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COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY,

AT HARVARD COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

ChJi '^MsinL JjrutUjJJuJk. .

The gift of ChA kqUsia.

NoAlf

BULLETIN

ESSEX INSTITUTE,

VOLUME XXIV.

1892.

SALEM, M ASS.:

PRINTED BY THE SALEM PRESS PUBLISHING AND PRINTING CO.

^-^ 1892.

CONTENTS.

Ou the Older Forms ">t Terra-Cotta Rooflug-Tiles, by Edward
S. Morse, ......

The Reptiles of the Galapagos Islands. From the Collections
of Dr. Geo. Baur, by S. Garman,

On Reptiles collected by Dr. Geo. Baur near Guayaquil, Ecuador
by S. Garman, ......

On Cophlas and Bachia, by S. Garman,

On Texan Reptiles, Collected by Mr. F. W. Wamsley for Pro-
fessor J. W. P. Jenks, curator of the Museum at Brown
University, by S. Garman, ....

Notice to a Soldier, by Joseph Sprague, Major, .

Slavery in Massachusetts, .....

Revolutionary Letter, .....

The Wa-wac-ka-tci-na, A Tusayan Foot Race, by J. Walter
Fewkes, ......

Annals of the Sea Serpent, ....

Annual Meeting, Monday, May 18, 1892,

Officers elected, 138 ; secretary's report, 138 ; librarian's re
port, 144; treasurer's report, 146; report of publication
committee, 147; lectures, 150; necrology of members, 168;
additions to library, 171 ; cabinets, 182.

73

98
110
110
111

113
134
137

AU(.1 *>

180?

H-i'j'i-

BULLETIN

OF THE

Vol. 24. Salem: Jan., Feb., Mar., 1892. Nos. 1, 2, 3.

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF TERRA-COTTA
ROOFING-TILES.i

BY EDWARD S. MORSE.

In tracing out the ethnic relations of past races and the
lines pursued by them in their migrations, the material to
be studied consists not only of the actual remains of man,
but also of the objects and results of his handiwork. If
the objects have written characters upon them, the story
to be unravelled is often easy ; the very style of ornamen-
tation betrays their relationship. Of great value to the
archaeologist are the enduring objects in stone, metal and
terra-cotta. It will be found that those features which per-
tain to the households of a race, and which are successively
taught from father to son, or from mother to daughter,
such as methods of shooting the arrow or of weaving, are
longest persistent.

In language, it is found that those words which have the
deepest root often refer to acts of domestic life which pre-

1 This paper was communicated to the Essex Institute, Dec. 21, 1891. It after-
wards appeared as a series of papers in the American Arcliitect and Building
News. To the courtesy of Ticknor & Co., the publishers of that journal, the Es-
sex Institute is indebted for tlie use of the illustrations in this communication.

(1)

2 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

eminently belong to the family. This fact hokls good with
regard to the house, and, as. we see, the persistent adher-
ence century after century to the same kind of house by
migrating tribes, under widely varying climatic conditions,
attests to this truth. In studying the origin of Egyptian
or Grecian art, the inquirer finds his quest abruptly ended
at the line dividing the imperishable stone structure from
the perishable mud or wooden one that preceded it. The
perishable wooden roof, however, often has associated with
it a covering which is the most lasting. Rock crumbles,
metal oxidizes, but the rudest earthenware is imperishable,
and so the terra-cotta roofing-tiles are often the only sur-
viving relic of a house structure. Furthermore, these
objects, being always associated with the house, are inti-
mately identified with every roof-covered family. The
persistence of certain types of roofing-tiles among peoples
shows the fixedness of a habit. It is a noteworthy fact
that the earliest type of terra-cotta roofing-tile ever ex-
humed still forms the roof-coverinoj of the (jreater mass of
mankind to-day. The enduring nature of these objects
will ultimately enable one to trace the paths followed by
tile-making races in their various migrations. Wherever
the Romans went, the typical Roman tile may be found,
often impressed with the stamp of some Roman Legion.

Realizing the imperishable nature of roofing-tiles, and
the fact that they are scattered all over the world, it has
seemed to me that an inquiry into the various types of terra-
cotta roofing-tiles and their geographical distribution might
be of value. Unfortunately for the American student, the
material to be studied is confined to the Old AVorld, and
one must go there for the purposes of investigation.

It would bean interesting inquiry to learn at what time,
and where, roofing-tiles were first used. When the enrli-
.est hut-builder learned the art of sloping his roof, and

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 3

siipeni(Uled to this .'ichievetnent the hipphig of sheets of
bark, or pahii- leaves, one over the other, as a rain-shield,
the first steps were taken which were to lead to the roof-
ing-tile. That the roofing-tile has a considerable antiquity
is certain. Its appearance in Greece dates back to the
earliest dawn of Greek art, and yet before this, in Asia
Minor, there was a time when the tile was not. Schlie-
mann, in his great work, "//^os, the City and Country of
the Trojans,'" in describing the relics found in the ruins of
the first prehistoric city of the hill of Hissarlik shows the
almost universal use of pottery by the people. Utensils
for every-day life, terra-cotta funeral urns, large terra-
cotta bowls, weights for their fishing-nets, handles for their
brushes, and even hooks to hang their clothes upon were
all made of pottery. "Thus we cannot be astonished in
finding in the debris of their cities such large masses of
broken pottery among which, however, there is no trace
of tiles " (p. 214). He infers from this that the flat roof
which is found to-day in that region prevailed at that time.
Dorpfeld, in a memoir on the origin of the Doric style (a
translation of which, by Mr. Edward Robinson, was pub-
lished in the Technology Architectural Review, Vol. iii,
Nos. 2 and 3), says it was the invention of the terra-cotta
roofing-tile that first made the construction of a sloping
roof possible. It is probable that the roofing-tile was in-
troduced into Greece from the East, fully developed, and
with its introduction the roof, which had before been flat,
could now be made sloping. The sloping roof must have
preceded the roofing-tile by many thousands of years ; at
the outset, bark, straw, thatch, rough stones and similar
substances were used until better devices were made, which
finally culminated in the terra-cotta roofing-tile, the oldest
known type of which is, by far, the most common form
of roofing-tile in the world to-day.

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

The antiquity of the sloping roof is hinted at in the
finding of cinerary vessels in the form of huts, and conse-
quently known as hut urns. These have been found in
Italy, Saxony and other parts of Europe. It is believed
that they were made before the age of iron in their respective
places. It is interesting to observe that all of them show,
not only a sloping roof but a thatched roof as well, with

Fig. 3.

Figs. 1-3. Hut urns from Saxony in Museum
filr Volkerkunde, Berlin.

Fig. 2. In Vatican Museum, Rome.

Fig. 4. From Alba Longa. A better figure
is given in Dennis's " Cities and Cemeteries
of Eiruria," Vol. l,;p. Ixix.

the characteristic cross-pieces on the ridge, a feature of
the thatched roof which may be seen to-day in every part
of the world (figs. 1, 2, 3 and 4).

The sequence in the development of the roofing-tile
will have to be studied in Asia Minor, or more probably
in China. From the high development and great antiquity
of the fictile art in China, and the early and artistic de-
velopment of the tiled roof in that country, one might be
led to believe that in China — the ancestral home of so
many arts — the roofing-tile originated. Graeber, in a

TEKRA-COTTA KOOFING-TILI-:S. 5

memoir to be referred to later on, descril)es what ho be-
lieves to be the earliest known terra-cotta roofing-tiles.
These were found in the ruins of the Temple of Hera, at
Olynipia, dating nearly a thousand years before Christ.
This ancient tile consists of two elements, a wide under

piece (tegula) slightly
curved, and a narrow,
semi-cylindrical piece
(imbrex) which was
placed in an inverted
position so as to cover
the junction of two adja-
FiG. 5. cent tegulse (fig. 5).

Of significance, also, is the statement that the open end
of the imbrex, where it bordered the eaves, is closed by a
circular disk, ornamented in rosette pattern. To iind the
counterpart of this we have to go to Korea and Japan and,
presumably, China. Fortunately, the varied tastes of the
Japanese collector have led to the treasuring-up of old roof-
ing-tiles, either for their antiquity or because they were
associated with some famous temple. In Japan, one may
often see an old tile that has been dug up utilized for
an ink-stone. Ninagawa, the famous Japanese antiqua-
rian, contemplated the publication of an illustrated work
on ancient roofing-tiles, to form one of the numbers of his
^^Kwan ko dzu setsu." The lithographic plates were pre-
pared for this number ; Avhether the text was ever published
I cannot say. Fortunately securing a set of these plates,
I managed to get from the author, some years before his
death, the names and dates of the tiles figured. As to the
ages attributed to these there may be some doubt, but that
some are Korean is a matter easily established by an ex-
pert in pottei'y, as the clay at once reveals the origin of
the piece. Some of these were believed by Ninagawa to

6 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

be from eleven to twelve hundred years old. One is said
to have come from Asiatic Turkey and to be two thousand
years old. It is interesting to observe that the tiles are
not only large and massive, but that those made for bor-
dering the eaves have widened margins, variously deco-
rated, generally in scroll pattern, and the joint tile, or
imbrex, as it is to-day in China and Japan, has one end
closed by a circular disk, and what is very interesting in
these ancient tiles is that, in nearly every case, the deco-
ration is that of a rosette pattern ! The following figures
(figs. 6 and 7) are roughly sketched from the plates in

question with their identifications as given by Ninagawa.
The tiles are in every case very thick, and roughly made ;
in many instances the under surface bears cloth-mark im-
pressions. Furthermore, all the specimens figured whether
from Japan or Korea belong to the normal form of tile,
with curved tegula and semi-cylindrical imbrex. This is
the earliest form of tile known to the Japanese, and tiles
of this kind are called by them Ilongawara or true tile.
This form of tile is to-day the common form of tile in Ko-
rea, China, Cochin China, India, as well as in all those
countries bordering the Mediterranean. When found far-

TERRA- COTTA ROOFINU-TILES.

ther north in Europe it is usually to be seen on the older
buildings and is the tile most often seen depicted in mediae-
val paintings of places outside of Belgium and Holland.

If this form of tile really represent the earliest type,
one might readily believe that its form was derived from
sections of bark which must have come early into use as
a roof-covering. In lapping the sections of bark from the
eaves to the ridge, the concave as well as smooth sur-
fece, would be placed uppermost as forming the best water
gutters. Other sections of bark, perhaps from smaller
trees, would have been used to cover the joints of the
larger pieces and these Avould have been placed with their
convex surfaces uppermost. Such surmises are quite
justifiable when one sees so many forms of pottery whose
shapes have been derived from natural objects, as shown
in the Pitt-Eivers collection in the Ethnological Museum
at Oxford. [Professor Tylor, its director, has brought
out in a striking manner similar relations in other depart-
ments of the collection.] In other museums, notably the
museums in Stockholm and Copenhagen, the change from
stone to bronze and iron shows successive derivations of
form from objects first made in a ruder material or from
natural objects.

As the origin of roofing-tiles is probably not lost in a
very dim past, philology may throw some light on the sub-
ject. The material of which they are made is among the
most enduring of man's fabrications and the earliest form
must sometimes be found.

The arrangement of feathers on a bird in shedding the
rain would have given a sufficient hint for the proper ar-
rangement of material on a sloping i-oof. From the rough
natural substances used in the prehistoric roof there came,
not only slabs of wood, flat pieces of stone, terra-cotta
tiles of many kinds, but worked marble tiles (620 n. c.)

8 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

modelled after the terra-cotta tile, small bronze tiles in
Pliny's time, thin cleavages of slate, continuous sheet-
metal roofs and metal sheets modelled after the forms of
interlocking tiles.

As to the relative merit of these various roof-coverings I
am not prepared to speak, nor is it with any intention of
urging the economic value of this material that this paper
is prepared ; it seems, however, that the terra-cotta tile
roof, when properly made is, all things considered, one of
the cheapest and most durable. It is certainly one of the
oldest and widest distributed.

Definitions. — At this point it becomes necessary to de-
fine the difierent types of rooting-tiles now in use. Leav-
ing out of consideration all forms of interlocking tiles, and
recent modifications of the prevailing types now so well
known, we find among the older forms three distinct
types. 1

The earliest form of roofing-tile known consists of two
elements, a wide tile (tegula) either square or rectangular,
more or less curved in section, and a narrow semi-cylin-
drical tile (imbrex) usually slightly tapering at one end to
fit into the wider opening of the one adjoining. The tegula
is placed on the roof, concave face upward, and the imbrex,
placed concave face downward, covers the lateral joint be-
tween two adjacent teguloe. I have not been able to learn
of any special English name for this tile ; in Grcrmany, it is
known as the hollow tile. From the fact that it is the earli-
est known tile, Graeber, in his exhaustive discussion of the

^ It would be interesting to clear up the nomeuclature of rooflng-tiles as some
confusion exists through the same name being applied to diflereut forms of tiles,
thus tlie latest dictionary— "jTfte Center?/,"— almost encyclopaedic in its character,
gives under the definition of crown tile the English interpretation thus: "I. A flat
tile, a plain tile. II. A large bent tile or arched tile usually called a hip or ridge
tile, etc." These tiles are in reality two entirely different forms of tiles and neither
could be used for the purposes of the other. The synonymy would have to be
worked out by some student on the ground and versed iu the subject.

TEUltA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 9

varieties of rootinii-tiles in ancient Greece and adjacent
countries, uses the name of normal tile for this form. The
varieties of this tile and the different ways of using it may
be designated in Uiis |)a[)er as follows : When the tegnla is
used as an imbrex, as in China and India, it may be called
the normal tile {teg.) When the imbrex is used as tegula,
as in Mediterranean countries, it may be mentioned as nor-
mal tile (zWj.) the ancient Grecian and Roman modification
as norma! tile {fled). The pan tile is one having a double
flexure forming in section the letter co and is known in
some parts of Germany as the S-tile. This tile is an evident
adaptation from the normal tile in comhining the two ele-
ments imbrex and tegula in one piece. Originating in Bel-
gium or Holland, one can easily conceive a thrifty and frugal
people devising an economy of handling in making one
piece serve the purposes of two.

The flat tile, or, as it is known in England, the plain tile,
has no genetic relation to the other forms of tiles. It is
simi)ly a shingle in terra-cotta. It is rectangular in shape,
flat, often secured to the roof by nailing, and used, as shin-
gles are used, on the vertical side of a house. In roofing,
the tiles are adjusted precisely as wooden shingles are by
lap[)ingand breaking joints. The Geinian name, flat tile,
will be retained as being more descriptive andprobably hav-
ing priority.

The following outlines (fig. 8) represent in a general
way the types and varieties of roofing-tiles with their dis-
tril)ution. It should be understood that colonies past and
present of these respective countries, so far as I know, ad-
here to the form of roofing-tile of the parent country. As
an illustration, the few evidences of ancient roofing-tiles
in this country trace the flat tile ; discovered by Mr. E. A.
Barber in Peniisylvania, to German settlers ; the pan tile,

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 2

10

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

discovered by Dr. C. C. Abl)ott on Burlington Lsland,
Delaware River, on the site of an old Dutch House, to
Dutch settlers ; and, in California, the normal tile (Jmb.) to
the old S})anish Jesuits.

It should also be stated that, on the borders of countries
usini^ different tiles, the tiles intermix ; thus France alonsf

Normal
(Asiiitic.)

I

The Orient, Ancient Greece
ana Italy.

China, India.

The Orient, and Mediterranean
Countries south of latitude
44°.

Greece and Italy, Ancient and
Modein.

Pan
(Belgic).

England, Scandinavia.

Belgium, Holland, Scandi-
navia, Japan, Java.

INIodern, various countries.

Flat
(Germanic).

Germany, Austria, Hungary,
Poland, Switzerland,France,
England.

the shores of the Mediterranean uses the n(n-mal t\\e{imb.) ;
and on German territory, contiguous to Belgium and Hol-
land, the pan tile is often seen.

It will also be found that water-ways have led to the
wide dispersion of roofing-tiles, and the occurrence of the
pan tile in Poland is probably due to the distribution of
this tile along the shores of the Baltic, as the normal tile
(imh.)h found bordering both shores of the Mediterra-
nean.

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TrLES.

11

CHINA.

Cliina exceeds iill other countries in the worki iuthe skill
shown in the use of the rooHng-tile. Moreover, China,
with Korea and Japan, has treated the tile in an artistic

way as no other
countries have done,
except ancient
(ireece and Home.
The normal tile is
Fig. 9. universally seen as

a roof-covering from Pekin through Cochin China and
Anam to the Mala}' peninsula.

The tiles are utilized in a variety of ways as a decorative
feature for the roof. Massive ridges are made of them ;
even gateways of com-
mon country houses
will have a heavy
ridge of tiles. Around
Shanghai, these ridges
are formed by broad,
fiat tiles placed on
end and packed close
together like books on
a shelf. At the ends of
the ridge they are
held up by what ap-
pears to bean upturn-
ed sheet of metal. In
the native city of
Shanghai, a small,
square, slightly-
curved tile is used the

same answering for ^^^ j^

teguhi and imbrex. The eaves tile has a flange below ; in
some cases the under course of eaves tile is simple (fig. 9)

12 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

while in other cases both tegula and imbrex bordering the
eaves have tianges. In the Shanghai house the wall pro-
jects slightly above the eaves, and upon this the tiles are
placed on end as above described. Outside this is a cor-
nice of tiles terminating in eaves tiles (tig. 10 j. On the
ridge the tiles, placed on end like books, incline from the
middle to both ends of the ridge. The_y do not appear to
lie attached in any way. Farther south, at Hong Kong

and Canton, the eaves tiles
are usually simple. At Hong
^■, Kong the imbrex is narrow
YiQ_ u. 'i"^^ arch-shape (tig. 11), the

eaves having two layers of tcgulie without margin, and
the imbrex open. The ordinary Pekin tile has a nearly
square tegula, 22 centimetres wide, s^lightly bent and quite
thin. In the eaves tiles, botli in imbrex and tegula, the
disk and margin are made separately in a mould, andafter-
wards attached to the tile proper. These portions have
flowers and othoi- decorations in relief. The tile portion is

Fig. 12.
evidently made by rolling the clay into a thin sheet and
then cutting out pieces of proper dimensions for the im-
brex and tegula, and bending them over forms of the re-
quired shape. Fig. 12 represents specimens from Pekin

TEIIIIA-COTTA KOOFING-TILKS.

13

in the museum of the Peabody Aciiclemy of Science,
Siilem. Fig. 13 is tigurcd from specimeii.s of Pekin tiles
in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Fig. 14 represents
tiles in the Summer Palace at Pekin ruthlessly destro^'ed
by the British. These are sketched from specimens in the
South Kensington Museum. Figs. 13 and 14 are glazed
a light bluish-green.

A work entitled Illustrated Cldna and its People, by J.

Thompson, con-
tains some con-
spicuous exam-
ples of Chinese
architecture,
notably the Ti-
enhon-kung or
"Queen of Heav-
^'''■'''- en Temple" at

Ningpo. This wonderful structure as well as certain mon-
umental buildings in and about Pekin, as, for example,
the sacrificial-hall at the tomb of Yung-lo and the Bronze
Temple at Pekin, and structures at Canton and elsewhere,
all show the use of the normal tile, the eaves tegula3 in

some cases having very long and pointed margins, with
edges scalloped. The Imperial College, Pekin, is tiled
after the style seen at Shanghai (that is, with tegula used
as imbrex), but with wide, and flaring margins on the

14 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

eaves tiles, the imbrex in this case having a supplementary
flange, which flares above (fig. 15).

Photographs of streets in Pekin show a roofing-tile not
unlike the usual ft)rm seen in Shanghai. A modern tile

Fig. 15.

of hard, white stone-ware, richly glazed is said to be Chi-
nese. It is a modern production (fig. 16), in Museum of
Fine Arts, Boston.

COCHIN CHINA.

In the Colonial Exhibit at the Paris Exposition, a build-
ing was erected representing a type of the Cochin China
house, in fact the entire building was brought from Ton-
quin. The roofing-tiles as shown in this structure difiered
in no respects from those found in China proper (fig. 17).

TEURA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

15

KOREA.

The notes concerning the rootiii^-tiles of Korea, I gather
entirely from Mr. Percival Lowell's interesting work enti-
tled Chosdn. The Land of the Morning Calm. From

the ilhistrations of
this hook, reproduced
from photographs
made by its accom-
])lished author, I am
able to present the ac-
tio. 17. companying figures.

The Korean roofing-tile is of the normal type and is de-
rived directly from China. In the common houses and
shops there is no attempt at architectural eiJect in the way
of a heavy or ornamental ridge, though a simple tiled
ridge is seen on all the buildings, neither are the eaves
tiles different from the others except that the tegulse are
often doubled at the eaves. The end of the imbrex is
simply closed with white plaster (fig. 18.)

On the better class of buildings, especially certain pa-
vilions in the new palace grounds, the eaves teguke have

16

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

widely turned margins which are also flaring, projecting at
such an angle as to hold the snow, as shown in one of the
photographs. This expanded margin has a simple design
in relief. The imbrex is also closed by an oval disc, with

Fig. 19.

a simple design in relief. The oval form of the disc is
produced by its diagonal position on the semi-cylindrical
imbrex (fig. 19). In a collection of photograi)hs taken by
Mr. Lowell, and not published in his book, other forms of
eaves tiles are shown associated with pavilions in the Em-

jjeror's grounds.
One form is rep-
resented in fig.
20. In some
l)uildings a few
Fig. 20. of these peculiar

tegul;\} decorate the eaves lor a few courses from the cor-
ner of the roof (mly, while the remaining portion of the
eaves show simple tegulas. The ridge is also a more con-
spicuous structure than is seen on the common buildings,
though not approaching the Japanese tiled ridge in size or
complexity. The end of the ridge terminates in an in-
verted eaves teguhi with broad, turned margin.

h is a curious connnentary on the shiftless and })ovcrty-

TERRA-COTTA ROOFINO-TILES.

17

stricken ways of the people to observe in one of the mcaiii
streets of the capital, awkwardly-shaped thatched roofs in
jnxtaposition to simple tiled ones.

Korean roofing-tiles are bedded in nind and clay as is the
custom in Japan. Fig. 21 is reproduced from a tracing

made from a native Korean drawing in the National Mu-
seum in Washington. This sketch represents Korean tilers
engaged in tiling a roof. One is occupied in drawing up
the tiles by ineans of a rope, while another is catching
balls of mud or clay which are being tossed up to him
from below.

JAPAN.

The form of roofing-tile varies in different parts of Japan.
In the southern part the normal tile {imb.) is in common

use, the pan tile
(Yedo tile) is
also commonly
seen. In Tokio
_ the normal tile

^'*^ ^-- reveals alongthe

eaves either a simple tegula or one with turned margin,

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 3

18

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

with decoration in relief; the eaves imbrex is always closed
by a circular disc having in relief the Tokugawa crest, or
the crest of some Daimio (fig. 22). An eaves iml)rex is
shown in lig. 23. The usual tile in Tokio, as well as in

Kioto, is a slight
modification of the
pan tile known as
theYedotile. This
tile liketheBelgian
form has one curved
and one flat sur-
face. The tiles of
this kind bordering
the eaves have, in
Fig- 24. one form, the plain

flange, the lower edge of which, instead of following the
curve of the tile, is straight (fig. 24). Fig. 25 represents
a roof covered with this form of tile. In the usual form
of this tile, however, the eaves tile carries upon it an

imitation of the eaves normal tile, the circular disc of the
imbrex portion projecting beyond that portion represent-
ing the tegula (fig. 26). In Nagasaki the pan tile border-
ing the edge of the gable is bent abruptly downward.

TERKA-COTTA KOOFING-TILES.

19

It may be observed as a curious feature that in Japan
the pan tile laps to the left as seen from the ground, while
in all other countries, with rare exceptions, it laps to the
right. (Here is added another of the curious instances of re-
versal which some writ-
ers seem to be so fond
of connoting.) The tem-
ples and castles in Japan
are usually covered
with the normal tile.
When the roof is cov-
ered with metal, as is often the case, rounded ribs are in-
troduced to carry out the appearance of the ridges made
by the imbrices, even to the circular discs and turned mar-
gins at the eaves. In the province of Iwami a simple pan
tile is made having a glazed surface. A o-lazed ridge-tile

is also made in this province, angular in section, so as to
rest like a saddle on the roof (fig. 27A).

Two hundred years ago a pan tile, brown glazed, was
made in the province of Bizen. A temple at Uyeno in
Tokio, burned at the time of the Revolution in 1868, was
covered with these tiles (fig.

28). The Tokio tile is made ^^""^^^^-^

of a dark gray clay, smooth. ^^T ^^s^

and presenting a nearly V^ \. -^

black surface ; it is quite ^V >5^-..-__.— -<^^^
thick though light. ^\y^

I know of no roofing-tile

that approaches the Japanese tile in perfection of finish :
they are also much higher priced than any other tile known

20 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

to me. In comparison, the Chinese tile seems roughly
made, is thin, and often warped. The India tile is equally
poor in workmanship. So accurately made are the Jap-
anese tiles that roots may be seen covered with a broad,
slightly curved tegula, no imbrex being used (fig. 29).
These tiles, like all Japanese tiles, are bedded in mud, and
in this instance the edges of the tiles are so straight as to
meet together quite perfectly. Simple tegulse are often
used as ridge-tiles on a thatched roof (fig. 27B).

In the better class of tiled roofs it is customary to point
with white plaster a number of courses of tiles from the

ridge, the hip and the eaves, and in some cases the whole
tiled surface is treated in this way.

The Japanese ridge is often a very complex and remark-
able structure, sometimes of ponderous proportions, with
supplementary ridges running down on the hips, and even
diverticular ridges near the eaves. These are, or ought to
be, built up of tiles and plaster, but oftentimes the bulk
of the mass is made up of a carpenter's device consisting
of a framework covered with boards, the sides plastered
white and having all the appearance of a solid mass of
plaster and tiles (fig. 30). The terminal ridge-pieces are
often marvels of the tile-maker's art.

Mr. Kashiwagi, a Japanese antiquarian of Tokio, told
me that he had records of sreen-olazed roofiii2;-tiles of the

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

21

normal type being used in Japan over a thousand years
aofo ; whether made in Japan or imported is not known.
Ninagawa figures in his work on Japanese pottery frag-
ments of what he considered tlie first glazed pottery made in
Japan, and these show a green gkze.

Fig. 30.

In the following figures are shown, by way of compari-
son, a Japanese (Nagasaki) tiled roof (fig. 31) and the
roof of the Temple of Hera, at Olympia (fig. 32), as re-
stored l)y Graeber. The terminal ridge-tile, the imbrex
closed by a circular disc (not, however, represented in
fig. 31), the plain tegula at the eaves with simple margin,

Fig. 31. Fig. 32.

present striking resemblances between roofs separated by
nearly three thousand years in time and thousands of miles
in space. (For further information regarding tiled roofs
in Japan see Morse's Japanese Homes and their Surround-
ings. )

22 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

So fill- as museum specimens and photographs have en-
abled me to judge, the roofing-tiles used everywhere in
India are of the normal type (usually imh.). Judging by
the form of the imbrex as shown in photographs of Bom-
bay houses, it would seem that in their manufacture a
tapering cylinder of clay is turned on a potter's-wheel, and
then cut in halves longitudinally, and these halves are used
as tegula and imbrex. As an evidence of this, in the Bora-
bay roof the tiles bordering the eaves terminate as cylin-
drical tiles, the tapering end entire and projecting slightly
beyond the eaves, while the larger end is cut half-way
through to acconnnodate the overlapping and inverted tiles

that cover the under courses, as shown in fig. 33 (sketched
from a photograph in the India Museum, London).

In Madras the normal tile {leg.) is used. In some cases
the eaves have two thicknesses of tegulte below and three
above (fig. 34). The tiles used at Poona, near Bombay,
are a variety of the normal type (fig. 35), the teguloe
being flat with upturned edges.

This tile is 23 centimetres long ; the exposed edge is
14 centimetres wide and tapers rapidly to a width of 9
centimetres, with rounded ends. The imbrex is semi-
cylindrical, 28 centimetres long, 10 centimetres across at
the exposed end, and tapers to a width of 6 centimetres.

TEURA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

23

These tiles are light-colored, porous, and very roughly
made. The specimen figured is in the gi-eat Indian col-
lection made by Dr. Jagor, now in the Museum fiir Vol-
keriiunde, Berlin. From a few photographs that I have
seen of Indian houses tliere seems to be no moditication
of the eaves tiles for architectural effect.

The English buildings in Agra and an English church
in Bombay, and doubtless English buildings in other parts
of the empire, are covered with the ordinary pantile.

CEYLON.

At Columbo the normal tile (imb.) is seen, the eaves
tile having a double imbrex. At Candy, the famous
temple is roofed with flat tiles having square ends, pre-
senting in the photograph the appearance of a shingled
roof. Other buildings near the temple are covered with
the normal tile (imb.).

PERSIA.

Judging by the few pictures and descriptions available,
the normal tile {imb.) seems to be the one in common use.
In former times, judging by the high skill attained by the

24 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

Persians ill brick enamelling, and the wonderfully glazed,
flat tiles for interior decoration, the palaces and mosques
must have presented a most beautiful and brilliant api)ear-
ance. In the article "Tiles'' m" Encf/dopcedia jBriiannica,^'
it is stated that the roofs of some of these important struct-
ures "are covered with magnificent, lustrous tiles decorat-
ed with elaborate painting, so that they shine like gold in
the sun. They were especially used from the thirteenth
to the fifteenth century." From this statement one gets
no idea of the form of tile used.

The high attainment reached in relief work and colored
enamels by the early Persians may be seen in the wonder-
ful wall made of brick brought back from Persia by M.
Dieulafoy, and displayed in a special room at the Louvre.
On this wall are depicted in colored enamels a number of
archers, known as the Susaarchers.

TURKEY.

Photographs of buildings in Constantinople and other
places show the universal use of the noimal tile (imb.) ;
the semi-cylindrical ridge-tile accompanies it. The Con-
stantinople tile seems slightly more angular in section than
that of Italy.

• SYRIA.

In Jerusalem and'Jaffa, the normal tile (imb.) seems
the only roofing-tile in use. The joints between the tiles
are often pointed with plaster.

EGYPT.

When a tiled roof is seen, it is covered with the normal
type (imb.). The courses are laid close together, as in
the modern Greek roof, and, as in the Greek roof, the
interstices between the tiles at the caves are filled with
plaster.

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 25

GREECE.

Tlie normal tile is the only fonii seen in Greece and the
adjacent islands. The nsnal narrow form {imb.) common
to the Mediterranean countries is also the prevailing form
in Greece. In many instances the two elements of the
tile are less cylindrical than those of Italy. Greece is the
only countr}' in Europe in which the broad, curved tegula
with narrow imbrex is seen. In Eleusis, roofs covered
with this typical normal tile occur. In Messenia the wide
tegula is used as an imbrex, as in China. On the old
cathedral at Athens, a Byzantine structure dating back to
the early part of the thirteenth century, a large curved

tegula with narrow
/f^^''^)^^^,^^ imbrex is found

(fig. 36) ; all the
courses are thickly
Fig. 30. plastered and bear

the marks of great age, and at the eaves the imbrex is
snpported some distance from the tegula by a mass of
stucco. The dome is also covered with the same kind of
tiling, the teguloe being cut tapering as they approach the
apex of the (h)me, the iml)rices standing out as prominent
longitudinal ribs from the apex of the dome to its base.
There is also another Byzantine church in Athens roofed
with the same kind of tile.

In the modern houses at Athens and in other places the
tiles are more flattened than is usual with this form, and
at the eaves the upper and lower elements are separated
by a considerable space and filled with white stucco. This
presents the a[)pearance of an imbricated edge along the
eaves. With the exception of certain examples in Spain
this is the only attempt, so far as I have been able to as-
certain, at the ornamentation of the eaves tiles seen west

ESSKX INST. BULLKTIN, VOL. XXIV 4

26 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

of Chinu. In some places in Greece, as at Eleiisis, for
example, the tiled roof shows broad bands of white painted
tiles at the ridge, hip and eaves, with an intermediate
band in the middle of the roof; other bands cross these at
right angles to the ridge. In the photographs rectangular
areas of dark tiles show between these white bands. A
treatment of the roof presenting a similar appearance is
often seen in Japan and Siam, in these cases white plaster
being used. At many places, as at Delphi, Dimitzana
and Catania it is customary to place upon the tiles angu-
lar fragments of stone ; these are placed parallel to the
ridge, hips and eaves. Occasionally the same treatment
may be seen in Constantinojde and Stamboiil.

In none of the various forms of normal tile seen in
Greece to-day is there an eaves tegnla with turned margin,
or an eaves imbrex, closed by a circular disc. In all other
respects, however, the normal tile approaches nearer the
Asiatic tile, as seen in China, Cochin China, Korea and
Japan than does that of any other country west of these
regions unless we except the rough example from Poona,
India, where the tegnla is wide.

ANCIENT GREECE.

A jreneral idea of the roodni>-tiles of ancient Greece
may be gleaned from the article "Tiles" in the Encyclo-
l^mlia Bvitannica. Under this title the terra-cotta and
massive marble tiles used on monumental buildings are
briefly described and tigui-ed.

In a memoir entitled Terrakotten am Geisoii, etc., by
Dorpfeld, Graeber, Bori'mann and Siebold, a minute de-
scription is given of the terra-cotta rooting-tiles, ridge
and terminal ridge-tiles, antifixee, etc., of certain ancient
Grecian temples. Of particular interest is the descri[)ti()n
of the rooting-tiles foimd on the site of the Temple of
Ilera at Olympia. This temple is one of the earliest ex-

TEKRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 27

.'unples of Greek Jirchi lecture elating back, at least, eight
or nine centuries befoi-e the Christian era. It will be no-
ticed that tliis earliest known rooting-Mhi which Graeber
designates as the normal tile, has a wide curved tegula,
and a narrow semi-cylindrical iml)rcx (tig. 5) being iden-
tical with the Oriental one (compare tig. 11). The size
of the tegula was 1.50 metres in length by .50 centimetres
in breadth. Graeber says that this tile, connnon in the
]Middle Ages, is still much used to-day ; it is particularly
associated with convent roofs. I have before remarked
that this normal tile of Graeber's differs from the normal
tile in that region to-day in having a wide tegula and nar-
row imbrex. The nearest approach to this in the Middle
Ages is the one seen on the old cathedral at Athens.

Graeber states that these early rooHng-tiles of the Tem-
ple of Hera were covered with a black glaze ; he also says
that glazed tiles have been determined from Argos and
Mycenae. The tiles, however, on the Temple of Hera at
Argos were not glazed. It is also stated that a few mon-
umental buildings in Sicily, Italy, Peloponnesus and Ath-
ens reveal the use of rooting-tiles. Besides this primitive
normal tile described by Graeber, there is auother form
of tile which must be regarded as an outgrowth from the
normal tile, inasmuch as a narrow imbrex covers the line
of junction between two adjacent tegulfe. In the last
mentioned form the tegula is rectangular in shape, flat,
with lateral edges turned upward as shown in tig. 37.
Graeber describes two varieties of these, one found in
Greece in which the upturned edge stands at right angles
to the flat portion as shown in fig. 38. In the earlier
forms of this variety the reflexed edge is low and is ac-
companied by a semi-cylindrical imbrex. At a very early
date, however, the angular imbrex makes its appearance,
and from the time marble tiles were adopted from the
terra-cotta form, this becomes the definitive sliape of the

28 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

imbrex. The other variety is peculiar to Sicily : in this
the upturned edge preserves a convex surface ; this form
is also found in lower Italy, but is not exclusive, as other
varieties also occur in that region. Fig. 37 represents
the Sicilian form.

Fig. 37.

In the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, are fragments of
tiles from Assos, Asia Minor, dating not farther back than
the Roman epoch. The following figure (fig. 38) is a
restoration showing the appearance of this tile in position.

FIG. 38.

It will be seen that the eaves tegula has its maro:in turned
down and bears upon its face an ornamental design in re-

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

29

lief. The eaves imbrex has its end closed, not by a cir-
cuhir disc, but by a broad ornamental piece standing erect
with anthemion decoration in relief. These designs vary
greatly in different fragments, but are all of the same gen-
eral nature. The roof imbrex continues the same width
over the ridge spanning it like a saddle, and has a similar
process [)rojecting u[)\vard at the crest with decoration in
relief on both sides. A ridge-tile of the foim of a plain
imbrex probably covered the junction of the tegulge at the
crest. This treatment of the ridge-tile has no parallel in
the Orient so far as I know. In another form the ridge-
tile is semi-cylindrical bearing a leaf-like crest decorated
in polychrome ; on the lower edge a portion is cut out to
admit the ends of the semi-cylindrical imbrices as they
approach the crest (tig. 39). This figure is copied from

Boetticher's work on Olympia (p. 207 "i and represents a
tile from the treasury of the Geloans (Sicilians) at Olym-
pia. In the minute investigation of this subject n)ade
by Graeber, he often alludes to the great variety in the
minor details of the roofing-tiles seen on these ancient
sites. Referring to Olympia, he says : "still more striking
than the diversity of the clay material is the multiformity
of the kinds of construction presented by the antique roof
in Olympia. The terra-cotta roofs there offer such a
wealth of forms that one has well-nigh to doubt that all of
them sprang from a handicraft native to Olympia, or to
the district of Elis, and to l)elieve rather that they repre-

30 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

sent an ao^a'roiration similar to that in a mnseum of all the
constrnctions cnstomaiy in Greece, Lower Italy and Sicily,
and this snpposition has ventied itself, for further studies
showed that at the places in Greece and Italy, which we
visited, certain particular kinds of construction are used
almost exclusively, and that the variety and midtiplicity
of forms found at Olympia occurred nowhere else to the
same extent."

Speaking of the marble roof, Graeber says : "The gen-
eral system and scheme of the antique marble roof is well
known through many publications. This system, however,
has not been invented for the marble roof, but had its
prototype in the clay-tile roof. The antique roof had to
pass through centuries of evolution till it attained that per-
fection which we admire in the Parthenon of Athens, and
the Zeus Temple of Olympia and many other ediHces. As
regards elegance, one may even say subtility of perfection,
the Greek tile roof ranks even above the marble roof."

I cannot forbear quoting further from this valuable me-
moir of Graeber's. He says in regard to the attachment
of tiles on the roof: "A securing of the tiles on the raft-
ers by means of nails did not take place ; onl}^ the lowest
tile, next to the gutter, was always secured by iron or
bronze nails to the rafter. All tiles with nail-holes, there-
fore, belong, without exception, to the gutter, and just so
little did the tiles have projections for hanging them to
the laths as it is assumed erroneously of the marl)le roofs,
but they rested directly on the rafters, and maintained
themselves in their position in part by their weight, in
part by supporting themselves throuirh the next lower tile
by means of the cutting on their lower surface. This may
have occasioned, under certain circumstances, a heavy
strain; for instance, a sliding down, involving even the
lowest gutter or moulding tiles." And he refers to the

TriURA-COTTA UOOFINO -TILES.

31

condition of things at the Zeus Teniijle at Olytnpia as due
to the sliding down of the tiles in this manner.

Graeber jiresents a restoration of the edge of the roof
of Tenii)le C. Selinus, Sicily (tig. 40). Flere the elevated
process or antitixa of the eaves imbrex is now detached,
and forms a separate piece, which is nailed to the stone
coping, and the turned margin of the eaves tegula is also
separate, and is nailed to the face of the coping-stone.
These various elements were moulded in relief and beau-
tifully decorated in polychrome. This tem[)le is supposed
to date from 600 b. c.

Fig. 40.

Reference has been made to the marble tiles following
the form of the later terra-cotta tiles. It has also been
shown that the i)an tile of Europe has been derived from
the normal tile by combining in one piece the upper and
lowei- elements. It is interesting to observe that in the
marble tiles of ancient Greece the same combination is
shown in some, where the imbrex and fiat tegula with up-
turned edge are combined, and, curiously enough, the
lap is to the right, as followed by the pan tile of Europe.

ITALY.

Throughout Italy, the usual covering for house roofs is
the normal tile {imb.). The tiles vary somewhat in size.
In Pa via and Bavenna the tiles are quite large, and in

32

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

section somewhat aiiiriilar. In Verona, the tiles appear
quite long. Photographs of Parma, Milan, Pavia, Bologna
and other cities reveal minor peculiarities in the manner
of tiling. In some cases courses of imiirices are close to-
gether, and the tiles are often crowded in the courses from
eaves to ridge. Tliere is no alignment of the tiles, as in
Chinese, Korean and Japanese tiling, and the work always
seems slovenly done.

In Verona, fragments of tiles are inserted in the in-
ter-spaces between the
ridge-tiles and their
junction with the roof-

tiles, as shown in fig. 41 .
At Certosa and Milan
rows of imbrices with
^'^- *^- their concave faces up-

permost are placed between the I'ows of imbrices in their
normal position. In other words, after the roof is tiled
in the ordinary way, an additional layer is put on in an
inverted position between the rows of imbrices. The roofs
are low pitched and this extra layer probably otters an
additional security.

Beside the normal tile there is often seen a broad flat
tile, with lateral

edges turned up ac
c o m p a n i e d by
semi-cylindrical im-
brex. This tile is
used in Rome, Flor-
ence, Sienna, Pisa,
Kavenna and doubt- fig. 42.

less in other cities of Italy. An examination of a large
series of photographs shows it to be more common in
central Italy. On the roof slopes the broad tegula may
be seen in certain courses used as an imbrex (fig. 42).

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 33

This broad tile bedded in stucco is also used as a ridge-
tile as shown in the last figure (fig. 42). This tile is a
direct survival of the ancient Roman tile which in turn
has been derived from the Greeks, unless both Greeks
and Romans were indebted to the Etruscans for it. The
modern tile is much smaller and thinner. It is often rep-
resented in the pictures of old Italian masters (fig. 43).
(From a painting b}' Botticelli in Dresden gallery.)

Fig. 43.
A modern tile, probably interlocking, quite small in
size, but made somewhat after the style of the tile last
described, is occasionally seen. The tegula tapirs much
\more abruptly and is used as an imbrex.

ANCIENT ITALY.

The ancient Roman tile consists of a large flat rectan-
gular tegula with lateral edges turned up, and a narrow
semi-cylindrical or angular imbrex, both tegula and imbrex
being heavy and massive.

At the Antiquarian Museum at Zurich are a number of
ancientRoman tiles; these have the lateral edges abruptly
turned up, the imbrex is angular in section (fig. 44). On
the exposed and lower edge of the tegula are a few curved
marks as if made by the fingers. As these marks are seen
on similar Roman tiles at the Royal Antiquarian Museum
at Brussels and elsewhere, it would seem to be a special
furnace-mark of the maker, or possibly to indicate the
lower end of the tile. On the under surface of each tegula,

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 5

34

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

inclosed in a rectangular panel is impressed the Roman
characters LXXIC. This was the mark of the 21st
Legion, showing that the Roman soldiers were accom-
panied by tile-makers, as well as by those pursuing other
trades. At the museum last named are some ancient Ro-
man tiles resembling those mentioned by Graeber in the
memoir previously alluded to. In these tiles the turned
edges differ slightly from those figured by Graeber ; the

Fig. 44.
lower corners were recessed, however, to fit on the tile
below, and the turned edge ceased within a short distance
of the top of the tile (fig. 45). There were no perfora-
tions for pegs or nails to hold the tile to the roof as is de-
scribed in similar tiles figured by other authorities.

In the ancient cemetery of Marzabotto, near Bologna, the
contents of which have been figured and described with
great fidelity by Count Gozzadini, a number ot terra-cotta

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

35

roofing-tiles were found. These were niudc after the flat
Koman pattern, hut were remarkable not only for their
massive size, but for certain structural
peculiarities, not seen in the typical
Roman form. The tegula measured
1.07 metres in length by .80 centi-
metres in width (fig. 46A). In some
examples the upper inferior margin
was turned at right angles, and this
was strengthened by a thin brace as
shown in the fragment (fig. 46D).
On the superior surface of the tegula
a rounded knob was present (fig.
46E). This was perforated for the
admission of a bronze nail having a
Fig. 45. thin concavo-convex head (fig. 46F),

which conformed to the shallow and lenticular knob on the

r\

tile ; by this device the rain was more thoroughly excluded.
The imbrices varied in length, the longest being .82 centi-
meters in length, with a width of .28 centimeters and a

36 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

height of .26 centimeters (fig. 46BC.) (The drawings
as published do not show these proportions). Many of
these fragments show traces of polychrome decoration on
their exposed surfaces.

Concerning the age of the Marzabotto cemetery, George
Dennis in his Cilies and Cemeteries of Etruria (Vol. ii,
J). 543), says "we may safely refer the antiquities found at
Marzabotto to the latest days of Etruscan independence,
north of the Appenines, which came to an end on the in-
vasion of the Boian Gauls, at the beginning of the fourth
century B. C."

SICILY.

The normal tile (imb.) is the common form throughout
the island. In one old building at Palermo, the tiles are
crowded together, from the ridge to the eaves. At Taor-
mina the eaves tiles are pointed with plaster.

In this country the roofing-tiles everywhere seen belong
to the normal tile {wib.). These are usually semicircular-
in section and much larger than the forms ftirther east. At
Burgos the tiles are crowded on the roof, at the eaves the
ends of the tiles are pointed with plaster. At Granada a
similar treatment of the eaves tiles is seen. In one portion
of the Alhambra, light and dark tiles are arranged on the
roof in such a way that a clearly marked zigzag pattern is
carried out. In another and older portion of the Alham-
bra, the tiles, instead of being roundly curved in section,
are somewhat angular. At the eaves, the imbrices are
doubled and, between the upper and lower imbrex, sepa-
rated by the space equal to the width of a tile ; a mass of
white stucco or plaster is interposed. As there appears
no break in the alignment of the tiles from the eaves to the
roof, the lower course of eaves tiles probably rests horizon-

TERRA-OOTTA ROOT' INO-TILES. 37

tally on a projecting cornice, the plaster diminishing in
thickness backward for a few courses as shown in fig. 47.
An evidence that this is so is shown in an end view of
another portion of the building, where a cornice or shelf,
projecting below the eaves, has settled by the weight of
plaster and tiles above.

Fig. 47.

At Seville, Alcazar and other places, the courses of tiles
are slightly separated at the eaves and the spaces enclosed
by the tiles are filled with white stucco, as shown in fig.
48.

In a picture of the Church of S. Maria de L'Antigua at
Yalladolid, Spain, published in the American Architect for
December 10, 1887, the typical Spanish tile is shown.

Fig. 48.

The tower of this church seems to be covered with a
pointed flat tile.

MEDITERRANEAN BORDERS.

A rapid examination of a collection of photographs of
places bordering the Mediterranean, from the Isle of
Rhodes to Tangiers, shows the universal use of the normal
tile (imb.). A picture of the mosque of Tangiers shows a
wall, or a house with unperforated wall, havinga very steep

38 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

pitched-roof covered with somewhat smaller tiles than
those cited from Spain. The ridge is covered with the
ordinary ridge-tile elevated to a considerable distance
above the roof, the interspace apparently filled with white
stucco or plaster, giving itan appearance in the photograph,
of a high and narrow vertical ridge. The tiles are very
unevenly laid, and it will be noticed that in the photo-
graphs of Spain, Italy and other countries bordering the
Mediterranean, the tiling seems always to have been done
in a slovenly manner. This appearance is probably due,
in many cases, to the buildings being old and the tiles
having being thrown out of alignment by the wind and
other agencies. The thorough and accurate way in which
the Asiatic roofs are tiled stands out in marked contrast
to the h)()se manner of tiling of western nations using the
normal tile.

MEXICO.

I am indebted to Mr. Sylvester Baxter and Mr. Denman
W. Ross for photographs and descriptions of the rooting-
tiles of this country. Mr. Baxter observed on some roofs
a large flat tile either plain or corrugated, the corrugations
being quite near together. These were usually coated
with a golden-green glaze. Around the City of Mexico
and in the high table-lands the fiat tile was used. Photo-
graphs of buildings at Orizaba, taken by Mr. Ross, show
a large tile identical with the Spanish form. Mr. Baxter
oi)served that in some cases the lower tile was painted
white on the upper surface, white lead being apparently
used, and presunjably to make the roof water-tight. He
also observed at Cuantla, Morelos, in the tierra caliente,
a large flat tile with upturned edges and semi-cylindrical
imbrex. A similar form to this has already been described
from Central Italy, and, as before remarked, is a survival
of the ancient Roman tile. The modern form is much
thinner. The tiles bordering the eaves differ in no re-

TERKA-COTTA EOOFING-TILES. 39

spect from the others, though the iiiuler course of tiles
may be hiid double.

Chili, Peru and other South American countries have
the normal tile (imh.) and this runs up on the west coast
to California.

BELGIUM AND HOLLAND.

The pan tile is the dominant form in these two countries.
That it was also the common form a (ew hundred years
ago is shown in pictures of the old Dutch masters.

In Holland, one may often see roofs thatched half-way
down and tiled the rest of the way to the eaves. In the
better class of houses in the country the entire roof is tiled.
At Utrecht, large, slightly-bent tiles are used for ridge
and hip. The pan tile is often made with a square opening
in it in which glass is fitted. The tiles are often glazed
either red, gray or blue. In Belgium, they appear either
black or bright red. On very old churches the normal
tile (imb.) is seen.

It is interesting to observe that in those portions of
Germany, bordering on Holland and Belgium, the German
flat tile is supplanted in a measure.

The pan tile, pannen tegchel, as it is called in Holland,
evidently originated in Holland or Belgium. In England
it retains the Dutch wixxue pannen, anglicized to pun. It
is also called the Fleming tile. In Poland, it is called the
Holland tile.

NORWAY, SAVEDEN AND DENMARK.

The pan tile is in universal use in these countries. In
Norway, away from the larger cities, wooden shingles
painted red form the ordinary roof covering. The pan
tile is often a bright brick-red in color, or glazed a dark
brown. The red-painted wooden roofs would seem to be
an imitation of the red tiled roof. In Christiania, an old

40 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

house with the date 1662 was covered with pan tiles. In
Bergen, the pan tile is commonly seen.

Mr. Ipsen informs me that in Copenhagen the normal
tile (imb.) is sometimes found on old churches, and is
commouly known by the name of monk tile ; this name in-
dicating that in Denmark, as in Germany, this form of tile
was introduced by the monks from the South.

JAVA.

At Buitenzorg and other towns in the interior of Java a
pan tile is seen. The tile is well made, very light and

Fig. 49.
thin, and having a length and breadth respectively of 28
centimetres by 18 centimetres. The covering edge is
flat, and not curving, as is usual. The upper edge of the
tile has a nib which holds it to the battens fixed to bamboo
rafters (fig. 49).

I do not i-ecall seeing an eaves tile with turned margins.

There are many Chinese in Java, and their buildings
present the type of the Southern Chinese. On these build-
ings the normal tile {Imh.) probably occurs, but I made

TERHA-C(>TTA IIOOFING-TILES.

41

no iioto of this inafter tliirinu" my visit tlicro. The p;iii
tile has probably been introduced by the Dutch, or pos-
sibly by the English before the Dutch. Fig. 50 is re-
produced from a photograph showing the appearance of

Java houses after a shock of earthquake- In this is shown
the light structure of the roof supporting the tiles.

ger:\iany.
Throughout Germany the fiat tile is the common form.
When the lower Ijorder of this tile is slightly rounded it

is called, in certain portions of the country, "beaver-tail"
(tig. 51 A). In Berlin the lower l)order of the tile is

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 6

42

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

usually rouudcd (fig'. 52), in Weimar it is square at the
end, in Nm-emberg it is pointed (fig. 53). Occasionally
the tiles are laid in a donl)le layer as shown in fig. 54.

The flat tile not
I r^:^ only extends

throughout Ger-
many but runs
south to Swit-
zerland, west
Fig. 5-2. through France,

at least through the central and northern portions, and
•southeast through Austria to Hungary and Poland, and,
probably, northeast to Russia. As one ap[)ioaches Belginni
and Holland, the home ot the piui tile, this tile frequently
takes the place of the flat tile, as
seen at Dusseldorf, Bonn, Cologne,
Bremen and Hamburg. This tile is
commonly red or glazed black. Tlie
pan tile is also occasionally seen far-
ther south. At Freiburg it is know
by the name of "Jumping hound,"
from its fancied reseml)lance, at the fig. 53.

eaves, to the movements of jumping hounds. In the
country around Bremen and Hamburg the roofs are often

Fig. .54.
thatched, l)ut in these cases a square area about the chim-
ney— which looks odd thrust up through a thatched roof
— is covered with pan tiles. In many of these pan-tiled

TERRA-COTTA ROOFI\G-TIL7:S.

43

roofs the oaves, ri(]ge and ends of the roof are often liii-
ished with a few courses of shite, as shown in Hij. i)').
In Bremen a heavy ridgc-tik^ of the ordinary form is used
(Hg. 56).

In very old buildings throughout Germany, nsually on
old churches and convents, the normal tile (imb.) is often
seen. Professor Virchow informed me that this tile was
introduced into Germany by monks, from the Rhine, in
the twelfth century. As before remarked, this tile is
known as the monk tile in Copenhagen.

Fig. 5(i.
The appearance of a iiat tiled roof, as seen from within
is shown in fig. 57, sketched in the attic of an old house
in Nuremberg. Here the manner of propping up a tile
with a stick, for the purpose of letting in light is shown ;
this is done for light and not for ventilation, as the roof is

44

ON THE OLDER FOr.MS OF

suflSiciently ventilated by the loose adjustment of tlie tiles.
Other means for admitting light to the attic are shown in

fig. 58 (Freiburg) and 59 (Weimar). These hoods or
dormer windows are made out of a single piece of terra-

cotta ; they are secured to the roof by a broad flange around
which the tiles are fitted.

T K II 1{ A-COTT A KOO I'^I N( i -TIL ICS .

45

Fig. (10 shows the maiiiuM- of linishiiig the ciul of a roof;
the battens 14)011 whit;h the tiles are hung projeet through
the wall and the tiles are cut longitudinally to continue the
alternate adjustment of tiles to the edge.

Fig. 0!0.
At Nureml)erg the flat tile is everywhere seen, Fig.
(31 is reduced from a photograph of Nuremberg houses
showing how deftly the tile is handled in covering dormer

A fA,

windows and various projections. In some cases the lower
border of the tile is rounded, in others pointed. Other

46

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

forms of tile are seen in this picturesque old city. On
the old Roman tower of the castle may be seen a large,
thick, coarsely made semi-cylindrical tile, being much
larger at the upper end, measuring .51 centimetres in
length, and a width at its widest end of .15 centimetres.
This tile has a thick nib to hold it to the battens. The

spaces between the tiles were thickly plastered though
greatly out of repair, as gleams of light were coming
through various chinks. Fig. 62 shows the appearance
of this tile from within the roof, while the appearance from
without is shown in fig. 63. This sketch is taken from
the castle wall tower which is supposed to be nearly 400

3^ears old. The ridge is seen covered with ordinary semi-
cylindrical tiles, while a single course of tiles next to the
ridffe shows the roof-tile used in the form of an imbrex.
All the interstices were thickly plastered. The tile was
accounted the oldest form used in Nuremberg, and may
be regarded as the normal tile. A recent form of tile,
which may be looked upon as an extreme modification of

TEIIKA-COTTA KOOFING-TILES. 47

ji p;iii tile, is seen on certain i)()rlit)ns of the (;ity wall (fig.
()4). At Uifuil (Hg. 65) and Wiirtzbiii-g (tig. (j(3) a tile
is often seen with a slight ridge turned up on one side,
and a recurved edge on the opposite side which laps over
the slight ridge on the next tile. This form is certainly
a nioditication of the pan tile, and curiously enough laps

Fig. 65. Fig. 60.

to the left, as in the case of the Japanese pan tile. At
Hildesheini old houses are covered with a similar form of
tile lapping to the left.

POLAND.

I am indebted to JNIr. J. Adamowski for information
concerning the roofing-tiles of Poland. An architect friend
of his, Mr. Kozlowski, of Czenstochowa, writes that the
most common form of tile in Poland is the flat tile with
rounded end, differing in no respect from the ordinary
German tile, and usually laid in a double row, as shown
in fig. 54. The dimensions, in English inches, are 7 by
14.

The pan tile lapping to the right is also seen in old build-
ings and churches. It is no longer made in Poland. This
tile is known by the name of Holland tile, and its intro-
duction to Poland may have been by way of the Baltic.

RUSSIA.

An examination of photographs and numerous inquiries
show that the tiled roof is not common, but, when seen,
it is composed of the flat tile. Dr. Berlin, a Russian phy-
sician, and her brother, stated to me that formerly an

48 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

angular tile, in form like the ridge-tile, was used as a roof-
ing-tile. These tiles were placed in rows running from
the ridge to the eaves, with the crest uppermost, no under
tiles being used. The tiles were simply l^edded in cows'
manure. Repeated questioning failed to modify this state-
ment. It is recorded that in other regions in the east it is
customary to i)laster the house with mannre.

Photographs from the Caucasus show the normal tile
[iinb. ) in use.

SWITZERLAND.

The flat tile is everywhere conunon in Berne, Zurich
and other parts of northern Switzerland. In ver)' old
houses the normal tile [i/itb.) is occasionally seen (tig. 67),
l)ut even in these cases the newer
additions to the roof are covered
with a flat tile. In some instances
the ridge is tinished with wood or
metal, instead of the usual ridge-
tile. The tiles are often seen
aligned instead of breaking joint ;
i-'iG. 07. in this case the roof is tirst shin-

gled. An elaborate structure of brick, stone and rooting-
tile, held together by nu)rtar, forms the top of most of
the chimneys, and suggests the idea of a bird-house, or
such an affair as a child might build with blocks.

They are certainly picturesque and apparently durable,
as none of them seem to be dilapidated. Fig. 68 is repro-
duced from a rough sketch of a few chimney tops in Berne.
At the Historical Museum at Berne, I found an interest-
ing collection of rooflng-tiles. I learned that the curator
of this department was an architect, and this accounted
for the extent of the collection, which was the l)est one
that I saw anywhere in Europe. Among the tiles was one

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

49

from the Gistle of Trachselvvald with the date of 1300 on
the label. This was u flat tile with pointed end. It was
34.2 centimetres Ions; and 19 centimetres Avide. A rude

/^%

Fig. 68.

figure of a l)ear with rough bars below and above, enclosed
in a circular panel, was impressed upon the tile near its

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 7

50

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

lower end (fig. 69). Another flat tile, also pointed at the
lower end, had two many-rayed stars impressed upon it.
The date 1666 had bee)i incised with a small point across
the middle of the tile, and at the square end the same date
had been marked with the finger (fig. 70). This tile was

Fig. 69. Fig. 70.

36.8 centimetres long and 19.3 centimetres wide. In this
collection was a curious glazed tile, evidently made for the
top of a stove, but representing a sloping roof. This had
alternate squares of brown and straw-colored glaze, repre-
senting the pointed flat tile. Its date was supposed to be

Fig. 71.

1300. In the collection were also ridge-tiles with foliated
ornament (fig. 71) . These were green glazed, and labelled
Castle Thurgau, Canton of Thurgau, city of Arbou. The
specimen figured was 37 centimetres in length.

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

51

At the Antiquariiiii Museum at Zurich were preserved
a few old flat tiles (fig. 72). These far exceeded the di-
mensions of the other flat tiles described, one specimen
measuring 46.8 centimetres in length and 17.2 centimetres
in breadth. The nib was large and broad, and the lower
end of the tile was roundly pointed. Another specimen
of the same length, and having a breadth of 23.5 centi-
metres, was pointed, the pointed end being cutoff square.

The lower exposed portion was coated with salt glaze ;
the nib was small and recurved. These tiles were about
350 years old.

■mr^

•'%r^

At Basle the buildings were somewhat mongrel in their
appearance, partially losing their Swiss character without
assuming their German character. The tiles were flat with
rounded ends. On the old cathedral in this town the tiles
were glazed green, red and white and in the rebuilding of
certain portions of the cathedral new flat tiles, glazed the
same colors, were being used, the bright glaze of even the
old tiles forming a startling and disagreeable contrast to
the time-stained stone and other material of the structure.
Some interesting ridge-tiles with green and brown glazes

52

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

were found in a local museum. These had Gothic scrolls
and leaves springing from their crests; in one case the
finial was held to the tile by an iron rod, as a dowel.
(The height of this tile was .67 centimetres.) These

tiles were labelled Nicholas Chapel, fifteenth century (fig.
73). At Tnterlachen, the flat tile was seen on some of the
older buildings, the modern structure being roofed with
modern forms of tiles, which seemed to have certain mer-
its in securing a tight roof (figs. 74 and 75).^

1 A modern interlocking tile is made at AUkirch village, Canton of Berne, by
Gilardoni Brothers. I found it on many houses at Berne, and, if I remember
rightly, it was the tile used on the new arsenal at Berne.

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 53

The new arsenal at Berne had a tiled roof resting on
battens, each tile so loose that it could l)e easily pushed u[)
from within. There was no sheathing beneath, and here
and there glints of light could be seen. Indeed, it was
blowing a gale and snowing at the time I was there, and
a little snow had blown in. That the roof was water-
proof was implied by the fact that a new building filled
with polished weapons had only this kind of a roof-cover-
ing for protection. From the behavior of certain tiled roofs
in our country, we have certainly not yet learned the seciet
of a good tile.

FRANCE.

My information concerning French roofing-tiles is very
meagre, being chiefly based on hasty notes made in Paiis
and vicinity, and observations from thf; main railways
from Paris to Brussels and Calais respectively, supple-
mented by the examination of a few photographs.

The flat tile appears to be the dominant form through-
out central and northern France, while the normal tile
{imh.) is common farther south, and especially along the
Mediterranean. The flat tile is usually square at its lower
end and smaller than the German or Swiss form. At the
Paris Exposition many forms of roofing-tiles Avere exhib-
ited from French tileries, among which were large num-
bers of flat tiles.

The introduction of roofing-tiles among the peasantry
must have been comparatively recent. Leslie {Essays on
Moral and Political Philosophy), writing of Puy-de-
Dome, a central department ot France, says : "I saw many
instances of a change which is the precursor of an elevation
of the standard of habitation, namely, the substitution of
tile for thatch roof." In Spenser's Sociological Tables a
number of references are conveniently accessible concern-

54 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

iiig the roofing material in France in early centuries. Vi-
truvius, the famous Roman architect, in the first century
of our era says : "The Gauls to this day build their houses
of boughs, reeds and mud, with roofing of oaken shingles
or of straw. Even at Massalia we may observe roofs
made without tiles, of earth kneaded, as it were, with
straw." "It appears from Orderic's narrative (1090 a. d. )
that the roof of the castle was covered with shingles of
wood instead of slates or tiles. This is still the case with
respect to many of the towers of the country churches in
the Lieuvin and the Roumois."

"The working of phister quarries, the use of tiles for
roofing houses and afterwards the discovery of slate . . .
entirely changed the appearance of houses. It was only
in the fifteenth century that slate was used. In 14G5 it
was just begun to be known of." (Chernl, Dictionary
of Lislitulions, Manners and Customs of France.)

GREAT BRITAIN.

In England two kinds of roofing-tiles are in use : the
flat tile, which is the form most commonly seen, and the
pan tile, which is found widely distributed. This tile is
also known as the Flemish tile, this name implying that
it was first introduced from Flanders.

The cheapness and excellent quaUty of slate and its al-
most universal use have evidently checked the development
of the roofing-tile. One sees no attempt at architectural
effect in the treatment of the roof, but the tiling is done
in that durable manner which characterizes English work
in general. The head of the pan tile has two nibs instead
of the usual single one, and the tiles are adjusted with
greater care to the roof.

In the collection of building material at the South Ken-
sington Museum may be seen a great variety of roofing-

TERUA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 55

tiles. In the cntalogue of this nuiterial, pul)]ished by this
museum in 1876, these rooting-tiles ure variously recorded
as plain tiles, red, green and brown; plain tiles colored
to match old tiling ; terra metallic ; single, double and
treble channelled tiles ; flat or Roman ornamental roofing-
tiles ; ridge-tiles with ornamental crests, and many others.
As most of these tiles are modern productions (many of
them the result of J]ngland's awakening which followed
the World's Fair of 1851, and the renewed impulse of the
French Exposition of 1855), their consideration does not
properly come within the scope of this paper. One tile,
however, figured in the catalogue above referred to, appears
interesting as well as serviceable (fig. 76). It is a French
tile hnown as the tile Courtois,
from the name of its inventor.
It seems to have the merit of
simplicity and but little of the
tile is concealed in the lap. In
1856-57, this tile was made at
Stamford, England, and used on
Fig. 7G. annmber of buildings. In 1876,

a tile somewhat similar to this was made near Hull. Many
of the tiles mentioned in the catalogue failed to come into
general use. An example of the treble channelled tile
I saw at Cambridge, England, and, curiously enough, at
Stockholm. This tile might be regarded as a variety of
the pan tile with three equidistant folds, the side lap being
made as in the pan tile.

From various sources one may gather a continuous his-
tory of the introduction and successive appearances of the
various forms of roofing-tiles in England. The early Brit-
ish houses were circular, with low stone walls and conical
shingle roofs. With such a form of roof the use of terra-
cotta roofing-tiles was well nigh impossible, and a square

56 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

house with the ordinary sloping roof must have preceded
the use of roofing-tiles.

Before the introduction of pottery tiles, rough stones
were used for roof coverings. "In localities which sup-
plied laminated stones such as Gloucestershire and Hamp-
shire in Britain, the Romans often roofed their buildings
with st(me tiles fastened on with iron nails" (see tiles,
£Jncyclop(2dia Britannica). Lieutenant-general Pitt-Riv-
ers in a conuuunication on an ancient British settlement
excavated near Rnshmore, Salisbury {Journal Anthropo-
logical Institute, Vol. xvir, p. 190), records that "tiles
of Purbeck shale, with nail-holes to fasten them by, were
also found more frequently in the rich quarter than else-
where and terra-cotta tegula3 were also found there, but
only in fragments and used as pavements, for which pur-
pose these tiles were frequently employed elsewhere. The
absence of imbrices which are a necessary adjunct in the
formation of a Roman tiled roof confirms the opmion that
the roofs of the Romano-British village were not tiled in
this way. Although the fragments of the tiles show that
they had certainly been originally constructed for roofing,
their use for a second-hand purpose conveys the impression
of poverty, although too much stress must not be laid
upon the circumstances."

It would be interesting to ascertain whether any frag-
ments of these tegulfe had traces of cement upon them,
for we have seen that in Japan, the tegulse well bedded in
clay or pointed with mortar may be used without imbrices.

It was customary in the Middle Ages and up to within
recent centuries to use rough-stone tiling. At Broadway,
near Worcester, Enghuid, one may see a village in which
many of the cottage roofs are tiled with small flat stones
of the roughest description. These are held to the roof
by oaken [)ins which sus[)end them on the battens placed

TEUKA-COTTA KOOFING-TILES.

57

across the rafters for the purpose. Fig. 77 shows the ap-
pearance of one of these cottage roofs and the manner in
which even the small roofs of dormer windows and hips
may be neatly covered ))y this rough material.

Fig. 78 shows the appearance of a portion of the roof
from within. The stone tile (tig. 79) used for this pur-
pose measures, roughly, .22 centimetres in length by .14
centimetres in breadth, with a general thickness of .02
centimetres. It is made of some tossiliferous limestone.
I learned that these houses were over three hundred years

Fig. 77.

old. I also observed on one of the oldest houses in Oxford
similar rough-stone tiles, and doubtless, they occur in
many other places.

Mr. Ross Turner informs me that in Bermuda a rough,
flat tile is cut from the coral sandstone rock, and cedar
pins are used to hold the tiles to the roof after the man-
ner of the rough, stone tile just described. An old house
at St. Georges, over two-hundred 3^ears old, and St.
Peter's Church, St. Georges (1630-40) were covered with
this tile and they are in use to-day.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 8

58

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

In an interesting work by Thomas Wright on the Homes
of Other Days, many reproductions of old drawings of
Saxon and Norman times are given, from which some hints
of the kinds of roofing tiles in use may be found. From
the Harleian MS. dating from the ninth century, a picture
is given of an Anglo-Saxon house ; in this picture a variety
of roofing-tiles are shown, the most conspicuous of which
is the normal tile. The flat Roman tile is also given, and
another form reseml)liiig round-ended flat tiles, though
these may be wooden shingles. Flat Roman tiles again

appear in another drawing of the tenth century, and in
another picture of this epoch the flat tile, with round end,
and the normal tile are represented. A picture of a town
of the tenth century shows only the normal tile. In an
Anglo-Saxon MS. of the Psalms, the normal tile is in-
dicated, and what appears to be an imbricated ridge of tiles.
In a roof shown in the Bayeux tapestry, the normal tile is
seen. In an early Saxon illumination, a large normal tile
is shown. In early Norman times, the normal tile is de-

TERllA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

59

picted in the drawings. In all the above cases the normal
tile (imb.) is the one indicated. A complete view of a
honse is shown in a MS. of the fonrteenth century, and
this represents the flat tile rounded at its lower end. In
the same MS. flat tiles are shown arranged in a form often
seen in the arrangement of slates in England to-day, where
an interspace of an inch or more is left between contiguous
slates in an horizontal line. From this time on, the flat tile
is the only one shown in the various drawings given. It
would seeai by this that the pan tile was introduced from
Belo:ium within recent centuries.

In consequence of the frequency of fires it was enacted
in the first year of Richard I (1189) that the lower story
of all houses in the City of London should be built with
stone and the roofs covered with slate or tile (Pictorial
History of England, Vol. ii, p. 230). In the fourteenth
century, London houses were generally roofed with tiles.

" In taking down part of a late Norman building in
Southwark some years ago, to make the approaches to the
present London bridge, some tiles were found built into the
wall and may have formed part of the original structure.
They were thirteen inches by eight inches and varied in

60 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

thickness from five-eighths of an inch to an inch. Half
of one side, which would have been exposed npon a roof,
was glazed, and they were made with pin-holes in them,
as is still the custom in some districts." {Glossary of
Architecture, Vol. i, p. 463). In the work above cited it
is stated that, in the fourteenth century, "the manufacture
of tile was one of sufiicient importance in England to re-
quire regulation by statute . . . whereby the dimensions
of plain tile are fixed at ten by six and one-fourth and half
an inch and half-quarter thick, at least. Roof or crese
tile at thirteen inches long, thickness same as other." Also
that, in the Middle Ages, tiles were extensively employed
in covering buildings though they seem always to have
been considered an inferior material to lead. In the same
work are given some remarkable ridge-tiles with figures,
crosses, etc., modelled upon them. These were found at
Great Malvern and London ; the statement is also made
that flat tiles only were used at that time.

From the above data, we venture to suggest the follow-
ing historical sequence in the introduction of the various
forms of roofing-tiles into Great Britain : First, the large
flat Roman tile and the same time the rude stone tile prob-
ably devised by the Romans while in England. Second,
the normal tile, probably introduced by monks. Third,
the flat tile introduced from Normandy, and, finally, the
pan tile introduced from Belgium.

The flat tile is not only used for roofing but is also used
in finishing the vertical walls of a gable end. In this case
the tiles may be cut pointed, or otherwise shaped, as in
fig. 80. Dobson's hand-book of Tiles and Tile-making
says that pan tiles were formerly made with holes in them
for the reception of the tile-pins by which they were hung
on the laths. The common method now is to turn down
a couple of nibs at the head of the tile, which answers

TERRA-rOTTA ROOFINO-TILES. 61

the same purpose. The roofing-tile is used for other pur-
poses besides that for which it was originally designed. In
flower-gardens the flat, round-ended tile is found very
serviceable in separating beds or bordering paths, the tiles
. . being partially buried inthe

/"^ /■^^K /'>. Z'^. ground verticall^s forming
\~ \ ~J^ a much better dividing line

\ /^^ 1^ ^ /' \ r than do strips of board,
~J7 ~\ J^ J^ which soon decay. As a

/ \ C \ f \-J ^- coping for brick walls the

J^'iG. 80. r o o f- s h a p e d ridge-tile

forms a good and picturesque top. The same form of
ridge-tile placed in an inverted position may often be seen
on the steep slopes of grass-covered railroad enbankments,
as cheap and useful water-conductors.

UNITED STATES.

We have seen in the course of this paper that in all
parts of the world, outside of savage areas and under all
climatic conditions, people shelter themselves beneath roofs
covered with terra-cotta tiles. With this wide dispersion
of roofing-tiles, however, there still remains a territory ex-
tending from the Atlantic to the Pacific, embracing Canada
and the United States, which is virtually destitute of this
ancient form of roof-covering. It is a curious fact that a
material so cheap, durable and picturesque, and one so
widely distributed throughout the world, should not have
effected a lodgment in this country. It seems all the
more singular when it is considered that the early colonists
— Spanish, Dutch, French, English, German — all came
from tile-using countries. This curious condition of things
can only be accounted for by the fact that, at the outset,
wood was so much cheaper than any kind of baked clay
that it was used in the form of clapl)oards and shingles to

62 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

the exclusion of other muteriul, and thus the habit finally
became ingrained.

That early attempts were made to use tiles in this country
is attested by Mr. F. A. Barber, in his interesting article
on the "Rise of the Pottery Industry in the United States"
{Pojmlar Science Monthly, December, 1891). In this
article he shows that the flat roofing-tile was used in Lan-
caster County, Pennsylvania, as early as 1769, as tiles
bearing the date scratched upon them have recently been
discovered there. I am indebted to Mr. Barber for the
following cut of this tile (fig. 81). As the form of this

Fig. 81.

tile and its dimensions correspond to the average flat tile
seen in Germany, it is almost certain that the tile was in-
troduced by the early German emigrants to that region.
I am also indebted to Dr. Charles C. Abbott, of the Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania, for information regarding some
pan tiles discovered by him on Burlington Island, Dela-
ware Kiver, Ncav Jersey. These tiles were found associated
with rudely made red and yellow brick, on the site of a
house built by the Dutch in 1668, and shortly afterwards
destroyed by the Indians. The outline of the specimen

TERKA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 63

sent me by Dr. Abbott shows the tjpicul Dutch pan tile
of the roughest description.

Within recent years, pan tiles and flat tiles have been
nuuuitactured and used in this country. Their use has
been mainly confined to large structures, not for the sake
of economy or utility, but for architectural effect. Such
roofs have been far more expensive than similar ones in
Europe, and judging from the trouble many of these roofs
have given, it is quite evident either that the right kind of
tile has not been made, or that it has not been properly
applied to the roof. From the frequent breaking of the
tiles, it has been supposed that our climate, with its rig-
orous changes, was the cause of this. I have observed,
however, in Europe, that tiled roofs are quite as common
in regions north of the line of frost and snow as below that
line. In England, the effect of frost is spoken of as being
unfavorable to tiled roofs. Despite these drawbacks, it
would seem that the terra-cotta tile, when properly made
and adjusted, is one of the cheapest and mostdural)le of
roof-coverings, as it is certainly one of the oldest and
most widely distributed.

Acting as a non-conductor, the upper portion of the
house is warmer in winter and cooler in summer. Slate
roofs absorb and transmit a good deal of heat. Shingle
roofs are a menace in times of conflagration. With the
best tile clays in the world and an abundance of the rude
labor usually employed in tile-making, there is no reason
why roofing-tiles should not come into common use in this
country, as they have in all other parts of the world.

INTERLOCKING TILE.

At the present day there are a great many forms of tiles
made in Europe, especially in France and Switzerland,
some of which are very ingenious. The object to be at-

64 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

tained in iin interlocking tile is to devise a form which
shall, by a series of ribs and corresponding depressions,
more thoroughly exclude water. In the United States,
tiles of this kind are being made l)esides the ordinary pan
and fiat tile. It is not within the purposes of this paper to
speak of these in detail, as there are many kinds each pos-
sessing certain merits.

I cannot forbear, however, alhuling to a remarkable ex-
hibition of this material at the late Paris Exhibition which
suggested what an extraordinary industry might spring
up in this country if the merits of terra-cotta roofing-tiles
could be made more widely known. In this exhibition
there were not only a great many displays of the ordinary
flat tiles, but there were pan tiles as well as interlocking
tiles made of pressed glass, by the use of which dark
warehouses and attics might be made light. The tiles were
made precisely like the terra-cotta ones, so that here and
there they could be introduced thus letting in gleams of
light in usually dark places, or the entire roof might be
covered with these glass tiles. There were also terra-
cotta tiles perforated to admit little squares of glass.
Graeber has called attention to ancient Greek tiles in the
temples at Phigalia, Athens, and other places, in which
the large fiat terra-cotta tile was perforated for the pur-
pose, as he believes, of admitting light in dark places
under the roof.

TILE-MAKING.

In the course of this paper it has been shown that
throughout the world with the exception of our country
and Canada the use of terra-cotta roofing tiles is univer-
sal. There is no reason why they should not come into
general use in this country. There are large regions in
the United States, like Arizona, New Mexico and certain

TERRA-COTTA IIOOFTNG-TILES. 65

western states and territories where forests are scarce or
altogether absent, yet having an ahuiulant supply of coal
snitable for the baking of tiles, and the best chiys in the
world. With the rapid destruction of our forests and the
consequent increase in the price of wood, shingles and
clapboards, the tile-making industry should spring up in
many parts of the country.

A few brief notes, concerning the making of tiles, are
here appended to call attention to the simple appliances
and the rude character of the hibor employed in the man-
ufacture, in the hopes of encouraging the industry. If we
have brick-kilns everywhere we should be al)le to sustain
tileries also.

Edward Dobson's Hand-hook on Bricks and Tiles in
Weale's series, gives illustrations of the various machines
used in the making of flat and pan tiles. From this we
learn that in Staffordshire a workman may produce 1,300
to 1,500 flat tiles in a day. In Gwilt's Encyclopedia of
Archiieciure, it is stated that "clay from which tiles are
made will make good bricks — the converse does not hold
good, it requires tough clay to make tiles, on account of
the thinness of the tiles. Much care is required in baking ;
if the fire be too slack, they will not burn sufficiently hard,
aud if too violent they glaze and sufler in form."

It is observed also that glazed tiles are not so much af-
fected by frost. In Europe, as in Japan, old tiles are
considered better than new ones. We learn from the same
authority that an ancient custom was to bed tiles in hay
or moss. When the roof is full pitch, this sufiices without
mortar; with less pitch, mortar is used to point the tiles
in order to keep out snow or rain in a high wind. We
have seen that in Japan and Korea, and probably in China,
also, mud or clay is used in which to bed the tile, and in
these as well as in all other countries mortar is used in

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 9

66

ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

various ways to point the tiles, particularly at the eaves
and ritlge.

In Germany, the making of flat tiles, as I saw it near
VVurtzburg, was of the simplest description. An iron
frame having the outline of the tile to be made was the
only important implement involved in the process. This
frame represented the mould. The talile upon which this
rested consisted of a thick piece of plank, over which was
spread a piece of woollen cloth, one edge of which was
nailed to the lateral edge of the plank, while the opposite
edge of the cloth had secured to it an iron rod, the weight
of which kept the cloth drawn smoothly over the plank.
The iron frame was now placed upon the cloth (tig. 82)

Fig. b2.

and clay was packed into it with the hands, and then
pounded down with a wooden mallet such as a moulder
might use. A straight-edge was used to scrape awa}' the
superfluous clay, a little mass being left at the head of the
tile which was afterwards shaped into the nib which was
to hold the tiles to the laths or battens. This being done,
a square piece of board notched at one end to admit the
nib was placed on the frame. The workman then grasped
the iron rod attached to the free end of the cloth arid, with
the other hand holdingthe board in its place, lifted the cloth
and inverted the whole thing, transferring the soft tile to the

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TfLES.

67

board. ^ The iron frame was then removed, and the board
with its unbaked tile was phiced in the sun to dry. The
workman informed me that he could make a thousand tiles
a day. Fig. 82 shows the iron frame resting on the
flannel in position to be filled with clay. The board upon
which the unbaked tile is to be transferred is to be seen
to the left. Fig. 83 is reproduced from a hasty sketch
of a Wurtzbnrg tiler at work.

Large dome-shaped brick ovens were used in baking

Fig. 83.

the tiles. The structure was flat above, and leading down
to the ovens below were small holes two or three feet
apart. The fire, having been started, was afterwards fed
by pushing into these holes at short intervals small quan-
tities of fine coal or coal-dust. The utilization of coal-
dust in this way struck me as an economical method of
using this waste product. I was informed that ordinary
bricks were baked in the same way.

'Many old Korean and Japanese roofing-tiles show on their lower side a cloth,
mark impression, and doubtless similar methods were resorted to in their manu-
facture.

68

ON THK OLDER FORMS OF

Mr. Howard Walker informed me that in France he had
seen a tiler at work first shaping a flat piece of chiy into
the proper dimensions and then bending it over the npper
part of his leg, at the same time pushing up a nil) of clay
at the head of the tile with his thumb.

In Japan the tiles are made in moulds, dried in the sun,
and baked with pine fagots and twigs for fuel. Fig. 84
represents the appearance of a Japanese tilery near Tokio.

Fig. 84.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS.

The older roofing-tiles of the world group themselves
into three distinct types, the normal or Asiatic tile, the
pan or Belgictile, whichisan outgrowth of the normal tile,
and the flat or Germanic tile, which is an independent form.
The nornuil tile, the earliest known form, covers b}^ far
the greater number of roofs to-day. With few exceptions
it is the only form of tile used in Asia, Asia ]\Iinor, Greece,
Italy, Sicily, Spain, the countries bordering the southern
shores of the Mediterranean, and all the Spanish and
Portuguese colonies and countries in both hemispheres.
This tile is also found in areas contiguous to the conn-
tries above mentioned.

TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES. 69

The treatment of the roof eovcrcd with this tile in the
Orient and in the Occident differs widely. In China,
Korea, Japan, and countries to the south of China the
ridges are usually conspicuous for their elaborate structure.
The tiles are aligned with great care, the eaves tiles have
turned margins of graceful outline with ornamental designs
upon them in relief. The roofs of the more important
buildings have their ridges, hips and eaves in strongly
curved lines and with this treatment the curved tegula is
in harmony. In the Occident, one sees but little attempt
at architectural eliect in the treatment of the tile. The
ridge is rarel}^ more than a single course of semi-cylindrical
tiles, though in certain Swiss and English glazed ridge
tiles of a few centuries ago finials were moulded upon
them. The eaves tiles differ in no respect from those of
the roof and the only attempt at decoration was by the in-
troduction of stucco or white plaster between the courses,
as occasionally seen in modern Grecian houses and media3-
val Spanish ones. In ancient Greece the ridge and eaves
tiles, the huge discs tei-minating the ridges, the antifixge,
etc., decorated in polychrome, added greatly to the beauty
of the roofs.

The discovery by Graeber, on the site of the earliest ex-
ample of Greek architecture, of a fully developed normal
tile with curved tegula, and disc-closed imbrex, identical
Avith that of eastern Asia, compels one to believe that from
the far East came the roofing-tile. The curved teo-ula
would naturally harmonize with the curved lines of the
Eastern roof, Avhile a straight-edged tile would be more in
accordance with the straight lines of the Greek roof, and
as a matter-of-fact, we find the curved tegula soon yield-
ing to the broad flat tegula, which ever after became the
dominant form for the monumental buildings of ancient
Greece, Italy, Sicily and Etruria.

70 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF

Successive invasions of the Asiatic tile, in a measure,
supplanted the normal flat type which seemed at the out-
set to be associated with monumental buildings, though
this purely classic form has survived in the modern flat
type seen in Italy to-day. The circular disc closiug the
imbrex points distinctly to eastern Asia, and the subse-
quent decoration of the eaves and ridge tiles, while
strongly suggesting an Eastern origin, is no sure criterion,
as to whatever the Greeks touched they imparted a charm
derived from their own matchless instinct for the beautiful.

It seems curious to see the antitixffi attached to the
eaves tiles, at Assos, as late as the Roman epoch, and yet
600 years before, at Selinus, these elements had already
become detached from the roofing-tiles and were indepen-
dent pieces, nailed to the top of the stone coping.

The historical sequence in the development of the early
Grecian, Etruscan, Roman and Sicilian tile, and the source
of the first form — the norm as Graeber describes it — so
common in China to-day, must ultimately be cleared up.
The material is indestructible and the character of a frag-
ment, even, is easily recognized.

It has been impossible to find data indicating, even ap-
proximately, the first appearance of the pan tile and the
flat tile, though it is probable that these data exist.

The geographical distribution of these three types of tile
to-day is a matter easily ascertained and I venture to pre-
sent the following map of Europe (fig. 85) upon which
are indicated by conventional lines the regions where these
various forms occur. These lines represent the appear-
ances of the tiles in section and will be readily understood.
The single curved lines represent the normal tile, the lines
of double flexure the pan tile, and the short, straight lines
the flat tile.

As the normal tile is almost universally distributed in

TERRA-COTTA KOOFINO-TILES.

71

Asi:i, it \v;is unnecessuiy to represent that region of the
worhl.

Sources of information. — The precedinji notes have l)eeiulenvod from
personal observation in most of tlie countries mentioned, except in
India, and Persia and those countries immediately bordering on the
Mediterranean. For these countries, particularly Italy and Greece, I
have depended upon photographs. Many of tliese examined were of
large size, and presented the most reliable details; even wlien of small

size, the type of tile could be easily made out with the aid of a lens.
Repi'oductions from sketches illustrating architectural tours, etc.,
could not be depended upon, as the roofs in these drawings were
usually represented by rough, shaded surfaces or formal lines. The
art-galleries in Berlin, Dresden, Loudon and other places were good
hunting-grounds to fix the date of the use and distribution of the roof-
ing tiles (as, for example, a picture by Botticelli in the Dresden Gal-
lery, of the thirteenth century, showing the flat, normal tile of lionie;

72 ON THE OLDER FORMS OF TERRA-COTTA ROOFING-TILES.

a picture of the Sienese school, twelfth century, in the National Gal-
lery, London, showed a similar tile. The old Dutch masters present
the pan-tile, and Teniers shows the angular ridge-tile on a thatched
roof).

Collections of photographs, however, furnish the best material when
one cannot visit the country; the only drawback is that such pictures
usually present monumental buildings, often roofed with metal, and
it is only by chance that the roof or ridge of some common house
comes into the picture. For the photographic and otiier material I
am greatly indebted to the collections of the Boston Museum of Fine
Arts, Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Gen. Charles G. Loring,
Mrs. Helen Abbott Michael, Mr. and Mrs. E. F. Waters, Mr. T. F.
Hunt, Mr. Sylvester Baxter, Mr. Denman W. Ross, Mr. J. Adamowski,
Mr. A. E. Barber, Prof. C. C. Abbott, Mr. Alban Andren, Mr. G. E.
Walters and others, whose names are mentioned in the text. My ob-
ligations are especially due to Mr. Edward Robinson for calling my
attention to numerous memoirs on the Classical antiquities of Greece
and for the use of his valuable Classical library.

NOV }6 1199

BULLETIN

OF THE

Vol. 24. Salem: April, May, June, 1892. Nos. 4, 5, 6.
THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

Fro7n the Collections of Br. Geo. Baur.

BY S. GARMAN.

Chelonia, Siiuria and Ophidia have been discovered on
the Galapagos. Excluding the marine forms that may
from time to time be found on the shores, only four fami-
lies are represented : the Testudinidae of the tortoises, the
Iguanidee and the Geckonidse of the lizards, and the Colu-
bridas of the snakes. Neither is peculiar to the locality.
The sea tortoises of the Chelonidoe are known to visit the
beaches, and stragglers of the Sphargidse may also be
expected to wander there. Certain of the sea snakes,
Pelamis, of the Hydrophidae, frequent the waters nearer
the continent and may at times be captured among these
islands.

Two genera of the lizards, Conolophus and Amblyrhyn-
chus, are found only on the Galapagos; their closest allies,
however, are inhabitants of the western coasts of South

(73)

74 THE EEPTILES OF THE GALAI'AGOS ISLANDS.

America. The other five, Testudo, Tropidurus, Phyl-
iodactylus, Gonatodes, and Orophis, are genera of which
very closely allied species are distrilmted along the same
coasts.

Only one of the species discovered on the islands,
Phyllodadylus tubercidosus, has not been distinguished
from those of the continent. It ranges from Chile to Cali-
fornia. The tnbercles of Dr. Baur's specimen differ so
much from those of the mainland form that the type may
prove to be a new variety if not a distinct species. The
balance of the species, though in cases but little differen-
tiated, are sufficiently distinct for recognition among their
continental allies.

The affinities and the amount of differentiation of the
species on the various islands prove beyond question that
the insular genera and species were derived from those of
the nearest South American coasts, either somewhat di-
rectly and recently or more remotely, from common an-
cestors. While there is a general agreement in regard to
the sources from which the different forms of plants and
animals at present inhabiting the islands were primarily
derived, the agreement is not extended to the manner of
derivation. Advocates of the theory of independent, vol-
canic, origin of the archipelago claim that accidental intro-
ductions have established the flora and fauna, and explain
the varying affinities of the types by asserting the trans-
portation of the same or of different species to particular
islands and by the effects of isolation and varied surround-
ings. They do not consider the six hundred miles or more
of distance from the source of supply to be an insurmount-
able obstacle, and they are favored by the great Peruvian
current and by the winds. Advocates of another theory
hold that the islands once were mountains connected with
what is now the continent by lower lands, that by subsi-

THE REPTILES OF THE GALATAGOS ISLANDS. 75

(lence they became separated, and that the modern forms
of life, with exception, perhaps, of one or a few of recent
introduction, are simply the descendants of continental
forms established in their present localities before the con-
necting lowlands disappeared in the ocean. In both theo-
ries, isolation and differences of circumstances were the
important factors in dlfterentiation ; and the closeness of
existing relationships may be cited in favor of each of the
hypotheses.

The portion of the collection submitted to me for ex-
amination suffices for special determinations but is insuffi-
cient for purposes of generalization. It indicates that a
most important contribution to the scientific history of
the region might be made by one who is able to gather
from each of the islands series large enough to supply the
now-lacking means for comparisons. His most extensive
series, that of Tropidurus, and" the tortoises have already
been studied by the Doctor himself. Among those identi-
fied in this paper his collection has added one genus,
Gonatodes, and two new species, Gonatodes collaris and
Phyllodaclylus Baurii, to the list of those reported from
these localities.

One of the most interesting specimens in the collection
is a small Conolophus from Barrington. It is important
because of the opportunity it affords for a description of
the young, and because of the light it throws on the deri-
vation of the genus. Its resemblance to forms of Enya-
lioides is so great that if larger individuals were unknown
we should place it in that genus by the side of E. laticeps,
as a closely allied species. A comparison of this speci-
men with others of species of Enyalioides makes it very
evident that Conolophus was derived from one of their
immediate ancestors, the nearest, perhaps, that of E. lali-
ceps. Conok)phus and Amblyrhj'nchus have close anatomi-

76 THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

cal affinities, and they must have come from nearly allied
forms, not from the same form. It may be that both of
these genera developed on the same island, the arid belt
near the shores evolving the cactus-eating Conolophus
while Amblyrhynchus made its food of seaweeds. Or it
may have been that Amblyrhynchus developed on one or
more of the islands on which there was no alternative for the
seaweed, whence the lizard has reached other localities in
which it now occurs. How these saurians became pos-
sessed of the vegetarian habit is a question to which our
only answer is conjecture. Its inheritance from herbiv-
orous mesozoic progenitors that might have existed is not
to be seriously considered. While it may have been the
case that allied species on the mainland also to some extent
fed on phmts, it is more likely that scarcity of animal food
rather suddenly brought upon them, whether through emi-
gration or otherwise, compelled a change of tliet. Such
achange would be complete in a single generation ; where-
as more gradual diminution in the supply of animals might
induce or permit adaptation, by reduction in size or needs,
to correspond with the conditions. Conolophus with its
feeding habits could only develop in such places as now
harbor it, the higher of the islands, those surrounded by
the cactus-bearing arid belt and possessing the fertile upper
plateaus. By this fact it is restricted to a few of the isl-
ands. But Amblyrhynchus is equally at home on any of
the islands with sufficient shoal water around them for the
production of the seaweeds. It may have started on one
of the islands that have no fertile upper belts, which are
not high enough to arrest the moisture needed for vegeta-
tion. However it reached such a territory it would be
obliged to depend on the beaches for subsistence, and from
such a place it might spread over the entire archipelago.

The determinations Dr. Baur has reached in his studies
of the genera Testudo and Tropidurus are the following:

THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. 77

TESTUDO.
T. ELEPHANTOPUS Hai'l. {T. vicinct Gthr.) Probably James.
T. MiCROPHYES Gthr. Albemarle.

T. ABiNGDONii Gthr. (T. ephij^pium Gthr.) Abingdon.

T. GALAPAGOENSis Baiu". {T. eleiihantopus Jack.) Charles.
T. NiGUTTA Dum. Bibr. Locality unknown.

T. GUNTHERi Baur. {T. elepliantopus Gi\xx .) Locality unknown.

TROPIDURUS.

T. GFxAYi Bell. Charles.

T. BiviTTATUs Pet. {T. lemniscatus Cope.) Chatham.

T. iNDEFATiGABii.is Baur. Jauics & Indefatigable.

T. DELANONis Baur. Hood & Gardner.

T. DUNCANENSis Baur. Duncan.

T. ALBEMARLENSis Baur. Albemarle.

T. PACiFicus Steind. Abingdon.

T. HABELii St. Bindloe.

In connection with this genns I may add an interesting
note obtained from Count L. F. de Pourtales in a conver-
sation after his visit to the Galapagos on the Hassler Ex-
pedition. He stated that one day as he was sitting on a
rock on the shore of one of the ishmds he saw a hawk
stoop for one of these little lizards running back and forth
on the sands. At once on the approach of his enemy the
lizard rushed into the water and remained there until the
hawk had gone away. So far as I am aware no notice has
heretofore been made of a disposition on the part of species
of Tropidurus to enter the water.

Below are given the determinations and notes secured
by a study of the remainder of the Doctor's collection.

CoNOLOPHUS SUBCRISTATUS Gray ; St.

A specimen from Barrington has a length of body of
four and three-fourths and of tail seven and one-half inches.

78 THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

It is handsomely marked and bears a striking resembkance
to species of Enyalioides. Tliis is apparent even in the
gular sac and the transverse fold on the throat, and sug-
gests that in our systems these genera are placed too far
apart. The coloration differs materially from that of the
large specimens. The ground color is of a light olive,
lighter and uniform beneath and blotched and vermicuUite
on the back. Between the nape and the hips on the middle
of the dorsal surface there is a series of eight lighter cen-
tred, brownish transverse bands, and between these and
at their sides on the flank there are streaks forming vermi-
culations or rings. The rings enclose spaces of the ground
cok>r ; on the lower parts of the flanks they are larger and
more distinct, resembling in a measure those on the flank
of Enyalioides planiceps as figured by Guichenot. The
crown of the head bears scattered spots of black. The
tail is brown on the top ; on the middle of the side it has
a more or less broken longitudinal streak of the light color,
below which there is an irregidar narrow band of brown
separating it from the lighter color of the lower portion.

Size and color are the featiu'es in which difterences are
to be detected between this specimen and the larger ones.
Those that obtain are such as will disappear with age. The
several large individuals from the same island nearly ap-
proach a number secured by the Hassler Expedition, for
the Museum Comparative Zoology, from Albemarle. The
most notable of the diflerences between them appear in the
higher labials, as compared with the length, and in a more
concave frontal region on the specimens from Barrington,
which probably represent a distinct variety of the species.
The largest is about forty-tAVo inches in length, half of
which is tail.

Concerning the dorsal crest there are several items it
may be well to notice here. In all cases the crest nearly

THE REPTILES OF THE GALArAGOS ISLANDS. 79

or quite disappears between the hips, and on the males it
attniiis ii greater development. Each of the large spines
of the neck has a small one immediately in front of it, and
frequently the latter is preceded by a still smaller one.
"While young the spines are subpyramidal, convex on the
sides and concave behind, but as they grow higher they be-
come more subconical. Early in life the growth is rapid
and steady ; later it takes on a periodicity that is plainly
indicated in the dorsal spines. Those on the Barrington
specimens are encircled by three to six ridges, like the
rings around a cow's horn. These make the outward ap-
pearance of each spine resemble that of the rattle of a small
rattlesnake. In a longitudinal section, however, the layers
of the epiderm are seen to lie closely against each other,
not loosely as in the rattle. When with age the shape of
the spine becomes subconical, a slight constriction around
the base of the cap, or slough, prevents its removal. The
periodic growth of the skin lengthens the spine thus push-
ing the older cap farther out so as to expose a portion of
the base of the new one formed within it. The entire
spine being dermal there is no vacant space within the suc-
cessive caps, consequently, close as the external resem-
blance is, they do not assume the function of rattles. The
appearance is brought about ])y the shape of the cap, or
slough, and the periodicity of the grovvth. Though not
a rattle it confirms my account of the structure and devel-
opment of that organ as given in 1888 (Bull. Mus. Comp.
ZooL, XIII, 259). Ketention of the several caps adds to
the firmness and rigidity of the spine. On one individual
the longest spines measure three quarters of an inch.

Amblykhynchus ckistatus Bell.

Dr. Baur's Collection contains specimens from Albe-
marle, Bindloe, Charles and Tower, and in this museum

80 THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

there are others from Albemarle, Charles, Duncan and
Jervis islands. All may be placed in a single species, in
which it seems possil)Ie, however, to distinguish three va-
rieties : first, the typical form of the species, A. cristalus,
with the young profusely mottled with whitish, greenish and
olive and the old reddish, mottled, and clouded with darker
on the sides and usually with a black blotch between the
shoulders (from Albemarle, Bindloe, Charles and Jervis) ;
second, A. ater,i\\Q large black form, from Duncan, which
exhibits, in large specimens, little or none of the russet
color or the mottling ; and, third, A. nanus, a small black
form from Tower island, a form that does not appear to
reach half the size of that from Duncan, and which becomes
nearly uniform black at a size that in A. cristalus has more
of green and olive thanbrovvu. The smallest specimen of
A. nanus is five inches in length of body and seven and
one-fourth in length of tail ; the largest has a body eight
inches long and a tail twelve and a half. Two specimens
of A. ater were secured l)y Professor Agassiz, on the Al-
batross, from Duncan. The larger is fourteen inches in
body and eighteen and a half in tail. The C()h)r distin-
guishes them at once from A. cristalus. Of the latter those
from Charles appear to have more of the lighter colors in
the young, but in the »ld there is little diflerence to be
detected between the several localities. The smallest spec-
imen, from Albemarle, measures four and a half inches
in body and five and three-fourths inches in tail. It has
eight or nine transverse bands, or series of lighter spots,
from nape to base of tail, is mottled with lighter on flanks,
and is coarsely puncticulate with brown under throat and
breast. On the small ones the tubercles of the head are
light colored, and spots of the same color form a sort of
rosette on the nape. The tubercles of the forehead are
flat or convex scales at first, later they become carinate

THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. 81

and filially subconical. On the dorsum the crest is first
indicated by convex scales that become compressed and
ultimately subconical or i)ointed. In this genus the crest
on the neck shows the appearance of the rattles more than
that on the back, the opposite of what occurs on Conolo-
phus.

While looking over the specimens belonging to the
Museum of Comparative Zoology with Count Pourtales,
he mentioned a statement of Darwin to the effect that this
species does not take to the water for safety, but that
when Darwin had thrown them in they immediately re-
turned to the shore. The Count said that, from his own
observations, among large rocks where there were fishes
the lizards preferred to hide in crevices on shore ; but that
he saw them along the open places, where there were num-
bers of them, run into the sea, near the beach where the
water was shallow, and secrete themselves under the rocks
when pursued from the land.

Phyllodactylus tuberculosus Wieg.

This identification may yet be questioned. The speci-
men in the collection, from Chatham, is badly mutilated.
It agrees with Wiegmann's species in the distribution of
the tubercles but differs in their shape and size ; they are
broader and flatter with the keel more distinct from the
rest of the upper surface.

Phyllodactylus galapagoensis Pet.

Dr. Boulenger gives the locality of this species as Charles
Island. Dr. Baur's specimens are all reported from Albe-
marle, where it would from his collections appear to be
the only species of the genus. The largest individual
measures three and three-quarters inches, indicating a
smaller species than P. tuberculosus, of which specimens

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 11

82 THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

of my collecting in the Daule region, above Guayaquil,
reach five and a half. The dorsal tubercles are less de-
veloped, and those on the head and neck are less numerous
than those of that species, while the large scales below the
tail are not arranged in a regular series. Of ten specimens,
five have three submentals in contact with the mental, as
described by Peters ; four of the others have but two sub-
mentals in the same position, as stated by Boulenger ; and
one individual has four submentals against the mental
shield. In most respects the descriptions of coloration
given by the mentioned authors accords with that present
on these specimens. A striking contrast is presented by
one example : its ground color is light and the markings
are black ; between the nape and the base of the tail there
are eight transverse bands, bifurcating toward the flank ;
on the tail there are thirteen of the black bands ; and the
black band from the nostril through the eye is met at the
ear by that from the nape. Ordinarily the dorsal blotches
are brown, separated along the veitebral line, and reduced
to two series of spots.

Phyllodactylus Baurii sp. n.

This species is still farther than the preceding from
P. tuberculosus . There are but five rows of tubercles on
each side and they are smaller and more irregularly placed
in the rows. The scales of the back of the head and the
neck are granular, as in P. Reissil. The mental is rather
short ; it is broad and forms an obtuse angle posteriorly,
between two large submentals. The first infralabials are
about one-fourth as large as the mental, by which they are
widely separated. Forward from a vertical through the
pupil there are six labials and five to six infralabials.

The colors and markings are like those of P. galapa-
goensis. The reduction or absence of the tubercles on the

THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. 83

neck brings this species close to P. JReissn, described by
Peters from Guayaquil ; the latter is readily distinguished
by its mental shield which is almost entirely between the
first pair of infralabials, and these are hardly smaller than
the mental itself.

Uab. Las Cuevas, Charles Island,
Phyllodagtylus Leei Cope.

On one individual there are six labials in front of a ver-
tical through the pupil on one side and seven on the other.

Uab. Chatham Island.

GONATODES COLLARIS Sp. U.

Head moderate ; snout obtusely pointed, longer than
the distance between the eye and the ear opening, one and
one-half times the diameter of the orbit, equal the width of
the crown at the hinder edge of the orbit ; forehead flat ;
ear opening small. Digits slender ; basal joint slender,
sul)cylindrical, with larger plates beneath ; other joints
more slender, compressed. Head, throat, upper portions
of body, limbs and tail covered with subequal granular
scales, smallest on the occiput, larger on chin and tail.
Rostral broader than high, pentagonal, incised on the top.
A small internasal toward each side. Two small shields
behind the nostril. Six labials ; sixth small, slightly behind
the middle of the eye. Five infralabials ; posterior nearly
reaching a vertical from the hinder border of the eye ; first
large, in contact with two submentals ; mental large, with
a median and two lateral angles posteriorly, in contact
with a pair of moderate submentals, at each side of which
there is one scarcely half as large, from Avhich again a
diminishing series of three or four passes back along the
infralabials. Abdominal scales moderate, imbricate, hep-
tagonal, flat, similar to scales in front of thighs and arms.

84 THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

Tail tiipering, subronnd, covered with small imbricate
scales above aud larger ones beneath. The median row
under the tail is subject to great variation : on two of the
si}ecimens the scales are about twice as broad as h)ng ; on
two others they are so broad as to reach from side to side
of the tail. The granules of the throat are fine, quite as
small as those of the occiput ; near the labials and submen-
tals they rapidly increase in size.

Body and limbs dark brownish ; back darker, with
numerous small spots of light blue. A dark-edged spot
of the blue above the shoulder. In front of each shoulder
there is a vertical band of bluish that does not reach the
median line on the top of the neck. Along the verte-
bral line the back is lighter, and along this light band
there are live pairs of dark spots, and at the hinder edge
of each of these spots there is a smaller one of the light
color. The tirst })air of the spots lies transveisely in front
of the vertical band, the second behind the shoulders, the
third near the middle of the body, the fourth in front of
the leg, and the fifth across the base of the tail.

Chin and throat yellow to orange. Top and sides of
head brown ; with a yellow band from the angle of the
mouth to the nape, another from the eye to the parietal
region, and a third from the nostrils backward over the
supraorbitals. On the crown the disposition of the yellow
is irregular, but on each specimen there is a short median
streak of the light color.

This form is very closely allied to Gray's species G.
ocellatus from Tobago. The principal diflerences seem
to be in the coloration. The vertical streak is in front of
the shoulder, and to reach the latter would have to turn
back at its lower end. The head is not so high, and the
outline from rostral to occiput is very slightly but quite
regularly curved. In the figure given, by Dr. Boulenger,

THE RErXILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. 85

of G. ocellatus, the scales uiuler the fourth toe arc smaller
toAvard the base ; in our species they are about equal in
size.

Bab. Wreck Bay, Chatham Islaud.
Orophis biserialis.

Herjietodryas biserialis Gthr., 1860, Pr. Zool. Soc.

Lond., 97.
Dromicus ChamissonisV^i., 1869, M. B. Berl. Akad.,

719.
D. CJiamissonis var. biserialis Gthr., 1870, Zool.

Eec.,vi, 1869, 115.
D. C/iamissonisvnr. dorsalis and var. Habelii Steind.,

1876, Schl. u. Eid. der Galap.-Inseln, p. 6, pi. 1.
Opheomor'plius Chamissonis Cope, 1889, Pr. U. S.

Mus., 147.

There is a single specimen of this suake in the collection
from Hood Island. It is intermediate between Giiuther's
species biserialis and Steindachner's variety Habelii. Struc-
turally it agrees with the type described by Giinther, but
it has no s[)ots on the back. The dorsal band is coutinuous,
though faiuter and indistinctly margined behind the middle
of the length. The type from which the species was origi-
nally described Avas said to be from Charles Island. The
present specimen from another locality possesses the
squamation of one of the so-called varieties and the color-
ation of the other. This seems to me to indicate the exist-
ence of but one variety, of which the spotted foinis and
those with three postorbitals are individual variations.
There is nothing in the published evidence to show that
the striped form, the spotted form, that with two postor-
bitals, and that with three do not occur amongst the indi-
viduals of any of the localities inhabited by this snake.

80 THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

Giiiither's type has three postorbitals and is spotted, Dr.
Bnur's specimen has three postorbitals and is striped, and
Steindachner's varieties both striped and spotted have but
two postorbitals.

Steindachner's specimens are from Charles, Hood, In-
defatigable, and Jervis Islands, Baur's and Giinther's are
from Charles and Hood.

The species was first placed by Dr. Giinther in Her-
petodryas. Peters removed it to Dromicus. The type
species of Dromicus is G. angulifer, with two scale pores,
which differs too much to admit of including the Galapagos
serpent with it in the same genus. Liophis was based hy
Wagleron L. miUaris or L. Merremii, and Opheomorphus
thus becomes a synonym, being founded on the same type.
Since Fitzinger, 1843, has applied the name Orophis direct-
ly to 0. Ohamissonis it would appear that the best way out
of the confusion lies in retaining his generic designation
for that species and others not generically distinct.

Orophis bisencdis differs from O. Chamissonis nmm\y in
having a larger iuunl)er of scutes. Our specimen has 19
rows, no pores, 209 scutes under the body, a divided anal,
a mutilated tail, one loreal, one anteorbital, three postor-
bitals, eight labials, and ten infrahit)ials. The frontal
does not widen in front ; between the supraorbitals its
sides are parallel. The lateral band of light color extends
along the two outer rows of scales, and the upper light
band is on the sixth and seventh rows. The dorsal band
of brown occupies five entire rows with the adjoining edges
of two others ; the lateral bands of this color occupy but
three rows with the adjoined edges of two more. All of
the bands fade [)()steriorly. The lateral bands of brown
begin at the nostrils and pass through the eye to the flanks ;
the dorsal band begins on the forehead, where it is not so
dark. Anteriorly there are spots under the body ; pos-

THE REPTILES OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS. 87

teriorly the spots do not appear and the coh)r is more uni-
form white or yellowish. The edges ofthe scales are darker.
The greater part of the brown in the coh)ration is in the
shape of coarse puncticuhitions ; these are continued more
or less completely across the abdomen on the hinder edges
of the scutes. On its edges the dorsal band has the ap-
pearance of being serrated. Dr. Giinther found 209 ven-
tral scutes on the type specimen. Steindachner found the
ventrals on his examples to vary from 219 to, 225 and
the subcaudals from 105 to 114. On O. Ohamissonis t\iQ
ventrals vary from 175 to 201 and the subcaudals from
100 to 113.

Mus. Comp. Zool., Jan., 1892,
Cambridge, Mass.

ON REPTILES COLLECTED BY DR. GEO. BAUR
NEAR GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.

BY S. G ARM AN.

Though it contains but few types, this collection is of
interest because of the means it affords for determining a
number of individual variations, and for perfecting to some
extent several of the original descriptions, and also for re-
ducing the number of nominal species. The specimens
w^ere secured either in the immediate vicinity of Guayaquil
or, along or off the coast, on the way from that city to the
Galapagos Islands.

Pelamis platura Linn. ; Garm.

Four specimens of this sea snake were taken opposite
Santa Helena. The first has 53 scales in a row around
the body near the middle, nineteenof them being included
in the black color of the back. In a row from the chin
to the tip of the tail there are 344 on the body, and 52
on the tail. Around the middle of the tail there are 27
rows. On each side of the head a large anteorbital reaches
from the prefrontal to the lower of the two postorbitals.
None of the labials reach the orbit.

On the second there are 56 scales in a roAV around the
middle of the body ; and in a line from the chin to the end
of the tail there are 355 scales on the body, and 48 on the
tail. Seventeen of the scales around the body are in the

(88)

ON REPTILES COLLECTED NEAR GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR. 89

bliick. In this case there are two anteorbitals on each side,
the lower one extending between the orbit and the labials
to the lower of the two postorbitals. In the middle of the
yellow color of the flank a black band passes back from the
lower jaw over more thtin one-third of the length ; behind
this it becomes a series of large spots ; and these latter, to-
ward the tail, extend downward to the median ventral line
and join the spots from the opposite side to form trans-
verse bands.

The third example has 53 rows, nineteen of them in
the black, and in the ventral series has 340 on the body,
and 45 on the tail. On one side of its head there is one
anteorbital, which is separated from the lower of the two
postorbitals by the fifth labial. On the other side there
is a single postorbital ; this is separated fi'om the lower of
the two anteorbitals by the fifth labial. There are eight
labials, of which the fonrth is small and crowded nnder
the third and fifth. Infralabials 11-12.

The fourth individual has 53 rows of scales, seventeen
of them black ; and in the ventral series there are 351 on
the body, and 49 on the tail. It has two anteorbitals on
one side, the lower one united with the fourth labial and
extended below the eye to the lower of the two postorbitals.
On the other side it has two ante- and two postorbitals,
with a large suborbital between the eye and the labials.

Only one of the four specimens has black in the yellow
of the flank. On two of them the black of the back is
regular in its lower margin to the base of the tail, where
it breaks into rounded blotches which descend on the sides
and alternate with others extending up from the lower
edo-e of the tail. On the other two the black of the back

o

becomes sinuous in its lower edges, not far from the middle
of the body, and breaks up on the tail, where scattered
small spots of black appear.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 12

90 ON KEPTILES COLLECTED NEAR GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.

Leptodeira annulata Linn. ; Fitz.

Considerable individual variations are shown by the
eleven specimens in the collection. Six have 21 dorsal
rows ; five have 23. The scutes range from 185 to 194,
averaging about 189. The average of the subcaudals is
nearly 82, the range being from 72 to 90. The normal
number of labials is eight, on one side of each of two speci-
mens there are nine. There are ten infralabials ; on both
sides of one specimen and on one side of each of two others
there are eleven. Normally there are two ante- and two
postorbitals, and the fourth and fifth labials enter the or-
bital ring. On one side of one specimen there is a single
anteorbital and the third, fourth and fifth labials enter the
orbit ; and on both sides of another there are three postor-
bitals, while on one side of the same specimen there are
three anteorbitals. The dorsal blotches vary from 40 to 54
on the body, averaging about 45 ; and those on the tail range
from 17 to 25, with an average of about 22. On some
the dorsal blotches are transverse, undivided on the median
line ; on others they seem to be divided above the vertebrae
and alternated and joined in such a manner as to form a
sinuous line, crossing back and forth from side to side of
the dorsum for a considerable extent of the entire length.
In young stages the ground color is much lighter and the
spots are more distinct. The scales have two pores ; anal
and subcaudal scutes are divided.

Herpetodryas brunneus Gthr.

Kows 17, pores 2, scutes 155 -{-122, and 154 -[-13 1, anal
and subcaudals divided ; labials 9, infralabials 10, a loreal,
one anteorbital, postorbitals 2, three on one side of one
specimen, fourth to sixth labials in the orbital ring. The
length of one is 11^+6|, and of the other 19*4-13
inches.

ON REPTILES COLLECTED NEAR GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR. 91

On the younger the light vertebral space is more distinct,
as also the narrow bands of darker at each side of it, in
which there are small black spots. On the larger the
color is a darker olive in which many of the scales are
tipped with black. Nine of the dorsal rows are keeled.

Herpetodryas reticulatus Pet.

A yonng specimen with 17 rows of scales, 186 ventral
scutes, a divided anal, and a mutilated tail. Labials 9,
infralabials 10, one anteorbital, postorbitals 2. ^ The
fourth to the sixth labials are in the orbital series. To
the base of the tail there are 82 blotches. Ventral snrface
without black spots ; no white spots or white-edged scales
on flanks or back. In the quadrangular blotches of the
back the central portions are lighter, as also of the scales.
This form is evidently closely allied to H. Bappii of Glin-
ther.

Coniophanes signatus sp. n.

Body slender, elongate, slightly depressed. Head
little wider than neck, crown flattened, snout moderately
pointed, loreal region concave. Scales smooth, lustrous,
elongate, poreless, in 19 rows around the middle of the
body. Ventral scutes 132, anal and subcaudals bifid, tail
mutilated. Rostral not bent back on the snout. Inter-
nasals not half as large as prefrontals, broader than long.
Prefrontals large, broad, bent down to the loreal. Nasals
two, loreal as high as long, labials 9, fourth and fifth in
orbit, eighth small, not as large as the loreal, longer than
high, seventh and ninth large, one anteorbital, two post-
orbitals, infralabials 10, two pairs of submentals. The
^ maxillary teeth increase in size backward ; the posterior
one is grooved. A dorsal band of brown occupies five
scales, and a half scale at each side of these ; a light line

92 ON REPTILES COLLECTED NEAR GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.

at each side of the dorsal band includes two entire and
two half-scales, and the brown band at the lower edge of
each flank covers the three outer rows, the half of the
fourth, and the ends of the ventral scutes. In the dorsal
band there are two narrow streaks of light color, on the
middle of the scale, and on the lower band of the flank
there are three similar streaks, the upper two of which
are close together. On each side of the nape there is an
oblong area of lighter color surrounded by dark, and the
outer portions of the temporals are lighter. The dark
brown of the middle of the crown extends forward on the
frontal, forming a trident with the prongs in front, ending
on the prefrontals. A dark band passes through the eye
to the neck ; below this a light band passes back into the
pair of white streaks in the second and third rows of scales.
Lips, chin and throat thickly freckled with brown. A
peculiar feature of this snake is the smallness of the eighth
labial as compared with the ninth or the seventh. It is
longer than high and lies below the lower temporal which
is larger than the upper and passes downward between
the seventh labial and the ninth to the eighth. The speci-
men is alike on both sides of the head.

OXYBELIS AENEUS Wagl.

Labials seven to eight ; infralabials nine. From Posorja.

Cnemidophorus lentiginosus sp. n.

Head narrow. Nostril anterior to the nasal suture.
Each of the outer parietals transversally divided into three.
Four supraoculars, the posterior two and half of the sec-
ond separated from the frontal and the fronto -parietal by
a line of granules, six to seven supraciliaries, a freno-
orbital, median gular scales enlarged, mesoptychium with
four or five rows of enlarged scales, smaller but not gran-

ON REPTILES COLLECTED NEAR GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR. 93

ular toward the edge of the collar. Dorsal granules small,
unifonn. Ventral phites in ten longitudinal and about
thirty-four transverse series. Five large plates forming
a triangle, from the vent 2 -}- 2 -h 1, at each side of which
there is a series of five smaller ones. Three or four rows
of brachials, anterior largest and contiiuious with the
largest, posterior, of the two rows of antebrachials. Eight
to ten rows of femorals, two or three of which are large ;
tibials in three rows, outer largest. Femoral pores twenty
to twenty-one on each side. Male without anal spines.
Caudal scales slightly oblique, carinate, subtruncate pos-
teriorly. Length of body, 4.25, of tail, 7.75 inches.

Back olive brown, tinted with red anteriorly; upper
surface of body and limbs and sides of head thickly sprin-
kled with small rounded spots of yellowish or white, ap-
parently arranged in both longitudinal and transverse
series ; top of head lighter brownish, uniform ; a series of
spots from ear to rostral on the labials ; lower surface olive,
reddish on chest and folds, yellowish under legs, tail and
hinder parts of abdomen. A faintly indicated light streak
extends from the supraciliaries back above the hips.

Hah. San Francisco de Posorja.
Ameiva edracantha Boc.

A small posterior, fourth, supraocular is present in each
case. Supraciliaries live to six. Granules scarcely in-
tervening between fronto-parietal and supraocular. Pores
twelve to thirteen. Throat of male red-tinted. Males
with six large and several smaller spines in each group at
the sides of the preanals.

Hab. Posorja.
Iguana tuberculata Laur.
Secured at Posorja.

94 ON REPTILES COLLECTED NEAR GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR.

Tropidurus occipitalis Pet.

Tropidurus {Laemopristis) occipitalis Peters, 1871,

M. B. Berl. Akad., 645.
Aneuporus occi2ntalis Boconvt, 1874, Miss. Sci. Mex.,

Rept., 215, pi. xviii, fig. 1.
Craniopeltis occipitalis Cope, 1876, Jour. Phil. Ac,

(2), VIII, 173.
Tropidurus occipitalis Boulenger, 1885, Cat. Liz., ii,

173.
Tropidurus Bocourtii Boulenger, 1885, Cat. Liz., ii,

173.

On the shields of the snout the keel is very feeble or
absent. The supraorbitals have faint strise. Frequently,
especially in the young, the occipital black spot is bordered
by white. The dorsal crest is very prominent on old
males ; it is less so on the females, and is indicated by broad
scales with a median keel, but without the acuminate point,
in the young. On the larger ones there are four (4-6)
acute scales on the front margin of the ear. Behind the
arm, extending back along the flank the male in life has a
group or band of red spots. The females and the young
do not show this but they have a narrow band of lighter
color from the upper edge of the arm to that of the thigh.
The humeral fold is usually black inside. Females and
young have the fold in front of this of a brilliant red
color. On the female the dorsal blotches are much reduced
and less distinct. On the male the four blotches of the
scapular region are large and jet black. The young ones
have eight or nine moderately distinct transverse bands of
brown between the nape and the base of the tail, the series
becoming more faint as contiimed farther back. The two
light bauds along each flank are very distinct on the young.

ON REPTILES COLLECTED NEAR GUAYAQUIL, ECUADOR. 95

Young ones closely resemble Scclopori in appearance and
coloration.

Bocoiirt's genus Aneuporus appears to have been founded
on the female of this species. Cope's Craniopeltis is ap-
parently the same. From their descriptions Boulenger
was led to found the species T. Bocourlii, which, from
the evidence of Dr. Baur's specimens, becomes a synonym
of T. occipitalis of Peters.

From San Francisco de Posorja, on the north side of
the gulf, between Guayaquil and Point St. Helena.

Phyllodactylus tuberculosus Wieg.
From Guayaquil.

JSlus. Comj). Zool. Feb., 1892, Cambridge, Mass.

ON COPHIAS AND BACH! A.

BY S. G ARM AN.

Cophias as a generic name for South American reptiles
dates from 1820, when Merrem, Sjst. Amph., applied it
to a genus of the Toxicophidia. Of the species he in-
cluded four or five rightfully belonged to previously es-
tablished genera. After removing those of Lachesis,
Daudin, 1803, and Trigonocephalus, Oppel, 1810, there
remained l)ut two to bear the name proposed by Merrem.
Wied-Neuwied in his Rcise, 1821, in his Abbildungen,
1824, and in his Beitrage, 1825, uses this name for species
correctly placed with these. Wagler, 1824, in the Spix
Eeptilia gave the name Bothrops to a genus containing
Lachesis and a number of species belonging with the two
from Merrem and those of Wied , through which Cophias
really anticipates Wagler's name, though that term has
been adopted by recent authorities.

Previous application and repeated use among the 0})hidia
notwithstanding, Fitzinger, 1826, Syst. Rep., 20, gave
the name Cophias to a genus of lizards, distinguished by
three toes on the hind foot. The only question in this note
is whether we are justified in retaining this name among
the Sauria. From the data given al)ove it does not seem
possible to do so in accord with general practice. In fact
the necessity of selecting another title for the genus of liz-
ards so named appears unavoidable. If we accept the genus

(96)

ON COPHIAS AND BACHIA. 97

as constituted by Dr. Boulengcr, 1885, Cat. Liz. Brit.
Mus., II, 417, wc find that because of application else-
Avliere neither Chalcides, Chalcis, Colobus, nor Micro-
dact\dus, sometime applied to one or others of the species,
is available, and we must turn to the next in order. One
of the included species, that described by Dumeril and
Bibron, 1839, Erp. Gen. v, 462, Chalcides D'Qrbignii,
was made the type of the genus Bachia by Gray, 1849,
Cat. Liz. B. M., 58. At the time this was the only spe-
cies. Boulenger, 1885, determines that three others are
congeneric. By extending the limits of the genus so as
to include them, and leaving the name Cophias to the
snakes, we shall solve the difficulty and preclude further
confusion. At present the following species are placed
in Bachia :

B. U Orhignii D. & B ; Gray. Chile ; Venezuela.

B. flavescens Bonnat. sp. Guiana ; Venezuela.

B. heterqpus Boettg. sp. Central America.

B, tridactylus Daud. sp. Hab?

Mus. Goinp. ZooL, Cambridge, Mass.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 13

ON TEXAN EEPTILES.

Collected by Mk. F. W. Wamsley for Professor J. W. P. Jenkj
Curator of the Museum at Browx Tj:xiversity.

BY S. G ARM AN.

Mr. Wamsley's collection was gathered at Deming's
Bridge in Matagorda county, one of the gulf series of coun-
ties, situated eastward from the central meridian of Texas.
In all, the lot contained seventy-two specimens, represent-
ing twenty-eight species of nineteen genera. Twenty-one
species of fourteen genera were snakes, three species of
three genera were lizards, and four species of two genera
were tortoises. On account of the larger number of speci-
mens and of the comparisons with descriptions given by
Baird and Girard, many of whose types were secured in
localities not far from Deming's, the greater interest attach-
es to the serpents. It will be noticed that the statements
of the mentioned authors are closely approached by the
data noted in this list.

As there appears to be no other way to secure anything
like permanence in the names applied, it is thought ad-
visable to trace the nomenclature back and to determine
them in strict accord with the rules applying in regard to
priority.

CHELONIA.
CiSTUDO ORNATA Ag.

On one of the specimens the areola3 are so much raised
that, with the radiating yellow lines, the scales in a measure

(98)

ON TEXAN REPTILES. 99

resemble those of Testudo radiala. An iiidividiuil with
a carapace measuring four and one-half inches in length hy
three and one-half in width has less than fourteen lines of
growth on each scale. The top and the sides of the head
are flecked with small round spots of yellow. In all cases
the vertebral keel is obsolete.

CisTUDO ciNOSTEKNOiDES Gray ; Garm.

Dr. Boulenger has examined the type of Gray'.s Emys
kinosiernoides, 1831, and, finding it to be identical with
Cistudo triunguis of Agassiz, 1857, makes it a variety of
(7. Carolina. Of one of our specimens the head is yellow-
ish green on the top and the sides with a faint yellow spot
or two far back on the top and a few larger ones on the
sides behind the ears. This one is less than four inches
in length of carapace and the scales are smooth, or with
traces of strife posteriorly. On the carapace the brown
color is dark and the yellow is reduced to scattered small
rounded spots ; on the plastron the yellow spots are elon-
gate or form short bands, but this color is much less in
amount than the brown. Another specimen, with a shell
five and a half by four inches, has the head of a chestnut-
brown on top and sides, freckled with a few small spots of
orange behind the mouth. The carapace is chestnut-brown,
darker on the areolae and the posterior borders of the scales
on each of which there are faint traces of radiating lines
of lighter color. The plastron is yellowish, darker in the
sutures. Except in the lack of markings on its head this
individual agrees closely with that figured by Wied as O.
Carolina, apparently also a three-toed specimen. Each
specimen in the collection has the labial scale of orange
color with dark edges.

Objections are urged against the use of the name Cistudo
as it was originally, as also Terrapeue, a synonym for

100 ON TEXAN REPTILES.

Emys or Emydes of Brongniart. If we are to discard it,
the next available name would seem to be Emydoides
(orig. Emyoides) of Gray, 1844; or if this be put aside
for lack of a diagnosis we shall have to adopt Onychotria
of Gray, 1849, which is manifestly inappropriate for the
majority of the species to be included.

Trachemys troostii Holbr. ; Ag.

These examples do not differ greatly from others taken
in Mississippi. There is some variation among the speci-
mens in regard to the narrow longitudinal lines on the
head and neck, one having them broken up into mottlings.
On the sides of the head and beneath, the lines are more or
less irregular and broken. The scales of the carapa(^
have black margins. In general the appearance is very
dark, almost black. Under the plastron there is a con-
siderable of a mixture of dark brown, brownish and yellow
of various degrees of depth, the darkest color following
the sutures. One of the shells measured nine inches in
length by six and seven-eighths in width.

A lot of nine eggs was taken, on the twentj^-third of
May, which presumably belongs to this species. The
shape is similar to that of Plychemys mobiliensis, as
figured by Agassiz ; the size is a little greater. The largest
in this lot measures one and eight-tenths inches in length
by one and one-tenth in width. The smallest was one and
sixty-five-hundredths inches by one inch. Another lot
contained eleven eggs ; the largest, one and sixty-three-
hundredths inches by one and four-hundredths ; the small-
est, one and forty-seven-hundredths by one inch.

Trachemys elegans Wied ; Ag.

The shell measured six and twenty-five-hundredths by
five inches. The free portion of the longest claw was five-
eighths inches long.

ON TEXAN REPTILES. 101

SAURTA.

Phkynosoma cornutum Hail. ; Gray.
LvGOSOMA LATERALE Say ; D. & B.

The specimen has thirty scales in a row around the body,
a smaller scale at each side of the pair of large preanals,
and a pair of narrow lines of brown from the nape to the
base of the tail along the middle of the back.

OphiSxVurus ventralis Linn. ; Daud.

One hundred and twenty-seven scales from chin to vent.
Eleven labials.

OPHIDIA.

Sistrurus catenatus Raf. ; Garm.

One specimen had dorsal rows 25, ventral scutes 157,
subcaudal scutes 25, labials 12, infralabials 13, and dorsal
blotches 41, on the body, plus 7 on the tail. Another had
rows 25, ventrals 155, subcaudals 3 pairs plus 31 entires,
labials 13-14, infralabials 12-13, and dorsal blotches 43
on the body and 8 on the tail.

Sistrurus miliarius Linn. ; Garm.

Rows 21, scutes 134, subcaudals 25 entire plus 6 pairs,
labials 8-9, infralabials 9, anteorbitals 3, postorbitals 5.
The red band on the back is very distinct.

Ancistrodon piscivorus LaC. ; Cope.

Five specimens. Rows 25, scutes 135-137, subcaudals
39-44, labials 7-8, infralabials 10-11. The number of
bifid subcaudals under the end of the tail varies from
six to twenty, among them there are occasional entire
scutes. A half scute frequently occurs immediately in
front of the left half of the anal.

Comparison of these with specimens from the eastern
section of the range discovers no grounds for separation as

102 ON TEXAN REPTILES.

a variety. On individuals there is considerable variation
in the width of the lower edge of the second labial ; in
cases it approaches an acute angle at the mouth, Avhere in
others it presents a broad margin. But one of the labials
enters the orbit. On a specimen in the Museum of Com-
parative Zoology the second labial presents a sharp angle
downward but does not reach the mouth. Mr. Wamsley's
specimens show the tail to be dark and the bands to be
almost obsolete on the backs of the larger ones but very
distinct on the young. The band behind the eye is dis-
tinct on the small ones ; with age it becomes indistinct on
its upper edge.

Baird and Girard give 145 scutes for A.pugnax and 140
for A. piscivorus ; our highest number is 137.

Elaps fulvius Linn. ; Cuv.

Three specimens. Ventrals 207, 212, and 213 ; sub-
caudals 40, 41, and 42, bifid; labials 7; infralabials 7.
On one the yellow bands number 24 -f- 3, on each of the
others 22 -|- 3. One red band is nearly as wide as one
black plus two yellow ones. The tail is black and yellow
only. The lengths are 22 -f 3, 19-5 + 2-75, and 17-5 +
2-5 inches.

Compared with others from the southern states east of
the Mississippi, these specimens show plainly that Elaps
tristis of Baird and Girard was founded on insufficient
grounds. They are not distinguished b}^ the shape of the
heads. On a series from South Carolina the scutes num-
ber 204, 206, 208, 211, and, on a large female, 222.
Others from Florida have 208, 209, 209, 210, and 225;
one from Georgia has 208 ; and one from Alabama has
211.
Elaps tenere B. & G.

A single specimen in the collection may be placed in

ON TEXAN REPTILES. 103

this species. It lias 229 veiitmls, and 29 bifid siibcaudals.
On one side there are seven labials, second and third in
orbit, on the other there are eight, third and fourth in orbit.
There are 24 + 2 yellow rings ; the red are much spotted
with black, and each is about as wide as one of the black
plus two of the yellow. Tail black and yellow.

Tropidonotus obliquus Hallow.

This type agrees with T.fasciatus in structural details,
but differs greatly in coloration. Rows 23, ventrals 132,
labials 8, infralabials 10-11, 1 anteorbital, 3 postorbi-
tals. Across the back there are about sixteen blotches
of black separated by irregular obliquely transverse narrow
streaks of yellowish that widen on the flunks. Toward
and on the ventrals the blotches become reddish and more
or less bifid. The first blotch is a wide one and extends
forward on the neck and top of the head to the rostral.
The margins of the labials have very little of the brown
color, and the bar behind the eye is partially obliterated
and indistinct. In the Mus. Comp. Zool. there is another
specimen of this form, from Dallas, which has rows 23,
scutes 135, subcaudals 77, labials 8, and infralabials 10-
11. On this one the brownish red of the blotches extends
nearly half way across the lower surface. Tail uniform
dark brown.

This form is close to the type described by Hallowell
from Kansas, but differs in the number of blotches, unless
they are counted along the outer rows of scales on the
flanks. His specimen had 140 ventrals, 69 subcaudals,
and 32 + 18-19 blotches. On the young no doubt the
blotches are less confluent.

Tropidonotus trans versus Hallow.

Of ten specimens the first two have 23 rows, the third
27, and the remainder 25 rows each. Their scutes, anal

104 ON TEXAN REPTILES.

and subcaudals being bifid, number 142 + 75, 146 -{- 78,
143 + 65, 148 + 71, 151 + 72, 148 + 70, 150 + 68,
150 + 74, 144 + 77, and 147 + 76. Commonly there
are eight labials and ten infralabials ; the latter vary from
ten to twelve. One specimen has two anteorbitals on one
side. Another has two postorbitals on one side instead
of the usual three. Several have the scales of chin, snout
and lips roughened with small tubercles or papilloe. The
dorsal blotches vary from 31 to 36, and the caudal from
19 to 23. On the large ones the color of the back becomes
nearly uniform dark brown. Small ones have a lighter
ground color, blotches more distinct, and the two parietal
yellow spots usually present. The tendency to form trans-
verse bands is not so evident in this species as in its nearest
ally T. sipedon. Beneath the anterior margin of each
scute, toward the sides, there are crescent-shaped spots
of dark color ; on some of the older ones these spots have
widened and lengthened until nearly the whole scute is
covered ; on other individuals these spots are nearly obso-
lete. A frequent variation in species having the bifid anal
is to be seen in several of these specicnens. In the anal
scute the dividing line is oblique, and extends back and
toward the right side, thus making the left portion the
larger. It is in front of this, the larger half, that a small
supplemental or half-scute appears. Two of the ten before
us have a half scute in front of the left half of the anal,
and a third has a smaller piece which does not quite reach
from the median line to the lateral rows.

This is the species named JSfei'odia Woodhousii by Baird
and Girard, 1853. Hallowell's name was applied in
1852.

Thamnophis sirtalis Linn. ; Garm.

Labials 7, infralabials 10, 1 anteorbital, postorbitals 3,
and rows 19 in each of the four specimens. The ventrals

ON TEXAN REPTILES. 105

and siibcaudals number 147 + 74, 142 + ?, 139 + 74,
and 149-1-86. In a dorsal series the spots range from
73 to 82.

This genus is Eut£enia of Baird and Glrard, 1853.
Fitzinger, 1843, applied the name Thamnophis to the
species T. saurita of Linne. The habits of the species
make the name (from i^djrjoq^ copse, thicket, or bush) a
most appropriate one.

Thamnophis proxima Say ; Garm.

Ventrals ranging from 167 to 175, and subcaudals from
107 to 108. In one case there are eleven infralabials
instead often.

Storeria Dekayi Holbr. ; B. & G.

Two anteorbitals on one side of one specimen. Ven-
trals ranging from 135 to 138, and subcaudals from 51 to
53. The dorsal band varies from distinct to indistinct,
and a series of small black dots at each side of the belly
is present or absent. Apparently there is an increase in
the number of scutes to the southward.

Potamophis inornatus Garm.

The types from which this species was described were
secured near Dallas. Their principal difference from Pota-
mophis slriatula appears in the divided internasal, lack of
an occipital ashy band, and in a stouter form.

Two specimens of this lot agree in the main with the
types but have a single internasal and a larger number of
scutes. For the present they are placed here to wait a
larger series from which to determine the value of the
differences. Each has 17 rows, 5 labials, 1 anteorbital,
1 postorbital, 1 internasal, and divided anal and subcau-
dals. One has 6 infralabials, 139 ventral, and 38 sub-
caudal scutes ; the other has 6 infralabials on one side,

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 14

106 ON TEXAN EEPTILES.

but 5 on the other, 139 veiitrals, and 37 subcaudals.
The length of a female, apparently adult, is 8-5 + 1"6
inches.

A name meaning river snake, Potamophis, given by
Fitzinger in 1843 to Linne's Coluber striatulus, is certainly
not a very appropriate name for this genus. The next in
order of publication would be Haldea of Baird and Girard,
the only advantage of which would seem to be in that it
has no meaning atall. If both of these names were dropped,
the more applicable name, Conocephalus, given by Dameril
in 1854, would be the next available.

Heterodon cognatus B. & G.

In each case there are 25 dorsal rows and, with one ex-
ception of 10, 11 scales in the orbital chain. Two speci-
mens have 8 labials and 11 infralabials on each side; a
third and a fourth have 8 labials on one side and 9 on the
other; the third has 10 infralabials on one side to 11 on
the other, while the fourth has 11 on each side. Anal
and subcaudals all bifid. Scutes 139 -f- 44, 131 -f 49, 137
+ 43, and 134 -|- 39. The blotches in the dorsal series
number 25 + 7, 25 + 9, 24 + 9, and 23 + 8. Form
and coloration serve to distinguish this snake readily fi'om
H. platyrhinus. The light color beneath the neck and the
tail makes it aj^pear as if both neck and tail were carried
off the ground.

Lampropeltis doliatus Linn. ; Cope.

Rows 21 in each case, scutes 201+ 49, and 201 + 47,
24 red bands on one, and 20 on the other. Labials 7 on
the first, 7-8 on the second; infralal)ials 9. This and
the two following species represent Ophlbolus of Baird
and Girard.

Lampropeltis riiompjOmaculatus Ilolbr. ; Cope.

Rows 25, scutes 208 + 52, and 207 + 51. Dark

ON TEXAN REPTILES. 107

blotches on tho back to the base of the tail ; 50 on one,
56 on the other. Labials 7 ; infrahibuils 10, one has but
9 on one side. Scale pores two.

Lampropeltis sayi Holbr. ; Cope.

Eows 21, scutes 213 + 49, 222 + 51 and 205 + 47,
labials 7, infralabials 9, in a single case 10. Each scale
bears a yellow spot, yet the arrangement is such that it
is possible in cases to count the blotches, which are found
to be about 75 + 22.

DiADOPHIS DOCILIS B. & G.

A female with eggs ; length 13J -f- 2J inches. Scutes
177 + 39, labials 7, infralabials 8. Lower surface pro-
fusely and irregularly spotted with black. Neck band
orange. Posteriorly a black blotch reaches out from the
flank, on the end of each scute, more than one-third of the
way across.

Coluber flaviventris Say.

Labials 7-8, infralabials 8-9, scutes 168 + 78, 162 +
79, and 170 + 74 ; lengths 24 -f 7-5, 23 + 8, and 13 +
3-75 inches. The youngest is thickly sprinkled with small
spots of dark color and has about 80 transverse blotches on
the body, to the tail.

Commonly there appears to be but a single pore to each
scale ; frequently there are two, and near the base of the
tail some have three. By Baird and Girard this species
was phiced in Bascanium.

Coluber testaceus Say.

Labials 8-7, infralabials 10-11, scutes 187 + 94, 191
-h 107, 194 + ?, and 192 + 99. Pores normally two,
frequently but one, occasionally absent, sometimes three
or four on a scale near the base of the tail. To the rule

108 ON TEXAN REPTILES.

calling for lighter color under the neck these snakes are
exceptions ; they are darker anteriorly and spotted nnder
the neck. The lighter color of the entire hinder portion
of the body apparently indicates that the species is in the
habit of lying in cover with but half of the length exposed.
This is Masticophis Jlavigularis of Bmi'd and Girard.

Cyclophis vernalis ^De K.) Harl. ; Gthr.
Labials 7, infralabials 7-8, scutes 143 + 71, and 139

+ 85.

Philophyllophis majalis B. & G. ; Garm.

Labials 7, infralabials 8-7, scutes 166 + 117, and
164 + 115. This form seems to have a greater number
of scutes under the body and a smaller number under the
tail than P. cesiivus. On the latter the body has about
155, and the tail about 130.

The genus Philophyllophis was founded for Coluber
CBStivus of Linne. That species was placed in Opheodrys
by Fitzinger, 1843, followed by Cope. Gunther, 1858,
placed it in his Cyclophis the type of which is C vernalis^
a form we can hardly regard as congeneric. The word
Opheodrys is a play upon the roots of Dryophis of Boie,
1827.

Pantherophis Lindheimerii B. & G. ; Garm.

According to the original description of this species it
diifered from P. alleghaniensis in having twenty-nine rows
of scales and a lighter coloration. The live specimens at
hand agree with these statements in regard to colors, but
difier in having only twenty-seven rows, thus agreeing in
this respect with the species from the northeastern states.
The differences between P. alleghaniensis and P. Lind-
heimerii parallel those existing between the Colubers, C.
constrictor and C. Jiaviventris. Instead of the glossy black

ON TEXAN REPTILES. 109

obtaining in the eastern form the Texan has a brownish
color in which the dorsal blotches are persistent. The
spots vary from light brown to dark, but are in no case
black, and the ventral surfaces are more yellow than brown.
The white-edged scales of the back are present in all, and
the blotches of the larger ones show no indication of be-
coming obsolete. On the flanks there is a reddish tint.
There are 29 to 33 dorsal bh)tches, to the base of the tail.
The tail is more uniform in color, and darker on the
larger specimens.

Kows 27, labials 8, infralabials 13, in one case 12, 1
anteorbital, postorbitals 2, on one individual 3 on each
side, scutes 236 -\- 87, 230 + 85, 229 + 84, 226 + 81,
229 + 83. One individual has a half-scale in front of the
left half of the anal.

This genus is Scotophis of Baird and Girard, 1853 ; it
was indicated by Fitzinger, 1843, under the name Pan-
therophis having as the type species Coluber guttatus of
Linne.

Mus. Comp. ZooL, Cambridge, Mass., Dec, 1891.

NOTICE TO A SOLDIER.

Salem, Sept. 30, 1777.
To Mr. David Masury,

Sir:

In pursuance of orders from the commanding officers
of this regiment I hereby detach 3^on to serve as a soldier
agreeable to a resolve of the General Court of the 26th
instant, being thus detached you are hereby ordered to
appear in School Street to-morrow at 3 o'clock in the af-
ternoon with a good firelock, accoutrements and blanket,
there to join the company and receive further orders from
Capt. Benjamin Ward. Hereof fail not as you would avoid
the penalty of the Law.

Joseph Sprague, Major.

SLAVERY IN MASSACHUSETTS.

The Boston and Salem newspapers a few years before
the Revolution, contain many advertisements of slaves to
be sold, and in some instances to be given away. In the
latter case it was probably where such help could not be
made profitable to the owners for some reason or other ;
perhaps the holders had no employment, or perhaps the
slaves were too young or inefficient. Whatever the reason
might be, bills of sale occasionally turn up where even
(110)

REVOLUTIONARY LETTER. Ill

children commanded a good price. Among the Essex In-
stitute MSS. we find the following Bill of Sale, whicli may
be of some interest.

Cambridge, June 22, 1761.
W. Peleg Sterns bot
of Henry Price

A negro boy named Jack about
six years and ten months old. Helthy and Sound for the
Sum of thirty Six pound thirteen Shillings and four pence
Lawfull Mony — £36 : 13 : 4— which Negro I have a Just
Right to Sell as witt^ My hand.

Henry Price
Errors Excepted

pr Henry Price.
Witts

her

Rachel X Swinnerton.

mark

Beniamin Jenninsfs.

REVOLUTIONARY LETTER.

''Camp at Providence June 28^^ 1777.

I congratulate you my dear Sir on the recovery of your
family from the Small Pox (which by the bye I am not
obliged to Major Sprague for the Knowledge of).

The Gentl" by whom I shall send this sets off this morn-
ing for Boston, (as Col. Titcomb did the day before yes-
terday) to know what the court will do concerning a new
supply of Troops to take place of those now here, whose
time of service is just expiring. I have not time to be
lengthy (thats well says you) as the gentl^. only waits to
take a letter from the Gen^ relative to a piece of intelli-
gence bro't by M^". Commissary Waterman of this depart-
ment who arrived here last night from New London and

112 RE VOLUTION AKY LETTER.

brings acct that one Bulkly a man of character belonging
to Connecticut came off from one of the British ships
where he was a prisoner who says that hist Sunday a smart
ingagement happened between the Rear of Hows army on
their retreat & the front of Gen^ Washingtons, that Hows
army had all retreated to Statten Island & that the Trans-
ports were ordered round to take the troops on board,
that he the said Bulkly himself saw 3 flat bottomed boats
Avith Dead & wounded landed on the Island, that the officers
on board were uncertain where they designed foi-, their con-
jecture being various, some supposed Connecticut, some
Ehode Island, this acct. is from the Gen^^ own mouth.
Major Hovey, the Bearer of this to Boston waites, or 1
would be more particular — hurry must excuse inacuracies.
I yesterday saw a Halifax paper of the 25*^^ May in which
were a numl)er of abominables amongst which was the case
of Seaton which I wish you would call on Mrs. Hiller and
see.

I am

Saturday morn. Sir yours unalterably

Major Sprague. J. Hiller."

This is addressed to

Major Jos. Sprague Esq.
Salem.

hip

JUU,

BULLETIN

OF THE

ESSE12^ HSrSTITTJTJB.

Vol. 24. Salem: July, Aug., Sept., 1892. Nos. 7, 8, 9.

THE WA-WAC-KA-TCI-NA, A TUSAYAN FOOT
RACE.

BY J. WALTER FEWKES.

Among the customs of the Indians of Tusayan/ there
are none more suggestive from an ethnological standpoint
than the games and races of these people. In many of the
great nine days religious festivals, as the Snake Ceremony,
the Flute, and the Ld'-la-kon-t/i, races up the mesa trails
are introduced on the morning of the ninth day. These
races, which I have already described,^ have many resem-
blances to each other as pointed out elsewhere, and are
necessary parts of the ceremonials, which make up some
of the more important religious celebrations.

iThe following observations were made while connected with the Hemenway Ex-
pedition in the summer of 1891. My the Indians of Tusayan I mean the acolents of
the northeastern part of Arizona, or those commonly called the "Mokis."

^Descriptions of the ceremonial rites mentioned above will be found in the Jour-
nal of American Ethnology, and The American Anthropologist. (For Flute Cere-
mony, Journ. Am. Eth. and Arch. Vol. II, No.l; La' -Id-kon-ti, Am. Anthropologist,
April, 1892.)

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 15 (113)

114 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCI-XA :

The Tusayan or Moki Indians at present live in seven
villages of which 0-rai-bi isthe most populous, tlie most dis-
tant from the railroad and therefore least modified. These
village Indians have built their pueblos for security against
foes upon lofty mesas approached by steep trails. The
East Mesa or First Mesa is the site of three villages called
Wal-pi, Si-tciim-o-vi, and Ha'-no or Te-wa. Of these
three Wal-pi is the most populous and Si-tcilm-o-vi the
smallest. They are situated on the flat platform which
forms the top of the mesa, in a space not more than a half
mile in length and a few hundred yards broad. The three
towns are but a short distance from each other. Wal-pi,
in some places four stories high, lies at the very west end of
this mesa. The pueblo is compactly arranged with no out-
lying houses, although a few of the families have built
houses in the plain beloAV.

Si-tcdm-o-vi is a rambling pueblo in different quarters
one and two stories high, enclosing a central plaza. Te'-
wa or Ha'-no has, at the east end, a group of houses four
stories high built around a projection of rock on the mesa
top, and the quarter facing the south has two stories.

The second mesa is split into two parts upon one of
which stands the village of Mi-c6ii-in-o-vi ; on the other
Ci-m6-pa-vi. Ci-pau-lo-vi, which also rises from the same
mesa like a. Saracen's castle, crowns the top of the conical
elevation and is the most picturesque of the seven towns
of the Tusayan. These three towns of the Middle or Second
Mesa are placed at the angles of an irregular triangle, Ci-
m6-pa-vi being separated from the part of the mesa on
which the other two towns are situated by a deep valley en-
tering from the southwest. The most distant of the seven
pueblos from the railroad is 0-rai-bi lying some fifteen
miles beyond the Middle Mesa. This village is likewise
perched on a table-land to the top of which the trails are
very steep.

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 115

Wal-pi takes its name from its vicinity to a gap in the
mesa, Te-wa from the racial affinities of the inhabitants,
Mi-c6n-in-o-vi from the two i)innacles which rise from the
foot hills, and Ci-pdu-lo-vi irom the adjoining peach or-
chards. All the villages with the exception of Te-vva,^
speak the same language, and although there are varititions
in certain of their manners and customs, they are in the
main similar. The towns of the East Mesa are the best
known, and 0-rai-bi from its present (1891) hostile atti-
tude is practically unexplored ground.

The foot race described in the present article is called
the Wd-wdc-kd-tci-nd, and has twice been witnessed by the
author. These races were so difierent from those which

II have already elsewhere called attention to the fact that there is a difference 1 in-
guislically and otherwise between Te-wa and the other two towns on the East Mesa.
The history of the ancestors of these Te-wans who settled aniony the Hopi, as far
as their departure from their old home is concernetl, is partially known, and at least
the approximate time when they came into the country has been recorded. The
problem concerning the mutual relations of the villages which especially concerns
the ethnologist is an investigation of the mutual changes which have come to both
peoples by the association in their isolated homes. Preserving as they do their
own language it is but natural to suspect that they brought and kept alive many of
their old customs. We know that the women at the present day for instance, drees
differently fi om tlrose of the Hopi women and there is more or less variation in
many of their customs.

Of the ceremonials which the Te-wans have imported may possibly be mentioned
the Mucai zru, or bison dance. An exhaustive comparison of the modilication
in their language with that of the Eastern Te-wans is yet to be made, and there is
also a great field open for a study of their equivalents of the Hopi divinities. When
that is accomplished we shall be in a fair way to take stejis in the identification of
Hopi divinities, with those of the more eastern pueblos. I have alieady made a be-
ginning in this study but have not yet progressed far enough to make known my
conclusions.

In a broader way we have still a more general problem presented by the pueblo
life of Tusayan. It has long been claimed and generally accepted that these peo-
ple are related to the Shoslionees. As to the justice of that relationship I do not
know enough to express any opinion, but if the linguistic relationship is near,
it is an important problem to trace out the relationship between their customs
and those of the nomadic tribes of the same stock, and it becomes an interesting
study to determine the amount of influence resulting from their adoption of the
village habits. The field for research which here opens is of a most general char-
acter and of greatest inportance. Of the relationships with the Nahuatl, I shall
speak in a future publication, for I am not yet prepared to say that the relationship
is close, although there are several significant resemblances in ceremonials whicli
call for more facts for solution.

116 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCI-NA :

take place at the time of the great ceremonials as the Snake,
La'-la-hon-Vi, and Flute, that they merit a special descrip-
tion. Moreover as several Kd-tci-nds,^ which I have not
seen in any other celebration, take part in these, and as
the name given it at least implies a mythological relation-
ship, it seems appropriate as a contribution to our knowl-
edge of the mythology of these Indians to devote a special
article to a descripticm of it.

The following pages contain an account of the main
events in the Wd-ivdc-Tcd-tci-ndw'iih a description of some
of the participants. The author finds it necessary as a
first step in the interpretation of the complicated mythol-
ogy of the Tusaynn Indians to preface with similar simple
descriptions an article which he has in preparation in the
distant future, explanatory of all the important ceremonies.

This account of the /la-^ci-^ia foot races therefore, which
is one of a series,^ must be used in a comparative way
with others already published or to follow. He is not pre-
pared, before more data have been collected to offer a sat-
isfactory explanation of the various events which are
described.

The first Wd-wdc-kd-icl-nd which was observed took
place in Ha-no (Te-wa) on May 11th; the second in Si-

iThe term Kdtci-nd is applied to a great number of mj thologic and semi-mytho-
logic personages although more strictly confined to certain masked dances wliich
appear in the public celebration of many ceremonials. The different kinds of Kti-
tci-nus are very numerous and their relations to each other in the Hopi Pantheon
very complex. The majority of the Kd-tcinds bear names of animals, as Kweywe
(woll), Ko-ho-ne (chipmunk), Ka-vd-ho Spanish (horse), Ho-ndn-i, (bear), but
names of deities as Dd'-wd (sun), Omow-tih (clouds), and otliers, may also have
the same designation. This complicated subject will be discussed later, and it is
only necessary here to call attention to the fact that certain public dances like the
participants are called Kdtcinds, from the presence of personifications of these
beings. A modified term sometimes written "Cd-chi-nu" is widespread among
the New Mexican pueblos, and is sometimes applied to a sacred dance among cer-
tain tribes.

2See Journal of American Ethnology and Archmology, American Folklore Journal
and American Anthropologist.

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 117

tciim-0-vi on May 17th. Although different Ka-tci-nus ap-
peared, the events of the race in l)()th are tiie same. The
Wd-icCic-kd-tci-nd is more after the nature of a secuhir
than a religious observance ; although from its name and
the personages who take part, we may regard it as coimected
with ceremonial observances.

The Wd-wdc-kd-tci-nd is a race in which the Pai-d-kya-
muli,^ Td-(cuk-tfi\ud certain Iui-tci-7ids t-hnWenge the fleet-
footed inhabitants of the pueblos to run for prizes. The
winnings were always taken by the civilians, but if caught
by the Iid-tci-nd, he pays the penalty by light or severe
strokes of the yucca whips carried for that purpose by the
opponents.

The two Wd-ivdc-kd-tci-nds occurred Avithin five days ot
each other, just before the first Hu-mis-kd-tci-nd, a sacred
dance which was celebrated in several of the villages.

The first celebration of the Wd-wdc-kd-tci-nd was at Tewa
and the participants prepared themselves in the recess of
the cliff on the main trail about fifty feet below the edge
of the mesa. They marched up to the plaza about sun-
set, bearing the prizes done up in blankets on their backs.

There were ten Pai-d-kya-inuh (gluttons), and six Kd-
tci-nds. The former wore on their heads long horns or-
namented with corn husks, and girt with black stripes.
Similar black stripes were painted on their body, face and

iThe reader will find a discussion of the different "priesthood fraternities" in the
Tusayan villages, in my article on "Summer Ceremonials," Journal of American
Ethnology and Archceology, \o\. \l. No. I. The Pai a/.;!/a-maA are clown glut-
tons wlio made fun during some of the sacred dances, and were from Te-wa. They
belong to the priesthood called Tcuku-wymp-ki-ya, one of wliom carries in his belt a
Tcu-ku-ma-nd, or sUiffed water-wren. The Ta-icMfc-ii are also Tcu-ku-wy'mp-ki-ya
but they wear cloth noseless helmets with knobs or sausage like appendages, great
goggle eyes and protuberant mouth. Still anotlier kind of Tcu-ku-wy'mp-ki yas, not
represented in the Wawac which I have here described, has yellow painted faces
with black bans as elsewhere described.

118 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCI-NA :

arms. All were loaded down with great bundles of J9i-A'2/
bundles of corn and other eatables which had previously-
been brought to the dressing place or recess in the rocks,
by the women. The Kd-tci-nds laid these bundles of food
on blankets placed on the ground at the north end of the
plaza, and stood in line facing the west as if challenging
the spectators to race. After the Ka-tci-nds and Pai-d-
Tcya-mdh had deposited their prizes on the blanket, an old
priest shouted to the spectators. One after another, young
men accepted the invitation to race by walking to a posi-
tion in front of the line of Kd-tci-nds, and at a signal raced
across the plaza at the top of his speed pursued by a Pai-
d-kya-muh or a Kd-tci-na. Only one pair, however, raced
at a time, but, if the Kd-tci-nds overtook his opponent he
struck him once across the body or legs with a yucca leaf
which he held folded up in the right hand, tore his shirt
from the body of his opponent, or cut oft* a lock of his
hair.

The prizes were distributed to those who entered the
lists by an old priest who directed the race. In one or two
instances the Kd-tci-nd was able to overtake the runner en-
tering against him : in several, however, he was distanced,
but in all cases whether overtaken or not the contestant
received a prize. At the close of the race the yucca-wands

^Piki ov paper bread is the national food, if that expression may be allowed, of
all the pueblo people. Thlh is a kind ol corn bread which is fried on a flat
stone under which fire is burning. The batter is spread upon the greased stone
by tlie hand and as the j^i-ki is fried, the thin wafer-lilie slieet is raised from the
stone and deposited in a heap. It is tlien either folded in squares or rolled in
bundles for consumption. The common kind is the color of the most of the wood
work, but bright red striped and otlier colored piki are made. Several rolls ot
variegated pi- /;• tied together side by side are not uncommon sights hanging to the
walls in dwelling rooms. At the time of tlie foot races he'c described there was
a considerable quantity of red (stained with cockscomb flower) pi-ki among the
prizes. On occasions of ceremonies variegated pi-ki is connnon, but the favorite
dish at that time is a pudding ovpi kum-i.

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 119

were taken from the luiiuls of the purticipunts by the priest
who sprinkled meal on the Kd-tci-nds and Ta-tcuk-ti, and
deposited tiie yucea wands in a bd-hu-kf near the pueblo.

A second celebration of the Wa-ivdc-kd-lci-nd took \)\'dce
on the eve of the IIu-7ins-kd-lci-nd, four days after, at the
vilhige of Si-tcum-o-vP . This celebration closely i-esem-
bled the first, but diflerent personages were introduced.
The T'd-tcuk-ti and Kd-tci-nds dressed themselves in the re-
cess of the clifi' under the hd-ho-ki between Wal-pi and
Si-tcilm-o- vi. The race took place in the plaza of Si- tciim-
o-vi, the Td-tcuk-ii standing at the east end near the row
of houses at that place. Td-tcuk-ii and Kd-tci-nds took
part, but no Pai-d-kya-muh appeared as in the celebration
at Te-tca.

The following personages were noted in the two races
which were studied in the summer of 1891 at the East
Mesa.

HU-HU-WUH.

Hii'-hii-wuh appeared in the Wd-wdc-kd-tci-nd at Te-wa.
I have studied the mask (PI. ii, fig. 4) worn by him and
also have in my collection a figurine (doll) of the same per-
sonage. From these and a photograph (PI. i, fig. 1) taken
during the performance, a good idea of his symbolism
can be readily made out. The head of Hii'-hu-wiih w{\9

lA bdkoH is a shrine in wliicli feathered sticks called bd'-hos are deposited
and around which certain ceremonials are performed by novices and others on
certain occasions. Their form varies somewhat but they are ordinarily simple
square or rectangular cairns of stone, often uncovered., in which often a curious
waterworn botryoidal stone is placed. Simple heaps of stones dedicated to iV/«'.
sau wuh may often be termed bdho ki, and small cavities in boulders have the same
designation. The bdho ki in which certain offerings, as those of the "Farewell
Kd tci nd", are placed is a covered chamber and the flat slab over it may be luted
in place after use with adobe.

20n the afternoon before the race the plaza was carefully swept in preparation.
The celebration took place at a little before sundown before a large assemblage of
si)ectators. Many of the racers, possibly all, were from the neighboring village of
Wal-pi.

120 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCI-NA :

covered by a helmet, made of leather, and painted brick
red. The hair of the helmet was a white skin. A prom-
inent nose was represented and the eyebrows were out-
lined in a way very different from the same in sacred dance
masks. The distinguishing marks of the helmet were two
white lines, one on each side, extending from the nose
across the cheeks broadening as they reached the edges of
the mask.

The photograph of the man taking the part of Ilii'-hii-
xoilli shows that he wore a ceremonial dance kilt and that
the rest of his body was naked, with the exception of a
fur about his neck and a scanty kilt. The body was, how-
ever, painted and decorated with parallel finger marks ir-
regularly drawn over it. In the Wd-wdc-Kd-ici-nd, Hil-
hii-wuh is lame, and in the doll the legs are represented
as crossed. He hobbled about during the race creating
much fun and boisterous laughter by the spectators.

KE-SE-KA-TCI-NA.

Ke-se-hd-tci-iid^ the hawk kd-tci-nd, also took part in
the Wd-ivdc-M-tci-nd of May 16th. The material at my
disposal for a study of his symbolism and dress are two
Kodak photographs (PI. i, fig. 4) and notes made dur-
ino- the race. In the photograph, which is introduced in
Plate I, it is seen that his helmet is covered with downy
substance, probably white feathers, and the snout is protu-
berant. Around his neck there was a coarse cloth. His
body was painted white and upon each upper arm he had
a string of primary feathers in imitation of wings.

In the Wd-wdc-kd-ici-nd, Ke-se- Kd-tci-nd ran about from
place to place with body crouched forward imitating the
hawk, moving his arms as if they were wings.

Among the personages who took part in the racing lid-
tcl-nd at Ci-pau-o-vi, there was one of whom I did not get a

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 121

photograph but who was identified as the Mi'mg-iva or Owl
Kd-tci-nd. He wore a liehiiet not unlike that of the owl
which I have seen in the So-yo-him^ , but I am doubtful
whether it was really intended that he should represent
this Kd-tci-nd or not.

There was still a second which I was also unable to
identif3^ From the variations which occur in the race as
performed in the different viUages, it seems legitimate to
conclude that the running lid-tci-nd varies very greatlyin
different pueblos. It would be most interesting in a com-
parative way to study the Wd-wdc-Kd-tci-nd at 0-rai-bi
where it occurs, as I am informed by one of the Indians,
and in which judging from their celebrations, would prob-
ably be of more primitive character.

There are several pictographs- which have been iden-
tified for me as pictures of the Wd-wdc-Kd-tci-nd which
would seem to enlaro^e a number of mvtholoojical beinorg
who take part in these races. The present article is there-
fore after the nature of a preliminary sketch to be sup-
plemented later by a more extended account with explan-
ations.

UTE-CE-E -KA-TCI-NA.

Ute-ce-e or Apache Kd-tci-nd appeared in the Wd'-wdc
with Ke-se- kd-tci-nd ( May 16th) . 1 have as material for the
study of this character several photographs (PL i, fig. 2)
taken in the Hu-mis dance and in the Wd'-wdc at Si-tciim-
o-vi, and have also examined the masks(Pl. ii, figs. 2,3,4)
which were in each ceremony.

The mask (PL ii, fig. 1) is made of leather barely
large enough to cover the face and is bent into shape to

>The So-yohim-Kd-tci-na dance, described in Vol. ii, Journal of American Eth-
twlogy and ArchcBology, was witnessed in Ci-paii-lo-vi. In this ceremony many
different Kd-tci-nds of many colors participated.

^See American Anthropologist, January, 1892.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 16

122 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCI-NA :

cover the face. The nose with nostrils is represented in
relief^ and the lips are protuberant. The eyes are simple
round holes, without ornaments or marks to represent eye-
brows.

The mask is painted white with vertical parallel red lines
extending the whole length of the face and along the mid-
dle line of the nose. The hair is stiff black horse hair which
is tied to the u))per rim of the mask and stands upright.
The ornamentation of the face of a Ute-ce-e mask (PL ii,
fig. 3), used in the Hu-mis-Kd-ici-nd, which I have ex-
amined, is somewhat different from that already described.

Like the above mentioned it is painted brick red, the
nose and eyebrows being formed of pieces of leather of
the same color affixed to it. Across the face on a level
with the eyes is drawn a black band and radiating black
marks are painted above the eye openings. A similar par-
allel black band and radiating black marks are painted
above the eye openings. A similar parallel black band is
painted from each corner of the mouth to the edge of ihe
mask. Across the middle of the face and over the nose is
painted a zigzag white band, with live parallel zigzag white
bands on the chin.

The photographs (PI. i, fig. 2) of Ule-ce-e-Kd-tci-nd
show that his body, arms, and legs are crossed by parallel
lines made by drawing the fingers smeared with color over
the skin. The photographs of Ule-ce-e-Kd-tci-nd in the
Wd-wdc-kd-tci-nd show that he wore a tight -fit ting cap
without a wig while in the Hu-mis, the same Kd-tci-nd has
the long black horse hair unconfined.

Another mask (PI. ii, fig. 3) of the Apache Kd-tci-nd
was much more complicated than either of those which we
have described, but like the former, the face was painted

>Tlie nose of the pot helmets used in Kd-tci-nd dances is rarely if ever repre-
sented.

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 123

brick retl. The musk was made of leather and crossed by
two parallel zigzag lines in white over the nose and by two
similar zigzag lines not parallel upon the eyebrows. A
black mark extended from the corners of the mouth to the
edge of the jaws, and a similar black line from the eyes to
the ears parallel with the first. On the upper part of the
head there was a dentated crown in white upon a black
ground, and on the back of the helmet there were symbolic
crosses representing the star god Co-til' k-i-nung and two
serpents. This helmet was much more complicated than
the other two which we have described and is a much
more elaborate piece of work. Portions of the back of
the helmets were made of an old felt hat, but the mask was
of leather.

HO-NAN-KA-TCI-NA.

Among the participants is the Wd-wdc at Te-wa was a
man dressed in a rabbit robe, who wore on his head a
rounded helmet with protuberant snout. He carried in
his hand a stick at the end of which was tied a branch of
cactus, with which he went from one to another of the spec-
tators paying his attention especially to the women, girls
and boys, driving them from their seats in the plaza with
this spiny implement. This Kd-tci-nd was decorated with
the symbol of the l)ear Ho-nan-i, a figure representing the
imprint of the bear's claw and on that account has been
identified as the Bear Kd-tci-nd.

CHE-KA-NA.

During the Wd-ivac at Si-tciim-o-vi, two persons wearing
the helmet of Ohe-kd'-Jid took part. I have examined the
helmets worn by them but did not succeed in getting good
photographs. The helmets are painted brown on one side
of the face and green on the other, the eye openings hav-
ing rows of dots above them. From my notes I find that
the bodies of these persons were painted in two colors.

124 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCI-NA :

A single personage wearing the Ley'-io-to-he? mask also
appeared in the same Wd-wdc, The helmet was })aintecl
black with a red band across the eyes. A boy called Td-
cd'-be, Navajo, wearing a mask not unlike that of Ute-ce-e
appeared in the same Wd'-wdc, but he took a very subor-
dinate part in the race.

TA-TCUK-TI.'^

The largest number of participants in the Wd-ivdc-kd-
tci-nd at Si-tcilm-o- vi were the Td-tcuk-tP or knobbed-headed
priests who play an important part as clowns in the Tusa-
yan sacred dances. The Td-tciik-ti were naked with the
exception of a simple cloth about their loins and the hel-
met coverings of their heads. Appended to the sides of
the close-fitting cloth helmets there were several knobs
filled with seeds, or long sausage-like appendages hanging
down the cheeks from either side.

The bodies of the knobbed-headed priests were marked
with lines drawn by the fingers on the mud with which
they are smeared and their feet are without moccasins.
Td-tcuk-ti ordinarily stood (PI. i, fig. 3) in line back of
the piles of prizes spread out on the blanket on the ground
and armed with a yucca leaf. AYhile awaiting the begin-
ning of the race this leaf is closely folded in the hand and
it is only when they have overtaken their contestants tliat
this whip is unfolded and used in striking the legs and
back of the luckless individuals whom they overtake in
the race.

PAI-A-KYA-MUH.

These personages have already been described and fig-
ured elsewhere.^ They wear a closely fitting skull cap upon

iSometimes the first pyllable is reduplicated, Ta-td-tcuk-ti.

sFrom Td -tci, a knob, referring to the knobbed hehiiets which they wear, or from
a verb meaning to leap up or jump.
^Journal of Am. Ethnology and Archmology, Vol. li, No. 1.

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 12 5

which are two horns girt with aUeriuite white and bhick
bands, and bearing a tew corn husks at the top and base.
The cap is likewise girt with black and white bands and
both of the same colors are painted on their bodies, arms
and legs.

They are Tewan members of the Tcu-ku-ivy'mp-ki-ya and
from their actions in dances may very properly be called
gluttons. The same personages have been photographed
by me in Wal-pi sacred dances, and I have a doll of a Pai-
a-kya-muh wliich has most of the symbolic marks men-
tioned above. As Tcu-ku-wy'mjy-ki-ya to which group of
priests the Ta-tcuk-ti likewise belong, these men very prop-
erly figure in the Wa-wac-ka-tci-nd.

An]ong the many masks and helmets which one sees by
searching in the hidden rooms of the villages I have found
several which have been referred to the Wd-ivdc-kd-lci-nd,
and I suspect that from time to time other characters be-
sides those described also take part in the races which have
been described. One of the most characteristic of these
masks is said to be that of Bem-i-cow. The helmet of
Hem-i-cow which I observed in the Al-kib-va} at Wal-pi
is unlike any other with which I am familiar. It is of
cylindrical shape and painted black with green, yellow.

1 The so-called kib-vas are subterranean chambers built in crevices in the rocks
and are used in the performance of the secret portions of religions ceremonials.
Of these there are five at Wal-pi, two in Sitciim-o-vi, and two in Tewa. The
A'l-kib-va is one of the smallest of these and is situated on the dance plaza at
Walpi. It is, however, one of the important kib-vas and in it are performed the
ceremonies of the Mdm-zrmi-ti (a woman dance in September, see Araer. Anthro-
pologist, July, 1892.)

The kib-vas are ordinarily used as gathering places for the men and in them
many blankets are woven. Although it is not customary for the Indians not
engaged in any ceremony, to enter the kib-vas, we were always permitted free en-
trance, w.th one or two exceptions. I have given elsewhere an account of
the more impoitant architectural details of the kib-vas and their orientation,
and the Al-kib-va is not in any respects characteristic. The A'l kib-va\a the kib-
va of the Horn men or Horn priests, and in the Nadc-nai-yd it is the place of the
ceremonies of the warrior fraternities.

126 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCI-NA :

reel, and white bands around the upper rim. From these
bands depend other lines or bands painted in the same
colors, a medial band being red and those on either side
yellow, white and green. Above the round oritices mark-
ing the position of the eyes there was tied a small fragment
of pith, the signification of which is unknown to me. The
mouth is duck-bill shaped not unlike that so common among
the Kd-lci-nds.

In order to show how the race which has been described
difiers from the ordinary running r;ices which accompany
the great celebrations in the Hoi)i calendar, let us take for
illustration that performed on the morning of the ninth
day in the Ld'-la-kon-li} This race differs in details from
that of the Flute, the Snake and the Mmdn-kd-tci-nd, but
has several points in common with them ; so that, looking
at their relationship in a broad way, we may say that their
common features show the general character of the races
which accompany the great ceremonials.

The races in the festival mentioned always take place
from the plain or the foot hills up the mesa trails, although
the limits of the race are two points in the plain or in the
foot hills. The termination of the race is not limited
nor do the contestants stop running until they enter the
village on the top of the mesa. In certain of these the final
ceremony connected with the race takes place in the un-
derground kib-va where the rites of the particular festival
are celebrated.

The man who stands at the terminal goal of the race is
a priest diessed in appropriate costume holding a crooked
stick in his hand. He makes upon the trail, near which
he stands, in sacred meal, the symbol of the rain cloud.
As the racers approach they pass over these figures and

I For descriptiou of the La' Id-kon-tl see American Anthropologist, Ainil, 181)3.

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 127

touch the crook which he holds, with the palm of their
hands. In the case of the Ld'-ld-kon-ti in which a girl
races with the men, this girl is placed within a circle of
meal upon the trail and near her is deposited prayer sticks
called ba'-hos. The crook which the priest holds is de-
posited after the race in a shrine and sometimes hroiight
to the kib-va. In the Ld'-la-kon-ti the former deposition
is made, and in the Snake and Flute races the latter, but
in all instances the contestants are compelled to run up
the hillside before the race is finished.

In none of the races up the trail which I have witnessed
did the clowns or Kd-tci-nds take part. It will he seen from
my account^ of these races that there is no close rela-
tionship between them and the Wd-wdc-kd-tci-nd. The
Avinners are not given prizes nor do the participants flog
each other with yucca wands. Ot all the foot races
which I have seen the Wd-wdc-kd-tci-nd is unique in its
character. I have not referred to the meaninsf of the Wd-
wdc-kd-tci-nd, although from its character and the partici-
pants who take part, there can be no doubt but that it
reaches back to the early history of the people.

One is tempted to regard the Wd-wdc as the same as
the spring races which have been described in the Ilio
Grande pueblo, but the exact relationship is not wholly
clear to me. The presence of the Kd-tci-nd is an impor-
tant element which will be spoken of in a later publica-
tion in which comparative accounts of the two will be
considered.

It is said that the prize in the Snake race is the greatest
of all prizes attainable, namely, long life and all the bless-
ings which come to men, but however this may be, the

1 Journal of American Ethnology and Archceology, Vol. il, p. 1.

128 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCr-NA :

winner of the Snake race is a marked person. The so-
called Snake race which occurs on the morning of the ninth
day of the Snake Antelope ceremony before dawn is tra-
ditional and like so many other ceremonial customs is said
to date back to the infancy of the people. Bourke in his
work on the Snake dance has called attention to ancient
races in Mexico up the Teocalli or pyramids and the fact
that the runners in a Snake race do not stop before they
arrive at the top of the mesa. The thought is a sugges-
tive one and will be considered elsewhere.

The Wd-wdc-ka-tci-nd also occurs in certain proceed-
ings which take place on the afternoon of several of the
Kd-tci-nd dances. I have already elsewhere described
the antics of the Jd-tcuk-ti and certain Kd-tci-nds while
the sacred dances^ are taking place. These personages
endeavor in every way to amuse the spectators both in
the intervals between the dances and while the latter are
progressing. These antics consist of puns, inordinate
eating, indignities to each other and curious or grotesque
situations in which they are placed. I have recounted
some of these in my notice of the summer ceremonials and
have likewise witnessed the Wd-wdc- Kd-tci-nd in sacred
dances here performed by the Id-lciik-ti and others
dressed as Kd-Lci-nds who come in for that purpose.
These Rd-tci-nds were different from those taking part in
the sacred dance and were generally personified Apaches
or Navajos or certain phallic societies. This fact is sig-
nificant when taken in connection with that known from
the descriptions above where the Apache personification is
so little known. Although these Apache Rd-tci-nds are
not the only ones who take part in the exercises we are

^SeG Hu-mis, Kutci-na, Mdlo-Kdtci'-nd, etc. (Journ. Amer. Eth. & Arch., Vol. il)

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 129

about to describe, they were present in several character-
istic performances which I have noticed. One of the most
interesting of these is the dance of the Tcu-ka-wi/mp-ki-
ya. While the dance of the Kd-tci-nd was taking place
in the celebration of the Hamis-kd-tci-nd a blanket were
laid down near the west end of the line and upon this was
placed bundles of corn, Pi-M or paper bread, and food
of all kinds. Behind this, facing it, the Pai-d-kya-milh
were seated in line and to each was given one of the bun-
dles as a gift. The men personifying Apaches, of whom
there were two, then caused one of these to rise and led
him to the extreme east end of the line of dancers who
were meanwhile singing and performing their dance. Each
Tcu-ku-wymp-ki-ya was forced to dance and to tell a story
in payment for his gift.

When the glutton had been carried to the east end of
the line he was stopped, turned around and addressed or
commanded by the Apaches who raised their horsewhips
or "quirts" in a thi-eatening manner. Moving a few steps
in a sidelong manner, the gluttoned followed by the Apaches
performed an archaic dance saying, "^-e, A-e." At a
word from his tormentors he started again moving a few
feet with an awkward, sidelong, halting gait and stopped
again. As he did this, he again began his story, calling
down laughter from the spectators. This was repeated
again and again often urged forward by strokes from the
whips of his tormentors until he reached the pile of corn
in front of his comrades. A second member of the line,
squatting back of the corn was then treated in the same way,
and the same series of halts, shouts and jokes were re-
peated. All the gluttons were forced through this per-
formance causing much merriment from the lookers-on.
The whole effect was sitnply to amuse the people, and if it

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 17

130 THE WA-WAC-KA-TCl-NA :

is a modified dance it has certainly degenerated into a
ludicrous performance.^

I have witnessed the same or a similar thing at the vil-
lage of Ci-pau-o-vi during the dance of the Md-lo-kd-tci-nd,
the only difference being that instead of the Pai-d-kya-
milh, the Td-tcuk-ti were the sufferers. There were at that
village several persons taking part, who wore Navajo or
Apache masks. They carried ancient leather shields or-
namented with crosses and other figures of a symbolic
significance. In the same celebration a person appeared
wearing the Owl Kd-tci-nd mask. 1 have likewise seen
Md-sau-wtlhy the death god, personified in the Wd-wac, a
hideous personage wearing about his loins tor a belt the
intestines of a dog recently killed, the face and body
smeared with fresh blood.

One is tempted to regard these antics of the clowns and
the Navajos and Apaches as burlesques of races introduced
during the solemn dances, but if such is the explanation this
portion of the dances is highly modified and come to be
regarded as an opportunity to introduce local allusions
and modifications which cannot be regarded in the same
light as the dances themselves. Consequently, the events
which occur at that time, in which the clowns participate,
should not be reaarded as necessarily related to the his-
toric ceremonies.'^

Much is left to individual invention of the clowns to
render their part more striking and it is not rare to see

iln most instances the stories told by the gluttons for the amusement of the
spectators were obscene but not always so. On one occasion one of the younger
gluttons when fo\ced to tell a story recounted the improvements which the people
were making in late years, a suggestive ray of light on the otherwise sombre back-
ground of primitive savagery.

'Ifhas been suggested tliat the introduction, for instance, at this time, of a colored
soldier is of ancient date, but it is undoiU)iedly not older than the employment of
negro soldiers in tlie army of the United States.

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 131

them introduce personifications of events which occur dur-
ing the summer. The existence of this curious modified
performance, by which the Navajo force the gluttons to
run and their refusal with many ol)jections may, however,
be of ancient origin.

The introduction of such personages as Ute-ce-e (Apa-
che) and Td-cdb-kd-tci-nd by the Hopi in their sacred
dances is an interesting fact. It must be borne in mind
that the village Indians of Tusayan have had frequent wars
with these tribes, often of most bloody character. I have
been shown a cleft in the East Mesa near precipitous cliffs
at the west end, where the dead, in one of their wars with
the cruel Apaches, were buried, and I have been told of a
certain struggle with them in which the hearts of the dead
Apaches were given to the Hopi women (the unmarried
women were especially mentioned) to eat, in order that
their children, Hopi warriors, might be brave against their
enemies. This story was told me on good authority and,
in a comparative way, one has no reason to doubt its pos-
sibility.

Notwithstanding, however, this traditional hatred in the
Hopi mind against the Apache and Navajo the villagers
have introduced an Apache Kd-tci-nd in the Wd-wdc-kd-
tci-nd, while in the 8o-y6-Jiim a sacred Kd-lci-nd dance a
personage called the Td-cdb (Navajo) is prominent. This
incorporation of foreign Kd-tci-nds is suggestive. We
can readily see a good reason for the introduction of Kd-
tci-nds from the Zuiiis, but it might seem strange that others
should be derived from enemies. The way the Hopi re-
gard this question may, however, be summed up in a lib-
eral statement expressed by An-a-wi-ta, viz. : — that it is
wrong to speak of Kd-tci-nds as Zuiii or as Hopi. The
Kd-tci-nds are without nationality, "they are for all," but

132 THE WA-WAC-KA-ICI-NA :

certain peoples preserve the cult of individual Ra-tci-nds
better than others. In following the lead of those who best
know any particular Kd-tci-nd, no element of hostility
should play any part. It might readily be concluded that
as far as the gods are concerned, the Indian is prepared
to be taught by any one who has valuable knowledge of the
Kd-tci-nds. I do not affirm that the Hopi so regard this
question or that this is their reason for the introduction of
strange Ed-tci-nds, but I so interpret the few remarks
which I have heard on this point.

Td-cdb-kd-ici-nd ordinarily wears a helmet with a band
across his face not unlike that of Hu'-hii-wuh. On the
dolls of Td-cdh-kd-tci-nd which I have, some specimens
have the same marks painted in different colors but in sev-
eral they are absent altogether. I shall discuss this ques-
tion more at length in my article on Hopi ligurines (dolls).

In interpretations of the meaning of Hopi ceremonies,
personages and paraphernalia which appear in the same,
a strict line of demarcation must be drawn between pos-
sible and real explanations. The nature of the subject is
such as to invite one to speculation. The explanation
built on the testimony of priests is good as far as it goes
but even this is not always final. Human nature is falli-
ble and while a priest may report the exi)lanation which he
has heard from his antecedent in office, the element of in-
vention and mistake in transmission from generation to
generation must always be taken into account in a final es-
timation of the subject. Although the explanations ad-
vanced by the priest to explain ceremonies and personages
which occur in such is capable of scientific treatment,
they cannot be regarded as exact knowledge or science,
but must be used for what they are worth. That the priests
believe that the crooks about the altar and the fetiches of

I'LATK I,

PLATK IF.

A TUSAYAN FOOT RACE. 133

the same in the Snake Ceremony were brought up from the
underworld,^ or certain exphmations of why certain cere-
monials are performed have been handed down from the
ancients, no one can doubt. But human invention has
been fertile through that lapse of time and local coloring
has modified the explanations until it may have lost much
of its original value. It is more than we can expect that
the priests oflSciating in a ceremony can give other than a
traditional explanation. His testimony is a valuable con-
tribution to an understanding of local modifications, but
the question is too great for him to answer. The insidi-
ous influence which leads the observer to enlarge upon
possible explanations suggested by priests who may have
received their explanations must be carefully controlled,
otherwise folk-lore becomes useless as a scientific contri-
bution. At most the explanation given by priests is only
one means to bring to a solution of the question of the
meaning of religious ceremonials and its limitation should
be properly recognized.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.

Fig. 1. Hu-fm-wuli.

Fig. 2. Ute-ce-e-ka-tci-na.

Fig. 3. Line of Ta-tcuk-ti with priest awaiting the contestants in

the race.
Fig. i. Ke-se-ka-tci-na.

PLATE II.

Fig. 1. Maslj of Ute-ce-e used in the Hu-niis-ka-tci-na.

Fig. 2. " " Vte-ce-e.

Fig. 3. " " Vte-ce-e from the kib-va, not observed to be worn

in the race or in a dance.
Fiff. 4. Mask of Hu'-hu-wuh.

iThe Hopi, in common with some other pueblo people, believe that men came
upon the surface of the earth crawling out of an opening near the San Juan river,
and called Sipapu. The Tusayan Tewans claim that they did not issue from the same
Si-pa p u as the Hopi but from another in the far east, which they cull Sip'o-p'o-nl.

ANNALS OF THE SEA SERPENT.

A "SEA SERPENT."

The appearance in Gloucester (Cape-Ann) harbor of an
uncommon Sea Animal has been the topic of conversation
and wonderment for several days past. A number of
gentlemen of information and veracity have asserted, that
they have seen such an animal off and in that harbor, repos-
ing at times on a smooth sea, and had thereby an oppor-
tunity to see and judge of its form and dimensions. Their
accounts, though in some instances dissimilar, all agree
that this animal is of the species called the Sea Serpent. It
is described as having its head (like those given to serpents
in prints) at times, out of water; that to some it appeared
as large as the head of a horse — to others, varying, per-
haps, according to distance, as that of a large dog ; —
that its body was round like a snake's, but connected by
joints, which to some appeared like a row of ten-gallon
kegs , and to others like barrels ; that its length was es-
timated by some to be 40 feet, by others 30, 100, and
over ; that its motion was serpentile, erratic, and rapid
for an animal of its bulk ; that it has been seen lying on
the surface of the water, with parts of its body from six to
eighteen inches out ofthe water, and its tail nearly on a line
with its head ; that it frequently forms circles in its
movements, and in its progress sometimes leaves a wake
of a mile in length.

Measures have been taken, and otiiers ai'c contemplated,

(134)

ANNALS OF THE SEA SERPENT. 135

for killing and exhibiting this animal. It is hoped they
will succeed. The EncydojjeJUts have doubted the ex-
istence of such animals as Sea Seiyents, which have
been described by some navigators, particularly by Egede
as frequenting the Greenland seas some of which have
been described as extending its head as high as the main-
top-mast of a ship, its body beiug as thick as a hogshead,
its skin variegated like a tortoise shell, and its excrement
corrosive.

The 8alem Gazette of yesterday says, "We are in-
formed, that on Sunday this creature was seen playing
sometimes within 15 or 20 feet of the shore, affording a bet-
ter opportunity to observe him than had before occurred.
Gentlemen from Gloucester state, that he appeared to them
of an even greater magnitude than had before been repre-
sented, and should judge from their own observation, that
he was as much as 150 feet in length, and as big round as
a barrel. They saw him open an enormous mouth, and
are of opinion that he is cased in shell. The chance for
taking or killing this creature seems to be small; it re-
quires not merely the club of a Hercules, but the cuiming
contrivance of a Vuhan. We understand, however, that
it is proposed to make a number of strong nets, in the
hope of entangling and embarrassing him, so as to be able to
get him into a situation to kill him ; in which we rather
wish than expect they may prove successful."

Corrohoi^ation. Capt. Obear, who has arrived at Bev-
erly, reports, that on Sunday last he put into Capo-Aim
harbor, where he and his crew were astonished at the sight
of a monstrous creature lying upon the water, which ap-
peared to have the form of a seipent.

Whatever doubts may have existed on this subject,
there are hundreds who can testify to the existence of
some creature of a very uncommon bulk and form, and
such as was never before seen upon our coast.

136 ANNALS OF THE SEA SERPENT.

The bold adventurers (says the Salem Gazette) who
are fishing for the Sea-Monster at Cape-Ann, ought to be
furnished with the implements mentioned in the following
lines : —

"THE GIANT ANGLING."

"His angle-rod made of a sturdy Oak,
His line a Cable that in storms ne'er broke ;
His hook he baited with a Dragon's tail,
And sat upon a rock and bobb'd for whale."

Boston Centinel, Aug. 20, 1817.

IMMENSE SEA SERPENT.

(a fish story.)

A species of Sea-Serpent was thrown on shore near
Bombay in 1819. It was about forty feet long, and must
have weighed many tons. A violent gale of wind threw it
high above the reach of ordinary tides, in which situation
it took nine months to rot; during which process travel-
lers were obliged to change the direction of the road for
nearly a quarter of a mile, to avoid the offensive effluvia.

It rotted so completely that not a vestige of bone re-
mained. (From 10,000 Wonderful things, by Edmund F.
King, London.)

The Massachusetts Gazette, Sept. 26, 1784, says —
"Captain Wyatt of the ship Whale writes to his friends in
London, that he has been within a few leagues of the
North Pole ; and that at the Pole there was a most dread-
ful eruption of nitre, which proved there was a volcano.
Crystallized substance, like glass fell near Capt. Wyatt,
which refracted the light ; by this he accounts for the
Aurora Borealis.

RECEI"/!

BULLETIN

Essex: i:^stittjte.

Vol. 24. Salem: Oct., Nov., Dec, 1892. Nos. 10, 11, 12.

Annual Meeting, May 18, 1892.

The annual meeting was held in Plummer Hall, this
evening, at 7.30 o'clock; Vice President A. C. Goodell,jr.,
in the chair. The record of the last annual meeting was
read by the Secretary.

The reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, Auditor, Li-
brarian, and the Publication Committee were read, ac-
cepted and ordered to be placed on file.

The report of the committee on nominations was pre-
sented by Geo. M. Whipple, and it was

Voted, to proceed to the election of officers for the en-
suing year. Messrs. Phippen, Morse and Welch were
appointed by the chair to distribute, collect, assort and
count votes. This committee reported the following list
of names as receiving all the ballots, and these officers
were declared unanimously elected :

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 18 (137)

138 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

PRESIDENT:
HENRY WHEATLAND.

VIOE-PBESIDEJSTTS:
Abner C. Goodell, Jr., Daniel B. Hagar,

Frederic W. Putnam, Robert S. Rantoul.

SECRETARY: TREASURER:

Henry M. Brooks, William 0. Chapman.

AUDITOR: LIBRARIAN:

Geo. D. Phippen. Charles S. Osgood.

COUNCUj:
William H. Gove, S. Endicott Peabody,

Thomas F. Hunt, David Pingree,

David M. Little, Edmund B. Willson,

Richard C. Manning, George M. Whipple,

Edward S. Morse, Alden P. White.

Eeport of THE Secretary.

Since the last annual meeting there have been twenty-
two meetings of the society and two meetings of direct-
ors.

There have been two field meetings during the last
season, one at Bartholomew's Pond, South Peabody, July
1, 1891. About thirty persons attended this meeting.
Vice President Hagar presided, and after a few introduc-
tory remarks introduced Mr. John H. Sears, who spoke of
the plants of the region, and Mr. Cyrus M. Tracy of Lj^nn,
who made some remarks on the flora of the vicinity. The
speakers were interesting and instructive, and the meet-
ing, though a small one, was enjoyed by all who took part
in it. The second meeting was on Wednesday, September
16, at Bradford Academy, where some thirty persons con-

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 139

nected with the Institute, by invitation, dined with the
venerable President, the teachers and the members of the
senior chiss of the Academy. Vice President Hagar pre-
sided at the meeting, and remarks were made by Dr.
Cogswell, Prof. E. S. Morse, John Robinson, Esq., John
H. Sears, Esq., and others. The day was fine and all who
participated in the meeting were much pleased.

During the past season papers have been read before
the society, in Plummer Hall, by the following persons :

Wm. A. Mowry^ Esq. , on " U. S. Boundaries and Bound-
ary Commissions."

A. A. Post, Esq., of Boston, on "Volapuk."

Rev. G. T. Flanders, D.D., on "Our Aryan Ances-
tors."

Rev. Joseph Kimball, of Andover, on "Arts : Present
and Future."

Prof. Edw. 8. Morse, on "Japanese Pottery."

Sidney Perley, Esq., on "Prehistoric America."

Mr. J. Waller Fewkes, of Boston, on " Study of an
Aborigi nal Ceremoni al . "^

Rev. A. P. Putnam, D.D., of Concord, on "Wenham
Lake Ice Co."

Sylvester Baxter, Esq., of Boston, on "Municipal De-
mocracy."

Col. Henry Stone, of South Boston, on "General Sher-
man."

Rev. E. O. Dyer, of South Braintree, on "Coligny and
the Huguenots."

JDr. J. E. Wolf, of Cambridge, on "The History of
Rocks learned by the Microscope" — with lantern illustra-
tions.

Dr. P. G. Knapp, of Boston, on "Hypnotism."

'See Bull. Essex Inst. Vol. xxiv, p. 113.

140 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Hon. Alden P. White, of Danvers, Eeadings from
Tennyson.

Uzra D. Hines, Esq., of Danvers, on "A Day at Lex-
ington."

All these lectures have been well attended.

On the 29th of February, the 200th anniversary of the
Witchcraft delusion in Salem (in February, 1692) a
meeting was held by this society in Academy Hall where
there was a very large and interested audience present.
Upon the stage were Prof. D. B. Hagar, Prof. E. S. Morse,
Eev. C. B. Rice of Danvers, Mayor Rantoul, Prof. Bar-
rett Wendell of Harvard College, Hon. A. C. Goodell,
jr., W. S. Nevins, Esq., Rev. Dr. A. P. Putnam of Con-
cord, Wm. A. Mowry, Esq., of Salem, Ross Turner, Esq.,
and the Hon. Chas. S. Osgood.

Mr. Nevins called the meeting to order, read the war-
rant for the arrest of Sarah Good, Feb. 29, 1692, and in
a few remarks introduced the Mayor of the city, as the
Chairman of the meeting. Addresses were delivered by
Professor Wendell, Rev. Mr. Rice, Mr. Goodell and Mr.
Mowry. The meeting was considered a decided success.
The Evening Nevjs said — " The audience was an intelli-
gent and interesting body," and that all the speakers had
given the sul)ject a careful study.

All the lectures have been free to the public and it is
believed have given satisfaction. Reports were printed in
the Salem papers.

There have been 686 donations to the cabinets, from
135 different donors the past year. These donations have
been acknowledged through the mail and in the Salem
Gazette.

More than 7300 persons have visited the old meeting
house of the First Church, and the question "How did they

THE RETROSrECT OF THE YEAR. 141

fret up in the gallery?" has been answered at least 5,000
times the past year.

Thirty-three persons have joined the society during the
year, and seventeen members have died, viz. :

Augustus S. Browne, George Roundy of Beverly,

Rufus B. GifFord, John H. Silsbee,

Nathaniel A. Horton, Frank Stone,

Catherine K. Ireson, Stephen G. Wheatland,

George R. Lord, Cyrus M. Tracy of Lynn,

George B. Loring, James D. Waters,

Martha A. Nichols, Charles Woodbury,

George Peabody, Martha A. Willson,
John Webster.

In the historical department the collections are contin-
ually increasing, and I can now only repeat in substance
what was said last year on this point.

Additions to our building and funds are greatly needed
to make a proper display of the important donations to the
cabinets and to arrange and catalogue the manuscripts.

It is desired that the members generally will help us at
least to increase our membership, which can be easily done
if the matter should be taken hold of earnestly. If, for
instance, every member should feel it incumbent on him-
self or herself to obtain for us two new members ni the
coming year, it would be a very great aid to us and help
to "bridge over" to the time, when it is hoped some one or
more of our friends will contribute a hundred thousand
dollars to the funds of the society.

The Institute is also in need of more young persons,
of both sexes, for members, and especially those who
would be interested in our work and would aid us in ar-
ranging the various collections. Of course we want old
people too, but no society can long exist without the coop-

142 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

eration of the young and enthusiastic. It might reason-
al)Iy be supposed that for the credit of Salem if for no
other reason, the young would come forward and beg to
assist in the work of the Institute.

On the 9th day of January last, a committee, consist-
ing of Mayor Rantoul, Ross Turner, D. B. Hagar, David
M. Little, W. S. Nevins, Francis H. Lee, John Robin-
son, Eben Putnam, Thomas F. Hunt and the secretary,
was chosen by the society to arrange for an exhibit of the
Institute at the great Exposition to be held in Chicago
next year. This committee has held several meetings
and has formulated a plan which when carried out will
ensure such a representation of the society at this Cokun-
bian Exposition, as will redound to its credit, and also to
that of the city and county. The committee has ar-
ranged to have this exhibit placed in the main reception
room of the Massachusetts Building, and the committee
is empowered to form a general committee, which shall
take charge of the whole matter of raising the necessary
funds and attending to the numerous details which such
a work requires. The full report of this committee will
be presented to the society when plans are somewhat
farther arranged.

A special committee consisting of Messrs. Turner,
Nevins and Morse was appointed on the 11th day of last
January, to take charge of the Witchcraft meeting on the
29lh of February, and as that meeting was only prelimi-
nary to the erecting of a Memorial to the victims of the
delusion, the committee will probably report at a meet-
ing of the society a plan looking towards the carrying out
of this idea to a successful termination. Much interest
has been shown in it especially by other historical societies
and students.

During the month of November last, an exhibit of Water

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 143

Colors by Misses Emily P. Mumi, Sarah S. Kimball and
Mary M. Brooks, and Messrs. Arthur W. Dow, Dvvight
Blaney and Ross Turner, was held in the rooms of the
society. It was opened free to the public, the attendance
was very good, and the exhibit received much favorable
notice. I would suggest that during the summer months
it would perhaps be well to utilize Plummer Hall for a
watei-color exhibition, so many people visit our town dur-
ing these months that it might be made an additional at-
traction.

During last season the Institute entertained many par-
ties from kindred and other societies including the Rhode
Island Historical Society, the Massachusetts Library Club,
classes from Bradford and other schools, etc., and already
this season a desire to visit Salem is shown on the part of
one or two historical societies. These visits are very
helpful, not only in the way of getting our members ac-
quainted with those from other states who are engaged in
the same work, but also obliging us to keep somewhat
well posted in the history of our own town in order to
answer properly the questions that are asked in regard to
the diflerent historical sites, etc.

I have so often suggested that the Institute would like
to receive anything and everything of historical value, that
I am sure you would hardly consider my report complete
without again calling your attention to this matter. I
want to see this collection grow to such an extent that an
entire new building will be needed to display it properly,
and I wish we had the building now and the funds to sup-
port it, for we need a handsome endowment to carry on
the work of the society as it should be done.

Respectfully submitted,

Henry M. Brooks,

Secretary,

144 the retrospect of the year.

Eeport of the Librarian.

The additions to the library for the year (May, 1891
to May, 1892) have been as follows :

By Donation.

Folios, 45

Quartos, 186

Octavos, 1,058

Twelvemos, 346

Sixteenmos 306

Twentyfourmos 106

Total of bound volumes 2,047

Pamphlets and serials 8.041

Total of donations, 10,088

By Exchange.

Folios, 10

Quartos, 16

Octavos, 142

Twelvemos, 61

Sixteenmos, 30

Twenty-fourmos, 22

Total of bound volumes, 281

Pamphlets and serials 2,728

Total of exchanges, , 3,009

By Purchase.

Folios, 4

Quartos, 29

Octavos, 139

Twelvemos, 53

Sixteenmos, 24

Twenty-fourmos, 45

Total of bound volumes, 294

Pamphlets and serials, 939

Total of purchases, 1,233

Total of donations, 10,088

Total of exchangea 3,009

Total of purchases, 1,233

Total of additions, 14,330

Of the total number of pamphlets and serials, 4,396
were pamphlets and 7,311 were serials.

The donations to the library for the year have been re-
ceived from one hundred and seventy-one individuals and

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 145

ninnt3'-eight societies and governmental dopartinonts. The
exchanges from eleven individuals and one hundred and
seventy-four societies and incorporated institutions, of
which ninety-one are foreign ; also from editors and pub-
lishers.

The largest donation has been that of Dr. Wheatland's
scientific library numbering over four hundred volumes.

The set of Littell's Living Age is now complete to Au-
gust, 1891, and the set of Scribner's Monthly lacks only
three numbers.

The librarian in presenting these statistics congratulates
the members of the Essex Institute on the growing value
of the library in all its reference departments. The Pub-
lic Library and Athen^um furnish the popuhir books for
general circulation, while the Institute aims to build up
a large and valuable reference library. Here should be
found the many books of little interest to the casual reader,
but sometimes of inestimal)le value in the prosecution of
certain lines of study and research. The pleasant rooms
of the Institute are always open to students and investiga-
tors in any branch of literature or science, as well as to
the general reader, and every assistance is given them in
the prosecution of their work. So far as possible the books
are arranged in the different rooms by subject, but there
is great need of a catalogue or finding list so that it can be
readily ascertained what books are in the library relating to
any special subject. Some work has been done in this
direction but the lack of funds prevents its being pushed
forward as rapidly as it should be.

The growth of the library brings each year more sharply
to our attention the need of additional room for the stor-
age of books. This want will have to be met in some
way in the near future and all action should be taken with
this end in view.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 19

146 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

A quiet and uneventful, although a useful and prosper-
ous year for the library leaves little to be said in the an-
nual report. The influence of the Institute broadens, and
its work is appreciated more and more as the years go by.
Let us see to it that there is no halt in its progress.
Chas. S. Osgood,

Librarian.

Treasurer's Eeport.
Eeceipts and expenditures of the past year (condensed
from the account presented).

RECEIPTS

Balance of last year's account, $10,557 96

Discount of note, $2,500 00

Interest from Five Cents Savings Bauk to be funded, . 58 6G

$2,558 66

Assessment of members, $774 00

Income of invested funds, 3,589 07

Sale of publications, 889 51

Amounts received from other sources, 140 13

Ket income, $5,392 71

$18,509 33

EXPENDITURES. ^^^^"^^^

Salaries of secretary, assistant librarians and janitor, $2,232 75

Cost of books, periodicals and binding .... 819 45

" " publications and printing .... 1,379 26

'« " fuel, 181 50

Paid for gas and water, 42 66

" " repairs 151 79

" " insurance, 30 00

" " interest on note, 45 75

" " our proportion of Salem Athenreum expenses, . 226 57

" " express, postage and sundries, .... 287 29

" annuities (obligations of legacies) .... 71000

$6,107 02

" note, 1,500 00

Investment of legacy from estate Mrs. Nancy D, Cole, . 10,327 75

Interest added to manuscript fund, 51 82

" '* " North Bridge monument fund, . . 6 84 58 66

Balance of cash on hand, 515 90

$18,509 33

May 16, 1892. Respectfully submitted,

William O. Chapman, Treasurer.
Examined and approved,

(signed) Geo. D. Phippen, Auditor.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 147

INVESTMENT OF FUNDS

For income, $71,655 51

" Essex Institute Building, 28,370 69

" Ship Rock au(l land, 100 OO

Total investments, $100.1-2h 20

Salem, May 12, 1892.
Examined the above account with the securities and found them correct.

(signed) Gko. D. Phippen, Auditor.

Report of Publication Committee.
The sub-committee appointed to take charge of the pub-
lications of the Institute report that these publications are
now substantially completed up to date. There was some
delay in the publication of volume twenty-three of the
Bulletin, owing to the necessit}' of reprinting a portion of
the paper by Mr. J. Walter Fewkes upon the "Coelenterata
of New England," but this volume, which is for the year
1891, has now been issued. It contains, besides the annual
report, the paper by Mr. Fewkes just mentioned, papers
by Messrs. S. and H. Garman, also numbers three and four
of the " Geological and Mineralogical Notes" by Mr. John
H. Sears of the Peabody Academy of Science. These
notes, containing the results of Mr. Sears's work on the
rocks of Essex County are especially valuable. There are
now in the hands of the committee, ready for the next vol-
ume— volume twenty-four — of the Bulletin, valuable
papers furnished by Prof. E. S. Morse, Mr. Fewkes, Mr.
Garman and others. Of the Historical Collections, volume
twenty-seven for the year 1890 has been published dur-
ing the past year and contains a paper on Gov. John A.
Andrew by Hon. Eben F. Stone, a continuation ©f Mr.
Sidney Perley's " Notes on Boxford Houses," " Reminis-
cences of Capt. James Barr" by Mr. J. B. Curwen, gen-
ealogical memoranda relating to the Allen, Sparhawk and
Prince families and a " Rough Subject Index to the Publi-

148 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

cations of the Essex Institute " prepared by Mr. Gardiner
M. Jones. Two numbers of volume twenty-eight, for the
year 1891, are already in print and there is in the hands
of the committee enough material to complete the volume.
The committee was fortunate in seeming for this volume
from Mr. H. F. Waters, some of his "English Gleanings"
consisting of extracts from marriage licenses granted by
the Bishop of London 1598-1639. These were carefully
annotated by Mr. Waters and are of gi-eat interest and
value to genealogical students. They will be found in the
parts already published.

There has been one special publication issued by the
committee during the year, consisting of a series of articles
on "Our Trees," — that is, the trees of Salem and vicinity —
written by Mr. John Robinson of the Peabody Academy
of Science. By an arrangement entered into with the late
Hon. Nathaniel A. Horton, in whose paper these articles
originally appeared, and by advance subscripticnis obtained,
the cost of this to the Institute was rendered almost nom-
inal, and the edition, which was limited to three hundred
copies, is practically exhausted. The committee believes
that it is within the province of the Institute and will prove
useful in keeping alive an interest in local matters to is-
sue such publications as this whenever suitable matter for
them can be procured, whether it be of an historical char-
acter or upon some branch of natural history.

In publishing volume twenty-seven of the Historical
Collections the committee tried the experiment of printing
it in a single volume without issuing separate numbers or
parts as has been the custom heretofore. This plan seems
to the committee to be more satisfactory and it is recom-
mended that in future the Historical Collections be thus
published.

While it is not to be expected that there will be a pop-

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 149

ular demand for such publications as those of the Institute
sufficient to make them tinancially protitahle, there can he
no question that they are extremely valuable in maintain-
ing the reputation of the society and as a means of ob-
taining exchanges. The committee believes the question
worthy of careful consideration, whether these publications
cannot be made of much greater vahie to the Institute l)y
suitable efforts to enlarge the field of exchanges. It un-
hesitatingly recommends that the publications be contin-
ued and that every encouragement possible be given to
those who are trying to do good historical and genealogi-
cal work, especially that relating to this locality. The
committee suggests that the council consider the advisa-
bility and practicability of raising a publication fund which
will furnish an income sufficient to pay all expenses of
publication so that the Institute may be insured against
the possibility of any pecuniary inconvenience on account
of the maintenance of this department. It is recom-
mended that the copies of the society's publications now
on hand should be arranged properly by volumes and a
special opportunity extended to such libraries and soci-
eties as are subscril^ers to these publications to complete
their sets so far as possible. A new catalogue and price
list of the publications should be prepared, and the com-
mittee recommends that the price to members of the In-
stitute be placed as near cost as practicable, while the
price to those not members for papers which have become
scarce should be increased.

William H. Gove,
T. F. Hunt,
Geo. M. Whipple.

150 the retrospect of the year.

Lectures.
Monday, Jan. 4, 1892. — Wm. A. Mowiy, Esq., of
this city lectured on tlie subject of "United States Bounda-
ries, and Boundary Commissions." Mr. Movvry first called
attention to the importance of the study of the history of
our own country, alluding to its rapid growth, great re-
sources and wealth. The original United States, whose
boundaries were fixed by the treaty with Great Britain at
the close of the Revolutionary War, embraced a territory
of 827,844 miles. Its bounds were the Atlantic Ocean on
the east, the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes on the
north, the Mississippi River on the west, Florida on the
south. The first joint international commission for run-
ning a boundary line, was that between the United States
and Spain, for making the line between this country
and Florida. Andrew Ellicott was our Commissioner ;
this was in 1798-9. The lecturer described Mr. Ellicott's
work. The Florida Treaty of 18 19 and the Oregon Treaty
of 1842, were both fully explained, as well as the Com-
mission to settle the boundary between this country and
Mexico in 1848, after the Mexican War and the Gadsden
purchase of 1853 and Alaska in 1867.

The original territory was (in square miles) 827,844
The Louisiana purchase, . . . 877,686

" Florida " . . . . 65,168

" Annexation of Texas . . . 376,161

" Mexican Cession .... 545,783
" Gadsden purchase . . . 45,535

Oregon 288,345

Alaska .... 577,390

Total 3,605,912
Our country, the speaker said, included all degrees of

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 151

liititude, from within the torrid zone, to and beyond the
arctic circle and extending from the Atlantic to the Pa-
cific and has snch vast resources, as to be practically in-
deijendent of the rest of the world.

Monday, Jan. 18, 1892. — A. A. Post, Esq., of Boston,
lectured on the new language called "Volaplik." Mr.
Post is the Massachusetts Director in the North American
Volapiik Association. The Salem Gazette says of the
lecture : "The least that can be said is, that it presented
an array of facts very remarkable and interesting to even
those who may not fully accept all of the lecturer's de-
ductions from those facts." This language was invented
thirteen years ago by a Roman Catholic priest.

For four years it remained dormant ; after that it began
to attract attention. University professors in Vienna first
recognized its merits and established a club for the prop-
agation of the tongue. It was subsequently welcomed in
Russia, Sweden, Norway, Holland, Belgium, Italy, Spain,
China and Japan, and within two years from its start, it
found friends in every civilized land, and first by the
learned men of the various countries. Forty-seven jour-
nals have been established and maintained either wholly
or in part in Volapiik. In general literature it has a bib-
liography of many hundreds of volumes, history, science,
poetry, etc. Its clubs number one thousand, and it is
used by more than one thousand mercantile houses.
Lecture courses in this language have been given abroad.
Mr. Post emphasized the fact that the inventor of Volapiik
did not propose it to be anything more than an inter-
national language. It was not intended to supplant any
or all natural languages. Its position is not revolutionary
or reformative. It is designed only as a supplementary
language to make international communication easier. If

152 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

the Volapiik should come into general use throughout the
civilized world, then there would be no necessity of learn-
ing a multitude of different languages as is now the case,
but the scholar or whoever wished to communicate with
other countries could learn Volapiik.

Monday, Jan. 25,1892.—Bev. G. T. Flanders, D.D.,
of Boston lectured on "Our Aryan Ancestors." The lec-
turer said that the Aryan race, came from northwestern
Asia, and from them all the Europeans are descended.
Their language (the Sanscrit) is the root of all European
lano:uao:es, including even the dead langua;2:es, Latin, etc.
The Sanscrit, he said, is the only perfect language known.
As a proof of the common origin of all European nations
he cited the fact that they all assimilate, whereas the
Chinese and other nations not springing from the Aryan
race will not assimilate.

No modern family knows its genealogy with greater
accuracy than we can trace ours back to our Aryan an-
cestors, the clew being chiefly philological. The conquest
of India by the English, and the discovery of Sanscrit in
1784, opened the way.

He then gave a few specimens to show how afiiliatious
of language prove a common origin of peoples.

In conclusion. Dr. Flanders told how the Aryan race
has perfected society, morals, science, art and philosophy.
It seems to be their mission to link all parts of the world
together and establish upon the earth a common brother-
hood and a common language. Slowly, but surely, all
varieties of our race are coming to be of one speech.
From unity to diversity and from diversity to final unity
is the irresistible law.

Monday, Feb. 1, 1892,— Uev. Joseph Kimball of An-

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 153

clover lectured on "Arts : Present and Future" or a con-
sideration of the present and prospective condition of the
domestic arts. He spoke at some length of the various
uses of paper in recent years, and of the numerous and
increasing applications of glass to the purposes of econo-
my and of ornament. He referred to the marvellous tal-
ent shown in the preparation of articles of food and the
use of machinery in this way. References were also made
to steam and electricity for motive power, and its possible
developments in the future. The lecture was illustrated
by humorous anecdotes and allusions.

Monday, Feb. 8, 1892.— Pvof. Edward S. Morse of Sa-
lem lectured on Japanese Pottery. The lecturer said that
the most civilized nations do not necessarily produce the
most artistic pottery. In the rudest tribes we sometimes
find traces of high artistic merit ; but where the highest
cultivation is combined with artistic taste, the effect can-
not fiiil to be charming. The Japanese are superior in
these qualifications and we find them excelling all other
nations in their pottery. Their pottery of any decided
merit dates back not more than four hundred years. On
account of the limited communications in Japan we find
the pottery of each of the provinces has a distinctive char-
acter. In other countries it is of one general type. The
Japanese excel in porcelain also ; but in this they do not
show the same originality of design. Their pottery is to
their porcelain as the etching is to the steel engraving.
The Japanese potter has a heavy wheel on the ground which
he causes to revolve rapidly, and as he is on his knees on
a level with the wheel, has complete control over the clay
before him, and is thus enabled to produce the most deli-
cate pottery. In Japan the calling of a potter is considered
a very honorable one, and hence attracts the most talented

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 20

154 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

of the people. Poets and philosophers have made pot-
tery, and much of its refinement there is due to the
company the potters kept. The making of pottery in
Japan is more of an art than a business. It is for the most
part conducted by families and a large part of it is made to
order. Nine millions of dollars are spent every year for
foreign pottery by our country, and this might just as
well be made at home, if our potters could be educated
up to it ; and in this connection the lecturer spoke in praise
of the Beverly Pottery. The lecturer said the Japanese
displayed artistic taste even in the most common things.

Monday, Feb. 15, i.95^. — Sidney Perley, Esq., of
Salem lectured on "Prehistoric America." Mr. Perley di-
vided American history into three periods, commencing
•ssi\\\\ the latest. The first covered the years from the time
when explorations and attempts at settlement were made by
civilized people at about the beginning of the sixteenth
century down to the present era. The second covered the
time when the Indians flourished here. The third or pre-
historic period related to races that preceded the Indians.
He spoke of man's existence here before the drift period,
when the moraines and many of our knolls were formed
by the flood and glacier, burying human beings beneath
the gravel deposits, together with their implements of va-
rious kinds and their pottery. He mentioned the ruins
of Arizona, dwelt upon "mound builders" especially and
gave a very interesting sketch of the discoveries in their
region principally along the banks of the Mississippi river
and its tributaries. The salt mines, mica mines and the
ancient copper diggings were spoken of at some length.
Mr. Perley thought that the Indians and the "mound build-
ers" were probably modern, as compared with the races of
man that once existed here. He also said that geologists

THE RETKOSPECT OF THE YEAR. 155

a*;ree that North America is the oldest continent geoloo:-
ically and probably man existed here first, so that instead
of races coming here from Asia, they probably went from
here to Asia. This lecture was illustrated by large cray-
ons, of plans, sketches of mounds and drawings of idols,
copper implements, pottery, etc.

Monday, Feb. 22, 1892. — The lecture this evening, by
Mr. J. Walter Fewkes of Boston, was on the "Study of
an Aboriginal Ceremonial." The lecturer stated that
among the Moki Indians of Arizona, a series of primitive
religious rites are performed of which, at least one occurs,
in every month. As each of these religious ceremonials oc-
cupied nine days, it could readily be seen how much time
during each year was taken up by such observances. It
is impossible, to understand the meaning of them, until
more is known of the details of them all. The ceremony
that attracted the most attention was the Snake Dance
as it is called, which is celebrated biennially in two of the
pueblos. This was not the most important of their cere-
monials although, from its weird character, it was the most
widely known. Mr. Fewkes then proceeded to describe
very fully the performance of the Snake Dance, detailing
all the events, and spoke of its meaning, which he consid-
ered was a ceremonial for rain. The lecture was illustrated
bystereopticon views.

Monday, Feb. 29, 1892. — The two hundredth anniver-
sary of the beginning of the witchcraft delusion in Salem,
was observed by the society at Academy Hall. There was
a very large and interested audience who listened for two
hours, with the closest attention, to the different speakers.

Upon the stage were Professor E. S. Morse, Professor
D. B. Hagar, Kev. Charles B. Rice of Danvers, Mayor

156 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Kobert S. Rantoul, W. S. Nevins, Professor Barrett Wen-
dell of Harvard College, Aimer C. Goodell, jr., Dr. A.
P. Putnam of Concord, W. A. Mowry, superintendent
of the schools of Salem, Eoss Turner, Hon. Charles S.
Osgood and Secretary Henry M. Brooks.

Mr. Nevins called the meeting to order and said that
it was not desired by the committee or by the Essex In-
stitute that anything should be said or done to bring dis-
credit upon the Salem of 1892 by rehearsing the story of
1692, but it was only with the hope that the matter might
be so presented as to divest the name of Salem from the
possible stain thrown upon it by prevalent misconceptions
of the character of the people and the proceedings of that
era. If Salem did not do something in presenting the
truth regarding that time, other historians would, and was
it not much better that the narrative should be told by their
own local historians who were familiar with the subject,
than that the task should be assigned to strangers. Mr.
Nevins read the warrant for the arrest of Sarah Good,
Feb. 29, 1692, and then presented Mayor Rantoul as chair-
man of the meeting.

The Mayor, on taking the chair, said : — "History imposes
on us to-night a delicate and difficult task. We are here
to commemorate something we would willingly forget.
The witchcraft horror, the terrible frenzy which overtook
our ancestors two centuries ago, — is a chapter in our lo-
cal annals which I for one would make haste to blot out
forever if I had it in my power to do so. All that can be
said in extenuation, all that can be said to the personal
credit of the few who stood up bravely against the wretched
business, to the honor of Judge Saltonstall, who retired
from the court rather than give his judicial sanction to the
hearing of the miserable charges, to the honor of good-
man Woodbury whose horse stood ready saddled, night

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 157

after night in his burn, for the use of neighbors who might
be Jiccused and might escape with his aid to New Hamp-
shire, to the honor of the venerable ex-governor Bradstrect,
of whom Upham intimates that, had he remained governor
another year, the frenzy would never have gained head,
to the honor of his successor, Sir William Phips, who,
when Lady Phips began to be accused, looked into the
matter and cried a halt, all that can be charged off to the
advantage of the few who, earlier or later in the proceed-
ings discovered their dreadful error and in humiliation and
sincerity repented of what they had done, — such as Judge
Sewall, Ann Putnam, the Rev. John Hale — all these things
and the added plea that others elsewhere held the same
beliefs, that persons as guiltless suffered like enormities
in other places, before and since, under the malignant in-
fluence of this awful creed, all this does not wipe out the
ai)palling fact that right here in Salem at the hands of our
own ancestors whom we honestly revere and hold up as
better than their time in many ways, twenty innocent per-
sons, mostly women, were by their own neighbors done
to death, at intervals of weeks, with slow deliberation
and the forms of law, upon flimsy and unsubstantial state-
ments, the victims denied those rites and consolations of
religion which society aflbrds to the most hardened of of-
fenders, excommunicated from the church they loved, out-
lawed of heaven and earth, even the poor solace of Christ-
ian burial denied their ashes.

A phenomenon like this may well startle us from our
complacency and make us pause.

It is for others to account for and explain it. The task
is not for me. Scholars learned in the research of the pe-
riod in question, familiar with its social atmosphere, and
initiated by virtue of long investigation into the mysteries
of its deluded thought, are here to address you to-night,

158 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

and it becomes me to resign the hour to them. They will
offer you explanations and reflections for which their po-
sition and studies will command respect. We all have our
theories. We have in the Uphams, father and son, able
guides to a just conclusicm. The interchange of views,
on a centennial like this, cannot but be welcome and in-
spiring to all of us.

I find, then, an excuse for this commemoration, if excuse
it need, in the belief that the wretched slaughter of women,
in 1692, whether we will it or not, will be remembered.
Had they perished by conflagration, by shipwreck, or by
flood, by any agency where no human motive intervened,
their fate had been sad indeed, but time would slowly wipe
out the living memory. Had they died by Indian mas-
sacre even, or by famine or by siege, the memory of it
would linger long, but not forever. Not the number of
the victims, not so much the character of the victims, but
the nature and animus of the violence under which they
fell, determines, I think, the final judgment of mankind.
Smithfield and the Inquisition will not be forgotten ; the
bloody upheaval in France a century ago will not be for-
gotten ; the groundless strangulation in Salem two hun-
dred years ago will not be forgotten.

I ask your attention, therefore, to what is about to be
said, in order that we may help to record and hand down
the actual fact and not expose our ancestors to the distorted
misconceptions of writers who may not feel the solemn
obligation resting upon us to see to it that the censure is
apportioned to the fault. I shall rejoice if persons who
have supposed us anxious to keep alive these memories for
our own aggrandizement shall be persuaded by the solem-
nity of this occasion, that such is not the fact, and that
while we cannot shape our history, we accept it in all se-
riousness as it is, and have no disposition to treat in a light

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 159

or trifling spirit the saddest of all episodes in the ik)1)1c an-
nals of a noble race."

Prof. Barrett Wendell of Harvard College was first in-
troduced by Mr. Rantoul.

Mr. Wendell's paper/ while carefully disclaiming the
scientific and historical learning that should give his views
authority, suggested that his observation of modern oc-
cultism revealed so many points of likeness to matters
testified to in the trials of the Salem witches as to lead
him to believe that the witchcraft was really something
resembling an epidemic of hypnotism. He further ex-
pressed belief that whoever practised hypnotism in the
seventeenth century could hardly have failed to believe
himself in league with the devil. From this would fol-
low a strong probability that some of the witches may have
been morally guilty.

Professor Wendell spoke of his own psychic researches.
He had studied the work of the materializing mediums,
which he had no doubt were indubitably frauds, and had
observed the trance mediums and tried automatic writing.
He dwelt especially upon the debasing and degenerating
eifect that all of these had upon the operator. He cited
one case of an undoubtedly honest young woman who was
capable of going into a trance, and who in that condition
undoul)tedly did things of pure charlatanry and subtle
untruth. He had himself found the automatic writing to
leave him in such a state of nervous irritability that at
times he was almost ready to admit that he himself had
partially helped the pencil along, and yet when charged
with it was at once eager and ready to deny it.

He had taken Mr. Upham's admirable books and had
studied the life of Cotton Mather and found him not at

iSee HlBt. Coll. Essex Inst., Vol. xxix, p. 45.

160 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

all the deliberate villain he had been led to believe him.
The more he read of him the more he was struck with the
familiarity of his type. The controlling spirit of this
grotesque tragedy, its atmosphere, had something which
he had known in his own experience. It was a horribly
tragic fraud then and is a strangely grotesque one to-day.
He cited the case of JNIary Warren in her fits as one of
undoubted hypnotism. These girls had apparently carried
hypnotism to excess, and partook of just such consequent
moral debasement as we see to-day, about the purlieus
where occultism in its lowest forms is practised. The bulk
of the evidence was spectral. It was this absurd evidence
which hung the witches ; it was its rejection which stopped
the witchcraft trials.

The case of Rebekah Nurse was another instance of ex-
cessive hypnotism. Rebekah Nurse bent her neck and
immediately all of the afflicted had their necks similarly
twisted. This was nothing against Goody Nurse, but when
Abigail Williams cried out to set the neck of the accused
straight or Elizabeth Hubbard's neck would break off, it
simply showed that Betty Hubbard's vision was so greatly
diseased by hypnotism that she was involuntarily under
its subjection. From this, the speaker asked, with their
awful view of Calvinism, was it not probable that these
people ascribed this condition to God or Satan ?

Rev. Charles B. Rice of Dan vers was introduced as the
successorof Samuel Parris. Mr. Rice made a witty speech.
He said he had come down more especially to see that the
sin of Salem in this witchcraft business was not all shoved
off upon Danvers. The fact was that the delusion was
short and sharp in Danvers, and then the people were
prompt to confess their error. In Salem the confession
was rather slow and canting.

He had said the afflicted girls were possessed of a h^'p-

THE KETROSrECT OF THE YEAR. 161

iiotic hysteria, mixed with wickedness, and he stood by
that definition. The preceding speaker had stated their
case pretty fairly, but when he expressed the view that
the accused had some of this power and exerted it he should
be slow to believe that. He believed each individual was
guiltless.

He did not think much of Cotton Mather who was
brought up precociously and flattered too much when a boy,
and thought a great deal too much of as a minister. He
thought we should be slow to admit that our fathers were
worse than their generation in the world.

Mr. Rantoul then read the following letter from Wil-
liam P. Upham :

Newtonville, Mass., February, ^2.
W. S. Nevins, Esq.
My dear Sir : —

Your kind invitation to attend the meeting of the Essex Insti-
tute, February 29th, is received. I regret very much that I shall be
unable to be present.

One of the many signs of the amelioration in the general tone of
public sentiment which the more advanced thought of our day has
produced is the tender regard paid to the memory of the unfortunate
victims of the sad delusion of 1692.

I am glad the Essex Institute proposes to give expression to this
feeling.

Very truly yours,
Wm. p. Upham.

Dr. William A. Mo wry was next introduced and spoke
substantially as follows : —

"Talleyrand is credited with saying that words were in-
vented to conceal one's thoughts. It would seem, some-
times, that history was invented to keep out of sight the
facts which have taken place in the past, and to substitute
therefor a series of tales, legends and slanders concernins:
those who have lived before our time, which sometimes
are scarcely even founded on fact.

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 21

162 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

In the recent ecumenical conference in Washington,
Bishop Fowler is reported to have said he thanked God
that "Methodism never whipped a Quaker, nor burnt a
witch, nor banished a Baptist to Rhode Ishmd."

This is a very striking statement. It has a ring to it.
It sounds well. Probably, when it was written, it "brought
down the house." Let us examine it a little. I do not
propose to raise any question as to its truth. Surely, also,
the triple statement is creditable to that excellent denom-
ination of Christians. Several things, however, may be
noticed about it : —

1. Methodism had no existence till well along in the
eighteenth century, say about 1730. The banishment of
Roger Williams, the persecution of the Quakers and the
New England witchcraft, all occurred in the seventeenth
century. Methodism, therefore, could not very well have
anything to do with these occurrences.

2. New England never burnt a witch.

3. Roger Williams, when ordered to leave the Bay
Colony, was not a Baptist, had no intention of becoming
one, and did not become one till at least three years sub-
sequent to his founding his settlement in Rhode Island.

The well-known S. S. Cox, in a speech defending the
South, once spoke of witches having been burnt in Mass-
achusetts. Senator Vance, of North Carolina, only a year
or two ago in a speech alluded to Massachusetts as having
burnt witches at the stake.

Now, so far as I know, the only witches ever burned at
the stake in this country were burned at the South, and
that long after the Massachusetts Bay Colony had set the
example to the world of o[)ening the jail doors, and set-
ting free all persons who had been charged with witch-,
craft.

The law of King James I, "against conjuration, witch-

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 103

craft and dealing with evil and wicked spirits," was declared
to he in full force in South Carolina, ahout the year 1710,
seventeen years after the famous jail opening in Salem.

The speaker defended Salem and the Massachusetts Bay
Colony as being at the time of the witchcraft delusion,
ahead of their time, and that their action in discontinuing
all prosecutions against supposed witches in 1693, opened
the eyes of the world, and that from that day witchcraft
was doomed and the delusion rapidly passed away. This
happy result is directly traceable to the action of the Bay
colony in 1693 at Salem.

The ch)sing speaker was Hon. Abner C. Goodell, jr.,
who rehearsed what he had said at Danvers briefly. He
said, however, that he did not agree with Mr. Rice regard-
ing the ministers. He thought if a concensus of their
views had governed, there would not have baen any exe-
cutions, for they did not believe a spectre could act through
an innocent person. He defended the judges from too
harsh a criticism as they only followed English authorities
who regarded witchcraft as one of the worst of crimes.
He alluded to a most valuable work on witchcraft, Rev.
Samuel Willard's, which contained the opinions of Philip
Englishand John Alden after their return from banishment.

Monday, March 7, 1892.— Rqy. A. P. Putnam, D.D.,
of Concord, Mass., lectured. His subject was "The Wen-
ham Lake Ice Company." Dr. Putnam first spoke of the
great value of ice for its various purposes and alluded to
the manner in which the Greeks and Romans preserved
their snow for summer consumption ; and then spoke
briefly of the old New England family ice-houses half
under ground or set into the declivity of a hill. He also
gave a history of the early export ice trade of New Eng-
land which was begun about 1805, by Frederick Tudor of

164 THE EETEOSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Boston, and continued by him and others shipping ice to
the East and West Indies down to 1860 or hiter, The
Wenham Lake Ice Company was first formed in Danvers
largely through the influence of Mr. Joshua Sylvester in
1847, A partnership was formed by Henry T. and Joseph
W. Ropes, natives of Salem, and Wm. L. Weston for the
purpose of gathering and exporting ice to England ; a
similar business had been started a few years before by
Charles B. Lander and others of Salem, who had ofiices
in London and Liverpool and ice-houses on Wenham Lake.
Dr. Putnam spoke at some length of the character and
enterprise of the Messrs. Eopes and other Danvers and
Salem people, and in this connection paid a tribute to the
worth of Messrs. Reuben W. and Ripley Ropes, natives
of Salem whom he had known in Brooklyn, N. Y. The
ice from Wenham Lake came to be known all over Great
Britain, for its purity, so that at length some English ice
dealers purchased a lake in Norway and named it Wenham
Lake, and it is said, that at this day signs can be seen in
British ports of "Wenham Lake Ice," which is known to
have been imported from Norway.

Monday, March 14, 1892. — Sylvester Baxter, Esq., of
Boston, lectured on "Municipal Democracy." The speaker
said that our large cities were the worst governed of any
in the world. It was caused by a neglect of public affairs
by the better element of citizenship, leaving the matter of
municipal government to the self-seeking and unscru-
pulous, and, as a result, we have official incapacity, sec-
tionalism, wastefulness, high tax rate with low returns,
etc. This popular neglect and indifi'erence are the main
factor in the problem. The majority prefer good govern-
ment to bad, as has been demonstrated in times of popular
uprisings against glaring evil. The burden of taxation is

THE RETROSPr:CT OF THE YEAR. 165

tlistrihuted among the common i)eopIe. The burden of
the waste of Cnnds of u city does not fall mainly upon
capitalists, but on the daily wage earners, in the shape
of higher prices for shelter, food, etc.

Under certain conditions a high tax rate may be the
truest economy, as when it is accompanied with wise out-
lays. The lecturer spoke of foreign models, notal)ly
among the best was Berlin, where it is considered an
honor to be a member of the city government.

Monday, March 21, 1892.— Co\. Henry Stone of South
Boston, lectured on the " Life and Character of General
Sherman." The lecturer said, no man of recent times
has received so much unmeasured praise as General
Sherman. He then proceeded to give in detail an inter-
esting sketch of the General's eventful life, whose most
marked characteristics he said were his mental and physi-
cal activity. He was a tremendous worker, and his mind
was always alert, vigorous, inquisitive and energetic.
Wherever he went he was a leader. His writings are full
of pungent sayings, and he was master of the pen, if not
always of the sword. He was overflowing with loyalty
and devotion to his country, and some of his letters, es-
})ecially that to the Governor of Louisiana, resigning his
pUice there, deserve to be written in letters of gold.

Monday, March 28, 1892.— Rev. E. O. Dyer of South
Braintree, lectured on "Coligny and the Huguenots."
He gave a sketch of Coligny's life, of his birth, training,
military advancement, imprisonment and acceptance of
the "I'eformed faith," and also of his attempt to plant a
colony of French Protestants in Florida ; his successes,
the massacre of St. Bartholomew, his murder, and the
estimate of his worth were all alluded to, the speaker

166 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

saying that he was one of the finest characters in history.
Mr. Dyer gave a sketch of the Huguenot movement from
the death of Coligny down to the French Revohition. He
also gave a very graphic account ot the Huguenots from
the time of the Edict of Nantes in 1598, to its revocation
in 1685, and spoke of the emigration of the Huguenots
to America, South Carolina, New York and Massachu-
setts,

Monday, April 4, 1892.— Dv. J. E. WolflT of Boston,
lectured on the "History of Rocks learned by the Micro-
scope." This was accompanied by graphic ilhistrations
on the screen. The nature of rocks was first dwelt upon
as forming part of the crust of the earth, and the manner
in which they came to occupy the positions, where we now
find them, explained — Thus rocks may have come in a melt-
ed state from deep down in the interior of the earth, and
either have solidified at a depth, or pushed their way to
the surface and flowed as the lavas of the present day ;
these are the volcanic or eruptive rocks, — or, the waves,
washing along beaches and rivers carrying down sediment,
may have piled up masses of sand and mud, which in the
course of ages were buried with further masses hardened
and consolidated, and thus our present sandstones and
slates formed, — or in the deep water of the sea small or-
ganisms by their shells or in other ways may have formed
the great beds of limestones which we use for our lime
and building stone. Afterthe rocks in these different ways
have taken their places in the crust, they have shared in
the great movements of the solid crust of the globe. The
slow processes of decay have more or less affected the min-
erals of the rocks. Various illustrations of the processes
of preparing thin slices of rock for the microscope were
shown and explained. The lecturer spoke in conclusion

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 167

of the fine collections made by Mr, Sears at the Poabody
Academy of Science.

Monday, April 11, 1892.— Dv. Philip C. Knapp of Bos-
ton, lectured on "Hypnotism." The speaker after stating
that hypnotism was by no means a new discovery, pro-
ceeded to give some historical account of it from the time
it was first heard of in the sixteenth century down to the
present time. He then gave a detailed statement of what
hypnotism is ; — an induced artificial sleep, with an increase
of reflex excitability and of suggestibility. It has nothing
to do with magnetism or personal influences. Any one
can hypnotize, but only a limited number can be hypno-
tized. A prominent characteristic of people in this state
is that they respond to every idea suggested to them. If
told that they are paralyzed or drunk, they act in ac-
cordance with the idea suggested. Instances were given
of very curious results of suggestions. It is not however
due entirely to suggestions, for animals can be hypnotized.
It is closely allied to hysteria and is regarded as an acute
mental disease. Its use might lead to insanity. Persons
under its influence might be led to do improper acts, sign
papers, impart information, or commit crimes.

Monday, April 25, 1892.— Ron. Alden P. White read
in the lecture course, in a most interesting manner, selec-
tions from the poet Tennyson, which best illustrated the
story of "The Passing of King Arthur" as told in the old
legends of the Round Table. A short informal talk on
the subject preceded the reading.

Monday, May 2, 1892.— Ezra D. Hines , Esq., of Dan-
vers lectured, his subject being "A Day at Lexington." In
a most entertaining manner, he gave a full account of a
visit of the Danvers Historical Society to Lexington in

168 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

September, 1891. He spoke of the place as a Mecca which
all Americans should visit at least once in their lives.
Lexington was formerly a part of Cambridge and was
made a town in 1713. Mr. Hines continued with an ex-
ceedingly intei*esting historical sketch of the scenes in
Lexington on the day of the battle, April 19, 1775.

Necrology of Members.

Augustus S. Browne, son of Sewell and Abigail (Kim-
ball) Browne, was born in Seabrook, N. H., Mar. 2, 1834 ;
elected a member of the Essex Institute, Jan. 16, 1888,
and died in Salem, Jan. 25, 1892.

Benjamin W. Crowninshield, son of Francis B. and
Sarah G. (Putnam) Crowninshield, was born in Boston,
Mar. 12, 1837 ; elected a member of the Essex Institute,
Feb. 6, 1888, and died in Rome, Italy, Jan. 16, 1892.

RuFUS B. GiFFORD, SOU of Thomas and Sarah P. (Ravel)
Gilford, was born in Salem, Mar. 7, 1827 ; elected a mem-
ber of the Essex Institute, Oct. 20, 1873, and died in Sa-
lem, Apr. 3, 1892.

Nathaniel A. Horton, son of Nathaniel and Martha
(Very) Horton, was born in Salem, Apr. 16, 1830; elect-
ed a member of the Essex Institute, June 11, 1852, and
died in Salem, Dec. 14, 1891.

Mrs. Catherine K. Ireson, widow of Samuel J. Ire-
son and daughter of James and Catherine (Russell) Kim-
ball, was born in Salem, Apr. 19, 1811 ; elected a member
of the Essex Institute, Dec. 6, 1886, and died in Salem,
Aug. 19, 1891.

THE RETROSrECT OF THE YEAR. 169

George R. Lord, son of Nathaniel and Eunice (Kim-
ball) Lord, was born in Ipswich, Dec. 16, 1817 ; elected
a member of the Essex Institute, June 4, 1874, and died
in Salem, Dec. 25, 1891.

George B. LoriNG, son of Bailey and Sally COsgood)
Loring, was born in North Andover, Nov. 6, 1817 ; elect-
ed a member of the Essex Institute, Jan. 10, 1855, and
died in Salem, Sept. 13, 1891.

Mrs. Martha A. Nichols, widow of David Nichols
and daughter of Robert and Lydia (Kilburn) Proctor, was
born in Salem, Aug. 2, 1810 ; elected a member of the
Essex Institute Nov. 21, 1876, and died in Salem, Feb. 2,
1892.

George Peabody, son of Joseph and Elizabeth (Smith)
Peabody, was born in Salem, Jan. 11, 1804; elected a
member of the Essex Historical Society, Sept. 6, 1828,
and of the Essex County Natural History Society in 1834,
and died in Salem, Jan. 3, 1892.

George Roundy, son of Nehemiah and Margaret (Pick-
ett) Roundy, was born in Beverly, Feb. 20, 1824 ; elected
a member of the Essex Institute July 3, 1865, and died
in Beverly, Nov. 2, 1891.

John H. Silsbee, son of William and Mary (Hodges)
Silsbee, was born in Salem, June 17, 1814 ; elected a mem-
ber of the Essex Historical Society, Sept. 8, 1846, and of
the Essex County Natural History Society, Mar. 17, 1843,
and died in North Conway, N. H., Sept. 19, 1891.

Frank Stone, son of John U. and Eliza J. (Flint) Stone,
was born in Salem, Jan. 14, 1854 ; elected a member of

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 22

170 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

the Essex Institute, Jan. 17, 1887 ; died in Salem, Aug.
26, 1891.

Cyrus M. Tracy, son of Cyrus and Hannah M. (Snow)
Tracy, was born in Norwich, Ct., May 6, 1824 ; elected a
member of the Essex Institute, Oct. 6, 1858, and died in
Lynn, Sept. 28, 1891.

James D. Waters, son of William D. and Abigail
(Devereux) Waters, was born in Salem, Oct. 28, 1832 ;
elected a member of the Essex Institute, Feb. 3, 1853,
and died in Salem, Feb. 19, 1892.

John Webster, son of Eb'jah and Sally (Dole) Web-
ster, was born in Salem, Oct. 10, 1804; elected a mem-
ber of the Essex Institute, Sept. 19, 1855, and died in
Salem, Dec. 19, 1891.

Stephen G. Wheatland, son of Kichard G. and Mary
B. (Eichardson) Wheatland, was born in Newton, Aug.
11, 1824; elected a member of the Essex County Natural
History Society, Oct. 18, 1844, and died in New York,
Mar. 2, 1892.

Mrs. Martha A. Willson, wife of Eev. E. B. Willson
and daughter of Stephen and Patty (Wheeler) Buttrick,
was born in Fraraingham, July 20, 1817 ; elected a mem-
ber of the Essex Institute, Nov. 7, 1887, and died in Sa-
lem, Nov. 7, 1891.

Charles Woodbury, son of Israel and Susan (Lus-
comb) Woodbury, was born in Salem, N. H., Jan. 28,
1831 ; elected a member of the Essex Institute, Nov. 18,
1889, and died in Salem, Sept. 16, 1891.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 171

Donations or exchanges have been received from the
following sources :

Vol. Pam.

Adams, Charles F., Boston, ..-.-- i

Adelaide, Royal Society of South Australia, - - - 2

Albany, New York State Library, 12

Almy, James F., Newspapers, 61 195

Almy, Mrs. James F., 35

Ameghino, Florentino, Buenos Ayres, So. America, - 6

American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1

American Congregational Association, - - - - 1

American Historical Association, 1

Ames, George L., - 9

Amherst College, -------- 2

Amherst, Massachusetts Agricultural College, - - 16

Amherst, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, 2 16

Andover Theological Seminary, 1

Andrews, Samuel P., 2 61

Appleton, William S., Boston, 3

Appleton, "Wisconsin State Board of Health, - . - 1

Atkins, Francis H., Las Vegas, N. M., - - - - 1

Baldwin, William H., Boston, 1

Baltimore, Md., Johns Hopkins University, - - - 8

Baltimore, Maryland Historical Society, - - - - 13

Baltimore, Md., Peabody Institute, 2

Bamberg, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, - - - i

Barstow, Benjamin, -------- 2 1

Barton, Gardner, Newspapers,

Basel, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, - - . - i

Batavia, K. N., Vereeniging in Nederlandsch Indie, - 1

Battle, Kemp P., Chapel Hill, N. C, - - - - 1

Baxter, Sylvester, Boston, 1

Belfast Naturalists' Field Club, 1

Bergens Museum, -------- 1

Berkeley, University of California, . . - - lo

Berlin, Gesellschaft der Naturforschende Freunde, - 1

Berlin, Verein zur Beforderung des Gartenbaues, - - 24

Bern, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, - . - - i

Berry, John M., Worcester, ------ 1

Bolles, Rev. E. C, D.D., New York, . - - - 43

Bologua, R. Accademia delle Scienze, - - - - 1

Bonn, Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Ehein-

lande u. Westphalens, 2

Bordeaux, Academic Nationale des Sciences, Belles-

Lettres et Arts, 1

172 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Boston, Appalachian Mountain Club, .... 3

Boston Art Club, 2

Boston Board of Health, 2 11

Boston, Bunker Hill Monument Association, - - - i

Boston, City of, -. 3

Boston City Auditor, 1

Boston Dental College, 1

Boston, Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor, 2

Boston, Massachusetts General Hospital and McLean

Asylum, ...--.--- i

Boston, Massachusetts Historical Society, ... 1

Boston, Massachusetts Humane Society, ... 2

Boston, Massachusetts Medical Society, ... 1

Boston, Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, - 1 4

Boston, Massachusetts State Board of Health, - - 2 48

Boston Museum of Fine Arts, 1

Boston, New England Historic Genealogical Society,

Newspapers, 5

Boston Public Library, .--...- 34

Boston Society of Natural History, . - - - 2

Boston Superintendent of Public Schools, - - 1

Bostonian Society, 1

Bousley, George E., 7

Bowes, James L., Liverpool, Eng., 1

Bradford Academy, 1

Braunschweig, Verein fiir Naturwissenschaft, - - 1

Bremen, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein, ... i

Bremer, L., St. Louis, Mo., 1

Briggs, Miss M. E., .-..._. l

Bristol Naturalists' Society, 2

Brooklyn (N. Y.) Library, ..._.- i

Brooklyn, N. Y., Pratt Institute,- 1

Brooks, Miss E. M. R., 3

Brooks, Henry M., Newspapers, 2 14

Brooks, Mrs. Henry M., - - - - Newspapers,

Brown, Arthur H., Newspapers, 2

Brown, Mrs. Lucy S., - 64

Browne, Alice, 2 38

Browne, Mrs. C. "Warren, 7

Brownell, T. Frank, New York, N. Y., - Circulars, 9

Briinn, Naturforschender Verein, 1 1

Brunswick, Me., Bowdoin College, .... - 2

Bruxelles, Academic Royale des Sciences, des Letters et

des Beaux Arts de Belgique, ..... 7

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 173

Bruxelles, Soci6t6 Beige de Microscopic, . . - lo

Bruxelles, Soci6t6 Entomologique, .... i

Buck, James S., Milwaukee, Wis. ----- 6

Buenos Aires, Sociedad Cientiflca Argentina, - - 9

Bufl'alo (N. Y.) Historical Society, 1

Buflalo, N. Y., Society of Natural Sciences, - - - 1

Burnham, Mrs. Horace C, 15

Caen, Academic Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-

Lettres, 1

Calcutta, Geological Survey of India, - - - - 2 7

Calcutta, Indian Museum, 6

Cambridge, Harvard University, ----- 6 3

Cambridge, Museum of Comparative Zoology, - - 11

Cambridge, Peabody Museum of American Archaeology, 4

Capen, John. Boston, ------- i

Carpenter, Rev. C. C, Andover, 3

Chamberlain, James A., Boston, ----- 2 50

Chamberlain, Mellen, Chelsea, . . - - . i

Champaign, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, 4

Chapel Hill, N. C, Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, - 2

Chappie, William D. , 1

Charleston, West Virginia Historical and Antiquarian

Society, 12 29

Chever, Edward E., San Francisco, Cal. . . - i

Chicago (111 ) Historical Society, 2

Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway Company, - 1

Chicago (111.) PubUc Library, 17

Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific Railway Company, . 1

Christiania, Universite Royale, 14

Christiania, Videnskabs-Selskabet, - . - - 9

Cilley, J. P. Rockland, Me., 9

Cincinnati, Historical and Philosophical Society of Ohio, 2

Cincinnati, Ohio Mechanics' Institute, - - - - i

Cincinuati (0.) Public Library, 2

Cincinnati (O.) Society of Natural History, - - 3

Cleaves, Emery, 1

Cleveland, O., Western Reserve Historical Society, - 1

Cole, Mrs. N. D., Estate of, - - - Newspapers, 123 17

Columbus, Ohio Meteorological Bureau, - - - 2
Conant, Samuel M., Pawtucliet, R. I., - Newspapers,
Conant, William P., Charleston, S. C, - Newspaper,

Copenhague, Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, 1

Crisp, F. A., London, Eng., 1

Curwen, George R., 12 4

174 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Curwen, James B., 5 65

Gushing, Mrs. Elizabeth S., Dorchester, - - - lo

Cutter, Abrain E. , Charlestown, 1

Dalton, Edward A., 1

Danzig, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, - - - - i

Darmstadt, Verein fiir Erdkunde, 1

Davenport, George F., 1

Dedham Historical Society, 5

Denver (Col.) Public Library, 1

Derby, Perley, 1

Detroit (Mich.) Public Library, 2

Dodge, Edwin H., 2

Dresden, Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft "Isis," 1

Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, Pa., ... - i

Dublin. Royal Irish Academy, 7

Dublin, Royal Society, 9

Edes, Henry H., Charlestown,

Newspapers and Circulars, 191 1373

Edinburgh Royal Society, 1

Emden, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, - - - . i

Emerton, James, 2

English, Mrs. James E., New Haven, Conn., ... 1

Erfurt, K. Akademie Gemeiniitziger Wissenschaften, - 1

Erlangen, Physikalisch-Medicinische Gesellschaft, - 1

Exeter, N. H., Phillips Academy, 1

Falmouth, Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, - - 1

Field, B, Rush, Easton, Pa., 1

Firenze, Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale, ... 26

Folsom, A. A., Boston, - 2

Foster, Joseph, Portsmouth, N. H., .... i
Frankfurt-a-M., Senckenbergische Naturforschende Ge-
sellschaft, 12

Frear, William, State College, Pa., .... 4

Freiburg, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, ... 2

Friends' Book Store, Philadelphia, Pa., ... 1

Geneve, Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle, - 2
Gibbs, Warren, St. Albans, N. Y., - Newspapers,
Gillis, James A., Winchendon, - - Newspapers,

Goodell, Abner C, jr., 2

Gottingen, K. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften - - 1

Grand Rapids (Mich.) Public Library, - - - . i

Granville, O., Deuison University, .... 2

Green, Samuel A., Boston, Newspapers and Circulars, 61 435

Griffls, Rev. William E., Boston, 1

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 175

Giistrow, Verein der Freunde der NattirgescMchte, - 1 1

Haddock, Mrs. H. F., 1

Halle, K. Leop.-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der

Naturforscher, 1 4

Halifax, Nova Scotian Institute of Science, - - - 1
Hamburg, Verein fur Naturwissenschaftliche Unter-

haltung, 3

Harlem, Soci6t6 Hollandaise des Sciences, . - - 3

Harris, Miss M. A., Estate of, . - Newspapers, 23 2604

Harrisburg, Pennsylvania State Library, ... 25

Hartford, Connecticut Historical Society, ... i

Hartford, Ct., Trinity College, 2

Haskell, Mrs. A. J , West Roxbury, - Newspapers, 178

Hawken, Mrs. Thomas, - Newspapers and Circulars, 1 2

Herrick, C. L., Cincinnati, O., 4

HiU, B. D., and W. S. Kevins, 1

Hill, Don Gleason, Dedham, 1

Hill, William M., 2

Hobart, Government of Tasmania, .... i i

Hobart, Royal Society of Tasmania, .... 1

Hood, I. B., Georgetown, 1

Horton, N. A., and Son, 33

Hotchkiss, Susan v.. New Haven, Ct., - Newspapers, 3

Howard, George E., Lincoln, Neb., .... 3

Howard, Joseph J., Blackheath, Kent, Eng., - - 1

Hunt, Miss S. E., Danvers, 1

Hunt, T. F., ..---- Newspapers, 28 141

Hyde Park Historical Society, '....- 3

Iowa City, la.. State Historical Society, ... 4

Ireson, Mrs. C. K., Estate of, 14 147

Ithaca, N. Y., Cornell University, 1

Jersey City (N. J.) Free Public Library, ... 5

Jewett, A. S., Manchester, 1

Johnson, Edward F., Wobum, 1

Jones, Gardner M., - Newspapers and Circulars, 2 125

Kansas City (Mo.) Academy of Science, ... 7

Kassel, Verein fiir Naturkunde, 1

King, Rufus, Yonkers, N. Y.,- - - - - - 1

Kingsley, J. S , - - Newspapers and Circulars, 11 249

Kjobenhavn, Botanisk Forening, ..... 3

Kjobenhavn, K. D. Videnskabernes Selskabs, - - 3

Kjobenhavn, Nordiske Oldkyndighe og Historic, - - 1

Konigsberg, Physikalisch-okonomische Gesellschaft, - 1

Kruckeberg, Henry W., Los Angeles, Cal., ... 1

176 THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Lamb, Colby, for Estate of William Leavitt, - - 4

Lamsoa, Frederick, 19

Lancaster Public Library, 1

Lander, Lucy A., 1

Lander, Miss M. L., Washington, D. C, - - - 148 20

Lander, William A., - . . . Newspapers, 74

Lausanne, Societe Vaudoise des Sciences NatureUes, - 3

Lee, Francis H., 2 43

Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, • . - 2
Le Mans, Societe d' Agriculture, Science et Arts de la

Sarthe, 2

Lewis, Virgil A., Charleston, W. Va., - - - - 3

Liege Societe Royale des Sciences, ----- i

Lincoln, Nebraska State Historical Society, - - - 1

Locke, S. D., Troy, N. Y., 1

London Royal Society, 8

Long Island Railroad Company, 1

Low, Daniel, 1

Lowell, Old Residents' Historical Association, - - 1

Lubeck, Naturhistorischen Museums, - - - - 6

Luxembourg, Institut Royal Grand Ducal, - - - 2

McCrillis, R. F., 2

McDaniel, Rev. B. F., San Diego, Cal., - - - - 4

Madison, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, - - 1

Madrid, Observatorio de, 3

Mahoney, Jeremiah T., - - - - Newspapers,

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, - - 2

Manchester Museum, Owens College, - - - - 4.
Manning, Richard C, - - - - Newspapers,
Marburg, Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der gesammten

Naturwissenschaften, 1

Massachusetts, Secretary of the Commonwealth of, - 12 2

Meek, Henry M., 1

Michigan Agricultural College, 19

Michigan Central Railway Company, - - - - 1

Middletown, Ct., Wesleyan University, - - . 1

Miller, Mrs. Charles H., 17

Milwaukee (Wis. ) Public Museum, - - - - 2

Minneapolis (Minn.) Public Library, - _ . - 2

Montgomery, James Mortimer, New York, - - - i

Montreal Natural History Society, 5

Montreal, Royal Society of Canada, - . . - 1

Moore, H. H., San Francisco, Cal., ... 2

Morse, E. S., - Newspapers, Circulars and Maps, 2 175

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 177

Moulton, John T., Lynn, - - - - Newspapers,

Miinclien, K. B. Akademie der Wissenschaften, - - 13

Munster, Westfalischeu Provinzial Vercin, ... i
Napoli, R. Accademia delle Scienze Fisiche e Matema-

tiche, 15

Nashville, Tennessee State Board of Health, - - 12

Nauinkeag National Bank, Newspapers and Circulars, 622

Needham, Daniel, Groton, ...... i

Nevins, W. S., 12

Newark (N. J.) Free Public Library, .... 9

New Haven, Ct., Yale University, 13

New York (N. Y.) Academy of Sciences, ... 6
New York, N. Y., American Geoi^raphical Society, - 4
New York, N. Y., American Museum of Natural History, 8
New York, N. Y., Central Park Menagerie, ... i
New York (N. Y.) Chamber of Commerce, ... 1
New York (N. Y.) Forest Commission, .... i
New York (N. Y.) Genealogical and Biographical Soci-
ety, 3

New York (N. Y.) Historical Society, .... 11

New York, N. Y. Huguenot Society, .... 2

New York, N. Y., Linnaean Society of, .... i

New York (N. Y.) Mathematical Society, ... 1

New York (N. Y.) Mercantile Library Association, - 1

New York (N. Y.) Microscopical Society, ... 6

New York (N. Y.) Reform Club, 2

New York, N. Y., Scientific Alliance, ... - 1

Nichols, Andrew, jr., Danvers, 4

Nichols, J. Henry, 1

Nichols, Thomas B., 3

Nichols, William H., 3d, 1

Nicholson, John P., Philadelphia, Pa., - - - - 3

Northey, William, Newspapers, 82 3

Norwich fCt.) Academy, 1

Nourse, Dorcas C, - - Newspapers and Circulars,

Nunns, F. H., Baltimore, Md., 1

Nurnberg, Naturhistorische Gesellschaft, ... i

Oliver, Mrs. Grace A., 4 13

Osgood, Charles S., 132 13

Ottawa, Geological and Natural History Survey of Can-
ada, 1

Palermo, Reals Accademia di .Scienze, Lettere e Belli

Arti, ....'. 1

ESSEX INST. BULLETIN, VOL. XXIV 23

178 THE EETROSPECT OF THE TEAR,

Palf ray, Charles "W., .... Newspapers, 85

Paris, Societe Nationale d'Acclimatation, - - . 23

Paris, Society d'Antbropologie, - - - - . 4

Parker, Mrs. William P., 28

Parker, William Thornton, Beverly, - . . . i
Peabody, George L., Philadelphia, Pa., Newspapers,

Peabody Institute, Peabody, 1

Peet, Rev. S. D., Avon, 111., 7

Perkins, George A., 4 68

Perley, M. V. B., Ipswich, 1

Perley, Sidney, 1

Perry, Amos, Providence, E. I., 1

Perry, Rev. WiUiam S., Davenport, la., . - . i

Philadelphia, Pa., Academy of Natural Sciences, - - 14

Philadelphia, Pa., American Philosophical Society, - 4

Philadelphia, Historical Society of Pennsylvania, - 4

Philadelphia, Pa., Library Company, - - . . 2

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, . 4

Philadelphia, Pa., Zoological Society, - . - . 1

Phillips, Stephen H., .... Newspapers, 52 114

Pool, Wellington, Wenham, 2

Poole, WiUiam F., Chicago, 111., 1

Porter, Rev. E. G., Lexington, 2

Portland, Maine Historical Society, - - - . 4

Providence, R. I., Brown University, - - - - 1
Providence, R. I., Narragansett Historical Publishing

Company, 2

Providence (R. I.) Public Library, .... i

Providence (R. I.) Record Commissioners, ... 1

Providence, Rhode Island Historical Society, - - 12

Putnam, Eben, 2 10

Quebec Literary and Historical Society, ... 1
Queensland Branch of Royal Geographical Society of

Australasia, -, 1

Quimby, E. H., Maiden, . - - - Newspapers, 1

Ramsay, Rev. William H., Middleboro', ... 4

Rantoul, Robert S., 1 19

Rayner, Robert, Newspapers,

Read, Warren A., Boston, .-.-_. 1

Riga, Naturforscher Verein, 1

Rio de Janeiro, Museo Nacional, 1

Roberts, Martha L., .... Newspapers, 8

Robinson, John, Newspapers, 109 114

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR. 179

Robinson, Lucia P. > 1

Kochester (N. Y.) Academy of Sciences, ... l

Roma, Biblioteca Nazionale Ceutrale Vittorio Emanuele, 13

Ropes, Mrs. Charles A., 52 499

Ropes, Willis H., 1

Russell, Samuel H., Boston, ....-- 1

Sacramento, California State Library, - - - - 12 61

St. Gallen, Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft, - - 2

St. Louis (Mo.) Academy of Science, ... - 3

St. Louis, Missouri Botanical Gardens, . . - i

St. Louis (Mo.) Public Library, 1

St. Paul, Minnesota Historical Society, ... 11

St. Petersbourg, Acad6mie Imp6rlale des Sciences, - 11

Salem, City of, 11

Salem Fraternity, Newspapers,

Salem, Peabody Academy of Science, - Newspapers, 1 596

Salem Press Publishing and Printing Company, - - 2 5

Salem Public Library, 28

Saltonstall, Leverett, Boston, ..... i

Sampson, Murdock & Co., Boston, ... - 2

San Diego (Cal.) Society of Natural History, - - 6

San Francisco, California Academy of Sciences, . - 1

San Francisco, Cal., Mercantile Library Association, - 1

'S Gravenhage, Nederlandsche Entomologische Vereen-

iging, 2

Shaw, Mary L., Newspapers, 13

Sherwood, George F. Tudor, London, Eng., - - 1

Silver, William, Trustee, 1

Smith, A. M., Minneapolis, Minn,, .... 1

Smith, Cassius C, Denver, Col., ..... 1

Smith, George Plumer, Philadelphia, Pa,, ...

Newspapers,

Smith, William, Morley, New Leeds, Eng,, Newspapers,
South Boston, Church Home for Orphan and Destitute

Children, 1

South Boston, Perkins Institution and Massachusetts

School for the Blind, 1

Spalding, J. A., for Hartford Insurance Companies, 1

Springfield City Library Association, .... 1

Springfield, Illinois State Museum of Natural History, 3

Springfield, Mo., Drury College, 1

Stavanger Museum, -- 1

Stebbins, Solomon B,, Boston, 1

180 THE RETROSPECT OF THE TEAR.

Stewart, Alexander A., ------- 1

Stickney, W. J., - - - - - Newspapers,

Stockholm, Entomologische Foreningen, - - - 3

Stone, Arthur R,, - - - . - Newspapers, 12 119

Stone, George F., Chicago, El., 1

Stone, Hannah, -------- 1

Stone, Robert, Newspapers,

Stone, William S., Circulars, 34

Sydney, Linnean Society of New South "Wales, - - 1
Sydney, Royal Society of New South Wales, - - - 1
Tacoma, Washington State Historical Society, - - 1
Taunton, Old Colony Historical Society, . - . i
Taunton, Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural His-
tory Society, 1

Topeka, Kansas Historical Society, - Newspapers,

Toronto, Canadian Institute, 1

Trask, William B., 1

Trenton, N. J., Microscopical Publishing Company, - 1

Trenton, New Jersey Natural History Society, - - 1

Tromso Museum, --. 2

Turner, Mary E., Detroit, Mich., - Newspaper,

Turner, Ross, 2 1

U. S. Board on Geographic Names, - . . - 1

U. S. Bureau of Education, 5

U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, 5 1

U. S. Bureau of Navigation, 1

U. S. Chief of Engineers, 6

U. S. Chief of Ordnance, 2

U. S. Chief Signal Officer, 1

U. S. Civil Service Commission, ----- 3 1

U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 2 3

U. S. Commissioner of Patents, - - . - - 1

U. S. Commissioner of Pensions, 1

U. S. Comptroller of Currency, 1

U. S. Department of Agriculture, 5

U. S. Department of Interior, ------ 149 2

U. S. Department of State, 4 21

U. S. Director of the Mint, 1

U. S. Fish Commission, 1

U. S. Geological Survey, -- 8 11

U. S. Judge-Advocate-General, 1

U. S. Life Saving Service, 1

U. S. Light-House Board, 2

THE RETROSPECT OP THE YEAR. 181

U. S. National Museum, ---.--- 4

U. S. Naval Observatory, 2

U. S. Patent Office, 55

U. S. Quartermaster-General, 1

U. S. Secretary of the Treasury, 1

U. S. Surgeon-General's Office, 1

U. S. War Department, 15 4

U. S. Weather Bureau, 1

Upham, William P., Newtonville, 30 405

Upsala, Kongliga Vetenskaps-Societeten, - - - 1

Waites, Alfred, Worcester, 1

Waitt, Mrs. Edward O., Maiden, 83

Waltham, Massachusetts School for the Feeble-Minded 1

Ward, Mrs. Mary G., 2

Waring, Chapman and Farquhar, Newport, R. I., - 1

Washington, Anthropological Society, - - - - 4

Washington, Smithsonian Institution, - - - - 4

Waters, David P., 31 49

Waters, Henry F., - - - - Newspapers, 34 199

Waters, Joseph G., Estate of, 7 26

Waters, Mrs. S. F., 6

Waterville, Me., Colby University, ... - 2

Watson, Miss C. A., No. Andover, - - - - 3 14

Watson, S. M., Portland, Me., 1

Webster, John, Estate of, 10

Welch, William L., . - Newspapers and Maps, 11 79

Wheatland, Henry, 426 5

Whipple, George M., - - - - Newspapers, 1 4

Whipple, Prescott, Newspapers, 37

Wien, K. K. Zoologisch-Botanische Gesellschaf t, - - 4

Wiesbaden, Nassauischer Verein fiir Naturkunde, - 1

Willson, Rev. E. B., - Newspapers and Circulars, 11 234
Winnipeg, Can., Historical and Scientific Society of

Manitoba, 6

Winsor, Justin, Cambridge, ...-.- 35

Woods, Mrs. Kate Tannatt, 12

Worcester, American Antiquarian Society, - - - 2

Worcester, Society of Antiquity, 3

Wright, Frank v., Hamilton,

- Newspapers and Circulars, 79

Wright, W. H. K., Plymouth, Eng., .... 7

Wurzburg, Physikalisch-Medicinische Gesellschaf t, - 11

Youmans, W. J.,New York, N. Y., .... 11

Zurich, Naturforschende Gesellschaft, .... 1

182

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

The following have been received
American Journal of Education
American Journal of Science.
American Naturalist.
Beverly Citizen.
Cape Ann Advertiser.
Chicago Journal of Commerce.
Danvers Mirror.
Georgetovpn Advocate.
Groton Landmark.
Home Market Bulletin,
lovpa Churchman.
Ipsvpich Chronicle.
Lawrence American.
Learner and Teacher.
Le Naturaliste Canadien.
Lyceum Herald.
Musical Herald.

from editors and publishers :

Musical Record.

Nation.

Naturalists' Leisure Hour and

Monthly Bulletin.
Nature.

New England Magazine.
Open Court.
Peabody Press.
Peabody Reporter.
Salem Gazette.
Salem News.
Salem Observer.
Salem Register.
Traveler's Record.
Visitor.
Voice.
Zoologischer Anzeiger.

The donations to the cabinets during the year number
six hundred and ninety-four, from the following one hun-
dred and thirty-five donors :

Allen, B. R., Hartford, Conn.

Allen, George H.

Almy, Bigelow & Washburn.

Andrews, Hiram.

Andrews, Samuel P.

Archer, Rebecca.

Arvedson, George.

Balcomb, James W.

Barber, Edwin A., West Chester,

Pa.
Barnes, Francis and C. P. Tenny,

Houlton, Me.
Barstow, Benjamin.
Batchelder, Henry M.
Battis, Edward C, Exec.
Benjamin, Marcus, New York,

N. Y.
Bowditch, Mrs. Anstiss Green.
Bovvker, George."

Briggs, C. C.

Brooks, E. M. R.

Brooks, Henry M.

Brooks, Mrs. Henry M.

Brooks, Mary M.

Brooks, Mrs. S. E., Boston.

Brown, Edward C.

Browne, Alice.

Browne, Augustus S.

Bryant, H. W., Portland, Me.

Bunker, Frank R., Atlanta, Ga.

Casey, James C.

Clark, Rev. De Witt S.

Cleaves, Emery, Lynn.

Cleveland, Mary S. and Lucy H.

Cole, Mrs. N. D., Estate of.

Collier, Perry, Beverly.

Conant, Benjamin, Wenham.

Cousins, Frank.

THE RETROSPECT OF THE TEAR.

183

Curwen, Bessie H.

Curweii, George K.

Dalrymple, Frank T.

Dalton, E. W.

Dalton, Edward A.

Derby, Perley.

Dodge, Edwin H.

Dodge, Elmer A., Danvers.

Doherty, E. W., Marblehead.

Edes, Henry H., Charlestown.

Emmerton, J. A., Estate of.

Essex County Commissioners.

Farley, Abbie.

FarreU, H. F. E.

Flynn, Michael.

Foote, Mrs. Henry W., Boston.

Foster, Stephen White, Boston.

Gardner, Elizabeth B.

Getchell, Josiah B.

Grant, Beatrice.

Harris, Walter L.

Haskell, Mrs. Anna J., West Kox-

bury.
Hill, Benjamin D.
Holt, Samuel.
Hotchkiss, Susan V., New Haven,

Conn.
Hubbard, A. J., Peabody.
Hubon, William P.
Hunt, T. F.

Ireson, Mrs. C. K., Estate of.
Ives, Henry P.
Jelly, William H.
Johnson, L. O.
Johnson, Thomas H.
Jones, Gardner M.
Kimball, Mary.

Kimball, Mrs. Sarah A., Methuen.
Kingsley, J. S.

Lakeman, Mrs. P. B., Ipswich.
Lamb, Colby, Admin.
Lamson, Frederick.
Lander, M. L.

Lander, W. A., Exec.

Langmaid, John P.

Lee, Francis H.

Lewis, S. A.

Little, James L., Brookline.

Lovejoy, Mrs. Elizabeth P.

Morse, Edward S.

Nevins, W. S.

Nichols, J. Henry.

Nichols, John H.

Oliver, Mrs. Grace A.

Palfray, Charles W.

Peabody Academy of Science.

Perkins, Thomas.

Peterson, Joseph N.

Phillips, Stephen H.

Pool, Wellington, Wenham.

Prince, K. E., Northampton.

Proctor, Abel H.

Richardson, Frederick P.

Robinson, John.

Rogers, Augustus D.

Ropes, Mrs. Charles A.

Ropes, Edward D.

Ropes, James Miller.

Salem Committee of Public Prop-
erty.

Saunders, Mary T.

Sears, John H.

Shaw, Mary L.

Simonds, J. R.

Simonds, William H., jr.

Skinner, John B.

Smith, Edward A.

Smith, Sarah E.

Spalding, Jonathan M., Temple,
N. H.

Spear, Frank, Peabody.

Stickney, Joseph A.

Stone, Arthur R.

Stone, Ellen A., East Lexington.

Stone, Irving, Lexington.

Thompson, William H.

184

THE RETROSPECT OF THE YEAR.

Tilley, R, H., Newport, R. I.

Timmins, G. and P.

Tivnan, John B.

Towne, Edward S., Topsfleld.

TreadweU, J. R.

Turner, Ross.

Upham, William P., Newtonville.

Ward, Mary G.

Waters, Henry F.

Waters, Joseph G., Estate of.
Webster, John, Estate of.
Welch, WiUiam L.
Wheatland, Elizabeth.
Whipple, C. Prescott.
Whipple, George M.
Williams, George W.
Woods, Mrs. Kate T.
Wright, Frank V., Hamilton.

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