales interbedded with thin layers of hard dark shale. It merges gradually downward into the Genundewa, the junction being a thin band of shale in thin laminae alternating with thin limestone layers. It is fissile, and splits readily into thin, sharp laminae with sharp edges. It weathers rather quickly in a cliff into a rough, ragged face with innumerable sharp edges projecting from it. The West river thickens toward the east. Grabau gives its thickness at Eighteen Mile creek as eight and a half feet. At Smoke’s creek it is fourteen feet, and at Cazenovia creek slightly more. At Mount Morris it is sixty-five feet and at Naples ninety feet thick. The West river shale is exposed in the Lake Erie cliffs at the mouth of Pike creek. It appears in the bed of Eighteen Mile creek just above the railway bridges and rises in the cliffs until it disappears at their top just above the bridge over the Lake Road. A good section is exposed in the south branch of Smoke’s creek at the Benzing road. Its best exposure in Erie county is in the cliffs of Cazenovia creek at Springbrook, where its contact with the Middlesex above it and the Genundewa below is well defined. Fossils are rare in the shaly layers but less rare in the _ limestone layers at the bottom. Pterochaenia fragilis is the only fossil listed as being found in the West river of Erie county. The Portage Beds. The Portage beds comprise that portion of the rock formation ascribed by Hall to the Devonic system lying between the Genesee beds below and the Chemung beds above. ‘They approximate twelve hundred feet in thickness and stretch completely across the state. They extend southwesterly across the northwest corner of Pennsylvania and correlate with the Ohio shales of Ohio. In general they comprise alternating masses of black and gray shales which increase steadily upward in sand content. They begin with the Middlesex shale, a black shale without sand. In the Rhinestreet, also a black shale, are occasional 38 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY sandstone layers. ‘These increase in number in the Angola and Hanover shales and finally culminate in the heavy bedded sands of the Nunda sandstones. The present subdivision of the Portage beds in Erie county is unsatisfactory. The Middlesex, Cashaqua and Rhinestreet are constant enough in their characteristics to permit identification at distant points. With the other subdivisions this is difficult. Each varies at different points and each blends with the one above and below it. For instance there is no line of demarcation between the so-called Angola and Hanover divisions of the Hatch shales. One merges into the other. Nor are they so different at their most different parts to admit of positive identification. Similarly the Hanover merges into the Gardeau for although they are separated in theory by the black band of the Dunkirk shale, this band is merely a thicker band than three others which are included in the Hanover. Similarly, no line of demarcation exists between the Gardeau and [aona sandstone, nor does the Wiscoy differ in character from the Gardeau. All the beds except the Rhinestreet increase in thickness toward the east and at the same time increases in sandiness. Middlesex Shale. The Middlesex shale is a thin band of hard black shale lying between the gray Cashaqua shale above and the dark West river shale below. Originally this was included by Professor Hall in the Genesee slates in which he also placed all the black and dark gray shales lying between the Tully and the gray Cashaqua. This upper member of the original Genesee slate has been referred by Clarke to the Portage as its lowest member. It was named from its complete exposure in Middlesex valley near the head of Canandaigua lake. It disappears at Seneca lake. East of Seneca lake it seems to have merged with the West river shale. In Erie county the Middlesex shale is a thin bed of hard, black, slaty shale with a chocolate streak and a strong bituminous odor. It is crossed by two series of cleavage planes along which it separates into parallelograms. It splits easily into thin laminae the surfaces of which after weathering are stained with iron. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 39 It increases in thickness towards the east. Grabau gives its thickness at Eighteen Mile creek as nine and a half feet though Luther gives its thickness at Smoke’s creek as six feet. In Ontario county it is thirty-five feet thick. It is to be seen in the cliffs at the mouth of Pikecreek. Its contact with the overlying Cashaqua and the underlying West river can be seen in the Eighteen Mile creek gorge just above the railway bridges. An excellent exposure of the upper surfaces of its layers with numerous large plant remains is found in the bed of the south branch of Smoke’s creek just above the Benzing road. A fine exposure showing the contact with the underlying West river shale can be seen in Cazenovia creek cliffs south of Springbrook. Fossils are rare. A few layers at some points show abundant plant remains. JLingula ligea is the only fossil listed from Erie county. A large fish plate was found by the writer in its lowest beds at Smoke’s creek. Cashaqua Shale. Lying between the hard, black Middlesex shale and the equally hard, black Rhinestreet is a soft, gray shale, which from its excellent exposure on Cashaqua creek in the Genesee Valley, was designated by James Hall the Cashaqua shale. It consists of an olive-gray shale which after exposure breaks down readily into a gray clay. Included in the mass are rows of flattened concretions which in some locations tend to coalesce into thin, irregular flags. Its thickness is given by Hall as thirty-three feet at Eighteen Mile creek and by Luther as averaging forty-five feet in the county. It extends eastward to Cayuga lake. The contact of the Cashaqua with the shales above it and below it is fairly definite. Seen at a distance, the Cashaqua when exposed in a cliff, is a well defined gray band lying between two black bands, with sharply marked lines of demarcation. Seen more closely the gray is found to merge gradually into the black shales through a foot or more of brown or chocolate colored shale, Fic. 16. F. Houghton, Photo. Cliff at North Evans, Eighteen Mile creek, showing contact Rhinestreet and Cashaqua. A. Rhinestreet. B. Cashaqua. of BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 41 The Cashaqua shale is exposed in the lake cliffs at and above the mouth of Pike creek. It is well shown in the cliffs of Eighteen Mile gorge at and above the railway bridges where its contact with both Middlesex and Rhinestreet is visible. It forms a cliff and a long horizontal section in the south branch of Smoke’s creek at the dynamite storehouses. It is exposed in Cazenovia creek about two miles above Springbrook and at East Elma on Buffalo creek. The characteristics exhibited in all these exposures are identical. Fossils are fairly abundant. A list given by Luther of forms abundant in this vicinity follows: Goniatites: Probeloceras lutheri Clarke. Gephyroceras holzapfeli Clarke. G. cf. domanicense Holzapfel. Lamellibranchs: Lunulicardium pilosum Clarke. Pterochaenia fragilis Hall. P. elmensis Clarke. Buchiola retrostriata v. Buch.. Be lmpina Clarke: Gastropod: Loxonema noe Clarke. Rhinestreet Shale. The Rhinestreet shale comprises a thick mass of dark, bituminous shales lying between the gray Cashaqua below and the gray Angola shale above. Originally it was included in the Gardeau shales. Later these were separated and the name Black Naples shale was applied to this black band to distinquish it from the underlying Gray Naples shale, now called the Cashaqua. Its present name was given to it because of its exposure at Rhinestreet near Naples. At its most eastward exposure at Seneca lake it is but two feet thick. In Erie county it is a succession of fissile black shales, 185 feet thick, in thick beds alternating with thickly bedded, dense, hard, black, slaty shale. ‘The shale is highly bituminous and emits a strong odor of petroleum when newly fractured. All the 42 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY more dense shales have strongly marked cleavage planes. At intervals, in the vertical succession, are layers of calcareous. concretions. Many of these are septaria, and many are of huge size. Septaria six feet in diameter and four feet thick are numerous. The septaria seen in cross section are crossed by series of radiating and concentric veins filled with white, black and brown crystals of calcite. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 17. A typical Rhinestreet cliff, Eighteen Mile creek below Hamburg. Note large concretions, The shale immediately about the large concretions bends about them following the contours of the concretions rather than the normal horizontal bedding plane of its bed. A few of the concretions contain fossils. "Two in the Eighteen Mile creek cliffs contained huge fish remains. From one found by the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 43 writer were obtained the bones of practically the entire head of an immense Dinichthys. Although the Rhinestreet and Cashaqua shales are totally dissimilar in appearance and constituents, their line of contact is indefinite. Seen in a cliff they show as two distinct and well marked bands, but when closely examined they are found to merge. The transition from the gray Cashaqua to the black Rhinestreet is gradual through a foot or more of brown shale. At many points this brown shale is highly pyritiferous and marks the contact by a rusty, ironstained band. ‘This band is frequently fossiliferous. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 18. Uppermost layer of Rhinestreet shale, Cazenozia creek, at Quaker Road _ bridge. The contact of the Rhinestreet with the overlying Angola shale is equally indefinite. ‘These merge into one another through recurring alternations of black and gray shales. I have considered as the topmost layer of the Rhinestreet a hard black layer capped by a layer of very large irregular flat concretions set together so closely as to form a practically continuous bed. This layer can best be seen in Cazenovia creek just above the 44 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Quaker Road bridge where it forms a cascade across one branch and a rapids across the other. Yet the shales for twenty feet above contain huge concretions, though they are gray. The Rhinestreet is exposed along the lake shore southward from Sturgeon Point as far as Dibble Bay, where the layer of concretions marking the top of the formation crops out at water level. Its lower beds and its contact with the Cashaqua are to be seen in Pike creek east of the road. The whole formation can best be seen in the gorge of Eighteen Mile creek. The lowest layers appear first at the top of the cliff below the railway bridges. The contact with the underlying Cashaqua is well shown at several points above and F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 19. Fault in Rhinestreet shale, below Erie Railway bridge, south branch of Eighteen Mile creek. below the old mill and bridge a mile above the railways. From this point the cliffs and bed of the stream are cut in this formation, the harder black layers causing rapids in the stream. The banks for much of its course are sheer cliffs. Ata point three miles above the railways the stream forks. Above this junction in the gorge of the north branch rows of immense concretions appear at intervals in the cliff, and at several points the stream bed is cumbered with them. The surfaces of layers exposed in the stream bed exhibit numerous plant remains. At the old McKee’s mill a layer of large concretions crosses the stream and forms a fall. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 45 In the south branch the layers of concretions are shown as in the other branch. Half a mile below the Erie bridge there is a fault on the south side of the stream. ‘The hard black layer and the layer of concretions which I have considered the topmost layer of the formation crosses the stream at the bridge and just above it. The formation is exposed in a long section in the south branch of Smoke’s creek from the dynamite storehouse to Green Lake. ‘The topmost layer of concretions crosses the stream just below the dam which forms the lake. The whole formation is exposed in sections along Cazenovia creek from the middle of a small brook which joins Cazenovia creek a mile south of Spring brook to the Quaker Road bridge. Just above the bridge the creek forks and the topmost layer crosses just above the junction. The layers in the stream bed here show fine plant remains. Plates of Philolepis have been found here by the writer. The formation extends in Buffalo Creek from East Elma bridge to Porterville. Asa whole the Rhinestreet is not rich in fossils, yet some of the layers show a rich and varied fauna. Angola Shale. The Angola shale is that portion of the Portage beds lying between the black Rhinestreet below and the Hanover shale above. With the overlying Hanover shale it forms the Hatch shale. Originally it was included in the Gardeau. It was named from its exposure along Big Sister creek in the village of Angola, Erie County. The formation comprises a series of light gray and fissile dark shales with frequent sandstone layers and concretions. It is 168 feet thick measured along Big Sister creek (Luther). Some of the lower dark shales are hard and black and resemble those of the Rhinestreet, though they are thinner bedded. Many of the concretions are small, usually not larger than a foot in diameter and frequently flat, but the lower beds contain con- cretions of large size, frequently four feet in diameter, resembling those in the Rhinestreet below. 46 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY The constituents of the formation vary at its different exposures, the difference being mainly in the sand content. Thus the sandstone layers at Angola are thin but at Griffin’s Mills on Cazenovia creek the formation includes six layers from six inches to a foot thick. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 20. Angola shale at Angola, showing gray shale and concretions. No definite line can be distinguished between the Angola and the overlying Hanover shale, and there seems little reason to subdivide the gray shales making up the two formations. I have arbitrarily fixed the line of contact below a layer of nodular gray shale about fifteen feet below a two foot black band which BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 47 projects from the lake cliff just north of the mouth of Silver creek. This is unsatisfactory, however, as it is the only exposure of this layer in the county. Luther (p. 1024 Rept State Pal. 1902) describes a black layer four feet above a gray nodular layer and seems to consider this the top of the Angola. There is really nothing to distinguish one from the other. If the Angola and Hanover shales are in the horizon of the Hatch shales of Canandaigua, this name should be retained. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 21. Sandstone ledge in Angola shale, Griffin’s Mills, Cazenovia creek. The type exposure of Angola shale is in the cliffs of Big Sister creek from the cemetery at Angola to Pontiac. There are numerous exposures along the south branch of Eighteen Mile creek from the Erie railroad bridge to a point well beyond the State Road, and in a small gully debouching into the creek just above the Erie railroad. A fine exposure begins at the junction of the two branches of Cazenovia creek and extends upward beyond Griffin’s Mills. The beds in detail may be seen ina small gully running from the west into Cazenovia creek at the bridge south of Jewettville. F. Houghton, Photo, Fic. 22. Angola shale at Griffin’s Mills, Cazenovia creek. Note the sandstone layers. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 49 The Angola shale contains few fossils. In the beds exposed along Cazenovia creek plant remains are numerous. The beds immediately above the top of the Rhinestreet contain numerous nodules of pyrite which appear to be casts of fossils. The flattened concretions found in the middle of the formation at Angola contain fossils of a few species. Shale of this formation has been used for the manufacture of brick and other clay products. The Buffalo Sewer Pipe Company has a plant on the Lake Shore Railway just west of Angola which utilizes this shale. The Jewettville Brick Plant Number Two utilizes shale probably of this formation. It is situated a mile southeast of Orchard Park station on the Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh Railway. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 23. Brick kilns utilizing Angola shale, Orchard Park. The Ellicott plant, and the Jewettville Number One, at Jewettville, and Smith’s yard at North Boston are all in this or the lowest Hanover beds. Hanover Shale. The name Hanover shale has been applied to the upper portion, 112 feet thick, of a mass of 280 feet of gray shales and sandstones lying between the Rhinestreet shale below and the Dunkirk black shale above. ‘The lower 168 feet of these have been given the name of Angola shale already described: The upper or Hanover shale was at first designated the Silver Creek shale because of its outcrop at the village of Silver [4] 50 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Creek, Chautauqua county. This name was found to be pre- occupied and was changed to Hanover shale because of its exposure along Walnut creek in Hanover township, in which Silver Creek is also situated. The formation is composed mainly of light gray shales with occasional sandy flags. It includes three black bands. One near the bottom is two feet thick. Two others in the lower half of the formation are each from ten to fifteen feet thick. The F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 24. Band of black shale included in the Hanover shales, Cazenovia creek, above West Falls. gray shale is characterized by a heavy bedded appearance. It is not fissile and does not break readily into laminae. Numerous layers are composed of gray unlaminated shale filled with small nodules which may range in size from an inch to two inches or more in diameter, and in shape from spheroidal to irregular. These nodular layers are hard and resistant and where they are exposed at the level of the lake, form a projecting shelf. In streams they form rapids or cascades. One such layer forms a shelf at water level along the lake from Silver Creek to Havilah. The three black layers are crossed by strong cleavage planes which cause their surfaces to take on the appearance of a tessella- ted pavement. The surfaces of these layers show plant remains. F,. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 25. Cliff of Hanover shale, Lake Erie, south of Silver Creek. Note the resistant shelf of nodular shale at water level. F, Houghton, Photo. Fic. 26. Hanover shale, Lake Erie, north of the mouth of Silver Creek. The lowest black band is seen projecting from the cliff near its top. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 53) The line of contact of the Hanover shale with the overlying Dunkirk shale is well shown at the mouth of Big Indian creek which joins Cattaraugus creek in Cattaraugus county below Iroquois. No line can be drawn between the Hanover and the underlying Angola. The Hanover shale forms sheer cliffs along Lake Erie from Silver Creek nearly to Dunkirk. Fine exposures are to be seen in the valley of Walnut creek from Silver Creek to the bridge F, Houghton, Photo. Fic, 27. Sandstone ledge in lower Hanover or upper Angola shale, West Falls, Cazenovia creek. south of Hanover Centre. The contact of the Hanover with the overlying Dunkirk shale is seen at the mouth of Big Indian creek. At North Collins it is exposed in two gullies east of the state road. In the south branch of Highteen Mile creek it is well shown. ‘The formation begins east of the state road at Eden Valley and forms the bed and sides of the stream toa point half a mile north of Clarksburg. The lower of the two thick, black beds included in the Hanover, forms a high cascade at 54 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Toad Hollow. ‘The upper of these two beds crosses about half a mile farther upstream and the contact with the Dunkirk shows at a small cascade on the east side of the road before turning to Clarksburg. There is a pronounced fault at this point. An excellent exposure occurs in a small gully running east from the state road two miles south of North Boston, and another is in Grace’s gully three miles south of Orchard Park. In the Grace gully the contact with the Dunkirk is shown as well as the two black bands. This gully follows a long fault. The Hanover forms the cliffs along Pipe creek which joins Cazenovia creek above West Falls, and forms the bed of the creek from West Falls to the bridge above Pipe creek. ‘The lower black band forms a cascade just below the bridge and the gray nodular shale forms another immediately below it. The cascade at West Falls is formed by a ledge of sandstone 16 inches thick, capping a series of gray shales the lower layers of which are hard and nodular. ‘This seems to be part of the Hanover shale. Fossils are rare in the Hanover shale. Plant remains are to be found in the black bands in abundance. I found one orthoceras in the nodular shale at West Falls. Dunkirk Shale. Bedded in the gray shales above the Rhinestreet black shales are four other black bands three of which have been included in the Hanover and the description of which is to be found in the preceding pages. ‘The fourth band is of sufficient thickness to warrant giving it a name. It crops out at Dunkirk, Chau- tauqua county, hence has been designated the Dunkirk shale. The Dunkirk shale is a deposit of black shale fifty-five feet thick, overlying the Hanover shales beneath. Hartnagel includes it in the Gardeau shale as its basal member. It extends beyond the eastern boundary of the county and seems to be represented in the Genesee valley outcrops by a band of rusty, black shale and thin flags exposed in the cliff at Wolf creek. These are the Grimes sandstones. It has all the characteristics of the Rhinestreet shale. It shows alternation of dense, black shale and fissile, black shale with iron stained laminae. A row of large concretions occurs near the middle of the formation. The upper part is crossed by numerous thin, sandstone layers the thickest of which is twelve inches thick and several of which are between six and twelve inches thick. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 28. Cliff of Dunkirk shale, Versailles, F The layer of large concretions crosses Cattaraugus creek at this point. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 29. Junction of Dunkirk shale and Gardeau shale. The boy stands on black Dunkirk shale. Above him are pink Gardeau shales. “OpBOSed 94} JO sseq OY} Je SI aAOULH eyY, “}YSI1 ay} ye paq Aoe[q ‘asuap aq} st xUAUNG ey *Y9eI9 URIPUT Sig Jo YJnour oy} ze ‘AVaI0 snSnesejeD ‘ayeys Joaouvy] pur ajeys yun aq} jo yeWoD ‘ye ‘OI ‘ojoyd ‘UO}YSsNOY “7 58 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY No line of contact can be distinquished between the Dunkirk shale and the Gardeau shale above. ‘They merge gradually, the transition in Big Indian creek being through a succession of thin, black layers, alternating with light gray, iron stained layers. The Dunkirk shale forms the cliffs along the southern and western sides of Dunkirk harbor and the cliffs west of Point Gratiot. The whole formation is exposed in Big Indian creek and in the cliffs along Cattaraugus creek at Versailles. The exposure in Big Indian creek begins just below the bridge on the Hanover Center road in an alternation of thin, black shales and gray shales, above which are pinkish shales of the Gardeau formation. Below these transition shales appear beds of black, hard shales with strong cleavage planes and these continue downward with alternate beds of more fissile black shale and thin sandstones. ‘The thickest of these forms a cascade fifteen feet high. The contact of the Dunkirk and Hanover is exposed at the mouth of the creek. Here the lowest bed of the Dunkirk is a mass seven feet thick of hard, black shale iron stained after exposure and splitting into very large, thin laminae. Underlying this is a bed of olive gray shale containing nodules the size of a pigeon’s egg or smaller. ‘This breaks into lumps rather than into laminae. As this nodular shale occurs throughout the Hanover shale there seems no doubt that this bed constitutes the upper bed of the Hanover. The Dunkirk shale is exposed in a gully that runs eastward from the state road at North Collins. It forms a cliff along the southern branch of Eighteen Mile creek just north of Clarksburg. It crops out at the heads of the gullies east of North Boston, and forms a fall at Colden on Cazenovia creek. The concretionary layer is at the lake level at Van Buren Point, crosses Big Indian creek, causes a rapid in Cattaraugus creek at Versailles and shows in the cliff at Colden. No fossils have been described from the Dunkirk shale. Plant remains are abundant in all its exposures. ‘sseyy pue sayeys nevaepiey jo St Ifo a4 ‘S[[P} JAMO] PUL J[PPIW 9} DseMyaq ‘SIIT UID Je JOATI vosaa5) 9Y} JO 9810 “[E “OIW ‘ojoyd ‘uoJYsNOH “WZ 60 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Gardeau Shale. Lying in the upper Portage beds and limited below by the Dunkirk shale is the thick mass of the Gardeau shales. They have derived their name from their exposure at the former Indian Reservation at Gardeau on the Genesee river. Originally the _.mame was applied by Hall to that portion of the Portage group lying above the Cashaqua shale and below the Portage sandstone. This great mass of rock has been subdivided by Dr. Clarke and the name Gardeau restricted to those shales and sandstones in western New York lying below the Laona sandstone, and in the Canandaigua exposures, limited below by the Grimes sandstones which seem to be the eastern extension of the Dunkirk. In western New York there is no definite line of demarcation at the bottom of these formations unless it be the Dunkirk shale. But Hartnagel in his classification of the rock formations has included the Dunkirk in the Gardeau. This makes the Gardeau in western New York include all the arenaceous and black shales and sandstones lying between the bottom of the Dunkirk shale and the Laona sandstone. ‘The Dunkirk shale is distinct enough to warrant our excluding it from the Gardeau. - The Gardeau shale thus defined, excluding the Dunkirk shale which has been described in previous pages, comprises a thick deposit of sandy shales and thin sandstones of which Luther described 350 feet in Walnut creek, Chautauqua county. The formation includes layers of gray shale, without cleavage planes, not fissile but breaking into irregular lumps and usually stained brown on exposed edges. Other shales are black, fissile, and rust stained, with cleavage planes. Many beds are made up of alternating laminae of gray, sandy shale and sandstone. Ina cliff the exposed shale frequently takes on a pink or red tinge. The sandstones are in thin layers from a fraction of an inch to a foot in thickness. Concretions are numerous and in some beds of rather large size. The Gardeau shale forms cliffs along Cattaraugus creek from Versailles to Springville. A typical section may be seen in the cliff about three miles above Versailles. Some excellent sections are exposed at Gowanda and just above at the mouth of a small brook that joins the creek from the south. Another excellent section may be seen in the south branch of Cattaraugus creek about three miles south of Gowanda on the road to Otto. The ne F. Houghton, Photo. Fic, 32. Cliff of Gardeau shale, Cattaraugus creek between Gowanda and Versailles. 62 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY lower beds and their contact with the Dunkirk shale are shown in Big Indian creek. A small gully opening into Cazenovia creek from the west at Glenwood shows about two hundred feet -of Gardeau. ‘The upper beds are seen in the numerous gullies opening into the east branch of Cazenovia creek from the east, between Blakely and Holland, and in the gullies opening into Buffalo creek between Wales and Java. Johnson’s Falls just outside of Erie county, north of Strykersville, isin upper Gardeau and Iaona sandstone. ‘The fall, which is about 45 feet high, is capped by a layer of hard, compact, blue sandstone five feet thick, below which are gray shales showing cleavage planes, thin layers of black shale withcleavage planes, gray shale with nodules, and thin sandstone layers. In the face of the fall there are five of these sandstone ledges from a foot to three feet thick: The Gardeau shales are moderately fossiliferous. Some of the sandstone layers near the top contain sponges. Luther reported finding ‘the common Portage fossils in small numbers’’ at Johnson’s Falls, and further says that crinoids and aulopora also occur. He further reports that at Brocton cephalopods and large lamellibranchs occur in concretions. Laona Sandstone. In the Genesee valley the Gardeau formation is terminated by a thick mass of sandstone which is quarried under the name of “‘bluestone’’ at Portageville. It is a fine grained, compact, blue-gray sandstone lying in beds often fifteen feet thick which are separated by thin seams of shale. This has been designated the Nunda sandstone. In western New York this heavy bedded sandstone is absent and the top of the Portage is of consequence indefinite. A layer of sandstone twenty-two feet thick at Forestville is considered to be in the horizon of the bottom layers of this Nunda sandstone. This has been designated the Laona sandstone from its exposure at Laona, Chautauqua county. All the upper beds of the Gardeau exposed in Erie county show an ever increasing sandiness. The layers of sandstone grow more frequent and thicker as the upper beds are reached until they culminate in a series of beds from two to five feet thick scattered through a vertical distance of a hundred feet. Luther has ascribed some of these to the Laona sandstone. It is, BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 63 however, very difficult to make any distinction between a possible Gardeau sandstone and a possible Laona sandstone. The gullies opening into the east branch of Cazenovia creek, above South Wales and into Buffalo creek above Wales show excellent exposures of the sandstones which may possibly be referred to the Laona horizon. At Holland, east of the village, there is a long series of shales and sandstones of the Gardeau formation. [The shales are gray, non-fissile, breaking into irregular lumps without cleavage planes. Interbedded with these F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 33. Bluestone quarry at Portageville, in the Nunda sandstone. Note the great thickness of the beds. are beds of dense, black shales with cleavage planes. Sandstones occur in heavy beds forming cascades and these are separated by beds of shale. The exposure at South Wales, is similar. In both, the uppermost sandstone is succeeded by shale identical in all respects with those below the sandstones. ‘To all appearances these sandstones are identical with the thinner layers interbedded in the formation of lower down, and there seems little reason to consider them a distinct formation. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 84. Johnson’s Falls near Strykersville. The sandstone layers shown are probably in the horizon of the Laona sandstone. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 65 Wiscoy Shale. Lying above the Nunda sandstone in the Genesee Valley is a mass of shale named after the exposure in Wiscoy creek. This is limited definitely below by the heavy Nunda sand- stone. In Erie county the Laona sandstone is indefinite. Above its probable horizon and therefore in the horizon of the Wiscoy are shales similar in all ways to the Gardeau. So much do the shales and sandstones of these three formations merge that no lines of demarcation are to be distinguished. The shale lying above the possible Laona sandstone can be seen in the heads of the gullies east of Holland and above Johnson’s Falls north of Strykersville. The shales outcropping at the south eastern corner of the county in the headwaters of Cattaraugus creek must belong to this formation. ‘They can be seen at Yorkshire Center. Post-Portage History of Ene County. For Erie county the time following the close of Portage time was a period of slow upheaval. Whether our rocks were above the sea at the time of the deposition of the Chemung rocks can not be said. ‘They probably were above water during the Carboniferous in common with the formations to the southward. The mountain making which marked the end of the Paleozoic seems to have affected them but little, though their permanent emergence above the sea probably occured at that time. Of the life that must have flourished on this new born land we have no record. The time following the emergence of the land from the sea has been a time of destruction. The various agencies of sub- aerial erosion began their attack upon its newly emerged rocks. Waves beat upon its edges. Frost and rain rent asunder and dissolved the rocks. Streams began their appointed work of degrading the new land to the level of the sea. But of this erosion we have little record. Some of the valleys now occupied by our streams were undoubtedly eaten out by the rivers of that time. The topography of the county has changed materially since, yet its main features exist now as they existed then. ‘The valley of the Cattaraugus was eroded prior to the advance of the great ice sheet. ‘Tonawanda creek was also entrenched in its [5] 66 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY present valley before glacial time and Buffalo creek is the dwindled successor of a river which during Mesozoic time carved a wide valley through the soft Portage and Marcellus shales of Erie county. ‘The great lake at our doors probably did not exist at that time. If it were in its present location it was at least different in its aspect. Probably its present bed was the valley of a great river which received the waters of what is now the upper Allegheny river and carried them northwards to the valley where is now and perhaps then was the great Lake Ontario. On the south the hills, our hills, of Erie county reared their heads as now. ‘The ©‘ Ledge’’ looked then much as it does to-day. F. Houghton, Photo. FIG. 385. Valley of Cattaraugus creek below Springville. This was eroded before the Glacial Age, perhaps in Mesozoic time. Although the main features of the county remain as they were in the Mesozoic, they have been changed in detail. Ages of erosion have flattened the hills and widened and deepened the valleys. These hills and valleys were later buried from sight for countless ages under a great ice sheet and when they finally emerged from their icy prison they were everywhere mantled and clogged with the debris of glaciation. Our gorges and falls are the result of new valley-cutting by streams whose old valleys, widened and flattened through long eras of erosion, had been dammed and filled with drift. Even our great Lake Erie is but the dwindled successor to the greater bodies of icy water derived from the melting away of the ice sheet. The glacier which so changed the topography of our county was the southern extension of an immense continental ice sheet BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAI, SCIENCES 67 which, during the Pleistocene, formed in the region about Hudson Bay and spread thence radially over a vast tract from the Arctic ocean to northern Pennsylvania and from the Atlantic ocean to the Rocky mountains. ‘The appearance of the northern part of our continent at that time would have been identical with that of Greenland to-day. This is still covered with an ice sheet, the shrunken remainder of the great glacier which uncounted thousands of years ago covered our county from view. The causes of the formation of this enormous sheet of ice are unknown. ‘To form such a glacier it would be necessary so to change the climatic conditions of the northern part of North America that the snow-fall of winter could persist through the following summer. The cooling of an area of this size to a point necessary for snow to persist through twelve months has been ascribed to various causes. ‘The slow swing of the earth’s axis in the precession of the equinoxes, or the elevation of the entire area above the snow line would have been effective. The thickness and weight of the mass must have been enormous. In Erie county we have no measure of its maximum thickness. Gravel beaches at Springville were formed by a lake of water penned into the Cattaraugus valley by the ice of the retreating glacier. The lake marked by these beaches drained southward through a channel at Machias at an elevation - of 1646 feet. "The lowest point of the ice front therefore at this stage of its retreat must have been more than 1646 feet above the sea or approximately 1500 feet above the bottom of the depression now occupied by Lake Erie. Certain hills in Allegheny county show no signs of glaciation above the 2200 foot contour. This seems to mark the highest point of the ice sheet at its southern limit. There seems little doubt that the site of Buffalo was covered with ice to the depth of at least 1500 feet. The southward extension of the glacier was due, no doubt, not so much to the existence here of a climate colder than our present climate, as to the immense weight of the semi-plastic mass. ‘This spread outward from its center just as half-cold coal-tar will spread on .a pavement. ‘The enormous weight of the ice at the north pressed outward the lower lying layers and the whole mass thus spread imperceptibly but persistently. 68 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Effects of Glaciation. The action of the glacier upon the land which it overrode may be classified as follows: Erosion by ice. Deposition by ice. Erosion by streams fed by glacial waters. Deposition by these streams. Erosion by the waves of lakes held in by the glacier. Deposition in or by glacial lakes. Erosion by the Glacier. The tremendously heavy mass of ice dragging slowly over the surface of the land acted upon the land beneath exactly like a plane. Imbedded in its bottom were rocks, pebbles and sand which, as they were dragged along a land surface, scored, scratched and polished hard rocks and deeply eroded the softer shales. Where the motion was at right angles to slopes the ice tore away the northward fronting slope, but rode smoothly down the southward slope with little erosion. When the movement was parallel to the slopes, as in the valleys of north and south streams, the glacier may have widened and deepened them, by erosion at the bottom and sides. In Erie county the erosion by the ice is plainly shown on the surfaces of outcrops of Onondaga limestone.. Wherever flat exposures of this are exposed by streams or excavations the surfaces are found to be planed smooth or scored deeply with parallel striae, the work of the sand and gravel imbedded in the glacier. Transportation and Deposition by the Glacier. The detritus derived from the scouring action of the ice upon the surface underlying it was transported sometimes to long distances. Much of it was deposited as moraines along the ice front. Some was deposited under the ice as drumlins. It is this deposition of detritus that so materially changed the topography of the county. ‘The soil of all the county is primarily the result of this deposition and transported detritus has been left behind in such enormous quantities as to bury or iN Ps ----, pe 50 WORTH ~\ 17 RAINES AND GLACIAL LAKE BEACHES oF ERIE COUNTY LAHE WARREN BEACH === LAKE WHITTLESEY BEACH — + —+—7+— QELTAS RAINES Te LED W J ip cies “ey Cl Mi, a 5 HHUA IU" Silver Cr 2 Wy, Uy, tiie, yy ee : L MY YG q “yl y, Lili Wha “Up yMyy yer ¢ Uy Mile %, Yy yey Auevie Le YU, Ue, GY ig ' DUNKIRK, RAN SSS aa) Oe. hee he eile Navuete 8 i BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 69 partially obliberate even the most prominent of the features of the county. The morainal tracts of Erie county are two in number. The first is an eastward extension of a great terminal moraine which first enters New York at the Stateline near Ripley. ‘This lies parallel to Lake Erie and caps the prominent range of hills which is the divide between the lake and the Allegheny drainage. It enters Erie county at Gowanda and extends eastward up the Cattaraugus valley to the county line and beyond. In Erie county this morainal belt is widest in the town of Collins where it extends from Cattaraugus creek northward for a distance of perhaps two miles. The second morainal belt first appears in the town of Brant in scattered patches of drift, thence extends north easterly through East Hamburg, Elma, Marilla, and Alden, and on out of the county towards Batavia. Its greatest width is attained in the towns of Marilla and Alden where it extends from Wales to Alden village. At many points in the county are detached morainal deposits. A group in South Buffalo and Lackawanna at the city line and Abbott Road is typical of these, which were probably formed under the ice. Both the morainal belts mark pauses in the recession of the glacier. Both are characterized by an undulatory surface dotted with sharp knolls and hillocks, and by a soil made up of the heterogeneous debris of glacier erosion. Boulders are scattered over the surface in profusion and lie thickly imbedded in the finely powdered blue and yellow clay which makes up the bulk of the deposits. Erosion and Deposition by Glacial Streams. The front of the glacier was the source of strong streams which derived their waters from the melting glaciers. In the earlier stages of glacial advance these waters undoubtedly followed the ancient drainage channels carved out by the preglacial rivers. But as the ice advanced southward it buried and clogged these and the water was forced to find new channels. At the time of the farthest advance of the ice when its front stood at Olean, the waters were led away southwards down the 70 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY present Allegheny and Susquehanna rivers. Ata later stage of its retreat when its front lay along the present morainal zone at Gowanda, the water was still prevented by the ice from taking its ancient course to the westward and was forced southward over the divide at Machias and Dayton, where are to be seen the great channels which carried the glacial waters southward to the Allegheny. Subsequently when the ice had receded from its moraine at Gowanda and had paused once more at the point now marked by the Hamburg moraine the water had found a lower outlet than those at Machias and Dayton. The surface of Erie county slopes to the northward. ‘The glacier was retreating slowly down these slopes. As a consequence there came to be an ever widening notch between the ice front and the uncovered land surface. This gradually widened into a v-shaped trough closely following on the north side the ice front and the southern side the emerg- ing slopes of the land surface. ‘This trough naturally filled with water from the melting glacier and a lake was formed, and into this lake were emptied not only the Bin streams but the drainage of the emerging land. Fic. 36. Diagram showing how a lake was formed between the southward- facing glacier and the northward sloping land of Erie county. At this stage the entire southeastern half of the county had emerged from its ice covering. Its ancient stream channels were dammed at their lower ends by the ice and were conse- quently filled with water which extended far up their valleys. Each valley formed a separate little lake and each of these lakes drained into the next across the ancient divide at its lowest point. The lakes filling the valleys of Cazenovia creek and BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES Ps Eighteen Mile creek drained through a channel which debouched into a glacial front lake at Hamburg. The lakes filling Buffalo creek drained through streams that debouched into the same lake at East Aurora. . Several of these glacier front streams can still be traced in Erie county with reasonable accuracy. One of the best preserved is to be found southeast of Orchard Park. It heads in Cazenovia creek half a mile north of Quaker road, which it crosses in a southwesterly direction a mile west of the bridge at Jewettville. Thence it continues its course to Deuel’s corners. Just south- east of Deuel’s it is joined by a branch the bed of which is now occupied by the B. R. and P. Railway. South of Deuel’s it continues its southwesterly course but loses its definiteness. It probably was the stream which built the delta plain upon which Hamburg is sitnated. In its upper course, that is from Cazenovia creek to Deuel’s, it is a well marked stream valley, now occupied by a tiny rivulet. South of Deuel’s it loses one of its banks though the other side is well marked. The reason for this one sided valley seems to be that the stream at this point washed the edge of the glacier which served as one side of the stream. Other glacier-front stream valleys may be seen in the moraine northeast of East Aurora and north of Wales. These seem to have flowed westward into the large glacial Lake Warren. Glacial Lakes. When the glacier had receded north of the divide between the Allegheny drainage and the present Lake Erie drainage a lake was formed in the trough between the ice and the divide. This lake overflowed at the lowest point in the rim of the trough. This lowest point varied at different stages of the recession of the glacier, as successively lower points were uncovered. The earliest of these lakes in this county seems to have been that in the upper reaches of the Cattaraugus creek which were uncovered before the lower portion of its valley. This lake overflowed at Machias at an altitude of 1646 feet and its outlet occupied the valley now occupied by Ischua creek. Its channel is strongly marked by huge sand and gravel beds. It drained into the AZ GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY upper Allegheny. A deep sand and gravel pit seems to mark a beach or bar of this lake just south of Springville at the top of a hill. It is formed of medium sized materials with well marked stratification. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 87. Beach south of Springville, probably formed by a lake which occupied the upper valley of Cattaraugus creek. As the ice receded, a lower pass than that at Machias was uncovered at the head of the valley of the south branch of Cattaraugus creek. The consequent stream flowed southward over the divide at Persia at an altitude of 1300 feet and emptied into the Allegheny. There finally came a time when the lowest edge of the trough which still existed between the northward sloping land and the southward facing glacier fell below the level of 1300 feet. Thereupon the waters which had been escaping over the divide at this level immediately overflowed at the lower levels which BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 73 were successively exposed. These levels were lower than the divide between the Allegheny and Lake Erie and the waters were thus cut off from the Allegheny drainage and drained southwest- ward between the icefront and the divide. The successive lowering of the outlet was gradual with numerous stands which have been marked especially in the valley of the Cattaraugus by numerous wave formed plains, deltas and waterlevels. At Gowanda the series is as follows: (Fairchild) Highest, southeast of Gowanda, 1210 feet. Studley, south of Gowanda, 1032 feet: Broadway, south of Gowanda, 972 feet. Asylum level, north of Gowanda, 883 feet. Collins plain, north of Gowanda, 855 feet. The Four Mile level, west of Gowanda, 820 feet. 17/CHIGAN FENNS YLUVAN/A Fic. 38. The approximate extent of Lake Whittlesey, and its outlet to the westward. The shores of Lake Whittlesey are indicated by heavy lines, those of our present lakes by faint, dotted lines. The lakes which formed these levels seem to have drained westward across northern Ohio and southern Michigan, thence southward to the Mississippi. Of these the last, in which was laid down the delta now known as the Four Mile level, has received the name of Lake Whittlesey. This can be traced by means of its beaches from the Pennsylvania line to Marilla. 74 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY Lake Whittlesey, judging from the beaches still existent, covered that portion of Erie county northwest of an irregular line connecting Versailles on Cattaraugus creek with Marilla. Westward, the lake stretched as a long band across northern ’ Ohio, its southern beach closely parallel to the southern beach of the present Lake Erie. South of Sandusky it spread westward to the Ohio line, thence northward to the neighborhood of Port Huron where it drained through a channel northwestwardly into a lake which drained into the Mississippi. Its beach enters Erie county at Gowanda where it is a succession of deep gravel and sand beds. The top of one of these has been opened as a sand pit just above Gowanda at the edge of the road leading to Collins station. Another is open at the edge of the Erie Railway just at the northern edge of the village. It lies parallel to the Taylor Hollow road nearly to that point but curves eastward nearly to Collins station. From Gowanda to Taylor’s Hollow it is a strongly marked ridge below which lies a flat delta plain, the Four Mile level. ‘This level is a delta thrown into the lake at this point by the waters of Cattaraugus creek. It extends from Gowanda to Versailles. It is at all points a dead level stretch of sand and fine gravel. At Versailles its outward end shows a steep sand escarpment. From Collins station the beach curves back to Taylor Hollow thence it follows the state road through Lawton and North Collins to Eden. It crosses the road twice in a sinuous curve at the north branch of Clear creek and again a mile north. At these points it is a strong sand ridge. From Clear creek nearly to North Collins it lies just east of the State road, which it crosses in a loop just before reaching the village. North of the Council House on the Indian Reservation at Lawton is an island of this lake. At each end isa spit, the southern of which is a strong sand ridge on which stands the Council House. From North Collins to Eden the beach lies east of the state road but beyond Eden it curves away to the east and crosses the south branch of Eighteen Mile creek at the end of the State Road just north of Toad Hollow. ‘Thence it curves away in a general northeast direction and crosses the north branch of Eighteen Mile creek approximately at the line between Boston and Hamburg. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 39. Section of beach or bar, probably of Lake Whittlesey, north side of Cattaraugus creek at Gowanda. j F, Houghton, Photo. Fic. 40. Beach of Lake Whittlesey at Taylor’s Hollow. F. Houghton, Photo. Fic. 41. Western edge of the Four Mile level, at Iroquois. This is the outward end of a delta formed in Lake Whittlesey by Cattaraugus creek. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES Til Just east of the junction of the two State roads south of Water Valley is an island with a strongly marked wave cut cliff on its northern face and a spit on its southeastern side. The beach is to be seen east of the road from Armor to North Boston but grows indistinct in its northeastern course towards Orchard Park. Just south of Deuel’s Corners is an island. In the southern edge of Orchard Park at the railway bridge is a strong beach which is probably this beach, and the ridge on which is the cemetery is undoubtedly this beach. From Orchard Park northeastward to Marilla the beach is indistinct. It is probably represented by the ridge which carries the State Road at the corner of the Jamison Road, southeast of Springbrook, and the gravel beds at the top of the hill on the west side of Buffalo creek at East Elma probably belong to this beach. Lake Warren. Ata level of 40 to 70 feet below the beach of Lake Whit- tlesey a series of beaches and bars marks the level of an extensive glacier front lake which has been designated Lake Warren. This lake was formed by the lowering of the waters of Lake Whittlesey when the receding glacier uncovered an outlet lower than that at Port Huron. The lake covered a strip of Erie county northwest of a line drawn from Versailles to Alden and limited northwardly by the ice front. Westward the lake extended across northern Ohio to a point on the Maumee river west of Toledo, thence north to Bad Axe in the northern end of the southern peninsula of Michigan and thence encircled Saginaw Bay. Its outlet followed the present course of Grand River to Lake Michigan. Eastwardly the lake lay ina narrow strip in the trough along the ice front as far as the present city of Auburn, with long narrow bays extending up the north and south valleys of the Genesee river and the Finger Lakes. The shore line character varies at different points. From Versailles to Eden there seems to be but one beach, although immediately west of Cattaraugus creek there are two strongly marked beaches. It passes from Brant Center to Pontiac appearing at Brant on the farm of George Baron as a strong sand ridge. 78 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY It appears just west of North Collins and carries the State road from that village to Eden Valley and Hamburg. At Hamburg it is complicated by delta formations. One strong beach or bar extends westward toward Wanakah from about where the State Road crosses the Erie railway. ‘The main beach passes northeast from Hamburg to Orchard Park, bearing a road as far as Armor. North of Armor it is a well marked ridge as far as Orchard Park. Just north of Orchard Park it crosses the State Road twice, once just on the edge of the village, again at Webster's where it curves into a great fish hook bar. 3 — ~ — : = q S-SAG= ' ao SAS te (NAW, \ ‘ i ee = 2S % S Pero ee - LAKE ONTARIO} v4 v 0 URON yy os A = x \ Se SS ~ =< : saat g J 5 A (7; ———— Wy = ee == i ¥ I /7/CHIGAN ie ee 7S to 2 EGS E y g oom Z LAKE: WAKAEN NEW YORK le oe e Se ye | oo ENN SY LV AN INDIANA | Ny | PENNS YLVAIVIA OH/O | Fic. 42. The approximate extent of Lake Warren and its outlet to the west. The shores of Lake Warren are indicated by heavy lines, thos2 cf our present lakes by faint dotted lines. An excellent section of this beach is seen in a gravel pit just east of Webster’s. ‘Thence it continues its northeasterly course as a ridge to Springbrook where it crosses Cazenovia creek a mile south of the churches. ‘Thence it continues to Elma Center where it crosses the railway just beyond the station. At Alden two beaches appear. One of these continues to Indian Falls in Genesee county. : Lake Warren persisted until the glacier had so far receded as to uncover the low lying divide at the headwaters of the Mohawk river. Once these had emerged the waters of Lake Warren abandoned their higher outlet to the westward and drained off down the Mohawk. There seem to have been successive stages in the lowering of the lake and successive stands in its level. None of these were of sufficient duration to form great beaches such as characterized their predecessors. Of these stages, one, the most strongly marked, has been named Lake Dana. a Photo. Houghton, F. t ha 1 Corners. s Webster’ Section of beach of Lake Warren been opened as a gravel p Fic, 43. nt ila, * 26 2 F. Houghton, Photo, Fic. 44. Beach of Lake Warren, south of ¢pringbrook. F, Houghton, Photo. Fic. 45. Section of beach of Lake Warren, south of Springbrook. The excavation is a gravel pit. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 81 {fn Erie county Lake Dana is marked by rather faint gravel and sand beaches following the 620 foot contour. ‘Thestrongest encireles the ridge of till which bears the Ridge Road in Lacka- wanna. ‘This ridge would have appeared as an island in the lake. Gravel pits have been opened along this ridge to the depth of fifteen feet. North of the ridge are two small till ridges which show wave cut terraces. The till ridge north of Ebenezer bears a gravel pit on its north side which is on this contour and, at the same level, sand beaches are to be seen on Utica street, Buffalo, and neighboring streets, and at Pine Hill just east of Buffalo. Lake Dana was drained eastward through the Mohawk valley. It was lowered by successive stages when lower and lower channels were uncovered over the Mohawk divide. The country now included in the northwest corner of Erie county remained under the water of Lake Dana until the level of its outlet fell below the level of the top of the Niagara escarpment, the Mountain ridge. Its Successor below the Mountain ridge was Lake Iroquois which formed the beach that is now the Ridge Road running from Lewiston eastward across Niagara county. With the gradual passing away of the great glacier from Erie county its present topography began to appear. Some of its ancient stream valleys had been filled and obliterated by deposits of drift. Some had been transformed into long, narrow lakes. The wide, sloping hills, the result of ages of erosion, had been covered deeply with glacial debris. Great lakes and glacial streams had left their beaches and bars high up in the hills. Glacial streams had eroded valleys and had built the debris into deltas in the lakes, and these were left after the recession of the waters as long, sandy, flat-topped plains. Stretching across the county were the great moraines left at the ice front and over all was a sheet of glacial till. Since the recession of the ice sheet the agencies of sub-aerial erosion have been at work shaping the topography of the county. The melting away of the ice was followed by a gradual uplift of the land surface at the north and this uplift is still going on. ‘The elevation of the land since glacial times can be easily measured by the differences of level in the beaches of the glacial lakes. ‘These beaches, naturally, were laid down originally at the water level of these lakes. Measured by this level, the land [6] 82 GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY of western New York has lifted upward to the north 122 feet from the Pennsylvania state line to Marilla, or measured in Erie county the uplift has been 55 feet between North Collins and Marilla, so that Marilla which was originally at the same level as North Collins has been elevated 55 feet above it. ‘The rate of uplift is not the same everywhere but it increases toward the north. From the state line to North Collins it rises 67 feet in 48 miles or at the rate of 1.4 feet per mile. But from North Collins to Marilla it rises 55 feet in 26 miles or at the rate of 2.1 feet per mile. Outside our county this increase continues until at the east end of Lake Ontario it rises at the rate of 6 feet per mile. Southward and westward the tilting decreases until there is little or no deformation to be detected in northern Ohio on the Whittlesey beach. (Leverett, 755.) There can be little doubt that this tilting of the land to the north and the masking of old drainage channels by glacial debris have contributed materially to the change of direction of flow of our streams. Before the glacial period the upper tributaries of the Allegheny seem to have flowed northward joining finally the waters of Cattaraugus creek and continuing westward into the depression now occupied by Lake Erie. ‘The tributaries of the middle Allegheny also seem to have flowed north into the same depression. ‘The glacier dammed these drainage channels and caused the Allegheny waters to seek a pathway southward. Aided by the enormous amount of glacial water derived from the melting of the ice, they found a course by reversing the flow in the upper Allegheny. This led them to the lower Allegheny and to the Mississippi. Cattaraugus creek, deprived of its main southern tributaries by the reversal of the drainage south of the glacier, abandoned that portion of its valley lying between Zoar and Gowanda and since the glacial time has cut a new channel. From Gowanda to the lake it occupies its ancient channel but it has swung sufficiently in it to make rock walls at several points. Eighteen Mile creek, which, before the glacier, had drained westward separately through the channels of its two present branches into the Lake Erie depression has been forced to cut a new channel, instead of excavating the drift-filled channels of its lower valley. The new channel of the west branch, little wider as yet than the stream bed, begins below Clarksburg BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 83 and is cut through Portage shales to a point four miles west of Hamburg where it joins the new, narrow channel of the east branch which begins above Hamburg. Buffalo creek and Cazenovia creek seem to have continued their course practically in their ancient valleys. These had been dammed by the glacier and long finger lakes had formed in the upper courses. ‘These had drained in various ways but after the melting away of the glacier the streams resumed their old courses. The great lakes which characterized the topography of Erie county during the recession of the ice sheet disappeared when the tremendous supply of water derived from the melting ice ceased. Our present Lake Erie is their shallow successor. It occupies an ancient preglacial depression. It is held as a lake only by the ledges of Onondaga limestone and Niagara limestone which form the lowest point in its rim. ‘This lake may persist until the Niagara river has worn back its canon to a point where the Onondaga limestone dips beneath the lake bottom. At the present rate of tilting at the north this may never happen. The future of Lake Erie depends upon the relation in time between the rate of erosion of Niagara river and the rising of the Onondaga limestone across it by this uplifting process. This is further complicated by the result of this tilting upon the upper Great Lakes. These supply the water which is the main erosive agent of Niagara river. A continued tilting of the northern ends of the upper lakes must result in the abandonment of the Detroit river as an outlet and the resumption of the glacial channel across the low lying divide at Chicago. The abandon- ment of Detroit river will cut off the main water supply of Lake Erie and so reduce the erosive force of its outlet as to lengthen its life indefinitely. The Fossil Content of the Rock Formations of Erie County. Although the fossils of a few of the formations of Erie county have been subjected to detailed study by several observers many have received practically no attention from palaeontologists and there is a great opportunity for special students along this line. 84+ GEOLOGY OF ERIE COUNTY In general the formations of Erie county are rich in fossil content. ‘The limestones at the base of the section show a varied and peculiar fauna. ‘The Hamilton beds are extremely fossilifer- ous and these are favorably exposed at numerous places in the county. The Genundewa limestone is the repository of an immense number of fish remains and although the Portage beds of the county are less fossiliferous than the earlier beds, even they contain a fairly abundant assemblage of fossils. Owing to the presence in the Cobleskill limestone of the abundant Eurypterid fauna, this formation has been given much detailed study by numerous observers. ‘The Stafford limestone has been minutely examined and its fossils described by Elvira Wood. Amadeus Grabau published as a bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences a careful study of the fossils of the Hamilton beds. The Genesee beds have been searched for fish remains by W. LL. Bryant and the resulting description will doubtless soon be published. ‘The remaining formations have received no such special study. The Onondaga limestone is extremely fossiliferous but owing perhaps to the difficulty of freeing its fossils from their matrix there seems to have been no study made of those occuring in the county. Although Dr. Grabau examined and described the upper beds of the Cardiff shale, the remainder together with the Skaneateles remains practically untouched. ‘The fauna of the Portage beds of Erie county is practically unknown. D. Dana Luther described these beds but only incidently mentioned their fossils. Dr. Clarke in his ‘‘ Naples Fauna’’ describes fossils from Erie county but localizes them so indefinitely that it is impossible to place them accurately in their formations. In the tables below I have endeavored to collect the names of all the fossils recorded as occuring in Erie county together with the formations in which they were observed. It is based upon the work of the following observers: Cobleskill limestone, D. Dana Luther, Geology of Buffalo Quadrangle; Stafford and Marcellus shales, Elvira Wood, Marcellus limestones of Lancaster; Cardiff shale to Genundewa limestone, Grabau, Palaeontology of Eighteen Mile creek; Portage beds, J. M. 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ee ale ete Wicfeowen senior tes cia tqiak ad Ite Fry i nasa beige Mn fg bina Kot aps cas . 2 y| ARR AIR ae ati A ae rd mye LE IIT! es CicvS tree anin Roper tktiveAlolua nam HipaMur ZN nly Nl ak asec eerily Mh InpR ome ena IN RS eRi yr lv Rem Si wheal AC TIA CTA re nk Aa = Hh PRESTO sty ee pect ia dy iu ie ne Pee bn) beige Tika MsUsiach ih nea a eige bua cies plies tle sient wine ay Piao inet ‘ i ‘Se Vins SSE Stove MON ae PRCA Ne i aepnshmr Bs iyelt ts itachi 2. dani, ON de oe iii hee ered pralles seamed Sahucuryy wp inert Heal: solrit yh deh ne Wg ah 7 de | ‘ ta it io ery py Camillus Bertie Onondaga Marcelles Statford Cardiff Skaneatel Ludlowsllt | Tichenor Moscow Tully Conodont Genesee Styllola Middleset Cashaqua Rhineatrett Angola Hanover | Dunkirk Gardeall BRACHIOPODA: Lingula leana H. Lingula delia H. L. spatulata Vanuxem Orbiculoidea media H. O. doria H. O. lodiensis Van. Schizobolus truncatus H. S. concentricus Crania crenistriata H. C. recta Craniella hamiltonlae H. Pholidops hamiltoniae H. P. linguloides H. P. oblata H. Rhipidomella Vanuxem! H. R. leucosia H R. penelope H. R. idonea H. R. eyclas H. Orthothetes arctostriatus H. O. interstriatus O. perversus H. Stropheodonta demissa Con. S. concava H. S. perplana Conrad . inequistriata Conrad . nacrea H. . junia HA. - plicata H. Chonetes mucronatus H. C. vicinus Castelnau C. setigerus H. C. scitulus H. GC. lepidus H. C. coronatus Conrad Productella navicella H. P. spinulicosta H. Strophalosia truncata H. Spirifer mucronatus Con. S. tulllus H S. sculptilis H. S. consobrinus D’Orbigny S. granulosus Conrad S. audaculus Conrad 8S. erlensis S. angustus H. S. macronatus H. S. asper H. S. fimbriatus Conrad S. subumbonus H. Ambocoelia umbonata Conrad A. nana Grabau A. praeumbona H. A. spinosa Clarke Cyrtina hamiltoniensis H. Parazyga hirsuta H. Trematospira gibbosa Nucleospira concinna H. Athyris spirlferoides Meristella haskinst H. M. rostrata H. M. barrisi H. Atrypa reticularis Linnaeus A. spinosa H. Vitulina pustulosa H. Camarotoechia horsfordi H. C. pauciplicata Camarotoechia sappho H. C. prolifica C. dotis H. C. congregata Conrad Leiorhynchus multicostus H. L. quadricostatum Van. L. limitare Van. L. dubium Hall Centronella impressa H. Trigeria lepida H. Cryptonella planirostris H. Cryptonella rectirostris H. Dielasma romingeri H Tropidoleptus carinatus Con. Meristella meta Hall M. barrisi H. Whitfieldella suleata W. nucleolata W. cf. laevis Rhynconella (species) ALRN a Paras ++ rarer Glata in taiietaie ee ee ee ee ee ee a at + SS a+ + + SSeS eee ee Rhee + +a + pears +o te a are + ae te RRR es ae a: + ob te oh = AR Sa ot ; ne ee ee aa = + — — ee =| = ene ee I eee ee — pn ——$————<————— | esti an a ____ acne Wiscoy 1 Alp oye) apr eeen railed Riul age 5 cea cea re vey eee ete arte eee ee eee Te tap Sree MA AH epee artepen by 2 ni Net ety meena Adah aie Lilia a aa haps ae sao HGR raabaN® Sa eVCEN RSE RSE tht Ne MN RTOT I Oe NEN es AIAN EON na AMARC RRR AL PRO RG LAE whe ~ Ser et ee ree eee, wor weber wer bal vn uw alse sl nde Lash natasha we eerie pes ee et ee ee ee ee oe ee eee ek egal. ating | ed ad 7 - rq “4 rae) P . ¢ . . y “ ’ * due a dk. dp +f 6d Mie Sire har 7 rings paving Be fe te Lap }~ i ng aby ete aa ab fos ods 4 ~e Wig ote 4 + em ae z sadbe RE eo + por te pth te Genes ORT wie See See et een See eet teeter Tt eter ewera ot ae) : 1 : 4 . “ ofa om 2 : ode il. uf ~}- ba wt Lis ihe , . Ce een tet eee Se aah vcr Pe Ln tre 6) ry men pe at ey eliyoa pate ANS ks Conmibinny ye 8 ite romani » = Geter Armco I) cetacean? WO ies Me eT ore ME A eee her, ok re Te 1 | i. | - { » i rch Pa NS yO lei Me ew Pam Cane. BO RIMAGE wk TVET OTT RAIL TA eras ONT Cee aaa oe ee De ce for ps ; . iV ie a ; i ; rl i x, i ' + Ve o f f q : eit MW) i y : ¥ - i i hy ( } Sane “ et hee fai Piece Pia aah fraps TNL tig. eae SI MR 0. Rea la Gaiteeene WAL CERSUA atic wre Wht espe an Sgr eat el ~ Eee a ayer aah apy PUD aN ain a = ‘ el pith aheemibenblatRama Bene teesbbanlp end eee Bog me PSTN Res eis citar Acpienitins A Me be teralSnrtohiat Ren hn map 2 Camillus Bertie Cobleskill Onondaga Stafford Cardiff | Skaneatela Ludlowville Tichenor Genesee Conodont Styliola_| Middlesex Cashaqua_ Rhinestreet Dunkirk Gardeau. Laona Wiscoy, PELECYPODA: Aviculopecten princeps Con. A, exacutus H A. insignis H. Lyriopecten orbiculatus H. Pterinopecten conspectus H. P. exfoliatus P. hermes H. Pterinea flobella Conrad | Actinopteria decussata H. A muricata A. boydi H. Lelopteria rafinesquil H. L. conradi H. Plethomytilus oviformis Con. Gosselettia retusa H. Modiomorpha concentrica Con. M. sub-alata Conrad M. alata Conrad Goniophora modiomorphoides Cypricardella bellistriata Con. lea Nucula corbullformis H. | Nuculites oblongatus Con. | N. nyssa H. N. triqueter Con. Schizodus appressus Con. Palaeoneilo constricta Con. P. tenulstriata H. P. fecunda H. P. muta H. P. emarginata Con. Macrodon hamiltoniae H. Grammysia arcuata Con. Sphenotus truncatus Con. | Conocardium normale H. | C. eboraceum H. | C. erassifrons Con, Lunulicardium ornatum H. L. ecurtum H. Paracyclus lirata Con. | Tellinopsis sub-emarginata Con. | Pholadella radiata Con. Orthonota (?) parvula H. Cardiola retrostriata yon Buch Cypricardinia indenta Elymella nuculoides H. Modiella pygmaea Con. | Panenka Iinklaent P. mollis Hi Productella dumosa H. eal Lunulicardium Itbum | . accola . erlense | . fureatum » pilosum . bickense eal L. beushausent | L. suppar L. sp. nov. | Pterochaenla fragilis H. | P. elmensis Posidonia attica P. mesacostalis P. venusta Miinster Kochia ungula Loxopteria dispar Sandberger laa L. laeris Frech L. vasta L. corrugata Ontaria concentrica Ontarla pontiaca Euthedesma subtextile Hall | Elasmatium gowandense | Buchiola scabrosa B. conversa | B. angolensis | B. lupina B. priimlensis steininger Praecardium yetustum Hall | P. melletes P. duplicatum P. multicostatum Conocardium gowandense Palaeonello petila P. brevicula P. linguata tb he ls lelsicle'| ES | Leptodesma marcellense H. —— + : Ais A ep DAtra tap As Ped pan seri dn oe ae ; i he el me iy etait, Lae = Tier! ee ee pa viors Dende ioatn ae es tone re heat Mave ae * me, ia Nee, Yearly litnn tatnbe SC ba, asc aimilaten sR Eee PR ¥ FR SAS ee Oseey ha) Ss eva eke esi ndeey Pa ee epee wf mI Ath VR Eo Rts EE pain hier ae RN REE He Ue naomi aAS He rae sRsenmR cates te “ SWART Fell (PY Seah On po eCes % EXP A eager Se ha os WN Sey orl Se, oY AGL REL O RON OREO EW LW SD PEC Ree T/T maa 0 Ns ert packs - id we od. f ‘ - ~ ~~ rien ee Bane iyi th me faba See cosl " . wren! a f K ‘ ON ee cee th sr SNe elt ea de 3 BE ENOL Sore RY aN . art in hte ee ANE 4 tt Batts TTD (AMON SUCRE ES We RR NEE tH? 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Ld AYN B1OpedseB.D ‘— ‘H B1eUIO s|dsvydsD ‘H snevulmies sapjuoyjoryd ‘H SNOBVULSIVUITAING “gq U9dIH JMOL “¢F ‘HT snleydoo010vu sne101g Jq200q (snovqds19) soqUuBM[VG useIy) BUBI SdODByg use [ABYop snyouo[(wuMoy SHV LIAO TUL Yo Sseploujwnssl BViparwed OQ BINUAOIIG BILOO| (ON Baya Buyq[oqousy/) IOW[N BYBVULSIBU BUTMWOVV SLIB[BO8 TT ‘HL BoTUOSpNy BQ; paedeT SOUOL BIVQVBI (¢) BUI[JYIOST QoOM[Q BUL[Oo. «q SIUOL SISUIJUOJTLMIVY BlqQojrsoq souor Ssplezuel[d “Ss SoUOL, ST[VPlOUISIS BINde4S souOr BEplOquIOyA syuoOjzUy "HL Baoyy[Njyound sysdoqrmypid s9UOL WN[NUWIES VALI >VOOV LSND paddies apart mh rata opens Santi pl greta " a cela ee eee Oe et en Dee eo Senet ae ee a eet te = een ee nS - > - rN 7 i 4 2 1 a i 4 My OE IR ED GIT YAIRI LA MOP RT ALE NEED SI Bg TTI PITA TE ETN APT | : ‘ : ipa teeas ae 2 2 SED MER RN mE re IOC ITB UN RTE AEE 6 WERE ETAT ADT Mea eyer tannery | Rm aon es i = a4 ele eds of | = fe wae w 5 —_ vf tole code ake hw idig ey ele: pe RRA OS I ee MAL CS NIEMAN REE Mik ES ate Ol tyne Bang aia ei cre ennemarrseadaciainlsayreetaet.cavunbaniononenici =% } ete heehee art et es ree: Ca Ee ee eee ee ee la isiaatelemmins hana SPR Td INR I A STE IIL ALD ENN TPE PRT ACTON LI FINE PS LENE YS RIMINI, He onde yi ‘ 3 m ad ot eevee reer 1 eg Ee mathe ARR RL ORE EG ENN OE RRR BORNE AMET NS DO SN OS RTT OARS ’ i En Tend BL wi Description of Some New Siluric Gastropods. BY MARJORIE O'CONNELL, A. M. About a year and a half ago while examining the entire collection of fossils from the Bertie Waterlime exhibited in the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, my attention was called by Professor A. W. Grabau to.a number of specimens which appeared to belong to the gastropod genus Hercynella. With the view of making a more careful determination of these specimens I have, through the kindness of Mr. Henry R. Howland, Superintendent of the Buffalo Society, had the specimens sent to me for closer study and comparison with some of the type material of the Bohemian forms of Hercynella presented to the Palzeontological Museum of Columbia University by Professor J. Perner of Prague. Since Hercynella is practically unknown from this country, a general description of the genus and its distribution will be given before considering the new species.. The generic name Hercynella was proposed by Emanuel Kayser in 1878 for certain pulmonate gastropods, ranging from Middle Siluric (EK 2) through Middle Devonic (G 3) in age. Barrande had discovered this fauna in Bohemia, and, identifying his forms with the living genus Pilidium Forbes, created the genus Pilidion, of which he recognized two species P. bohemicum, a high cone and P. nodile, a flat one. Barrande used this name Pilidion in his manuscript as early as 1865 and it appeared in print in 1868 in the 7hesaurus Siluricus of Bigsby to which author Barrande had himself communicated the name. Furthermore, the name Pilidion appeared in Barrande’s own handwriting on the labels sent with duplicate material to various museums, so that the authenticity of the name cannot be denied. ‘That it has been replaced in the literature by the name Hercynella which was proposed some thirteen years later for the same species, is due to the fact that Kayser considered that Barrande had been mistaken in identify- ing the Bohemian gastropods, which are asymmetric, with the recent Pilidium which is symmetric. Perner who has continued 94 NEW SILURIC GASTROPODS Barrande’s work in Bohemia and has decribed the specimens subsequently found, accepts the new name proposed by Kayser, not, however, for any of the reasons given by the latter author, but on philological grounds, for if the name Pilidion were latinized it would become the homonym of Pilidium Forbes. For this reason only does Perner replace Pi/idion Barrande by Hercynella Kayser. Since the species dohemica was the type for Barrande’s genus, it remains the type of Hercynella. So far as known, the geologic range of Hercynella is small. Furthermore, it has been recorded from only three localities ; the first is Bohemia, from which fifteen species have been described, some by Barrande, the rest by Perner; the second is Harz mountains, where Kayser found two species; and the third is in America in the Monroe formation of Michigan from which Grabau described one species. Hercynella canadensis Grabau is represented by a single incomplete specimen, but much interest attaches to it, since it is the only member of the genus which has heretofore been described from this country, and the very fact of its occurrence has probably been noted by few. It is, then, of considerable interest to find in a still earlier horizon in this country several specimens of this rare genus Hercynella, making a new locality and horizon in America and the fourth locality in the world. The typical Hercynella is a patelliform, non-spiral gastropod, having the apex of the shell asymmetrically situated, and varying in form from a low cone to a flat inverted basin with very gently sloping sides. The characteristic of especial importance is a radial depression passing from the sub-central apex to the border, and bounded upon one side by a pronounced angulation in some cases, but in others merging imperceptibly into the general curvature of the shell. In most descriptions the angulation is the feature which is emphasized, whereas in reality it is the depression or sinus which is marked, since the shell growth in the majority of cases follows a definite curvature and then makes a sudden drop, forming the sinus, beyond which the shell continues at a lower curvature. For this reason it seems advisable to lay stress upon the sinus, not the ridge, since the latter is related to a true fold or ridge in the same way that a monoclinal flexure is related to an anticline. It would be only in the case of a ridge rising above the general curvature of the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 95 shell and not bounded on either side by a sinus, as in H. rigescens from the middle Devonic G, of Bohemia or in the case of two radial depressions with fold between, of which however, there is no known instance, that we could truly speak of a radial fold or crest. In none of the material from Bohemia which I have examined, and in only a few of the illustrations of Hercynella have I seen a true ridge, but in most cases there was only a monoclinal flexure, such as is well illustrated in H. radians Barr. sp. from F, of Bohemia (fig. 2). In the most high coned forms the sinus is, as arule the deepest, while in those which have a lower cone, approaching a very flat patelloid condition, the 1 2 Fic. 1. Outline of Hercynella regescens Barr. sp. from G, of Bohemia, x 4/5. Fic. 2. Outline of Hercynella radians Barr. sp. from F, of Bohemia, showing the young stages as indicated by the growth lines, x 4/5. sinus is shallower and may, indeed, be hardly noticeable. With the variation in depth of the sinus there is an accompany- ing variation in the marginal outline of the shell, forms with a pronounced sinus having a sharp re-entrant, while flatter ones show a shallow re-entrant approaching an entirely convex curvature for the whole periphery. ‘The surface of the shell bears concentric lines of growth and frequently ribs, which in some cases are quite pronounced. Some species also show radial striz. 96 NEW SILURIC GASTROPODS The specimens from the Bertie Waterlime clearly represent two species, and it is singular to note that, just as Barrande in describing the first Hercynellas from Bohemia, found a high coned form which he called Pilidion bohemicum and alow coned one which he called P. zodile, and just as Kayser describing the fauna from the Harz found a high spired Hercynella correspond- ing to the former, which he called 7. hauchecorni and a low spired one corresponding to the latter, which he called 1. deyrichi, so in the Bertie fauna there is one species with a high apex and one which is very flat. The Bertie material is very unsatisfactory, for while the form of the shell is well preserved, the details of surface markings are indistinct and a precise description is therefore impossible. The shell was apparently very thin and may have been only slightly impregnated with lime or even entirely corneous, for which reason it is to be expected that the shell would be more or less macerated. Some portions would remain in place, but others would stick to the mud in which the shell was buried, and, fossilized, would appear now in the mold. ‘Thus little patches of Shell are visible on both mold and relief, and since the shell is so thin that it leaves little more than a black film of organic matter on the rock, the difficulties in making observations on growth lines, strie and so forth are obvious. There is no way of orienting the shell, since the internal features are not visible, and since in the better preserved material of Bohemia it has been observed that the position of the sinus is variable. We may, therefore, for convenience sake speak of the right and left, and posterior and anterior portions of the shell with reference to a line of symmetry drawn through the sinus, which is placed anteriorly and the figures throughout the paper will be oriented in this way and referred to accordingly. Hercynella buffaloensis sp. nov. Description :—Shell patelliform, sub-circular, non-spiral. The beak is destroyed, but its position would be asymmetric, the shell showing an abrupt drop on the right side (see pl. I fig. 1) and a gentle slope on the left. Growth lines are clearly visible on most of the shell, being particularly strong at the margin. The growth lines show strong incurving with the formation of a peripheral sinus. A few fine striz are faintly indicated to the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAI, SCIENCES 97 left of this sinus. Length of shell: 25 mm.; width: 26 mm.; height from beak to base: 5 mm. in specimen (restored height about 7 mm.) This is the high coned form corresponding to Barrande’s Flercynella bohemica, though differing from it considerably. It is much smaller than the majority of the Bohemian species, but it conforms to the law observed among them, that, in the same horizon the high coned forms have a more pronounced sinus than the low coned ones, and this will be seen to be the case from a comparison of the figures of WH. duffaloensis and H. patellifor mis. The asymmetry of the shell is more pronounced than in fH. patelliformis, the apex being situated about 4 mm. to the right of a median line. This excentric position of the apex has not, however, caused any elongation of the shell, for this has an almost perfectly circular outline of base. ‘The relative positions of the apex and sinus are very different in the two species: in H. buffaloensts the sinus is not on the line passing through the greatest and least slope, but is ninety degrees removed at the shell margin, while in //. fatelliformis the sinus coincides with the axis of greatest elongation. To the left of the radial sinus are a few striz so faint that they are barely discernible under a high power lens, but of their presence there can be no doubt, for while continuous lines from beak to base cannot be traced, the points of intersection of the strize with the lines of growth can be seen, giving the same type of ornamentation figured by Barrande for Hercynella nobilis Barr., though not so well defined. FHlortzon and Locality :—In the Bertie Waterlime of North Buffalo. Six specimens. Types in the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. Hercynella patelliformis sp. nov. Description :—Shell patelliform, elliptical, non-spiral. The beak is destroyed, but its position as shown by the curvature is asymmetric. Lines of growth show on peripheral portions of the shell. In places there are faint concentric undulations, but they cannot be traced completely around the shell. There are no radiating striz. There is no sharp sinus or elevated fold or ridge, but the growth lines bend in on the posterior margin indicating the presence of a slight sinus. Length of shell: 61.7 mm.; width: 49.1 mm.; height from beak to base: 11.9 mm. 98 NEW SILURIC GASTROPODS There are but two specimens from which we can describe this species, one of these being the exterior of the shell and the other the mold of the same. Little patches of shell are visible on both specimens, the mold showing a very thin film of organic matter, just sufficient to make the rock black. ‘The most striking feature of the shell, and the one which, together with the asymmetry, forms the chief diagnostic characteristic, is the marked incurving of the growth lines in the posterior portion of the shell, along the steeper slope of the long axis. (PI. I, fig. 4.) For a distance of 6 mm. from the periphery of the shell, the growth lines curve in from both sides, showing that, at the edge of the shell which is invisible, there must be quite a sinus as indicated in fig. 3. Such a sinus represents a simple and 3 Fic. 3. Restored peripheral outline of Hercynella patelleformts sp. nov. as suggested by the growth lines in pl. I, fig. 4. x 4/5. primitive condition of the much more highly specialized one which is seen in some of the Bohemian forms. It is evident that the ancestral Hercynellas must have had only the slightest radial depression, or perhaps none at all, and this shallow depression would be accompanied by a correspondingly shallow re-entrant in the periphery. If it be assumed, that, as was most likely the case, this radial depression was produced by the appearance of the siphon, then we can easily think of a time when there was no siphon and when the curvature of the shell was regular and without interruption. Moreover, the gradual development of BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 9S the siphon at first may have had no expression in the shell. As, however, the siphon became more prominent, there would be a gradual change in the mature shell at the periphery. ‘This change would at first be slight, would become more pronounced with the increased size of the siphon. The shallow sinus which is visible only in the adult of Flercynella patelliformis is present even in the young of the Bohemian forms, though in the very earliest part of the shells of the latter the growth lines show a regular curvature with no sinus. (Fig. 2.) It would seem, then, as though this species from the Bertie horizon represented the ancestral condition of the Hercynellas before they had acquired the pronounced radial depression. I do not mean that the forms which lived in the Bertie time were the direct ancestors of the forms living in Bohemia in the upper Siluric and lower Devonic time, but rather that the ancestors of the Bohemian forms which, to be sure, have not yet been found, must have been quite similar to those which are found in the Bertie, and that if Hercynellas were found in this country in a higher horizon, they would probably resemble the Bohemian forms to the extent of having such a pronounced radial depression with consequent marginal sinus. In fact, the one other Hercynella from this country, A. canadensis Grabau does show just the features which would be expected. (Grabau and Sherzer, Monroe formation of southern Michigan, pl. xxv, fies.-5, 6.) Along the gentle slope of the longer axis may be seen a number of slight concentric undulations, five or six being clearly traceable half way around the shell. These are evenly spaced, four occuring within a distance of 5mm. ‘They apper most like the concentric undulations so marked in H/. bohemica, but are much fainter and more difficult to trace. Of radial strice there is not the slightest indication. Florizon and Locality :-—Associated with the preceding in the Bertie Waterlime of North Buffalo. Two specimens. ‘Types in the collection of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. Relation of the Hercynellas from the Bertie to those of other Honzons. The species which have just been described are placed under the genus Hercynella because they more closely resemble the 100 NEW SILURIC GASTROPODS forms included by Barrande under that genus, than they do any other gastropods that have been described. In their lack of ornamentation and their shallow sinus they seem to fulfill the theoretic requirements for the hercynelloid ancestor. There is some tangible proof that this is the close correspondence between the adult shell form and outline of the species from the Bertie and those of the young stages of the species from Bohemia. It is evident that the forms in Bohemia were much more specialized than those from the Waterlime, for even those from the lowest European horizon, E 2, which corresponds to the Monroan in America, already showed a pronounced radial sinus and strong radiating strize. "These two new species are so very different from Barrande’s type (H. bohemican) and so much more primi- tive, that it would almost seem advisable to put them in a new genus, except for the fact that the material from which they are described is too poor to allow a complete and exact enough description to be made for the founding of a new genus. In case more and better material be discovered in the future, there might then seem to be sufficient grounds for separating these species from Hercynella, in which-case I propose the generic name Hercynellina. Habitat of Hercynella. The horizon in Bohemia in which the largest number of Hercy- nellas has been found is F, or upper Monroan. Here they are associated with vast numbers of graptolites and also with sponges, trilobites and tentaculites. The fauna is undoubtedly marine, and since it is well preserved and the Hercynellas also are numerous and in good condition, there is no reason for question- ing the marine habitat of the speciesin Bohemia. Furthermore, the shells are comparatively thick, showing no lack of carbonate of lime for impregnation. The one specimen from the Monroe limestone of Michigan likewise has good marine associates, though its macerated condition and the fact that no other specimens have been found would leave it an open question whether it was a true marine form or merely oneswept out to sea by land waters. The Hercynellas which have been found in the Bertie waterlime seem to indicate conditions other than marine, for their shells are exceedingly thin, as though available lime were not abundant in the water in which they lived, and, BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 101 moreover, their faunal associates are not typical marine forms, there being only eurypterids, ceratiocarids and the plant Authro- trepis lesquereuxt, together with a few water-worn specimens of Orthoceras. ‘The writer has elsewhere * discussed at length the significance of this unique fauna and the bionomic conditions which it indicates. The very thin shell of these pulmonate gastropods may be taken as a slight bit of additional evidence to that given in the paper above referred to in support of the view that the Bertie waterlime was deposited not in marine water, but in brackish of fresh water, and that the Hercynellas as well as eurypterids were carried into the Bertie muds by therivers. If, on the other hand Hercynella is to be regarded as a marine genus, then. we have here another case of intermingling of marine and fluviatile species in the region of deposition at their junction. * Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. XXIV, pp. 499-515. 1913. Bibliography. Barrande, Joachim, 1911. Systéme Silurien du Centre de la Bohéme. Premiere Partie, Vol. IV. Gastéropodes. By Jaroslav Perner, Tome III. Prague. (Pp. 270-291, pls.) Grabau, Amadeus W. and Sherzer, William H., 1910. The Monroe formation of southern Michigan and adjoining regions. Michigan Geological and Biological Survey. Publi- cation 2, Geological Series1. (Pp. 195-196; pl. XXV. figs. 9,10). Kayser, Emanuel, 1878. Die Fauna der altesten Devon- ablagerungen des Harzes. Berlin. (Pp, 101-104, pl. XVII, figs. 9, 10.) Paleontological Laboratory, Columbia University. Explanation of Plate. The specimens are in the collection of the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. They all come from the Bertie waterlime (Monroan) of North Buffalo. The illustrations are natural size. Fig. 1. Hercynella buffaloensis, sp. nov. Top view of type specimen, showing assymetric position of apex. Fig. 2. Front view of same. Fig. 3. Side view of same. Fig. 4. Hercynella patelliformis, sp. nov. Top view of type specimen. Fig. 5. View of right side showing gentle slope. Fig. 6. View of left side showing steep slope. josxe| : a. * : : ee - wee -. : 3 a 22 fe > «| | eta : aa ¥ = = NZ ae a | ] de 7s Gas ie) : Se : <4 } soeer . = ; ate Re SR en m ae : ‘S 2) ; ? Q, bl 4 VOLUME XI No. 2 BULLETIN — of the Butfalo Society of Natural Sciences BUFFALO, NEW YORK 1915 ee CONTENTS. Babylonian Tablets in the Museum of The Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. By WORN JONIDVEL ISQUSSIIN. JISC, ID), A Revision of the North American Species of the Dipterous Genus Diaphorus. By M. C. VAN DUZEE. V7 7X A Jivaro War Trophy. A Mundrucu Mummied Head Trophy. BSB WresL e riN of the Buftalo Society of Natural Sciences VOLUME XI. No. 2 INTRODUCTION. The exhibit recently installed in the Museum of the Buf- falo Society of Natural Sciences to show the early development of the Art of Writing includes twenty-one inscribed clay tablets from lower Mesopotamia. Of these five have come from Dréhem, a ruin-mound about three miles south of Nippur where were stock pens of the cattle market which supplied animals for sacrifice at the temples of Nippur, especially the great temple of Enlil and his consort Ninlil, in the latter part of the prosperous Dynasty of Ur. Eleven are from Jokha, the modern name of the ancient city of Umma, while four are from Senkereh, which was _ the Biblical city Ellaser of Genesis 14.1, and one is a: votive tablet from Warka, that being the modern name of the Biblical city of Erech (Uruk) of Genesis 10.10. These have been deemed of such interest that their transla- tion seemed desirable and for that purpose they were placed in the hands of Dr. Mary Inda Hussey, Associate Professor of Biblical Literature at Mount Holyoke College. Their transla- tion follows with such an account of them from her pen as can- not fail to interest its readers. The dynasty of Ur founded about 2300 B. C. by Ur-Engur, represents Sumerian supremacy, the Semitic dynasty of Akkad having been then overthrown. All of southern Babylonia—Uruk (Erech), Larsa (Ellaser, now Senkereh), Lagash (now Telloh) and Nippur (Niffer)— was brought under its sway; then Elam was conquered. South- ern Babylonia was divided, it will be seen, into city kingdoms, one of which held the hegemony over the others. Edward Meyer (Geschichte des Altertums, 2nd Edition, 1909), gives the dynasty of Ur as follows: ies nurs accra han etna ey Se 2304-2287 B.C DTM cata Ne kuin ney ete eee nee Ran ae 2286-2229 ~ BUR] S 11s ee ener oe mone e pee pe Cane 2228-2220 “ Girma Sime es co ia tae, eee eee eels) lip = Sin eee cee eee eae 2212-2188 = The best known kings of Uruk (the Biblical Erech) are Sin- gashid and Sin-gamil, who seem to have ruled about 2150-2110 BEeae With these tablets is shown an interesting collection of seal cylinders from Babylonia, including archaic examples in shell and marble as well as those cut in hematite, steatite, agate, ete, or later date: The exhibit referred to includes examples of early Egyptian writing on stone, on papyrus, on linen and on terra cotta, show- ing the early hieroglyphs, the conventionalized abridged form of these known as the Hieratic writing, employed by the priests in their reéords, and the later so-called Demotic form, employed in common use, adapted to the needs of everyday life. HENRY R. HOWLAND, Superintendent. z < gw Zz < PI E s/ «i q y Babylonian ‘Tablets in the Museum of The Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences by MARY INDA HUSSEY, PH. D. The twenty-one tablets, the cuneiform text of which 1s pub- lished in the following pages, were acquired by the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences in 1913. Their purchase was made possible by the extensive clandestine excavations that have been carried on during recent years in Babylonia by the native Arabs. These Arabs found out that Europeans and Americans were willing to exchange money for the pieces of clay that were to be found by MAP OF WESTERN ASIA 110 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS digging in the soil of what appears to be natural hills, be- tween the lower course of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. But the Tigris-Euphrates valley is a fertile alluvial plain like the Nile valley, and these gently sloping hills are in reality the ruins of cities that were the marts of the world four thousand years ago. In this valley there was neither wood nor stone, except what was brought there from distant mountains. Driven by this lack of a natural building material, necessity forced them to find it in the soil. Burnt bricks were used for outer walls, for drainage and cisterns, but the thick inner walls were made of sun-dried brick. Hence it came about that after a city had been destroyed by an enemy, the rain, or the overflowing of a canal or river, soon converted the sun-dried bricks into the original clay from which they had been made; the process of erosion softened the harsh lines into a gently sloping mound or hill, the wind bore seeds thither that soon covered the whole mass with verdure, and the once flourishing city was rendered indistinguishable from a low hill. So it was that Xenophon and his brave band of ten thousand men passed by the ruins of Nineveh, little dreaming that two cen- turies before his day it had been one of the foremost cities of the world, and three-quarters of a century earlier the capital of a great world-empire. Necessity forced the inhabitants of this valley to use the same material for writing as for building. The fact that their writing is cuneiform, 1. e., wedge-form, is an accident due to the character of this material. The earliest writing in Babylonia appears to have been on stone and consists of pictographs drawn with straight lines. Thus, 4 is the picture of a human head ; dL represents a foot; <) iS a fish; ZZ represents water. When these same characters were drawn on soft clay with a reed-wood stylus (see the models made by Prof. A. T. Clay), the stylus made a triangular de- (ee SOUARE TE ND> SAGs BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES abil \ean Sage Ba WISI IBID) IBINID) Si WILUs pression where it was impinged upon the clay. The characters soon became so conventionalized that the original pictograph was lost and can be discerned only after arduous study. The language which was written in these cuneiform char- acters is known as Sumerian and the people as Sumerians. Whence these Sumerians came into the Tigris-Euphrates valley, whether by land or sea ( Persian Gulf), is entirely unknown. No attempt to prove kinship with any other known people or lan- guage has been successful. The earliest remains in Babylonia probably do not antedate 3000 B. C., and are characterized by a comparatively advanced state of culture. The earliest documents are written in Sumerian, which continued to be the language of religion, legal procedure, and commerce for about a thousand years. Then business documents began to be written in a Semitic tongue with these same cuneiform characters, just as we write English with Latin letters. It is due to this borrowing on the part of the Semites from the Sumerians of their method of writing, that Semitic Babylonian is also written in cuneiform and is the only one of the Semitic group of languages that is written without an alphabet. The amalgamation of these two races has left traces of itself in the proper names found in these documents. At first all names of persons are Sumerian, but gradually as the Semitic race gained the preponderance and finally the supremacy over the Sumerian population whose higher culture they adopted, Semitic names appear, then finally entirely displace Sumerian names. It is only when Semitic names are written in syllables ‘that they are to be distinguished with certainty from Sumerian names. Here are a few examples of Semitic names from Tablets Nos. 18 and 20: En-zu-i-ki-sha-am, “the god Enzu has pre- sented”; En-zu-im-gu-ra-an-ni, “the god Enzu was favorable” ; En-zu-ish-me-a-ni, “the god Enzu has heard me”; A-bu-wa-qar, 5 veanager is Gleane © Clay that was to be used for writing material was well washed to free it from sand. It had such great adhesive power that tablets that were merely sun-dried and have remained buried 112 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS in the earth for four thousand years are often still in a good state of preservation. Ten of the tablets here published were unbaked. When tablets become exposed to air as damp as our atmosphere often is, their disintegration begins. While lying buried in the ground for these thousands of years they absorbed salt from the soil. Since salt crystalizes in moisture, small salt crystals form which pry off layer after layer of the tablet. One damp morn- ing Tablet No. 18 of this collection was found with the entire surface of the tablet loosened, and underneath a thin layer could be seen by the naked eye a white frosting of salt crystals. Hence the necessity of baking the tablets thoroughly, and then allowing them to stand in water until all the salt has been dissolved out of them. Contracts, acknowledgments of a loan, letters, and various other records were protected by clay envelopes, upon which practically the same record was written as upon the tablet itself. This enabled the parties to the contract to consult the terms of the contract, but prevented it from being altered, for the envelope and‘the inner tablet must agree and any alteration would be de- tected. No. 151s such a tablet. The envelope or case had become cracked and it was opened for the first time in October, 1913, some 4153 years after it had been written. No. 14 is a case tablet, as these tablets with envelopes are called, which has never been opened. These documents were furthermore protected and authenti- cated by one or more impressions of the notary’s seal, or some- times the seal of the debtor, which was equivalent to his signa- ture. These seal cylinders used for the seal impressions were made of semi-precious stone, such as agate, lapis lazuli, jasper, shell, onyx, and one was probably owned by every man of standing in the community, for writing was done by the scribe. At the period from which these tablets came, a seal con- tained not only the name of its owner, his profession, and the name of his father, but also represented some religious scene. The scene on No. 6 is that of a god wearing a turban, seated on a throne and holding a goblet in his extended hand. A goddess clothed in a long garment and a cap with two horns is leading a worshipper wearing a fringed garment. Between the seated god and the approaching goddess is a four-legged little animal (a monkey ?) that 1s trying to get upon the god’s lap. The inscription BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAI, SCIENCES 113 on the seal reads: (to) Eanisha, priestess, beloved of the king, Nadi, son of [....], thy servant. On No. 8 there are twenty- three impressions of the notary’s seal. Some of the wedges have been obliterated by the pressure of the seal upon the soft clay, making it very difficult to read. The seal on No. 16 is that of a royal scribe. It reads: (To) Dungi, the mighty hero, king of Ur, king of the four quarters, Ludugga, the scribe, son of Nigin- gardugga, thy servant. Before the turbaned god seated on the throne there stands a worshipper for whom the goddess is making intercession. Eighteen of the tablets here published come from the time of the dynasty of Ur (2300-2200 B. C.), most of them being dated in the reign of three of the five kings of that dynasty, namely, Dungi, Bur-Sin and Gimil-Sin. The form of the writing of two of the undated tablets (Nos. 18 and 20) is that of the first dynasty of Babylon (2060-1761 B. C.). No. 21 is from the reign of Sin-gashid, king of Uruk (the Biblical Erech), who was probably a contemporary of one of the earlier kings of the first dynasty of Babylon. It records his building of a palace. The religious character of the time is illustrated by one of the royal titles, “he who cares for Eanna,” the temple of the goddess Ishtar in Uruk. At the time of the dynasty of Ur it was customary to name the year after some event of public interest. From the reign of Dungi we have the following years: No. 8, “The year after Simuru was devastated for the third time’; No. 21, “The year when (the temple named) Ebashaishdagan was built’; No. 22, “The year when Shashru was devastated.” Nos. 3, 7, and 11 are from the seventh and eighth years of the reign of Bur-Sin, which years were named, “The year when Huhunuri was devas- tated,” “The year when the high priest of Eridu was installed.” No. 13 is dated in “The year after the devastation of Simanv.” and No. 5 in “The year when Gimil-Sin the king devastated the land of Zabshali.” These are from the fourth and seventh years, respectively of the reign of Gimil-Sin. It will readily be seen what a valuable source of information for the history of the period such date-formulas are in the record they give of foreign campaigns and internal improvements. From the dates mentioned above one may see the expansion of the empire under King Dungi to the districts east of the Tigris river in his conquest of 114 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS Simuru, and into Elam—that great centre of civilization which lay upon the eastern frontier with its capital at Susa—in his conquest of Shashru. This policy of expansion eastward was maintained by his son Bur-Sin in his expedition against Huhunurt and by his grandson Gimil-Sin who conquered Simanu and Zabshali. No. 5 belongs to that class of tablets of which Leonard W. King in his excellent and interesting “History of Sumer and Akkad,” page 290, says: “That his expeditions were not mere raids, but resulted in the permanent occupation of the country, is proved by a number of tablets found at Tello, which throw con- siderable light upon the methods by which he administered the empire from his capital at Ur. Many of these documents contain orders for supplies allotted to officials in the king’s service, who were passing through Lagash in the course of journeys between Ur and their districts in Elam. The tablets enumerate quantities of grain, strong drink, and oil, which had been assigned to them, either for their sustenance during their stay in Lagash, or as provision for their journey after their departure.” The complexity of commercial life is illustrated by Tablet No. 1, which is an account extending over eight years, namely, from the first to the eighth year of Bur-Sin, inclusive, (2220-2212 B. C.). The first and last columns are too much broken to permit the complete unraveling of the account, but what is left of the numbers in the final column of sum totals shows that large quan- tities of barley, of “gig,’ and of meal are involved. Grain was the principal medium of exchange, and interest on loans, net revenues, etc., were paid in grain, which was most frequently barley. The temple was the centre not only of religious but also of intellectual, legal, and commercial life. Any transaction which involved writing was concluded at the temple, where the scribes formed one class of the temple retinue, and it was in the temple that documents were filed. Tablet No. 2 is an inventory of the offerings brought in for the god of the city of Umma, the modern Jokha, the ancient enemy of Lagash. These offerings are enumer- ated in the following order, and consist of vases and bronze ves- sels of various kinds; butter, oil, and lard; fifty-five garments which were probably worn by the priests; ornaments and uten- sils made of stone; barley, wheat and dates; and a very large BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 115 number of wooden instruments and utensils. Unfortunately the identification of many of these objects is impossible at the present state of our knowledge, but it is interesting to know the names of many of the objects with which an old Sumerian sanctuary was furnished. No. 4 relates to three temples in this same city of Umma, namely, the temple of the god of the city, the tem- ple of Ninurra, and the temple of Dungi, for King Dungi introduced the innovation of the deification of the king in his own life time, and the cult seems to have been a popular one. It is an account of 314 calves taken from the stall, with the names of their respective herdsmen. Nos. 3, 7, 12, and 19 also relate to cattle and come from the modern Dréhem, a mound which is about half an hour by boat from Nuippur. Large numbers of tablets from Dréhem have recently come into the market, and their decipherment shows them to be the archives of a stock farm in connection with some temple of unusual importance, presumably that of the ancient god Ellil at Nippur. No. 3 is a list of cattle, asses, and mules with the names of their herdsmen. The obverse, with the exception of the last line, is occupied with the detailed part of the account ; the reverse with a summary in which the animals are enumerated and classified according to value and age. No. 7 is an account of the ewes and rams that are on hand, those taken away for sacrifice, the number of hides shorn, and number of goats. No. 12 is an acknowledgment from the butcher of eight sheep and one kid. No. 19 records the delivery of sheep and goats for sacrifice for three great festivals. The number written on the left edge of the reverse is 368, the total number of animals for sacrifice. Connected with the temples was a large staff of persons—in the city of Lagash there were about a thousand such persons to ten temples—for whose maintenance the cultivation of large tracts of land was necessary. A more recent parallel is to be seen in the ownership and management of large estates by the monas- teries during the Middle Ages. The obverse of No. 9 has been entirely erased by the scribe, but the reverse shows it to be an account of wages paid laborers working on various tracts of land for periods varying from 12 to 310 days. No. 10 is a record of provision given to ten men for the barley harvest. No. 11 records 116 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS the expenditure of bread, calculated on the basis of provision for 4232 men for one day. No. 18 is a list of names of men followed by that of their overseer. No. 6 is a record of sesame oil which is being sent to the city of Ur. No. 8 is concerning two boats whose tonnage is 20 gur, rented for six days. No. 13 is an account of various kinds of produce (dates, seed-corn, etc.) brought in for various pur- poses. . No. 14 is a receipt for grain. No. 15 is a receipt for. three bronze axes from one Akalla, presumably the smith who made them. No. 16 records the expenditure of grain for four- teen men for the new house. No. 17 is a list of quantities of butter, cheese, wool, goat’s wool, sheep skins, and ox hides that have been brought into the palace. No. 20 is a receipt which incidentally gives the ratio of bronze, gold and lead to silver at the time of the first dynasty of Babylon. ‘The line that gives the ratio of lead to silver is not quite perfect, but the ratio of bronze to silver is approximately 9314 :1, and of gold to silver TOO 1e Taken singly and out of relation to the life which they record, it is of little moment to us today whether offerings were made regularly at a temple more than four thousand years ago, or whether a man with a heathen name paid his debts. We do not care how large the flocks were, whether the sesame oil was ever delivered at Ur or not, whether the rent of a boat was ex- orbitant or cheap, whether the ratio of gold to silver was 16:1 or 1.66:1, but taken collectively they are of great value. Hundreds of tablets of just this character have been published, thousands are awaiting publication in the museums of Europe and America, and tens of thousands lie buried in the mounds of Babylonia. Nor are these the only class of texts that are to be found. They are naturally the most numerous, just as in our day records of commercial transactions are more numerous than epic poems. The literature contains such works as the Gilgamesh and Creation Epics, many hymns and prayers to the gods, myths about the gods, historical texts, incantation, medical and mathematical texts and even Semitic-Sumerian dictionaries. Various studies have been made of Babylonian religion, but so far no systematic at- tempt has been made to reconstruct the history of the economic and social relations of the Tigris-Euphrates valley. With the awakened interest in these subjects today their importance need not be pointed out. When the social and economic history of 2300 B. C. is written, it will have to be based upon facts recorded in such tablets as these published in the following pages. Pe Age ae Nowa OBVERSE V VV Pp D V Sao ran) ay) Na(= SSAGCIEIS b A h {F a & Por YUY YY verted Fill mp WS e[allgerenaige = b = cool tel ES A V7 VV y a aq AAC 1S Povey de e" : 4 as By Pay Ey ve aaa WIE Cait Nit 7 are AFH Za i 4 aK: K V_YVV 7 > "4 "Gl aa Y V EN ae 2 (RAY Y Cy ES Wf WE “al NM AY ry y TW / i) Ba Wy WM MD g< Y MUL MU PLATE 2. No. 1. REVERSE a Y) ye | = cs San We NI a foie Be a by : Sa Wp > ie Yi) =e Stet hha ca Mi) Ak cis \ Y _ Ri ia in Ne p= a= BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 119 Tablet No. | This is a long and complicated account extending over eight years, namely, from the first to the eighth year of the reign of Bur-Sin, inclusive -(2220-2212 B. C.). Since the first and last columns—the columns of the obverse read from left to right, those of the reverse from right to left—are so much broken, it is impossible to unravel the account. Large quantities of barley, of gig, and of meal are involved, as what is left of the numerals in the final column of totals shows. Since grain was the medium of exchange, payments of interest, net revenues, etc., are made in grain, which is usually barley. Unbaked. Size: Length 15.7 centimeters ; breadth, 11 centimeters. From Jokha. TRANSLATION. @byge sale Glee gur of barley RAn oo eeae payment of interest soted cet Lunigzu [year when] the high priest of the great sanctu- ary of Innana was installed.? (Gos) ae yeas: eur Bene eae seal of the account. eer Bere 2 gur 1795 5/6 qa Pah eee balancing the account. Sue eeeeteeee gur 25 qa (CiKO)) eae ea. Ka-shu-u-du Seton eae a0 gur Fake ee -gina son of Lueamarra ole Rn ane from [U]r-"Nun-gal Se ne gur Gb eraer -ga tea pate -ga aan ee gifts of barley ete cates Lu( ?)-tug Rt a from [L]ukalla (20) [the year that the city of ] Huhunuri was devas- tated?. BA Ne eur Ah ese est! payment of interest (?) Sa ee [ U]r-x® the archivist. LRN Setar barley 1, This is the name of the 5th year of the reign of Bur-Sin. 2, The 7th year of the reign of Bur-Sin. 3, Name of the god of the city of Umma. 120 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS (Coa iateevey @ cee from [L]u-Utu ceitta: gur a Re ? Soros pete n ur-tuk (?) [year when the high priest of the city of Er]idu was installed!. @b 7 WR Gls) eo Retire 130 (aay) net revenue (for) four years, (namely ), from the year when Bur-Sin was made king to the year when the great high priest of heaven was installed high priest of Nannar?. 5 gur payment of interest KKa-Innana from Shesshig the year when the high priest of the great sanct- uary of Innana was installed. (10) 40 gur for [U]r-X? the year Shashru was devastated# 2 gur 142 qa balance of the account. (15) 17 gur of barley har-ra 3 gur 240 (qa) payment of interest Ure 1 gur 120 (qa) gift of barley (20) the granary a-kid-a from Lu-X? 240 (qa) of barley from Ur-Enzu the year that the city of Huhunuri was devas- tated? 715° gur 25 ga 34 gur 245 qa of barley meal barley har-ra lal-ta-é-a 80 (ga) barley meal The Sth year of the reign of Bur-Sin. Years 1 to 4, inclusive. of the reign of Bur-Sin. The god of the city of Umma. The pronunciation is unknown. See Fr. Thurean-Dangin, Recueil de Ecriture Cuneiform, no. 458. +. The 6th year of the reign of Bur-Sin. +>, The 7th year of the reign of Bur-NSin. 6, Written: 600x60x (5x10) x5. ix Or 56) Or —— Ob. Sa ht . . . Toe BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 121 (1) (10) (15) (20) — wo Cr = (30) from Madudu viséd by Tabshala. 14 gur 90 (qa) of barley net revenue. 2 gur qa ud bil gid =... from Ur-X1, the archivist. Zashar, sahar?, interest of the interest, AW Cr the year when the high priest of Eridu was in- stalled ; the 16th account, account of Egalesi. 1 gur 200 (qa) from Gugu the year when Bur-Sin the king devastated the city) of Jewtuge 5 gur 30 (qa) of barley 2 gur 240 (qa) of gig-grain a-dug Lu-X. ba-a-gar+ the year when the high priest of the sanctuary of Innana was installed. (20) 6 gur gift of barley granary a-kid-a from Shagdugga, the year when Shashru was devastated?. 282 gur 50 (qa) (25) granary Bar(?)-ta-gal the year when Huhunuri was devastated. 510 gur 51 qa anes gil-la 1, Gu-na is the kind of meal. 2. Meaning of pal is unknown. 3. Or sheep to be fattended. 4. so frequently in accounts is not yet fully understood. 5. The 6th vear of the reign of Bur-Sin. The significance cf the phrase a-dug....ba-a-gar which occurs BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 123 chars WU Eaper ota reey gur account of Urgish[pu]. Rev. II, (1) 13 gur 91 ga barley for interest from Lugalmumashne the year that the high priest of Eridu was in- stalled, the 22nd account (5) the account of X!-baziggi. 17 gur 212 (qa) balance of barley on hand, the year that the city of Huhunuri was devas- tated. * gur 141 qa (10 — balance of barley on hand, the year when the high priest of Eridu was in- stalled, the 2nd account account of Gugu. 51 gur 150 (qa) (15) barley on hand ab-hal? the year when the bright throne of the god Ellil was made’. : 44 gur 212 (qa) balance of the barley of interest the year when the lofty high priest of heaven (was installed )+# (20) 55 gur 240 (qa) Duggagina. 17 gur 72 (qa) Duggalla, the year when the high priest of the great sanc- tuary of Innana (was installed). (25) 3rd account account of Girrib. 2 gur 280. (qa) 1. The god of the city of Umma. 2, «ab-hal is the name of an occupation or profession. 3. The 3rd year of the reign of Bur-Sin. 4. This part of the formula was omitted. The 4th year of the reign of Bur-Sin. - 124 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS account of Ur-dun the year Huhunuri was devastated. Iya JHU, CIE) Loewe al}. Sitbe [Poor | ge [Bee eee So eS idabiilliey som Ot |Lso-.45- ] Ka-X}, [the year when H]uhunuri was devastated. C5 )i= [total 2.6] 00-= (360) 422) four 250) eee 5/6 qa [total 10 gur ....18]0 (qa) gig-grain (biotalliecesers: |] gur 35 qa of meal [aaron ] 2713 gur 145 5/6 qa ees. ] dug-ga-ra (?)? (GLO: aia seatictaes |] for meal Leen entrecees Vane | li-bi tar-hu [Became |] from Lu-Dungi [iabnceeneus | she-na ba-an-shu bse te gish-mi ma (2) ba ....ra (15) [an |ash-saen (en. |. esh™ ba-shu. 1. The name of the god of the city of Umma. 2. Lines 9-15 are subscription, but they are too much broken to be intelligible. Tablet No. 2 This is a list of offerings brought in for the god of the city of Umma. These offerings consist of vases and bronze vessels of various kinds; of butter, oil, and lard; of 55 garments; orna- ments and utensils made of stone; of barley, wheat, and dates ; and of a very large number of wooden instruments and utensils. At present it 1s impossible to identify all of these objects, but such a list of the objects with which an old Sumerian temple was furnished is valuable for a knowledge of the ritual. Unbaked. Undated. Size: length 14.8 centimeters, breadth 5.8 centimeters. From Jokha. @b.@:) 1 vase weighing 17 mana! ) bronze gal 1 bronze sa-hu-1mm vessel? 1. The 17 mana is the weight of the metal out of which the vase was made. which was probably bronze. 2. Its use is unknown. Ud fj Te eceedll Nacsons= == 847, ae INos 2: OBVERSE a aay ao VLEET Mate, (ie RAR ve PIA PLATE 3. No. 2. REVERSE —— qc é: Hie (aan = AEE = Fee mgcayes a III, 4 7, i] WAL Y Wy Wy) Uf YEN Ly) iy — LS Re mm, sel Ts eae Py Sas PLATE 4. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 127 bronze dir-rii vessel! bronze sha-za-a-an vessel 1 bronze shiu-ku-la vessel 46 qa of excellent butter 50 qa of excellent sesame oil 45 qa of fish oil C10>)= 10) qavofalard 1 lum-ga garments? 14+ new garments 5 bar-tug garments® 1 ba-tab-ba gab-mes garment? (15) (?) bal garments? girdles new garments for the dead ordinary new garments woven garments gu-lal garment? (?) stone bracelets+ saco) Gall OX Sine (20) Boo ow nam ow Coe yee Oia tesa ae eer eee 2 nagaru of stone 3 stone daggers 110 (qa) of malt gur of barley? (30) gur of wheat gur of dates goats-wool bright bolts crown objects made of wood® imperial-qa measure 14 i! 3 iL 2 broad baskets made of reeds il il 1 (35) common-gur measure made of reeds su-nam (?) reed basket tab-ba (?) 1. These vessels were sometimes used for wine. 2. These garments are frequently mentioned, but the translation is unknown. ; 3. The kind of garment is unknown. 4. A bracelet or ring made of semi-precicus stone. » The numerals giving the quantity of grain and wool were omitted (40) by the scribe. 5. I know of no other place where this word gish ba-an occurs. 128 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS 2 reed baskets al-gu-ga (?) 6 ba-urudu-ga (?) wooden vases throne of ha-lu-vib wood throne of cedar wood throne of ab-ba-me sukkal-sa wood thrones of shaggullu wood thrones with the bad-da overlaid with cop- per wooden a-am vessels gal of shaggullu wood imperial-ga measure made of wood, over- laid with bronze wooden maltum - vessels thrones from Magan ( ?) wooden hu-um shu-ul wooden u-dug-a wooden bad-du axes (?) vessels of tamarisk wood wooden wooden drinking (?) [. wooden erikku vessels wooden beds grape vine and gish she-dug pomegranates (?) wooden tongues (?) [....] of nu-wr-ima wood (?) wooden wooden wooden gan-kal (?) wooden shu-ib utensils good wooden ra-she utensil wooden a-ra utensils small wooden a-ra utensils reed gur-da utensil wooden ass goads (?) ©) 10) <0) 0) '¢) 8) ee) (0) @ ©) 10 ce On0) O80 O..0 70 0.000 O10 6 0016 S20.0°0 000 050 O10 6 0 010 0-0.0.06 1 . Offerings of the god X? which were brought Rev. (bp) & 1 i 1 (5) 2 2 6 1 1 (10) 18 1 1 1 (IS) 16 14 2 2 80 (20) 3 5 6 100 (25) 3 i) 7 il 2 ((3x0))) al 15 12 il 3 (35) in. 1 9 Literally, a wooden instrument for making the asses go. The name of the god of the city of Umma. ERARE 5: aa 4 R ’ [EE SN AY ry ‘ y G=4 ‘ Si A) S(St(Zes A i y ry f 7: Y q Woh 2a 7 ais: a (6 alec: re aaa Ns, ae Regie eds / Aint I VITV > PLATE 6. No: 3) REVERSE aT 4e~ ET aaa a 7] pina Es AA mu ry XA fo aii eG / PP Y/// /h y yy aay, /// TOE EL) i Gs Wp CT hie mieyz: Ak Wf Le TH i, eer ATS [> y YY Hyp / yy Ay? IST = Hy Ly i) is RE Oo ze 7, Sl ey res s Hw 1 ¥ ! tins =c4u YU ML) YY lily Bits re i} ai ee ie M if // y ii si Wy ee i} Wi fy /} Wy wy yy YY, a BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES Sil Tablet No. 3 The subscription, which corresponds to the heading of a modern document, is almost entirely broken away. The names of the patesi of the city of Umma, of two ministers, and of a scribe are partially legible. Although much broken, the date appears to be that of the 8th year of the reign of Bur-Sin, King of Ur (about 2212 B. C.) This tablet is a list of cattle, asses, and mules with the names of their respective keepers. The detailed part of the list is fol- lowed by a summary in which the animals are enumerated appar- ently in order of value. Where the numbers in the detailed part are partially broken, they can be supplied from the summiary, and vice versa. The auditing of this account shows it to be correct. Size: length 14.3 centimeters, breadth 8.2 centimeters. From Dréhem. TRANSLATION. Op Cle) ees tate bulls in (the city of ) Umma, 1 work-ox in the city of Akaqa (5) are present in the stall. 1 full-grown cow + heifers 2 years old + heifers 1 year old 2) 23 bullocks 3 years old (10} 38 bullocks 2 years old 2 bullocks 1 year old 1 female calf 1 male calf Ur-enzu has (them) in charge. (15) +4 bullocks 3 years old 2 heifers 2 years old + bullocks 2 years old 2 old cows 3 old bulls (20) Luibgal has (them) in charge. 2 male asses of the desert 1 female mule 2 years old 2 male mules 1 year old 1 male mule 1 year old (25) 1 mule-colt 3 full-grown female asses ‘ Rev. il, (10) (20) Gl) (10) (20) THF BABYLONIAN TABLETS old female asses old male ass ass-foal (of?) mother-ass Ur-X! has them in charge full-grown female ass male work-asses male ass 1 year old old female ass old male. asses ses present ‘r-Damu has (them) in charge. 1 mule colt from Uana, husbandman. 1 work-ox 1 bullock 2 years old Iheitern=ly year old 1 bullock 1 year old 1 female calf 4 male calves Arad-hug has (them) in charge. Total 8 fat bulls Total 1 full-grown cow Total 2 work-oxen Total 27 bullocks 3 years old Total 6 heifers 2 years old Total 43 bullocks 2 years old SHH © DH eo eS Re OO eH nn (am! Total 5 heifers 1 year old Total 3 bullocks 1 year old Total 2 old cows Total 3 old bulls Total 2 female calves Total 5 male calves Total 2 male asses of the desert Total 1 female mule 2 years old Total 1 female mule 1 year old Total 2 male mules 1 year old Total 2 mule-colts Total 4 full-grown female mules Total 3 male work-asses Total 1 male ass 1 year old Total 3 old female asses Total 3 old male asses Total 1 ass-colt The name of the god of the city of Umma. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 133 iNew IU ale) (10) Ce i i cc) Ce Al -la patesi of the city of Umma [....]-sag-ta-azag-su, minister [....]-Innina, minister [....]-Nannar, scribe The year when the high priest, beloved of Bur-Sin was installed (?) the high priest ot the citv of Eridu. 1. Lines 1-4 are entirely broken away. The subscription begins with line 5, which, with the two lines following, is too much broken to be read. Tablet No. 4 An account of 314 calves belonging to the temples of the god of the city of Umma, to the temple of the gods Nin-ur-ra and Dungi, which were taken from the stall. The character with which the name of the month is written has not been identified! but it is known to be the fourth month in the calendar of JoKHA. The name of the year is new, and it has therefore not been classified. Size: 10.5 centimeters by 5 centimeters. From Johka. @) by Gaile) TRANSLATION. 37 female calves, 35 male calves Lu-Ninni-Unu(g)™, herdsman. 8 female calves, 14 male calves Ur-Sida, herdsman. ~ female calves, 7 male calves Lugalezen, herdsman. 26 female calves, 28 male calves Abbagina, herdsman, son of Urnigingar. 1. No. 63 in Scheil, Recucil de Signes. RieAnE are No. 4. OBVERSE me, Goats 4 _ jee au uae Vi = V a 3 pe FAM IE —— v b Lj P— y : . ot ear pata eres ieee aaa AD ES = NS a a ee oo ae iGpaeesss eh eS ET ee ee OBVERSE | RIEWSIRSIS Sa Y BLY LY Uh ph eqs ii > atYV > 1 = ae Aina PLATE 8. No. 4. REVERSE 136 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS 7 female calves, 1 male calf (10) X1-kam, herdsman. 13 female calves, 16 male calves X1-a-mu, herdsman. 4+ female calves, 4 male calves Ur-Adin, herdsman. (15) 5 female calves, 9 male calves Lu-X1, herdsman. 4 female calves, 6 male calves Nita, herdsman. 12 female calves, 13 male calves (20). Lugal-ezen (?), herdsman. iiemplevot ithe sod Xe) 4 female calves, 5 male calves Lalul, herdsman. 2 female calves, 1 male calf (25) Urgishpu, herdsman. 2 3 female calves, 3 male calves ev. (1) Ludugga, herdsman. 9 female calves, 6 male calves Abbagina, herdsman. 5 female calves, 10 male calves (5) Sheshani, herdsman. 7 female calves, 5 male calves Urgishpu, herdsman, servant of the patesi. Temples of Ninurra and of Dungi. Total of 314° calves (10) Calves taken from the stall. Month of X#, the year when the bark of the god Enki was built (?). 1, The name of the god of the city of Umma. The actual total is 317 (!) to 3. No. 63 in Schell, Recwil de Signes BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES WSi7/ Tablet No. 5 Provision list of three men, dated in the 4th year of Gimil- sin, King of Ur (about 2201 B. ©). The name of the month corroborates the statement of the dealer, that this tablet came from JokHA. Unbaked. Size: length 3.5 centimeters, breadth 2.8 centimeters. From Johka. TRANSLATION. Ob. (1) 5 qa! of first-quality wine, 3 qa of bread 2 sheckels of oil, 2 sheckels of grain. I bageote Gr) for Kuli, minister. (Gon) Sada Olnwinew2dasom breads 2 sheckels of oil, 2 sheckels of grain, 1 bag of (?) Gimil-ili. Rev. (Cab) qa of wine, 3 ga of bread, 5 2 sheckels of oil, 2 sheckels of grain, ie bassoisC%) for Kallamu, minister. ~ Total 5 qa of first-quality wine. Total 5 qa of (ordinary) wine. (5) Total, 8 qa of bread. Total 6 sheckels of oil. Total 6 sheckels of grain. Total 3 bags of (?). The 7th day of the “month when the bricks are put in the mill,”! the year after the devasta- tion of the City of Simanu. Tablet No. 6 An account of sesame oil which is being sent to (the city of ) Ur by Tukshagki, charged to Nadi, vised by Ahuwagar. The tablet is dated in the dynasty of Ur, but the exact year of the dynasty has not yet been determined. The eight impressions of the seal, no one of which is perfect, have almost obliterated the writing. The scene of the seal is one of presentation. On the right is a god seated upon a throne, a turban is on his head, and in his right hand he is holding a goblet aloft. In front of him is a star within a crescent, and two figures. The first of these figures, 1, This is the second month in the calendar at Jokma, namely, the month of Sig gir i-sub ga-gar. [3] PLATE 9. No. 7. OBVERSE— REVERSE BLANK ESazeSse=ie) BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 139 is a goddess, clothed in a long garment and a cap with two horns, who is presenting to the seated deity a man with uncov- ered head who is wearing a fringed garment. The inscription on the seal reads: (To) E-a-ni-sha, priestess beloved of the King, Na-di son of [....], thy servant. Baked. Length 4 by 3.7 centimeters. TRANSLATION. Ob. (1) 30 (qa) of sesame oil (which is being sent) to the city of Ur by Tukshagki, the seal of Nadi, Rev. (1) viséd by Ahuwagar. The year in which the high priest of the god Nannar was installed (?) in Gesh. Tablet No. 7 This is a report concerning the flocks, but contrary to the usual custom, no shepherd’s name is given. Unbaked. . Undated. The form of the writing shows that 1t comes from the dynasty of Ur. Size: Length 8.8 centimeters, breadth 5.8 centimeters. It is said by the dealer to have been found in the modern Sen- kereh, the ancient Larsa or Biblical Fllasar of Genesis 14.1. TRANSLATION. Ob. (1) 106 ewes 194 rams are on hand. 61 ewes (50). 56. rams have been taken away, offered in sacrifice (?). There remain 447 ewes 310 rams. There remain hides that have been shorn, (10) ~(the number of) their hides 7571 are on hand. There remain 120 kids running with the ewes. 109 kids running with the rams. ‘ 1, Note that this is the sum of the two preceeding lines. 140 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS Tablet No. 8 Concerning two boats whose tonnage is. 20 gur, its rent 30 qa for six days. There are some twenty-three impressions of the notary’s seal, which almost obliterate the writing. The seated figure of a god is partially discernable. The inscription on the seal reads: Kuh, scribe, son of Urkiagmu. The tablet is dated in the X+40th year of the reign of Dungi (about 2240 B. C.). Baked. Size: length 5.6 centimeters, breadth 4.5 centimeters. TRANSLATION. Ob. (1) 2 boats of 20 gur boats whose presence(?) is mi-7b and whose rent is 30 (qa) for 6 days, (5) (payable) to Lugalazagzu (going to) the city of Ur. Rev. (1) shiu-bi-qa ésh-ib-in-su and kiy of palm, branches of cedar mad-pal-shu-ag (7). Viséd by Ur-Ezinu seal of Namshatam. The year when the city of Shashru was de- vastated. Tablet No. 9 The obverse has been written and then entirely erased. The reverse is almost unintelligible owing to the erasure of the obverse and because it has been made almost illegible by the seal of the notary having been run over the entire surface. The seal repre- sents a god seated on a throne, before whom is a crescent. The figure of the worshipper is out of position because two seal im- pressions have been run together. It reads: Shaningish, scribe, son of Lugalla. The account is in regard to the wages of laborers for work- ing ona certain quantity-of land. It is dated in the 7th year of the reign of Gimil-Sin, King of Ur (about 2203 B. C.). Baked. Size: length 9 centimeters, breadth 8.1 centimeters. PLATE. 10. No. 9. REVERSE — OBVERSE ERASED BY SCRIBE ples : noden: y Tee zs aS 1kie Oy , a 3 ae VYV =p ‘ill & f q —— K/ ! No. 10. OBVERSE REVERSE VTL “ VY ——ae . AVaYars 7 077 V4 7 V/A f AV = fe KV > y y ru 3 ry TU A = Er +H vv vv EF SIS AT =e YVVv pak 7 aa tT ia ns > A < XK => V7 \7 Z y Py—Ts rH Le aT ANN oe 2 Nam! ee cE EY 7 Ay } pf J {7 es = a(= ELI AY ir WY ee oe HE Eis Je? TO Se fA <4 ke | b+4 AS b ‘= 142 Rev. iy (5) (10) Ili elk) (5) THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS TRANSLATION. Obverse Wanting. Wages of the laborers (for) 300 days. 51+5/8+1/36+1/72 of a gan! park land HO Tet Bape eas ; - Wages of the laborers (for) 190 days, ploughed land. 1/3-++3/18 ot a gan park land to 3+4/18+1/36 of agan...... Wages of the laborers for 18 days, food for the farmers, for the field igi++-é-mah. 10+3+1/1841/36+1/72 of a gan park land to 2+4/18+-1/36 of a gan Wages of the laborers for 310 days ploughed land. lganot park land to” 3.3.2... 2066 see Wages! ofthe workmen for so5 ee days. ee gan ......1/36+1/72 of a gan park land to 2+4/18+1/36 of a gan. Wages of the laborers for 12 days “from the park, the excellent small field. Wages of the park land, Overseer, Ludingirra, seal of Shaningish. The year in which Gimil-Sin, the King, devas- tated the land of Zabshali. Tablet No. 10 Distribution of (grain) to ten different men for the oxen during the barley harvest. Since the name of the month follows the nomenclature used at Umma (the modern Jokha), we infer that the tablet came from that place. It bears the date of the 7th year of Bur-Sin, King of Ur (about 2211 B. C.) Size: length 5 centimeters, breadth 3.9 centimeters. The gan is the unit of land measure. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 143 TRANSLATION. Ob. (iy (aie) 20 (ce) (io) Basic 3 (gur) 20 (qa) (to) Lugalukkinni 3 (gur) 20 (ga) (to) Ur-Enlilla 3 (gur) 20 (qa) (to) Lugalemahe (55-3 (ur)e20)(qa)> (co) Dadumu 3 (gur) 20 (qa) (to) Urgishpu 3 (gur) 20 (qa) (to) Urgishpu the divin- em) 3 (gur) 20 (qa) (to) Lugalazagzu Rev. (Gace ae es acon gub-ba (gur) 20 (qa) (to) Idpae (gur) 20 (qa) (to) Urmes ; weighed out for the oxen of the barley harvest (5) before the workmen on the 19th of the month Shekarragal, the year that Huhunuri was destroyed. Tablet No. 11 Expenditure of bread in payment of 4232 laborers. Only the obverse is inscribed, but the reverse has been written on, prob- ably in making some calculation, since the numbers 240, 20, etc., are still legible. Undated. Baked. Size: length 9 centimeters, breadth 6.2 centimeters. TRANSLATION. Ob. (1) 2250" laborers for one day payment, Bashag, Akalla son of Nigdu and son of Sheskiagmu. 2727 laborers for one day, payment, Gizi, sig-a*. (5) Sealed with the seal of Lugalazida. 13504 laborers, payment Lallishuza. 360° laborers, payment Palaguba. Total 42326 laborers for one day. Expenditure of bread shu-nu gub-ba. Written: (3x600) 1 (7x60) 4 (5x10). Written: (4x60) 1 (5x10) 1 2, Meaning unknown. Written: (2x600) 1 (2x60) _1 (35x10). Written: (6x60). 6. Written: 3600 (3x10) 42. ao ® © NH Praneiele Nowlale OBVERSE — REVERSE BLANK IN@ A OBVERSE REVERSE BLANK BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 145 Tablet No. 12 An undated receipt. The form of the writing shows that it comes from the perio dof the dynasty of Ur (2300-2300 B. C.). Size: Length 2.2 centimeters, breadth 2 centimeters. TRANSLATION. - Ob. Gi) Se 8isheeps 1 goat, le Bashag the butcher (?). Tablet No. 13 An account of quantities of [....], dates, seed-corn, etc., brought in by various persons. The scribe has erased three lines after having written them (namely, Obverse 1, 8, 9), and the numerals and a part of the proper names in five other lines, so that it is impossible to understand the account. It is dated in the X-+37th year of Dungi (i.e. about 2241 B. C.). Baked. Size: Length 7.6 centimeters, breadth 4.7 centimeters. TRANSLATION. Ob. Gile Woe seshecklesn sang. ie ciety sacar Ts 5 sheckles from Uremah, door-keeper. [....] sheckles in payment of interest from Ur-dun. ie 4h ORS ee 2 HA-MUN from Nau. (5) 3 sheckles from Urgishpu, bird-catcher. 3 sheckels from Lugalmagurri. 5 sheckles from Babila. [eee peyote = eee tie ile (EIN 8 a Bertie ts ees |! Azag-gu from the gal-li® of the new house. Rev. (i ine ape |]? 1/5 from Lugalazida, (ee eee |? from Aradhula, [eeceieee. |? shekels minus 1/180 of a shekel from Nigdule, 1, The rest of the line has been erased, likewise the space between the first and second line has been written over and erased. 2. Erasure. 2, gal-h is the name of a profession or occupation of which the translation is unknown. No. 13. OBVERSE Grete a (en ‘Ty ey Ee Te] BO Ty No. 14. OBVERSE ra EAT ET ee ( es HG iy 7 Bt reo Prare 12) No: 13: REVERSE weaen | A N mee EXT He] ie} Sr aaaee if rh = rKyT ‘ “ES Ww oh ca rer y Te | pa We =~ y" No. 14. REVERSE Wi f YY WLLL, Hy ee AG Ealeos 148 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS 114% mana 1 2/3 shekel of light-colored A+HA, from Akalla, (5) charged to Akalla, overseer?. 9 shekels minus 1/12 of a shekel of light-col- ored dates, 814 shekels plus 1/36 of a shekel of light- colored seed-corn, charged to Akalla, the son of Lugal-X®-e, - The year when the temple (named) Ebashaish- Dagan? was built. Tablet No. 14 This is what is called a case-tablet, i.e. a tablet which is in a clay case or envelope. These tablets are recognized as case- tablets by their size and shape, or by the rattling of the inside tab- let which can sometimes be heard if the tablet is shaken gently. The case has been securely sealed, having two seal impressions on both the obverse and the reverse, and one impression on each of the four sides. The seal impression is too faint to be read, but a god seated on a throne into whose presence a worshipper is being led by another god or goddess (?) 1s faintly discernible. In all probability it 1s the seal of Dugri. The tablet is unbaked, and so much of the date is broken that the year cannot be de- termined exactly. It comes from the period of the dynasty of Ur (300-2200 B. C.). Size: Length 5 centimeters, breadth 5.5 centimeters. TRANSLATION. Ob. Seal of Dugri. 2 gur of barley to qa 80 (brought in) by Daaga Rev. on behalf of Urnigingar, Dugri has received (it). ihhesy ear thatthe city oie lene | was devas- tated. 1. meaning of this sign is unknown. It is listed in THurREAU DAN- GIN’S Recherches sur lecriture cuneiform, No. 471. 2. The term applies to overseers of various kinds, often, as here, to an officer for collecting dues. 3. This sign has not yet been identified. See ScHeIL, Recueil de Signes, No. 63. 4. This god Dagan is identical with the Philistine god Dagan (see T Samuel 5.9-5). BEATE AS No. 15. ENVELOPE OBVERSE REVERSE SEAL ON ENVELOPE INNER TABLET OBVERSE REVERSE 150 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS Tablet No. 15 This is also case tablet. Since the case was already cracked, it was opened for the first time in October, 1913, some 4158 years after it had been sealed. It is dated in the X+31st year of Dungi (about 2245 B. C.). There are eight impressions of the notary’s seal on the en- velope, none of which is perfect. The scene is that of a god seated on a throne, before whom a vessel with a long neck and long spout is standing, while above it is a star and crescent. A god or goddess with one hand raised is approaching, probably leading a worshipper by the hand. The seal is that of Lugal-ezen, scribe, son of Lugal-e-(?), diviner (?). This tablet is a receipt for three bronze axes, and is dated in the month Ri, the X-+51st year of Dungi. This month name shows that the tablet probably came from Jokha. It is unbaked. Size of the inner tablet 2.8 centimeters, breadth 2.8 centimeters ; outer tablet or envelope, length 4.2 centimeters, breadth 4.3 cen- timeters. TRANSLATION OF ENVELOPE. Ob. (Glp) a Dronzegaxes from Akalla Lugalezen has received. Rev. (Glee Montino te dar the year after the city of Simuru (was devas- tated) for the third time. TRANSLATION OF INNER TABLET. Ob. Gi®) = eomphonzeraxes for Nippur from Akalla Lugalezen Rev. (1) has received. Month of Rj, The year after Simuru was devastated for the third time. PARE 5: No. 16. OBVERSE No. 17. PLATE 16. No. 16. REVERSE Fi’ D> OB HM BSC =/S= aN No. 18. OBVERSE BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 153 Tablet No. 16 An account of the expenditure of grain for food, the 2nd year of the reign of Bur-Sin, King of Ur (about 2218 B. C.). Baked. Size: Length 8.7 centimeters, breadth 5 centimeters. The writing on the obverse is very much obscured by twelve im- pressions of the seal, of which there are four on the reverse. It represents a god wearing a turban, seated upon a throne, before whom a worshipper is standing. The goddess standing behind the worshipper is acting as intercessor. The seal reads: (To) Dungi, the mighty hero, King of Ur, King of the four quarters of the world, Ludugga, the scribe, son of Nigingardugga, thy servant. TRANSLATION. Ob. (1) 5 imperial-(gur) of grain for food, Basha-Ishtar. 5 Girninishag?, 3 Kalulku, 3 Lu-Ninshubur?, 3 Lukani, 3 Mama, 3-Zaii, 3 Shelim, (10) 2 (gur) 120 (qa) Ur-azagnunna, son of Ahuni, 2 (gur) 120 (qa) Dakilum 3 Gimil-Mamitum 3 Urmes (?) 3 Gimil-ad( ?)-lum-( ?)-(?) Rey. (1) 15 gur Lugalezen du-gab?. Grain, imperial measure, for food; bread for the new house, expended by Ba-?X#4 1, “gur of grain for food” is to be understood before each name. sy 2, This name means, Man (worshipper) of the goddess Ninshubur. 3. du-gab is the name of his occupation or profession. Its trans- lation is unknown. 4. X is the god of the city of Umma, but the pronounciation is unknown. [4] 154 THE BABYLONIAN TABLETS Tablet No. 17 This is a list of butter, cheese, wool, and hides that had been brought to the palace. It is lightly baked and dated in the X-+42nd year of Dungi (about 2242 B. C.). Size: Length 6.3 centimeters, breadth 4.4 centimeters. It is said by the dealer to have come from the modern Senkereh, the ancient Larsa or Biblical Ellasar of Genesis 14.1. TRANSLATION. Ob. (1) 2 (gur) 2% qa of butter 2 1% qa of cheese 17 talents 18 mana of gi-wool 5) 6 mana of goat’s wool (5) 149 sheep skins 20. ox-hides are on hand. Rev. (1) They have been brought into the palace. Month of Shuessha the year that Simuru and Lulubu were com- pletely devastated (literally, devastated for the ninth time). Tablet No. 18 This tablet has disintegrated very rapidly owing to the crys- talization of the salt contained in the tablet. It is a list of names of nine men, followed by the name of their overseer. Un- baked. Undated. The form of the writing points to the time of the first dynasty of Babylon (2060-1761 B. C.), which is con- firmed by the names being largely Semitic. In the third line, Ubar means friend, the rest of the name being uncertain. The name in the fourth line is abbreviated from “May the God Milik b) (be favorable)”. In the sixth line the name means: “The god Enzu was favorable to me.” Jn lines seven and eight and Rev. | the names mean, “The god Enzu has presented,” “The god Enzu has heard,” and “Man of the god Enzu;? Size; Wength 49 centimeters, breadth 4+ centimeters. It is said to have come from Senkereh (Larsa, the Biblical Ellasar). PLATE 17, No. 19. OBVERSE No. 20. PLATE 18. No. 19. DGE. “REVERSE b/s mana. 8) slekelssotusier. 2/3 (mana) Y% shekel of gold for 1 mana 716shekels of silver, from Ishtar-ilu Goa) snecemed Abuwagqar [an]d Shamash-ilu. Tablet No 21 Sin-gashid, King of Uruk, ruled from about 2150 to 2110 B. C. Uruk, or Erech, is the second of the four Babylonian cities - founded according to Genesis 10.10 by Nimrod. The mound of some six miles in circumference, is situated on the left bank of the Euphrates, and is now known as Warka. Baked. length 8.5, width 6.7 centimeters. TRANSLATION. Ob. (1-) Sin-gashid, the mighty hero, King of Uruk, King of Amnanu, (5a). who cares sor Eanna!, Rev. (1-2) his royal palace has built. 1, Banna is the name of the temple of the goddess Ishtar in Uruk. A Revision of the North American Species OF THE Dipterous Genus Diaphorus. Me @. VAN DuUZEE In separating the genus Diaphorus from Chrysotus I have found no better method than that proposed by Prof. J. M. Aldrich in his paper on the Dolichopodidae of Grenada, Kansas Univer- sity Science Bulletin, vol. i, p. 85, 1902. To place in Chrysotus all species in which the eyes of the male are approximated below the antennae and in Diaphorus all in which they are approximated above the antennae; where there 1s no approximation to refer to Chrysotus all in which the male have no large bristles at the tip - of the abdomen. Nearly all the species falling in Diaphorus by these rules have the pulvilli of the fore and sometimes those of the middle and hind tarsi enlarged, and also have more or less distinct bristles at the tip of the abdomen; there are exceptions but one of these characters 1s always present to.determine the position of the species. I do not know of any species that could be placed in Chrysotus by this method of separation that have bristles at the tip of the abdomen larger than those on the hind margins of the other segments, and only a few species in which the fore pulvilli are enlarged and then not conspicuously so, the group to which Chrysotus discolor Loew, belongs have the pul- villi enlarged as much as any I have seen in that genus. The Diaphorus are usually more slender and the abdomen more cylin- drical than those of the Chrysotus. The third and fourth longi- tudinal veins are nearly straight and parallel beyond the posterior cross vein, except in D. simplex Ald. and D. repandus n.sp. where they are bent. (Fig. 14). Prof. J. M. Aldrich has called my attention to the separation of the Diaphorus into two genera by Kowarz; the characters given in his table to separate them are “Wings oval, eyes of the male broadly separated on the front, Melanostolus ; Wings wedge- [5] 162 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS shaped, eyes of the male contiguous, Diaphorus.”” It seems to me very unsatisfactory to attempt to divide our species by the shape of their wings, and the separation of the eyes alone seems insufficient for the establishment of the genera. The following key is based on males only except in one case, that of D. antennatus n. sp. where the first antennal joint 1s yellow and there is a yellow band at the base of the second abdominal segment; this female is so distinct from all others in the genus that | have ventured to describe it; all other species described in this paper are founded on the males only, in many cases it would be difficult to separate the females of allied species, and sometimes not easy to decide whether a female belonged to this genus or was a Chrysotus. Where | could find characters that seemed sufficient to be of any value I have given them after describing the male. The characters used for separating the species are, the form of the third antennal joint, this is always of much importance; the general color is used but is subject to considerable variation, even the yellow on the venter and base of the abdomen varies in some species very much, in D. lamellatus Loew some speci- mens show scarcely a trace of yellow even on the venter while others have the veuter and a narrow band on the dorsum of the second segment yellow; the color of the legs is more con- stant, but sometimes where species have yellow tibiae they be- come more or less brownish. The color of the pollen on the head and thorax never varies as far as I have observed. The cilia of the tegulae is subject to much variation in those species having pale cilia, mostly depending on the direction from which it is viewed. I think those species that are placed in the key under “Cilia black” never vary, but if a specimen has blackish cilia and cannot be placed under “cilia black” it should be taken through as “cilia pale” before deciding that it 1s undescribed. The length of the first vein is a good character used in separat- ing some species. The appendages of the hypopygium are used in a few cases but care should he used not to give too much importance to the length and form of the central filament or penis as it varies greatly, in D. sodalis Loew, it is usually in- visable but I have seen a specimen where it was very long, the same is true of D. leucostoma Loew, and others; in life they probably have the power of extending it at will. The width of the face and front is always important. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAI, SCIENCES 163 Specimens of this genus are not numerous in any collec- tion, they are usually taken one at a time and many of the species are described from a single specimen. T-am indebted to Prof. J. M. Aldrich for the loan of his material, which contained many new species; to Prof. C. W. lohnson. Vie Nathan Banks; Prot sje Se tine and! Mie EIS; Harbeck for the loan of their material; to Dr. J. C. Bradley for the loan of the material in the Cornell University collection, and roms Bole Cresson, ice Lom the loan ot thesmatentallon.the American Entomological Society. CaS) 10. Table of Species. Dorsum of the abdomen more or less yellow at base. 2 Abdomen without yellow on the dorsum. ie Fore and middle femora entirely yellow. 4, Fore and middle femora partly black. 3. All femora black with the extreme tips yellow. 1, lamellatus Loew. Fore and middle femora with the basal half black. 2, basalis n.sp. Cilia of the tegulae black, second and third segments of the abdomen yellow, antennae black. 3, dimidiatus Ald. Cilia of the tegulae pale, at least in certain lights. a Antennae black. 6, ventralis, 1.sp. Antennae yellowish brown, or with the first joint yellow. 6. Front and thorax with violet reflections, antennae yellow- ish brown. 5, Satrapa Wh. Front and thorax green, covered with yellowish pollen, first antennal joint yellow. 4, antennatus, n.sp. Femora green, black or brown, the tips may be yellow. 8. Femora yellow. 30. Eves of the male contiguous. 9. Eyes not contiguous. 13. Color of the dorsum of the thorax opaque black or brown. 10. Color of dorsum more or less green. 12, Halters and tegulae yellow. 7, contiguous Ald. Halters and tegulae black. ila, 164 ele 12 We 20. Cau) Cas) DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS Eyes broadly contiguous, tibiae yellow, at most yellowish brown, (Eastern species). 8, opacus Loew. Eyes narrowly contiguous, legs altogether black. (Western species ). 9, adustus n.sp. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters black, length 2 mm. 10, gibbosus n.sp. Tegulae and halters yellowish, cilia of the tegulae black to pale yellow, length 3.5-4 mm. 12, spectabilis Loew. Pulvilli of fore tarsi not or but slightly enlarged. 14. Pulvilli of fore tarsi distinctly enlarged. iL, Pulvilli not at all enlarged; thorax with a violet vitta. 13, caerulescens Loew. Fore pulvilli shghtly enlarged; thorax without violet. 15. Hind metatarsi with a long erect bristle below. 15, sumplex Ald. Hind metatarsi without such a bristle. 6. Thorax with a coppery vitta. 14, vittatus n.sp. Thorax without a vitta. 16, alienus n.sp. Palpi much enlarged. 18. Palpi normal. 19. Palpi as long as the face; face not unusually wide; tibiae black. 32, palpiger Wh. Palpi about half as long as the face; face very wide; tibiae yellow. 33, triangulatus n.sp. Cilia of the tegulae pale. 20, Cilia black. 32. Face with yellow pollen. 21 Face with white pollen. 22, Face with course pollen; third antennal joint large, kidney- shaped. 17, rauterberg: Wh. Face green with thin pollen along the sides; third antennal joint of moderate size. 18, albiciliata n.sp. Third antennal joint subquadrate but may have a short point at upper corner. 31. Third joint rounded or with a point at tip. 23. Cav) Oo CaS) 2 (SU) Oo BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 165 Third antennal joint large with a rather sharp point, as long as the two basal joints together. (When viewed from the outer side). QA. Third joint distinctly shorter than the two basal joints or rounded at tip. 28. Hind tibiae yellow. 25. Hind tibiae and all tarsi black or brown. a7. Thorax with a coppery vitta. 14 vittatus n.sp. Thorax without a vitta. 26. Hind tibiae entirely and hind tarsi partly yellow. 19, leucostoma Loew. Hind tibiae with the tip broadly and hind tarsi entirely black or brown. 20, leucostoma Loew. var. infuscatus n. var. Point at tip of third antennal joint rather short (Fig. 11). 22, occidentalis n.sp. Point at tip of third joint long. (Fig. 10). 21, quadratus n.sp. Third antennal joint about as long as the first, as broad as long with a short but sharp point at center of apex (Fig. i) 23, parmatus n.sp. Third joint rounded at tip. Bo), Third antennal joint as long as the first two (Fig. 2); palpi small. 24, remulus n.sp. Third joint shorter than the first ; palpi as large as usual. 30. Third antennal joint short, rather flattened at tip; arista apical; third vein bent. (Figs. 3 and 14). 25, repandus n.sp. Third joint small, slightly pointed at tip; arista subapical (Fig. 4) ; third vein nearly straight. 26, usitatus n.sp. Color blue-green; last section of fourth vein considerably bent. 27, aldrichi n.sp. Color green, inclined to golden; last section of fourth vein nearly straight. Ae 28, similis n.sp. Outer appendages of the hypopygium are large spatuleate lamellae. 1, lamellatus Loew. Appendages small, not lamellaform. 33. 4), 41. DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS Hypopygium large and conspicuous. 11, nigrescens Ald. Hypopygium normal. 34. Fore coxae with a few minute pale hairs and black bristles. 29, sodalis Loew. Fore coxae with black hairs and bristles. 35), Middle tibiae with two prominent bristles on the front side, one near the base and one at the middle; thorax vit- tate. 30, trivittatus n.sp. Middle tibiae with only one bristle which is near the base; thorax not vittate. 3l, dubiuts Ald. Male with very large, pendant, white palpi. 34, amoenus Ald. Male with the palpi normal. Bie Eyes of the male not contiguous. 38. Eyes of male contiguous. 42. Front and thorax with little pollen; tip of abdomen of male without stout bristles. 35, parvulus Ald. Front with considerable pollen; tip of abdomen with dis- tinct bristles. 39. Face narrower than the front: thorax with or without a bronze vitta. 36, variabilis n.sp. Face wider than the front. 40. Fore coxae black. 41, femoratus n.sp. Fore coxae vellow. 41. Venter yellow. 6, ventralis n.sp. Venter not yellow. | 37, subsejunctus Loew. Middle and hind coxae infuscated for half their length; antennae black. 40, deceptivus Ald. Fore and hind coxae altogether yellow, middle coxae dark- ened at base; antennae partly yellowish. 43. Thorax with but little pollen; abdomen without stout bris- tles at tip. 38, flavipes Ald. Thorax with thick yellowish pollen; bristles at tip of ab- domen short but distinct. 39, mundus Loew. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 167 Explanation of Figures. 1-11 antennae of Diaphorus. 1 D. parmatus n. sp. 2 remu- lus nsp.; 3 repandus n.sp.; + usitatus n.sp.; 5 aldrichi n.sp.; 6 similis n.sp.; 7 triangulatus n.sp.; 8 alienus n.sp.; 9 leucostoma Loew; 10 quadratus’ nsp.; 11 aiseidleatallls n.sp.; 12 lamella of the hypopygium of D. lamellatus Loew; 13 lamella of the hypopygium of D. basalis n.sp.; 14 Wing of D. repandus n.sp. ee Ones a es 1 Diaphorus lamllatus Loew. Diaphorus Lamellatus Loew, Mon. N. A. Dipt, 11, 165. Male: Length 2.6-4 mm. Eyes narrowly separated by the front; antennae small, black; arista subapical. Thorax and abdomen metallic green, the former with brownish yellow dust, bristles at the tip of the abdomen remarkably strong; outer apendages of the hypopygium elongated, spatulate lamellae ( Fig. 12). Coxae and feet black, basal half of the four anterior tibiae yellowish; pulvill of fore tarsi much elongated. Halters and tegulae yellow, the latter with black cilia. Wings grayish hyaline ; the first vein reaching about two-fifths the distance to the tip of the second vein. The venter is usually yellowish at the base of the abdomen, and in some specimens the yellowish color forms a narrow band on the dorsum at the base of the second segment. Middle States Loew; I have seen specimens from N. Y., Pa and Via. 168 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS 2 Diaphorus basalis n. sp. Male: Length 3.75 mm. Face subgquadrate and rather deeply depressed, black with thin white pollen; proboscis black ; palpi yellowish; eyes touching or nearly so on the center of the front, leaving a small triangle above the antennae; antennae small, black, third joint very small, rounded with a dorsal arista ; lateral and inferior orbital cilia white. Thorax metallic green dulled with gray pollen; pleurae greenish black with white pol- len. Abdomen dark metallic bronze with the second and part of the third segment yellow, still a narrow hind margin of the second dark; hairs of the abdomen black, tip with six or seven strong bristles; hypopygium conspicuous with long spatulate lamellae (Fig. 13), which are brown with the tip more blackish and fringed with long brown hairs. Coxae and femora black; the tips of the fore coxae, their trochanters, and the apical half of the fore and middle femora yellow; all tibiae and fore and middle tarsi yellow, these tarsi brownish towards the tips; ex- treme tips of hind tibiae and their tarsi brown; all femora ciliate below with long brown hairs, those on the middle pair shorter and more bristle-like, hind femora also with rather long hairs above; fore tibiae with long hairs; middle tibiae with a bristle near the knee on the front side and two or three small ones below ; hind tibiae with one bristle near the base on the outer- upper edge and a row of bristle-like hairs and several larger bris- tles on the upper-inner edge; fore tarsi about one and a half times as long as their tibiae and with their pulvilli much enlarged and lengthened, being fully as long as the fifth joint, there are a few long hairs at the tip of the fifth joint; pulvilli of the mid- dle and hind tarsi but little enlarged; middle tarsi a little longer, and the hind tarsi scarcely as long as their tibiae. Halters and tegulae yellow, the latter with black cilia. Wings tinged with brown; first vein reaching about one half the distance to the tip of the second vein. Described from one male taken by Mr. Nathan Banks, at Glencarlyn, Va. Type in Mr. Banks’ collection. This species is closely related to D. oculatus Fall. from Europe, the third joint of the antenna is the same, as is the gen- eral color, but it differs in having no bristles on the fore tibiae and in the arrangement of the bristles of the other legs. The lamellae of the hypopygium are much like those of D. lamellatus but much more slender. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 169 3 Diaphorus dimidiatus Ald. Diaphorus dimidiatus Ald., Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1896, pe ii; p. 322. Male: Length 2 mm. Eyes separated by the front; anten- nae black, the third joint very short; arista dorsal. Thorax light green, bluish, white dusted. . Abdomen with second and third segments vellow; apical segments green, a little coppery; four apical bristles large. Fore coxae black with a row of three long black bristles; middle coxae black with yellow tips; hind coxae yellowish brown; femora, tibiae and tarsi yellow; tarsi infuscated at tips; fore pulvilli as long as the third joint of fore tarsi, middle pulvilli nearly as large as those of the fore tarsi. Halters and tegulae yellow, the latter with black cilia. Wangs subhyaline. Wee. 4 Diaphorus antennatus n. ‘sp. Female: Length 4 mm. Face wide, thickly covered with silvery white pollen which is more abundant below the suture; papli yellowish with white pollen and coarse black hairs; pro- boscis black; antennae with the first joint yellow, second and third black, third joint short, rounded, flattened in outline at the tip; arista apical, black, as long as the height of the eye; front green covered with yellowish gray pollen. Thorax green, dor- sum thickly covered with yellowish pollen; pleurae with white pollen; scutellum blue-green. Abdomen green, in one speci- men with golden reflections, in the other blue-green; venter, sides of the second and third, and a band at the base of the second segment above yellow; the bristles on the hind margins of the segments large and conspicuous. Legs and fore coxae yellow ; tarsi becoming dark brown from the tip of the second joint ; middle and hind coxae black with yellow tips and a large bristle on the outer surface; fore coxae with thin silvery pollen and minute pale hairs on the front surface and with black bristles at tip; middle and hind trochanters with a black bristle above ; fore tibiae with a prominent bristle near the base on the upper side; middle tibiae with a long stout bristle near the base on the front side, and also several minute bristles; hind tibiae with two bristles at basal fourth, two beyond the middle above 170 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS and several smaller ones. Tegulae and halters pale yellow, the cilia of the former yellow but appearing blackish in certain lights. Wings grayish hyaline, veins brown, yellow at the root of the wing; first vein reaching only about one-third of the dis- tance to the tip of the second vein. Described from two females from Vera Cruz and Cordoba, Mex. (Crawford), in the J. M. Aldrich collection and presented to him by Prof. Charles Fuller Baker. Type in the collection One Me Aldrich: Easily distinguished by the yellow band at the base of the second segment of the abdomen, and the first antennal joint and the legs being yellow. 5 Diaphorus satrapa Wheeler. Diaphorus satrapa. Wheeler, Psyche, June, 1890, p. 359. Male: Length 2 mm. Antennae yellowish brown with the third joint pointed; front bronze black with violet reflections. Dorsum of the thorax blackish bronze with a shining violet patch bordered on each side by a broad, poorly defined, cupreous band. Abdomen with the first segment bronze-green, second and third mostly yellow, posterior segments blackish-bronze. Coxae and feet pale yellow; apical half of hind femora brown on the upper surface; tibiae brownish. Flalters and tegulae yellowish, cilia of the latter white. Saline: Cot, Nebr. 6 Diaphorus ventralis n. sp. Male:- Length 3:5 mm. Face a little longer than’ wade} covered with white pollen; palpi small, whitish; front narrow, not much more than half the wrdth of the face, green, in cer- tain lights completely covered with gray pollen; antennae small, black, third joint very small, rounded; arista dorsal; orbital cilia white except above. Dorsum of the thorax light green with considerable yellowish pollen, which is thickest on the front and sides; pleurae with gray pollen. | Abdomen coppery or bronze colored, more green at tip; venter and more or less of the sides of the second and third segments yellow; venter with a few long hairs on the hind margins of the segments; bristles at the tip of the abdomen of moderate size; hypopygium small, without BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES U7 il visible appendages. Fore coxae yellow with black bristles at tip: middle and hind coxae black; legs yellow, tarsi only slightly darker towards the tips; middle tibiae with the usual bristle near the base rather large; fore and middle femora with a few bristle- like hairs near the tip on the lower outer edge; pulvilli of the fore tarsi distinctly enlarged. Tegulae and halters yellow, the cilia of the former appears yellow in most lights, but in a certain direction it appears nearly black. Wings hyaline; first vein scarcely reaching one third of the distance to the tip of the sec- ond vein. Two females from the same location seem to belong here; they agree with the males in the color of the legs, cilia of the tegu- lae, face and front, the two latter being of about equal width; the thorax is more blue-green and the abdomen pure green, the venter being yellow but this color does not extend up on the sides > as in the male. Length 3 mm. Described from two males and two females labeled (Belize; Johnson), in the collection of Prof. J. M. Aldrich and presented to him by Charles Fuller Baker. Type in the collection of J. M. Aldrich. Specimens of this species will be likely to be found with the © yellow of the venter extending more or less onto the dorsum as it does sometimes in D. lamellatus Loew. 7 Diaphorus contiguus Ald. Diaphorus contiguus Ald. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1896, 99)9 Pe WW, p33. Male: Length 2 mm. . Eyes contiguous; antennae very short; arista subapical; cilia of the inferior orbits blackish; dorsum of the thorax and abdomen black, opaque, the former with pale brown dust; bristles at the tip of the abdomen large. Coxae and femora black, tips of the femora, tibiae and base of tarsi yellow; fore pulvilli large. Halters and tegulae yellow, the latter with black cilia. St. Vincent, W. I.; Grenada. 8 Diaphorus opacus Loew. Diaphorus opacus Loew, Neue Beit., viii, p. 56; Mon. N. A. Dipt., pt. 11, p. 160. 72 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS 9 Male: Length 2.5-3 mm. Eves contiguous; antennae black, third joint small, rounded at tip; arista subapical, or perhaps bet- ter described as dorsal. Thorax black, dorsum covered with brown pollen, opaque. Abdomen shining, black, bristles at tip large. Coxae and femora black ; tibiae yellow, sometimes yellow- ish brown; tarsi yellow at base, brown’at tip; fore pulvilli but little enlarged.. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters black. Wings tinged with brown; first vein reaching about two-fifths of the distance to the tip of the second vein, (Loew states that the first vein reaches nearly to the middle of the front margin, but in all the specimens I have seen which answer his description of opacus it does not reach so- far). I have seen specimens from Vt, NE Ye) baesand toronto @nts 9 Diaphorus adustus n. sp. Male: Length 2.5 mm. Altogether black except that the thorax has a very slight greenish. tint, and the knees are very narrowly yellowish, body and legs somewhat shining; face and thorax with brown pollen; pleurae with gray pollen; eyes nar- rowly contiguous, or scarcely touching-on the front; antennae black, third joint very small; arista dorsal; bristles at the tip of the abdomen strong. Middle tibiae with the bristle near the knee rather small; hind tibiae with four or five small bristles on the upper surface; pulvill of fore tarsi enlarged, yellowish brown. Wings tinted with brownish; first vein reaching about two-fifths of the distance to the tip of the second vein; costa . scarcely enlarged beyond the tip of the first vein. Described from three males from Idaho and Nev., the latter taken July 12th. Type in J. M. Aldrich collection. The relation of this species to opacus Loew is very close, but it is separated from that species by the altogether black legs, and the more shining thorax with its slight greenish tint, in opacus the tibiae are yellow or brownish yellow, if the tibiae are brown in adustus they are of the same shade as the femora and are not yellowish brown; from D. gibbosus it is more widely separated by the longer first vein, more thickened costa, and more arched thorax of gibbosus n.sp. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 173 10 Diaphorus gibbosus n. sp. Male: Length 3 mm. Face, palpi and proboscis black ; face with gray pollen; antennae small, black, third joint very small; arista dorsal; eyes contiguous, leaving only a very small black triangle above the antennae; occalii not so prominent as in most species that have the eyes contiguous ; cilia of the interior orbit dark brown. Dorsum of the thorax prominently elevated and including the scutellum dark green, somewhat shining; in front and along the lateral sides more blackish and opaque be- ing covered with thick brown pollen, which in most specimens forms two indistinct vittae on the front of the dorsum; pleurae black with dark brown pollen. Abdomen dark brown or black, almost opaque still with slight greenish reflections, and with quite abundant, rather long brown hairs; bristles at the tip of the abdomen not very long but prominent; appendages of the hypo- pygium very small, black. Halters black; tegulae brown with narrow black border and black cilia. Coxae and femora black ; tibiae and first joint of tarsi yellowish brown, tarsi from the tip of the first joint darker; pulvilli of the fore tarsi moderately en- larged, those of the middle tarsi less so, and those of the hind tarsi scarcely enlarged ; fore femora with long hairs on the lower outer edge, these hairs as long as the thickness of the femora; middle and hind femora with hairs similarly placed but the hairs are much shorter on the basal half; all tibiae with long hair but without bristles except a small slender one on the middle and hind pair near the knee and several very minute ones on the hind pair. Wings strongly tinged with brownish; first vein reaches about half way to the tip of the second vein; veins black; costa somewhat enlarged from just before the tip of the first vein to the tip of the second vein or beyond. Described from twelve males; two taken at Little Valley, N. Y., June 10th; three from Colden, N. Y., May 31st; one from Ft. Erie, Ont., June 20th, this one has the thorax more purple than green; one from Castle Rock, Pa., May 21st, and one marked “June,” sent by E. T. Cresson, Jr.; two from Auburn- dale, Mass., July 12th and June 4th, one from Manchester, Vt., June 8th, and one from Johnsbury, Vt., June 27th, sent by C. W. Johnson; one from Monmouth, Me., June 27th (\C. A. Frost). Type in the author’s collection. 174 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS Specimens from St. Vincent sent me by Prof. J. M. Aldrich seem to belong here, although the costa is not thickened and they are somewhat smaller. 11 Diaphorus nigrescens Ald. Diaphorus nigrescens Aldrich, Biologia Diptera, i, p. 346. Male: Length 3.1 mm. Eyes separated by the front but not widely so; antennae small, black; arista apical; thorax opaque black, a little shining behind; abdomen blackish-green, shining, apical bristles distinct; hypopygium large; legs opaque black, all the knees yellow; pulvilli white, moderately enlarged. Wings uniformally infuscated, not very dark. Halters yellow; cilia of the tegulae black, that of the inferior orbits yellowish. Mexico. 12 Diaphorus spectabilis Loew. Diaphorus spectabilis Loew, Neue Beitr., vii, p. 57; Mon. INA Ae Diptera. 16 5p. loz D. approximatus Aldrich, Trans: Ent. Soc. of London, 1896, Dibs bth Dy well Male: Length 3.5-4.25 mm. Eyes contiguous; antennae small, black; arista almost apical; thorax and abdomen bronze green, the former with yellowish brown dust, but quite shining ; bristles at the tip of the abdomen rather striking. Coxae and femora black; tibiae brownish yellow; fore pulvilli very much enlarged. Halters yellow with the, tips of their knobs some- times infuscated ;'tegulae yellow with blackish cilia which has a yellowish reflection in some lights. | Wings tinged with gray. Prof: Aldrich states that the eyes are narrowly separated in some specimens. He described this form under the name of D. approximatus. I have not seen any, where the eyes did not touch on the front. IShawes seen: specimens, tron) Mo tI tenn Nasser War Nee, Gas ka, ) Prot. Aldrich reports it r,omm\y eelesaraal Mex. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 175) 13 Diaphorus caerulescens Loew. Diaphorus caerulescens Loew, Wien. Ent.. Monatsch., 1, p. Soe Ncuembeiin ville oe G0h Viong eh: tan) Diptera. ay) ps nO (all Lyroneurus). Male: Length 3-4 mm. [tyes widely separated by the front ; antennae small, black. Thorax pale green with the hind part and a central line blue or violet and with rather thick brownish dust. \bdomen metallic green, blue or violet from the middle of the second segment, tip with four strong bristles. Coxae black with a more or less greenish tint, femora green; tips of femora and all tibiae brownish yellow; pulvilli of fore tarsi not enlarged; tegulae pale yellow with dark brown cilia. Wings grayish hyaline. Mex. 14 Diaphorus vittatas n. sp. Male: Length 2 mm. Face wide and short, covered with silvery white pollen, but black in certain lights; front nearly as wide as the face, bright green with very little pollen; antennae black, first joint long and slender, third joint large, pointed with the arista inserted near the tip of this point; palpi rather large, white. Thorax and scutellum bright green with slight golden reflections and almost without pollen, a not very sharply defined, coppery vitta extends from the front of the thorax to the scutellum; pleurae and coxae black, without much pollen, the former with greenish reflections. Abdomen metallic coppery, more golden on the sides; bristles at the tip very short; hypo- pygium small, its appendages small, black. Femora shining green; trochanters and tibiae sordid yellow; fore and middle tarsi becoming brown from the tip of the first joint; tip of hind tibiae and the hind tarsi brown; the row of hairs on the lower outer edge of the fore femora long; the lateral bristle at the base of the middle tibiae small; pulvilli of fore and middle tarsi a lit- tle enlarged. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters yellow. Wings grayish hyaline; veins black; first vein reaches nearly half the distance to the tip of the second vein. Described from one male taken at Falls Church, Va., by Mr. Nathan Banks in April. Type in Mr. Banks’ collection. 176 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS This is one of the species that are difficult to place, but the bristles at the tip of the abdomen although they are small and the enlargment of the pulvilli seem to place it in this genus. The form of the antennae and general color would place it near D. leucostoma Loew but it differs from that species, in hav- ing a central vitta on the thorax. 15 Diaphorus simplex Ald. Lyroneurus simplex Aldrich, Trans. Ent. Soc. of London, UNG, jO1es sibl, Ds Sees Male: Length 3.5-5.5 mm. Eyes widely separated by the front; antennae small, black, third joint crescent-shaped with long, slender, subapical arista. Thorax and abdomen green with considerable brown dust; acrostichal bristles in a single row; bristles at the tip of the abdomen rather long. Tegulae, their cilia, and the halters yellow. Fore coxae green at base becoming yellow at tip; all femora dark green; trochanters, tips of femora, tibiae and base of front and middle tarsi yellow; pulvilli of fore tarsi a little enlarged. Wings yellow at apex in front of the third vein. NV iexe 16 Diaphorus alienus n. sp. Male: Length 1.7 mm. Face broad with silvery pollen, but appearing black in certain lights; palpi yellowish, of moderate size; front broad with whitish pollen, which almost conceals the green ground color; antennae black, third joint rather large, somewhat subquadrate, nearly as long as wide; arista inserted just above the upper corner (Fig. 8). Thorax bright green; pleurae more blackish with white pollen. Abdomen green with coppery reflections and without bristles at tip; hypopygium large, partly disengaged, with a curved central filiment, black and somewhat shining. Coxae black, the fore pair with yellow tips and with white hairs on the front surface ; trochanters yellowish ; femora greenish black; tips of femora and tibiae yellow; tips of hind tibiae and the tarsi brownish; pulvilli of front tarsi but slightly enlarged. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters pale yellow. Wings hyaline; first vein reaching a little more than one-third of the distance to the tip of the second vein. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES eT Described from one male from Hood River, Ore. (J. M. Aldrich). This species is distinguished by its small size, the large third antennal joint, and the partly disengaged hypopygium. Type in the J. 7. Aldrich collection. This might be placed in Chrysotis but seems to fit into this genus better, as the pulvilli of the fore tarsi are somewhat en- larged, the form is rather slender, and the third antennal joint ‘is formed somewhat the same as that of several other species of this genus. 17 Diaphorus rauterbergi Wheeler. Diaphorus rauterbergi Wheeler, Psyche, June, 1890, p. 360. Male: Length 8 mm. Face with course yellow pollen; eyes widely separated ; antennae black, third joint large, kidney- shaped; arista apical. Thorax and abdomen metalic green with course yellow pollen which is very thick on the thorax. Halters and tegulae yellow, the latter with yellow cilia. Coxae black; femora green with broadly yellow tips ; tibiae and tarsi yellow, the latter with enlarged pulvilli on all feet. © Wings grayish hyaline. Saline Co., Nebr. 18 Diaphorus albiciliatus n. sp. Male: Length 2.1 mm. Face narrower than the front, a little narrowed in the middle, dark green with thin yellow pollen which is more visible when viewed from the side; palpi small yellowish ; antennae black, third joint of moderate size, rounded at tip, with rather long pubescens; arista subapical; front dark green with scarcely a trace of yellow pollen. Thorax and scutel- lum bright green with slight golden reflections and a central coppery vitta, (this vitta may not be found in all specimens, although sharply defined in the type); thorax with very thin gray pollen; pleurae and coxae blackish with gray pollen and ~ green reflections; there is a small white bristle above the fore coxae. Abdomen darker green than the thorax, somewhat coppery towards the tip; hypopygium small with concealed ap- pendages ; bristles at the tip of the abdomen very small. Fore coxae green with white hairs on the front surface and with the extreme tips and the trochanters yellow; femora green; tips [6] 178 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS of the femora, tibiae and tarsi yellow, the latter slightly brownish towards their tips; pulvilli of all tarsi distinctly enlarged; fore femora with the usual row of hairs on the lower hind edge; ‘middle and hind femora with a few bristle-like hairs near the tip. Halters yellow ; tegulae and their cilia white. Wings gray- ish hyaline, slightly tinged with brown along the veins; first vein reaching about one third the distance to the tip of the sec- ond vein. . Female: lI our females taken with the male described above have the face black with white pollen; front with thick gray pol- len. Thorax dull green with thick gray pollen and a trace of the coppery vitta. Abdomen dark green with gray pollen; femora almost black. Tegulae and their cilia white; wings hyaline slightly tinged with grayish; third vein reaching more than one- third of the distance to the tip of the second; costa rather stout beyond the tip of the first vein. Described from one male and four females taken at Gualan, Guatemala, Feb. 15th. Type in the collection of Prof. J. S.-Hine. The following combination of characters serve to separate this species. Tegulae and their cilia pale, antennae of moderate size with the third joint rounded at tip, face green with yellow pollen, first vein one-third as long as second. 19 Diaphorus leucostomos Loew. Diaphorus leucostoma Loew, Neue Beitr., vii, p. 58 A. Diptera, u, p. 166. Ne Male: Length 2.5-3 mm. Eyes widely separated by the front; antennae black, third joint large and with a rather long point (Fig. 9); arista inserted before the tip of this point. Thorax and abdomen bright green, the former with thin grayish dust; bristles at the tip of the abdomen rather long. Coxae black; femora green; tibiae, tips of femora and tarsi yellow, tarsi infuscated towards the tips; pulvilli of all tarsi enlarged. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters yellow. Wings hyaline slightly tinged with gray. T have seen speciniens from Canada, IN. Yo; Ne Je Mids D. €.,; Ga., La., Ohio, Mich., Mo., and Guatemala. Prof. John- son reports it from Fla. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAI, SCIENCES 179 20 Diaphorus leucostoma var. infuscatus n. var. Male: Very much like D. leucostoma. Length 3.3 mm. Hind tibiae have their tips blackish, hind tarsi entirely blackish ;- the third vein is bent backward slightly more than in lewcostoma and the second vein extends somewhat further towards the apex of the wing. Two males Washington, D. C. and N. J The three species belonging to the Jeucostoma group, which have the eyes widely separated by the front, the cilia of the tegulae pale, the third joint of the antennae as long as the two basal joints and with a pointed tip are separated as follows; leucostoma has the face distinctly longer than wide, the hind tibiae yellow, the fore femora with rather short hairs on the lower side, and the thorax green with more or less coppery or golden reflections. The other two have the thorax bluish, the face nearly or quite as wide as long, and the hind tibiae brown- ish or blackish. In quadratus the hind femora have rather long hairs on top and only short hairs below, the face almost square, and the third joint of the antennae with a rather sharp point; while in occidentalis the face is slightly longer than wide, there are long bristly hairs on the lower outer edge of all femora, and the hairs on the top of the hind femora are no longer than on the sides. 21 Diaphorus quadratus n. sp. Male: Length 3 mm. Face very wide, nearly square, so thickly covered with silvery white pollen as to conceal the ground color, rather flat with a depressed line in the center, deepest near the antennae and not reaching the oral margin; palpi small, brownish with pale edges and white pollen; front as wide as the face with nearly parallel sides, bluish green, with white pollen which is thickest near the antennae; antennae black, third joint large with a long point (Fig. 10), arista inserted before the tip of this point; lower and lateral orbital cilia white and rather long. Thorax blue-green, dulled with gray pollen; pleurae green with blue reflections in front of the middle coxae. Scutellum and abdomen bright green, shining, abdomen depressed, the hairs on the sides and venter yellowish, stiff as are also the black hairs on the dorsum, the bristles on the posterior margins of the 180 ; DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS segments long, those at the tip a little longer and stouter ; hypo- pygium small and its appendages concealed. Coxae black, the fore pair somewhat greenish, with yellow tips and trochanters and long white hairs on the front surface ; middle and hind pairs with white pollen; femorra bright green with the extreme tips yellow ; fore and middle pairs with long, black, bristle-like hairs on the lower-front edge; hind pair with rather long hairs above and shorter hairs below; fore and middle tibiae yellow; hind tibiae brownish black; fore and middle tibiae without bristles except the usual one near the base of the middle ones; hind tibiae with a number of bristles on the top, five or six of which are longer than the rest, and one bristle near the base on the outer side; fore and middle tarsi brown and about equal to their tibiae in length; hind tarsi black and about three-fourths as long as their tibiae; pulvilli of the fore tarsi only a little enlarged, those of the middle and hind tarsi not at all enlarged. Halters and the tegulae and their cilia pale yellow. Wings broad; hya- ‘line, scarcely tinged with gray; veins black; first vein reaches scarcely one-third of the distance to the tip of the second vein. Described from a single male which | took at Fort Erie, Ont., May 30th, 1911. Type in author’s collection. 22 Diaphorus occidentalis n. sp. Male: Length 3-3.2 mm. Face wide, a little longer than wide with silvery white pollen; palp1 brown when viewed from the side, white when seen from the front; antennae black, third joint large with a short point, about a} broad at the widest part as long, nearly as long as the two basal joints together (Fig. 11) ; front bluish green with white pollen which is thickest below, about as wide as the face; lateral and inferior orbital cilia white, the white beard below the mouth long and bushy. Thorax blue-green on the dorsum with white pollen; pleurae more blackish and covered with gray pollen. Abdomen green with long white hairs on the sides at base and on the venter ; bristles at the tip rather long; hypopygium small, appendages concealed except the central filiment which in the described specimens is rather long and directed downward. Coxae black; the fore pair greenish with white pollen and long white hairs on the front surface, their tips and trochanters yellow; femora metallic green with yellow tips and long dark hairs on the lower- BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 181 front edges; fore and middle tibiae and the base of their tarsi yellow, the tarsi becoming brownish towards their tips; hind tibiae and tarsi yellowish brown; bristle at the base of the middle tibiae rather slender; bristles of hind tibiae long; pulvilli of all tarsi distinctly, though moderately enlarged. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters pale yellow. Wings hyaline, scarcely tinged with gray; first vein not reaching quite half the distance to the tip of the second. Described from three males from Hood River, Ore. Type in the collection of J. M. Aldrich. A female from the same location may belong with these males but the thorax is green and more shining, and the middle tibiae have two large bristles on the fore surface; this last char- acter makes it doubtful whether they belong to the same species. This species is very much like guadratus but the face is hardly as long as wide, the hind femora have long bristle-like hairs below which are not found in quadratus, while that species has noticeably long hairs above and this species has not; this species has a shorter point at tip of the third antennal joint, which is placed nearer the top of the joint than in quadratus. 23 Diaphorus parmatus n. sp. Male: Length 3 mm. Face very wide, a little longer than wide with silvery pollen, but appearing blackish when viewed from in front; palpi brownish when seen from the side, more whitish when viewed from in front; antennae black, third joint nearly as long as the first with a short but sharp point at the center of the tip ( Fig. 1) ; (Arista missing in the described speci- men, in the drawing it is placed as it is supposed to belong, the specimen showing where it has been broken off); front blue with thick white pollen which conceals the ground color in certain lights; lateral and inferior orbital cilia white, the long hairs on the lower part of the orbit white and bushy. Thorax metallic green, the hind part and the scutellum more bluish; dorsum dulled with white pollen, pleurae covered with thick white pollen. Abdomen green with long white hairs on the sides at base and on the venter, and with six stout bristles at tip; hypopygium completely concealed. | Coxae black; fore pair greenish and covered with white pollen, with long, coarse, white 182 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS hairs on the front surface; femora metallic green with yellow tips; fore and middle tibiae yellow ; hind tibiae and tarsi brown; fore and middle tarsi brownish almost from the base and with their pulvilli considerably enlarged, those of the fore tarsi largest ; all femora with bristly hairs on the lower front edge; middle tibiae with the usual bristle near the base; hind tibiae with long brownish hairs and rather long bristles ; hind tarsi also hairy and with the first joint nearly as long as the two following joints. Halters and tegulae pale yellow, the cilia of the latter white, how- ever in certain lights against a white background they may ap- pear brown. Wings hyaline; first vein reaches about two-fiiths of the distance to the tip of the second. (The costa in the de- scribed specimen is bent at the tip of the first vein in both wings but this may“be accidental). Described from one male labeled “Calif.’ Coquillette.” Type in the collection of Prof. J. M. Aldrich. Separated from related species by the shield-shaped third antennal joint. 24 Diaphorus remulus n. sp. Male: Length 2.7 mm. Face wide with silvery pollen but appearing black when viewed from in front; palpi rather small with the extreme base brown; front green with white pollen on the lower part, a litttle wider than the face; antennae black, third joint a little longer than the first, widest near the base, broadly rounded at tip (Fig. 2); arista subapical; lateral orbital cilia whitish. Dorsum of the thorax green, dulled with gray pollen; pleurae and scutellum more blue-green, the former with white pollen. Abdomen green with whitish pollen which leaves a darker central line when viewed from behind; hairs of the ab- domen rather long, black above, white below; bristles at the tip rather long; hypopygium small with its appendages scarcely vis- ible. Coxae black, the fore pair greenish with white pollen and long white hair on the front surface, their tips and trochanters pale yellow; femora metallic green with yellow tips and with a row of delicate hairs on the lower front edge, those on the hind pair stouter; tibiae and fore and middle metatarsi yellow; fore and middle tarsi brown from the tip of the first joint; tips of hind tibiae and hind tarsi brownish; the usual bristle near the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 183 knee on the middle tibiae; bristles of the hind tibiae large. Halt- ers and tegulae pale yellow, the cilia of the latter white but in certain lights almost black. Wings hyaline, scarcely tinged with gray; first vein reaching two-thirds the distance to the tip of the second. Female: Differs from the male in having the palpi larger ; the face with a transverse suture below the middle, third joint of the antennae small and the color of the pleurae and scutellum green, without a trace of blue. Described from one male from Brookings, S. D. Type in the collection of Prof. J. M. Aldrich. Separated from related species by the peculiar paddle- shaped antennae. 25 Diaphorus repandus n. sp. Male: Length 3.5 mm. Face wide, covéred with white pollen, the green ground color showing through in most lights ; palpi yellowish brown with white pollen which gives them the appearance of being white towards their edges; front bluish green with thin yellowish pollen; antennae black, the third joint very short, slightly flattened at tip (Fig. 3) ; arista apical; cilia of the lateral and inferior orbit white; hairs on the lower part of the head rather long. Dorsum of the thorax green with yellowish pollen; pleurae and scutellum more blue-green, the former with white pollen. Abdomen green with slight coppery reflections and with considerable white pollen; when viewed in the right lhght it shows a dark central line; bristles at the tip of the abdomen small; hypopygium small, its appendages scarcely visible. Coxae black with their tips and trochanters yellow, covered with white pollen ; fore coxae with short white hairs on the front surface and black bristles at tip; femora dark green, fore and middle pairs broadly and hind pair narrowly yellow at tip; tibiae and base of fore and middle tarsi yellow; fore and middle tarsi brown from the tip of the first joint and the hind tarsi brown from the base ; pulvilli of fore tarsi only slightly enlarged; fore and middle femora with a few bristle-like hairs at tip; fore and middle tibiae with a bristle near the knee on the front side; hind tibiae with a bristle at first and another at second, third on the outside, and three smaller ones on the upper side; fore and mid- 184 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS dle tarsi longer than their tibiae, the first joint being about as long as the three following together; hind tarsi much shorter than their tibiae. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters pale yel- low. Wings grayish hyaline; the first vein reaching about one- third of the distance to the tip of the second vein; third vein bent backwards towards the tip somewhat as in D. simplea Ald. (lig. 14) ; veins brown, yellow at the root of the wing. Described from two males from California, one labeled Claremont, (Cal. Baker = the other bhree Rivers) «Caluie Clbrtson,” both from the Aldrich collection, and presented to him by Prof. ©. Fuller Baker. Type in the collection of Prof. - J. M. Aldrich. 26 Diaphorus usitatus n. sp. Male: Length 2.1 mm. Face wide with the sides parallel, covered with silvery pollen; palpi rather large, as long as the proboscis, yellowish white, brownish at base; front metallic green with very thin white pollen, a little wider than the face; antennae black, third joint a little shorter than the first, slightly pointed at tip (Fig. 4); arista inserted just above this point; cilia of the lateral and inferior orbits white; the hairs on the lower part of the orbits rather long and abundant. Thorax and scutellum metallic green with golden reflections and consid- erable white pollen on the dorsum; pleurae dulled with white pollen. Abdomen metallic green with a little white pollen along the sides and rather long white hairs on the venter and lower part of the sides, bristles at tip very short but stout as if broken off ; hypopygium small, concealed, with a long stout, dark brown filament inserted at base below and directed forward, nearly as long as the diameter of the hypopygium (this may not be found in all specimens.) Coxae black the fore pair slightly greenish, tipped with yellow, with white hairs on the front surface; mid- dle pair with a few white hairs; hind pair with the usual black bristle on the outside; fore trochanters yellow; femora metallic green with yellow tips; tibiae and base of tarsi yellow still the tibiae slightly brownish at tip; hind tarsi brown almost from the base; fore and middle tarsi becoming brownish from the tip of the first joint; middle tibiae with the usual bristle near the knee rather large; bristles of the hind tibiae small; hind femora with a few bristle-like hairs close to the tip on the outside; pul- BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 185 villi of the fore tarsi a little enlarged; fore and middle tarsi a little longer than their tibiae, the first joint about as long as the | three following; hind tarsi shorter than their tibiae, the first joint longer than the second. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters pale yellowish white. Wings hyaline; veins brownish, yellow at the root of the wing; first vein reaching two-fifths of the dis- tance to the tip of the secand. Described from one male from Hood River, Ore.; and one male from Lewiston, Idaho. Type in the collection of Prof. J. M. Aldrich. The specimen from Idaho has the tips of the hind tibiae and _ the hind tarsi brown, and the hair on the venter somewhat shorter. 27 Diaphorus aldrichi, n. sp. A~ oo Male: Length 2.75-3 mm. Face broad, a little longer than wide,*when viewed from in front black, from the side or above silvery white; palpi small, black with stiff black hairs; antennae black, third joint rather large, subquadrate, scarcely as long as broad (Fig. 5); arista dorsal; front and occiput blue-green, the pollen of the face extending somewhat above the antennae; cilia of the inferior orbits white. Thorax and abdomen bright blue- green, the former with thin whitish pollén around the edges of the dorsum; pleurae more thickly white pollenose; abdomen with rather long white hair on the lower lateral sides and on the venter ; hypopygium concealed ; bristles at tip rather long. Coxae and femora blue-green; femora with a row of stiff hairs on the lower front edge; fore coxae with long white hairs on the front surface; extreme tips of fore and middle femora and their tibiae yellow ; hind tibiae and all the tarsi blackish; middle tibiae with a bristle on the front side near the knee; hind trbiae with a row of bristles above. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters yellow. Wings hyaline; second section of the costa one and a half times as long as the first; costa scarcely thickened beyond the tip of the first vein; third vein distinctly arched so as to run closer to the second vein than in most species; the fourth vein also bent beyond the cross vein but nearly parallel with the third towards the tip. | Described from two males taken at Boise, Idaho. Type in the collection of J. M. Aldrich. 186 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS 28 Diaphorus similis n. sp. Male: Length 3 mm. Face and the rather large triangular palpi silvery white; antennae black, third joint subquadrate, with a short point at the upper corner, about as long as broad ( Fig. 6) ; arista inserted just above the point on the upper edge; front green with the pollen of the face extending up onto the lower part; latral and inferior orbital cilia white. Dorsum of the thorax bright metallic green with a very little white pollen which forms a spot on each side in the sutural depression ; pleurae more blackish, covered with white pollen. Abdomen metallic green with coppery reflections, hairs on the dorsum short, black; ven- ter with a little pale hair; hypopyvgium small, with a slender, black organ extending backward along its ventral surface from the base to beyond its tip. .Coxae and femora black; tip of fore coxae and all trochanters yellow; fore coxae with white hairs on the front surface ; extreme tips of the femora, the tibiae and most of the tarsi yellow; tips of the fore and middle tarsi and most of the hind tarsi infuscated; middle tibiae with the usual bristle near the knee; hind tibiae with several on the upper side and one larger one on the outer side near the knee; pulvilli of fore and middle tarsi considerably enlarged; femora with the usual hairs on the lower side. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters yellow. Wings hyaline; first vein does not reach quite half way to the tip of the second vein; third and fourth veins nearly straight and parallel beyond the cross-vein. Described from one male from Delaware Co., Pa., May 21st. (taken! by E. I> Cresson, Jr; ) Type in the collection of the American Entomological So- ciety. Type No. 6070. Two females that seem to belong with this male have the palpi and antennae smaller, and the pollen of the face more gray- ish, the pollen of the thorax thicker and the thorax with coppery reflections. Taken on the same date and at the same place as the male. This species is very much like aldrichi, but the color is a pure green, the face appears white in all directions and the third and fourth veins are not bent as in that species. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 187 29 Diaphorus sodalis Loew. Diaphorus sodalis Loew, Neue Beitr., viii, p. 57; Mon. N. Ate Diptera step kos. Male: Length 4mm. Eyes widely separated by the front; antennae small, black, arista apical. Thorax and abdomen dark metallic green; thorax distinctly pollenose; bristles at the tip of the abdomen conspicuous. Coxae and femora black; tips of the fore and middle femora and all tibiae yellow; pulvilli of fore tarsi moderately enlarged. Halters and tegulae pale yellow, the latter with black cilia. Wings tinged with gray. I have seen four specimens of this species ; one sent by Prof. J. M. Aldrich, taken in Polk County, Wis., which was presented to him by Prof. C. Fuller Baker; one from Mr. Harbeck which he took at Roxboro, Pa.; one in the Cornell University collection from Black Rock Mountains, Ga.; and one that I took at Spring- ville, Erie County, N. Y., June 7, 1914; this last specimen has the cilia of the tegulae more brownish when viewed from behind. 30 Diaphorus trivittatus n. sp. Male: Length 2.5mm. Face about as broad as long, thickly covered with gray pollen; front about as broad as the face and as thickly covered with gray pollen; antennae small, black, inserted at or below the middle of the eyes, third joint very small; arista dorsal; palpi rather large, yellow, brownish at base. Dorsum of the thorax green, the gray pollen in some specimens quite thick, in others scracely apparent; dorsum with three coppery vittae, one well defined central vitta, and a wider, poorly defined vitta on either side, these vittae do not reach the scutellum; pleurae black with dark brown pollen which is not very noticeable; bristles of the thorax large. Abdomen greenish black, rather short and thick for this genus; bristles at the tip of moderate size; hypopygium small, its appendages scarcely visable. Coxae and femora black, trochanters, extreme tips of femora, tibiae and tarsi brownish yellow to brown; tarsi rather darker brown than the tibiae ; in one male the hind tibae are almost black; fore and middle coxae with long black bristle-like hairs on the front sur- face; fore tibiae with a small bristle near the base on the front side; middle tibiae with two large bristles on the front surface, one near the base and one at the middle; fore femora with a few 188 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS bristle-like hairs near the tip; middle and hind femora with only delicate hairs below; pulvilli of fore tarsi considerably enlarged, those of middle and hind tarsi not enlarged. Halters and tegulae pale yellow, cilia of the latter black. Wings grayish hyaline, a little darker in front of the third vein; veins black; first vein reaches about two-fifths the distance to the tip of the second. Female: Agrees with the male in color, and in the arrange- ment of the hairs and bristles, but the fore pulvilli are not enlarged. Described from four males and four females which I took at Bradentown, Fla.,in March. Type in the author’s collection. 31 Diaphorus dubius Ald. Diaphorus diubins Aldrich, Trans. Ent. Soc. of Lundon, Pt. ill, p. 324. Male: Length 2.4-2.7 mm. Face and front green, of about equal width, and thickly covered with pollen, but the ground color showing through when viewed from in front; antennae black, small, third joint very short, rounded at tip; arista apical. Thorax bronze green, the posterior end and the scutellum pure green; dorsum with a trace of a coppery vitta in the center. Abdomen metallic coppery, the bristles at the tip distinct in some specimens and not so in others; hypopygium small, its appendages scarcely visible. Coxae and femora black; trochanters and tips of fore and middle femora broadly and hind femora narrowly reddish yellow ; tibiae and the first joint of the tarsi yellow; tarsi brown from the tip of the first joint ; fore tibiae with a minute bristle on top near the base; middle tibiae with a large bristle near the base on the front side; hind tibiae with a few small bristles on the upper surface ; fore and middle tarsi longer than their tibiae ; hind tarsi a little shorter than their tibiae and with the second joint only a little shorter than the first. Halters and tegulae yellow, the latter with black cilia. Wings grayish hyaline; first vein reaching about one-third the distance to the tip of the second. The above characters are taken partly from the original description and partly from a type specimen kindly loaned me by Prot, j. Ma Aldrich: St. Vincent, W. I., and also from Grenada. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 189 32 Diaphorus palpiger Wheeler. Diaphorus palpiger Wheeler, Psyche, June, 1890, p. 360. Male: Length 2.75 mm. Eyes widely separated by the front; palpi as long as the face, glistening white with golden yellow bases; antennae small, black; arista subapical. Thorax and abdomen golden green; abdomen less golden than the thorax which has a thick layer of vellow dust (in the specimens I have seen the dust is more gray than yellow). Coxae and tarsi black; femora and tibiae greenish black, shining; knees yellow. Halters and tegulae yellow, the latter with yellow cilia. Wings grayish hyaline; first vein reaching more than one-third of the distance to the tip of the second vein. Described from Milwaukee County, Wis.; I took a specimen at Toronto, Ont., August 8th, and another at Lewiston, N. Y., May 30th; Prof. J. M. Aldrich sent specimens from Viola, Idaho, and Wells, Nev.; there were three specimens in the Cornell University collection material, one taken at Fulton, Cal., May 15th; one from Revelstake, Colo., July Ist, taken by J. C. Bradley ; and one without locality label which has a coppery vitta on the dorsum of the thorax. I cannot detect any difference in these western specimens except that the palpi are less yellow at base and the pollen on the thorax is more gray. 33 Diaphorus triangulatus n. sp. Male: Length 2.6 mm. Face broad, longer than wide, cov- ered with silvery pollen; palpi large, fully one-half as long as the face, nearly oval, about as wide as long, somewhat pointed at tip, pale yellow with silvery pollen; front bright green with the pollen of the face extending a little above the antennae on the sides; antennae black, third joint large, somewhat triangular, as long as the two basal joints (Fig. 7) 5 arista inserted above the point of the third joint; cilia of the laterial and lower orbits white. Thorax and abdomen metallic green, sometimes with coppery reflections, the former with a little gray pollen along the front and sides of the dorsum; hairs of the abdomen brown on the dorsum and white on the venter, bristles at the tip small, scarcely noticeable ; hypopygium small, its appendages also small. Coxae black, fore pair with white hairs on the front surface; femora metallic green ‘with yellow tips, the usual row of hairs on the lower outer edge 190 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS very short, those on the fore femora longest; tibiae and tarsi yellow, in one specimen the tarsi are scarcely darker towards their tips, in the other the distal third of hind tibiae and their tarsi are brownish; the bristle on the front side of the middle tibiae near the base is rather large; bristles of the hind tibiae small; pulvilli of the fore tarsi a little enlarged. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters yellow. Wings hyaline; the first vein does not reach quite half the distance to the tip of the second vein. Two females that appear to belong here have the palpi normal but still rather large, yellowish with thinner white pollen; the face is black when viewed from in front and has a transvers suture below the middle; third antennal joint small; front and thorax more coppery than in the male; wings with the first vein shorter than in the male (this is often the case in this genus). Described from two males and two females from Lewiston, Idaho. Type in the collection of Prof. J. M. Aldrich. 34 Diaphorus amoenus Ald. Diaphorus amoenus Aldrich, Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull., vol. 1, p. 86. Male: Length 2.5 mm. Eyes widely separated by the front ; pollen of the face yellowish; antennae black, third joint pointed; arista apical; palpi yellowish white, very large, about a third as long as the height of the head and two-thirds as wide as ‘eng. Thorax and abdomen bright green, somewhat golden, the former a little dusted ; bristles at the tip of the abdomen distinct. Halters and cilia of the tegulac yellowish. [Fore coxae, femora and tibiae yellow; middle and hind coxae brown; pulvilli of fore tarsi elongated. Wings tinged with gray. ’ Grenada, W. I. 35 Diaphorus parvulus Ald. Diaphorus parvulus Aldrich, Trans. Ent. Soc. of Ludon, pt. iW; (Dy Bede Male: Eyes widely separated by the front; antennae black, third joint rather large; arista subapical. Thorax shining green. Abdomen bronze green, venter yellowish, without stout bristles at tip. Fore coxae, apical part of middle coxae, femora, tibiae and BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL, SCIENCES 191 base of tarsi yellow; fore pulvilli enlarged; bristle at base of middle tibiae very large. Wings tinged with yellowish. St Viricent, Wi: I: 36 Diaphorus variabilis n. sp. Male: Length 2.75-3.2 mm. Face not very wide, covered with white pollen; palpi yellow; proboscis black; front fully as wide as the face, green, thickly covered with white pollen, which is thinner towards the vertex; antennae black, third joint of moderate size, rounded at tip; the long arista almost apical. Thorax metallic green with gray pollen, which is thickest along the front and sides of the dorsum and on the edges of the scutel- lum; pleurae green with white pollen. Abdomen concolorous with the thorax but with slight bronze reflections, especially along the anterior and posterior edges of the second segment; hairs of the abdomen black ; bristles at tip distinct ; venter slightly yellow- ish; hypopygium very small, almost concealed, the“ only visible appendage is a rather long central filament. Fore coxae with silvery pollen and short yellow hairs on the front surface and black bristles at tip; middle and hind coxae black with yellow tips; femora and tibiae yellow; fore femora with a few bristle- like hairs near the tip of the lower outer edge; middle femora with about four hairs on the front at tip; hind femora with a few longer hairs near the tip and a preapical bristle, which is not very conspicuous, close to the tip on the outside; fore tibiae with- out bristles except a very small one on top near the base; middle tibiae with two bristles, one long slender one near the base on the front and a very minute one near the middle on top; hind tibiae with several bristles on the upper surface; all tarsi blackened from the tip of the first joint; front tarsi fully one and one-half times as long as their tibiae and with their pulvilli enlarged; pulvilli of middle and hind tarsi only slightly enlarged. Halters and tegulae pale yellow, the latter with yellow cilia. Wings rather long and not very wide, grayish hyaline, veins brown, yellow at the root of the wings; first vein reaching a little more than one-third of the distance to the tip of the second. Female: Two females that seem to belong here do not differ from the male except that the middle coxae are nearly half yellow. 192 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS Described from one male and two females taken at Braden- town, Fla., in March; one male taken by Dr: J. C. Bradley: at Lavender, Floyd County, Ga., August 23d, has slight indications of a central vitta on the dorsum of the thorax; while one taken | by Mr. Nathan Banks at Chain Bridge, Va., on September 17th, has a sharply defined vitta; one male which I took at North Evans, Erie County, N. Y., August 16th, differs from the others in having the pulvilli slightly more developed. Type in the author’s collection. 37 Diaphorus subsejunctus Loew. Diaphorus subsejunctus Loew, Cent., vi, p. 83. 9 Male: Length 2.5-3 mm. Eyes narrowly separated by the front; antennae small, black. Thorax and abdomen green, the latter with golden reflections, and the former with thin white dust. Fore coxae and feet yellow; middle and hind coxae black, cilia of the tegulae pale. Wings cinerous. Cuba, Well. I do not think this species has been recognized since described ; it differs from variabilis n.sp. by having the eyes nar- rowly separated. 38 Diaphorus flavipes Ald. Diaphorus flavipes Aldrich, Trans. Ent. Soc. of London, pt. Abb Wy wea. Male: Length 2-2.4 mm. Eyes contiguous on the front; antennae small, brownish; arista almost apical. Thorax green, little dusted, smaller bristles and tips of larger ones rusty red- dish. Abdomen shining bronze green, venter yellowish, hairs of the abdomen yellowish, apical bristles absent. Coxae, femora, tibiae and tarsi yellow; middle coxae black at base; fore pulvilli enlarged. Halters large, sulphur yellow ; tegulae brownish yellow with yellow cilia. Wings yellowish, with yellow veins; first vein reaching slightly more than one-third of the distance to the tip of the second and somewhat distant from the costa. WY, I, BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 193 39 Diaphorus mundus Loew. Diaphorus mundus Loew, Neue Beitr., viii, p. 57; Mon. N. ia\. IDyyoueereay sh, jo), TUGIL Male: Length 3 mm. Eyes contiguous on the front; an- tennae yellowish with the third joint small; arista nearly apical. Thorax and abdomen light metallic green, the former with thick ochre yellow dust. Coxae and feet yellow; pulvilli of fore and middle tarsi considerably enlarged. Halters and tegulae yellow, the latter with black cilia. Wings grayish hyaline. ype location Ra: >oN--). (Smith: Cat;)s. Charlotte: Harbor, Fla., (Johnson) ; Drayton, Idaho ( Aldrich Cat.) ; | found this the most abundant species of the genus at Bradentown, Fla., in March, 1913, taking twenty specimens during the month. 40 Diaphorus deceptivus Ald. Diaphorus deceptivus Aldrich, Biologia, Diptera 1, p. 346. Male: Length 2.7-3 mm. [Eyes narrowly contiguous on the front; arista almost apical; face blackish; antennae small, black. Thorax globose, bright green; abdomen dark golden green, apical bristles scarcely perceptible; hypopygium very small. Legs yellow ; middle and hind coxae infuscated for half their length ; fore pulvilli rather large, hind ones smallest; tarsi scarcely infus- cated towards their tips. Halters yellow; tegulae infuscated, their cilia blackish but appearing yellowish in certain lights. Wings yellowish. Mex. Prof. Aldrich says in the Biologia “D. deceptivus seems to be related to D. subsejunctus, Loew, of Cuba; but differs in having the front of the male obliterated by the contiguity of the eyes, the cilia of the tegulae darker and the posterior tarsi more infus- cated.” He was somewhat doubtful of the validity of his species, but only a comparison of a series of both species would establisk their identity ; until such a comparison can be. made they must be considered distinct. [7] 194 DIPTEROUS GENUS DIAPHORUS 4l Diaphorus femoratus n. sp. Male: Length 3.2 mm. Face broad, longer than wide, cov- ered with silvery pollen, but appearing black in certain lights ; palpi small, yellowish, brown at base (antennae missing) front narrow, not more than one-fourth the width of the face, ground color green but so thickly covered with whitish pollen as to be almost concealed except at the vertex; orbital cilia white except a few of the uppermost. Thorax green with thin gray pollen on the dorsum; pleurae more thickly covered with pollen, and with two or three white bristle-like hairs above the fore coxae. Abdo- men bronze green, or more bronze black, with long pale hairs on the sides below; hypopygium small with minute appendages (in the described specimen there are only two short bristles at tip). All coxae and the middle and hind trochanters black ; fore coxae with minute white hairs on the front surface; middle coxae with several long yellowish hairs on the front surface, these hairs about as long as the coxae; femora, tibiae and tarsi yellow; the tars1 brownish towards their tips; hind tarsi darkest; pulvilli of fore and middle tarsi considerably enlarged ; hind femora with a poorly defined brqwn band before the tip, the apex being broadly yellow. Tegulae, their cilia and the halters pale yellow, the cilia however appears brownish in certain lights. Wings grayish hya- line; the first vein reaches a little less than half way to the tip of the second, costa slightly thickened beyond the tip of the first vein. Described from one male taken at Opelousas, eae April. Type in the collection of Prof. J. M. Aldrich. Easily recognized by the narrow front, yellow femora and the brown band on the hind femora. Change of Preoccupied Name. On page 166 in key under 40 for femoratus read australis. On page 194 top line for femoratus read australis. A JIVARO WAR TROPHY Human Head artificially shrunken by the Jivaro Indians. In the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. The Jivaros, living upon the tributaries of the upper Amazon in Ecuador and Northern Peru are savages of a low type, living by hunting and by war, using for their arms lances and blow- guns with poisoned arrows. They dry and preserve their enemies’ heads and also those of their own chiefs. An interest- ing account of this is given in a letter from Frank G. Carpenter, whose information was received at Lima, Peru, in 1913, from Mr. M. Bell Taylor of Boston, who had just returned from an expedition down the eastern slopes of the Andes into the Amazon Valley. He said, “After killing a man they cut his head off close to the shoulders and as soon as they reach camp they open it and take out the bones of the skull. The skin of the head is then sewed together from the crown to the base of the neck. It is now a kind of bag. This is filled with hot sand, but is kept as far as possible in its original shape. It is pressed inward during the drying, the sand being changed from time to time, until the head is reduced to one-fourth or one-fifth the original size. Before beginning the curing, the skin is painted with the juice of the huito, a fruit that looks much lke an aguacate pear. This juice is a leather preserver. It is smeared over the head inside and out. As the head grows smaller a stone of the shape of a small skull is inserted and the skin is worked down upon it. This stone regulates the size of the head when it is cured. It is taken out before the skin has grown too hard, but after its features are fixed. The head is then hung up over the fireplace and allowed to cure in the smoke.” Mr. Taylor describes the Jivaros as a well made, good looking, superstitious people, who are polygamists, some of them having seven or eight wives. Their population is kept down by fierce family feuds. MS A MUNDRUCU MUMMIED HEAD TROPHY. In the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. These human head war trophies were formerly prepared by the Mundrucus, a powerful tribe of Brazilian Indians, living to the south of the river Amazon on the river Tapajos, near its lower falls, and westward to the branches of the Madeira. In former days they tattooed the face and body in a peculiar man- ner, and preserved as trophies the heads of their enemies, pre- pared by smoking them over a fire, filling the eye-sockets with ornamented balls of rubber. They are said to be physically and morally one of the finest of South American races and are agri- culturists, but bold warriors. They conquered their neighbors, the Muras in 1788, and in 1803 made peace with the whites and have ever since been their faithful friends. They are now partly civilized and are much employed as rubber gatherers. VOLUME XI Pere br of the WEE OA BLA ORT: EPURYE-PERIDA BUFFALO, NEW YORK 1916 VOLUME XI No. 3 BULLE Ft | nian Instj ne ta, : : OF THE NV, : \ *tional Muse] Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA BY MarjoriE O’CONNELL, PH.D. BUFFALO, NEW YORK 1916 CONTENTS PAGE EN DR ODUCLIONG: Sparieete sie hrssese Bee Gt ing AROS Eaclee ciaipane wee atk ReNm a neaeeel Wes ciate: 7 CuHapTEeR I. Systematic Review of the Occurrence of the Eurypterida in each Period from the Pre-Cambric through the Permic............ II ATETOMUCEOTY errata Fk eees eS aa Ta ee ea, eee Likert thes BEI ie oe II IN (oye lah /e Nantes ei dhe ealeeeales chicane VAC i Geter aa oliaidl Mieke Aine Ole Gite SA ree oie II Joh Re Caw val ove em ates Ary Gu aaa Me a ope GS Ee eset ee ate tee a eR ak C8 II (Ceiisnl bal Sere eae a eaie rer aes RMR ae PML OREN ea. Sa il ma Ne ae Les 13 CO Tixa Layo les toe bet ges ass Re hetean ecalee MD PP Rem Ue trator Wire Ra N Ne radi taste AC 13 PTT 0 TOsee Mie anise ioe epee Or ee eae eR eden Re eM ea oat felis emin CIA AUD 5 Wowenr siluriewori Nila garanee te, 0 Atel ve rneeh arnet er teens Alcs Leh Sn ae 15 Middlegsilunicyor: Salinaniy- pst secre eee Se yon Ne eae ata Us 109) WppersilurictorMontoansae: © sa cicero eee ie ee IQ ID YEW aHLOSL sg taetaderores diece Ci SrorG ee eaten avo tid cB eG aa HUI SERUM hen COE Ben 22 IMEISSISSIP PIG eer race Pe ate Secs IE Re IE SRT Rae ae 23 Carbonic AS ea ee eat okey er Os HE eR SE REE ee EUR 2k ee 23 GEA CRS TE CARIN ealeastercye ys tects esate HR eC R NP aoe tel cg S oneal aE ee 25 SLUT GMO OY rere tes yard arbre Aili Wine iy neat aU vai [age ggon mia Tos ia TOTAL 25 ower siluric or Llandovery—Wenlock.-.....-..:5......:........- 25 Upperrsilunic orgleudlowsrrcw.. ek aia ce ere ne eae eie CES Hear a 26 ih ealtarrar kiana. i. Sail an ace liveth rae ape are She See ae UEC RMI Ee CT 28 DD EV OTIC Marta rte Mets Seats e ar anaas Adee fare air Vai oa RM PNA Ug 28 Massissippie or Cale erous emacs ik eke Beye ois tices sister 28 Carbonic ornEarbonileroushep ccc s cs Ce oe ea Ae, 30 AE OEY CRIN Ae Pte tte a aoe athe ote aks acre canna AALS SR ISBEIE LOT Norge Niamey as 30 SHAKE ETO Snes ccs ee FEN Sk Sh OC Cr OS CTS CAE R E erta rR a LAT ane ea A 30 Power Suuniclorn Laer angele Olbarrande pee eee nes 30 Upper siluricrombstnonbarrand essen see reer ener Seen e 32 SAT pOnic mee els Wipe xe Ee oe tk Marna Pot ne Win a aku tren BO li. Se 32 GoalemeasuressomBohenia ww we cee yrs Le ene ae he Nn 32 1Btel Keak hone tence sae ar ea Se Braet rane en aeint aula ean ir BON aser aban ala ely ga 32 ID) VOTER A eA ae eset ys RRS ei RETIN ray A ea ee A a 32 (Wpper Wevomies sapere ty aye conrad eee es au neeecy is PIA eee ye MEM 32 BalticlslandsandiRussiamcs meses ers nee ele carer a etalon ea 33 PSU RCI Ce era A ee ORR eek th oR RU Ee cect eR waa Che A dy Ae 33 Wopermisilurtcrois Gotland erec acetone eer tere phL Atco (a Su ar nue NRA 38 Upper siluriciohiOesel ey sic. eae ete Seca vena eee ee Pe ea en RE 34 Austro-Russian Border Lands..................... SCA sere Hn AP SER RO RE 35 SUNT TG tere wegey e a oea cS E Nala OCIS) 4 See ee MEU RSE ete CR a aM ea a A 35 WppersiluricrotMeodoliaandiGaliciawseere 446 ee eee eee 35 Dex 6) a1 Cline pt a eeat on ae toe Nr ne eI CEE TREE RCL aR ER eh Bae 35 MiddlesDevoniciofiGaliciaar, scm tno) supe toe bgumminn cll Mearns Uplate 35 4 CONTENTS PAGE Strain sy waits finesse hoa Wie aaghe 2k ce HUM eka at Sen opt Ek eRe Re eee 35 SHUT sa faecal tee dos (rolaheee alee aru ey cha eves 2s pe eee 35 Wpperisiluric! ss. yonkers Maa ae ae egeai re Cie eee OE ace eee 35 Gera Tyee iis cette sects ote oun Resech oka ere an Re Tuer aaa VA a 35 Carbonic ez Fak sect eee oes ars os a okt ste Pai Ue OR 35 Middle sSalarbriickensvcia sols clusls sesstdin Sone bo eco oke Daehn nee 35 SouthwAmerieasis S). {jy aveevsmunc sees fieleie nroisio eee eke oe eae ee 36 Carbonic. s-eeee Saravate WAR LOM etteta is, anit heat ance SEE Reena Re ac ae 36 CoaleMeasuresiot Brazile 0.2524...) ee cme oe nee ee 36 IAtrIGa ee yah nee: E.G o ali detreral Soy cela deca ye icra le pevec CMA fatale ee 36 A VOT ee oh cs etic ec tere TSS a etic RS ee Tae a ee 36 Witteberg series it.()o'0 ois chee c.s oan ie eye ee 36 JetoN ee Ohee2i Ween meni Sains ele ai Manone See a aI era lumincr ator G6" q'A.516 0 0.4 © 6 37 BY=iej vod (eselondniym ee Cre nee RT eS Aa a ay Ee Ne ee Mere Sea HAG Zins bay 4 0 o 37 Summary:,Pablesi so. 35 eyes ea cael a aia 1 lene gee 37 Table I. Geological and Geographical Distribution of the Eurypterida throuchoutathenWorldee eee ena eee eae eee 37 Table II. Summary of the Geological and Geographical Distribution of the Eurypterida throughout the World.............. 37 Table III. Summary of the Distribution, Facies and Mode of Occur- rence.o1 the Burypteridas ee eee =e eee 38 STOR YIM ssh Ve SER SIU ROL at es 2 pain er An i eg (250 CHAPTER IT. A Résumé of the Opinions on the Habitat of the Eurypterida. 52 CHAPTER III. The Bionomy of the Eurypterid Faunas.................. 64 Tntroductromi sit) 03 sek ioe here eb das bate eet DAP (one Se 64 Classification’ of Recent Aqueous Habitats: 9...4--:-.-244.-.0.5500 00k 65 Classification of Aqueous Bionomic Realms According to Salinity...... 66 RecentAquatic: Waunase ease ties cet Ha ane oe en 67 HWY EW haces ees anenier ina aot Mia ieh ist IG AAen tee ante a RN MUNA Seid Leh ay Ota Gib oo 67 resh Waters jy Site fons. U8 Soci oles Soar ees re OE eae ae nL ee eae 60 Table Showing Number of Genera and Species of Mollusca in Various Bionomic Realims. 90. oboe Saget vase c peel ycha teee ora 69 Brackish Wratten sie 20 ik Sec Sie ek aie VG VRS ae a eee 70 Ther BalticrSeay in 2: icicisk espe eilschay ei shines eh eee OR ae ae 70 Comparative Number of Species of Invertebrates in the Baltic, etc. 72 hey evernV Es tuany-scisacite rials pee eevee ee eae oe ees eect 73 Summary of Faunal Criteria for Determining the Type of an Aqueous 1 IeeW ON) ena aa ae a eet e RET btn lake an nela,wiaBenlac- eo lc' 76 Application tothe! Past! <.7N8 sou tess cons Sacre ee ere aan eae eee ae Marines epositsandthauna sees yes ne ces eee ee a eae 78 BluviatilesDepositsandyHaumassss eer eee reine 70 Brackish Water and Estuarine Deposits and Faunas................... 83 The Eurypterid Faunas and their Associated Organisms................. 84 Ordovacies si. As Ses sah wh eae ata SE Se eee 84 INormanskill Mann ashi ete cok Seno Re eee ae ee ee 84 CONTENTS B The Eurypterid Faunas and their Associated Organisms—continued EAGE STU CPE sete Sea Ee see IS SES eee aid SRS EEO Rae reales 84 lLornar Silrate Ch, @)) Teo, Or BOM. ned oc Gb odcesceandachouune 84 Upperslower silurich(ise)) toh Bohemiay-y 4s eee eee tein ae 85 Wenlockitaunavof PentlandsEnllssScotlandss3.- ssa. sese sees one: 85 Shawangunk Fauna of Eastern North America..................... 86 IEnceliorel Raping, Ot ING WOM coucgsobooedouoodo sop sued tobe eocbee 86 TEER a(S] Re NOT oe cae SRR soa ea MO CUO re RR oct ies AU aap tN 87 ICOkKomro Haale ae ere are ah ae certs onc, enced cteeaw ica i vail ae Sein apap eA pare 87 Upper Silla tam or Oesalcancidddsasisnodansodsoscuvsouecdoulcoe 87 Themes Bayona, Or WaalknnGl, oo occondconsaccycooosobsoDGuoeDuOO UNS 88 udlow, Haunarol Scotlandeee aan tea easier Poem rn a anime cena ENE 88 Icanarkians RaltunatofeScotlann deen yen Sanne SOR ena pean go IDYEN Ova (eee Races aay akettata dl Ganka By Ba atneROl c clot ate tricia toes each miecaerased te Maran ins fae) OldjRede Sandstone; Haunavol Scotland seemed oat aa go CHAPTER IV. The Lithogenesis of the Eurypterid-bearing Beds............ 93 Teal Mover Bis her) RS OPA O Tee gD lenin RAR Aietic ieee c Hike Cala ut rc tne euNtaiG ela 93 2a ebheyNormanskillFands Schenectady Bedsaenansseae noc coon reece 96 SUMMA yer ee ee See eRe NEE ed SPECTR CR NT ORC AU STE UME aero) gaethershawancunkiConclomerates ss eer ee keene 100 Aaa I CMETEESTORG GS Halles re Wars sess arch an aed Say le eee nearer uel ie gM EOI ge 102 SeeheyBenticn Va terme. wen ions Mia mmane iets yer ke rAniNa eng tat uaivom au MNT 106 ADs OO aieai Ne hn weet MS Ried Bolts nth Baa a ela uid ale alginic snot a 108 asaC@hemicali@rigin sei ne eto eee: 108 pres Organic (Origins hare eee ore tettese pais aint orale mer te ga 10g GClasticiOnigimy sass wala sn Gee eRe Se aS oe 5 deo | KCL) SUMMARY Zaye cee cere ene cl AVA BRU eley ee Lane Te SaT Aen atl ate ana tr eH SN II7 GaekheskokomonWaterlime saa ier ea ae PAL eer eee 118 7. The Tarannon-Wenlock Beds of Southern Scotland.................. 120 Distribution ofskormatlionsa.e ese ce ron oer nee nee 120 ANS IbuiGlowemiAlleneueinONngoor aevacotuedds domidb biadumododees He 123 WienlockotsthesPentland sell syn ereee re teenie |i 131 SeehesWippersiluntcroliOeseliane eee ee Cee aa ee erent T40 EistoryolDIscOverlestae a! Vara nah Ee eae ee Ions IAI GeneraltStratigra ply faces ye eh ase ee Say este re ap coed eee 143 QU ppermsilunicioiseodoliazandtGaliciateraee erp eae 149 10. The Ludlow of England and the Ludlow and Lanarkian of Scotland... 151 TAEFOCMUCELO MES SF t-ogerctes Neve ts rtet Ty eR ee EE ete a ad I51 ihe p perm siuricotnelandsaaeeaneEee Ere ere acroce 153 The Ludlow and Lanarkian of Lanarkshire.............:......... 159 Tabhnelcesmmahacowalnlicr. 1 oar ee ee eae eee ee 160 a, Wate Binal Oi Une Jebeceny ISM. ooooaoccocosugscoda0an06 165 Ha ner Old eed ISamd stome wey -ya aii oeie dee ec Ale UAT oI eaAI INET Rae RE tenn 167 Eistonyzand: Subdivisions sti: ac sees iil muceeuent nice ap sh arlene els 167 he Waledomianwgey see eh oe Presta ae tee a RU aa irate ane UIAN Th 172 PETE @ NCA Ciara rie keene toe om rae RPA ER ee ICRI MI RAE RU ie 176 6 CONTENTS tr. The Old Red Sandstone—continued PAGE Deposition im Wakes techs.) te ae.qe ee berate aie ee 177 Depositionsim the Séaan.c aya. yeas nce ese oe Aen ae 179 Objections to Lake and Marine Theories.......... oe 180 PHP Hy Sica Pek eas. ee Seu aeteee eerie i RNES e eoC I80 (a) PREP COTOR IY Se) oA RN AC OES oe kia eee 180 (bd) Marine Denudation sian 4 sar site en ee 181 (c) Salt Indicative of Marine Deposition................... 182 (d) Thickness of Deposits........ Sil i ccvae See ea 182 (@)sStructuralyeaturess se are Sey ee See ee 184 Biv Eanes, cpsoee ek Oe ele YN eal Eset a ECON Sn a 184 SUID IIVE TEV 4 1 20k aie att eae pote carb ad ep Rocco ee Sc Te oo 186 ‘ARheonyaotbluviatileyDepositionses sa aee ene ened eee eer ener 186 Summary of evidence of Fluviatile Deposition Pea aU '0.c 189 (a) Meithogenesise seer, s ee me vevsrculee ween ol igi) ee ee a 189 6b) Paumale oo ae ai fek a ronal ie ic cis eer ee Oa a eee IgI T2seVliscellaneous|Occurrenceste.ce ee eee enone eee 193 CuHapTErR V. The Geological and Geographical Distribution of the Eurypterids anditherConditionsjofavinerationsy tne ere eae 200 Summary of Facts Observed Regarding the Distribution of the Eurypterids 200. Migration and Dispersal of Recent Fluviatile Organisms................ 203 Age Species identicallin) Distant Continents ane) see eee 203 Be Generalldenticaliin Distant Continents ene eee 204 CS Hamiliesiidenticaliin Distant Continents) 5540 eee eee ee 204 SUMUMAA TYR elie senhetoyn Lay cusasasten Nios UN ctate cies Eten Aca ke Steud AU Nee ea ae 205 Application of Principles Deduced from Modern Faunal Distribution...... 207 Migration and Distribution ofthe Hunyptendsa. 426s eee 212 Theory of Early Marine Habitat and Routes of Migration............. 212 Objectionsto;Maninesdabitatyiheconyansaee ae Aerie eee eee 212 ‘TheoryofRiver sealbitaity scsi) oa os te eae ac eee feet cn aa eee 216 The Eurypterid Faunas Considered by Continents.................... 217 RheyBuryptendshaunasyor Appalachians rycen ny eee ne “Pn EY Comparison of Pittsford and Shawangunk Faunas. . a Bata 46 DOG Summary of Facts of Distribution in Continent of Apnalvenis Bera orc 226 RheiBurnypterdihaunasioreAtlanti caeemey yer ee nee yee 228 Comparison of Pittsford-Shawangunk and Bertie Faunas. ........... 220 The Upper Siluric Faunas of the Baltic Region...................... 236 ihe haunavofethesWenlockse os isn tee eee neta ere 238 Shoaane ny? Ot Have \Weralloyelic IWIN, 055 caccococoousosobaocavdcnoouNs 242 The Fauna: ofthe Lacoste yee ee air eee nl en earn 242 sRhel@ldtRedisandstonewPainase eee eee eee Coe eee 247 Summary of Facts of Distribution on Continent of Atlantica............ 253 The hunyptend HaunajlotWVississipplass ns anon BRA a ay 253 CONCLUDING REMARKS). {ie 98% olds oe ala ba eee Cee 256 BIBLIOGRAPHY. of a...6. 6 sco) See sie sasha SoS AS OE Ee oC 257 BULLETIN of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences VOLUME xI JUNE, 1916 No. 3 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA! BY Marjorie O’CONNELL, PH.D. Curator in Palaeontology Columbia University INTRODUCTION It has been the custom to consider that all fossils are the remains of marine organisms unless obvious and indisputable evidence of their fluviatile, lacustrine, or terrestrial habitat is available; a fossil found without any other associates has been held to be marine until proved to be otherwise, but never has the suggestion been made that such a fossil was fluviatile until proved to be marine. Yet such a sugges- tion would be most logical, and, as we shall see, it would be far more natural than the one usually made. ‘The early fish have always been considered normally marine, though recent studies of the character of the sediments in which their remains occur has led many of the former advocates of the marine habitat to concede that the earliest fishes lived in non-marine waters, perhaps lacustrine, but most probably fluviatile. Similarly, limestone faunas were at one time referred with- out question to a marine origin, but we now know that limestones of purely marine organisms may be formed by eolian deposition, as in the case of the Miliolitic limestone of the Kathiawar Peninsula of Western India (Grabau, 87, 574).2 There is thus no @ priori reason 1This paper was awarded the Walker First Prize by the Boston Society of Natural History in ee Throuphoit this paper numbers in parentheses will refer to the bibliography at the end, p. 257; the full-face type referring to the titles with the same number, the light-face numbers giving page teference in the particular article. 7 8 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA for implicitly accepting the marine origin of all those rocks for which it has been claimed, nor for believing that all fossils found in the Palaeozoic rocks, with the exception of freshwater molluscs, plants, and insects, are the remains of marine plants or animals. Just as there is a growing tendency at the present time to recognize the im- portance of the wind and of rivers as agents of transportation and deposition in the past, so there is noticeable an awakening from the old belief that all fluviatile organisms began their life in the sea, and only after countless ages of evolution in that realm, migrated first into brackish water and then into the rivers. The present paper deals with the habitat of a class of crustaceous animals widespread in the Palaeozoic and confined to it. The Eury- terida belong to the subclass of the Merostomata in the class Acerata of the phylum Arthropoda. ‘Their nearest relatives are the limulids and scorpions with which latter group they have been classed by certain authors. While it is generally accepted that some eurypterids lived in fresh water, the majority of palaeontologists at the present time still main- tain that the early periods of the racial history of these organisms were passed in marine waters and that it was only, indeed, after their acme in development had been reached that these merostomes, becoming at first euryhaline, finally forsook the sea altogether and lived in rivers and in brackish water bodies until they became extinct at the end of the Palaeozoic. The evidence set forth in support of this hypothesis is so plausible that many have been led to think that there is a large and convincing array of facts sufficient to.furnish an indisputable proof that the eurypterids lived during at least a part of Palaeozoic time in marine waters. It was with the purpose of showing that such a proof was really non-existent, and that the observed facts can also, and perhaps more rationally be accounted for in another way, that the present paper was undertaken. The author proposes to formulate a few of the principles which must be borne in mind in considering such a problem, and to point out the inconsistency in the lines of argument generally given to prove that the eurypterids were originally marine organisms. After a review of all the evidence available, the attempt will be made to judge it impartially and to determine which interpretation is really called for by the facts. The first chapter contains a record of facts, without comment; they are the data from which deductions are later made and of which inter- pretations are offered. These facts include: A, the distribution of all BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 9 known species of eurypterids throughout the world; B, the horizons in which the remains occur, with particular reference to the facies exhibited and to the exact stratigraphical position; C, the mode of occurrence of the remains, whether well preserved or fragmentary, whether a single fragment or a large number of individuals; and finally, D, the other fossils, if there are any, which occur associated with the eurypterids. These facts are all summarized in tables I-III on pp. 37-49 and in the list of faunal associates on pp. 84-01. The second chapter is a résumé of the various opinions which have been held regarding the habitat of the Eurypterida. The next three chapters (III, IV and V) deal with the three chief lines of evidence which may be adduced to determine any fossil habitat, namely,.the bionomic characters of the faunas, the lithogenesis of the formations in which the remains occur, and the type of migration and dispersal, marine or fluviatile, indicated by the relations existing between species and genera in synchronous faunas and by the phyletic relationships in successive horizons. In these three chapters general principles are first discussed and criteria are established for recognizing various types of habitats, sediments, and fossil faunas; the application of these criteria to the eurypterid problem is then given in detail. The conclusion reached by the author after the study of all avail- able data and in the light of manifold theoretic considerations is that: the eurypterids throughout their entire phylogenetic history lived in the rivers. Aside from the work done on the literature, a large amount of material has been studied, including hundreds of typical specimens of eurypterids, thin sections of some of the waterlimes, the collections of the rock types from the eurypterid-bearing horizons of Europe col- lected by Professor A. W. Grabau and now in the Palaeontological Museum of Columbia University; further, a number of the best sec- tions in the field have been visited. When the present paper was nearly finished there appeared Clarke and Ruedemann’s exhaustive Monograph on the Eurypterida of New York (39), which, with Wood- ward’s Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacea, gives us the most illuminating and comprehensive work 0: the Eurypterida. Many important points in the ontogeny and phylogeny of the eurypterids are here set forth for the first time, and all of the North American species are described in.great detail and figured in a volume of plates that surpass all former illustrations. IO THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA I wish to express my thanks to Dr. R. Ruedemann, who allowed me to study the large collection of New York eurypterids at the State Museum in Albany; to Dr. C. D. Walcott, who showed me the large Beltina fauna and the beautiful specimens of Limulava from the Middle Cambric Stephen shale of Canada in the Smithsonian Insti- tution at Washington, D. C.; and to Mr. McIntosh at the Museum of the Natural History Society, St. John, New Brunswick, for informa- tion about the age of the Little River Plant beds and for the privilege of being allowed to inspect the type material from those beds.’ To the courtesy and helpfulness of Mr. Henry R. Howland, Super- intendent of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, I owe the oppor- tunity of studying every specimen of eurypterid in the museum of that Society. Furthermore, Mr. Howland loaned me a number of specimens to describe, and I was thus able to show the existence of two species of a pulmonate gastropod, Hercynella, in the Bertie water- lime. It was because of Mr. Howland’s interest in papers dealing with the geological problems of the Buffalo region that the present contribution appears in the Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences. With the fullest appreciation for the inspiration and guidance which I have received, I gladly acknowledge my indebtedness to Pro- fessor Amadeus W. Grabau. He was one of the first to advocate the fluviatile habitat of the eurypterids and one of my earliest geological recollections was of a discussion between him and a number of men who argued for the marine habitat, a discussion to which I listened with the utmost interest although I was then not in a position to weigh the evidence brought forward on either side. More than four years ago Professor Grabau suggested that I take up the problem, with the purpose of marshalling all of the available evidence in proof of an hypothesis which he had strong theoretic reasons for believing to be true. Throughout the work I have profitted by the helpful criticisms and keen suggestions of a man who has made such problems his specialty for twenty-five years, and without whose assistance this paper certainly could not have been written. The method of treat- ment which I have used is based upon the principles of interpreta- tional geology expounded in the Palaeontological Laboratory of Co- lumbia University,and with the hope that this paper shall not prove unworthy of the teachings there set forth, I informally dedicate it to the American School of Philosophic Geologists, among the leaders of whom Professor Grabau stands so preéminent. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 1611 CHAPTER I SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE OCCURRENCE OF THE EURYPTERIDA IN EacH PERIOD FROM THE PRE-CAMBRIC THROUGH THE PERMIC INTRODUCTORY From all over the world there have been recorded fourteen genera and between 150 and 160 species of eurypterids. Of these consider- ably more than half occur in the Siluric, about a third occurring in the Upper Siluric alone. No remains have been found in beds higher than the Permic, and until 1882 it was supposed that there were none below the Siluric. In that year Walcott discovered a few fragments in the Utica shale, of Upper Ordovicic age, and an even more remark- able fauna in the Pre-Cambric Belt Terrane of Montana. In igor Beecher discovered an almost perfect eurypterid in the Upper Cambric of Missouri. These discoveries, together with several more recent ones from the Ordovicic, show that the Eurypterida ranged from the Pre-Cambric through the Permic, reaching their acme in numbers, development and diversity of types in the Upper Siluric. In the following review of the occurrence North America alone will be con- sidered first and then the rest of the world. Until the Monograph on the Eurypterida of New York appeared there was no one book con- taining all the information about the North American species, and it was necessary for one in quest of such knowledge to search labori- ously through state reports and numerous periodicals. Now all the data have been systematically brought together and greatly added to, so that it will be unnecessary to dwell at great length upon the American formations. For the rest of the world, unfortunately, there is no one book to which the student may be referred, so that one is compelled to consult the literature of each country in each continent thus gradually bringing together the work that has been done. Because the foreign periodicals and books now out of print are inaccessible to many, a more detailed account will be given of the distribution, and the nature and correlation of the formations in other countries than is required for America. NORTH AMERICA Pre-Cameric. The earliest representative of the eurypterids is Beltina danai discovered by Walcott in the Greyson shales in the 12 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA middle part of the Belt Terrane in Montana. The remains are very numerous, most of them being exceedingly thin films flattened in a calcareous shale and showing no definite surface markings (288, 21). Weller has collected specimens from the Altyn limestone at the type locality north of Altyn in the valley of Swift Current Creek, Montana, at the base of the Appekunny Mountains where the remains are embedded in a fine calcarenyte matrix and show surface markings (288, 40, pl. 7, fig. 4). Specimens have also been collected from the Altyn limestone at about the same horizon near Johnson Creek on The Continental Divide, Alberta, Canada. These show surface mark- ings, and have been referred by Walcott to B. danai (288, 40, pl. 7, NGS Qo BEL. 2) In a recent communication from Dr. Walcott, I have his state- ment about the occurrence of the merostome remains in the different sections. In the southeastern area of the Big Belt Mountains he found a series of sandy shales and sandstones between the top of the Newland limestone and the base of the Greyson; these carried Beltina. In the sections in the Little Belt Mountains Walcott found it difficult to determine whether the shales carrying Beltina belonged to the Greyson or to the Newland. In the Northern Montana section the merostome remains are found in the lower portion of the Altyn lime- stone, so that, concludes Walcott, “the correlation on the basis of fossil evidence is that the Greyson and Altyn are about the same age.”! The fossils from the Altyn limestone were identified by Walcott as Beltina danai, and Clarke and Ruedemann agree that the fragments are remains of merostomes. ‘They are, however, skeptical about the correlation of the Altyn with the Belt terrane and they are justified in this skepticism so long as the correlation is based upon the fossils alone, for if the organic remains in the Belt terrane are not eurypterids and are not the same as those in the Altyn, then the correlation is unfounded. Furthermore, the palaeontological evi- dence alone would not be sufficient for correlation, and, if, as I believe, these Pre-Cambric formations are to be regarded as of continental origin, then neither physical nor faunal data will lead to correlations, since the same lithological successions will be repeated time and again in different localities and in addition the synchroneity of river faunas is difficult to establish. Thus at present it is impossible to say which authority is to be accepted. Walcott plans to do more work on these sections in the 1 Dated February 26, rots. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 13 course of which he may find better preserved fragments in the Belt terrane, leaving no doubt as to the nature of the organisms; or, he may find other structural and stratigraphic evidence for the correla- tion. “On the basis of lithologic characteristics,” he says, “the Altyn would be correlated with the Newland limestone, and the Grinnell and Appekunny with the arenaceous series above the New- land limestone.’”’ But he further points out that ‘‘In deposits of the character of those of the Algonkian in Montana, lithologic character- istics are really of very little value over extended areas, as most of the calcareous formations are in the form of great lentils, and these are not comparable with the calcareous deposits of the Palaeozoic.” Campric. In the Middle Cambric there are undoubted marine Merostomata, discovered by Walcott in ror1o in the Stephen forma- tion in British Columbia, Canada. He has described two genera, Sidneyia and Amiella, referring them to the Eurypterida in the sub- order Limulava. As will be shown later, these forms are not true eurypterids, and need, therefore, no further mention here. The only unquestionable eurypterid from the Cambric is Beecher’s Strabops thacheri from the Potosi limestone at Flat River, St. Frang¢ois county, Missouri (19, pl. VII). Of this species a single specimen was found for which the genus was erected. It is a nearly complete individual, the dorsal aspect of which is well shown, though none of the appendages are visible. It occurs in a yellowish, argillaceous calcilutyte from one of the lower members of the Potosi. The slab upon which Strabops occurs contains no other organic remains,” but Beecher has described a collection made by Nason from these same beds in which there is an abundant marine fauna consisting of fragments of trilobites with a few brachipods and other forms (Hyolithes and a small Platyceras) (20, 362, 363). It is to be regretted that Beecher did not, or was not able to specify more exactly the stratum in which he found the eurypterid, for the Potosi limestone in the Flat River section is 350 feet thick, not counting the 106 feet of slates and conglomerate below and another 100 above, all of Potosi age, and of course, it is by no means certain that the marine fossils occurred in the same bed with the eurypterid. In fact, so far as the material is concerned, this seems not to have been the case. Orpovicic. From the Ordovicic until just recently only one occurrence had been noted, that of Echinognathus clevelandi Walcott, 2 The type of this species is in Yale University, but the counterpart of the type is in Columbia University Paleontological Collection, specimen 18122. I4 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA described from the Utica shale of Holland Patent, New York (281), where one cephalic appendage and a portion of a thoracic somite were found. On the same piece of slate with these fragments Walcott found two characteristic Utica fossils, Leptobolus insignis and Tri- arthrus beckt, and from the same locality comes a large graptolite fauna including Dendrograptus tenuiramosus, Climacograptus bicornis, as well as Schizocrania filosa and Endoceras proteiforme. Lately there have been some extremely interesting discoveries of eurypterids in the Normanskill and Schenectady shales and sand- stones (Black River and early Trenton age, respectively) of the Mohawk and Hudson valleys. Professor G. H. Chadwick has very recently found eurypterid remains in the sandstones of the Broom Street Quarry at Catskill, New York, in the Normanskill beds which until then had yielded only a graptolite fauna. Clarke and Ruede- mann have described the species and also the beds from which they come. ‘The eurypterids are very abundant in the sandstones though poorly preserved, but in the intercalated black shales, while less numerous they show better preservation. They are associated with graptolites and plant remains. Six species have been described by Clarke and Ruedemann. Eurypterus chadwicki, Eusarcus linguatus, Dolichopterus breviceps, Stylonurus modestus, Pterygotus ? (Eusarcus) nasutus, P. normanskillensis. Entire individuals are absent, the fauna being made up chiefly of carapaces. The first profuse Upper Ordovicic fauna is found in the Schenec- tady shales (Trenton age), originally referred to the Frankfort. A preliminary notice of these specimens which appeared in 1910 (38, 31) shows that these remains “usually in fragmentary condition, abound most freely in fine-grained black shale, intercalated between thick calcareous sandstone beds. . . . ._ but they also occur in the sandy passage beds between the two. The sandy shales are full of organic remains, partly of the supposed seaweed Sphenothallus (S phe- nophycus) latifolium Hall and partly of what appear to be large uni- dentified patches of eurypterid integument. In the black shales the eurypterid remains are rarer, but their surface sculpture is excellently retained, and here their organic associates are Climacograptus typicalis and Triarthrus becki. As a result of imperfect retention of these eurypterids in the rocks where they most abound and their sparseness in the shales which have best preserved them, we are still left in ignorance of the full composition of the assemblage, but it is safe to say genera, species and individuals were abundant at this early BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 15 period and the evolution of distinctive characters . . had progressed to so sharp a differentiation that we are compelled to carry back farther in history, some of the commoner generic designations. These remains in the Frankfort [Schenectady] shale are distributed through fully 1500 feet of strata off a northeast-southwest coast line in an area of maximum deposition.’’ Clarke and Ruedemann have described eleven species? Eurypterus megalops, E. pristinus, E. ? (Doli- chopterus ?) stellatus, Eusarcus triangulatus, E ? longiceps, Dolichop- terus frankfortensis, D. latifrons, Hughmilleria magna, Pterygotus nasutus, P. prolifica, Siylonurus ? limbatus. A few fragments found as early as 1874 in the upper’part of the Cincinnati group near Clarkesville, Clinton County, Ohio, were origi- nally described by S. A. Miller (174) as Megalograptus welchi, under the mistaken supposition that they represented a graptolite, but were later determined by A. F. Foerste to be eurypterid remains. The specimens are much broken, representing two endognathites with one postabdominal segment. They occur in a blue marl three feet above a wave-marked layer of limestone, in the Liberty beds where they are associated with a typical marine fauna mainly of crinoids and some trilobites. Situric. Lower Siluric or Niagaran. In the Lower Siluric are several cases of the presence of eurypterid remains in marine forma- tions. Hall’s species of Eurypterus prominens from the Clinton green- ish sandstone of Cayuga County, New York, was described from a single cephalon, and an unidentified species of Eurypterus is recorded from the Arisaig of Nova Scotia (39, 87). Whiteave’s Eurypterus (Tylopterus) boylet from the Guelph dolomites of Ontario is a species founded upon a single somewhat crushed, but otherwise nearly com- plete individual. It is found in a porous, coarse-grained dolomite, and shows an unusually thickened exoskeleton, a thickening common in other members of the Guelph fauna and indicating, according to Clarke and Ruedemann, extremely saline conditions (39, 218). Quite recently a new eurypterid horizon has been discovered by M. Y. Williams in the shales overlying the Lockport and underlying the Guelph of Ontario, Canada. Along the banks of the Eramosa River between Rockwood and Guelph the top of the Lockport forma- tion is exposed, and is seen to consist of a series of “thin-bedded, dark 3 Euryplerus ruedemanni. This name is proposed for the species called by Clarke and Ruede- mann E. megalops, that name having been previously occupied by Salter (1859). The fact that Woodward referred Salter’s species to Stylonurus does not restore the validity of the name megalops for Eurypterus. 16 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA grey or chocolate brown, bituminous dolomites which at some localities include bituminous shales,’”’ and to which Williams has given the name Eramosa beds (303, 1). The bituminous nature of the dolomites and intercalated shales is indicative of near-shore conditions, and since these succeed the more purely marine facies of the typical Lockport, a shoaling or with- drawal of the sea, with a greater dominance of terrestrial sedimenta- tion, is implied. The fauna is confined within some six inches of the bituminous shales and though fragments of a dozen or more species, including one eurypterid, have been found in abundance, not even generic identifications could be made with certainty. Williams gives the following list (303, 3): Eusarcus logani Williams Monomorella cf. orbicularis Billings Orthis ? near tenuidens Hall Spirifer radiatus Sowerby ? Anoplotheca ? sp. Lichenalia concentrica Hall Orbiculoidea subplana (Hall) Camarotoechia whitei (Hall)? Whitfieldella nitida Hall? Meristina ? sp. Conularia niagarensis Hall? Conularia sp. The Lower Siluric occurrences, thus, are in formations contain- ing undoubted and abundant marine faunas, but the eurypterids are represented either by fragments, or, in the case of the Guelph specimen, by a single though nearly perfect individual. A recent discovery of considerable interest is the finding by Pro- fessor Van Ingen of Princeton University, of eurypterid remaiis in what appears to be the Tuscarora and associated beds of Swatara Gap, Lebanon County, Pennsylvania (39, 418, 419). In beds carry- ing Arthrophycus harlani ? he found: Eurypterus maria, Large and small carapaces. Dolichopterus cf. otisius. Medium sized carapace. Stylonurus myops. Large and small carapaces . Hughmilleria shawangunk. Large carapace. . Pterygotus cf. globiceps. Small carapace. . Swimming leg of a Pterygotus or Hughmilleria. Ww NS A nun Another bed labeled 182 B 23 has afforded a carapace not distin- BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 17 guishable from Eurypterus maria. A bed, said to occur between a horizon containing what is apparently a Clinton fauna (B 8x) and one containing a Rochester (or Lockport) fauna (B 19x)and numbered B 16h, contained the following remains: 1. Small carapaces, belonging to species closely related to or identical with Eurypterus maria, Hughmilleria shawan- gunk and Pterygotus globiceps. 2. A patch of integument with finely preserved sculpture identical with that ascribed to Stylonurus sp. 3. Stylonurus myops. Fragmentary, medium sized carapace. 4. Coxa, probably belonging to Hughmilleria. 5. Small telson of an Erettopterus. Middle Siluric or Salinan. In the Middle Siluric of North America are several interesting occurrences of eurypterids, and the first appear- ance of well preserved individuals in large numbers. Specifically in- determinable fragments of Hughmilleria and carapaces of Dolichop- terus (cf. D. otisius) or Hughmilleria have been found along the - Pennsylvania-Maryland border in a hard black shale which is “‘sandy at the top and pitted by rust-stained worm-tubes”’ (267, 5), and which is interbedded between two sandstone members of the Keefer sand- stone member of the McKenzie formation at the base of the Salina. Of far greater interest and importance, however, are the faunas of the Pittsford and Shawangunk shales of New York and Penn- sylvania. At Pittsford, Monroe County, New York, five species (or varieties) of eurypterids have been found: Eurypterus pittsfordensis Sarle, Hughmilleria socialis Sarle, H. socialis var. robusta Sarle, Ptery- gotus monroensis Sarle and Stylonurus (Ctenopterus) multispinosus Clarke and Ruedemann. This fauna is represented by numerous individuals, many of them well preserved, and by many fragments, but typical marine fossils are absent from the shales, although crus- tacea such as Emmelezoe decora and Pseudoniscus roosevelti occur. The eurypterids are here preserved in a remarkable state of perfec- tion, the fauna being found in two thin layers of the black shales (lower one 1 foot 2 inches thick, upper one 1o inches thick) (240, 1082) and the eurypterids are in such abundance that some layers are “literally packed” with the remains. The entire fauna from these beds as reported by Sarle (240, 1ro8r) is: Phyllocarida, 2; Synxi- phosura, 1; Eurypterida, 6. In the associated dolomitic layers were found Graptolitida, 1; Annelida (denticles), 3; Brachiopoda, 1; Pelecypoda, 1; Cephalopoda, 2; Ostracoda, 1. 18 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA A recent discovery by Professor Gilbert van Ingen has brought to light some eurypterid remains from a loose block found lying in Oriskany Creek, 3 miles south of Clinton, New York. Three cara- paces and several other fragments were found, the block also being “full of lingulas and orbiculoideas’” (39, 421). A new species, Eusarcus vaningent Clarke and Ruedemann was made, to include these specimens which closely resemble EL. cicerops of the Shawangunk of Otisville and may represent the adult of that species. From the shale beds in the Shawangunk conglomerate at Otis- ville, Orange County, New York, a large fauna of eurypterids has been obtained, but other fossils except Ceratiocaris are absent. Here in the Shawangunk Mountains of Eastern New York is a great series 630 feet thick of the Shawangunk grit resting upon the Hudson River shales. The series consists of alternating shales varying from 2 to 6 inches in thickness, and conglomerates or sandstones from 1 to 50 feet thick, the shale bands containing the merostomes. Some of the specimens though only 2.5 mm. long are perfectly preserved and are by far the youngest and smallest yet recorded. In regard to the occurrence Clarke says: ‘“‘In the Shawangunk section we have a fauna constantly repeating itself through a thickness of 650 feet which elsewhere appears only and briefly at the base of the Salina” (36, 303). The perfect specimens are all of young individuals, adults being represented only by fragments. The species recorded are: 1. Eurypterus maria Clarke, 2. Eusarcus? cicerops Clarke, 3. Dolichop- terus otisius Clarke, 4. D. stylonurus Clarke and Ruedemann, 5. Stylonurus (Ctenopterus) cestrotus Clarke, 6. S. (Ctenopterus) sp. a, B, vy, 7. S. myops Clarke, 8. S. sp., 9. Hughmilleria shawangunk Clarke, 10. Pterygotus globiceps Cl. and R. From the middle part of the Shawangunk grit of Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania, intercalated black shales similar to those in New York have furnished eurypterids. These were discovered by Mr. Paul Billingsley of Columbia University, who collected a large amount of material and who reports that the fragments are all dissociated, the carapaces commonly occurring by themselves, and separated from the abdominal segments, as if arranged by violent currents. Pro- fessor G. van Ingen and Mr. J. C. Martin have also collected exten- sively from this section. From their large number of specimens Clarke and Ruedemann have been able to identify Nos. I, 3, 7, 9, to of the list of species recorded from the Shawangunk of Otisville, and they make the comment that ‘Unfortunately, the maceration, BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 19 already so prevalent in much of the eurypterid material at Otisville, has at the Delaware Water Gap reached such a destructive degree that the shale is filled with a mass of comminuted eurypterid frag- ments’’ (39, 417). Upper Siluric or Monroan. The Bertie waterlime of New York of Upper Monroan age has long been famous for the wonderful euryp- terid fauna which it contains. This has been found in two localities: (z) in the quarriesin North Buffalo, Erie County, and (2) in Herkimer County; there are scattered occurrences of single species in other localities, which will be referred to below. The quarries at Buffalo have yielded the largest number of remains, the specimens having been sent in great numbers to museums all over the world, and the rock has now been so well worked over that probably no new dis- closures will be made. For purposes of study of the entire fauna of the Bertie the large collection in the Museum of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences offers excellent opportunities. The Bertie con- tains the largest eurypterid fauna of any one formation in the world, there being recorded fourteen species (39, 89) referred to four genera: Eurypterus (5 sp.), Pterygotus (5 sp.), Eusarcus (1 sp.), and Doli- chopterus (3 sp.). The specimens are for the most part astonishingly well preserved, but other organisms are extremely rare. In the Museum above referred to are a few specimens of marine organisms obtained from the formation which furnished the eurypterids. One slab of the waterlime about 14 inches thick shows on one side an Orthoceras undulatum which is very much worn, the siphuncle being exposed and the surface macerated (No. 13310 E 1639 of Buf. Soc. Nat. Sci. Coll.) and on the other side is a well preserved Eurypterus head (11461 E 976). There is one other specimen of O. undulatum (13309, E 1638) of a very carbonaceous nature. There are a number of specimens of Trochoceras gebhardi, but as a rule these are found in a rock not of the character typical of the Bertie layers bearing the eurypterids. In one case it is arenaceous and not a calcilutyte (13353 E 1682), containing two fragmentary specimens. The slabs containing the Trochoceras do not have eurypterid remains on them, with one exception (13345 E 1674) in which there is a eurypterid claw on a slab showing an imperfect 7. gebhardi. Associated with the eurypterids are a number of well preserved gastropod shells belong- ing to a genus which is also known from the Monroe formation of Michigan. This genus is Hercynella and it is represented at Buffalo by two species H. patelliformis O’Connell and H. buffaloensis O’Connell (200). 20 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Seven specimens of Lingula sp. Hall occur on one of the slabs. Leperditia alta and a large number of pelecypods of the genus Gonio- phora, but labeled Leperditia alta occur on a slab which probably does not come from the Buffalo region, but is more likely from Ohio, judging from the lithological character. Finally, there are a number of specimens of Ceratiocaris acuminata associated on the same slabs with the eurypterids and showing a preservation as perfect as theirs, these being the only fossils which do show this. Number 11453 E 968 contains Eurypterus lacustris and a large specimen of Ceratiocaris acuminata, the former with head shield and body separated, but both beautifully preserved. The plant remains are important, for many of the specimens of Eurypterus are found lying embedded in Butho- trephis lesquereuxi, and in one case there is a large mass of Butho- trephis at the side and on top of a Eurypterus (13329 E1657). (Some of these specimens of Buthotrephis are now regarded as graptolites.) There are three specimens of the plant ? form, Chondrites gramini- formis, two of which are excellently preserved (13273 E 1602 and 13312 E 1641 Pohlman’s type*). At Waterville, Oneida County, New York, a small scorpion Proscorpius osborni Whitfield has been found in a good state of preservation in the Bertie waterlime. A remarkable fact in connection with the occurrence of the euryp- terids in the Bertie is their distribution in two distinct basins or “pools,” the “Herkimer pool” on the east and the “Buffalo pool”’ on the west. These pools, while prolific in species and individuals, have, however, only two species in common, so far as published data show. Further search may reveal more forms in common, but it is certainly a significant fact that the abundantly represented species of the two areas are distinct, when the horizon is the same, and the localities only a few hundred miles distant. The following list gives the specimens for each pool, representative or identical species being apposed (39, 92 footnote): Buffalo Pool Herkimer Pool Tey Uny ptenusvlaCusthissee manner 1. Eurypterus remipes 2. lacustris! var) pachychirusi\.°. ace 40 ache ee oe en ee oe a. Ey pustulosuss accces ke uk Niece eed ee Ee eee 4. Eusarcus ‘Scorpions. 352604 (2.5 ocho Sc ae Oe eee ee ee ee Eee 5. Dolichopterus macrochirus.......... 5. Dolichopterus machrochirus Om D esilunicepSaaasigs ane eee 6. D. testudineus 7. Pterygotus buffaloensis..............7. Pterygotus macrophthalmus SeePecobbirs fn kee wee bee ae 8. P. cobbi GOT ATI LISI is REM TD le ee Repay, g. Proscorpius osborni 4 Figured in Buf. Soc. Nat. Hist. Bull., Vol. V, p. 31 (220). BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 2I “The species common to both are Dolichopterus macrochirus and Pierygotus cobbi, both of which are quite rare, while the predominant species in both places are unlike. It is not believed that these differ- ences necessarily express distinct stratigraphic horizons, as both lie near the top of the waterlime succession, but rather indicate original regional separation into distinct lagoonsorpools . . . . which we may assume to have been synchronous. There is, in the face of the difference suggested, a certain degree of approximation in the two expressed by such vicarious species as EL. remipes and E. lacustris, P. macrophthalmus and P. buffaloensis, which may well mean distinctions due to geographic isolation. The Herkimer pool is well restricted and its faunule cannot be traced very far towards the west; the Buffalo E. lacustris, however, appears alone as far east as Union Springs, Cayuga County, and as far west as Bertie, Ontario. Another difference in these faunas is the preponderating great size of all the species in the Buffalo pool, and, by contrast, the small size of and abundant young among the Herkimer county species; : That the smaller creatures lived in conditions of shallower ee iS evinced by the sun-dried and cracked rock surfaces of their matrix, while such evidences are wanting in the Buffalo pool iy (39,92). Eurypterus remipes, one of the common forms in the Herki- mer pool, is also obtained from the Rondout waterlime above the Cobleskill at Seneca Falls, Seneca county, New York. The Manlius limestone of uppermost Monroan age has yielded fragments of Eurypterus microphthalmus from various localities in New York and also from Ohio. The type, a single cephalon, came from a loose boulder near Cazenovia, Madison county, New York, con- taining also fragments of Spirifer vanuxemi from which the age of the boulder was determined. One nearly entire specimen was found in the drift of Onondaga Valley, near Syracuse, New York. Of. the number of carapaces now in the New York State Museum, one was collected “‘in the town of Litchfield in Manlius limestone, not less than 100 feet above the Eurypterus horizon in the Bertie waterlime”’ (39, 194). Professor Whitfield’s type of E. eriensis (now regarded by Clarke and Ruedemann to be the same as EL. microphthalmus Hall) came from the hydraulic limestones, the Put-in-Bay dolomite, of Beach Point, Put-in-Bay Island, Lake Erie, Ohio. There is one more Siluric fauna to be noted and that is the one in the Kokomo waterlime of Indiana. Clarke and Ruedemann, fol- lowing Schuchert correlate the Kokomo with the Noblesville of 22 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Northern Indiana (Schuchert 255, 467), which is in turn correlated with the Lockport of New York. The latter correlation may stand, but the former is not supported by palaeontological evidence. In a private communication from E. M. Kindle, who has written quite an extensive paper on the Stratigraphy of the Niagara of Northern Indiana (139), the following comment is made in reference to the statement that the Kokomo eurypterids are found in the Lockport- Noblesville horizon: “This reference of course is an unfortunate error and is presumably based upon a correlation of the Kokomo limestone and the Noblesville limestone of Indiana which is undoubtedly errone- ous. There is practically nothing in common between the faunas of the Noblesville and the Kokomo. The lithology of the beds is quite as unlike as their faunas so that there is absolutely no ground for correlating these two distinct faunas.’’ Since Kindle has done con- siderable work in the region and made extensive collections of the fossils, his statement is of importance. Palaeontologically it appears that the Kokomo is surely not earlier than Salinan and is more proba- bly Monroan, corresponding to one of the waterlimes in New York.’ The eurypterid remains are very thin films, scarcely more than imi- pressions, so that scale markings often are not visible. The preser- vation is not nearly so perfect as in the Bertie waterlime of New York. There are at least 40 feet of limestone, characterized by thin lamina- tion of bedding planes and the presence of eurypterids. Above this horizon is a series of limestones, not thinly laminated, containing a rather rich brachiopod fauna, but with the eurypterids the only other fossils are ceratiocarids. The brachiopod fauna, so far as is possible to learn from the literature, occurs at a different level from that in which the merostomes are found (Foerste, 67, 6-8). Four species have been reported from the merostome beds: Eurypterus ranilarva Cl. and R., E. (Onychopterus) kokomoensis Miller and Gurley, Eusarcus newlini (Claypole) and Stylonurus (Drepanopterus) longicaudatus Cl. and R., giving altogether a fairly large fauna and one that is sufficiently well preserved for purposes of characterization. Devonic. The Devonic of America shows a great decline of the eurypterids, so far as we can judge from the fossil record, for, while in the Siluric there had been an ever-increasing number of species and of individuals, in the Devonic, on the other hand, there are no representatives in the Lower and Middle, and it is not until the very top of the Upper that a few stragglers are found. The first, a specifi- 5 The brachiopods described by Foerste have a distinctly Monroan aspect. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 23 cally undetermined Pterygotus mentioned by Billings, is from the Grand Greve limestone of Lower Devonic age. Remains of Ptery- gotus have also been found in the lower marine Devonic at Dalhousie. Finally, near Campbellton, New Brunswick, “in some indurated limestones containing fish remains of probably Upper Devonic age”’ are also eurypterid remains which Clarke and Ruedemann have de- scribed as Pierygotus atlanticus. An extremely incomplete and prob- Jematic form is a two-jointed fragment from the lower beds of the Portage sandstones of Italy, Yates County, New York. Originally described by Dawson as a plant (Equisetides wrightiana Dawson), it was later placed among the eurypterids by Hall as Stylonurus (?) wrightiana and is now so recognized by Clarke and Ruedemann. There is but a single fragment, part of a jointed appendage apparently. A number of fragments of Stylonurus, originally described as Stylo- nurus excelsior by Hall and which Beecher used in making the restor- ation which he called Stylonurus lacoanus, have all been united by Clarke and Ruedemann under the species Stylonurus (Ctenopterus) excelsior. ‘There are only two specimens, one a complete carapace from the Catskill beds at Andes, Delaware County, New York, and another more fragmentary carapace from the same formation in Pennsylvania. Eurypterus beecheri Hall described from the Chemung of Pennsylvania has proved to be the same as Stylonurus beecheri. Misstssrppic. From the Waverly beds of Warren, Warren County, Pennsylvania, a single eurypterid was described by Hall and Clarke in 1888 as Eurypteris approximatus. No complete description of this form is given anywhere, but the figure in the Palaeontology of New York, Volume VII, plate 27, figure 6, (106), shows the one specimen that has been found in which there are the cephalon and nine somites. This form is regarded by Clarke and Ruedemann as one of severa] phylogerontic species of Eurypterus which constitute the end members in different lines of development in North America and mark the decline of the race. Carponitc. In the Carbonic (Pennsylvanic) are found four species of Eurypterus in Pennsylvania; Eurypterus (Anthraconectes) mazonensis Meek and Worthen (170) in the Coal Measures of Mazon Creek, Ill.; two species in the Carbonic of Nebraska, and two doubtful species from St. John, New Brunswick. Particular attention should be called to Eurypterus (Anthraconectes) mansfieldi which C. E. Hall has figured (98, pl. IV), showing the form just as it was found lying on ferns in a very perfect state of preservation, in the lower Productive 24 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Coal Measures in Beaver County, Pennsylvania. Eurypterus stylus of Hall from the Venango beds is probably the same as E. (Anthra- conectes) mansfieldi, both type specimens being compressed longitudi- nally, but otherwise appearing the same. Eurypterus (Anthraconectes) pennsylvanicus C. E. Hall described from a single small carapace from Pithole City, Venango County, Pennsylvania is probably allied to E. mansfieldi, according to Clarke and Ruedemann (39, 428). A few fragments called by Hall EL. ? potens also occur in Pennsylvania. The Carbonic eurypterids are in productive coal beds associated with plants and land animals. The fauna and flora at Mazon Creek have been especially studied by Meek and Worthen (170) from whose report the following associates of Eurypterus mazonensis are taken: A Xiphosuran Euproéps danae M. and W. An isopod Acanthotelson stimpsoni M. and W. ~ also A. event M. and W. Decapoda: Palaeocaris typus M. and W. Anthrapalaemon gracilis M. and W. Myriopoda: Euphoberia armigera M. and W. Arachnida: Pulmonia: Eoscorpius carbonarius M. and W. Mazonia woodiana M. and W. Architarbus rotundatus Scudder Cock-roach: Mylacris anthracophila Scudder . Other insects: Miamia danae Scudder Chrestotes lapidae Scudder The remains from the Coal Measures of Nebraska were found by Barbour in an outcrop one mile south of Peru in the bluffs facing the Missouri River (10). The formations exposed there consist of alter- nating shale and limestone changing rapidly to a shale which finally merges into a massive sandstone. In this last bed there occurred a shaly band composed of thin, irregularly shaly layers, seldom half an inch thick, alternating with micaceous sand. This whole band was scarcely a foot thick and extended for over three hundred feet. Even within the band it was only the topmost two inches of the shale seams which yielded eurypterid remains. ‘These were found in con- siderable abundance, forty specimens so far having been obtained in an area of as many square feet. The chitinous shells, probably repre- senting merely the shed exoskeletons, have in all cases been reduced to carbonaceous films, but except where these are very thin they are in a good condition of preservation so that the grosser anatomy and surface markings can be seen and even some of the minute sculpturing. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 25 Barbour has described only one species, Eurypterus (Anthraco- nectes) nebraskensis. It is represented by a large number of indi- viduals and undoubtedly as the beds are worked over a great many more specimens will be obtained. They are for the most part in good condition, though seemingly representing only the exuvie. The individuals are small, averaging two inches in length, the largest not being even three inches long. Barbour figures and describes, but does not name a second form which he thinks may be a species different from E. nebraskensis. The faunal associates listed by Barbour are: ‘‘innumerable leaves, stems and fragments of certain land plants, conspicuously Neurop- teris pinnules, stems of Calamites, and leaf-whorls of Asterophyllites ; Intimately associated with the eurypterids were con- Aerie amounts of actual plant tissue, preserved as such since Carboniferous times.” (10, 507-8). Two species, Eurypterus ? pulicaris Salter from the Little River plant bed no. 2 of St. John, New Brunswick, and Eurypterella ornata Matthew are so doubtfully identified that Clarke and Ruedemann do not consider even their eurypterid origin as certain. (39, 93) The horizon at which they were found was originally supposed to be Devonic, but is now known to be Carbonic. GREAT BRITAIN Situric. Lower Siluric Llandovery-Wenlock. ‘The earliest euryp- terid remains that have been found anywhere outside of North Ameri- ca, are the fragments of Pterygotus problematicus from the May Hill sandstone of upper Llandovery age, found in Eastnor Park near Ledbury, Herefordshire, England. A single chelate appendage was found associated with Nucula eastnori, Pentameri and Stricklandin- jae. The Mayhill sandstone is a basal one resting by overlap upon various earlier members of the series even upon the Shineton (Dictyo- nema) shales at Wenlock Edge. There is everywhere a marked break and unconformity between the underlying beds and the May Hill sandstone, indicating that the latter was laid down by an advancing sea, if it was not a terrestrial (fluviatile) sandstone reworked by the sea. In the Wenlock of the Pentland Hills, Scotland, occurs the first large eurypterid fauna of Europe. The rock containing the euryp- terids is “an irregularly fissile, fine-grained sandstone, containing a 26 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA considerable amount of structureless carbonaceous matter distributed in thin layers’’ (Laurie, 145, 151). The only other fossil which Mal- colm Laurie found in the rock at the time of his first discovery was Dictyocaris ramsayi, but since then Peach and Horne have made a large collection of other types. In 1898 Laurie added some new dis- coveries from Gutterford Burn, and among these the one specimen of a scorpion, much crushed and lying imbedded in the carbonaceous matter. In the Pentland Hills the Wenlock formation is a yellowish sandstone and conglomerate, showing cross-bedding and in some places ripple marks, and is exposed in several inliers in the Old Red Sandstone, later formations having been eroded. Extensive collec- tions have been made here by Henderson, Brown and Laurie, the latter describing a number of new species. One of the best sections is seen along Gutterford Burn, a tributary of the Esk, where the following specimens have been collected, the determinations having been made by Laurie. Bembicosoma pomphicus Laurie. Stylonurus (Drepanopterus) pentlandicus (Laurie). S. (Drepanopterus) bembicoides (Laurie). S. (Drepanopterus) lobatus (Laurie). Eurypterus conicus Laurie. E. minor Laurie. Eusarcus scoticus (Laurie). Eurypterus 3 sp. undet. Stylonurus elegans Laurie. S. macrophthalmus Laurie. S. ornatus Laurie. Slimonia dubia Laurie. Dictyocaris ramsayi Salter. Palaeophonus loudonensis Laurie. Upper Siluric or Ludlow. The Ludlow of England has yielded eight species of eurypterids all in a most fragmentary condition, making it difficult to determineforms accurately. They all come from the Ludlow outcrops in Shropshire and Herefordshire. From the Aymestry limestone there are some remains which have been doubt- fully referred to Pterygotus problematicus. ‘This same species appears again and again throughout the remainder of the Siluric, being rare in the Upper Ludlow group, but becoming more common towards the top of the Temeside group in the Ludlow district. Eurypterus acumt- natus Salt. and E. linearis are rare in the Upper Ludlow, the former BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES By occurring also in the Temeside group. Eurypterus pygmaeus Salt. and Stylonurus megalops Salt. are common as fragments in the higher olive shales of the Temeside group. Péerygotus banksii Salt. together with numerous indeterminable species of Eurypterus are found in the Ludlow Bone-Bed; this species is also common in the Platyschisma bed and the upper olive shales of the Temeside group; in the same shale P. ludensis Salt. is abundant. In all cases where species are reported to be common it is to be remembered that no entire speci- mens are found but only fragments and disjecta membra. The occur- rences cited are from the Ludlow district in Shropshire; to the south- west in the Downton Castle sandstone at Kington in Herefordshire Pierygotus banksii has been found in large numbers associated with P. gigas, the spines of crustacea and fish and also Platyschisma heli- cites and Lingula cornea. Salter has further described Eurypterus abbreviatus from a single telson which he found at Kington. - Brodie collected specimens of Piterygotus banksii, Eurypterus pygmaeus, E. acuminatus, and E. abbreviatus at Purton, Herefordshire. The great- est abundance of specimens is found in a sandy marl lying just below a yellow sandstone containing plants, seed-vessels of Lycopodiaceae and fragments of eurypterids. The horizon is about that of the Ludlow Bone-Bed (24, 236). The Ludlow of Scotland is found only in a few inliers in Lanark- shire. Division 3 recognized by Peach and Horne (215) consists of flagstone and greywackes with Ceratiocaris beds and containing the Ludlow fish band. From these beds Slimonia acuminata Salter has been described associated with five species of Ceratiocaris and worm tracks. From the same shales Pterygotus bilobus Salter and the com- mon Ludlow fish Thelodus scoticus are reported. In certain places occur Beyrichia kloedent and Platyschisma helicites forms very fre- quently associated with Upper Siluric eurypterids. The fish band contains Slimonia acuminata, the myriopod Archidesmus loganensis Peach, four species of the phyllocarid crustacean Ceratiocaris and one of Physocaris, together with numerous fish fragments and two species of Thelodus. Of great interest has been the discovery by Peach in this fish band of one of the oldest scorpions from Great Britain, Palaeophonus caledonicus Hunter. This is approximately the same ho- rizon at which Lindstrém found Palaeophonus nuncius in Gotland (see below, p. 34). The eurypterid horizon par excellence occurs in the next higher division above the fish band and contains Eurypterus lanceolatus (Salt.), Eusarcus obesus (Woodw.), E. scorpioides (Woodw.), 28 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Pierygotus bilobus Salt., together with three varieties of this species, P. raniceps (Woodw.), Slimonia acuminata (Salt.) and Stylonurus logani (Woodw.). The Pterygotus beds are followed by the ‘“Trochus,” more properly, Platyschisma beds which correspond to the beds of the same name in England, and which contain fragments of Slimonia acuminata as do the next overlying beds which mark the transition into the sandy Lanarkian series. The Lanarkian. About 1400 to 1500 feet above the base of this series occurs a fish-band in the carbonaceous shales of which Euryp- terus dolichoschelus (Laurie) has been found associated with Ceratio- caris, five species of fishes, and Pachytheca and Parka. At another locality seven species of fishes, Ceratiocaris, Dictyocaris, Pachytheca, a Myriopod and Eurypterus dolichoschelus (Laurie) and Stylonurus ornatus (Laurie) have been found. Devonic. The Devonic formations of Great Britain have a better representation of eurypterids than have those of North America. The Old Red Sandstone of Forfarshire has yielded Pterygotus anglicus in abundance and in a good state of preservation and one nearly entire specimen of P. minor. From the same region come three species of Stylonurus, S. scoticus, S. powriet, S. ensiformis, and finally the little known Eurypterus brewstert. In the Old Red Sandstones of England occur Eurypterus pygmaeus and Stylonurus symondsiu. Fragments of Pterygotus problematicus have been reported from the Lower Old Red of the Ludlow district. A few fragments of Eurypterus hibernicus Baily have been found in the Upper Old Red of Kiltorcan, Kilkenny County, Ireland. There are thus ten species of eurypterids from the Devonic of Great Britain, all occurring in the Old Red Sandstone facies of deposits associated with fishes, land plants, fluviatile molluscs, myriopods and crustacea, such as the fresh or brackish-water phyllopod, Estheria, the ostracod Beyrichia and cer- tain phyllocarids. With the exception of Pterygotus anglicus none of the eurypterids is either abundant or well preserved, most of the species being represented by a single portion of the exoskeleton or by a number of fragments. Moreover, these fragments are scattered in occurrence geologically and geographically. Six species are found in Forfarshire, Scotland, in the Lower Devonic (Caledonian); three species are sparingly represented in Brecknockshire and Herefordshire, England, at the same horizon; while a few fragments of a single species occur in the Upper Old Red of Ireland. MISssISSIPPIC OR CALcIFEROUS. The Calciferous fresh-water BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 29 limestone of Scotland, equivalent in age to the Mississippic of North America, has yielded three species of Eurypterus: scabrosus, Wood- ward, scoulert Hibbert and ? stevensont Ethridge. Of the first species a doubtful fragment has been reported from Eskdale, Scotland. Hibbert was the first to describe as a Eurypterus the two nearly com- plete individuals and three or four fragments found in the Burdie- house fresh-water limestone at Kirkton, near Bathgate, West Lothian. The organic remains are scattered through in no regular order and are not confined to the limestone particularly, but occur in the sandy beds above and below, not in particular seams. One of the euryp- terid remains had earlier been described under the name Fidothea, but Hibbert rightfully called it Eurypterus scouleri (116, 280, 281, pl. XII). Vegetal matter is diffused through the limestone and in this fossil plants are well preserved, the form particularly abundant being Sphenopteris affinis. Microscopic Entomostraca abound which have been named by Hibbert Cypris scoto-burdigalensis, and a micro- scopic mollusc approaching Planorbis also occurs. Fish remains are abundant: Gyracanthus formosus Agassiz, ganoid and sauroid teeth, and many coprolites are found. Woodward says of this limestone: “it is a fresh water deposit, and abounds in bands of silex alternating with calcareous matter and presents all the appearance of having been deposited by thermal waters during the Carboniferous epoch” (312, 180). The third species above referred to was described by Etheridge from a few fragmentary spines found in a light-colored micaceous sandstone of the Cement-stone group in Kimmerghame quarry, near Dunse in Berwickshire, Scotland. In the same shire Peach has recently discovered some fragments for which he erected the genus Glyptoscorpius, a eurypterid which had combs, and walking feet ending in two claws. In the Calciferous sandstone here at Lennel Braes, near Coldstream, Berwickshire, a specimen of G. perornatus Peach showing five body segments much broken, and a number of combs, referred to G. caledonicus (Salter) have been found. Besides these, are a number of fragments referred to the genus Glyptoscorpius, but specifically unidentifiable (209, 516-525). At the River Esk, four miles south of Langholm, Dumfriesshire, the two species of Glyptoscorpius are found with the following associates: several species of Phyllocarida, Ceratiocaris scorpioides Peach, C. elongatus Peach; Peracarida, Anthrapalaemon etheridget Peach, A. parki Peach, A. traquaiu Peach, A. macconochii, A. formosus Peach, Palaeocrangon eskdalensis Peach, Palaeocaris scoticus Peach, and later discoveries 30 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA have added Pseudo-Galathea rotundata and Palaeocrangon elegans. At Tweeden Burn, Liddesdale, have been found many membra dis- jecta, unidentifiable. The fauna also includes some Xiphosurans: Prestwichia alternata Peach from Lavuston Burn, upper Liddesdale, Prestwichia rotundata Woodward from the River Esk locality and Cyclus testudo Peach from Langholm. Many of these crustacean forms are quite well preserved. Scorpions also occur at Langholm: Eoscorpius glaber Peach, E. euglyptus Peach and LE. inflatus Peach. These forms though never perfect are very complete and show all parts well. . CARBONIC OR CARBONIFEROUS. In the Coal Measures of Great Britain the final stragglers among the eurypterids are found, just as they are in North America. Eurypterus (Arthropleura) mammatus Salter includes fragments from Pendleton Colliery, near Manchester, England, which are associated with many plant remains, a few of which may be mentioned: Lepidodendron obovatum. Lepidodendron sternbergit. Lepidodendron elegans. Neuropteris loshit. Neuropteris heterophylla. Neuropteris gigantea. Cyclopteris flabellata. Sphenopteris obtusiloba. Sphenopteris latifolia. and some others BOHEMIA Stturic. Lower Siluric Ee,, Ee. of Barrande. From the Siluric basin of Bohemia Barrande listed six species of Pterygotus, all of which are represented by the merest fragments and are of rare occur- rence. They are found in undoubted marine formations, for Ee; is a black graptolite-bearing shale, while Ee contains numerous cephalo- pods, gastropods, trilobites and corals (12, 39-44). The species of Pterygotus are: bohemicus, comes, cyrtochela, kRopaninensis, mediocris and nobilis. Of the general preservation and faunal associates of these eurypterids Barrande remarks: ‘Our basin, so privileged in respect to the frequency and the state of preservation of the trilobites and the other crustacea, appears, on the contrary, very poor in the fossils representing the two types of BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 31 eurypterids, which are recognized in our formations. (Pterygotus and Eurypterus). « . . . Far from finding individuals complete and well meecereed it will prove difficult to add any new facts of importance to those already published on the organization of the species of this type. “That advantage is not reserved for us, for the Silurian basin of Bohemia, so favored in all other respects, is relatively poor in fossils of the genus Pterygotus, not only because of their great rarity, but also because of the reduction of the specimens to little fragments. Since almost all of the remains are found in the large horizon of the Cephalopods, that is, in our limestone band e 2, it seems to us that one may attribute the almost total disappearance of these gigantic Crustacea to the voracity of these molluscs, against whom they were forced to maintain the struggle for existence.”’ (13, 556). We need not consider seriously this interpretation of the frag- mental character of the eurypterid remains as they can be interpreted in another manner (see p. 199). Semper (261) has recently done some work in the region and has revised and added to Barrande’s original species. In e; 8 at Podol Dvorce, near Prague, he has collected a few fragments to which he has given the name Pterygotus barrandei of which there are also some fragments at Dlouha hora, in horizon ez. A few endognathites from the former locality have been described as P. beraunensis Semper, since they come from near Beraun. Some fragments of a swimming foot are also described by Semper from eé:, as P. blahai, in a thinly laminated limestone rich in Orthoceras which occurs at Visnovka near Lochhov. Of all the species found in Bohemia the best one is a fragmentary individual showing the head with the first eight somites attached, and a few separate fragments, these constituting the species Eurypterus acrocephalus Semper from horizon e;, at Dvorce. From these various occurrences it is apparent that the eurypterids, though represented by a large number of species in the beds of Wenlock or Niagaran age of Bohemia, are found only rarely and in a most frag- mentary condition, although the large marine fauna occurring in the same horizon is one of the largest and most perfect that is known, forming the basis for Barrande’s ponderous work on the Systéme Silurienne in which many volumes are devoted to the description and figuring of the marine fossils, while a very little space suffices for the meagre eurypterid fauna. Barrande notices in a paper on the 32 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA correlation of the Siluric deposits of Bohemia and Scandinavia (Paral- lele entre les Depots Siluriens de Bohéme et de Scandinavie (11), that Pterygotus remains have been found at Klinta in Scania, southern Sweden, which recall Pterygotus problematicus of England (11, 58) Upper Siluric or Ff, of Barrande. ‘Two species of Eurypterus have been recorded from the Upper Siluric of Bohemia in the same incom- plete condition that those from the Lower were found in. E. pugio Barrande and a species related to P. bohemicus Barrande are the only representatives in this period. The latter is reported by Semper from a single claw and part of an abdomen found at Cerna rockle, Kosor in a black limestone of Ff, age. Carponic. Coal Measures of Bohemia. Ina rather blackish grey shale at Wilkischen, near Pilsen, Reuss found two macerated, but nearly complete individuals and a cephalon of a eurypterid which he named Eurypterus imhofi, and which is associated on the same slab with pinnules of Pecopteris. Reuss says that this fossil “‘of the Bohemian Coal Measures—a freshwater formation— is without doubt derived from a freshwater or brackish water ancestor (228, 83).”’ BELGIUM Devonic. Upper Devonic. In only one locality in Belgium have eurypterids been found. Some thirty kilometers southwest of Liege at Pont de Bonne near Modave is exposed a section showing the Upper Devonic sandstones of Condroz. Lohest, Braconier and Destinez in working up this section found a few eurypterid fragments in 1888 and in the following year these were described by Julien Fraipont and Maximin Lohest. Eurypterus lohesti was described by Dewalque from two specimens, one the counterpart of the other, representing a complete cephalon. Fraipont described Eurypierus ? dewalquei from a cephalon, a portion of an abdominal segment, and a few other fragments. One other fragment, a portion of one of the appendages, is thought by Fraipont to belong to a species related to E. ? dewalquei, but because of the similarity in ornamentation and agreement in size, he makes it only a variety, calling it E. ? dewalquet var. longimanus. The beds in which these remains were found are described by Lohest as follows (68, 55): “We procured the major part of our fossils from the bed of green shales. They contain: Glyptolepis multistriatus, G. radians, Holop- BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 33 tychius dewalquet, Eurypterus, Spirorbis. Mr. Destinez found a beautiful Ichthyolite which is probably new. We cite again: lamelli- branchs, lingulas, ferns and Lepidodendron. That bed contains sometimes thin layers of sandstones, on which one finds associated on the same planes of stratification lingulas, lamellibranchs, ferns, and ganoid scales. Mr. I. Braconier has collected excellent specimens which demonstrate the certainty of this fact.°® “In beds F, G, H, I, we have not collected any bdetermunmile fossils; but in the lower part of bed J we have found vegetal matter, scales of the fish, Holoptychius inflexus, a small species of Pterichthys _ and the remains of a Dipterus as I have pointed out.” (Fraipont, 68, 55). A little lower in the series in bed B impressions have been found which suggest those of rain-drops, also very numerous axes of vegetal ‘matter probably, as suggested by Mr. Mourlon, stipes of the fern Palaeopteris hibernica, and in the same bed Mr. Destinez found a large bone, belonging apparently to a fish. BALTIC ISLES AND RUSSIA Stturic. Upper Siluric of Gotland. The Baltic Isles have long been famous for their Siluric sections which are so excellently shown on Gotland. The lowest eurypterid horizon is found in the Péerygotus marl of Gotland of Upper Siluric age. Although the sections in the northern and southern parts of the island have been studied separately and the correlations are not as yet complete, still one important fact has stood out for the whole island: there is everywhere a great break between the Lower and Upper Gotlandian (Siluric), indicating in many places that there was at this time a retreat and a subsequent advance of the sea. In the north around Visby, Hedstrém (113) has recognized seven subdivisions of the Gotlandian. Beginning at the base, the first bed to be shown along the shore is the Stricklandia marl (I of Hedstrém), with Palzocyclus as the characteristic fossil. Then follows II, a marly limestone showing reef masses at intervals and containing a Niagaran fauna. The succeeding beds (III) are of particular interest to us. At the base are 3 meters of yellowish grey limestone with crinoids, and then follow 16 meters of grey marls interstratified with limestone, the upper 5 meters of which consist of stratified limestones, oolitic at the base, but becoming gradually coarser towards the top where they are conglomeratic, and where &M. I. Braconier a recueilli de superbes échantillons qui demontrent ce fait a’ l’évidence.” 34 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA ripple-mark structures are sometimes observable. Above these strata comes a complex of layers, one meter thick, consisting of marl shales and limestones with Pierygotus osiliensis and Paleophonus nuncius, a scorpion. Lindstrém has called this thin stratum the Pterygotus marl, and it is seen to lie just at the top of III.’ Here there is a break and disconformity, above which follows a conglomerate (IV) with waterworn gastropoda and portions of Spongiostroma holmi Roth- pletz. The relations of the reef limestone and marl are well shown in the vicinity of Visby. The reefs are composed of non-stratified accumulations of Stromatopore mainly, with a few corals in addition. Between the reefs of II are the finely stratified bituminous, brownish shales of III, well shown on the island of Karls6 west of Visby, which contain a marine and estuarine fauna mixed. Upper Siluric of Oesel. ‘This island has yielded a large crustacean fauna in the usual association with eurypterids. Two species of Eurypterus are reported: E. Jaticeps Schmidt from two fairly perfect head shields, and E. fischeri Eichwald from many excellent specimens. There is also an abundance of fragments of Pterygotus osiliensis. The bed in which these occur is a fine grained Platten-kalk or dolo- mite, with a peculiar fauna throughout; this is followed by other granular limestones containing the usual uppermost Siluric fauna. The Eurypterus beds have a fairly wide extent in western Oesel, but the fullest development of the fauna is seen only near Rootzikiill, on the west coast of the island, in the parish of Kielkond. Here the beds are a dolomite in which the chitinous exoskeletons of Ptery- gotus and Eurypterus have been excellently preserved, and even the tail sting of a Ceratiocaris and the shields of two cephalaspid fishes, Thyestes verrucosus Eichw. and Tremataspis schrenckit Schmidt, and the shells of the little Lingula nana Eichw. have been found. Rather rarely occurring are the Hemiaspidae: Bunodes lunula Eichw., B. rugosus Nieszk. and schrenckit Nieszk. sp. as well as Pseudoniscus - aculeatus Nieszk. and the shells of Orthoceras tenue Eichw. Bunodes and Leperditia are represented by many specimens, but these and all the other fossils mentioned show, in place of the shell which is de- stroyed, only a black carbonaceous film representing the organic material (Schmidt 248, 28). The eurypterids do not show the same kind of preservation, for Schrenck (254, 35) reports the integuments of Eurypterus remipes Dekay (with which E. tetragonophthalmus Fischer is synonymous and which Schmidt has since placed under E. fischeri,) to be entirely unaltered, not only chemically, still remain- 7 Professor Grabau has argued that this bed should be placed in the Upper Gotlandian. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 35 ing pure chitin, but also in their entire internal make-up and with their original color such as is characteristic of living representatives. AUSTRO-RUSSIAN BORDER LANDS Stturic. Upper Siluric of Podolia and Galicia. From various localities, mainly in Galicia, Austria, but occasionally from Podolia, Russia, a few fragments of Eurypterus fischeri are reported, together with specimens determined with difficulty to be Pterygotus osiliensis, and also three telsons of specifically unidentifiable Stylonurus. Devonic. Middle Devonic of Galicia. A single telson of a Ptery- gotus species has been found by Siemiradzki in the Devonic coral limestone of Skala, Valencia (263). AUSTRALIA Stturic. Upper Siluric. Professor McCoy has reported (168) the finding by Mr. F. Spry of four eurypterid remains in the Upper Silurian rocks underlying Melbourne. These rocks have been corre- lated by McCoy with the Victorian series. The matrix in which the merostome fragments were found is described as resembling very closely the black flaggy layers of the uppermost Ludlow of Les- mahagow, Scotland, while the eurypterid found there seems to have its closest affinities to Pterygotus bilobus. The specimen figured is fragmentary, but apparently of a eurypterid, which McCoy has referred to Pterygotus australis. GERMANY Carsonic. Middle Saarbriicker. In the Saarbriicken ‘‘basin”’ of Germany the Carbonic has been divided into two parts, the upper or Ottweiler with grey and red sandstone at the top and grey shale and sandstone below containing Pecopteris arborensis, Estheria, Leaia baentschiana and fish remains; and the lower or coal-bearing Saarbriicken beds containing in their middle members abundant plant remains and two eurypterid species. Arthropleura armata Jordan is represented by two or three abdominal segments found in the beds in the Friedrichsthal tunnel two miles from Saarbriicken, where in the same beds are plant remains of Lepidophyllum lineare Brong., and Anthracosaurus ramceps, Dictyoneura blattina and other insects. In the railroad shaft at Jagersfreude, ? of a mile from Saar- briicken, one incomplete individual of a form called by Jordan Adelop- thalmus (Eurypterus) granosus has been found (135). 36 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA SOUTH AMERICA Carsponic. Coal Measures of Brazil. David White described some fragments from the Santa Catharina system, about 55 meters above the granite floor (Tubarao series) or 225 meters below the Iraty black shale (Passa Dois series) northeast of Minas, Santa Catha- rina, Brazil (297, 229, 589, 605). The fragments are of most doubt- ful identification, some being apparently plant remains, but others having a suggestion of relation to the Eurypterida (297, pl. XJ, figs. 4,6, 7, 8). These are described as Hast'mima whitei White. AFRICA - Devonic. Witteberg series. From the Upper Devonic Witteberg series of Cape Colony, South Africa, Professor A. C. Seward has described two fragments of a fossil which he considers to be a euryp- terid. He compared it with the species described by David White from Brazil and called it Hastimima sp., saying: ‘““The view which seems to me most hopeful is that this fossil represents part of a body- segment of a Eurypterid” (262, 485). Seward sent the specimens to Woodward who not only concurred in the opinion as to the eurypterid nature of the remains, but he also considers that the Brazilian forms are eurypterids (325, 486). It is gratifying to note that the opinion expressed by these earlier writers is fully supported by Clarke and Ruedemann in their monograph where they have discussed this genus (39, 400-406) and figured some more of the fragments from Brazil. The Witteberg series consists of a hard blue micaceous quartzite, replaced in some localities by shale or slate. So far as known it is unfossiliferous except for occasional] plant stems allied to Lepidoden- dron and the widespread markings known as Spirophyton caudagallt. A photograph of this fossil given by Hatch and Corstorphine in their Geology of South Africa (111, fig. 22.) reveals no essential difference between it and the Spirophyton caudagalli of the Esopus, Oriskany and Hamilton of eastern North America. Seward considers that it is an inorganic structure and Grabau has gone even further in suggesting that it is due to the blowing back and forth of reed-like plants on a plastic surface capable of holding such markings long enough until covered over by wind-blown dust or sand. At any rate, the forma- tion is undoubtedly non-marine, and the two eurypterid fragments therein could hardly have come from any other source than the land waters. TABLE I GroLoctcaL AND GroGRAPHIcaL DisTRIBUTION OF THE EURYPTERIDA THROUGHOUT Tae WorLD 1s} is! oO a x Onnovrete SILUETG MISSISSIPPIC CARBONIC g 2 = DEVONIC a g |S a 2 Ss M.| Upper Lower and Middle Upper sae Temeside zi 2 i Old sandstone, - Group Group S| 5] 2 2 a 1} elo = | |Z] 3} 8) 5) 2 2 $ PALZOZOIC ARACHNIDA OF THE S Se Qn na] Hail Se, Z| 8 a 2 5 Zi SUBCLASS: MEROSTOMATA (DANA) WOODWARD ee aa Be (sl lola s a = = 2 a Ba =| 8) =| 8] 5] 2 a ORDER: EURYPTERIDA BURMEISTER si Fi - BS) aa Z 2| 8} 3/8] 8 a | & rs ta N EB a) A) 3] 3| 8 F Fy als FAMILY: EURYPTERIDZ BURMEISTER Bi 2 3 Q = 4 3 Ba & 2 4 & = £ s| 2 B g 3 a 4 G = a ) 5 8 a iS $ ie 3| S| = 7 al We 3/8 5 al4 S| |elels| DE (e)itestudineus:GleandiRe- sss oes ee alle siine IV. Genus Echinognathus Walcott........................ alle alle fe2mebeaclevelandinWialcottememne- pce nee eel V. Genus Eurypterus Dekay........... allo alfe 13. E. abbreviatus Salter.......... alfoafs 14. E. accuminatus Salter............ alleolte 15. I. approximatus Hall and Clarke... ale alle Osi aa DLewSterighleaVVOOd wana ias ae ee als peyom ves DLOCLeIp Elen WOO C Ware eee ene eee ee Alltealte 18. E. cephalaspis Salter...... slleolfe 1g. E. chadwicki Cl. and R. aS cml ([S5|[acleslocllon|ieclfoaleal|- Ie late allpalls 20. E. conicus Laurie......... Sa oes Sec Pa SS Suilseltsz si lecll at. E. cyclophthalmus Laurie... Beale 22. E. dekayi Hall........... 3 3 Alter 23. E. 2 dewalquei Fraipont...................... Ale alte 24. Wi. ? dewalquei var. longimanus Fraipont elite 25. E. dolichoschelus Laurie ale off 26. E. douvillei de Lima... Solfeeile=|[eclleollaoie cle allac|> 4 Oi iva Soe Pie le Sie uaet IDEM cnn sorena ak pro eoeeSCaEScaneoCEAe: ol alee lea oalaalte slkes ls 28. E. fischeri Eichwald var. rectangularis Schmidt. . . als Zoe Eabiberni cus (Baily) sete meteeeeei) Cn en |e 30. E. imhofi Ruess..... ss era aes eet ects ia 32. E. lacustris Hall var. pachy chirus Hall. . 33- E. lanceolatus Salter. --..-. 5... 2..-- 34. E. linearis Salter....... 35. E. lohesti Dewalque. .. ei? sp. Peach and Horne... Spebaurleys =e ye So (P) Weenie Sacked deanc $ Sp pl ViOber gems teh Sata nasheeds eae ae . (Adelopthalmus) granosus Jordan....... . (Anthraconectes) mansfieldi C. E. Hall......... aa . (Anthraconectes) mazonensis Meek & Worthen........ . (Anthraconectes) nebraskensis Barbour............... . (Anthraconectes) pennsylvanicus C. E. Hall..... . (Onychopterus) kokomoensis Miller and Gurley. 65. E. (Tylopterus) boylei Whiteaves VI. Genus Eusarcus Grote and Pitt 66. E. acrocephalus (Semper) O7nal-u(P)iciceropsi@larke=) ema ° hae ectic- cme eae nia 68. E. linguatus Cl. and R.... 69. E. logani M. Y. Williams. 10) E. Ose esmianias Clarkes t= ssa: jas 37. E. microphthalmus Hall.......... Blae 18, wanvoreye Ip AbNRS a5 dcoqauecac 39. E. moyseyi H. Woodw...............------.- alleles WowmErapittstordensistsarlessers:) eric eee an + |X].. dire 1B jovalsjnnnis Cle tinal Reo 5c. ponac ceeeesceecce ral led 42. E. (?) 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(QUIOF{ puv yovag) © “Aq sa]eys ozo dvas ropeqyeyony g/ lay a]VYS PUL 9UOJSOUMI] YOOTUIAL AMO]PN'T I9MO'T Mo]pn’yT reddy (QUIOF{ puv YOvog jo S) spaq vuistyosAyv[g IO snyoory, JUT]IOJVM OWOYOY ayvys ApvzausyIS © ies © ees teste sssis paemas ‘ds H “Sg we ne tee wee ce ee TO} UNUM SVL] “3 ee ee eee eee eee snjeuroied 9) EQ CTE snotuopayed snidiodsojdApy “zg See Re ne suensewia 4-06 Ode: NaN Ieee on Reena ae Nemo teooe a hl eee ier Sosa re ae) “-snyeydasorov ja snzejound "ye “qh 0 OO-OkoO Ce snqeqound “a “CL NP sherelecnrerieteretece vss ssssengaqo “gf @ *ed see “TuTpA\oU “1 “rL Lee e meee eee eee ees sdootsuoy (2) “7 ‘ol THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA 44 Ajuo syyeusopus Moy VY S}UIUISeIF Moy VW s]UsUIseIy INO VUIOJSE}IU & JO uorzi0d |[ews & pur “da] SUIUIWIIMS JO Bxod ‘vayo 9eIf & :suowIoads 9eIY,], sJUIUIdeIy 9ULOS pue syyeusopue OM} ‘yusWs9s Apoq Vy véquiaue DjJalsip snorawIMNU pue s[enprarpur ayejduiod Ayivou Aur uauroads yajiod Ajivou sugQ, a}TWOs [vUIMIOpqe -ysod 9uo ‘sy}vusopus 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SCIENCES S}USWISeIy MT ® pue suetoeds yoajiod Ajivou so14,], s}ueul -SIf I9Y}O Maj B SUOS|[a] PUP SazTWIOS Apoq jo |[e@ Ajivou yjIM usuIDads 9uQ UOWUIOD s}USWIeIT a1VI SJUIUITPIT sjuewsvij a}0[duOouT pur s1ey UOWWOS s}UIWISPIT dIVI SJUIUIIVIT SNOIIUINU S}JUIUISPIT APIS o[BUIS VY suswmidoeds ai1qua Ajivou OMT, asepuedde ayejayo 94} JO rwieI OMT, SJUIWIZeIJ [PIAS pue s[enprAipur yoojiod Ayivou Moy V uaulopq? uv jo J1vd pur MPI 9[ZUIS VY A[UO syUsWIdeI LT A[UO syuOUIs PIT 300} ZUIUIWIMS JO syusWIseIy UDxOIg soovdvies oyo[duioout [e190 -AQS pue [ENPIAIpul s11yUN ysowye uy aanssaid Aq peisze [[v syuowseary yoojrod Auryy uswt1deds yaj10d 9uo ysva] TW [WNPIAIpUL euUo Jo szusWZasS 94} [|e Ajrvau pur ‘uojeydao ouo ‘vuuojue ouQ YIOK MIN “OD epleugQ ‘aTplAreyeAy {09 JIWITy 10H “PPRWWT] 10D erg ‘oppasmenyi purlsuy ‘airysp10j -O19F{ ‘IOJSUIWIOppry Iveau ‘Aopdwiiy, purysuq ‘airysdoiys pue aIYspiojeis#{T 4OlysIp = Moppn’yT purysuq ‘aaysdoiys pue dsIIYspiojeis#y 4O11}sIp = MOTpN’'T eimayog ‘euiurdoy ivayy puelsuq ‘amysdoiys pue oaryspiojoisy ‘ZOII}SIP = Mo]pNT purysuyq ‘earysdoiys pur pue oi1yspiojaiayy ‘3011}SIP + Mol[pny AIMYSpIOJaIaAY UOPSULY] BIMeyo ‘Ul9}S[Ivy Iesu ‘vioy FYNoO[G YIOA Man ‘09 TOMIyIV “pyeyyoywy] ‘wary s,AapIoyos YIOR MON ‘O[eyng 1e9yV yIOK MON ‘oTeyng eIUIYOY ‘1OSOY Iv9aU 9[ HOI bse) vIMIYyoY “Ula}s[Iey Iesu vIOY BYNOT -Ulszs[ivy Mojeq ‘urtupng eo IIIOACL ermayog ‘AoYyOoT] Ivou BYAOUST A puryij}oog ‘amysyivuey ‘mosvyeusay] SUITIIIEM IIIIOG [PERET LO) Ce) SPE OLE MSE dnoi3 spisoway, ‘peg-au0g apisomay, pure sojeys sAl[Q souojspues a][}seQ UOMO auojsounl] Jouvupng eq dnoi3 apisoway, Ul pog-9uo0g spisoway, pue sayeys sAl|O (peq 9u0jspues PAISSBU) SaUO}SpUS 9[}seQ UoJUMOG sauojspues a][}se U0OJUMOG suo}soUNT] JOUvUpN wy OUT]I9}ZVAL 919g OUIT]IOIVM 199g QUITTI}IVA 31919 9U0}SIUN] IBAOYYIO'T IT suojsaul] JouvupNg cay sayvys 9}1]0}dvid rapeqjayony g eq dUOsoUTT] JouUpNg oy AMO]PN'T 94} JO spaq snjosA10}q PUe STIvIOIZVIID oY} °9'T (9uIOFY puv YOvag) F puv © suorstAl(y “C11 “CII Se or ad ** “sisusutuedoy ‘ad ‘III ‘OII SC a aCe nnn aici ic snssq gq ‘601 Ae ees studanf “IVA 1qqG0d “gq “gor shekekellohseketetezens sees 1qqoo *q ‘Lor sees ss"stsus0[egng *q ‘gor Bee ee eee snore oq “ge ‘d “Sor ee snorwmeyoq ‘d “POI eee eee ee eee “ss cregeyg *q “Sor **'snqeuroied “Iva snqgoyiq *g “zor “***snqBUIOU “IVA snqoy]Iq *q “IO1 "sess Sngseld “IVA SNGolIq *q ‘oor eS Sueprov “IVA snqoyiq *q *66 a ee a ee ee eee THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA WOS|9} 9[SUIS VW s}uouL -St1j puv ‘justwses Apoq puv uosye} Jo suorjiod ‘asvdeivd ayajdwod Ajivou Vy aovdeied a] Sus B JO UOTjzIOd Io119}uy sadedeivd aja[dwiod Airey Jo Jaquinu vy Bayo & jo JuIWMSvI o[ZUIS VY S[ENPIAIPUI O11]U9 ON “padres -aid Ajiood ynq “juepunqe syuswse1 dIVI SJUIWIBLI LT Ajuo ejayy suos]a} swos Ajqissod ‘saoedvied ATUO syUsIseI sadvdeied [v1aAVG sooedeied [eIdAVS Palys Doe10y,0;eYdeo su_ uaumidads 4aj10d Ysowye []euIs 9uG NOILIGNOO eropog ‘e|e¥S AIYSPIOJoII_] “plorepy svAMy purlsuy ‘airyspiojoigy ‘U0jZUIyy YIOK MIN ‘YaedIg ATQ ‘uoroun[ alieyoysg ‘sinqssuenq ‘uorjoun[ wepis}j0y ‘yonponby ‘Aprzeusyqos ASSES eiUe| oe] OD PRED ENO} TOUTY| PIMsIp MO[pN'T | AITYSPIOJOIOFT ‘MOT -pn’| avou pure ‘uoysury ‘[[IH 1ouprig go UST PESO Oa aIYspiojaiay{ ‘MO[pPN'T Ivsu pue UI Sarz][VIO] Aue pue HIPWYM IV aIYSpsOyaIo FT ‘Ainqpay] iesu ‘yieg Joujseq ‘Ysipeqy AION MON ‘[EysyeOQ ‘Arsengd) 49011g wooig eIWLAYOY Yupsfoy ivan { eImlayog ‘3d10Aq [opog YOK MAN “0D Apeyoauayyas ‘sing -souenqg pue ‘jonpenby ‘ApryausyIS EITONS MON “[EISVeQ ‘Arend, 499139 wWoo1ig YIOK MIN “OD vso1u0P, ‘p10jszqIg pUur]}09g ‘aITYSIVJIO ‘[joure 7 ALITVOOT dUOJSIUMT] ITMOAI, soyeys Ainqpa'T SouO}SpUeS 9]}SeD U0JUMOG sayeys ApeyooueyIS quoJSoUN] JouvUpNg oq peg-suog apiseway, dnoi3 apisoway, addy ‘sayeys eAl[O dnoi3 apiseulay, ‘Souo}SspuRS a[}seQ UoJUMOC dnoi3 apisowlay, ‘spaq vuisiyosAj}v][ J dnois Mojpn’y seddy oiryue ynoysnoiy T, auoJspUeS [I APL a[eys [[Pysuewi0N suoysoUMT] JouvUpNE 7 sayeys o}1[0}dv13 Japeqjeayony g aq ayeys ApeyausyoIs a[eys [[P[sueuUION a[eys p1ojs}ig ssey yyeoiqiy SUIATIVAO a[vYys poszeInpuy Se tw ew we eee eee LZpearwais ‘ds gd “bzI Sen aaa eer ary >" snuliney ‘d ‘Col CICnCnOnC CIC naa nen COICO NCICIS Oc sdojAqs 2 ont Aan ee snoijoid *q “1Z1 eee eens eee eee (red -W9S) 19}[VG sno1yeUa]qord “Jo “gq ‘O71 = ee o- “snorzeue;qoid ve ‘O11 | he ee eae ey SISUI][KISUBULIOU *_q ‘gil \ ed sIjiIqou ‘d “LI1 | EOS snynsvu (2 snoiesny) “q ‘OIT ee SISUIOIUOUI ral “C1Ir OIC EOICnC CECE RC ECECEC EC nC nC EC aT aCnCnC cic JOUTUT oa ‘VIL SadloVd GNV NOZIYOH SaI0ads PORNO UO @) eda Vals 47 BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES $]UoUL -SPI} [PIQAVS ‘[eNpIAIpur aja;durod sug sasepuadde Md} @ pue syustsas Apoq ua} ‘aoed -b1e9 SuMOYsS ‘ustMOeds 949; WOOT 9UO pegiuepr Ayjnjyqnop 03 ‘sosedvivo x1¢ UOS[a} 932[duLOSUI a[sUIS WV [enprArpur aja[dutoour sug SOJTWIOS UDAZTI 4SIT, jo sjied pur aovdvievd poasosaid A[peg Y}8U0}99 UL JO JUIUSVIJ 9UQ juepunqe suesi0 por1eq -WAUISIP ‘uatuToads yDaj1ad ATIv9uU BUC AY[NOYJIp YIM pourulsoyop ‘syUIWIseI AT quepunge yng ‘AivjusWse 1] s[enprArpur amyue OU ‘sisquIauI peyeiedes Aur UWOS]9} I[ZUIS V a0ede1vd pd}10}sSIp [VWs V soovdvies [[VUs [vI9AIS s[enpia -IPUL 9INJEUIMUT INOJ ‘suOs[o} [RIDAVS 39] SULWIUIMS @ ‘syusUIZ9S Apoq Moy ‘saoedeivo [eiaAes ‘suaumioeds a11ju9 ON yuepunqge szusur -8v1j ‘oyojdutod suou ‘suowmoeds Aur s}UsWdeIy a]qeUIULIOZapUI A][LOyII9dS puryy}oog ‘amysysing “UIPA ‘STH puepyaeg “wing projsez3n4y amys -yreuey ‘Moseyeulsey ‘19}e\\ UesOT YIOK MIN “OD Apey -dauayas ‘sinqseuenq pue ApeyeusyIS OILYSILJIO TT ‘aI[[JVMsoy Iveu ‘soiend) [I Ulan eluvAjAsuuad “Od uate ‘UdIIe AY pueyyoos ‘airqsysing “UPA ‘SIPTH purpyueg ‘wing pr0j1033n eimeyog ‘e1oy eynolqd ' alysyreue’y ‘mMoseYyvulsayT ‘19}V\ ueSoT Jo syurg RINTex) ‘TYAZOSTRZ, puryyon ‘AqstA [S99 ‘TINYIzjOOY YOK MON ‘opeyng viuvaAjAsuudg “dv Jaye o1eMryaT eq ‘devx) v10zVMs YIOK MON ‘ITSO purysuyq Molpn’y] DALYSPIOJoIayT ‘U0WSUTST ‘Aay[VA edoyjoo,y, jo adojs 101104 -xo ‘uepieg ‘ayipyy A ‘oury Moypn'y OTP UST MO[PN'T TI}OIS TAON “OD YstuostuYy ‘xoorg sea1yoy SOU0}SPULS PUL SoTVYS YIo]UI (9uI0FT pue yorsg) v “AIp ‘spaq snjzosA101g aeys Apezousyos auojs “pues pet PIO weIuopeTeD ‘speq uN TL souojspues Sunway) QUOJspUeS PUL IeYS YOTUIA, auo}SIMMI] JouvUpNg cay MO[PUT ‘(quioy] pue yovag) 9 W S ‘HY SE ‘aI BIOI[L) JO NUOAI 0} Spaq WoIzISULIT, Javur snjo3A193q ]©s9Q JO sotwMI[197eM snidydAing “yl 9U07 SUWT}II}PVM 91}ZII WAS YUNSULMLYS IY} UI SsayeYyS — DUOSpULS VIOIVISNT, Ul SaTVYS pis yuNSuLMVYS 94} Ul seyeVYys dnoiz opisoway, raddg ‘sayvys 9at]Q SOUO}SPULS 9]]SVD UOJUMO(T dnois spisowiay, ul spoq-vurstyosaAqey gq peg-auog Mo[pr’y UOLPLUIOJ JILpAOUYT “++ *sruIOyIsua *S ereretercts +++ ++ qyaq99aq snmuoys}S “= -eIqnp *s "** + (uUeUIa9S) B}eUTUUNIR “JO °S ° eee sels eee ee vyeurUNoR erUOUNTS * pashaene SISUOT[ISO (SnI0}d0}}01q) “qd * CR stpuvis (snio}do0}401q) “gq +++ sdaorqoys “Jo (sniojydo}}01q) *q SS ee sdaorqo]5 (sn19}d0}}01q) “q pa usyurq (sni9jdo}JoaIq) “_d * See ee ee ee ween Mpoo\\ H ‘ds “a 2) a al nm a I THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA. 48 a}1u0s auo pu sozyIy}eUsOpUa oJo[dUIODUI XIS aoedvivs A1vUIWISVI AT aovdeivd a30[du09 Jo plOUl [vUII}xXy Ajqeqoid a10ur 04} ‘Ajurejied sustmoeds ArvUIWSeIT IAT soovdvivd Moy & fs[eNpIA -Ipur ayojduioo AjIvau Mo} B SUWIOF VIVA osepusdde jo j1ied aq Avur ‘yuowsery poqzurol-om} ‘opBUIs V peyorzye sadepusdde ay} JO 9UIOS YIM [VNPLAIpU 9}0[dur0out 9UO sasepuodde jo syuswsvly pue sojIwWOs OF 4sIy Jo suorjiod ‘uo[e -ydoo Surmoys ‘uswu19ads aya]du09 ut 2uUQ, aoedvivs poaiasoid [Jam au [enprarpur oy0jdur09 Ajivou 9uQ uos[a} pu sade -puedde ‘uawopqe ‘aovdevivod jo suotz -10d SUIpN[OUI S}UIUISeIAZ INOJ IO 9dIY J, sooedvivd |[eWs pue adIv] [BIZAIS Sa}IUOS Payoey -y@ YIM oulos ‘saoedvivd snoisunu {paaiaseid Ay100d [enprArIput o11}uUs 9UuO Sa] @ ‘uauLOpqe aq} Jo suorjiod ‘soovdevseo [[eUs [vIaAaS uayorq [[e@ ynq ‘AT][eI9 -adsa soovdeivd ‘UOUIWIOD s}USMISeILT YIOK MIN “OD soiuo0J[ “P10jJs}31g YIOA MON “OD Surwo0A YIOK MON “OD seMe[eq ‘sepuy Rosy -}09S ‘SI[IZ purlqueg ‘ung pi0j19z4ny YIOK MON ‘ATTIASIIO YOK MAN “OD sazeVA ‘ALI puelsuy ‘gryspi0yeys ‘As[pnqd iAvou ‘As[spas pue]}09s ‘alepysy “WpoyzAvoUs]y purysuy ‘ays -yoouxseig ‘Av}]T JO YyNos ‘aU0}sSoTMOY puvy}00g ‘eirys -arejio,y ‘A[puvos}iq Iveu ‘sift uliny, [PUI -}09S ‘SI[IH pueiqueg ‘uing pi0ji0z3ny elueAlAsuuad ‘dey Joye A oeMerylay HIOK MON “B[TASHO YOR MON ‘[[EySVO ‘ATIenG) 30213S wWoo1g aITYSpIOJIIIFY ‘ND pvosyrer Mo[pn'y NOILIGNOO ALITVOOT greys Poulq proysyid auojyspurs [[TIS12D, SoUO}SpULS PUL So]VYs YOU yas yunsueMvys Ul seyeys Souo}spuLs 93810 g sauo}s uoil AvpD pur sayeys duoqIeD IMO'T saleys snosaflo[e_ P2AW PIO eZIPpru seuojsus0+ 9u0}s “pues poy PIO UrUoepyey ‘speq uNT, sauo}spuvs pu sajvys YoTUIM — ys yunsueMmeys oy} Ul soyeys a[eys [[Pysueus0 NY dnoiz apisawiay, ‘sayvys 2AlTO S@I0Va GNV NOZIYOH penunuo)—iil WTaVvL “++ snsouidsty]nu (snia}doue})) ¢ ‘Osi O.9'0:5'0:010 6 IOISjaox9 (snz9}dous})) "Ss “OVI ‘ress+*ss suegaya (sni9jdoua})) *S ‘“gr1 FOOOBIGA snjorqseo (sni9}doua})) *§ “4hI see ee eee een eeee snuviqysiim Q £C ‘obi —— Pe snsoiqeos (2) Ss Professor Grabau has recently voiced the opinion, that the Pittsford shalesand Shawangunk conglomerate are better considered as the closing deposits of the Guelph period. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES TO5 by the Niagaran limestones which would furnish pure clastic lime- stones and not impure siliceous muds. The only area from which the muds could be derived, was the land to the east. That the black mud was merely an extension of the muds forming at intervals on the Shawangunk delta must be obvious when it is seen that in that direc- tion was the only source of the muds and that the Shawangunk muds contain the same eurypterid fauna. This will be more fully discussed in Chapter V. The areal distribution of the Pittsford is limited. The shale is known from Monroe county and from Oneida county, New York. Both eastward and westward it dies out, the Vernon red shale rest- ing directly upon the Niagaran. Ina few localities black shales have been found which have been correlated with the Pittsford, but they contain no eurypterids. Such is the black shale at Buffalo, on Grand Island, and the dark shale in Herkimer county above the Lockport dolomite which contains no fauna except a few Lingulas. The out- crop in Oneida county is at Oriskany creek, where in a bluff occur some dark gray shales, about 21 feet below the base of the Vernon red shale, with intercalated waterlimes and dolomite beds. These dolomites contain fragments of one species, Eusarcus vaningent, to- gether with lingulas and orbiculoideas. Both the areal and vertical distribution, then, are limited, in much the same way as in the Bertie, and the source of this calcareous material may likewise be the same. (See beyond, p. 234.) If the eurypterids of the Pittsford shale were brought in by the rivers coming from Appalachia, the waters in the region of deposition would become freshened by the inpouring of the river waters, and marine forms would thus be kept out. It is often assumed that the Pittsford shale marks a periodic increase in the salinity of the water, but in that case we are faced by a double problem: if the muds were not deposited by rivers, where did they come from, since they could not have originated in the sea? and then again, the question arises, where did the eurypterids suddenly come from? The muds might be zolian, but not the eurypterids. The only possible conclusion seems to be that the eurypterids and the black muds both were brought by rivers from the land, i.e., that the eurypterids were river- living organisms. In this connection attention may be called to the fact that the species of eurypterids in the Pittsford and Shawangunk and to some extent the genera as well, are entirely different from those of the Bertie. This is not alone accounted for by difference in age, but is 106 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA more especially due to difference in origin. The sediment of the Bertie and its fossils came from the continent of Atlantica, and those of the Pittsford from Appalachia. This is more fully discussed in a subse- quent chapter (see p. 229). 5. THE BERTIE WATERLIME The Bertie waterlime of Upper Siluric or Monroan age is con- fined to central and western New York, and the adjacent portion of Ontario, Canada. It is a gray, fine-grained, argillaceous calcilutyte of a remarkably uniform character, showing practically no variation in texture from place to place. Chemical analysis has shown it to be an impure limestone, high in magnesia, silica and alumina. The following analysis is that of an average specimen (39, tor). SUO Mer peeaes Pe rns et RNC ta OPA ee IaREM MUN Rear iD ae Ne 11.48 Al.O3 BCR HOE OPE tone O aroGachiGn DOP tina rion oncaeid lara ona -etakcio GaconO GAOVe G6 G1 AiO 17.50 ME OTs ch ay cecitonsyte ae coe ee reer ae ss ROA cet ce eT eta 0.90 CaCO eect ie eet os site ae al See Ta eT LAr eE ea ee eee 42.75 AN Wed GO Faire eairred arcs Ry, etnias ics ei Rg a a ean are I i 20.35 Ci Oe ha eee gee Ce ad re ceca Dens, yi enn a net elt er ced ores A I.00 INT ch Tis ta ize esr apa scpprusa aie ee Sel oases ncaa Sd rc eee USNR Oe 0.80 Combinedjwatenjandtlossaaecs seer ene eee ROOD A typical section of the Bertie is exposed at Buffalo where Pohl- man has recorded the following succession the lower part being ob- tained from borings. (See also Grabau, 82, 115). Akron dolomite Feet Waterlimelaboutas sin sae mines en enna eee 7 F Shale and cement rock in thin streaks............. 25 Bertie iolerablyspureicemen toc keemrnery eee iit 5 Shale and cement rock in thin streaks............. 13 {Pure WATTS Y Say S UTA yeh peeen ee reaiees epee pa Ant ate eas 4 RS) OF21 CnC aon ee IUCR Bee te UE ane ol Al Emad aa 2 Wit tee pSurmies, ye cuneit cea anon oe ere Neam rer 12 Shales Asa Na cpeneec eo eben eee er Nera ae 1 eRe Peer I White isypsumit itn. 3h acy tcte cee eer oe eee 4 Shalevandigypsumamottledme ans see eee eee 7 Camillus ; Drab colored shale with several thin layers of white F225 0S) 00 00 PR me Be ae enor ne NA es arb CE Oya c 58 Darkecoloredylimestonessest neon ono norece 2 Shaleyanddlimestone= sans eee een ere 4 Compact ishale.2ce. Se ee eee 3 Gypsum and shale, mottled and in streaks, approxi- Ta tely Beco. sarees Bl hel pe be Oe ee Oana 290 plus BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 107 Here we see that the Bertie follows upon the Camillus shales and gypsum, a part of which may belong to the undoubted Salina or Middle Siluric, but the upper part of which certainly belongs with the Bertie to the Upper Monroe, since it contains Leperditia scalaris. At Buffalo the Bertie is conformably succeeded by the Akron dolo- mite, an impure rock 7 or 8 feet thick, containing the Upper Monroe fauna sparingly distributed, and marking the return of norma] marine conditions. ocean jor OEY Fic. 2. SkKetcH Map oF NEw York SHOWING LOCATION OF IMPORTANT EURYP- TERID-BEARING BEDS 1, Buffalo and Williamsville; 2, Pittsford; 3, Waterville; 4, Litchfield and Cranes Corners; 5, Schenectady; 6, Otisville. In areal distribution the typical Bertie is not a continuous forma- tion, but is found well developed at only two localities; namely, in Erie and in Herkimer Counties, New York, where the sediments were deposited in what Clarke and Ruedemann have called the Buffalo and Herkimer “‘pools.’’ These two pools or basins are considered to 108 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA have been of circumscribed area; the Buffalo pool extending from Bertie, Ontario, eastward into Erie County; the Herkimer pool being confined most of the time to the southern part of Herkimer County (See map, fig. 2). In spite of the faunules as a whole having such a restricted distribution, the Eurypterus lacustris of the Buffalo region has been found as far east as Union Springs, Cayuga County, al- though not at intermediate points, and EF. remipes, the characteristic form of Herkimer County, has been found to the west at Waterville, town of Westmoreland, Oneida County, and still farther to the west in large numbers at Oriskany, Oneida County, at Cayuga Junction, Cayuga County, and possibly even at Buffalo. Dolichopterus macro- chirus and Pterygotus cobbi are common to the two “pools.” THEORIES OF OriciIN. A careful determination and a thorough understanding of the conditions under which the Bertie waterlime was deposited are essential in the attempt to determine the habitat of the organisms found in that rock. Because no one has yet given an ex- haustive treatment of all possible conditions of deposition with a final singling out of the true one; and because, moreover, the answer to this question of deposition furnishes one of the most important lines of evi- dence concerning the habitat of the Eurypterida, I shall take up a detailed discussion of the subject. Such a fine-grained, stratified rock might have been deposited in one of the following four ways, and these appear to cover all possibilities: (a) by chemical precipitation; (b) by bacterial precipitation; (c) by the formation of an organic accumulation of calcareous shells or plants, or both; (d) by the accumulation of clastic or fragmental material. (a) Chemical origin: That the Bertie waterlime could not have been deposited by chemical precipitation is amply shown by its strati- fication and especially by its composition. A rock which is a chemical precipitate, is more likely to be massive, never showing such fine stratification as is found in the Bertie, for in the process of chemical precipitation there is no arrangement of the material by currents bringing in fresh supplies which vary slightly in color or texture and which when deposited make the separate layers which produce strati- fication, since in precipitation the action is more or less continuous and minute crystals are formed which either entirely make up a rock, or else cement into a compact mass, fine particles of clastic material as is the case around modern coral reefs. The texture of a chemical precipitate would be a finely crystalline one, whereas the material of the Bertie does not conform to this, for a thin section of the water BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES Iog lime shows under the microscope an exceedingly fine-grained lime mud, the grains being angular and of varying sizes, with rhombic crystals of dolomite scattered through the mass of calcite fragments. There are also many fine, black specks, probably of carbonaceous material. The most significant fact of the composition, however, is the presence of the silica and the alumina, which forms nearly one- third of the rock. Such a composition is entirely incompatible with the idea of chemical deposition, where we should expect practically pure carbonates. (bandc) Organic origin. If the Bertie were an organic deposit its fine texture would permit of only two types of organisms active in its formation, namely, the protozoa or the algae. The lime content might be supplied by Foraminifera or by lime-secreting alge, the silica by Radiolaria. The microslide of the Bertie shows no trace of any of these organisms. One other method of organic deposition is possible. The work of Drew, Sanford, and Vaughan has recently shown that in warm or tropical seas certain bacteria are active in precipitating calcareous muds from the sea water. That the Bertie waterlime could not have had such an origin is evident from its chemical composition given on page 106 above, in which the silica and alumina play too important a part, amounting to 28.98 per cent of the whole. Since the chemical and microscopic study of the Bertie proves the impossibility of either a chemical or an organic origin, we must con- clude that the rock is clastic. (d) Clastic origin. A rock of clastic origin may have one of two sources: (1’) it may be composed of material which was originally derived from the sea, that is, it may be thalassigenous, or (2’) it may be derived from the erosion or breaking up of a pre-existing rock on the land, that is, it may be of terrigenous origin. (1’) Organic materia] broken up in the sea by organisms, or along the shore by waves, consists of shells, corals, and other hard parts of organisms mixed with varying amounts of sands and muds, organic and inorganic, the composition depending on the character of the rock supplying the detritus. Such clastic deposits are especially well developed around coral reefs where the purely biogenic rocks grade laterally in all directions into the clastic ones. That the Bertie waterlime could not have been a lime mud derived from the erosion of coral or other reefs and deposited in the surrounding quieter water or in the lagoons, as in the case of the similar, fine-grained lime mud IIo THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA forming the Jurassic Plattenkalke of Solnhofen, is shown by the utter absence in this horizon or vicinity of reefs which could furnish such deposits, and again by the presence in the composition of the silica and alumina. In the Bertie the silica and the alumina is inti- mately mixed with the lime, as is shown by the relative constancy in composition and character of specimens from different parts of the formation. In the Plattenkalke of the Solnhofen, on the other hand, where the siliceous material represents the impure dust blown from the land, it is found in clayey layers (Fdaulen) between the thin bedded (Quicksteine) and thick bedded (Flinze) limestones, and not in intimate mixture with the other constituents, as is the case in the Bertie (293, 144, 200). (2’) The only remaining source of the deposit is the land, from which clastic material might be brought by the wind or by the rivers. If brought by the wind and deposited far enough from shore to be free from coarse material, the deposit would not have a circumscribed areal distribution. Such a restricted distribution is, however, possi- ble if the material has been supplied by the rivers. If carried into the sea, it may be deposited in quiet water, and this may produce such a fine-grained rock as the waterlime, which is free from coarse clastics. Such regions of deposition would be found either far out at sea where all of the nearer-shore, coarser clastics were absent, or else near the shore, but in sheltered bays. If these river-borne muds were not carried into the sea, then they must have been de- posited on land in the river flood-plains. We may consider for a moment the possibility of this formation having been deposited at a sufficient distance from land to allow of the quiet accumulation of fine sediments, or e]se in sheltered areas along shore. Such deposits at the present time are represented by the blue or slate-colored muds, and these are the ones which are spread over the floors of shallow seas and out to the edge of the continental shelf. Murray and Renard (194) have estimated that these muds cover 14,500,000 square miles of the ocean floor. An average analysis shows the following composition: IGAMIMOIMNS Jodo coes once sack 5.60 CaCO; eat see 2.04 SIO sa ore Sey ae 64.20 Cass Oar eae ene vent cemmaelan 1.39 AILS OF eile isi ey hier BN 13.55 CaSO eres 0.42 ICH O Falters ae cand nie ie Ai 8.38 Mig COs5 seen athe eet 0.76 (CAO) ER paetre Wetton heats oda Eas tare Desi BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES IEIETE A comparison of this analysis with that of the Bertie shows that the two types of deposits are as different as could well be imagined, che deep sea mud having combined alumina and silica 77.75 per cent, as opposed to 28.98 per cent, while the combined CaO and MgO is 5-00 per cent as compared to 63.10 per cent in the waterlime. One cannot argue much, however, from this pronounced difference between the two types, because it must be borne in mind that in the late Siluric the greater portion of exposed land areas in northern and western North America was covered with limestones or dolomites and that in consequence the muds which accumulated far out to sea, and which were the finest particles derived by the erosion of those land surfaces, would of necessity have been high in calcium and magnesium, whereas the blue muds accumulating in our present oceans are derived from a great diversity of rocks in which the limestones form a very small part. Thus, while we can find no analogous mud deposit in modern oceans, we are not justified in saying that such a one might not have formed in the past under different conditions; and I can, therefore, see no characteristics in the chemical composi- tion of the rock to preclude the possibility of its deposition at a con- siderable distance from land. We are not, however, lacking in an- other criterion when the physical characteristics fail to be restrictive; the type of fauna represented is the safest guide in the interpretation of ancient regions of deposition. ‘There is no region where muds are accumulating in the sea today, whether near shore or farther from land, where an abundance of organic remains is not being included. Along the entire Atlantic coast of North America the muddy facies of the littoral zone swarms with life, and while many of the species are confined to that facies it certainly cannot be claimed that where muds are accumulating there is a paucity of plant and animal life. Detailed studies of restricted areas of the ocean floor have proved that a large and varied fauna flourishes even where muds pour in in great quantities from the land. Thus, Walther (295, 36) has found that the muds in the Bay of Naples contain a fauna of about 1120 species of invertebrates and fishes. The fauna of the Bertie contains not two dozen species and nearly all of these belong to one phylum and to one class in that phylum, namely, the merostomes. Such a fauna cannot be considered as marine in any sense, if we accept the prin- ciples for the criteria of fossil faunas, based upon the study of recent faunas (p. 67 above). It is characteristic of no portion of the sea- shore, bays, lagoons, or estuaries, nor of the open sea, whether in init) THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA the littoral belt or the deeper sea; such a fauna finds its counterpart in no waters of normal marine salinity, nor yet in those of modified marine salinity, either estuaries, epi-continental seas, lagoons, or other brackish to fresh water dependencies of the ocean. ‘Thus, though we cannot determine with certainty the place of deposition of the muds from the chemical composition, or from other lithological char- acteristics, the fauna indicates with absolute certainty that those muds were not deposited in any portion of the sea. From the foregoing discussion it appears that the Bertie water- lime is best interpreted as a deposit of clastic origin, and that the material was transported by rivers. It also appears that this mate- rial could not have been deposited in any part of the sea, for it has not the characters of non-terrigenous deep sea muds, nor the faunal content of a near shore, bay or estuarine deposit. There remains but one place for the deposition of these terrigenous muds and that is upon the land: There seems to be no escape from the conclusion that these lime muds of the Bertie represent the flood-plain or delta deposits from one or more rivers, or else that they accumulated as playa lake deposits. The characteristics of the sediments and faunas of such deposits have been fully described on pages 79-83, and it must be con- ceded that of al] the known modes of deposition the lower flood- plain and upper delta regions of rivers come nearest in their physical and faunal characters to those found in the Bertie waterlime, though, of course, the nature of the sediment demands a source of supply in which calcareous material plays a dominant rdle. It should be noted in this connection, that shallow water conditions of deposition for the waterlimes of New York and the associated calcilutytes (Manlius, etc.) are indicated by the occurrence of sun- cracked layers at several points. While these have not been found in the Bertie of the Buffalo region, they are wonderfully developed in the waterlimes of the Rosendale-Rondout regions, and in the Manlius of central New York and elsewhere. Considering the waterlime as a flood-plain deposit, the history during Bertie time would be something like the following: The early Siluric history of the eastern part of the North American continent had been admirably staged to lead up to the climax of waterlime deposition in many regions during the later Upper Siluric. During the Niagaran there had been a widespread advance of the sea which undoubtedly covered most of southeast and central Canada, as we may judge from the remnants still to be observed in the Lake BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES II3 Temiscaming region and elsewhere. At the base of the series is the Clinton followed chiefly by shales and limestones representing the Rochester and Lockport, and finally by a dolomite. Since the sea in which these deposits accumulated was a transgressing one, it is apparent that in some sections the Niagaran deposits would overlap the late Ordovicic deposits and come to rest directly upon the crystallines of the Canadian shield. Furthermore, pro- gressively higher members of the Niagaran would come to rest upon the old land as the Niagaran sea continued to spread. By the end of Lockport time, the greatest expansion was reached, and contraction of the sea set in, the Guelph dolomites being deposited in this more circumscribed sea. In some sections the change in deposition is in- augurated by the argillaceous beds of the Eramosa formation, and some of the late Niagaran beds are somewhat argillaceous. Beyond the farthest line of expansion of the Niagaran sea, the crystallines con- tinued to form the rocky surface of the land. The contraction of the sea continued, until by the beginning of Salina time it had shrunk to such an extent that only a small epi-continental sea remained. It makes little difference whether we assume that this sea dried up en- tirely during the period when the salt formed in central and western New York and in Michigan, or whether we believe that the con- tracted remnant of the Niagaran sea persisted, the greater part of the North American continent is known to have become dry land during Salina time. Many writers have pointed out the evidences of arid conditions in the Salina, and I need not here repeat them. The en- tire country was exposed to drying winds, rain fell but seldom, and then it came as cloudbursts, filling river channels quickly and creat- ing torrential streams of short duration. Whatever vegetation there may have been upon that ancient land was destroyed by the heat, and we may picture the country as a great desert where desiccation was in progress and where the winds and the rivers of flood seasons were the chief agents of transportation for the mechanically broken up rocks. The Salina was by no means a period of short duration; the thickness of the salt deposits alone shows that a long time was re- quired for their formation. Throughout this whole period, disinte- gration of the Niagaran and earlier limestones was in progress, until there must have been piled up great limestone and dolomite dunes with fine beds of impure clayey material wherever shales were exposed to the clastation processes of the semi-arid climate. The crystallines likewise suffered the same destruction, and they added their quota to II4 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA the materials which were blown about in one of the earliest deserts - recorded in the history of the rocks. This desert differed markedly from all the large ones which are known to us at present,in having a predominance of carbonates instead of silicates in the “sand”’ grains. We must not, however, push the doctrine of uniformitari- anism too far and insist that all the deserts in the past must have been composed of siliceous grains, because that is the rule in modern large deserts. On a small scale limestone deserts are forming now, and if large areas of limestones could be exposed in the arid regions of Africa or Arabia these limestone deserts would form on a vast scale. But there is now too much diversity in the rocks of the earth’s crust; be- cause throughout most of the world the continents have in large part been above sea level during the Tertiary and Quaternary, and erosion has been going on so that many types of rocks are exposed and particularly large areas of crystallines, and when any or all of these are brought under arid climatic conditions, grains of a great range in composition are exposed to the sorting action of wind. In the Middle Siluric of North America, on the other hand, a land area which had been covered by limestone was subjected to arid conditions, and there is ho escape from the fact that dominantly lime grains were formed by the prolonged exposure during which mechanical Broce es alone were active, and decomposition played no part. Succeeding the arid or semi-arid climatic conditions of the Salina was a period of greater rainfall and of expansion of the epi-continen- tal seas. The rivers became permanent in response to the rains of a pluvial climate, and there followed upon the period of rock destruc- tion in situ a period of transportation of material from the land into the sea. The prolonged disintegration of the limestones and dolo- mites with local shales had provided a vast soil covering which must have extended to a considerable depth, and which, because of fineness and friability could easily be removed by streams. Even the weak- est little rivulet would be able to carry a small load of this material, which was so conveniently prepared. With the increased moisture in the air decay became active in further breaking down the mechanic- ally disintegrated rocks, and in this way the igneous rocks that were exposed through erosion would yield a certain amount of silica and alumina as would also the shale bands in the limestones. Thus, while the rivers carried material which was dominantly calcareous or magnesian, certain impurities were also included. Some difficulty has been offered by the high amount of alumina, to account for BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES II5 which I offer the following suggestion. Theonly decomposition pro-_ duct in which alumina is higher than silica is laterite which might have been formed either during the Salina, to the north of the desert in which the limestones were disintegrating, or else during the Mon- roan when the arkoses previously formed by mechanical breaking up were subjected to decomposition. That the northeastern portion of Atlantica was of a more pluvial character than the northern part which supplied the lime mud is independently inferred from the character of the deposits formed in western Europe at this time. For here the semi-arid conditions existed on the eastern side of the highland which supplied the sediment, indicating that the moist region lay to the west, where the great southward flowing rivers of Atlantica appear to have had their source. So far it has been shown that the Bertie waterlime is of clastic ori- gin, and that the sediments were river-transported from the north. The fine stratification of the deposit and layers of sun-cracks in cer- tain localities are structural features indicating that the muds were deposited in quiet waters, while the nature of the fauna has shown that the place of deposition could not have been in the sea, either far from shore, or in any protected, littoral portion; the only remaining place ison the land. In concluding this discussion, therefore, we may test the hypothesis of the flood-plain or delta origin of the Bertie by determining whether it accounts for all the facts. Weare to imagine, then, two rivers flowing from the low-lying Canadian area southward until they empty into the slowly-advancing Upper Siluric sea. Ma- rine deposition would be active to the south and if the rocks now cov- ering the Monroan in southern New York and northern Pennsyl- vania were removed, we would expect to find the mixed marine and freshwater beds which marked the interfingering of the delta deposit with those that were laid down in the sea. Unfortunately, at pres- ent we know only the marine Monroan limestones from Pennsylvania, the position of that ancient strand-line being nowhere exposed. If we bear in mind the fact that the outcrop of the Bertie waterlime in New York forms only a narrow belt extending east and west, it is readily understood that the cross-sections of the two eurypterid-bear- ing ‘‘pools” are to be interpreted as cross-sections of the two north- south river channels (see figs.3 and 4). The northward extension of those river courses has been removed by subsequent erosion, the southward continuation to the strand line is covered by later strata. If the Bertie waterlime of the two “pools” represents muds really de- I16 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA posited on flood-plains or the lower reaches of two rivers, then the litho- logical peculiarities of the deposit are readily explained. In that case we would expect these muds to become more marine southward, where they are now covered, and where the subaqueous delta part was situated. Between the deltas the Bertie should be impressed with certain marine characters, as it actually is in sections in Ca- yuga and Ontario Counties. In the Auburn-Geneva quadrangle, Ca- Fic. 3. BLock D1acraAm ILLUSTRATING THE Two PRINCIPAL DELTAS OF BERTIE TIME B, Buffalo; U. S., Union Springs, H, Herkimer. Fic. 4. Cross SECTION (ON THE 43RD PARALLEL) OF THE BERTIE AND HERKIMER DELTAS yuga County, the Bertie is an evenly bedded, impure, magnesian Jime- stone, which when freshly broken is dark colored and of medium hard- ness. In portions it shows faint deposition lines, but heavier layers, from one to two feet thick, are usually quite compact. Some layers weather into a hard slaty shale. The fossils which have been found are: a few Lingulas, two species; one Orbiculoidea, a Rhynchonella, Leperditia alta, and fragments of eurypterids. In the Canandaigua- BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES II7 Naples quadrangle, Ontario County, the Bertie is a hard, dark, im- pure, hydraulic limestone, occurring in thick layers separated by thin seams of dark and apparently carbonaceous matter. The waterlime here shows a gradual transition from the Camillus. Fragments of eurypterid heads and appendages are not uncommon, and frequently Leperditia cf. alta, Whitfieldella laevis, and Leptostrophia varistriata occur. Yet the marine shells in both cases are seen to be of small specific gravity such as would easily be floated in across mud flats, and they evidently do not constitute a typical marine fauna since too few forms are represented. These occurrences of two or three species of brachiopods and of a crustacean in certain localities, far from proving that the Bertie as a whole was deposited in the littoral district of the sea, shows very clearly that the greater part of the waterlime was not deposited in any part of the sea and that only at intervals were a few marine organisms washed inland. Another sig- nificant fact that has already been referred to in connection with mod- ern deposits is the separation of marine and fluviatile faunas in dis- tinct layers. When river water meets with the invading tide, the cur- rent is checked and held back; this slack water is still fresh, and it deposits its load of mud and organic remains above the reach of marine waters. If marine currents later overcome the river currents and pass up the stream channel, marine organic remains may be deposited over the freshwater ones. Such lightweight structures as the exo- skeletons of fluviatile crustacea and other arthropods are probably sel- dom carried out to sea against the opposing, denser salt water. Ifthe eurypterids were fluviatile, the occurrence of their remains in abun- dance and well preserved in the regions where marine fossils are absent, and their scattered occurrence in the localities wherea few brachiopods have been found is easily explained. Their entire absence from the Rosendale waterlime and the appearance of only a single specimen in the Rondout is likewise explained, since these deposits show a more marine character than does the Bertie of the Buffalo and Herkimer regions. The river portions of the Rondout and Rosendale either are not uncovered or else have been removed by erosion. SuMMARY. ‘The only available source of the lime in the Bertie is from the muds derived by the erosion of an older magnesian lime- stone, the Niagaran, or in some cases, perhaps, the Trenton. Where the Bertie is eurypterid-bearing, the rock was evidently deposited above sea-level, as a river flood plain and subaerial delta deposit. Southward and laterally the subaqueous part of the delta carries few 118 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA or no eurypterid remains, but more marine organisms. ‘That the Ber- tie eurypterids lived in the rivers is thus indicated, while their absence from the Rosendale could be explained by assuming that the present exposures of these rocks are in the more marine portion of the deposit. The relations are shown in the following diagrams (figs. 5 and 6). 6. THE KOKOMO WATERLIME The Kokomo waterlime of Indiana is of very much the same char- acter as the Bertie waterlime, showing the same thin laminations and fine texture. Throughout a limestone series forty feet thick thin waterlime layers occur and it is in these alone that the films of euryp- sea level Fic. 5. Ingeat N. W.-S. E. Cross SECTION FRoM Burrato, N. Y. TO TYRONE, Pa., SHOWING CoNnpDITIONS DURING BERTIE TIME BUFFALO S027 noe? Lee Fic. 6. GENERALIZED CROSS-SECTION OF THE SAME REGION SHOWING PRESENT CONDITIONS DUE TO PosT-BERTIE DEPOSITION AND EROSION terid exoskeletons are found. In the pure limestones a brachiopod fauna occurs, but no eurypterids are present; while in the separating waterlime eurypterids and ceratiocarids, but no brachiopods are found. Foerste has made the following statements in regard to the occurrence: “At the McReynold or Interurban quarry, in the south- western corner of Kokomo, there is a much thicker exposure of the upper or brachiopod horizon. No merostomata have been found here. ““South of the center of Kokomo within the town limits, there is a deep quarry, covering a considerable area, where merostromata are common at an elevation of 3 to 33 feet above the base of the quarry. This belongs to the lower thinly laminated part of the section, and the richly fossiliferous brachiopod beds appear to be absent”’ (Foerste, 67, 7). BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES IIQ A section at the old George W. Defenbaugh quarry southeast of Kokomo, Indiana, shows the exact relation between the eurypterid- bearing layers and the brachiopod bed (67, 7). FEET INCHES Heavy bedded fossiliferous limestone..................... I 8 @hereuchins beddedeawithvostracodsnue scene sce oe hin) bedded fossiliterous) limestones. 2-24-52 044.500 o ee 2 Base of brachiopod horizon. ~.............).. Vet PON nities Darkerslayer of limestone@: 2 tens geo ae ie eae 2 shhinghedded@limestone sneer eter Tena Pane een io) Heavier bedded limestone, but thinly laminated........... I 4 shhingbeddedblimestonce are ree net eer eae i One Warkerslimestone sere he we nee ate Reet F RRR Lees 3 The line of reasoning which was adopted to show that the Bertie was a clastic, river-borne deposit which was spread out on the land ae Bose of brachiopod herixon eae) Eury pleria horixon., 12" Vertical Scale Fic. 7. SECTION SOUTHEAST OF KoxKomo, INDIANA, SHOWING DISTINCTNESS OF BRACHIOPOD AND EURYPTERID Horizons (Data from Foerste) 120 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA can be followed through in the same way for the Kokomo, the most marked difference between the two formations being the local char- acter and diverse source of the latter. The Kokomo waterlime lacks the lateral and vertical persistence characteristic of the Bertie and in this respect is similar to the waterlimes of Oesel which in many out- crops appear as thin bands intercalated between limestone beds (see section, fig. 7 above, and description). Indeed, the section revealed at Kokomo is the counterpart of what theoretically we should expect to find in the southward continuation of the Bertie in Pennsylvania where the waterlimes merged into the marine deposits. The second difference between. the Kokomo and Bertie waterlime is that of origin, for while the latter was derived from the north the former must have come from the west since the sea covered the Michi- gan area during Monroe time and precluded the derivation of sedi- ments from the Canadian region. It is difficult to arrive at an expla- nation of the lithogenesis of such a formation when so few outcrops are visible, but yet we can determine enough to show that the Kokomo sediment was river-borne and came from a continent to the west (see map, fig. 8). A study of the faunas convincingly shows the distinctness of the source of the material and organisms found at Kokomo (see below, pp. 253-256). 7. THE TARANNON-WENLOCK BEDS OF SOUTHERN SCOTLAND DISTRIBUTION OF ForMATIONS. ‘The clearest conception of the lithogenesis of the eurypterid-bearing Wenlock beds of southern Scot- land is to be obtained from a survey of the palaeographic condi- tions existing in Great Britain from the end of Ordovicic time on through the Siluric. The outcrops in Wales, in the hilly areas of Cumberland and in innumerable outliers in Westmoreland and else- where, as well as those of the southern uplands of Scotland, indicate that throughout the Ordovicic the sea covered Wales, the greater part of western and central England and southern Scotland as far north as the great northeast-southwest fault line delimiting the north- ern edge of the tableland. The central and northern portions of Scot- land formed a part of the old land which, rising to the east in the Scan- dinavian shield, extended westward through North Britain and Ire- land on into the northern Atlantic, and which throughout the Palae- ozoic furnished the sediments which were deposited either in the sea to the south of that ancient shoreline, or on the land to the north of BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES L21 Fic. 8. PALAEOGEOGRAPHIC Map or NortH AMERICA DuRING BERTIE TIME (Grabau) 122 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA it. While the faunas and the lithological deposits in England and Wales indicate, with few exceptions, the prevalence throughout the Ordovicic of open marine conditions, in southern Scotland, on the other hand, the record is one of oscillations, showing now the preva- lence of terrigenous deposits, again that of sea-derived or thalassige- nous deposits. A rapid survey of the succession of events during Ordovicic time shows that there was a gradual retreat of the sea towards the south and southeast during the middle and upper Ordovicic and the lower Siluric, followed by a widespread advance during Wenlock time. A few of the typical sections will readily bring out these facts (see also the general description of the region on p. 151). The Ordovicic and Siluric rocks of the Southern Uplands of Scot- land are exposed in a series of belts trending northeast-southwest. The southernmost is a rather narrow, discontinuous strip composed of Wenlock and Ludlow flaggy grits and mudstones, bordering the north- ern coast of Solway Firth and extending northeast into the Cheviot Hills. The second belt, from 20 to 25 miles wide extends from St. Abbs Head on the east coast, through the Lammermuir Hills across the greater part of Selkirk, Peebles, Dumfries, Kirkcudbright and Wigtown (see map ). This band consists of the Lower Siluric Llan- dovery and Tarannon beds. The third belt, narrow in the east where it does not quite reach the coast, but constituting the north- ern slopes of the Lammermuir Hills, broadens westward until it be- comes 15 or more miles wide. It consists of Llandeilo and Caradoc limestones with a large amount of radiolarian chert of Arenig (Lower Ordovicic) age. The northwestern termination of this belt is the Girvan area with its great development of Arenig volcanic rocks. From 5 to 1o miles north of the third belt are two important regions one in the Pentland Hills, Edinburghshire, the other in Lanarkshire, where the Wenlock, Ludlow and Downton beds are exposed as inliers in the Old Red sandstone. The relation of these isolated Siluric outcrops to those of the southern tableland will be made clear by a consideration of the tectonic arrangement. Towards the close of the Lanarkian a pronounced uplift took place accompanied by a tremendous amount of lateral compression giving a great series of folds whose axes run northeast-southwest, parallel to the major axis of the tableland. Denudation set in before the beginning of Old Red deposition so that the Old Red rests uncon- formally upon Siluric or Ordovicic beds. Moreover, formations which BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 123 were continuous at the time of deposition now appear in far separated localities. Over the whole of this much folded and faulted series the Old Red sandstones were deposited by the rivers flowing south from the northern Highlands. Subsequent erosion has carried away large portions of these Devonic beds, and has cut down into even the lower rocks, so that the Ordovicic and Siluric are exposed in broad belts as shown above, while in certain places only inliers in the Old Red have as yet been exposed. To this class belong the isolated outcrops in the “HADDINGTON, A a v4 emt U Way aha ee ER BERWICK KIRKCUOBRIGHT Girvan 0 60 Kilo moters Fic. 17. SketcH Map or ScoTLanp, SHOWING LOCALITIES WHERE OLD RED SANDSTONE OUTCROPS remains are called the Pterygotus beds. In them are found the most perfect specimens of Pterygotus anglicus, though complete individuals are rare, and the rock often contains also an abundance of Parka decipiens, which has been variously identified as crustacean egg cases and as spores of plants. Above these beds follows the main mass of the lavas upon which rest the beds of Auchtertyre, which BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES E75 have yielded Cephalaspis lyelli, Pieraspis mitchelli, and certain of the Acanthodian fishes. At a slightly higher horizon and contemporary with some of the volcanic beds is the Acanthodian zone which is best seen at Tilliewhamland Quarry, Turin Hill, near the town of Forfar. The list of fossils from these beds cited by Goodchild is as follows (80, 597): Mesacanthus mitchelli Ischnacanthus gracilis Climatius scutiger C. uncinatus C. reticulatus Parexus recurvus P, falcatus Euthacanthus mitchelli E. elegans E. gracilis E. curtus Cephalaspis pagei C. asper Thelodus pagei Pterygotus anglicus Stylonurus ensiformis Parka decipiens Just above the top of the volcanic series has been found a fossiliferous zone yielding myriopods among which are Kampecaris and Archi- desmus, as well as some poorly preserved plants referred to Psilo- phytum robustum. The top of the Caledonian Old Red is formed by the Strathmore sandstones which are well developed in the Strathmore lowland of Forfar, but the exact age of which is difficult to determine because of the lack of fossils. It has been thought that they might be contemporaneous with the oldest beds of the Orcadian division, but conclusive evidence is lacking. The Siluric Stonehaven beds of red sandstone and interbedded bright red shales are exposed in the neighborhood of Stonehaven and are about 1500 feet thick. Upon these follows the Dunnottar con- glomerate, 5000 feet thick, of coarse red and grey sandstones, grits and conglomerates in which occur pebbles which commonly “range up to a foot or more in length, and yet are astonishingly well rounded. They mostly consist of quartzite” (117, 399). Interbedded lavas 176 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA occur in the top of the series and are succeeded by the Carmylie beds, about tooo feet thick, of compact red or grey sandstones with some flags, which are the Acanthodian beds described by Goodchild and which contain the abundant fish and eurypterid remains. This series, together with the contemporaneous lavas, forms the backbone of the Sidlaw Hills. It grades up into the Cairnconnan series of 2000 feet of dull red or grey grit with bands of conglomerate. The succeeding Red Head series, 1500 feet thick, consists in the lower part of “‘fine red thin-bedded sandstone with bands of hard bright red shale, while the upper portion is made up of thicker-bedded sandstone.” Six or seven miles south of the Red Head promontory from which the beds are named, there is a lithological change to blue or grey shales with sandstone partings, illustrating well the rapid lateral variation. Over- lying this group is the Auchmithie conglomerate. ‘‘The series con- sists of three main masses of conglomerate, with intervening sand- stones and conglomerates. The pebbles in the conglomerates are well rounded, fairly large (generally 1 to 6 inches, rarely 12 inches), and, as usual, are mostly quartzite” (117, 400). This conglomerate _ is 800 feet thick and is followed by the highest member of the series, the Arbroath sandstone (1200 feet). “Coarse, gritty sometimes pebbly sandstone is its component rock, always red in color’ (117 400). The succession as here shown in Forfarshire shows beyond a doubt that the sediments could not have been marine. The com- plete series is shown in outcrops in Forfarshire, extending over about 500 square miles, while within a distance of less than ten miles the outcrops of all of the formations may be seen. The Orcadian. Over the greater part of northeast Scotland and extending northward to the Orkney and Shetland Islands there is developed a great series of flags, sandstones and conglomerates younger in age than the Caledonian and these have been called the Orcadian by Goodchild. They constitute the Lower Old Red as used by Geikie and were thought by him to have been deposited in the large water body which he called Lake Orcadie. Neither the natural base nor top of the series has been seen and even the highest members are always followed unconformably by the Upper Old Red. It is unnecessary to take up the formations in detail because they do not contain eurypterids. There are three fossil horizons contain- ing, with one exception, only fish remains. These horizons are the Achanarras beds, the Thurso flags and John o’Groats flags. Goodchild in summarizing the conditions which obtained in Orca- BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 177] dian time says: ‘“‘There is evidence that, during the time when the Orcadian Old Red was in course of being deposited, normal pluvial conditions obtained for a time. The deposition of ferric oxide in the old area of inland drainage ceased, chiefly in consequence of the large quantities of vegetable matter which were swept into the old lakes. This latter, in its turn, decomposed the solutions of sulphate of lime, and liberated the calcareous matter, which in a state of diffusion, or aggregated into nodules, now forms so conspicuous an element in the Orcadian Rocks. Furthermore, the sulphate of lime, in its turn, converted the vegetable matter into the bituminoids, which, in a diffused form, permeated—one might almost say satu- rated—so much of the Caithness Flagstones. I hold, therefore, that the exceptional] durability of the Caithness flagstones, which of course is due to the large percentage of bituminous matter they contain, is due to the fact that conditions of inland drainage, one ofthe phases of desert conditions, prevailed where these occur during the Devonian Period” (80, 220). THEORIES OF Deposition. From data of the type just given, three theories have been evolved, each based upon practically the same observations in the field, but each involving very different interpretations. , The oldest and most widely accepted explanation for the Old Red sandstone is that it is a series of lake deposits; the second theory, which quite rightly has never received very much attention, is that of marine deposition; the newest hypothesis is that the Old Red is dominantly of fluviatile origin and that the deposits were not laid down in any permanent body of standing water, either marine or fresh, but largely on the dry land as torrential and flood- plain deposits or in evanescent playas. I shall briefly consider the first two theories and the objections thereto, and shall then give the third and some of the evidence favoring it. All geologists are agreed that the sediments are clastic, that they were not deposited in the deep sea, that they are land-derived and river-transported; the only point of difference that has arisen is in regard to the locus of deposition. Deposition in Lakes. This theory has been most fully expounded by Geikie and has been generally accepted in the form in which he gave it. For the British area he recognized five lakes on the basis of the present outcrops, considering that the heavy conglomerates marked the rocky lake shores of Devonic time, while finer deposits pointed out the central portions of the lakes. The presence of desic- 178 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA cation fissures and other structural features to be mentioned below was taken as indicative of the mud flats along shore, which were from time to time inundated by the waters of the lake. Plant, insect, and crustaceous remains, as well as the abundant fish fauna, were correctly pointed out as showing the near presence of land. The distinctness of the fish and merostome faunas in the Caledonian and Orcadian rocks was cited as proof of the distinctness of the lakes in which these organisms had lived. It is surprising, and therefore, worthy of note, that Geikie came so very near to the recognition of the Old Red fish and eurypterids as river dwellers that one marvels at his not having reached that conclusion. The arguments which he cites to account for the differences of the ichthyic fauna of his Lake Orcadie and Lake Caledonia, which were supposed to have been separated by the Grampians, are illustrations taken from modern river faunas; and, if application were made directly to the Old Red faunas, one would have to say that the fish in the two Devonic lakes were different because they came from rivers whose headwaters were separated by a divide. I shall give Geikie’s statement in order to show how near he came to the discovery that the Old Red Fauna came from the rivers, and how he failed to realize this because he was so intent on the theory of lakes. ; “Tn the second place,” he says, “there does not seem to be any valid reason why the ichthyic fauna of two adjacent but completely disconnected water-basins should not have differed considerably in Old Red Sandstone times, as they do at the present day. Even in the same river-system it is well known that the fishes of the higher portions of the basin are sometimes far from corresponding with those in the maritime parts of the area. Neighboring drainage-basins, divided by a comparatively unimportant watershed, sometimes show a remarkable contrast in their fishes. This has been well pointed out by Professor E. D. Cope, in a suggestive paper “On the Distribu- tion of Fresh-water Fishes in the Alleghany Region of South-western Virginia.’"8 The James and Roanoke rivers descend the eastern slope of the continent and discharge into the Atlantic. In their upper waters they have only four species of fish in common. In the upper waters of the rivers Holston and Kanawha, which flow south-west- wards into the Mississippi basin, there are only two species alike. — Between those eastern and western pairs of rivers runs the more marked water-parting of the Alleghany chain. Out of fifty-six species 18 Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, vi, 2d series (1860-69), p. 207. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 179 of fish obtained from the head waters of the four rivers, five were found by Mr. Cope on both sides of the water-shed. There is like- wise considerable disparity in the genera represented in the different rivers. The still more important barrier of the Rocky Mountains separates ichthyological areas yet more sharply marked off from each other. Such isolated basins as Lake Baikal, Lake Titicaca, and the Caspian Sea show by their peculiar assemblages of fishes how much ichthyic types may be modified by prolonged isolation. The differ- ences, therefore, between the fauna of Lake Orcadie and Lake Cale- donia during the Old Red Sandstone, as I venture to hold, are not incompatible with the idea that the two lakes were in a general and geological sense contemporaneous, though separated from each other by the barrier of the Grampian Mountains, which formed an effectual boundary between two ichthyic faunas” (71, 364, 365). Deposition in the Sea. To certain geologists it will appear that I am wasting paper in setting forth a theory which has as its thesis the deposition of the Old Red sandstone in the sea, and that it is a further useless expenditure of ink and of the reader’s time for me to voice the objections to such a theory. Indeed, I would agree with anyone who raised such a protest were it not for the deplorable fact that there are still not a few geologists who claim that this much- talked-of red sandstone was deposited in the sea,and further that other sandstones with similar striking lithological and faunal charac- teristics could have been formed nowhere else but in that region where all sediments have been deposited since the world began, namely, in the littoral zone of the sea. The chief advocates for the theory of marine deposition are Mac- nair and Reid who brought out two papers in the Geological Magazine for 1896, one entitled “On the Physical Conditions under which the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland Was Deposited”’ (159), and the other “‘Palaeontological Considerations on the Old Red Sandstone of Scot- land,” (160), in which they sought to prove that physical, strati- graphical and palaeontological evidence all pointed to the marine origin of the Old Red. In a few words their interpretation may be summarized: in pre-Devonic time there was a large land-mass to the northwest of Scotland which supplied the material for much of the marine deposits during Cambric, Ordovicic and Siluric time. At the end of the Siluric the sea began to transgress across Scotland and the land-mass was at the same time depressed until by sinking and by marine erosion the whole area disappeared beneath the sea and the 180 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Upper Old Red sandstone was deposited over the whole of Scotland. In the words of the two authors mentioned above, ‘‘The great mass of this mountain chain, then, must have lain to the northwest of the present Old Red Sandstone area, and we now proceed to show how after this long period of upheaval the mountain mass once more began to sink below the level of the sea, and that gradually the waters of the Old Red Sandstone sea levelled it down to the very core” (159, 109). They consider that all of the deposits were made along shore, but they are then confronted by the problem of the lack of molluscs and other typical marine forms. This absence they thus account for: ‘‘The solution of the problem rather lies in the fact that the presence of peroxide of iron in these rocks is inimical to the pre- servation of fossils with a calcareous test, and that more especially in the case of sandstones, which even when composed of pure sand are well known to be a bad medium for the preservation of molluscan and other similar organic remains” (159, 116). OBJECTIONS TO LAKE AND MARINE THEORIES. Each of the two theories given can explain some facts which the other cannot; but, on the other hand, each has very serious faults due in some cases to incorrect observations, in others to the acceptance of prevalent ideas and in others to unjustifiable deductions. Both theories contain elements of truth, but both are open to many objections. These fall into two groups: (1) Physical, (2) Faunal. (1) Physical. (a) Red color. Within the last twenty years stu- dents of sedimentation have clearly shown that it is impossible for a widespread and thick series of red clastic deposits to be laid down in the sea. The red color, as is well known, is due to the dehydration of sediments which were thoroughly oxidized at the time of deposi- tion. Such oxidation cannot take place under water, but only during exposure to the air. It is not to be supposed that the beds were red when deposited, but that only after dehydration had taken place by the lapse of a long period of time, or through the effect of heat from the interior of the earth, or by pressure was the red color taken on. Of course, certain red beds may receive their final working over under water, but such deposits will be of limited thickness and areal extent. For instance,: the Bays sandstone (Upper Ordovicic) of Tennessee, Virginia and adjoining regions is a red calcareous sand- stone with a maximum thickness of 1500 feet. Throughout most of the formation organic remains are absent, but in the lower beds marine fossils occur abundantly in a few layers of the red sandstones. These BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 181 fossils are all mollusca and brachiopods, are numerous and well- preserved, a fact not compatible with the reasoning of Macnair and Reid. As has been fully explained by Grabau, the main mass of the Bays represents an alluvial fan spread out on the land and having its western and southernmost margins extending into the sea. Thus it was possible for some of the highly oxidized sands to be carried out to sea, where they were deposited and where marine fossils were entombed with them. There is, therefore, nothing inherent in poten- tial red deposits to prevent marine shells from being preserved in them; the difficulty lies in the fact that great thicknesses of potential red beds can not be deposited under conditions where itis possible for marine animals to leave their record, because such deposits must be formed on the land. As for the inimical effects of iron peroxide, it need only be stated that the reddest of deposits contain only a small amount of iron’ and that it is not the amount but the fineness and perfection of dissemination of the iron that are responsible for the color (Grabau, 87, 621). That sandstones made up of grains of pure silica are bad media for the preservation of molluscs is easily disproven, for one need only recall such highly fossiliferous formations as the Oriskany sandstone and the Schoharie grit of the Devonic of New York, or the Miocenic sands and conglomerates of the Vienna Basin. The reason why so many sandstones are unfossiliferous is generally that they were deposited as terrestrial sediments either fluviatile or eolian. (b) Marine denudation. A second argument advanced by Mac- nair and Reid is based upon the assumption that the erosion of the Siluric rocks in the Highlands of Scotland was due to marine denuda- tion and upon faulty observations at certain localities. They argue “The marine denudation of the Silurian rocks of the Highlands of Scotland is not in dispute, but Ramsay and Geikie have assumed a subsequent lake or fresh-water denudation.”” The conformable depo- sition, however ‘‘of the Old Red Sandstone upon the preceding Upper Silurian deposits in the counties of Edinburgh and Lanark, the Welsh area, and in the St. Lawrence basin, precludes any such idea; for from the base of the Upper Silurian to the top of the Lower Old Red sand- stone the sequence of these deposits is unbroken. It therefore follows that the denudation of the rocks of the Highland area being marine, the equivalent deposits occurring in the Upper Silurian and Lower 14 The bright red Vernon shale (Salinan) has shown on analysis only 2.25 per cent of ferric oxide and 0.75 per cent of ferrous oxide. 182 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Old Red Sandstone are equally marine (160, 221). The chief objec- tions to this theory of marine denudation continuing from the begin- ning of Upper Siluric to the end of Lower Devonic time, fall into three groups: (1) Tectonic. The tectonic relations between the Old Red sandstone and the underlying rocks show that there was pro- found folding at the end of the Siluric, followed by a long period of erosion before the earliest Old Red sediments were deposited; there- fore the two series are not conformable as claimed by Macnair and Reid. (See further p. 173 above). (2) Lithologic. (See below, sec- tions (d), p. 182, and (1), (2), (3) on p. 189). (3) Faunal. (See below, section (b), p. 191). (c) Salt indicative of marine deposition. The argument that the presence of a salt-bearing stratum in the Old Red at one locality is undoubted evidence of the marine origin of that bed, is of no value unless supported by critical data on the chemical composition of the salt and associated salts if any are present, and on the organic con- tent. Too much is now known concerning the continental origin of many and perhaps the larger number of past and present salt deposits for anyone to claim that the sea was always or even commonly the immediate source of the material. Macnair and Reid would make the presence of the salt band an a priori reason for its marine origin, for they say: “We find in the Moray Firth area a large stratum of yellow saliferous sandstone, interbedded with shales containing remains of Old Red sandstone fishes . . . . and we think that but one conclusion alone can be drawn therefrom—that the formation and its contained fish rerhains were marine” (160, 221). This type of reasoning is delightfully ingenuous and one that is met with fre- quently; while the authors do not explicitly state any reason why the salt is marine, the reader yet receives the impression that the presence of fish remains carries a strong presumption, and thus we have the pleasing circle: “The salt is marine because associated with fish, and the fish are marine because found in bands interbedded with salt-bearing sandstones.” This whole argument would fall to the ground were anyone to show that the fish were fluviatile, or that . the salt could have some other origin. (d) Thickness of deposits. The recurrence in the same place of thick boulder and pebble conglomerates interbedded with sandstone and shales, all being dominantly red and showing a complete absence of unequivocal marine fossils such as brachiopods, molluscs, crinoids, and trilobites, and amounting in thickness to many thousands of feet BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 183 + proves conclusively that the beds could not have been deposited by an advancing sea, as contended by Macnair and Reid, nor yet in a lake, as Geikie holds. It is not even necessary to point to the red color or to the absence of marine fossils; the thickness and coarseness of the deposits absolutely precludes the possibility of their having been formed in the sea. Macnair and Reid hold that the sea trans- gressed from the south to the north, but in that case, while there might well have been a basal conglomerate a few feet thick, this would inevitably have been succeeded vertically by finer deposits, sands at first and then muds or limestones as the water became deeper, and the zone of coarse near-shore deposits would have advanced pari passu with the transgression of the sea. Thus it would have been impossible for coarse material to have been deposited in southern Scotland in the Upper Devonic when the sea shore stood two hundred miles to the northwest. Greater obstacles arise if we attempt to have these deposits formed in lakes or epicontinental seas. In Forfarshire, the Fic. 18. SECTION: TO EXPLAIN THE DEPOSITION OF THE OLD RED SANDSTONE IN THE NORTH OF SCOTLAND (After Geikie) position of “Lake Caledonia,” the estimated thickness given by Hickling is 12,500 feet, including the volcanics, or considerably over 10,000 feet of clastic deposits; in Caithness Geikie estimates the series which he supposed to have been contemporaneously de- posited in “Lake Orcadie” at 16,200 feet. These two lakes were separated by the Crystalline Highlands, a strip of land about 90 miles broad, which apparently supplied the sediments for Lake Orcadie. -The waves of this great lake, which is estimated to have had at its maximum a surface of about 48,o0co square miles, cut back into this old mountain chain which was at the same time being denuded by the rivers which brought their loads into the lake. In its maximum devel- oped Lake Orcadie extended from Nairn to the Shetland Islands, the Orkneys representing a sublacustrine rise. The cross section made by Geikie is here reproduced in order to show his interpretation (fig. 18). It is at once apparent that there was not enough dry land to supply the thousands of feet of flagstones making up the Caithness series. It is even more difficult to surmise whence came 184 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA F the material which filled up the mid-Scottish basin or “Lake Caledonia,” for it was hemmed in on the west by a narrow ring of hills separating it from ‘Lake Lorne” in North Argylshire, and on the south by hills along an east-west line through the Firth of Forth, and on the north by the Highlands which were the source of the 16,cc0 feet of sediments deposited in Lake Orcadie, while to the east the sea covered France. The only other source would be a mountain chain in the present English Channel, but the ob- jections to this are obvious. A natural question that arises often in reading Geikie’s monograph, and one which Macnair and Reid most pertinently ask is how outliers of conglomerates on the tops of high mountains, in the very regions which were supposed to have been lake barriers, are to be accounted for. Geikie has proposed that perhaps they represent old fiord-like indentations in the shore- line. ‘This explanation will not serve, however, when such outliers are found on what must have been the very centre of the ridge between Lakes Orcadie and Caledonia, such, for instance, as Macnair and Reid mention at Mealfourvonie just north of Loch Ness in Inverness where an outlier is found 2284 feet above sea-level, and at Tomintoul in Banff, and Rhynie in Aberdeen. The outliers in all parts of Scotland indicate that the deposit was essentially continuous, though varying in lithological character and origin from place to place. (e) Structural features. The cross-bedding, ripple marks, and other structural features that are cited by some authors as indicative of marine littoral conditions of sedimentation, by others as lacustrine fittoral, will be considered below under the third theory of the origin of the Old Red sandstone (p. 189). (2) Faunal. Attention should be called to certain erroneous lines of argument that have been used and which fall down because based on false premises. For instance, it is impossible to prove that the Cld Red sandstone eurypterids were marine by saying that the Siluric ones were and that therefore the Devonic ones of the same genera must also be. First it must be proved that the Siluric euryp- terids were marine. ‘To quote once more from Macnair and Reid: “Wehave . . . . seenno reason assigned why Eurypterids and Placoderms of the same genera, which are marine in the late Upper Silurian, and fishes of the same genera and species which are equally ~ marine in the Devonian of Russia and Central Europe, as well as in the Devonian of North America, should be termed equivocally marine in the Old Red sandstone” (160, 219). It may be remarked that the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 185 Devonic fishes of North America here referred to have been shown, from their occurrence and distribution, to be mostly if not entirely fluviatile (Grabau 87, 88). Macnair and Reid have with great justification brought forward many objections to the “Lake theory” advocated by Geikie, but their logic fails them when they contend that because the Old Red fish and eurypterids could not have been lacustrine forms, therefore they must have been marine. | The river origin seems never to have occurred to these two writers, or else if it did they considered that the same objections were open to it as to the lake origin. One of the arguments which they advance against the lake theory is the difficulty of the origin and distribution of the fish and eurypterids. They argue thus: these forms were pres- ent in the Siluric and so it is not strange that they should occur also in the Devonic; “but of the genera Osteolepis, Dipteris, Glyptolepis, and other fishes of the Old Red Sandstone no undoubted plates or scales occur in the preceding formation. The question therefore arises, whence came these highly organized fishes of the Old Red Sandstone? More especially, from what fresh-water region did they migrate? Not only so, but as the same genera of fishes occur in the Devonian of North America and the St. Lawrence basin, we have an equal right to know by what fresh-water pathway of distribution they were enabled to migrate some 3000 miles between one point and another” (160, 218, 219). But surely such facts of distribution should not be distressing; many a case could be cited in the recent fresh- water fish fauna of the same genera occurring more than 3000 miles apart, and with perhaps no related genera in the intervening area. One may mention the case of the genus Umbra, a form so peculiar as to be made the type of a family in which are only two species, these being most closely allied, and yet one occurs in the rivers of the Atlantic statesof North America and the other in the Danubesystem, some thousands of miles distant. Even more remarkable is the genus Scaphirhynchus among the sturgeons, which likewise has two species: one in the Mississippi system, the other in CentralAsia. Inthe same family is the genus Polyodon, with two species only, one in the Missis- sippi, the other in the Yangtse-kiang. But one need not confine the illustrations to genera which are identical in distant regions; species offer even more surprising examples. Perca fluviatilis, Gastrosteus pungitius, Lota vulgaris, Salmo salar, and many others might be mentioned, in- habiting both the rivers of eastern North America and of Europe. For 186 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA an extended discussion on migration the reader is referred to chap- ter V on that subject below, especially pp. 203-7. These illustra- _ tions will suffice to show that fresh-water forms can often migrate for several thousand miles, and that through river distribution even the same species may occur in regions widely separated. It may here be remarked that distance is of less significance than time available for migration (see below, pp. 208 et seq.). SuMMARY. ‘The objections to the marine and lacustrine theories of deposition for the Old Red may be reduced to the single criticism that they are out of date. The theories were helpful attempts toward the solution of one of the big problems in stratigraphy, but in their formulation and working out, their authors naturally fol- lowed the ideas which were accepted as correct tweaty years ago; that some of these should have been found to need revision is only an evidence of the progress of science. The study of sedimentation is a branch of geology which is even yet not receiving the attention due it, but, nevertheless, the students of lithogenesis are steadily increasing, and there is more being said and written today about the work of the wind and of rivers in the geological past than there was a dozen years ago. THEORY OF FLuUVIATIVE DEposiTION. The conditions up to the beginning of Old Red sandstone time have already been outlined and it was shown that there wasa progressive retreat of the sea to the south, leaving all of Scotland and most of England a region of dry land sub- ject to the subaérial forces of denudation, the greatest of which are the winds and the rivers. The rivers cutting down into the newly elevated continent carried great quantities of detritus toward the sea. But these were not the rivers of a pluvial climate. They were rather the torrents which carried off the waters from occasional heavy rains such as occur in semi-arid regions. ‘That the climate must have been relatively dry is indicated by the thickness and great areal extent of the Old Red Sandstone, for, as was explained, these deposits must have been thoroughly oxidized at the time of their deposition in order that they might be potentially red. In post-Devonic time, either by age, heat or pressure, those oxidized deposits became red through dehydration. The climate, then, was semi-arid and the rivers of the nature of torrents which could transport vast quantities of material, but which would in most cases drop that material before reaching the sea. This would be brought about because the streams would soon lose their supply of water, for the rains were only periodic BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES : 187 and even the water which was collected into streams would be lost by evaporation or by sinking into the ground. Great alluvial fans were spread out, consisting of coarse conglomerates near the source of supply and of sands farther away. During those periods when the infrequent but heavy rains fell, playa lakes undoubtedly were formed, similar to those known to be characteristic in present semi- arid regions which have periodically inundated river flood plains. Evidence is not wanting that just such water bodies did form, for Geikie has called attention to certain characteristics in the Thurso flags which admit of no other interpretation. Along the northern coast of Caithness from Castletown to Thurso, a distance of some seven miles along the beach, these flagstones are exposed in great sheets. They consist of ‘‘fissile, calcareous, grey, hard flagstones, green, gray and brown calcareous (and frequently bituminous) shales, with thin bands of calcareous gritty sandstone and argillaceous lime- stone (‘calmy limestone’), seldom more than a few inches in thick- ness. . . . . Even when split into smooth sheets an inch or less in thickness, these hard, tough layers show on their yellow, weathered edges successive paper-like but mutually adherent lami- ES Aeeh oe bit mains A second feature is “‘the extraordinary abundance of ripple- marked surfaces and sun-cracks. Though these markings abound also in the lower flagstone group, it is here that they attain their greatest development. Surfaces of flagstone or shale, many square yards in extent, are profusely covered with fine ripple lines as sharply preserved as if only today imprinted on the soft sediment. In many places every successive stratum or leaf of rock is thus marked, so that several distinct rippled surfaces may be counted in the thickness of a few inches of rock. Itis likewise observable that the rippling is generally close-set, sometimes not exceeding an inch in breadth from crest to crest of the ridges.” Mud-cracks form a third important structure. Geikie says: “More abundant and admirable -illustrations of sun-cracks could hardly be found than occur along thecoast. Broad, gently-inclined sheets of rock again and again present themselves to view so covered with reticulations as to look like tessellated pavements. It may be noticed that the cracks not infrequently descend through many of the fine lamine of deposit for a depth of 5 or 6 inches with occasionally a breadth of 3 or 4 inches. The material filling up the imterstices abounds with small, occasionally curved pieces of shale. These may, 188 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA no doubt, be regarded as portions of the upper muddy layer which cracked off and curled up during desiccation, as may often be ob- served on dried-up pools at the present time. Some pittings, occa- sionally seen on the sun-cracked surfaces, may perhaps represent rain-drops” (71, 392, 393). Such characteristics as those just cited have been used by Geikie as proof of the lake shore origin of the beds and by other writers as indicative of their formation in mud-flats along the sea coast. Were it not that such interpretations are offered by the majority of geolo- gists it would be unnecessary to dwell upon the unequivocal interior continental origin of these features. That mud-cracks should be formed over wide areas indicates beyond a doubt the presence of a large body of very shallow water which completely evaporated, leav- ing the whole surface exposed to the air. Not only that, but the exposure must have been long for the cracks to be 5 or 6 inches deep and occasionally 3 or 4 inches wide. Professors Grabau and Barrell have discussed this subject of ripple marks and sun-cracks over wide areas in such a convincing and logical manner that it need not be taken up in detail here. In his Principles of Stratigraphy Professor Grabau cites the case of the great playa in the Black Rock Desert, Nevada, which forms in a few minutes and covers an area of from 450 to 500 square miles and yet is seldom over a few inches in depth. Russell has described this lake and records that in a few days all of the water may dry up leaving the surface cracked in all directions. ‘‘The lake beds then have a striking resemblance to tesselated pavements. anon ”’the very words used by Geikie in describing the Old Red flagstones! Grabau says: ‘Taking the areas of mud-crack for- mation in the order of their magnitude, the playa surface would probably stand first. Here the entire surface for hundreds of square miles becomes mud-cracked, often to considerable depth, on the com- plete drying up of the temporary playa lake. Here, too, the condi- tions for the preservation are most favorable. Not only is the exposure a long one, often the greater part of the year, or for many years, and for much of the time to intense heat, but the chances of proper burial are much greater. Wandering sand dunes may thus preserve the record, dust deposits may fill the fissures, or, at the next flood, sands or muds may be swept into them. In fact, the playa or takyr seems to be the ideal surface for mud-crack record, and one is tempted to refer most mud-cracked strata to such an origin. Cer- BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 189 tainly where fossil mud-cracks penetrate a formation to the depth of To feet, as is the case in the Upper Shinarump (Triassic) shales of Utah, it is difficult to believe that they could be formed under other con- ditions than those permitting prolonged exposure such as is found only in the playas of the desert, where ten years or more may elapse between rainfalls. . . . . “If the playa lake exists for some time it may become stocked with certain forms of organisms, espe- cially types whose eggs or larve can be transported by wind or by birds. The small crustaceans Estheria, Daphnia, and Cypris are characteristic of desert lakes, the first being found in ponds which are dry for eleven successive months” (Grabau, 87, 707, 603). The nature of the organisms characteristic of such playa lakes is exceed- ingly interesting in view of the fact that Geikie adds to his description of the lithological characters of the beds in question the following statement: “Fragments of fish and coprolite are scattered abundantly through most of the flagstones. Some of the calcareous shales are full of Estheria, while traces of plants occur in great numbers, though generally in a somewhat macerated condition” (71, 393). The close correspondence between the description of modern playa deposits and the Caithness flag portion of the Old Red Sandstone series leaves no reasonable doubt that the latter formation was the result of inland drainage in a semi-arid or desert region. The detailed characteristics of a single series of beds in the Old Red have been taken as an example illustrating the conditions which prevailed, but attention need not be confined to any single part of the formation, for Goodchild has found evidence in all of the divisions of the Old Red to show that desert conditions prevailed throughout all the Devonic wherever this type of deposition obtained. In order not to burden the discussion with a too lengthy description of all of the features indicating desert or at least continental origin for these deposits I shall give a list setting forth the facts already cited and certain additional ones. Summary of Evidence for Fluviatile Deposits. (a) Lithogenesis. (1) The presence of finely stratified, rippled and sun-cracked flags over an area of many square miles, and at successive horizons, the sun-cracks penetrating to a depth of five or six inches and being at times three or four inches wide, indicates playas or at least broad river flood plain conditions. These features have been noted by Geikie in the Thurso flags (71, 392, 393). Igo THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA (2) The presence of clay galls in the deep interstices between the sun-cracked prismatic layers in the Thurso flags indicates exposure of clayey surfaces to the air long enough for flakes to be curled up and blown into the cracks. Such a feature might characterize any sun-cracked area, but the depth of the cracks as cited in (1) indicates a playa or a river flood plain. (3) The basal conglomerate of the Orcadian series has character- istics pointing to the fact that it is made up of materia] derived from the disintegrated but not decomposed underlying rocks, thus indi- cating dry climatic conditions during its formation. The conglomer- ate is too thick to represent the basal conglomerate formed by an advancing sea, even if other characteristics did not preclude the marine origin. In detail the characteristics are as follows: (a) ‘The blocks vary in size up to as much as a yard, or even more, in length, and consist of gneiss, pink granite, quartz-porphyry, quartz-rock, mica-schist, and other crystalline rocks, with abundance of pink cleavable orthoclase derived from the underlying gneiss’ (71,375). In the Caledonian series the blocks are even larger, Hickling having recorded them up to 8 feet in diameter. (b) In every case the under- lying rock from which the conglomerate boulders were derived can be found not far away. ‘‘Near the granite they (the boulders) are made up in great measure of granitic debris. Round the quartz rock they are largely composed of that material. The existence of the well-veined orthoclase gneiss is indicated some distance before the underlying rock is actually seen by the abundant fragments of beauti- fully cleavable pink felspar in the conglomerates” (71, 370). (c) In both of the quotations just given reference is made to the abundant presence of fresh pink orthoclase. Goodchild has likewise referred to the arkoses with unweathered feldspar fragments (80, 219), and has pointed out that they indicate disintegration under semi-arid or desert conditions. (d) The basal conglomerate is too thick to be of any other than fluviatile, more especially torrential origin. For in- stance at Sarclet, about five miles south of Wick, Caithness, a great mass, 250 to 300 feet high, rises from the sea, the base not being visi- ble. Here ‘the matrix, red in colour, and less strongly felspathic than towards the south, contains large and usually rather well water- worn fragments of quartz-rock, granite, felspar, porphyry, and red sandstone” (71, 376). On no sea or lake beach is a large boulder conglomerate 250 feet thick ever formed by the action of waves. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES Igt Along an open coast exposed to the full force of the waves great boulders may indeed pile up, but they will be in a very narrow strip at the foot of the cliffs and will rapidly decrease in size until within but a few feet from shore no large ones will be found and those which do occur will be in only a thin layer wedging out seaward. More- over, a boulder conglomerate formed along a seacoast would almost certainly be fossiliferous, as I shall point out below. Such a con- glomerate might, however, easily be piled up by the waters of the swift and powerful torrents which periodically occur in desert regions. In large basins of inland drainage the rivers flowing down the enclos- ing mountains bring in great quantities of debris which is coarse and bouldery near the mountains and finer further out. Davis records that ‘‘A great part of Persia consists of large basins enclosed by moun- tains and without outlet to the sea. Long waste slopes stretch for- ward five or ten miles with a descent of tooo to 2000 feet, stony near the mountain flanks and gradually becoming finer textured and more nearly level. The central depressions are absolute deserts of drifting sands with occasional saline lakes or marshes” (87, quoted from Davis, 50, 588). (b) Faunal. Throughout the Old Red sandstone of Great Britain and the continent, typical marine organisms are absent except where this facies interfingers with the Devonic marine facies. The types of life represented in this whole series are few and yet of exceeding interest, since they are among the earliest of land forms, such as scorpions, insects, freshwater crustacea, fish and eurypterids, while the flora, though much poorer than that from the Gaspé sandstone of New Brunswick, yet shows the presence of ferns, coniferous trees and vascular cryptogams. The Caledonian Old Red, which is largely conglomeratic, has yielded comparatively few fossil remains, but in the Pterygotus-or Carmylie- sandstones of Forfar, Pterygotus angli- cus has been found associated with Parka decipiens and at a higher horizon Cephalaspis and Pteraspis occur, and still higher the Acan- thodian beds of Turin with a good fish fauna as well as Pterygotus anglicus and Stylonurus ensiformis. Thus, in the Caledonian Old Red, a series 12,500 feet or more in thickness, the fish and eurypterids are the only abundant organisms. This single faunal fact would be sufficient, even though all other types of evidence were wanting, to make me say that those two groups of organisms lived in the rivers (see criteria, p. 77 above). In the Orcadian the fauna is more IQg2 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA varied. ‘Traquair, who has made such a careful study of the ich- thology of the Old Red Sandstone of Great Britain, has established the following fish zones in the Caithness area (272): { Tristichopterus alatus Egert. \ Microbrachius dicki Traq. ( Coccosteus minor H. Miller Thurso Thursius pholidotus Traq. eee microlepidotus Pander [Pterichthys, 3 species Achanarras 4 Cheirolepis trailli, Ag. | Osteolepis macrolepidotus Ag. This fish fauna is very different from that to the south of the Grampians in Forfarshire, there being no species in common between the two areas and only two genera, Mesacanthus and Cephalaspis, the latter being represented in Caithness by only a single specimen. From this division no eurypterids have been reported. In Caithness and in the Orkneys and Shetland isles has been found a phyllopod crustacean of a genus which at present lives in rivers and fresh water lakes and playas, namely, Estheria. T. Rupert Jones has described the species LE. murchisonia, which is abundant in a ‘“‘dark grey, tough, fine-grained, sandy flagstone, slightly micaceous, somewhat varying in tint and hardness... . . . Great num- bers of the valves are spread over large surfaces of the flagstone, some- times scattered sparsely, sometimes congregated in groups, forming films between the layers of fissile stone” (191, 405). Murchison says of this species: “‘It-occurs in certain localities in such numbers as to form layers an inch or two thick, entirely made up of the thin carapaces” (191, 404). The Old Red sandstone of Lorne has yielded, besides Pterygotus anglicus remains, two species of chilognathous myriopods, Campecaris forfarensis (Page) and Archidesmus sp. described by Peach (214, 83). These are among the earliest myriopods yet known and suggest that the beds in which they were found were formed on land, for if the myriopods had been transported far they would have been destroyed. Moreover, since they had not hard parts to be preserved, they must have been buried quickly. A playa would be the ideal place for their burial, but I do not know enough about the beds in which they were found to state that they were formed in a playa. Macconochie has John O’Groats 15 The significance of this fauna has already been discussed in chapter III, p. 92, and the other aspects will be considered below, p. 247, et seq. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 193 discovered in these beds plant remains related to Psilophyton, and a fish which Traquair describes as Cephalaspis lornensis (Macconochie 157, Traquair 273). Geikie calls our attention to what is believed to be “‘the oldest lacustrine or fluviatile mollusk yet known, Amnigenia (Anodonta, Archanodon) jukesiit. This shell has been found in the Upper Old Red Sandstone of Ireland and England, associated with land-plants, (Archaeopteris, Sphenopteris, Bothrodendron, Ulodendron, Stigmaria Calamites) fishes (Coccosteus) and arthropods (Eurypterus). I2. MISCELLANEOUS OCCURRENCES We have now completed the discussion of the significance of the eleven most important eurypterid faunas, the ones which it has seemed to the writer offered the most material from which to draw deduc- tions. In addition there is a certain group of occurrences which appear to be able to throw little light upon the determination of the habitat, and they have not been discussed so far, for, if from the best material which we have at hand it can be proved that the eurypterids lived in the rivers from the very beginning of their history, then we need be no more distressed at finding a fragment among marine remains than we are when we find a single leaf or piece of wood asso- ciated with brachiopods and molluscs. But, lest the advocates of the early marine habitat of the eurypterids should complain that I pass over lightly the very cases which seem to prove conclusively to them that their view is correct, I shall take up those cases briefly and show wherein they do not prove what they are supposed to; but rather if of any weight at all, indicate that the eurypterids did not always live where their remains were entombed. These remaining instances, then, fall into three groups. (1) The presence of a single eurypterid fragment or perhaps two or three fragments associated in the same stratum with a typical, well preserved, marine fauna. (2) The presence of a single eurypterid fragment or complete individual in a stratum barren of other fossils, but immediately pre- ceded and succeeded by strata carrying marine fossils. (3) The presence of quite a number of fragments in scattered occurrence, but associated intimately with a typical marine fauna. To the first group belong the following: : Echinognathus clevelandi, Utica shale, Upper Ordovicic. 194 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA The eurypterid fauna of Condroz, Upper Devonic of Belgium. Pterygotus problematicus, occurrence doubtful in Aymestry limestone. Eurypterus punctatus fragments, Wenlock limestone, England. To the second belong: Strabops thacheri, Potosi limestone, Upper Cambric or Lower Ordovicic. Eurypterus prominens, Clinton. E. boylii, Guelph. E. microphthalmus, Manlius; Monroe. Pterygotus problematicus, May Hill sandstone, Llandovery. Eurypterus sp. Wenlock (of Southern Belt, Scotland). Eurypterus sp. Wenlock (Girvan area, Scotland). Pterygotus australis. Upper Siluric of Australia (Informa- tion insufficient, may belong to group 1). Pterygotus osiliensis, Pterygotus marl of Gotland. To the third group belong: The Siluric fauna of Bohemia. The Lockport fauna of Ontario. The Siluric fauna of Podolia and Galicia probably belongs here. Pterygotus sp. Siemiradzki, Middle Devonic of Galicia. The lines of argument for the above occurrences have been stated from time to time, but are scattered throughout the paper. They may be brought together here for reference since so many of the cases are subject to the same arguments. In chapter III the criteria for recognizing the various types of habitats in the past were fully dis- cussed, and will now be of great help in establishing the nature of the habitat indicated by the various eurypterid occurrences given in the three lists above. In the light of the arguments that have gone before, and especially of the discussion on habitats, the following truths may be considered as self-evident or as easily demonstrable. 1. The occurrence of a single fragment, or of two or three frag- ments, or of a single complete eurypterid in a formation where it is associated either intimately in the same stratum or closely inadjoin- ing strata with a typical marine fauna, as defined on p. 76, cannot be considered as proof that the eurypterid remains are a part of the marine fauna, for the following reasons: (a) it is impossible to explain how any group of marine organisms could have their remains so com- pletely destroyed that but a single fragment should be left; such is BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 195 never the case with other groups of marine organisms and it is not logical to suppose that the eurypterids should in so many instances have suffered complete annihilation, leaving only one fragment behind to show that they had lived in the sea of that period. It has been suggested that the eurypterids, like modern crabs and horseshoe crabs, were cannibalistic, not only devouring living members of their own family, but also the molted exoskeletons, in this way destroying most of the hard parts which might otherwise have been preserved. This is an ingenious explanation to account for the fragmentary con- dition of the eurypterids so frequently observed, but when we attempt to explain similarly the appearance in the rocks at a given horizon, of only one fragment, the result is a reductio ad absurdum. For unless we are to believe in a miraculous mutual devouring, such as that which took place between the “‘“Gingham Dog and the Calico Cat” as so vividly described by Eugene Field, we would still expect sur- vivors from the feast. Are we to let imagination run wild and to picture to ourselves a fierce struggle in those ancient seas between the members of the eurypterid family, a struggle which caused the destruc- tion of young and old alike, friends, neighbors, and relatives, until a single maimed, but victorious individual remained? But, if we go so far, we must look at the last scene, must gaze upon the painful sight of that last survivor, demented by his orgies, tearing his own limbs apart and devouring them until—well, we would expect that his jaws and ectognaths would have been the final things to remain, but strangely in the Utica sea it was a claw which remained. It is painful to think of the destruction of the young merostomes in these periodic holocausts, that whole faunas should have perished leaving no descendants, and of the infinite labor Nature must have had to create anew genera and species for succeeding seas! Yet, when the early Palaeozoic periods were past these frightful scenes of wholesale destructon gave way to gentler, more pacific modes of life, so that in the Upper Siluric in central and western New York and on the Island of Oesel we find indications from the fossils that the euryp- terids lived amicably to a ripe old age, dying a natural and peaceful death and enjoying a decent and fitting burial in the fine muds of those times. Thus we see again the steady progress in evolution from the early days of barbarism to the later ones of communal altruism. (b) It is impossible to explain the occurrence of one well preserved eurypterid with no other associates, such for instance as E. prominens; for, if the conditions for perfect preservation obtained, then the 196 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA rest of the eurypterid fauna should have been preserved. (c) If we are to consider that a single fragment of a eurypterid when found in marine strata proves that the eurypterid lived in the sea, then, pro- vided no other proof existed to the contrary, insects, land shells, leaves, logs, spiders, scorpions and other land forms which are often floated or blown out to sea and which are found today thousands of miles from land, and have often been met with in the rocks asso- ciated with marine forms would also be considered as inhabitants of the sea. Since the reasoning given on pp. 93-193 has shown that the most significant and important occurrences of the eurypterids point to a fluviatile habitat, then the single special cases should not be cited as proof to the contrary. It is just as if we were to say that, in spite of the many abundant, well preserved floras of the order Fagales known throughout the world in continental beds from the Cretacic to the present, we were forced to conclude that birch and oak trees have always constituted part of the open marine flora, because in some dredging operations today an oak trunk and a number of birch leaves were hauled up one thousand miles from shore. Specific instances of anomalous occurrences have been cited on p. 67, but I shall give one further illustration here to show how little association may mean. The Upper Devonic sandstones of Condroz Belgium with an aggre- gate thickness of 22 m., constitute the sandy phase of the Famennian shales of the lower part of the Upper Devonic. They are of interest because of the mixed marine fauna and terrestrial flora found inter- mingled in them; brachiopods, pelecypods, land forms including ferns, and the fish characteristic of the upper Old Red of Scotland are found associated, and the American genus Dictyospongia also occurs in this sandstone. Since at least part of the fauna is marine, and the flora is terrestrial, the eurypterids might be interpreted either as marine or fresh water forms; but inasmuch as only a few fragments have been found, the more rational interpretation would seem to be that the organisms did not live in the sea. This is further borne out by the fact that as the Upper Devonic beds are traced to the south into Ger- many they become pure marine limestones, in which no eurypterids have been found, but traced to the northwest they merge into the Old Red sandstone of England and Scotland which contains euryp- terids and fresh water fishes. The deposits in Belgium, then, mark the meeting-place of the marine and terrestrial waters as the sea encroached from the south upon the Upper Old Red shore, and for BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 197 this reason it is impossible from a study of the fauna, flora and sedi- ments of that region alone to arrive at any conclusion as to the habi- tat of one group of the organisms whose remains are found there. If, for instance, we had no information from other sources regarding the ecology of the pelecypods, it would not be safe to infer that they were marine organisms because associated with brachiopods, nor would it, on the other hand, be fair to assume that they were terres- trial because ferns were embedded in the same strata. The same may be said for the eurypterids; nothing regarding their habitat can be inferred from their appearance in such beds as these sandstones with a commingled marine and terrestrial assemblage of organic remains. In some cases it is possible to take account of more factors, such as the relative perfection of preservation of the various groups of organisms when one, perhaps, shows evidences of transporation and consequent maceration, or again, the relative scarcity or abundance of species and individuals. In the instance of the sandstones of Condroz, I think that it is justifiable to attach importance to the sparse and fragmentary condition of the eurypterids as compared with the abundance and good condition of the other organic remains, and to conclude that probably the merostomes did not live in the region where their fragments finally came to rest. 2. The truth of the thesis of the above paragraphs being accepted, it must be acknowledged a fortiori that a single fragment or even a complete individual in a stratum in which occur no remains of typical marine organisms, intercalated in strata which do, is not the slightest proof that the eurypterid was an inhabitant of the sea. I may here, as an illustration, give an account of the occurrence of Strabops thacheri, the only known eurypterid from the Upper Cambric or Lower Ordovicic Potosi Limestone of Missouri. In the section near Flat River, St. Francois Co., Missouri, given by Nason, the Potosi formation is represented as-resting disconformably upon the Bonne Terre or St. Joseph limestone of uncertain Cambric age, but probably at least Middle if not Upper Cambric. At the base of the Potosi is an edgewise conglomerate extending upward for about 63 feet and followed by too feet of conglomerates and interbedded slates, the latter carrying several species of trilobites, brachiopods and an occasional Hyolithes primordialis. As was stated on p. 13, Beecher, who identified the fossils collected by Nason and who described the one eurypterid found, did not and perhaps could not state in just which layer Strabops occurred and whether it was found 198 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA directly associated with the marine forms. From a study of the material in the Palaeontological Museum at Columbia University, I have found that the rock in which Strabops occurs is not of the same lithological character as is that in which the other fossils occur. The slab on which the counterpart of Strabops rests is roughly 3 X 9 X 12 inches in dimensions and contains no other organic remains. The limestone containing the trilobites is somewhat finer grained, differing little in color, but being made up of numerous cephala, pygidia and fragments of several genera of trilobites. The difference in faunal character between the two rocks is pronounced. The slab containing Strabops was not collected by the same person nor at the same time as were the other fossils, so that exact data probably will never be obtained. However, the precise association is of slight import. The alternation of limestone conglomerates and shales in the lower Potosi series indicates near-shore conditions of sedimenta- tion, and the occurrence of the single specimen of a eurypterid, far from pointing to a marine habitat for this one individual, militates very strongly against such a mode of life. In all cases the occurrence of a single individual is one of the strong arguments against the assumption that the individual belongs to the fauna of the bed in which it is found. It is far more logical to assume that it has been brought there by some accident, for in Nature we do not find single individuals of any kind of animal in a region far removed from that occupied by other members of its family. Again, the only way to account for this occurrence is to assume that these eurypterids were living in the rivers of that time, and that this individual happened to be carried out into the shallow sea in which the Potosi limestone was being deposited. ‘That the sea was shallow is indicated by the fine stratification of the rock as well as the paucity of the organic remains which are insufficient to have furnished the lime of which | the formation is composed. This limestone like others of its kind seems to have been formed from the calcareous sand and mud carried by surcharged rivers coming from limestone regions into shallow sea- border basins. The merostomes of the Stephen shale of British Columbia are not now recognized as eurypterids, but belong to a distinct order, that of the Limulava Walcott (Clarke and Ruedemann 39, 410). Hence their association with marine organisms may be disregarded. 3. It may not be quite so clear that the occurrence of a fairly large fauna of eurypterids in a bad state of preservation, but associated BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 199 with fossils of marine origin, in no wise indicates that the merostomes were marine. The Siluric fauna of Bohemia is one of the best illus- trations of this class, and I shall consider it in detail. Barrande’s work on the faunas of the Paleozoic rocks of Bohemia has conclusively shown that the trilobites and other crustacea, as well as the eurypterids reached their acme in numbers in the Siluric, constituting the third fauna E. The upper part of this showed a far more prolific development of life than did the lower, as is readily brought out by the following figures. In the Lower Siluric (E e) Barrande records sixteen species of trilobites and ten species of other arthropods among which he includes phyllopods, ostracods, euryp- terids and cirripedes; for the Upper Siluric (E e:) the corresponding figures are 82 and 24, making a total of crustacea (and eurypterids) for the Lower Siluric of 26, for the Upper 106. Furthermore, the crustacea, though represented by so many species were not the domi- nant forms of life, for the Siluric, especially the upper part, marked the period of greatest development of the cephalopods which were represented by 665 species. As I stated in an earlier part of the paper, Barrande does not give horizons of smaller. taxonomic value — than his “‘bands’’ which correspond to the first subdivision of the periods, and it is therefore impossible even to approach the niceties of correlation which can be attained in America; one cannot deter- mine the precise level even within several hundred feet for any par- ticular occurrence. However, there is no reason to doubt that all of the Siluric of Bohemia was marine. Considering the nature of the fauna of that period and the number of species which Barrande was able to describe even so early as 1852, his explanation for the frag- mentary character of the eurypterids, as due to their having been the food of the cephalopods, seems inadequate. If the trilobites were able to live in the same sea with cephalopods and escape unscathed, so that their remains were preserved in wonderful perfection, why should the eurypterids have been so voraciously attacked? It is doubtful if the eurypterids were. of’so different an internal nature from the trilobites that they should have been more palatable, nor were their exoskeletons more fragile. In the Siluric sea 814 species of cephalopods are known to have existed, as compared to 97 species of trilobites. Thus there were eight or nine species of Cephalopods to each species of trilobite, while the number of the individuals of the former vastly exceeded that of the latter. Surely in the great strug- gle for existence which was taking place, the cephalopods, if they fed 200 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA upon crustaceous animals at all, would scarcely have used such nice selection so that the eurypterids alone were consumed, while the trilobites continued to flourish. Of a certainty, some more rational explanation must be sought. This occurrence in Bohemia is one of the rare ones in the Siluric in which the eurypterids are found associated with an abundant and unquestionable marine fauna. Yet the facts, that no complete indi- vidual has been found, that even the fragments are of so uncertain a character that some which at first were supposed to belong to sepa- rate species have with more study been found to belong to the same species, and finally that the eurypterids, of all the myriad organisms which lived in that sea,should have been broken to fragments of which only a few are found—these facts will not admit of explanation on the ground that the eurypterids lived in the sea. They must have lived in some other aqueous realm besides the sea, and one is again led to the conclusion that they must have lived in the rivers. The facts of migration and the relations of the Bohemian forms to those in other parts of the world strongly support this conclusion. (See below chapter V). CHAPTER V THE GEOLOGICAL AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE EURYPTERIDS AND THE CONDITIONS OF MIGRATION SUMMARY OF FACTS OBSERVED REGARDING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE EURYPTERIDS The anomalies in the geographic distribution of the eurypterids constitute one of the most difficult phases of the problem of the habitat. ‘The facts which have been summarized in the tables on pages 37-49, and which have been discussed in various parts of the paper up to this point, clearly lead to the following generalizations: (rt) There are many cases in which single individuals are found sepa- rated geologically and geographically from cther known eurypterids or eurypterid-faunas. (2) The same or closely related species may occur in regions widely separated, although in the same horizon, in intermediate regions, either no eurypterids at all are found or else those which do occur are not related to those in the other localities. (3) Eurypterids are seldom found in the same chronofauna through- out the world, but appear suddenly, now in one place, now in another BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 201 at different horizons, and continuous widespread faunas are entirely wanting. (z) As illustrations of the scattered occurrence of single speci- mens of eurypterids may be mentioned: Strabops thacheri in the Upper Cambric, Echinognathus cleveland: from the Utica, Eurypterus promi- nens from the Clinton, Eurypterus boylet from the Guelph, Eurypterus microphthalmus from the Manlius, and Eurypterus douvillei from the Rothliegende. (2) As an instance of the same species occurring in places many miles apart, Eurypterus remipes may be cited. ‘This species has been found in Waterville, Oneida County, N. Y. in great numbers; at Jerusalem or Wheelock’s Hill, Herkimer County; to the northeast (near Cedarville) and west (Paris Hill) of Jerusalem Hill, near Oriskany; at Cayuga Junction, Cayuga County; and possibly at BuffaJo. In all of these localities it has been found in the uppermost part of the Bertie, but at Seneca Falls, Seneca County, specimens have been found in the Rondout Waterlime (which may be possibly of the same age as the Bertie). There are several cases of closely related species occurring in localities separated often by great dis- tances. One example that may becited is that of Eurypterus lacustris, E. remipes and E. fischeri. For a long time the Baltic form (E. fischerz) was identified with EL. remipes and it was not until Eichwald pointed out the differences in surface sculpturing and certain other charac- teristics, that the species was made distinct. Clarke and Ruedemann conclude their discussion of the comparion of these two species by saying that, “Altogether, the differences are so small that Schmidt’s suggestion that they are but geographical varieties is fully supported” (39, 172). They add, further, that E. remipes and E. lacustris “are more Closely related to each other than either of them to F. fischert, indicating that they had but lately separated. Their differences rest mainly in the shape of the carapace and they are duplicated by those between EL. fischeri and E. laticeps, two forms associated in the same [Baltic] rocks” (39,172). Eurypterus fischeri has been found in Oesel and in Podolia. (3) The data on the distribution have brought out clearly the fact that at no geological horizon is there a widespread or continuous eurypterid fauna indicating passageways of migration. Even in the Upper Siluric, which marks the acme in all respects for the euryp- terids, the fauna does not show that universality which would be expected of denizens of the sea or of organisms whose immediate 202 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA ancestors were marine. The Bertie fauna of North America covers an area of not over 1000 square miles. The corresponding European chronofauna is found in the Baltic Isles and Russian Provinces in sediments similar in lithologic character to those in North America, but the areal extent is small and circumscribed. In the Upper Siluric of Bohemia and of Scotland the eurypterids occur within a very limited area. But in the adjoining undoubted marine formations which lie in the path of migration by marine waters, the eurypterids are want- ing. The graptolite fauna of the Ordovicic is known throughout the world, but the eurypterids are found only in the small area around Catskill, New York. Similarly, eurypterids are found in the Wenlock shales and limestones of Scotland, but not to the south in England, nor in other Niagaran formations at the same horizon throughout the world. The tremendous importance of the geological and geographical distribution of the eurypterids has heretofore been overlooked except by Professor Grabau, who has dwelt upon it in the discussion of the most important occurrences, especially in North America. When the factors of distribution are considered throughout the Palaeozoic and on-every continent, it will be seen that they constitute the gravest objection of all to any marine, lagoon, or estuarine theory of habitat that has been advanced. Again we must turn to a contemplation of the present, for we must believe that the laws which control the universe have always been undeviatingly constant and will always remain so. Our great difficulty in reading Earth history correctly lies in our failure to learn the laws; so much of the past appears to our view not in the form of causes but of results. In the study of the phenomena of the present, we are usually privileged to see both the causes and the effects, and thus the opportunity is offered to ascer- tain the laws, although in many cases our lack of knowledge or our unreadiness, prevents us from taking advantage of this opportunity. Thus we fail to learn and to formulate the laws which are operative in every physical fact and phenomenon, visible or invisible. That man we call a master who has discerned the laws; he alone can inter- pret with truth the marvels of this world and of other worlds; he alone can prophecy, with a reasonable degree of certainty, the things which are to come; and he alone, if he be a geologist, can reconstruct along the lines of truth the former history of ourearth. ‘Therefore, it behooves us to become acquainted with the laws which may be studied today, before we attempt to formulate theories about the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 203 conditions which obtained in the past. If there were oceans during Palaeozoic time in which large accumulations of clastic material were forming, we are drawn to the reasonable conclusion that there were land masses from which this clastic material was derived. We must also conclude, if we view the matter rationally, that there must have been rivers on those ancient continents and that then, as now, they constituted the principal agents of transportation of material into the sea. And finally, we must believe that if there was any life in those rivers, it must have been subject to the same laws of dispersal as is the life in the rivers today. My statement does not say that because we have life in the rivers now there must have been life in the Palaeo- zoic rivers; that is obviously untrue. But if there was life in those rivers, then it was subject to the same laws which are operative now. It is advisable, therefore, to consider these laws and to formulate them that we may have certain definite principles for future reference, MIGRATION AND DISPERSAL OF RECENT FLUVIATILE ORGANISMS Of existing taxonomic groups, the fish have received more study than any other group of fluviatile organisms, and interesting as well as exceedingly pertinent data are at hand in regard to migration and dispersal of this group. Giinther in his Study of Fishes, makes the general statement that: “The Freshwater fishes . . . . have been spread in circumpolar zones, and in but a limited degree from north to south. No family, much less a genus, ranges from the north to the south, whilst a number of families and genera make the entire circuit round the globe within the zone to which they belong. Not even the Cyprinoids and Siluroids, which are most characteristic of the freshwater fauna of our period, are an exception to this. —Temper- ature and climate, indeed, are the principal factors by which the character of the freshwater fauna is determined; they form the barriers which interfere with the unlimited dispersal of the ichthyic type, much more than mountain ranges, deserts, or oceans” (97, 215). A few illustrations of this widespread dispersal of fishes in circum- polar zones will show that the above statement is not merely theo- retical. These illustrations are selected, but taken verbatim from Giinther’s work (97, 209-211). A. SPECIES IDENTICAL IN DISTANT CONTINENTS. 1. A number of species inhabiting Europe and the temperate parts of eastern North America, as Perca fluviatilis, Gastrosteus pungitius, Lota vulgaris, 204 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Salmo salar, Esox lucius, Acipenser sturio, A. maculosus, and several Petromyzonts. 2. Lates calcifer is common in India as wel] as in Queensland. 3. Galaxias attenuatus inhabits Tasmania, New Zealand, the Falkland Islands, and the South American continent. B. GENERA IDENTICAL IN DISTANT CONTINENTS. 1. The genus Umbra, so peculiar a form as to be the type of a distinct family, com- prises two most closely allied species only, one of which is found in the Atlantic States of North America, the other in the river system of the Danube. 2. A very distinct genus of Sturgeons, Scaphirhynchus, consist- ing of two species only; one of these inhabits the fresh waters of Cen- tral Asia, the other the system of the Mississippi. 3. A second most peculiar genus of Sturgeons, Polyodon, consists likewise of two species only, one inhabiting the Mississippi, the other the Yang-tse-Kiang. 4. Amiurus, A siluroid, and Catastomus, a Cyprinoid genus, both well represented in North America, have a single species each, in temperate China. 5. Lepidosiren is represented by one species in tropical America, and by the second in tropical Africa (Protopterus). 6. Galaxias is equally represented in South Australia, New Zea- land and the southern parts of South America. C. Famities IDENTICAL IN DisTANT CONTINENTS. 1. The Laby- rinthici, represented in Africa by 5, and in India by 25 species. 2. The Chromides, represented in Africa by 25, in South America by 80 species. 3. The Characinidae, represented in Africa by 35, and in South America by 226 species. 4. The Haplochitonidae, represented in southern Australia by 1, in New Zealand by 1, and in Patagonia by a third species. The facts regarding the distribution of freshwater fish show that it is not uncommon for identical families, genera and even species to be found living in rivers on opposite sides of the world without any known relatives in the intervening rivers. There seems to be no limit to the distance which freshwater fish may migrate in the same circumpolar zone; while even mountains, deserts, or oceans, do not offer absolute barriers. It is thus easy to see that migrations which would be impossible for marine forms offer no difficulties to freshwater organisms, and localized occurrences which would be inexplicable for BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 205 the former are easily understood for the latter. I do not mean to imply that migration of river forms all around the world can take place always in a single geological period. It is well known that certain related or identical species of fish which today are found in rivers thousands of miles apart have such a distribution because their ancestors in a former geological epoch when relations be- tween land and sea were different had an opportunity to accomplish the migrations, all evidences of which have since been destroyed. In distributions observed today we see the result of migrations which may have taken place ten thousand or ten million years ago. Thus Giinther observes that the present occurrence of the Dipnoz on the continents of Africa, South America and Australia is consequential upon their wide range in the Paleozoic and Mesozoic, while that of the Siluroids, which have an even greater range, is the result of their distribution during the Cenozoic. It may be well to refer here to the theory of the independent origin of specific characters, in widely dispersed organisms, which are, nevertheless, placed under similar or identical physical conditions. This theory has been especially applied to the fishes of South America by Hasemann (110), who has shown how further complications arise through the production of apparently identical though actually unrelated species in response to similar environmental complexes. SUMMARY. Observations upon freshwater fishes have brought out the following facts as to dispersal and migration: 1. Dispersal and migration take place in circumpolar zones the range of migration depending upon: (a) temperature, (b) climate, (c) euryhalinity or stenohalinity of species, genera, etc., (d) vitality of given individuals to withstand sudden changes in temperature, in salinity, or in the amount of available water and food supply. 2. The interlacing of the headwaters of mighty river systems of- tentimes accounts for the occurrence in the lower reaches of rivers hundreds of miles apart of identical or closely similar genera and species. ‘The case of the trout on the North American continent is a familiar illustration. In the interlacing headwaters of both the Co- lumbia and Missouri rivers occurs the cut-throat trout, Salmo clarki. Various species are gradually differentiated away from the headwater region. Thus the nearest relatives of S. clarki are S. virginalis in the basin of Utah, and S. sternias of the Platte River. “‘Next to the latter is Salmo spilurus of the Rio Grande and then Salmo pleuriticus of the Colorado. The latter in turn may be the parent of the Twin 206 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Lakes trout, Salmo macdonaldi. Always the form next away from the parent stock is onward in space across the barrier” (Jordan, 134, 547). Migration from the headwaters of one system to those of an- other only a few miles distant isaccomplished: (a) asa result of river capture, (b) by the accidental transportation of the eggs of fishes, by birds, from one stream to another, (c) by the temporary formation of connecting streams or lakes between two river systems in a period of torrential rains, (d) by the temporary or permanent shifting of the watershed. between two systems by a slight geological change, (e) by actual migration of fishes over areas where there are not con- tinuous waterways. “Some fishes, provided with gill-openings so narrow that the water moistening the gills cannot readily evaporate; and endowed, besides, with an extraordinary degree of vitality, like many Siluroids (Clarias, Callichthys), eels, etc., are enabled to wander for some distance over land, and may thus reach a watercourse lead- ing them thousands of miles from their original home” (Giinther, 97, 212). 3. A shallow body of salt water between two continents may, by a very slight negative eustatic movement, be drawn off and a dry land connection will be afforded which will enable easy migration for freshwater fishes from one continent to the other. A subsequent positive eustatic movement would conceal the route of migration and one would have to deal with some apparently inexplicable occurrences of identical species. 4. “From the great number of freshwater forms which we see at this present day acclimatised in, gradually acclimatising themselves in, or periodically or sporadically migrating into, the sea, we must conclude that, under certain circumstances, salt water may cease to be an impassable barrier at some period of the existence of freshwater species, and that many of them have passed from one river through salt water into another” (Giinther, 97, 211). These facts which have been found out in connection with the distribution of freshwater fish of the present are essentially true for those inhabiting the rivers of all earlier continents. They may, fur- thermore, be considered as equally true for the eurypterids who were highly organized gill-breathers and many of whom were powerful swimmers. While they lacked one of the modes of transportation from the headwaters of one river system to those of another in not having the possibility of accidental portage by birds they had, on the other hand, a far more important means, for they had walking legs, BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 207 and it is possible that they might have been able to withstand exposure to the air for several hours. In passing from one stream to another their locomotion would be fairly rapid and their migration in this manner might not have been infrequent. APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES DEDUCED FROM MODERN FAUNAL DISTRIBUTION? By the discriminating use of the laws which have been observed to be potent in directing the migration of fishes and other organisms living in the rivers at present, and without making any unwarranted assumptions, it seems safe to postulate the following expectabilities in regard to the geological and geographical distribution which we should be able to find among the eurypterids, providing they lived in the rivers. t. Unless, as some have supposed, but which is very improbable, there were no climatic zones in the Palaeozoic, and conditions of tem- perature were equable over the whole globe, related or identical spe- cies of eurypterids should be found in deposits geographically situ- ated in a circumpolar zone, not necessarily the same as the climatic zones of the present. 2. Eurypterid remains should be expected to occur in deposits of limited areal extent marking lake sediments, flood plain deposits, or littoral deposits in the sea at or near the mouths of rivers. 3. Eurypterids which inhabited the streams of one river system would be more closely related than those living in the tributaries of different and entirely distinct systems, and in general this would mean that forms which lived in the rivers of one continent in any period, would constitute a group of related genera and species, while those living in the rivers of another continent would constitute a distinct © group, the individuals of which would be related; and if the different continents should remain unconnected for a long time, geologically, distribution and evolution would continue on each land mass, but we would not expect any of the individuals from one continent to migrate to another, so that succeeding faunas should not show interconti- nental affinities, though phylogenetic relations should be discernable on each continent. It must be remembered, however, that remains of faunas from both continents might be carried into basins which received the simultaneous drainage of rivers from each. ; 2The importance of distinguishing between dispersal, the passive and m/gration, the active distribution of organisms has been insisted upon by Grabau (Principles, p. 1041). 208 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA 4. In deposits which, from the study of their lithogenesis can be shown to have come from the same Palaeozoic continents, should be found remains of eurypterids in circumscribed areas as stated in “‘2” above, and the genera and species, while not necessarily having any near relatives in adjoining deposits, may be identical with forms whose remains are found in a formation perhaps two or three thousand miles distant, but on the same ancient continent. Such relationships are to be accounted for by migration from a common source where the head- waters of two or more river systems interlace (see p. 205 above). 5. The distribution of eurypterids would not have had any neces- sary connection with those organisms living in marine chronofaunas, and consequently, except when eurypterid-bearing deposits merge into thalassigenous ones, or when fragments or stray eurypterids have been washed out to sea, when intercalation between marine deposits” would give the age, eurypterids would not serve as good index fossils. 6. Eurypterids would not suffer rapid changes in evolution, since it is a well known fact, that fluviatile types are often persistent for a long period of time. Thus the cray-fish Cambarus primaevus Packard of the Green River beds (Eocenic) of Wyoming, is a near relative of the modern C. affinis of the same region, a similarity due no doubt to the persistence of the type in essentially the same river basin during the interval. Zoologists and palaeontologists who have made detailed studies of the distribution of modern freshwater faunas are thoroughly agreed that accurate results are not to be obtained merely from observations on present distribution. It is an absolute necessity to study the fos- sil faunas and especially the paleogeography. ‘The reason for this will be evident after a very little thought. If in the Lower Cretacic when there existed the Nearctic continent, comprising most of North America, and continuing across the North Atlantic through Green- land and western Europe, and including the Scandinavian mass, a family of some fluviatile organisms had arisen in the central Canadian area, quickly spreading from one river system to another and finally reaching Europe, we would find in the rocks of that period, that many of the genera on the two modern continents were the same, and that there would be quite a goodly number of identical species. The de- scendants of these Lower Cretacic organisms would develop on the two continents, (i.e., the two sides of this old nearctic land mass), and the species in the lower reaches of the rivers would diverge in their characters more and more from the parent stock. Those forms . BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 209 which came under the same environmental conditions might, and ex- perience shows that they would develop along parallel lines, appear- ing in later geological times as similar or even what might be called identical species. In the course of centuries emigrants from an earlier home centre of distribution would pass from the headwaters of one stream to those of another, and soon these forms which had been pass- ing through their individual modifications under one set of environ- mental factors would migrate down the rivers and mingle with those forms which had in an earlier period sought the lower reaches of the rivers where a different complex of environmental factors obtained, and there the old immigrants and the new, would come to live in the same waters. A single family, in this way, would give rise to a cer- tain number of primitive genera, some of which would migrate far from the original centre of distribution. The descendants of these early im- migrants might, after a long time and after having suffered profound morphological changes, return to mingle with the descendants of the provincial forms which had never left the ancestral region. Now let us think of such inter-changes going on across the Nearctic continent all through the Tertiary until at the close Europe was separated from North America by an advance of the sea. At once we have two sepa- rate continents and two river faunas. Were one to try to account for the distribution of the fluviatile forms now living in the rivers by a study of the present geography, one would be in despair to account for the similarity or seeming identity of many species on opposite sides of the dividing waters. Evidently the only mode of attack is by the study of successively earlier and earlier fossil faunas and by the slow reconstruction of the palaeogeography for each of those periods. One need not search far to find the application of these hypothetical statements to the eurypterids. If they were river-living organisms then it is clearly impossible to explain their distribution in any par- ticular period without considering their distribution in each immedi- ately preceding period. No one has ever done this because each writer tried to account for eurypterid occurrences on a hypothesis of marine distribution. The results of migration are very different for marine organisms, because of the fundamental difference between the continuity of the seas and the discontinuity of the lands. Marine faunas, especially the vagrant benthos of the littoral zone and the pelagic ones, tend to be widespread, for they have greater freedom in the size of life dis- tricts available, and in the lesser competition, as compared with the 210 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA lineal extent of rivers and the great struggle for existence, particularly between crustaceous animals. For instance, Ortmann has pointed out that freshwater crayfishes existed in Southeastern Asia, the Ma- laysian Islands, India, and Madagascar in the Middle Cretacic. In the Upper Cretacic the freshwater crabs (which are geologically younger than the crayfishes) arrived (or originated) in Lemuria and “extended into Southern Asia and the Malaysian Archipelago, everywhete exterminating the crayfishes, namely, in India, South- eastern Asia (Farther India and China) and on the islands. They not only acted as a check to the distribution of the crayfishes, but directly annihilated them” (Ortmann 201, 391). As a result, no crayfishes are today found in the rivers of central and south Asia or on the Malaysian Islands. We have previously seen that in river faunas the number of indi- viduals is large but the number of genera and species is small, while in marine faunas genera, species, and individuals are abundant. The factor, then, of relative numbers of taxonomic groups would favor marine organisms in widespread migrations. Pelagic and vagrant benthonic organisms, living in the sea, have on the whole rather fa- vorable conditions for migration. With river forms the factors of dis- tribution are more accidental and much depends upon the individual. In the region of interlacing headwaters, streams of different systems are temporarily connected at times of flood and perhaps only two or three individuals of a certain species will change from one system to another, and then, when the connection is broken, the distribution of that species depends entirely upon the ability of the individual to contend with all of the new factors in the environment, and it is pure survival of the fittest which brings about the distribution of that species. In the sea, on the other hand, whole groups migrate or are carried by currents, and the chances are good that a largenumber or at least enough for populating a new region will survive, whatever vicissitudes befall. Thus, to sum up, distribution of river forms over broad areas is more precarious and fortuitious than is the case with marine organisms. When we apply such considerations to fossil faunas, to a class of organisms wholly extinct, where we have no facts of modern distri- bution to help us, no facts of present habitat to point past modes of life, we can see that the criteria which we apply to such fossil faunas in the determination of relationships and migrations must be quite different from the ones applied to marine fossil faunas. We can now BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 2I1 understand that a fauna may be made up of individuals which show a fairly close relationship with faunas in neighboring areas, but may contain one species which is identical or nearly so with a species in a fauna three thousand miles distant. If these were marine fossils we could not understand such a thing, because marine faunas show whole groups of species in one region related to groups in another, and con- temporaneous marine deposits in the path of migration show similar related groups. But the routes of migration for river forms would almost never be shown to us in the rocks, because rivers in their up- per and middle portions degrade and would continually be carrying away the traces of their history which would be recorded only in del- tas or flood plains. Thus, contemporaneous and related fluviatile faunas would appear geographically at the outer ends of the spokes of a great wheel which has its hub at the centre of dispersal. The remains of synchronous faunas would of necessity appear scattered over the face of the earth, without any apparent connection; a fact which would be inexplicable if the faunas were interpreted as marine. The only way to solve the problem of the distribution of those forms would be through a study of the paleogeography of the period in which they occurred and of all preceding periods in so far as was possible. When stratigraphers come fully to appreciate the value of conti- nental deposits and faunas, they will have taken a big step toward the unravelling of the paleogeography of our earth. No one would attempt to restore the conditions of land and sea in the Tertiary with- out making use of the migrations of mammals and other terrestrial organisms, for it is evident that while a study of marine faunas will show the position of the oceans and epicontinental seas in any period, the exact configurations of the continents, the exact location of land barriers and connections can only be determined by the migrations of the animals and plants living on the land or in the rivers. This applies with as great truth to the Palaeozoic as to the Tertiary, and while the aid of plants cannot there be invoked until the end of the period, I hope to show before concluding this paper that the euryp- terids will be of vast service in helping to locate Palaeozoic rivers and routes of migration from one continent to another. 212 ; THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA MIGRATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE EURYPTERIDS THEORY OF EARLY MarInE HABITAT AND ROUTES OF MIGRATION. As I stated above, the anomalies in the distribution of the eurypterids have not usually been given much consideration, though they are of the utmost importance. There is a current opinion that has some- how been formed about the bionomy of the eurypterid faunas and no one thinksof challenging it. When a eurypterid fauna has been found in a place where a marine fauna was not expected, it has had to be made to fit in with the preconceived opinion about the bionomic facies in which eurypterids are supposed to occur. It has been spoken of as a “most unusual occurrence;” ‘‘one which is most interesting because found in beds formerly supposed to be devoid of marine fossils,’’ and so on. Again we read of the clear evidence of a marine passage be- tween the Buffalo region and the Baltic area, becausé two almost identical species of eurypterids are found in these localitiés. Forma- tions are declared to be marine because they contain eurypterids, and eurypterids are held to be marine, because they occur in formations considered on a priori grounds to be marine. Every writer seems to feel it necessary to fit the eurypterids into a marine or estuarine habi- tat; where the facts refuse to fall into line, they are cited as ineresting because they fail to, or else they are consciously suppressed or care- lessly overlooked. The prevailing opinion as to the bionomy of the successive eurypterid faunas is as follows: Until well on in the Siluric the eurypterids were purely marine forms living in the seas and, in- ferentially, associated withthe marine organisms therein. Toward the middle of the Siluric, the eurypterids all over the world left the seas and migrated into the various brackish water bodies then existing, seeking the mouths of rivers, the bays, lagoons and interior cut-off arms of the sea. From that time until the end of the Palaeozoic, they are supposed to have sought water of ever-decreasing salinity until they became entirely freshwater denizens. Their geographical distribution is accounted for by an assumed migration from one es- tuary or lagoon to another along the shores of various Palaeozoic continents. OBJECTIONS TO MARINE HABITAT THEORY. If this succession of events is the correct one, then the following question arises in con- nection with the distribution: If the eurypterids lived in pools or in marginal lagoons on the seashore, in estuaries, bays or cut-offs how did they get there to begin with? BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 213 The question is generally answered by the statement that the eu- rypterids originally lived in the sea and then migrated to the various marginal water bodies and estuaries where they and a few peculiar crustaceans constituted a brackish water fauna. I have already shown (p. 70) that a “brackish water” fauna consists of modified marine and freshwater euryhaline organisms with a preponderance of marine types, and that the latter show particular characteristics such as dwarfing and thinning of the shell, but that such a fauna has representatives of nearly all invertebrate phyla and is not made up of a single class of organisms. But let'us assume for the sake of ar- gument that the eurypterids and a few other arthropods did form a brackish water fauna; then another assumption is necessary, for, if a class of organisms as a whole, such as the eurypterids, should in any given geological period migrate from the sea to estuaries or other brackish water bodies and at the same time should no longer be able to live in the sea, and should not, on the other hand, become adapted to river water, then the remains of such a class of organisms should be restricted to the geological period in which the migration took place, for the class could not persist unless the estuaries persisted from period to period in the same locality (see objection to this on . p. 215 below). But since the class is known to have persisted from period to per- iod, as indicated by the occurrences of their remains in the rocks, we are forced to conclude, on the assumption that the organisms mi- grated from the sea to the estuaries, that there wasa persistent marine stock to repeople each successive estuary. But, if that were true, then eurypterid remains of the same or allied species should be found entombed with the marine organisms of the period in the marine equiv- alents of the estuarine or other brackish water deposits, and the euryp- terids should have constituted a part of the typical marine fauna. But it has been shown again and again that in the contemporaneous marine deposits with typical and undoubted marine faunas, no euryp- terids are found, as, for instance, in the marine Wenlock of England, or the marine limestones of the Famennian of Germany. If there is no indication of such a persistent marine stock, then there must have been a persistent stock in the rivers to repeople the estuaries in the successive geologic periods. These arguments may be applied spe- cifically to the Siluric and Devonic of North America. During the Lower Siluric (Niagaran), the eurypterids are supposed to have lived in the sea. During the remainder of the Siluric they are assumed to 214 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA have lived in or along the shore of a shallow, epicontinental sea hav- ing a connection with the Atlantic or other waters to the east. In this restricted sea terrigenous deposits were formed, well represented by the Shawangunk delta. In the pools along shore, where, on ac- count of the more sheltered conditions, only muds were accumulat- ing, the young eurypterids lived. The larve were hatched in these pools and the early stages in the ontogeny were passed through, then the mature individuals sought the deeper littoral waters. Thus do Clarke and Ruedemann explain the presence of the abundant fauna composed almost entirely of young individuals in the Shawangunk shales at Otisville, New York, and, during the same period, the closely related but mature individuals in the Pittsford shales at Pittsford, New York. A comparison, species by species of the forms from the Pittsford and Shawangunk will be given below (p. 225), and it will be seen to show that the two faunas are very closely related, indeed, almost iden- tical except in the size of their individuals, and in the presence, in the Pittsford, of a species of Eurypterus related to a Bertie form to be considered presently. Such similarity might, if taken alone, seem to substantiate the “lagoon” theory. But it is usually impossible to draw very accurate or very far-reaching conclusions from the consideration of faunas or of deposits in a single circum- scribed area or at a single horizon; one must take into account the palzeogeographic conditions in neighboring regions and finally through- out the whole continent if not, indeed, the whole world, and one must consider the source of supply of sediments, the possibilities of migra- tions of faunas and the absolute necessity of a fauna to have a medium in which it can live from one period to another, unless we wish to re- vert to the belief in special creations. Thus, bearing these things in mind, we must account for the origin of the sediments of the Pittsford and Shawangunk and of the succeeding formations, the various water- limes, which contain eurypterids. It has been demonstrated on pp. toc—6. that the conglomerates and shales of the Shawargunk and the shales of the Pittsford must have come from Appalachia, carried northwards by various rivers. Now, assuming for the sake of argument that the succession of events during Salina time was that outlined above (p. 212) then the following conditions are implied: (1) The Pittsford and Shawangunk faunas must have constituted the ancestral stock for the Bertie fauna of Erie and Herkimer counties. (2) Throughout the long period from BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 215 Pittsford to Bertie time, one or several rivers must have occupied ap- proximately the same position, so that the Pittsford and Shawangunk faunas could escape into the estuaries when the Salina sea became too salt, and could remain there in the brackish water part of the estuary until Bertie time, when they appeared in two localities, at Bufialo, 75 miles west of Pittsford, and around Herkimer, 130 miles east of Pittsford. ‘Taking up the first condition, we are confronted with a grave difficulty if we try to think of the Pittsford and Shawangunk fauna remaining in the Salina “‘lagoon”’ or at the mouths of estuaries flowing into that inland body of water during Vernon, Syracuse, and Camillus time, for it is evident that we must consider the Pittsferd- Shawangunk eurypterids as the ancestors of those found in the Bertie, if we believe in this estuarine theory. In the succeeding pages, where I shall consider every species of eurypterid as an entity and as a mem- ber of a faunule, unless it be an isolated form, and where I shall take up the possible modes and routes of migration of species and of fau- nas, I shall show that the Pittsford-Shawangunk eurypterids were not the ancestors of the Bertie forms, and therefore the first condition which I mentioned at the beginning of this paragraph as a logical de- duction from the “‘lagoon-estuary”’ theory is impossible, in which case it would appear that the Bertie eurypterids had no ancestors. Let us suppose, however, for the sake of argument, that the Pittsford-Sha- wangunk fauna did constitute the ancestral stock for the Bertie fauna and that in the dry and at times uncomfortably saline conditions of Salina time the eurypterids left their lagoon and went into the estua- ries and even part way up the rivers, seeking proper salinity of water; then we should look for estuarine deposits of mud or perhaps coarser clastics in the Salina of central and western New York, and for the re- mains of marine organisms which are characteristic of such deposits. (For criteria of estuarine deposits see p. 77 above.) But we search in vain for estuarine, or delta, or flood-plain deposits in that region. Following upon the Pittsford are the Vernon barren red shales with their evidences of subaérial deposition with thorough oxidation (Grabau, 84, 86a, 87), and then the Syracuse salt deposits. All of this has been discussed before, and the evidence is clear that there existed no estuaries in the area under question in which the early Siluric eurypterids might have sought refuge. Thus, descendants of early Salina ‘‘lagoon” species had no place of retreat during later Sa- lina time, and must have perished of drought, and we see that the Bertie eurypterids were doubly deprived of ancestors if they had to depend upon the Pittsford-Shawangunk fauna. 216 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA THEORY OF River Hasitat. To pursue this marine-lagoon the- ory to its logical conclusions in every case would use up many pages of print and would always lead to absurdities, impossibilities or con- tradictions. Therefore, without dwelling longer on the perplexities and inconsistencies attendant upon this theory, I shall pass at once to the development and exposition of the theory of river habitat. Throughout the Paleozoic there were in existence in the northem part of the western hemisphere three continents which, though vary- ing much in size from period to period, often becoming confluent and at times even being largely covered by the epicontinental sea, never- theless preserved a marked degree of integrity. These three conti- nents were (1) Appalachia, which occupied what is now the eastern border of North America, and constituted the northward projection of the land mass now known as South America, and which supplied the greater part of the clastic materials deposited in eastern North America throughout the Paleozoic; (2) Rockymontana, which lay for the greater part of its length on the present continental mass extend- ing from Mexico to Alaska, a paleeocordilleran chain, from which clas- tic sediments were derived which were deposited on the western bor- der of North America and along the continental shelf; (3) Adlantica, the great northern North American and northwestern European con- tinent one portion of which, the Canadian shield, was formerly sup- posed to have been the source of nearly all of the Paleozoic clastic deposits over what is now the United States. Throughout the Paleozoic this Canadian area was usually connected with the Scot- tish and Scandinavian masses by a broad strip of land extending across the North Atlantic (see map, fig. 8). There was a fourth and smaller continent, Mississippia, occupying the area of the Missis- sippi valley, which at times was entirely covered by the sea, and again formed a part of Rockymontana. Each of these continents had its own river systems, the organisms living therein being subject to the laws of migration and dispersal which are seen to be operative now. Furthermore, the fluviatile fauna of each continent would be dis- _ tinct asa rule. If, however, migration in circumpolar belts occurred and fluviatile organisms from one continent passed to another, these migrant forms would yet show their closest affinity not to species liv- ing in the rivers of the continent to which they were immigrant, but to those in the rivers of the continent from which they emigrated. In any given period faunas which can be shown to have come from rivers on the same continent should be more closely related than faunas BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES : 217 coming from rivers of different continents, but there may be single cases of a family, a genus, or even a species which occurs in sediments from one land mass, which is nearly related to or identical with one in sediments coming from another land mass. In such a case, to de- termine true relationships one must compare the whole of each fauna, species by species, and must in addition study the ancestors of each fauna and of each species in the preceding periods wherever possible. THE EURYPTERID FAUNAS CONSIDERED BY CONTINENTS THE EURYPTERID FAUNAS OF APPALACHIA. Let us turn now to the placing of the various pre-Siluric eurypterids. Strabops thacheri from the Cambric is too primitive and morphologically undifferentiated to be looked upon as more than an ancestral form approaching the pro- totype and from which several branches of the eurypterid tree di- verged. The first prolific eurypterid fauna in North America, the first to offer sufficient material and a large enough representation in genera and species to make it possible to state what are the general affinities of the fauna as a whole, is the newly discovered one in the Normanskill shales at Catskill, New York, which has so far been found to contain six species, included in five genera, but undoubtedly many more will be discovered as the material is worked over. On account of the fragmentary nature of the abdomina found, and because the carapaces are usually dissociated from the rest of the body, generic determinations have been provisional and comparisons with related species difficult. Yet the fauna shows a pronounced and altogether surprising similarity to that of the Schenectady beds (Trenton) de- spite the difference in-age. In the case of Pterygotus? (Eusarcus) nasutus, Clarke and Ruedemann “have been unable to distinguish the Schenectady and Normanskill types,’”’ (39, 412); and have re- ferred a number of carapaces from the Normanskill beds to P. nasu- tus, a species described originally from material from the Schenectady shales. Eusarcus linguatus from the Normanskill is very similar to Pterygotus? (Eusarcus) nasutus?2 Eurypterus chadwicki, Dolichop- terus breviceps, and Stylonurus modestus are not well enough repre- sented for relational comparisons to be made,so far as species are con- cerned. The finding of several Stylonurus carapaces, attached ab- 2 Clarke and Ruedemann point out this similarity, but claim also that Z. lingwatus “strongly suggests the Eusarcus vaningeni” from the Salina, in position of eyes and shape of carapace (39 , 414). Aclose examination of their descriptions and of all the figures they give does not reveal any marked similarity. 218 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA domina, and one with a portion of a leg, so early in the Ordovicic in muds derived from Appalachia is most suggestive. In the succeed- ing Schenectady beds in the same general region, in muds also washed down from Appalachia, occur a number of specimens which, in the shape of the carapace, position of the eyes, etc., suggest their generic reference to Stylonurus and have been described by Clarke and Ruede- mann as S.? limbatus. They have furthermore found a number of body segments ‘‘ which have the form and ornamentation of the Otis- ville species Stylonurus myops” (39, 296). Although it is a little out of chronological order to bring in the Utica species before taking up the Schenectady fauna, this, nevertheless, is the logical place for its discussion. Echinognathus clevelandi was described from a single endognathite which has shown two diagnostic characteristics, namely. an extreme spinosity, and a peculiar and distinctive type of surface sculpture. Clarke and Ruedemann state that this species “was either closely related to Stylonurus or had a convergent development to that genus as far as the two characters mentioned are concerned” (39, 322). It may quite properly be asked why it is that if the single endognathite known, shows only two diagnostic characteristics, and these two are recognized as definitive of Stylonurus, the species does not belong to that genus, or at least is it not more than likely, if more specimens are discovered, showing other parts of the body, they will be found to represent Stylonurus? It seems to the author that the geographical and geological position of E. clevelandi alone would suggest the greater possibility of the form being a Stylonurus. To be sure, this is somewhat speculative, but it is a suggestion for future work and consideration; it is sufficient that the Utica species is at least closely related to the genus Stylonurus which was found at earlier periods and also in the Siluric and Devonic, always in de- posits derived from Appalachia. This statement includes the Utica beds just mentioned, for it is now recognized that, as Professor Gra- bau first pointed out, the muds were carried down from Appalachia and were merely the eastern near-shore facies which replaced that of the Trenton limestone facies (Grabau, 84, 231-232). Passing on to the next time in the history of North America when the genus Sty- lonurus is known to occur, we find S. (Ctenopterus) multispinosus in the Pittsford and two well defined species of this genus, as well as many fragments specifically indescribable though evidently distinct in the Shawangunk, both of which formations have been interpreted on stratigraphic grounds and on a comparison of the two faunas iter BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 219 se, but not for any phyletic reasons, as derivatives from Appalachia, the Pittsford constituting the upper part of the Shawangunk (see p. tor above). The problematic form from the Portage sandstone re- ferred to S.? wrightianus is too incomplete to be of much value. It probably belongs to Stylonurus; it certainly occurs in an otherwise unfossiliferous deposit which has been interpreted by Grabau as partly of river floodplain and partly of wind-blown perhaps loess-like origin (87, 553, 569). Finally, the Upper Devonic yields two species of Stylonurus: one, S. beecheri described from a single individual, none too complete, from the Chemung sandstones of Warren, Penn- sylvania; the other S. (Ctenopterus) excelsior from two specimens from the Catskill beds of New York and Pennsylvania. This latter species is related in many respects to S. (Cienopterus) cestrotus from the Sha- wangunk, both belonging to the same sub-genus. The Catskill is a continental deposit whose material as shown first by Grabau (86) and later by Barrell was derived from Appalachia. The specimens of 5S. excelsior were beyond a doubt washed out into the Chemung sea, since all of the species of Stylonurus so far known from North America came from Appalachia, as has just been demonstrated. Having now followed the history of this one genus from Ordovicic through Devonic time and found that it always lived in the rivers of Appalachia, let us return to the genus Dolichopterus in the Normans- kill beds, and trace its subsequent occurrences. As in the case of Stylonurus, the specific relations of the Normanskill form cannot be determined, for only a single small carapace is known, but the point of especial interest is the occurrence thus early of a Dolichopterus. This genus is represented by two species certainly, and one doubt- fully, in the succeeding Schenectady beds. Two specimens described under the new species of D. /atifrons by Clarke and Ruedemann agree “closely with D. otisius” from the Shawangunk in the posterior con- traction of the carapace (39, 270). The carapaces and metastomes of D. frankfortensis (Schenectady) do not seem to show close relationship to other species of the genus, though one metastoma “has been found which recalls that of D. macrochirus” from the Bertie (39, 269). A few fragments having certain Dolichopterus and certain Eurypterus characteristics have been referred to E.? (Dolichopterus?) stellatus, but they are of no value in the present discussion. ‘Thus it is seen that in the meagre, unsatisfactory material from the Normanskill representative of Dolichopterus, one species shows affinities to a Shawangunk form, and one specimen of a second species recalls char- 220 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA acteristics of a Bertie species. The evidence is frail, and yet it might seem a little disconcerting to have an individual which came from Appalachia, as we think, showing relationship to one coming from Atlantica, but I shall have a suggestion to make when I come to the Bertie that will do away with even this slight difficulty, which is, after all, entirely negligible, since the only specimen showing relation to a Bertie form is a single metastoma which bears only a suggestion of similarity. Continuing in chronological sequence, the next forma- tion in which a Dolichopterus occurs is the Shawangunk grit where there are two species D. otisius with a large representation of carapaces none of which retain more than two body segments, and D. stylonu- roides of which three carapacesand one more complete individual have been found. The former species has certain characters in common with D.macrochirus (Bertie), the young of both being even more alike than the adults. If the two species are phylogenetically related, then the adult D. macrochirus has kept the ancestral characteristic of a broad frontal lobe on the carapace, for this is found in the young of both species and retained throughout the ontogeny of the Bertie form, while D. ofisius in the adult shows a development of this lobe into an angular extension. In this one characteristic, then, D. mac- rochirus would show retardation. ‘The second species in the Sha- wangunk is rare and shows no close relationship to any known species. In considering both the Schenectady and Shawangunk faunas, we have seen that there was a species of Dolichopterus in the latter and a single specimen in the former which showed a more or less close relationship to certain species of the same genus in the Bertie. From purely stratigraphic reasoning it is known that specimens of the first two formations were derived from Appalachia, while those of the Ber- tie came from Atlantica. ‘The question might be raised whether the stratigraphic facts do not conflict with my biological theories, for I have been trying to show that eurypterids found in sediments which were transported by rivers on the same continent should show genetic relationship and should for the most part be distinct from those which lived in rivers on different continents; but the species of Dolichopterus do not seem to conform to this law. In the case of this particular genus with its distribution in time, there would be no apparent physi- cal objection to the accounting for its affinities on the very simple as- sumption that the Cambric or earlier generic ancestors lived in rivers either on Appalachia or on Atlantica and that during one of the peri- ods when these continents were connected by a strip of land the eu- BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 221 rypterids were widely dispersed on both continents; the later consan- guinity is thus easily understood. But I think that such an assump- tion is unnecessary and my reason will be readily apparent when we consider the Bertie species of Dolichopterus, D. macrochirus, D. tes- tudineus and D. siluriceps. The relationship of the first to a species in the Shawangunk has just been discussed. Concerning the second, Clarke and Ruedemann remark: “This species, as represented by the single carapace, is quite similar to D. otisius. It differs from the lat- ter mainly by the greater extension of the frontal portion and by the more pronounced posterior contraction of the carapace. The frontal transverse ridge or fold observed in the species is also seen in D. otisius”’ (39, 275). If the two species were genetically related, this more pronounced extension of the frontal portion of the carapace would be predicable in the Bertie species, for according to the laws of recapitulation and tachygenesis a morphological character found in the adult of any species will appear at an earlier and earlier stage in the ontogenetic development of its descendants, and since the appar- ently orthogenetic tendency in the Shawangunk species D. otisius showed a progressive modification from rounded to angular and ex- tended frontal margin, the late Bertie species D. testudineus should show a more protruding frontal rim than is found in the adult D. otisius. The third Bertie species is D. siluriceps of which a single poorly preserved carapace is known, and which cannot be compared to any other species save a small form from the Shawangunk. The genus Dolichopterus is not known from any other country, nor has it been found in beds of later age than the Bertie. Even the three spe- cies in the Bertie are so poorly represented that one wonders what happened to the fauna. Of the genotype, D. macrochirus, four in- complete though excellently preserved specimens are extant; of each of the other two species there is a single carapace. If these euryp- terids lived in the Bertie ‘‘pools’”’ of authors, it is inconceivable that not more individuals (or exoskeletons) should have been preserved; if they lived in the rivers coming from Atlantica, this scarcity is ac- counted for. But the study of the phylogeny of this genus leads me to think that Dolichopterus was confined to the rivers of Appalachia throughout its whole racial history. (Its occurrence in so fragmen- tary a condition in the Bertie suggests that the few remains were transported from the debouchure of some river of Appalachia and carried into the Bertie muds). There is as yet too little evidence, too many pages in the history are still unread, for a reasonably defi- 222 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA nite conclusion to be drawn, but I think that such a geographical de- velopment and confinement more satisfactorily accounts for the facts which are known than any others. We are not obliged to believe that Dolichopterus always lived in the rivers of Appalachia; the facts of distribution and relationship could be accounted for otherwise; but this belief requires fewer special conditions than the assumption of very early dispersal by rivers on the two continents, while a marine habitat is entirely out of the question. One of the strongest reasons for my conclusion that Dolichopterus was restricted to Appalachia lies in the evidence offered by the origin of the sediments. In the study of any problem if the lithogenesis of the formations concerned points overwhelmingly to one and only one history for those forma- tions, then slight palaeontological incongruities should not be ac- cepted as vitiating the history pointed by the facts of lithogenesis; the apparent incongruities can generally be turned into confirmatory bits of evidence if a broad enough knowledge and a scientifically guided imagination can be brought into play. Thus, when the nature of the outcrops, the lithological characteristics of the rocks, and, most important of all, the consideration of possible sources of supply for material, all point to the continent of Appalachia as the region whence the Normanskill, Schenectady, and Shawangunk deposits must have come, while these same considerations point just as conclusively to Atlantica for the Bertie deposits, then, if a fragment of a eurypterid in the Schenectady shales shows a faint similarity to a form in the Bertie, and if half a dozen specimens in the Bertie waterlime bear a slight or even pronounced resemblance to species in the Shawangunk, we must attempt to visualize the conditions obtaining on the North American continent during the early Palaeozoic and we must seek the most rational explanation, the one most in accord with our knowl- edge of the laws operating at present, to account for these seeming anomalies. And we should never forget that the geological record has revealed but a few specimens of most species of eurypterids, and that sometimes even a genus is described from a single individual, and that when a writer describes a new species he compares it with the ones already known, drawing analogies where he can; but species which may seem to be very much alike when one has, say, a single member, a carapace, or a claw, of each to compare, might, if a large quantity of perfect material were available, be discovered to be so different that kinship would be found to be entirely lacking where formerly it had been confidently pointed out. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 223 From the great mass of detail which it has been necessary to give, we are at length able to reach two conclusions: (1) Stylonurus from its earliest appearance in the Normanskill beds (Black River or Basal Trenton) to its last appearance in the Chemung was an inhabitant of the rivers of Appalachia; (2) Dolichopterus also first known in the Normanskill, but so far not known from beds later than the Bertie, is most rationally to be considered as restricted in its habitat to the rivers of Appalachia, although the paucity and the condition of the specimens make this conclusion not absolutely certain. This much being determined, we may consider the remaining fau- nas which have been found in sediments which from other lines of reasoning are recognized as coming from Appalachia. In the Sche- nectady shales eleven species are recorded, of which four have already been discussed. Of the remaining seven, Eurypterus ruedemanni and _ E. pristinus are represented each by a single carapace neither of which is of use in comparisons, and the same may be said of the doubtfully determined form Euscarcus (2) longiceps of which a few incomplete carapaces are known. Nine carapaces of Fusarcus triangulatus have been found, and these Clarke and Ruedemann state “have in common the broad, short, subtriangular form; and the forward posi- tion of the marginal lateral eyes bears a close resemblance to the cara- pace of E. scorpionis from the Bertie waterlime”’ (39, 258). Yet the figures, measurements and descriptions of these two species given by the above mentioned authors do not bear out this “close resemblance.”’ In reference to E. triangulatus they say that the carapace is “twice as broad as long (length of type, 20 mm., width 43 mm.)”’ and of E. scorpionis they say that the carapace is about ‘“‘as broad as long”’ (p. 234), while in the measurements which they give of this species the length is to the width (in millimeters) as 18:22, 60:66, and 56: 59, respectively. For comparison I give outline drawings of the restoration of the carapace of E. scorpions and of the actual carapace of the type of E. triangulatus (Figs. 19a and b). One of the common- est species in the Schenectady shales is Hughmilleria magna, known from a number of carapaces, some abdomina, and a half complete in- dividual. ‘This exhibits a form of the preabdomen corresponding to H. socialis,” but the swimming leg is “relatively longer than that of H. socialis” (Pittsford) (39, 342). Several detached body rings have been found regarding which.Clarke and Ruedemann say: they “ex- hibit a type of ornamentation, consisting of transverse lines near the anterior margin, known to us only in H. shawangunk, the Otisville 224 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA representative of the genus” (p. 342). Thus the nearest affinities of this Schenectady species are to forms from the Pittsford and Shawan- gunk, which it has been suggested might themselves be merely growth stages and not “‘species.”’ Only comparatively young (for the most part nepionic or neanic) individuals are known from the Shawan- gunk, but it is significant that many of these are almost identical in a b Fic. 19A. Eusarcus triangulatus. CLARKE AND RUEDEMANN. X 3. (After Cl. & R. 10912, pl. LXXXIV, fig. 7) Fic. 198. Eusarcus scorpionis. GROTE AND Pitt. X 3. (Outline after Cl. & R. 1912, pl. XXVII, fig. 1, restoration) form of the carapace and the position of the eyes with larger, neanic or ephebic individuals from the Schenectady, indicating relationship by this recapitulation of characteristics in ontogeny (see fig. 20.) The two remaining species of the Schenectady fauna, Pterygotus (Eu- sarcus?) nasutus and P. prolificus are unlike any other species known from this country, so that their comparative value is small. Although a6 Bo a Fic. 20A. Hughmulleria shawangunk CLARKE. NEPIONIC INDIVIDUAL. X 8. (After Cl. & R. 10912, pl. LXIV, fig. 2) Fic. 208. Hughmilleria magna CLARKE AND RUEDEMANN. X @. (After Cl. & R. 1912, pl. LXXXYV, fig. 11) the last mentioned species is the most profuse in the Schenectady beds, yet the variability in the shape of the carapaces is so great that one might easily be led astray in drawing conclusions. On the whole, the study of this fauna reveals it to be rather unsatisfactory. For one thing, it is made up for the most part only of carapaces and these are often fragmentary; besides, the forms are so distinctive, possess- ing such unique and specialized characteristics, that with our present BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 225 slight knowledge of the various faunas we are unable to perceive re- lationships which very possibly exist. Two species, however, do show kinship with known forms. Hughmilleria magna has charac- ters in common with H. socialis and H. shawangunk from the Pitts- ford and Shawangunk, respectively, while Dolichopterus latifrons agrees “closely with D. otisius from the Shawangunk in the posterior contraction of the carapace.’’ Thus, whatever relationship is indi- cated between the species of the Schenectady fauna and those of later faunas, is to species in the Pittsford and Shawangunk, all three of which formations have elsewhwere been shown to have had their origin in the sediments from Appalachia. Once again, it appears that rivers coming from the same continent have successive faunas more closely related than those from diverse continents. Comparison of Pittsford and Shawangunk Faunas. ‘The study of the lithogenesis of these two formations has shown that the Pittsford shale is of the same age as the shales in the upper part of the Shawan- gunk (p. tort above), for which reason it is fitting to consider the faunas of the two formations at the same time, especially since the sediments are known to have come from Appalachia in both cases. A comparison of the Pittsford and Shawangunk faunas shows that the two most common species, Hughmulleria socialis from the former and H. shawangunk from the latter are almost identical. In the shape of the body and form of the head the two species closely resemble each other, while the telsons of the two are identical. As one reads through the description of the Shawangunk form he is struck with the constant similarities in the anatomy between this and the Pitts- ford species. For instance, Clarke and Ruedemann say in regard to H. shawangunk: “The metastoma has not been seen well preserved in position, but wereferseveralmetastomas to this species because they possess on the one hand, the form of that in H. socialis, and on the other, exhibit a peculiar, striated ornamentation apparently character- istic of H. shawangunk”’ (39, 345). Again, “The crawling legs appear to have been both short and slender as in H. socialis”’ (39, 344). Be- cause of these similarities, it seems not improbable that H. socialis might represent a mature H. shawangunk, especially since no speci- men longer than 8 cm. is known from the Shawangunk, and no speci- men so short as that from the Pittsford, where the individuals are up to 15 cm. in length. Of the other five species in the Pittsford, Pterygotus monroensis is of small importance for it is represented by a single carapace and 226 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA two fragments. The carapace looks as though it might well belong to a large Hughmilleria; at any rate it has no close affinities to any other species. Similarly, little of correlative value can be deduced from Stylonurus multispinosus which is known only from a group of endognathites. In their characteristics they are different from any- thing in the Bertie (39, 297), and are of little relational value. It will be shown below (p. 232) that E. pittsfordensis is closely related to E. lacustris in the Bertie, but as will be seen, this is entirely expectable. In the Shawangunk fauna the most abundant species is Hugh- milleria shawangunk whose relationship has been discussed under the Pittsford fauna. The very rare forms, Eusarcus (?) cicerops, Dolt- chopterus stylonuroides, Stylonurus myops, and Pterygotus globiceps, represented by only a few fragments, show no particular relation to species in any other fauna. Indeed, a comparison of the young of E. scorpionis with the young of E. cicerops shows that the cephalon was very different in outline and the position of the eyes was not at all similar (Clarke and R., 39). Similarly, Stylonurus cestrotus, found only in a fragmentary condition, ‘‘stands apart from all its allies in a number of characters that show it to be an aberrant form”’ (39, 291) Eurypterus maria, of which many young and one or two mature indi- viduals have been found, is “greatly different from all its American congeners,” (39, 190). The relations of Dolichopterus otisius have already been pointed out, and it has been shown that while it agrees in certain characteristics with one species, in others it agrees with a different one, so that its affinities cannot be said to be with any par- ticular fauna. ‘ Summarizing the evidence offered in a comparison, species by species, it becomes clear that the dominant, most abundant species in the Pittsford and Shawangunk faunas are alike and that there is only one form in either of these which shows relationship to a Bertie species. SUMMARY OF Facts OF DISTRIBUTION ON CONTINENT OF APPA- LACHIA. The following points may be briefly recapitulated: 1. In the sediments which it has been demonstrated (by myself or others), were with more or less certainty derived from Appalachia, the eurypterids are either unique, showing no relation to known species in North America or other continents, or else they show phyletic relationship zuter se, the species of later faunas having certain char- acteristics in common with those of (generally the mature forms of) earlier faunas. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES Ze 2. Three genera, Stylonurus, Echinognathus, and Hughmilleria were restricted to the rivers of Appalachia. A far greater interest must attach to the vast northeastern conti- nent of Atlantica which stretched across the north Atlantic and formed a land bridge of vital importance in the migration of the eurypterids. The organisms living in the rivers of this continent were not geograph- ically restricted like those in the rivers of Appalachia, whose remains were washed out occasionally into the surrounding ocean waters, but which were prevented from migration to European fresh waters by the broad expanse of the Paleozoic Atlantic; more fortunate by far were the fluviatile inhabitants of Atlantica, for this continent, we may feel sure, was fairly permanent throughout the Paleozoic, even though the ocean at times encroached over much of the southern part; it was the northern portion that would be vital for the interlocking head- waters of different river systems, and as we shall see there is over- whelmingly convincing evidence pointing to such an intimate rela- tion between the river systems of the periods from the Upper Siluric through the Devonic. Not only were the geographical position and extent of Atlantica more favorable for the widespread dispersion of the eurypterids than were the same physical features of Appalachia, but the sediments derived from the former continent were for the most part of the particular lithological character most favorable to the preservation of organic remains, while those from Appalachia were quite often coarser, being prevailingly sandstones and conglomerates, with only thin beds of intercalated muds. The early differentiation in the character of the clastic deposits from these two continents re- flects the still earlier difference which had existed between them in the matter of elevation, for, whereas during Ordovicic and Lower Si- luric (Niagaran) time the Canadian area, already peneplaned, had been largely covered by the sea, as indicated by the remnants of Niaga- ran limestones, and whereas during the same period the Baltic region and that area now forming the southern shore of the Gulf of Finland had likewise been covered by a shallow sea in which coral reefs flour- ished, the continent of Appalachia on the contrary, had jutted up from the Atlantic with lofty mountain ranges of crystalline rocks. Thus it came about that the rivers in their slow but efficient work of denudation brought into the waters bordering the continent of At- lantica sediments that were calcareous and usually fine-grained (waterlimes) while the rivers of Appalachia carried highly siliceous materials of medium or coarse grain (sandstones and conglomerates) and the winds transported siliceous sands. 228 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA THE EURYPTERID FAUNAS OF ATLANTICA. The eurypterid-bearing formations which, mainly on lithological grounds, are thought to have come from Atlantica are (1) Bertie, (2) Rondout, (3) Manlius (4) Siluric waterlimes of Oesel, (5) Waterlimes of Gotland, (6) Wenlock of Scotland, (7) Old Red sandstone. The faunas of these various forma- tions will be taken up in detail with a view to determining the rela- tions between individual species and between the faunas inter se. Of the above mentioned formations and their contained faunas, the first three, which are North American, are quickly disposed of. The Rondout waterlime has thus far yielded but a single species, and this is the same as one from the Bertie, namely, Eurypterus remtpes. Similarly, only one species is known from the Manlius, a number of specimens, for the most part poorly preserved, having been found in various localities ranging from Albany, Herkimer, Madison and Onon- daga counties, New York, to Put-in-Bay, Lake Erie, where it occurs in the stratigraphically older early Monroe beds. Only one specimen has been found in which the abdomen is preserved, the remaining occurrences being only of carapaces, and even these are often poorly preserved. In outline of carapace and lack of ornamentation thereon, this species more closely resembles F. brewsteri from the Arbroath pav- _ ing stones than any form known from North America, though the simi- larity to E. lacustris from the Bertie is not to be overlooked. Thus, the only known eurypterid from the Rondout is the same as a species from the Bertie, and the single species from the Manlius and the lower Monroe shows affinities to one from the Bertie and to one from the Old Red sandstone. With these two so easily dismissed, wemay turn to a detailed discussion of the Bertie fauna in which connection it will be necessasy to establish the complete affinities of each species by a detailed morphological and phylogenetic comparison with species in preceding and contemporaneous faunules in America and Europe; the centres of dispersion and the routes of migration must be care- fully studied, and the possibilities of fluviatile and marine distribu- tion must be weighed. More deductions can be drawn from the study of the Upper Siluric faunas than from that of any other, because of the abundant data available, theappearance of chronofaunasin widely separated localities and the relative abundance of individuals and species in several of the faunules. Because it is impossible to draw correct deductions regarding the mode of distribution of organisms in any one period from the observation of the distribution visible at that time (see p. 208 above), and since the truth is to be arrived at BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 229 only by the consideration of former land and sea connections or bar- riers, it is necessary in discussing the Bertie faunule to take into ac- count the paleogeography of preceding periods and the distribution of earlier faunas. It has seldom been our good fortune to find two succeeding eu- rypterid faunas in the same locality, so that not many opportunities have been available to trace direct descent; but New Yo:k State has been favored in this respect and too much importance can not be at- tached to the relational values of the Pittsford, Shawangunk, and Bertie faunas. Comparison of the Pitisford, Shawangunk, and Bertie faunas. As a matter of fact, the Bertie fauna in neither “‘pool’’ shows any very marked affinities with the Shawangunk fauna or with the Pittsford, with one exception, already noted, and more fully discussed, below. Of the fourteen species known from the Bertie, there are only four in which even a slight resemblance can be seen to the upper Niagaran forms, and this resemblance in each case (with the one exception noted) is so very small that it cannot be said to constitute a proof of genetic relationship. For instance, Dolichopterus (?) testudineus from the Herkimer “pool” is represented by a single uncompressed carapace which in outline, general proportions, and the position of the eyes is quite similar to one of the specimens of D. ofisius in the Shawangunk. But while this general resemblance to one carapace of the Shawangunk form has been pointed out by Clarke and Rue- demann, attention should also be called to the fact that it is very dif- ferent from one of the best preserved, most typical Shawangunk carapaces of the same species. The sub-elliptical shape of D. testu- dineus is quite distinct from the sub-quadrate one of D. otisius, and it does not seem to the author that any genetic relation is indicated between these two forms. To overcome this difficulty of lack of rela- tionship between the Shawangunk and Bertie faunas, it might be ar- gued that the latter was derived from the Pittsford alone. But the only species in the latter which is supposed to have even a semblance of relationship to a Bertie species is Pterygotus monroensis which has been compared with P. cobbi. The former species was founded ona single carapace, and two other fragments are now known. One of these is the fragment of a free pincer of the chelicera which is thought to belong to P. monroensis. This shows one long, rounded tooth at the extremity, then a short tooth, another long tooth but not so long as the first, four short teeth alternating in size, followed by a long 230 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA tooth, then three shorter ones. The chela of P. cobbi from the Bertie shows three long teeth at the end, two short ones, a long one nearly as long as the one at the extremity, then three fairly short ones fol- lowed by another long one. The teeth in the chelae in these speci- mens are similar neither in size nor arrangement, so that no particular relationship is set up between Pterygotus monroensis and P. cobbi (Fig. 21 a and b). Not only, then, do the species themselves offer no indication that the Bertie fauna was derived from the Pittsford alone, but, further- more, it seems impossible to believe that the five Pittsford species included in four genera should give rise to the profuse Bertie fauna of fourteen species included in four genera, two of which are different. The four Pittsford genera are: Eurypterus, Pterygotus, Eusarcus, and Fic. 21A. Pterygotus monroensis SARLE. FRAGMENT OF FREE CHELA. X 3. (After Cl. & R. 1912, pl. LXX, fig. 3) Fic. 218. Pterygotus cobbt HALL. FREE CHELA ‘or CHELICERA. X (After Grote & Pitt. 1878, fig. p. 301) tole Dolichopterus. Clearly, with the exception of L. pittsfordensis which will be considered presently, the Pittsford-Shawangunk fauna does not supply the ancestors for the Bertie fauna which is thus left with- out progenitors on the basis of the ‘“‘lagoon-estuarine”’ theory usually advanced. There is also another difficulty. Stylonurus has repre- sentatives in North America in the Pittsford and in the Devonic and Carbonic, but none existed in the Bertie waters which should, accord- ing to the generally accepted views, have been the one place for the perpetuation of the race of the eurypterids in the late Siluric. There is yet one other difficulty arising if the Pittsford-Shawan- gunk fauna was ancestral to the Bertie. How can the many points of similarity between certain Bertie and European species be ac- counted for? It has already been pointed out that Eurypterus remipes from the Herkimer region is so closely related to E. jischert of the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 231 Baltic area that the latter for a long time was identified with the former. Schmidt was the first to suggest that the differences between the two species were only geographical variations arising through migration. With this idea Clarke and Ruedemann have concurred. In fact, they point out in many places the close similarity between the Bertie and Oesel fauna, and especially between the two common- est species in both, E. remipes and E. fischeri. Now, if the Bertie fauna was an estuarine one, preserved from Pittsford time in various brackish water bodies, when and how did migrations take place to the Baltic sea of the Upper Siluric? The answer will undoubtedly be that the members of the marine stock in the Lower Siluric which were not caught or did not voluntarily seek refuge in the ‘“‘lagoon” or remnant of Niagaran sea in New York State, migrated along the shore of Atlantica, passing from estuary to estuary until they reached the island of Oesel. This might seem like a very happy solution, if the British Isles did not intervene between America and Oesel, and if they did not have a very clear record to show that no such migra- tion took place. In the discussion of the faunas of the various Paleozoic continents, given below, it will be shown that the Wen- lock, Ludlow, and Lanarkian faunas of Great Britain offer no indica- tions of migrations along the neritic zone during those periods and that in many cases new genera as well as new species arose suddenly without, apparently, having a genetic relationship to corresponding taxonomic units in other countries. Since the assumption that the early Salina eurypterids lived in a -“Jagoon more or less cut off from the sea,” leads to such difficulties, we must seek another theory. Let us assume that they lived in the rivers, and draw thelogical deductions. It has been shown from their lithogenesis that the Pittsford and Shawangunk deposits must have been derived from Appalachia, while the Bertie was derived from Atlantica. Rivers, whether existing at the same time or at different geological periods, would carry related forms if coming from the same continent, but unrelated or only distantly related formsif coming from two different continents. Thus the Pittsford and Shawangunk euryp- terids would be near relatives to say the least; while the fact that the larval forms from the latter are merely the young of those from the former is all the more according to our expectations.? Likewise the absence of close relationship between the Shawangunk and the Bertie, 3 It should be noted here that the adult individuals of the Shawangunk were preserved only as unrecognized fragments, the young forms alone, by virtue of their small size, escaping the destruction which was meted out to their progenitors, as was discussed on p. fot. 232 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA and with one exception between the latter and the Pittsford, is easily understood and entirely to be expected. The baffling break in the phylogenetic history of Stylonurus is also explained. First found in the Pittsford, it came from Appalachia; on that continent its evolu- tion continued through the remainder of Siluric time, its remains not bemg found because the continental, chiefly river flood-plain, deposits from Appalachia during the Upper Siluric and the Lower Devonic are unknown on the North American continent. The per- plexities which were so detrimental to the “lagoon” theory are com- pletely removed by the river theory. But if the latter be accepted, a new objection arises—only one, to be sure, yet at first it seems to demolish the theory altogether. How does it come to pass that E. pittsfordensis so closely resembles E. lacustris as to seem almost certainly the direct ancestor? In specimens approximately the same size the two species are found to be almost identical in the propor- tions of the cephalon (i.e., length: width = 2 : 3), and in the position and shape of the eyes. On the other hand, the posterior portion of the cephalon flares out in EL. pitisfordensis or at least broadens out in a hyperbolic curve, while L. /acusiris is marked by the nearly parallel sides of the cephalon. £. lacustris is not so broad a species as E. pitisfordensis, but otherwise does not differ especially in form. The telson in the latter species is unusually long, being nearly equal in length to the rest of the postabdomen. An immature, but complete individual in the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences Museum measures as follows:4 mm JDisaker ad evovbilate olay. mele emia EMIS a Gee AIA SiN ais uo ciensiiaeG oa oF 21 Ben ethvotibodyic. satan ciciete er suce Sree LS ROR Or Eee 68 Teng thiob telSoméys iskchrsenc’e eee on Gem ches GR eae ete een 57 ANoyeal lls ake do Mage esa sae riut ed a een coil aoa me Orb cae o 146 In another specimen which is incomplete, the telson measures r1.5 cm., while in E. Jacustris, in an individual of about the same size, it measures only 6.5 cm. In spite of these differences, however, the species are very much alike, though not so closely related as E. lacustris, E. remipes, and E. fischeri, which can be understood from the fact that the three latter belong to the same horizon, while the former precedes them by a long period. I am quite prepared to agree with Clarke and Ruedemann that E. pittsfordensis is the an- 4 These measurements were kindly furnished to me by Mr. Henry R. Howland. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 233 cestor of the Bertie forms. Not only this; it actually came from the same region as the later types. For it must be apparent that the rivers of Atlantica, which furnished the deposits of the Bertie, were also in existence during Pittsford time and must have mouthed into whatever remnant there was of the Niagaran sea. It is not particu- larly likely that the ancestors, if so we may call them, of the Upper Siluric rivers occupied precisely the same location as the Bertie or Herkimer rivers, but undoubtedly they existed in somewhat the same general region. Therefore, what is more likely than that during Pittsford time these southward-flowing rivers from the continent of Atlantica should bring down the remains of organisms living in them? These rivers could not themselves have supplied the muds of the Pittsford shales, for they came from a limestone region, and whatever sediments they carried must have been of the nature of waterlimes. If such calcareous deposits were spread out on the flood plains of those rivers they are now no longer visible, for subsequent erosion has removed all traces of deposits of Pittsford age in Canada; but there is where a eurypterid fauna would be expected to occur, just as in Bertie time when waterlimes were deposited farther south the fine eurypterid fauna is found. This explanation makes it entirely clear why E. pitisfordensis is related tono form yet known from the Shawan- gunk, but has characteristics showing that it was ancestral to forms in the Bertie. New discoveries have corroborated this theory. Professor C. J. Sarle has discovered the Pittsford fauna at a new locality in New York State. The details of this have not yet been published, but it is known that both Eurypterus pittsfordensis and Hughmilleria are common. The rock isa gray shale and the material was undoubtedly supplied by the rivers of Appalachia. Since Hugh- milleria is otherwise known only from deposits derived from Appala- chia it is reasonable to assume that the same rivers which carried in the muds also brought in the Hughmilleria. The abundance of E. pittsfordensis is not surprising, for if the rivers from Atlantica emptied into the Pittsford basin there is no reason why they should not bring as abundant a fauna as did those from Appalachia. If, as is to be expected, the basin in which these deposits were laid down was at times a fresh water lake, the eurypterid faunas of both river systems may have met and lived for a time in this water body. They were then killed by the sudden incursion of the Guelph sea which brought with it the remnant of the Guelph fauna found in the inter- calated limestone. 234 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Further corroboration is offered by Van Ingen’s discovery in Oneida county already referred to. In the concretionary block obtained from that locality and determined from lingulas and orbiculoideas in it to come from dark gray shales with inter- calated waterlimes and dolomite beds 21 feet below the base of the red Vernon shale,° were found three carapaces and frag- ments of a eurypterid, which Clarke and Ruedemann have named Eusarcus vaningent. They state that “the outline of the body - the visual surface . . . . the appendages, so far as seen, are like those of E. scorpionis. The tergites and sternites have the form and relative dimensions of FE. scorpionis. The ornamentation is that of E. scorpionis, but the scales are small and more. clearly arranged”’ (39, 420, 421). It is also somewhat related to E. cicerops from the Shawangunk, but the relation is generic rather than specific. That this species of Eusarcus, more closely related to a species in the Bertie than to a contemporary species in the Pittsford, should be found in the waterlime facies of the Pittsford rocks in a region but a few miles distant from the mouth of the subsequent Herkimer river, is a most unusual corroboration of our theory. It is exactly what could have been prophesied. How such an occurrence is to be explained on the lagoon theory is puzzling. If the river hypothesis is the correct one it must account for the mi- gration of the eurypterids from the Buffalo region to the Baltic during the Salinan or early Monroan. If we assume the existence oi two rivers flowing from the rather low and flat limestone-covered country to the north, into a sea which had its shore extending through New York, as indicated on the map (fig. 8), it would not be difficult to understand that the shed exoskeletons of arthropods inhabiting the waters of these rivers and occasionally dead or even living individuals would be carried down stream, and become embedded in the fine lime sediment of the two neighboring deltas or in the interstream areas. Probably the eurypterids themselves were seldom carried down to the debouchures, since it is their molted exoskeletons which are gen- erally found. To account for the similarity of the Buffalo and Her- kimer faunules, it is necessary to postulate the interfingering of the headwaters of the Bertie and Herkimer rivers. The physical and faunal conditions would then be analogous to those existing at the present time in the Columbia and Missouri rivers, as outlined on 5 I shall refer to these shales hereafter as the Farmer’s Mills shales, from the locality near which they were found. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 235 p. 205 above. If weassume sucha mode of distribution by rivers for the eurypterids, it would explain the close relationship which exists between forms isolated, but in neighboring localities; that is, Euryp- terus lacustris of the Buffalo area, and E. remipes of the Herkimer area, nearly related species, but occurring in two isolated localities. But besides, these two occurrences, the river hypothesis must account for the close relation of both of these species to the one in the Baltic region (see below p. 235). There is good stratigraphic reason for believing that in Siluric time there was a continental mass (the Atlantica of Grabau), which as already outlined occupied much of the present North Atlantic and extended from northern North America entirely across to eastern Europe. According to Walther, several high mountain chains extended across this land connection (294, 251), and undoubtedly large rivers came down from these. Their headwaters would very probably interlace,’as do those of all large rivers on the various continents at present. Under such conditions we can see that the common ancestor of Eurypterus lacustris, E. remipes and E. fischeri could have lived in the headwaters of one of those rivers, and that getting farther away from the point of origin, the various species derived from it would be differentiated. E. lacustris and E. remipes were developed in two neighboring streams, but the forms connecting E. remipes and FL. fischert which must have lived in the rivers of Atlantica, are now buried under the waters of the North Atlantic Ocean. The more distant relationship of these species suggests that there were inter- mediate forms, though these have not yet been found, and are prob- ably nowhere preserved, though it is not impossible that Siluric strata with such intermediate species may exist beneath the ice cap of South- ern Greenland. In this great system of rivers,. which to all appear- ances characterized the continent of Atlantica, the Bertie and Herkimer Rivers were not very far apart, so that the faunules of each were very similar. In fact, the deltas spread out at the mouths of the tworivers may have become confluent in their outermost or seaward portions, though the waterlime now known would, as above explained, repre- sent only the inshore facies. It may have happened that in times of flood the river waters flowed out over a broader area near the de- bouchures until some of the distributaries became for a time con- fluent, thus allowing some of the species from one river to be carried over into the area of deposition of the other. Thus might the pres- ence of Pterygotus cobbi in both regions be accounted for. 236 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA The Upper Siluric Faunas of the Baltic Region. Let us next con- sider the fauna from Oesel, Gotland, and the Baltic provinces of Russia. On Oesel three species and two varieties of eurypterids are known: Eurypterus fischeri Eichwald, E. fischeri var. rectangularis Schmidt, E. laticeps Schmidt, Pterygotus osiliensis,® Schmidt, and P. osiliensts var. laticauda Schmidt. From Gotland the same Pterygotus species is reported, but no Eurypterus has yet been found. In Podolia a few specimens of Eurypterus fischeri, fragments of Ptery- gotus osiliensis occur, and Schmidt reports a few broken pieces of shell referable to the latter species in Galicia. From Livland, Pi. osiliensis has been reported by Eichwald. It is thus seen that in the Baltic Isles and West Russian provinces three species and two varieties of eurypterids occur. The close similarity, approaching identity, of Eurypterus fischeri to E. remipes and E. lacustris from the Bertie has been dwelt on at length (p. 230 above); the variety E. fischeri rec- tangularis naturally has its closest affinities with the Bertie forms. Schmidt described EF. laticeps from two carapaces and did not com- pare it with any other form. There is no species in the Siluric fauna of Great Britain to which it shows any relationship, and so far as I am aware it cannot be compared with any other European form; but it shows considerable resemblance to E. microphthalmus from the - Manlius waterlime. ‘The largest specimen of the latter species meas- ures 30 mm. long by 45 mm. wide, while one of the two known cara- paces of E. laticeps shows corresponding measurements of 40 mm. and 60 mm., the ratio in both cases being as 2 to 3. The form of the eyes corresponds quite closely in the two species, but whereas in £. microphthalmus the distance between the eyes is almost equal to that between the eye and the lateral margin, in E. Jaticeps, on the other hand, the eyes are more widely spaced so that the distance between the eyes is one and a half times as great as between each eye and the margin (Schmidt, 248, 63). No ornamentation has been observed on the carapace of E. microphthalmus, but on E. laticeps a series of black dots occur in rather regular arrangement between the eyes, extending forward toward the frontal margin and posteriorly a shorter distance. Since both of these species are as yet so little known, it is not safe to draw conclusions as to their relations. The fact of chief interest is that the Baltic form is more closely related to the Manlius 6 While it is not the intention of the author of this paper to revise or emend any generic or spe- cific appellations of other authors except in so far as is necessary in the discussion of the problem at hand, it is advisable to call attention to the fact that Pterygotus osiliensis belongs to the subgenus Erettopterus established by Huxley and Salter for the Pterygoti which have bilobed telsons. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 237 species than to any other. There remain the specimens of Pterygotus osiliensis and its variety, laticauda. In the lower beds of the Old Red sandstone are two species of Pterygotus, bilobus and anglicus to both of which P. osiliensis shows some similarity, though the stronger affinity is to the latter of the two. from Great Britain. A comparison of Schmidt’s restoration of P. osiliensis and of an actual specimen of P. bilobus var. inornatus Fic. 22A. Pteryogotus osiliensis SCHMIDT. RESTORATION (After Schmidt. 1883, p. 72, fig. 1 A) Fic. 228. Pterygotus bilobus VAR. inornatus (SALTER). X 3. (After H. Woodward. 1878, pl. X, fig. 1) Fic. 22C. CHELA OF SAME SPECIES. X3. (Ibid. fig. 2) - (fig. 22), brings out the similarity in general form, the correspondence of the telsons especially in their bilobate character, the agreement between the pincers and the arrangement of teeth in the chelae, the similarity in the shape of the carapace and in the size and form of the swimming paddles. The abdomen of P. bilobus is not so narrow nor so gracefully tapering as is that of P. osiliensis; the proportions of the carapace likewise differ, that of the former species being longer than 238 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA that of the latter. The similarities, however, are pronounced, and it is not to be denied that P. osiliensis finds its nearest relative in P. bilobus. Aside from this species, there are several others belong- ing to the subgenus Erettopterus, and we cannot dismiss our com- parative study without calling attention to them. They are: Ptery- gotus (Erettopterus) grandis, and globiceps from North America; but they are so very distinct from the Baltic form that genetic relation- ship is in no way indicated. The variety Jaticauda of P. osiliensis is founded not without cer- tain misgivings on the part of Schmidt for an exceptionally large metastoma and a similarly large telson found associated with the P. osiliensis specimens. So far as the present problem of the deter- mination of the relations between faunas is concerned, this variety would be classed along with P. oszliensis, and needs no separate dis- cussion.” The species of faunas of the Upper Siluric waterlimes of Oesel, Gotland, Livland, Podolia, and Galicia are thus seen to show very close relationship either to species in the Bertie waterlime, as in the case of Eurypterius fischeri, and var. rectangularis, or to species found in Great Britain at the end of the Siluric or the beginning of the Devonic. That is, they show affinities to the faunas occurring in deposits which for reasons other than faunal ones were judged to have been derived from the continent of Atlantica. The Fauna of the Wenlock. There now remains only the dis- cussion of the eurypterid-bearing deposits of Great Britain, (6) the Wenlock of Scotland, and (7) the Old Red sandstone. In the Wen- lock beds there is a large fauna represented by at least twelve deter- minable species of eurypterids, and one would expect to be able to attain to some critical knowledge of the relationship of the forms there occurring to those in North America and Europe; but while the fauna lacks not in the number of species and of individual remains, com- plete or even nearly complete specimens are not to be found, and one is forced to attempt to draw conclusions concerning relationships from fragments of legs, carapaces, or body segments, an attempt which is not only difficult but altogether unsatisfactory because of the prob- able errors attending it. Let us, however, consider the species 7 The author, however, questions the propriety of the creation of a new variety for the two speci- mens found. Undoubtedly the metastoma which Schmidt cites is larger than the two which he con- siders belong to the typical P. osiliensis; on the other hand, it is only slightly larger than would be required to fit with the operculum or with the thoracic segment which he figures on Plate V, figs. 1 and 3. The three metastoma are so similar in form and ornamentation that it seems rather danger- ous to use mere variation in size, particularly when that is so expectable, and when various parts of the body indicate a species of no mean dimensions. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 239 seriatim, bearing in mind that details in structure are in most cases unavailable and that consequently genetic relationships are obscured. Cf the genus Stylonurus, three species have been described by Laurie: S. elegans, S. macrophthalmus, and S. ornatus. ‘The first species has . been placed by Clarke and Ruedemann into the subgenus Ctenop- terus, together with S. cestrotus Clarke, and S. multispinosus Clarke and Ruedemann; the former from the Shawangunk, the latter from the Pittsford, the subgeneric characters being the relatively greater length of the second and third pairs of legs when compared to the first, and the presence on the former of more than two pairs of long, slightly curved spines, which are vertical on. the lower side of the segments (Clarke and Ruedemann, 39, 286-287). The Scottish species is so different from the two American forms grouped with it that the author is tempted to take exception to their being placed in the same subgenus, particularly because the very characteristics which are mentioned as diagnostic are not always observable. My reasons for objecting to the subgeneric grouping of this form under Ctenopterus are as follows: (1) Itis unsafe to base a taxonomic group of such great value as a subgenus upon the characteristics of one set of organs alone, as for instance, the legs. Nothing at all is known of the body of S. multispinosus and very little about that of S. elegans; only that of S. cestrotus having been found in good enough preservation to allow of restoration. (2) Single identical morphological characters do not of themselves establish specific relationship and, therefore a fortiori they cannot be used to unite their possessors into groups of higher taxonomic value for it is a law of palaeontology which is com- ing more and more to be recognized, that the same morphological characters crop out in many diverse phyletic groups and their pres- ence in no wise indicates genetic relation. Thus, a modification in the proportions of the legs or in the number of spines cannot be con- sidered characters of subgeneric rank. (3) The length, breadth, general form and grouping of the spines on the second aud third pairs of legs are not at all similar in S. elegans and S. cestrotus (fig. 23). The comparatively short spines of about equal length, regu- larly spaced, and projecting at almost right angles from the walking legs, in S. excelsior (provided the restoration of this species is correct) and in SS. cestrotus, together with the greater length in the second and third pairs of legs as compared with the first pair, might allow of these two species being placed in the same subgenus, and with them quite probably S. multispinosus. S. elegans, however, is too distinet, it 240 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA seems to me, to be considered even subgenerically related, while spe- cifically this species must certainly stand alone. This is especially evident when we consider (4) That one of the two diagnostic charac- ters of the subgenus Ctenopterus depends upon the comparison of the lengths of the first three pairs of legs, the particular comparison FIG. 23 a. Stylonurus elegans Laurie. Second and third legs on right side. (After Laurie, 1900, pl. II, fig. 12.) b. Stylonurus cestrotus Clarke. Second and third legs on left side. (After Clarke and Ruedemann, r1o12, pl. XLIX, fig. 4.) being made between the first, and the second and third pairs, but in S. elegans the first pair is unknown. Stylonurus ornatus and S. macrophthalmus are in some respects quite closely related to species occurring in the later Scottish horizons in connection with which they will be spoken of again. ° Here it is sufficient to note that there are no North American species which have the characters of the genus Stylonurus (sens. str.) namely, the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES ‘24T first three pairs of legs relatively short and stout, with only two short, curved spines on each segment, as in Drepanopterus and Eurypterus. From the Wenlock, Laurie has also described three species of Eurypterus: E. conicus, E. minor and E. cyclophthalmus. These are three small species which are not very well represented and which are primitive or retarded in development. ‘They are not related to any American forms nor do they appear to fill ancestral positions, for the British species of the Upper Siluric and Devonic. In some one characteristic a Wenlock species seems to foreshadow a later one, but phyletic lines are difficult, if not impossible, to trace. The exceed- ingly large eyes in the single known specimen of E. cyclophthalmus, and in E. conicus, and the small size as well as the general form suggest that these two species are larval forms. Clarke and Ruede- mann consider that E. minor also is either immature or has had its development arrested. They think that such is especially the case in Bembicosoma pomphicus Laurie, a small, stunted form with large head, rapidly tapering body, and ‘“‘warty texture of skin.” | The genus Drepanopterus Laurie is now placed by Clarke and Ruedemann as a subgenus of Stylonurus. To this group belong Laurie’s three species: D. bembicoides, D. lobatus, and D. penilandicus, which need not be discussed in detail since they show no affinities either to American or to continental European forms. The species described by Laurie as Eurypterus scoticus has since been revised by Clarke and Ruedemann who recognized its affinities to Eusarcus. In the American faunas it finds its nearest representative in E. scor- pionts from the Bertie. Because of the impossibility of making accurate measurements of the proportions of different parts of the bodies and of obtaining exact outlines to show the form, one is unable* to make careful comparisons. a The only remaining species in the Wenlock eurypterid fauna is Slimonia dubia Laurie, a small individual, much broken and without appendages. Laurie has included in this species a second individual which shows a portion of the telson. Since the genus at present " comprises only two species, the one just mentioned, and S. acuminata from the Ludlow, there is no opportunity to trace relationships over broad areas. The main reasons for making a new species of the Wenlock Slimonia, were, the difference in geologic age between the two forms, and the fact that the Pentland Hills individual was gradu- ally tapering instead of abruptly contracted in the seventh segment into a telson. 24.2 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Summary of the Wenlock Fauna. A survey of the entire euryp- terid fauna of the Wenlock of Scotland must be made with the reali- zation beforehand that all of the material is so fragmental, dismem- bered, macerated, and poorly preserved that detailed descriptions, accurate measurements, and unimpeachable determinations are things beyond the power of anyone to obtain, and that, furthermore, until discoveries of new faunas at earlier horizons in Great Britain shall be made, the ancestry of the Wenlock species must remain obscure. Many new genera appear suddenly in this Lower Siluric horizon, and we are unable to do more than say that such and such genera came from a common ancestor. It is unfortunate, indeed, that the Ordovicic of Great Britain has not yielded such faunas as it has in America. Yet, keeping these points in mind, we are still struck by the provincial character of the Wenlock fauna. ‘There is not a species in it which is closely related to any of the North American species except Eusarcus scoticus which foreshadows in certain respects E. scorpionis from the Bertie. The Fauna of the Ludlow. ‘The Ludlow of Lanarkshire has yielded nine species of eurypterids. Slimonia acuminata Salter has just been mentioned in connection with S. dubia, the two being very similar. S. acuminata, Clarke and:Ruedemann state, “‘has all the features of a local and aberrant type,” (39, 130). Pterygotus (Erettopterus) bilobus with the four varieties: acidens, crassus, inornatus, and per- ornatus is found abundantly at Lesmahagow, the last variety, how- ever, being very rare. As was pointed out in the discussion of the Baltic provinces faunas, there is closer relationship between P. bilobus inornatus and P. osiliensis than there is between either of these forms and a species in any other fauna (p. 238 above). Stylonurus logant ‘belongs to the revised Stylonurus sens. strict., having the second and third pairs of tegs short, thick, and with two pairs of spines in each segment (see Woodward, 312, 131). There are no known species on any other continent to be compared to this form which is not even very much like any of the Wenlock species, with two of which it agrees in its subgeneric characters, but with neither of which it has specific similarities. Indeed, it is quite unlike S. macrophthalmus which is — characterized by the peculiar ear-shaped epimeral expansions, the long parallel-sided metastoma, the rounded cephalon, and very short second pair of legs. It is a little more like S. ornatus which has a slightly more squarish cephalon than S. macrophthalmus, and which has not BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 243 such pronounced ears on the epimera, although these are'extended posteriorly to a much more pronounced degree, than in S. logani. The only species which has epimera approaching in size and form those of S. macrophthalmus is S. scoticus from the Old Red sandstone (see p. 251 below), from which, however, it differs in certain important features. It is closest to a second species found in the Old Red sand- stone, S. powriei, which it resembles in the tapering form of the body the long, narrow telson, the subquadrate outline of the head (thisis decidedly square in Jogani) and in the great length of the fourth appendage. In details, on the other hand, these two species differ considerably, so that S./ogani must remain a rather separated species until new discoveries reveal its relatives. It is of great interest to have reported from the Ludlow fish bed in one of the tributaries of Greenock Water (see p. 164 above), Sitylonurus ornatus associated with the typical Lanarkian (Downtonian) fishes and with Eurypterus dolichoschelus, a Ludlow and Lanarkian species, together with Cerati- ocaris, Dictyocaris, plants, etc. (p. 164 above). SS. ornatus, then, evidently persisted from Wenlock into and through Ludlow time. In this case one is again confronted with an anomalous geographic and geologic distribution. The Pentland Hills are less than thirty miles distant from the Lanarkian inliers, and the two areas are approximately on the same line of strike. In two thin beds but a few inches in thickness and extending only a few yards laterally S. ornatus occurs in the Wenlock in Lanarkshire; but in the Pentland Hills this species occurs in none of the many Ludlow eurypterid horizons until the fish bed is reached and there a few specimens are found. If the eurypterids lived in the Wenlock sea as they are commonly supposed to have done, then the supporters of this view must account for the limited vertical and horizontal distribution of « the merostome remains, since it is absolutely inconceivable that mem- bers of a marine neritic fauna should be confined to an area a few square yards in extent. It is equally inconceivable that a marine fauna should be perpetuated for so great a period of time as from the Wen- lock through the Ludlow, the members of the later fauna in some cases showing resemblance to members in the earlier, while in others they are entirely distinct and apparently arise suddenly, there being, besides, no indications of a persistent marine stock to furnish decend- ants from the Wenlock fauna, nor yet any trace in the mavine Ludlow of the incursion from other regions of new genera and species 244 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA |. of eurypterids. Moreover, we can not understand why one species of the Wenlock recurs in the Upper Ludlow, but does not occur in the beds of intermediate age, although there are many such with good marine molluscan faunas and even with fragments of other eurypterid species. Such a perpetuation, to repeat, would be impos- sible if the eurypterids were not having a continuous existence in the sea. But their remains are at all times spasmodic in appearance, being altogether wanting in certain horizons, especially where the typical marine fauna is abundant. The fact that they occur ina given band which, when traced even a short distance laterally, shows no lithological change, but only an absence of eurypterids, indicates that migrations along shore were non-existent; while the fact that new species and even new genera appear at horizons far separated from underlying and overlying eurypterid horizons seems to deprive “marine’’ eurypterids of ancestors or descend- ants, while to account for a marine Stylonurus ornatus in the Wenlock of Lanarkshire and in the uppermost Ludlow of the Pentland Hills, is not within the inventive powers of the author. But, on the other hand, the conditions of bionomy in rivers are emi- nently satisfactory to account not only for the persistence of a species ‘for a long period of time without morphological modifications of specific rank, but also for the development of new species and genera, and for their sudden appearance. This takes place, because they have been developing either in other river systems, whence they have migrated to the headwaters of the river at the mouth of which their remains are found, or because they have been traversing a great dis- tance in longitude, automatically suffering specific variation in their progress. In this way, would I account for the anomalies in dis- tribution just dwelt upon (see also p. 203 et seq.). Of this Ludlow fauna there still remain four species to be con- sidered. ‘There are three species of Eusarcus which may be taken up at the same time: FE. scorpioides, E. obesus, and E. raniceps. The last species may be quickly dismissed, since it is represented by a single specimen showing only the carapace and a part of the abdo- men, enough, indeed, to place the individual generically; but specific comparisons are impossible. . scorpioides is represented by one almost entire individual, a large, robust form in many respects similar to E. scorpionis from the Bertie waterlime. The length and width of the appendages, the number and disposition of spines thereon, the ratio of length of carapace to the remainder of the body, and the BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 245 proportions generally agree in the two species. Even more like E. scorpionts is the single known specimen of E. obesus from the same Lesmahagow horizon, and it has been suggested by Woodward, who described the species, that E. obesus may possibly represent the young of E. scorpioides; certainly E. obesus looks very much like a young individual of E. scorpionis figured by Clarke and Ruedemann from the Bertie (Figs. 24 and 25). Thus there is close relationship between the two species from Lanarkshire and the one from the Bertie. ) The last species from the Ludlow fauna, and the only Eurypterus yet found therein is FE. lanceolatus Salter. As Sarle, Clarke, and Fic. 24. Eurypterus obesus H. Woop- Fic. 25. YounGc oF Eusarcus scor- WARD. X 7% pionis GROTE AND Pitt. X 4 (After Woodw. 1878, pl. XXX, fig. 8) (After C. & R. 10912, pl. XXXVI, fig. 1) Ruedemann have pointed out, this species has many points in com- mon with Hughmilleria and either belongs to that genus or is transi- tional to it. The form of the body, shape of the carapace and of the telson, marginal position of the eyes, the relative proportions of the somites, and details in the appendages, all point to affinities with Hughmilleria socialis Sarle, from the Pittsford (figs. 26, 27). Such a relationship seems a little disconcerting at first, in view of the fact that the Pittsford sediments and fauna came from Appalachia, while the Ludlow was a derivative from Atlantica and should have a fauna essentially distinct from the former. Indeed, with the excep- tion of this one species, the members of the Ludlow fauna show no relationship to any species from the faunas of Appalachia. We have here, as a matter of fact, one of the “‘anomalies”’ of distribution 246 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA which may occur among fluviatile organisms, but are inexplicable for marine forms. In the upper Niagaran in North America H. socialis occurs by the hundred in the Pittsford shale and the closely related H. shawangunk, which may be only the young of the former species, occurs in the synchronous shales of the Shawangunk, but in no other part of the world at that time, so far as we know, were there any representatives of Hughmilleria. It appears that the genus origi- Fic. 26. Eurypierus lanceo- Fic. 27. Hughmilleria socialis SARLE latus SALTER. X 3. xX = (After Woodw. 1878, p. 142, (After Cl. & R. 1912, pl. LIX, fig. z) fig. 44) nated in the rivers of Appalachia. Curiously enough, in the Upper Ludlow, that is, lower Upper Siluric, of Scotland, Eurypterus lanceo- latus appears, showing a striking resemblance to Hughmilleria socialis. The prolific Scottish fauna of the Wenlock has revealed no possible ancestors for this distinctive Eurypterus (or Hughmilleria?) and one naturally wonders how it arose. Since Hughmilleria was restricted in occurrence in the Niagaran, any migrations which took place must have been effected during the Salina period. The important Salina BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 247 break or period of emergence has recently been recognized by Grabau as affecting all countries bordering on the North Atlantic and has been recorded for North America, Scotland, Oesel (by the author), and even in what was formerly supposed to be the continuous section in England (898). There was a widespread diastrophic movement at the end of the Niagaran marking a broad expansion of continental . areas during Salina time so that perhaps nowhere are there preserved to us the marine sediments of that period. Certainly the North American eurypterids were cut off from marine routes of migration with which most authors like to provide them, and yet migration seems to have gone on. The Salina in North America was a period of aridity west of the mountain mass of Appalachia, but that chain _ died out northward and probably merged into the continent of Atlantica, there being no northeast Atlantic sea-lobe at that time. Several possible lines of fluviatile migration were open and nothing is more probable than that emigrants from Appalachian north and northeast flowing rivers should have entered some one of the tribu- taries of the systems on Atlantica. The exact mode of transit can not be determined, but many routes were open. Indeed, it is pos- sible that migration occurred even in Pittsford time from the rivers of Appalachia into one of the Pre-Bertie rivers which we have seen probably existed in the western New York region even during the Niagaran (p. 113 above). This much we may conclude: There were many routes and possibilities of migration open to eurypterids living in the rivers of Appalachia during the Lower and Middle Siluric, but continuous marine paths to Europe were non-existent. Furthermore, the distinctness of the Ludlow fauna as a whole from any of the faunas of Appalachia, but the close relationship of one species from the former to two from the latter is inexplicable for members of a marine fauna, but normal and expectable for members of fluviatile faunas. The Old Red Sandstone Fauna. ‘The last of the European forma- tions which is believed to have been derived from the continent of Atlantica is the Old Red sandstone. Most the eurypterids occur in the beds in various localities in Forfarshire. By far the most abun- dant species is Pterygotus anglicus which finds it nearest relatives in Pterygotus buffaloensis and P. macrophthalmus from the Bertie, and _P. osiliensis from the Baltic region. ‘The various points of similarity are so well known that it is not necessary to take them up. Piery- gotus minor is a small form found associated with P. anglicus, but it 248 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA is a unique form, and shows a marked divergence from. congeneric forms throughout the world. ‘The telson is elongate, spatulate, with a pronounced median keel, which is represented on the last three segments of the postabdomen as a long spine, rather than a ridge (Woodward, 312, 199, Pl. X, fig. 2; 195, p. 35, Pl. I, fig. 4). There can be little doubt that this species, which is represented by a single, nearly entire individual, represents a neanic stage of some form, the adult of which probably is not known. Only two and a half inches long, it has the large eyes slightly removed from the border, a feature which is so characteristic of neanic Pterygoti; but it is difficult to account for the pronounced spines on the body segments, and for the high keel, features, which in associated species are less developed at so early a stage. The shape of the carapace and the position of the eyes suggest P. macrophthalmus from the Bertie, but the spines on the epimera of the last five segments of the postabdomen, the median spine on the last three, the very marked median keel on the telson as well as the proportions of the telson indicate a specializa- tion far beyond that observable in the species just mentioned, par- ticularly when it is borne in mind that all of these features are ob- served in an undoubtedly young individual, which means that they would be much more marked in maturity. This species has all of the appearances of an aberrant form, the relations of which it is impossible to determine from the one known specimen, but it cer- tainly has characters which unite it with Bertie species and with forms which occur in the Baltic region. The Stylonuride of the Old Red sandstone are represented by four species: S. scoticus, S. powriei,S. ensiformis, and S. symondsiu. The first, represented only by a head and by one nearly entire indi- vidual, is yet so remarkable, so entirely distinct from the typical Stylonurus that it has been set apart by Clarke and Ruedemann as the representative of a new subgenus, Tarsopterus. These two authors have dwelt upon what they consider the close similarity between S. scoticus and S. myops from the Shawangunk, stating that “it seems probable, therefore, that S. myops, when fully known, will prove a representative of the subgenus Tarsopterus of which S. scoticus is the type’’ (39, 303). The reasons which they cite are: occurrence of “spurlike epimera of equal relative size,” the “outline of cara- pace,” and ‘‘the approximate position of the eyes and the sculpture of the tergites.”’ Since it is my purpose in the present section of this paper to marshal all of the evidence provided by the relationship BUFFALO SOCIETY. OF NATURAL SCIENCES 249 existing between the genera and species of different faunas in order to determine from which continents these were derived, it is evi- dent that a claim of close similarity between a species in the Shawan- gunk fauna, derived as I believe from Appalachia, and a species in the Old ‘Red sandstone derived from the continent of Atlantica, as I hope to prove, must be carefully investigated. - Therefore, I proceed to the points enumerated, always bearing in mind that certain types of similarity are of more value than others. In the beginning I may state that S. myops is known only from immature specimens, most of which are carapaces alone, and that only one entire specimen has been found and this is but 55 mm. in length (see pl. 52, fig. 6, Clarke and Ruedemann). The largest carapace of S. myops observed meas- ured 19 mm. in length by 27 mm. in width; the only carapace of S. scoticus known measured 16 cm. in length and 19 cm. in width; the single, entire individual known measured 3 feet, 4 inches in length. A most profound difficulty arises at once, namely, that of comparing neanic and nepionic specimens of a mid-Siluric species with a gerontic, or perhaps a late ephebic individual of the Lower Devonic. But grant- ing that such comparisons are possible or even allowable, let us turn to the characters which would justify placing these two species in the same subgenus. First, there is the outline of the carapace. It must be admitted even by Clarke and Ruedemann that, with all due allow- ance for compression, the carapaces of S. myops display a most unusual amount of variation in outline, some, were it not for the position of the eyes, being easily referable to Eurypterus. The cara- paces show a strong tendency to grow narrower posteriorly, showing the greatest width in the anterior third, whence the lateral margins slope gently backwards; the nearly parallel sides shown in the carapace of S. scoticus are usually not present in S. myops, while the frontal LENGTH OF RATIO: ge CARAPACE | cosupsice | aaa S. myops, smallest carapace observed........... Bay a5 0.63 SIS TENOR LO 82a. oligo ic Gacy ONSO a KLO Ie Ge SI SIE Re eT Th 16.5 0.74 S. myops, largest carapace observed...........-. 19.0 27.0 0.70 S. macrophthalmus (udlow).....:...........:- Sit 5©) 61.0 0.83 (Se GHIULLL TIS oO 6 GG ORT CRAG Ree RE ere tae 50.0 62.0 0.80 Se scolcus (separate carapace),..........-2.....| TOO.0 190.0 0.84 S. scoticus (carapace attached to body)..........| 204.0 242.2 0.83 250 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA margin is quite as likely to be curved as to be nearly flat (as in S. scolicus). A comparison of the proportions of length to breadth of carapace in these two species and in two others with which relation- ship might more readily be established will, when taken in connection with the illustrations, show that S. scoticus in so far as its carapace is concerned, is far more nearly related to associated forms in the Old Red and to others in the Ludlow, than to the Shawangunk forms. From these figures we may conclude that Clarke and Ruedemann find the approximate ratio of length to breadth of carapace in S. myops to be as 2: 3, but it is evident that in S. scoficus itis 4:5. Itis not to be denied that the ratio changes from that in the young of S. myops where it is 2 : 3 to that in the type where it is nearly 3:4, and perhaps it might be conceded that in larger forms the ratio might approach 4:5; but we cannot be sure. There is in the Ludlow, however, a species which has a carapace proportioned exactly as in S. scoticus and even in the Old Red is a species, S. powriet, with proportions almost the same. ‘Thus there is no need to form conjectures about what might be possible relations to a Middle Siluric species from Appalachia when there are forms which actually show the similarity in formations derived from the same land-mass. A second point of supposed similarity between S. scoticus and S. myops was the occurrence of long and pronounced epimera in both species. J have in another part of this paper discussed the significance of spinous proJongations on the epimera, but I shall call attention to the arguments again, since they are not universally recognized. Beecher has assembled a wealth of illustration from all branches of the animal kingdom to show that the appearance of spines as a modifi- cation of any morphological character marks degeneration in respect to that character, and, when extreme spinosity is accompanied by certain other easily recognizable and similarly degenerate characters the species, genus or family, all members of which show like degener- ation, is doomed to decline and extinction. But not only that; as Beecher, Hyatt, and a few present-day palaeontologists, notably Grabau, have shown and have demonstrated by countless illustra- tions which have led to the most certain deductions, the formation of spines is a homeomorphic character, not in the least indicative of genetic relationship in forms which develop such spines, but marking only an onto- or phylogenetic stage. Spines may and do appear in end-members of totally distinct phyletic groups and are of absolutely no diagnostic value in determining true relations. The Eurypteridae BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 251 offer many new illustrations of this law which is so simple, which so strongly makes its appeal to the reason, and which yet is so con- stantly ignored. The Carbonic species of Eurypterus develop spines wherever possible; the surface scales are produced into pointed wedges or spines; the ends of the epimera grow out to a great length; spines develop on the appendages not only in rows along the various seg- ments but also on the lines of junction between segments: showing that the final expression of morphological characters in the eurypterids was the development of spines which was followed by extinction. Such a development has seemed expectable to many authors for the species living in the late Paleozoic, in the Mississippic, and Carbonic; but there is really nothing to prevent these phylogerontic characters from appearing much earlier. And so, to apply all of these general statements to the case in question, I would say that the epimeral spines observable on S. myops indicate that the line which that species represented was on the decline even in the Siluric, at a time when the majority of eurypterids were at their acme. A glance at the illustration of S. scoticus (Woodward 312, Pl. XXII) will show to the reader that this species has a typically gerontic appearance. Its epimeral prolongations do not in the least resemble those in S. myops, but are most like those of S. macrophthalmus from the Ludlow. Two points remain as supposedly indicative of relation between these two species. ‘The position of the eyes is, it seems to the author, the only feature of marked similarity, but certain of the British forms also show such a position, so that it is not of striking impor- tance. As for the ornamentation of the tergites, I can see little to warrant the statement that the sculpture is similar in the two species. The species Stylonurus (Tarsopterus) scoticus has now been com- pared in detail with S. myops and it has been shown that they are not closely related and consequently the presence of the first genus in the Old Red sandstone not only does not militate against my thesis that the faunas living in rivers coming from the same continent and in the same latitude should be most alike, but it is actually an addi- tional proof, for .S. scoticus is most nearly related to Ludlow and Old Red species, though it shows phylogerontic characteristics which somewhat obscure its relations. The three remaining species of Stylonurus from the Old Red may be quickly dismissed. S. symondsii, from England, is represented by a single apparently complete carapace which is almost as long as wide, but is distinctly narrower posteriorly than anteriorly. There 252 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA is a possibility that the marginal fold has been destroyed in the pos- terior portions, but Woodward thinks that the specimen is entire, and that the fold did not pass all the way around the carapace. S. ensiformis is described from a single broken tail spine which, it seems to the author, is hardly sufficient for the founding of a new species, and certainly is of no use in determining the affinities of the fauna. S. powriei, represented by a single individual, has a carapace very similar in form and identical in proportions to S. scoticus, from which species it differs most noticeably in having the last pair of append- ages long and tapering, not short and broad. Woodward has sug- gested that it probably had epimeral prolongations which have not been preserved, because only the internal mold in sandstone has been found, and the epimera would be likely to remain with the actual integuments; for the same reason none of the surface markings are visible. ‘The tail is extremely long and narrow, quite similar to the telson of S. logani from the Ludlow, which form it also resembles in the character of the last pair of appendages. Both species belong to the provisional group of Stylonurus s. st. recognized by Clarke and Ruedemann. Completing the Old Red sandstone fauna are two species of Euryp- terus: #. brewsteri and E. pygmaeus. ‘The first consists of a carapace, a portion of a thoracic segment slightly displaced, and. an ovisac containing more than twenty ova (Woodward, 312, 151). Wood- ward says that “this species agrees most nearly in general form with E. lacustris” from the Bertie, while Clarke and Ruedemann have pointed out a close similarity to E. microphthalmus from the same horizon (39, 195). But since both authors make their comparison on the form, proportions of length or width, and position of eyes, and since the actual figures do not support either statement, I find it impossible to agree with them. mie | en | mm DUA OS ICUS. 5 Coed seeucesdovowscodac T.48 ese 0.27 TSM LELCUISETIS ae ci ee nee ee ee eee trae Hoke Cnr gee ea een 44.00 63.00 0.70 eemicrop hithalmuss ty peusen Aare cece 15.50 22.00 °.70 E. microphthalmus. best preserved specimen....} 17.5 27.40 0.64 E. pygmaeus is a small form found near Kington, England, and though represented by very young individuals, yet has characters which point to its affinities with E. remipes (Fig. 28). BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 253 SUMMARY OF FAcTS OF DISTRIBUTION ON CONTINENT OF AT- LANTICA. We are now enabled to bring together all of the many lines which we have been following in tracing the affinities of the faunas which for other reasons were supposed to have come from the continent of Atlantica, and here, as in the case of the faunas of Appalachia, the great weight of evidence shows that the Bertie, Rondout, Manlius, Ludlow, Lanarkian, Baltic, and Old Red faunas are more closely related inter se than they are to the faunas which from the study of the petrogenesis of the formations in which they occur, were believed to have come from other continents. THE EURYPTERID FAUNAS OF MississipFiA. So far only a single fauna is known from the continent of Mississippia, and therefore it is not possible to institute any comparisons between the species found in that fauna and those from other faunas on the same continent, as was possible in the case of Atlantica and Appalachia; the most Fic. 28. Eurypterus pygmaeus SALTER. X 1 (After Woodw. 1878, pl. XXVIII, fig. 5) that can be expected is that we shall find the Kokomo eurypterids distinct from all those which lived in rivers on other continents. As we shall see, the theoretical expectations are fully borne out by the facts. 5 The Eurypterid fauna of the Kokomo waterlime is distinct from any of the known North American eurypterid faunas. The material is never well preserved and the number both of species and of individuals is small. “Stylonurus (Drepanopterus) longicaudus,” says Clarke and Ruedemann, “is a unique form among the American eurypterids being the sole representative thus far found on this continent of this rare and phylo-genetically interesting genus. From its Scottish allies, it is readily distinguished by its slender and elongated postab- domen and the long, clavate telson.”’ (39, 320) Four specimens are known, two young and two mature individuals, and though they are in sufficiently good condition to enable Clarke and Ruedemann to make a restoration of the species, they do not approach the perfec- 254 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA tion of preservation found in the Bertie material. The characters are clearly enough shown to make it a certainty that this form has no relatives in the American faunas, so far known. Five specimens of Eusarcus newlini are known. This species, though attaining the gigantic size of EF. scorpions of the Bertie, shows marked differences in the proportions of the body. There is a general shortening up and broadening throughout. A set of figures taken from Clarke and Ruedemann’s discussion will bring out this fact; some of the figures are only approximate. Lengths in millimeters LAST POST MO) OF CARA- PREAB- | POSTAB- CARAPACE PACE DOMEN DOMEN ees SEASON) TO REST OF BODY 18, SOOMMOWIS. 35 6554550555008 53 67 146 40 i || @s9 2a IDs MOWNM Skoda bowoaesaseall) SS 57 I12 34 43 OQ.23 31 It will be noted from these figures that although E. newlinz, in the specimen measured, had a carapace 5 mm. longer than that of E. scorpionis the remainder of the figures for the other portions of the body are considerably less, showing that the proportions through- out are different. The ratio of the length of the carapace to the length of the rest of the body in the two species shows that in E. scorpionts it is as 0.17 : 1, while in E. mewlini it is as 0.23:1. The cephalothoracic appendages are much stouter in E. newlini, with Jonger and stouter spines. Since the Bertie and Kokomo species of Eusarcus are the only ones in this country which are well enough preserved to allow of careful description, they are the only ones which can be compared and it has been shown that they do not show close relationship.. The Kokomo fauna has yielded further two species of Eurypterus which are very similar, namely, E. (Onychopterus) ko- komoénsis, and E. ranilarva. Of the difference between these two species Clarke and Ruedemann say: “It is possible that these differ- ences are only those of sex, a point that at present cannot be deter- mined since the opercular appendages of FE. ranilarva are not distinctly shown”’ (39, 211). The proportions between the length and width of the cephalon in the Kokomo and Bertie forms are quite different. In E. ranilarva the ratio is as 7.1 : 10; in one specimenof E. kokomoén- sis it is as 8 : ro, in another as 8.4 : 10, but in E. dekayi the ratio is only as 6 : ro in one specimen and is even as low as 5.3 : 10 in another. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 255 From these figures it appears that the Kokomo forms had cephala which were much more nearly square than rectangular. A set of comparative figures for the proportions in the different parts of the three species brings out the differences clearly. Lengths in millimeters RATIO OF CARA- SPECIES CARAPACE Magee O- | POSTABDO- | rerson | PACE TO REST wos OF BODY bey dekayinne. ore cere. 31 40.4 56.0 53-0 20.7 : 100 lis MDI BINED. scacccéoe f 35 Be Sa 35-0 Heo EO I 33 43-5 4I.5 36.0 27.0: 100 E. kokomoensis........ 28 Bone 43-4 30.4 25.9 : 100 The same relations hold here between the body proportions of the Kokomo and Bertie species as held in the case of Eusarcus. A com- parison of the figures for HE. dekayi and the first specimen of E. ranilarva shows that. though the carapace of the latter is longer, all of the other parts of the body are shorter. Thus, the Eurypterus species as well as the one of Eusarcus are relatively shorter and broader forms than the ones found in the Bertie. The Kokomo eurypterid fauna as a whole is quite distinct from any other American fauna, a fact which is difficult to explain on the theory of marine habitat for these organisms. If, as Clarke and Ruedemann have stated, the Kokomo is of Lockport age, and belongs to the marine fauna of that time, it is greatly to be wondered at that there should be no eurypterid fauna in the succeeding Guelph beds in the same locality or in adjoining regions. Yet the only Guelph form that has ever been found is the single specimen of Eurypterus (Tylotterus) boylei from Ontario, a form which shows not the slightest resemblance to any of the Kokomo eurypterids. If the Kokomo is to be considered of Monroan age, for reasons which have been given in full on p. 118 then, on the marine theory, the Kokomo forms should show relationship to the Bertie, and their area of deposition should constitute merely another ‘‘pool’”’ cut off from the Monroan sea. But it has just been shown that the Kokomo fauna is quite distinct from the Bertie and that the two faunas have no species in common, a fact difficult to explain on the ground that the forms lived in neigh- boring “pools”? where faunas were segregated from a once wide- spread marine fauna. 256 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA On the other hand, these peculiarities are easily understood, if we consider the. eurypterids as fluviatile organisms. It is quite evident that the Kokomo deposits have a distinctly different source from those of the Bertie. If then, these eurypterids belong to a distinct river system, developed upon a separate land mass, it would indeed be surprising if they were not wholly distinct specifically from those of the rivers of Atlantica which were responsible for the Bertie water- lime deposits. The alternation of beds with marine fossils with beds carrying only eurypterids and ceratiocarids, suggests that the Ko- komo deposits may have approached those of some modern estu- aries in which we have an alternation of marine and fresh-water deposits. The map, Fig. 8, shows the position and general extent of these late Siluric river systems. CONCLUDING REMARKS When the significance of the distribution and of the occurrence of the eurypterids is given its full importance, there can no longer be any doubt that the eurypterids at zo time of their known history were normally marine organisms. We cannot conceive of marine animals presenting such localized occurrences and yet having such wide distribution as a class. The question of transit seems not to have been considered by previous authors, and yet it is one of the greatest importance. If we suppose that the eurypterids lived in the Paleozoic rivers, we have furnished them with the proper milieu for individual as well as racial development. For we must not overlook the fact that when these animals make their appearance in numbers, they are already highly differentiated. ‘To a river dweller migrations from the headwaters of one river system to those of another are easily possible, and this is the only way by which we can account for the distribution of these organisms, unless we assume migrations along continuous shore lines which is, however, negatived by the lack of remains in the shore deposits of the period in which they most abound. Furthermore, the segregation into “pools” can be accounted for only by assuming that these “‘pools’’ were fed each by its own river system. 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Verh. d. russ.-kais. min. Gesell. St. Petersburg, 2nd S. Vol. II, No. 13, pp. 217-250, pls. IV, V, VI. Einige Bemerkungen ueber die podolisch-galizische Silurformation und deren Petrefacten. Verhandlungen der Russisch-Kaiserlichen Mineralogischen Gesellschaft, ser. 2, Bd. X, pp. 1-21, taf. 1. Revision der Ostbaltischen silurischen Trilobiten nebst geognostischer Ubersicht des ostbaltischen Silurgebiets. Mem. Acad. Imp. d.Sci. St. Petersbourg. VIle sérié, T. XXX,No.1. Section on Schichten- gruppe K. Obere Oeselsche Schicht, pp. 49-54. On the Silurian (and Cambrian) Strata of the Baltic Provinces of Russia, as Compared with those of Scandinavia and the British Isles. Q. J. G. S.,. Vol. XX XVIII, No. 48, pp. 514-536, with map- Die Crustaceenfauna der Eurypterenschichten von Rootzikill auf Oesel. Mem. Acad. Imp. d. Sci. Saint-Petersbourg, VIIé serie, tome XXXI, No. 5, Miscellanea Silurica III, pp. 28-88, 7 plates. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 273 249. 1800. Bemerkungen iiber die Schichtenfolge des Silur auf Gotland. Zeit. d. d. geol. Gesell, Band II, pp. 249-266. 250. 18091. Einige Bemerkungen iiber das Baltische Obersilur in Veranlassung der Arbeit des Prof. W. Dames iiber die Schichtenfolge der Silur- bildungen Gotlands. Mélanges Géologiques et Paléontologiques tirés du Bull. VAcad. Imp. Sci. St. Peters. Tome I, pp. 119-138. Map of Baltic area. 251. 31892. The Eurypterus-beds of Oesel as Compared with unos of North America. Bull. G. S. A., Vol. III, pp. 59-60. 252. 1002. Communication before the Section of Geology and Mineralogy of Oct. 19, 1902, announcing the discovery of Eurypterus simonsonti. Comptes rendus des Séances, in Travaux de la Société Impériale des Naturalists de St. Pétersbourg. T. X XXIII, livr. 1, No. 6, pp. 202-3 (in Russian). 253. 1904. Ueber die neue Merostomenform Stylonorus (?) simonsoni aus dem Obersilur von Rootzikiill auf Oesel. Bull. Acad. Imp. d. Sci. St. Petersbourgh, tome XX, No. 3, ser. 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Das Mittelbdhmische Obersilur- und Devongebiet siidwestlich der Beraun. Ibid., Bd. XX, heft II, pp. 69-114. SEMPER, Max. 261. 1898. Die Gigantostraken des altern Bohmischen Palaeozoicum. Beitr. zur Pal. u. Geol. Oest.-Ung. u. d. Orients, Bd. XI, pp. 71-88. Taf. XII, text figs. 5-14. SEWARD, A. C. 262. 1g09. Notes on Fossil Plants from the Witteberg Series of Cape Colony. Geol. Mag. dec. 5, Vol. VI, pp. 482-485, pl. XXVIII, figs. 5, 6. SIEMIRADZKI, JOSEPH VON. 263. 1906. Die Paldozoischen Gebilde Podoliens. Beitr. zur. Pal. u. Geol. @ese-Une, md: Orients! Bd) XbxS Heit) UM pp 173-2825 Heft IV, pp. 213-286, Pl. XIX, taf. V, fig. 24. 274 THE HABITAT OF THE EURYPTERIDA Sottas, W. J. 264. 1883. The Estuaries of the Severn and its Tributaries; an Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of their Tidal Sediment and Alluvial Flats. Q. J. G. S., Vol. XX XTX, pp. 611-626. SorByY, HENRY CLIFTON. 265. 1856. On the Physical Geography of the Old Red Sandstone Sea of the Central District of Scotland. 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Summary of Progress of the Geological Survey of the United King- dom for 1897, pp. 72-74, 82-83. 273. 1900. On a New Species of Cephalaspis, discovered by the Geological Survey of Scotland, in the Old Red Sandstone of Oban. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., Vol. XX XIX, part III, No. XX, pp. 591-593, one plate. 274. 1900. On Thelodus Pagei, Powrie, sp. from the Old Red Sandstone of For- farshire. Ibid., No. XXI, pp. 595-602, one plate. 275. 1900. Report on Fossil Fishes collected by the Geological survey of Scot- land in the Silurian Rocks of the South of Scotland. Ibid., No. XXXII, pp. 827-864, 4 pls. THORELL, TAMERLAN AND LINDSTROM, G. 276. 1885. Ona Silurian Scorpion from Gotland. Kongliga Svenska Vetenskap- Akademiens Handlingar. Bandet XXX, Haftet II, No. 0, pp. 1-33, 1 pl. TWENHOFEL, W. H. 277. 1909. The Silurian Section at Arisaig, Nova Scotia. A.J.S. Vol. XX VILI, iO} Wie UtricH, E. 278. tgt1. Revision of the Paleozoic System. Bull. G. S. A., Vol. XXII, No. 3 pp. 281-680, pls: 25-20. VANUXEN, LARDNER. 279. 1843. Geological Report of the Third District of New York. BUFFALO SOCIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES 275 VERRILL, A. E. AND Smita, S. I. 280. 1874. Report upon the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound and Adjacent Waters. , Wancott, CHARLES D. 281. 1882. Notice of the Discovery of a Poecilopod in the Utica Slate Formation. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIII, pp. 151, 152. 282. 1882. Description of a New Genus of the Order Eurypterida from the Utica Slate Formation. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIII, pp. 213-226. 283. 1899. Pre-Cambrian Fossiliferous Formations. Bull. G. S. A., Vol. X, pp- 199-244, pls. XXII, XXIII. 284. 1906. Algonkian Formations of Northwestern Montana. Bull. G. S. A., Vol. XVII, pp. 1-28, pls. 1-11. 285. 1906. Algonkian Formations of Northwestern Montana. Ibid., Vol. XVII, pp. 1-28, pls. I, Il. 286. toro. Evolution of Early Paleozoic Faunas in Relation to their Environ- ment. Outlines of Geological History with Especial reference to North America. Chapter III. 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On the Family of the Eurypteride, with Descriptions of Some New Genera and Species. Reports Brit. Ass. Adv. Sci. for 1864. Trans- actions of Sections, p. 73. 311. 1865. On Some New Species of Crustacea Belonging to the Order Euryp- terida. Q. J. G. S., Vol. X XI, pp. 482-480, pls. XIII, XIV. 312. 1866-1878. Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacea Belonging to the Order Merostomata. Paleontographical Society. 313. 1867. On some Points in the Structure of the Xiphosura, having Reference to their Relationship with the Eurypteride. Q.J.G.S., Vol. XXIII, pp. 28-37, pls. I, II. 314. 1868. On Some New Species of Crustacea from the Upper Silurian rocks of Lanarkshire, etc. Q. J. G. S., Vol. XXIV, pp. 289-206, pls. IX, xe 315. 1871. Extract from the American Naturalist. December, p. 14. 316. 1871. On Euphoberia Brownii, H. Woodw. a new species of Myriopod from the Coal Measures of the West of Scotland. Geol. Mag., Vol. VIII, pp. 102-104, pl. III, figs. 6a, b, c. 317. 1871. 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Geol. Mag., Dec. 5, Vol. IV, pp. 277-282, pl. XIII. Note on the Genus Hastimima from Brazil and the Cape. Loc. cit., Vol. VI, pp. 485-88. The Position of the Merostomata. Geol. Mag., Dec. 5, Vol. X, pp. 293-300. ZITTEL, KARL A. VON. SH 328. 329. IQ00. TgoOo. IQI3. Grundziige der Palaeontologie. Textbook of Palaeontology, Eastman translation of German. Mero- stomata by Clarke, John M. Ibid. Second edition. Vol. I. Merostomata by Clarke, John M. hy bp anit lat \) AW: Ve ca Esco male ve WAIN | 3 9088 01230 6668