AN haies “Tester e we diarveiie | Othe Gov styy ead opt ay oe Tit ake Lo That an pee # Voth. dene PA al (ibe dep dish anita he be [havin ibe tedens rar Witee v tahett Wr (eh Ghats y eq au iets Ve ode ddd Ytedal phe abe iieg Perevent tray { ‘ Wouter tet as savant SEM pasty Th ged ed ut ft A ra Telf VO LR Gni Ge i vhon ai Lat ig mina Vow 5 waged ae Debt Led aiabes SO ALA eee essen iD bess dW idaheds bows oye ta 4 BiY Pode saeMeienaWeha meme ai ees en Tee a: +erhs ren Se cee Ear her en Pht 1 Ne ASE Vite Be See shah he a yeh ind Porn Beeeenen Toes | ithe hive ern ey Pag Byi tery Maadu’ it Veiasene iia 29a Re ea int if ai dace eMahgy Wr atads 4 ii iy aig al het ant ite tH fen aah Y on reels stele ad es Marya eR igs Sad fotoidi ty i 3 Salo Cane athe mele ‘ aay plays i ii Ade tits i oD ee cet elated y + HORE T It et aah statete delane ea Valens Uae telstra dent Cataian ded ; sedetsts Wide tf AA Mette git ti a P HE0302aeD g sarghetat PAs 3 eal orang aire fe Py a 4 a ie t eh orretinns ay Aging i a ol ogy dens ‘ i an natn ro it j fabatant dey gine feats ae ee pana f se the aes aie age a fhe, yhaghe dehjtane a ‘PA seed tanh Uhunen ? t}} bh Nehahe ‘ Ay satiny’ # UUELEE ee Chee a i an Volo bbed ee i a Ant ' aut vii se Srp: Aiteiens Vitals Wy leatde ate Nathalie ACOH i ae re ne pts shel eKtiiier su) hYa) Cesk gt ely adi ny sistant Hleretdes NY 1s ne tae “4: 1 i i iin a viet 44 ic rah SD a Hat inedenye uta a at Misha ¢ a i On BER hein ye if BR sit ti He be! aN gd rig iy oS Lan att ith Mf eed i ii cates patie lay tay Baie aqua iit Haart iui i fea ae aati bed of ret vie ¥ i He t va tis r i hits aig iahs ate Hi eH cnt vig ' t} Day nit Mab rtswal 40 in aan nuat Saye Aa ae tai Ris. Nagel iH a i" baa aA thee, Kt “ry rH Milgn. hey same Hia eg HW Nau ane Wawa ey, ine mite) ihn tae ni Puseisae eda Sf , + hgiten ae ae nt igi estat ohana Motch in 4 aa taansaeaelid Vag braiten oa HE ATs ity Tye ed a (iatedquan duds 4 iat esti wal gteseun th Lit VAR ships it ott athtgndag hiush Renae ag] WEDD T ee bey "| 95 "ele eu 8324 PtatteGy oe hab nar ft 4 Mi it Oras boket uh H 454 i 1D if pias pe seth Pate a lad, ie (te opts Anaad Mbt ft Ng itech ate Ah Yara ese ratty nye e} Abu lsr’s OTA eae ne ye ME a paras Pee oa eO a ty b2 Tope tp hed etheuds at Mea Ree and > ais vy VIAN bs Pop hae rite rt Ay oA ga yd kta tty tae ‘ sep bea doa tent tree. Vaid dinta i DEON Pe Se REO ST Ree rn at 28 Vn sg we diage deh i . okie sete igt Wore, Hineate Bre honed als sigue Al BDAY Sys thay eth a geeky Mea sae Sherytats Wy asl 4 ia Me 4 LG dusky is eigé gi tats 3) ake hein nhs Oe in Y ‘aa Vib anak ah Nauta 1S tenga Aes Orion G eres Aiea alt its = os ; Aakttey aes 3; 4 Ree bt oo pa tohen 1 bee Ur tnt} ah ihe viet teat —o Te anata iy te a Bia haa He Re i te si shane : wtateniiers aN Wun cea mn Wahsey at — = = cae ca piahly uk = Git. a ihe sie Hin x +H tat a feats few. a WANT Fa dong: * ora tert ‘4 ie a etapa Lt ay ek oot ag 4 eth A ; bh bh bs bean eta te et fey ak ae st Boke aay el stata Rees oa Whe aah: Fhict sins Va teels Soap hiy 44 1H OE gh i tiacest ‘! ‘i 1a dso haves ‘ Pedinane seas ij Apbhae a i. k ee er so sen y Aga goa Br i Senet Ae, 4 HA ie rhb: A 3 ce Aes t id PUREE hgh eetpe Une Tike tid, Hi ste lhe a ; High dle bayhill tie gia ‘ ae | car ee phat vebanetgtudrty tyr LEVER APE RRR EA ee 4c nuaets sha Gal thee gis i. whetdedrt oi Way tat gee edhe a iat ot nyen Ha kadsds rtd lt Vege eddy eg oh kt raed da lydy Ay eas AAA EE oe 4 Vera quar skins vas r : i ‘ fal , i Vira ane rer see rire ‘8 f Caylee Pande atidigas ; arg 6 by P 4 ‘ os ial! nit a 4 Tats Bee bd bid eet MBE Te (4 Phhey stl gbasndbly ford geal iat Psy re vert " wea ace! " ; 5 \W * Alita 4 4 p oi a tute ia 4, ely gig fe a qan4 mat Ries i ak i ti ps) sty iH a Patras Seiated Y ra Wet east beri ‘iit - i wie ait ih ce eo ASE ROCR LOE ahs gist Vittery ty PO adsaa hd 4 Par ak Dots 4 DU WEA BOA Sore ceren Aa eg way Poaty ada Pa dante CEUTA EL ot Ay penta atU og bay? Flats guste lal y Sena ey " “ fatal igi’ nae tated Ge PUN ee ed okie $i Weterratasgeyey, oral ht , ay toe Net hand ga Mae natant bat ist as iinet “ vey atha Le Ae oe tA deen BMneaty Nether ayratnt . Abarat ad ee (agate) Lie Gta ‘ i t i - pousyt wr iy es prea | iad “i - ate aii RerU a et aiid abe At we Lath uae pe x : He ‘tite itt ee Hb a eee iy t 4 a ee 5 eee fe i atani tale ie it a Me - eect i ae te teint Earh : vet aha) F vie gst iif Miahcinty rattles ail ee iat it oe Heh aa cal oe itt if - a te ah tates aan et if sratieer tat ke ft Kf ” oe mit pate ratneerts Kea iatiod te watetety Hata ! . t ine | read ; Heyl itt “itt othe wae vai Wem ue v ieyiy er oe ee Od Peake Walt dy stein ua ois NAS bed AA : \ ehh te eee teas ’ ANP Lyteewt ee i aus beats iHeepamaadyand thete ’ wat nde eharkeity, pingat ote Ue REAL att au jade Wiatey ‘ toeiot petri, mal ae nt Ae i bint Tass welghete ae bred i nay ted rf fechas ee iy hae arth fg hf 2a ie Hane — yi - ‘ : Ss cart HA i ‘ = * t i i‘ ; ~ 1 / f F 5 if 4 Pa) i) uz a Wid: Rig y a! i mien LE de MN OF THE EEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA wy VOL. 25 JOSEPH STANLEY-BROWN, EpiTor NEW YORK PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY 1914 OFFICERS FOR 1914 Grorce F. Becxer, President WALDEMAR LINDGREN, Horact B. Parron, Vice-Presidents Reeser es Henry F. OsBoRN, Epmunp Oris Hovey, Secretary Wititam Buiuock CiarK, Treasurer JosepH STANLEY—Brown, Hditor F. R. Van Horny, Labrarian Class of 1916 | R. A. FE. PENROSE, JR., | W. W. Arwoop, | @lass of 19d WHITMAN CROSS, Councilors Wituer G. MILER, Class of 1914 SamueL W. BEYER, ArtHur KEITH, PRINTERS Jupp & DetweILter (INc.), WasHIneToN, D. C. HNGRAVERS THe MAURICE Joyce Encravinc Company, WASHINGTON, D. C. CONTENTS Page Proceedings of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of America, held at Princeton, New Jersey, December 30 and 31, 1913, ang January 1, 1914;-HpmuND Oris Hovey,.Secretary................ i See onvor muesday. December 30... oh .cce tere se cane ea ee ucla ees - Pisechione Or AMditing® Committee... ceeds ere ces ere e's nies eee eels a) Election of officers..... oo chp tN EIN RUE EO cv CER RO Re aa 5 BHSCETONPOL HM eCUIGWS: Coo aie hale vac ates base baeardicreie ciais alee Ve arava eauahers 6 Memorial of William M. Fontaine; by T. L. WATSON............ 6 Memorial of Thomas Moore J ackson ; Dy elec. VARIES eit 13 Events leading up to the organization of the Geological Society of America; by J. J. STEVENSON...... 6:0 Sicke-c) Sc) Greg et licen ores eee 15 Review of the early nes of the Society; by Herman L. Fatr- PREMIUM ee ee eee at thes Chl so eat erie Pade eps Ae ay/aterec ee crocepa Od Pelee 17 History of the Bulletin ; cs a SANTA TS ROW INGcnavsieetle stele avois! arene 24 Review of the formation of geological societies in the United ese yi ae bedn, VV TIN CEU WITS ers 04s oie abla Me waco wid cae eter el oae wie Sete @ 27 Titles and abstracts of papers presented in general session and PSC SSLOMS GeTeLe Ona ois cw at cen ie a ieee Fie Gere, Slee comrade, @ edie ete p wee 30 Mechanics of formation of arcuate mountains [abstract]; by iN’, TE le SIG GIST SH SAE RS RE Ae ns, oa aes at UNG RCA aia i a Per aA 30 Harly Tertiary glaciation in the San Juan region of Colorado [abstract and discussion]; by WALLACE WALTER ATWOOD...... 31 Origin of pillow lavas [abstract and discussion]; by J. VoLNEY MRE BSE ee PNET NS Set cots Pave ct eum ae oe ere mere Ord crayee: alle WURDUie brarbia & Metarele 32 Titles and abstracts of papers presented before the First Section PMS CH SSIOMIS *LMECLEOM =o) isis We o disvelcpend o ale bars wlevelerate mints slate aeetes 33 Karthquake sea waves [abstract and discussion]; by Harry APHIS TEN ED ct ota, sc, araPerean ats ailelle Greener de Se u.u eee cP esis GS hoameic alo werd 33 Recent earthquakes in Panama and their causes; by DONALD F. NY CS sD LOY OITA NET 98 pa aah UE a Sea A A AD Pee aM Re A eas aa AeS 34 Criticism of the Hayfordian conception of isostasy regarded from the standpoint of geology [abstract]; by W. H. Hoppss........ 34 Harth-movements in the Minnesota portion of the Lake Agassiz basin during and since the lake occupancy [abstract and dis- SSsiOn! = Dy WRANK: MiBVERETT 5 6 oe cee go cystaie wierd wlalave s ola'e Weleveie e.e 34 Time measures in the Niagara Gorge and their application’ to Great Lake history [abstract and discussion]; by FRANK B. ECOSTORE a sae ar RE A Le eran ee aA are 35 Illustration of intraformational corrugation [abstract and discus- SPOUT Vo OE Ni Vin © MARK s. 5 cca usteresntta ae aid' ae 8's, ane 02 barter ee eee 37 Illustrations of the recent exposure of the Saratoga Springs [ab- See SUE Chips yt POEUN. NT.) CRAB IGM vest. ciiinsate ala 2 o.e so ee aleve, ee shales se 38 An alternative explanation of the origin of the Saratoga mineral waters [abstract and discussion]; by R. RUEDEMANN....:.... 38 Titles and abstracts of papers presented before the Second Section mseiniel CHSCUSSIGHS ENELCOHHS.. «scl ok coc kre sows ie chs vaca a tis masa 2) 1V BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Page Characteristics of a corrosion conglomerate [abstract]; by EF. W. SUARDESOIN | 255.ccs cibiens Ae easter owe nWAe Neer tomer aie Nite ateite sce kale cat cries ony nents Uauronemete 39 A pre-Cambrian ELECTR CTENAIL in Vermont [abstract]; by ARTHUR HG Gr A 2 ent Sp RR rR ee mea Re aa ginl Oh Uy rir ny ae UE Rr la A5! ho 39 Reconnaissance of the Algonkian rocks of southeast Newfound- land [abstract]; by ARTHUR BUDDINGTON..............2.---s- 40 Sections illustrating the lower part of the Silurian system of southwestern Ontario [abstract]; by MrrToN Y. WILLIAMS.... 40 Evidence of climatic oscillations in the Permo-Carboniferous beds of Texass [abstract] sabyeie ©, CAGE cen aioe sues cancer tee eres Al Geologic history of the Florida coral-reef tract and comparisons with other coral-reef areas [abstract]; by THomMAas WAYLAND WEAUGIEUAIN 0 esr Ges hus SRG Sod tir ace ie saan te an eu eae ee cae ec 41 Titles and abstracts of papers presented before the Third Section And: GiSCUSSIONS THEFEON GS ee elo Rie ce sine eee at eee ee 43 Graphic method of representing the chemical relations of a petro- graphic province [abstract and discussion]; by FRANK D. ADAMS) e's lasatote ciaiwse Bie le wileretsce alle Los anauetatiane tee Cal eh ese eat Peyene a 43 lffusive and intrusive in the quantitative classification [abstract] ; Dy? ALFRED: ©. MAINE cok! oe etilete a ese a a lougieear a ete ee ene onaioie eae 43 Change in the ecrystallographical and optical properties of quartz with rise in temperature [abstract and discussion]; by FRED E. WV BRE GENT 0 oe aus ROe la Calis lg tage anes lp Zeb ah 6 ea 26 ioe RES eae Vetbaer ES ea 44 Mode of formation of certain gneisses in the highlands of Nee Jersey [abstract and discussion]; by C. N. FENNER........... 44 Magmatic differentiation and assimilation in the Adirondack region [abstract and discussion] ; by WILLIAM J. MILLER...... 45 New point in the geology of the Adirondacks [abstract and dis- CuUssiom sy Dec. FOR ate See elope an on use Beeecahete teenie het ra nee ee 47 Minerals from the ore deposits at Park City, Utah [abstract and GISCUSSTOITS, Dy; TURAN Kae VEATN: TOBIN oe ee ier eee ee 47 Deepest boring in West Virginia [abstract]: by I. C. WHITE..... 48 Presidential address: Pioneers in Gulf Coastal Plain geology; by HAS SMUT ER ies Sogo sisaeie cre etatane 1b lacerations eyecare a aint 48 Session o£ “Wednesday.” Decemberraians see eee 48 Report of, Committee on Photosrapnse.s..... seen. eee ee 48 Report of Committee on Geological Nomenclature............... 49 Report of Auditing. Committees. +: sodas se ie eee 49 Amendment tothe By-Waws enn see eri See be ere 49 Bibliography. of formation MamMeS. ce. 202s. cee eal ee oe cree eee 50 Report: of: the“ Couneil eo ke ey ee ae eel ae ae Rae ae oe ree eee 51 Secretary's TEPOLbs ss cece se as toe nee eo ee 51 TreEASUTelS -TEPOT Esc ss eos se Cele aes er Ree eels eee 53 Hditor’s Teport. 05 vows oes hea ie easement oe en ote che Wrote cusecneene meena 56 Title and abstracts of papers presented in general session and GISCUSSIONS “THEREON. ci he & ves eae eee Oa ele aaa toes devisce tigate 58 Improvements in methods of investigating highly carbonized ma- terials and their bearing on the mode of deposition of coal [ab- Stract]; by Epwakp CHARLES JEFFREY..... Sata 3 be eae on Pe aa 58 CONTENTS Wf Page Origin of oolites and the oolitic texture in rocks [abstract and discussion]; by THOMAS CLACHAR BROWN.........-..cceeeue- 58 Precise leveling and the problem of coastal subsidence epeeeact and discussion]; by DouGLAS W. JOHNSON...............-+... 59 Some historical evidence of coastal subsidence in New England [abstract and discussion] ; by CHARLES A. DAVIS.............. 61 Pleistocene marine submergence of the Connecticut and Hudson valleys [abstract and discussion]; by HERMAN L. FAIRCHILD. 63 Titles and abstracts of papers presented before the First Section LG MOH SCM SSI OMLLIMET GOMES cis tater arele: salar a "oneue ie aces fel alam ak Otcremela elev es ow 65 Cause of the postglacial deformation of the Ontario region [ab- Strach and uirscussiom |i Diy tls VWs SPENCERS. o).s's). glee clea ss 6 25. 65 Origin of dolomite [abstract]; by Francis M. VAN TUYL........ 66 Flattening of limestone gravel boulders by solution; by JOHAN PASC IIS Lae EDIE Nice hats cettatots Bie ictal ah eve elec ule ule e'a wet ialenatem ot aus eels e's 66 High-level loop channel [abstract]; by T. C. HoOPKINS........... 68 Divergent ice-flow on the plateau northeast of the Catskill Moun- tains as revealed by ice-molded topography; by JoHn L. RicH. 68 Length and character of the earliest interglacial beds [abstract] ; a meape ieee OTNIMIVASNpataivot cee hora ne Jata ig) alas sdalanc bodes Miata tameeg oraha ki c7a)'orel a {el Age of the glacial deposits in the Don Valley, Toronto, Ontario Fapstracel 2 sby Go NBEDERICKO WRIGHT. 05. 6:5 cece ele Sole Gidea ete ven Titles and abstracts of papers presented before the Third Section MECC ACISCHUSSLOMS HUME ECOMMi my siete serale seule 406 scones ure ane sn idiebe elt el & cave.e.e les Manganese deposits of Conception and Trinity bays, Newfound- ang apsiraes |: Dy INELSON (Cs DALE. 0.0 ae eee eR cee es oes 73 Geology of the Wabana iron ore of Newfoundland [abstract]; by PABIGES THEY yO) 5 NEACASYOMIG 2 arrose oh ela hee arte Wes av ates ol 400 "ete eve UE cl eR cee 74 Geology of the Cumberland-Diamond Hill district, Massachusetts- Rhode Island [abstract]; by CHARLES H. WARREN and SIDNEY “POR ATIBTRIS 5 Oi ey ale a Sei a A ae Mr Seder no 15 Sedimentary character of garnetiferous hornblende schist, Han- over, New Hampshire [abstract]; by JoHN WESLEY MERRITT.. 175 Oolites of the Chimneyhill formation, Oklahoma [abstract and Huscussion. |: + ay) CHESTHR: (Ai) REEDS stash eee a eo 75 Temiskamite, a new nickel arsenide from Ontario [abstract]; by TR ol Bays. GES TESTO) ae cee err aS. UL Od 0 76 Oolitic and pisolitic barite from the Saratoga oil field, Texas; by LOGS Bau WYO SSNS SRE ER erh APO e R Ra a 77 SOS DTGRENT (0 Toh GLE RIE ee eh Ca aia lal aba SR eee na cet PTA S Lee AUGRG DY Rage ei 80 SESSLOMCOie MEIC Sa Ve DAMUAP VES. 5 a lics obo cienseces Sibe wie actual oS cabal ees 80 Some observations of the Volcano Kilauea in action [abstract] ; VV ree NUEn duste Wika LEIS ie USUANYE cutee nod Us netsh iced ih cow cthct Eun AEM criss ARG OOM tle g soe 80 Titles and abstracts of papers presented in general session and GISCASSIONSMGNETEOME Ie vhus Se iecere tee atengh chet eet onl al AN SRE ES MORRIE. aa 81 Stratigraphy of Red Beds of New Mexico [abstract and discus- SEOHA EAE DVNG Ele NAR IOIN cin siecle e Soha 5 Gre ee Ome mois leio eee ae 81 Solar hypothesis of climatic changes [abstract]; by ELLSwortTH ED GRNUEAIN GING St ct sentach read Gee ans Seem NUN “Leche sami RL RNa Old aR ar 82 v1 BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Wote cok i UhAlkS oem ci pinsie shire else ere eed <0 enn te cache te cals Titles and abstracts of papers presented before the First Section and discussions thereon........--.+-s sees cnet cers tee te ee sens Occurrence of glacial drift on the Magdalen Islands [abstract] ; Dy J. Wi) GOUDEE WAM Piers.) else ctiee cule siento ores is ace Evidence of a glacial ice-dam in the Allegheny River between ' ‘Warren, Pennsylvania, and Tionesta, Pennsylvania [abstract] ; by G. WREDERICK (VWiBIGEED. 2 hp ijae:- trimer lice a Preglacial Miami and Kentueky rivers [abstract and discussion ] ; Dy NOM. mI MAING fei clever site ote rele eve yc fele = celeb Delaware terraces [abstract]; by N. H. WINCHELL.......--.-+--- Sublacustrine glacial erosion in Montana [abstract] ; by: WILLIAM M. DaAVIS.......---- gpihe aise wi bge ers cei els saps foe vouers eyo icp-ts) ohare Glacial Lake Missoula [abstract]; by R. W. STONE..........-:- Physiographic relations of serpentine, with special reference to the serpentine stock of Staten Island, New York [abstract and discussion]; by WILLIAM OTIS CROSBY.......++- esses ereceee Erosive potential of desert waters [abstract]; by CHaRLes R. Gong RE IND Anions Song disc yc ach nog ed FoeiG by coc 03 °° Submarine topography in Glacier Bay, Alaska [abstract]; by TA WRENCH: IMUATREIN (0-3: o)aie oj sheie ete cto ces ol er oten of clcalel aied=) aca cny eseonees Buried gorge of the Hudson River and geologic relations of Hud- son syphon of the Catskill Aqueduct [abstract]; by W. O. GROSBY 0 ol A arate erelle crereeat adeeb dese painteto sae ave dt jeelen=ieu oy cueneenae Abstract of papers presented before the Third Section and dis- CUSSION TMETOOM. cS siele ho teis he sue aia uletatla wel otleys) ale aiter tn iaifal® (ole conn Composition of bornite and its relation to other sulfominerals [ab- stract and discussion] ; by Epwarp H. KRAUS........+..++.++-- Genesis of glauconite [abstract]; by CHASE PAILMER..........--- Crystallization of certain pyroxene-bearing artificial melts [ab- stract]; by N. L. BOWEN...........+.--+++0+- POPPA ERS coco Set Physical-chemical system, lime-alumina-silica and its geological significance [abstract]; by FRED E. Wricut and G. A. RANKIN. Constitution and By-Laws. .....-.... 0. meses ee cee ee ce nas enne References to adoption and changes. .........seeeee reese eeeee COTASELEU ELON Foe wh co ene Sireetraten e = soliegias atlel mire elie ueettelt Viole alate eed mam Bye Laws is tian eesrste oleae tee ecenehetate ciel sheeclisd ei ssbelte te MeMenen) roe) eic toca maa Publication rules of the Geological Society of America..........-.-- Register of the Princeton Meeting, 1913........--.--++--ssesseeeee Officers, Correspondents, and Fellows of the Geological Society of Derites (C7 Mee eee ee tee Re MMR abe Meat saiocic cine Oto oat ao oo Proceedings of the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America, held at Berkeley, California, April 11 and 12, 1913; Grorcr D. LouUDERBACK, Secretary... 1+. esse eee eees Sassion: Of Mridmiy, April: Wb. ces yee a 5 Rim cne en etter eer tet kathleen Some graphic methods for the solution of geologic problems; by WS. TMANGTER! SMTTEH fo cc rks Sie erent ened say eta stieie te cal als delta -\lelieiietinite Polarized skylight and the petrographic microscope; by Wats: Tangier Smith aOR CECE CORO) OMOELTEC SIO a at MIDE DE OND» ch CuO TORCNOMO OI, CO OnOi ie OeOO Dy Oy De 0 84 87 88 88 89 107 119 120 CONTENTS vil Page Apparent limits of former glaciation in the northern coast ranges of California [abstract] ; by EVE SPIEL OM NWCANYOA cee tinier ccavotar tire cis ae 120 Variations in rainfall in California [abstract]; by WILLIAM G. REMI Ree ke oe J lang et Reda Mies O08 ol SAG AG A eka a 121 Coal-bearing Eocene of western Washington. I. Pierce County PaeSeract 3 by WiGLErAMe BY JONES. sf cicis hice © thee sate ee ea we tet IAAL Nature of the later deformations in certain ranges of the Great SWUM Ne CERI S) User ATOH Siege lr is cis elias we Gieleiai levee 6. otoe leiate's! 122 Penta DAMN A Med CUTIE Teta 8 set hut acer oe nairolaiia ot cai-dleraeat ki'ei.e) eta Seeeae 4, SU Ee ee agi wise wb ele ere 123 Geology of the southern end of the.San Joaquin Valley [abstract] ; DE? Ghee GEG NASI Ch se act ae ee ae tt Nee A tas Fe ARO ea dar 123 See one Om SapUrda ye April: 12. TOPS sid cise ces ence ce dns © ua si ecee o'wrein cio Jee 123 Physiographic features of the Haywards Rift [abstract]; by BIANATINEY Meet MEU TS SIS, arecetg aie ecto wey aati tale istee. clea et eud's ane Gis s lveretaw 6 8%. 123 Climatic provinces of the United States west of the Rockies [ab- ieNGle: Nat Vi lala AUN. Gros MEIEID ci) 5 st averdicrave Srevene a tieds ew eie aie oe ove hab ¢ 124 Occurrence of free gold in granodiorite of Siskiyou County, Cali- fornia [abstract]; by A. F. Rocrers and E. S. BouNDEY........ 124 Nomenclature of minerals [abstract]; by A. F. Rogrrs.......... 124 Some contact metamorphic minerals in crystalline limestone at Crestmore, near Riverside, California [abstract]; by ARTHUR S. PRCT Ect) PON ret bates Cerereaetcchercta ¥ choc shs ayatec ane een de Siar oiaadeies ake a fare We, Bo. anal wees 125 PORTO Olen OTTO Ske cig crores Ween thu ccd ye eleod Oty oe ielete: bela Oe wahacis ae 5 Resistant surfaces developed by erosion and deposition in the arid and semi-arid regions of Arizona; by C. F. ToLMAN, JR........ 1 Occurrence of stibnite and metastibnite at Steamboat Springs, INIetaOe LaAOsteachis OY. On JONES. 0 a'cce «ec ee at aire ees Ss 126 Devonian of the Upper Connecticut Valley; by C. H. HircHcock.. 126 PeetewOrOrphe, Berkeley NICOTINE: «2. serbk ssc dew ec lee Sense wesc wale wees 126 Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Meeting of the Paleontological Society, held at Princeton, New Jersey, December 31, 1913, and January 1, 1914; MS SHER SCOT OLOT UY cs. «cians dials oe. db «66 bate suis ab ele die bsvee a gre wie AAFC Session of Wednesday, December 31... 0.00 00. ce ew cw ene eees 129 Presidential address: Cambrian of western North America; by Seman EPEN NOAM ES CONTI TE etter Yen Rte Meremere ee veces os ce (exe ceteone om Gaga eercn a ekae ali ee x 130 Symposium on “The Close of the Cretaceous and Opening of MOCeNe OTe TE INOBEM A TNGEUCE Elon. cccks ke cide calehe 6 ony sucleve ecg a 6 130 ee NCO EN LETS OL El We elie UDA TV? di SS duc’ a: W acte tess coi tign Guar Sce fu ¥ Ee wil one’ o elle alee 130 SOME CLOG Ode SV TIO SIUM bc'asre cee aiehe Gee aciae lcd are Ou dow vehia cols 130 Seopa UGE OOUNICELS sats ctial' omy nae vial eietene cole ane ual wich ots. Boece dle teeee ave 130 SOIR IBIAS PO OI utes we cesar eis Ieee eho ig ae dae ae Fat iy Oa TS . PETE al SUL CT Stad CW) Ob letre cos wighes arate Geeta icine «om vie Fie Gleeta yee wicets 152 AVPOIMUMe OL AUOILMS, COMMILTER Sis. as a os oo cle alec wie ea ences 133 BICEhHON.-OF OMLEErS ANd MeMHELS eso. So. eee sec eee CO ae 133 INEWDUSINIESS Fan salMOUMCEMO@NtS: = wishes sce +» slsles ase di@biare cen « 134 Section of Invertebrate, Paleobotanic, and General Paleontology. 135 Use of crinoid arms in studies of phylogeny [abstract]; by Fun ea UNCON ere maten etn Hed OR ans ome os se rerenctel tee cere siue « tid ow « 135 Western extension of some Paleozoic faunas in southeastern Missouri [abstract]; by Stuart WELLER and M. G. Menu... 135 Vill BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Page Mounting of rock and fossil specimens with sulphur [ab- Stra ctl: by CHES DER, AVdREHDS 5.23 hi a cree vce pets es Reletenelegsis meeuee 136 Restoration of Paleozoic Cephalopods; by RUDOLPH RUEDE- TMA INI Ne ate ii PMC UNCER arate uate ep Sehs Mus ACE Gaile Cu tee Lae al av a ee 136 Some new paleogeographic maps of North America [ab- stract].; by Av pW GRABIAU rage oe cadlehels coehaseVeh oll cies amu caeren neem 136 Devonic black shale of Michigan, Ohio, Canada, and western New York interpreted as a Paleozoic delta deposit; by A WEG RABAT os SRE EID Sara acl SG iRe nE aUAR Aanic tees lc rc ge ia 137 Lower Paleozoic section of the Alaska-Yukon boundary [ab- stract] aby li. BURLING She te en ee 137 Cambrian brachiopoda, a study of their inclosing sediments labstractl : cbyio 1D: (BURLING Ji. cueeko tee miae elon eee 137 Caleareous alge from the Silurian; by Frirz BERCKHEIMER.. 137 Cambrian and Ordovician faunas of southeastern Newfound- land ‘llabstracti; by GinBERT VAN INGEN. 2.) 12. c 4 ~ 138 “Laramie” ? Puerco, and Torrejon in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico [abstract]; by WiLLiAmM J. SINCLAIR......... 138 Phylogenetic development of the hexactinellid dictyosponges, as indicated by the ontogeny of an Upper Devonian species ; Dy “SOEUN GMs, CA RRR 25 lo. cee late sep tcclte Oroei ot eve ine et ene ne ee 138 Minutes of the sectional meeting of Vertebrate Paleontology..... 139 Final results in the phylogeny of the Titanotheres; by H. F. OSBORN Oe Se eae ise a elas onl da ca taveetats la MMe pe teenie ta kotalre te aes clea 139 Restoration of some Pyrotherium mammals; by FREDERIC B. Ti QO MES sung hie os cal eee is vage ok Get algee a eet STE a OR I SARA On te SEE ee 139 Analysis of the Pyrotherium fauna; by FREpDERIC B. Loomis.. 140 New methods in restoring Hotitanops and Brontotherium ; by FE IE) SO SBOBIN i's LaPeer, ties he RO ek sane i hee 140 Structure and affinities of the Multituberculata; by RoBErtT BROOM a 55. COR CIE Sw Gone voce taRononal toenail ees ho tel eRe PSL tener tara 140 Note on the American Triassic genus Placerias Lucas; by ROBERT BROOM 2 Sie leek re ae eh ae eas The LN ECE ae 141 Skeleton of Notharctus, an Hocene Lemuroid; by W. K. . GREGORY 1g 'd6 ae de-028 aod lw atone s Soe aieghs ade Tollcs Bien usta OnE ea 141 Phyletic relationships of the Lemuroidea; by W. K. Grecory. 141 Restoration of the world series of elephants and mastodons; by ‘Hi F'S’OSBORNN.. 7, <.s.2sn vosis aiepaie icra ooh ee acne ele 2c 142 Fauna of the Cumberland Pleistocene cave deposit; by J. W. GDL, jp. ieshes 0 bye se eee as Se OT ee 142 Rectigradations and alloimetrons in relation to the conception of the “Mutations” of Waagen; by H. F. OSBoRN.......... 142 Miocene dolphin from California; by RicHarp S. LUIL...... 142 New accessions to the exhibition series at Yale Museum; by IRTCHARD wS: LGU Lilie size hesecapoge: 6 eat el cee stale he ea aa 148 New mastodon find in Connecticut; by RicHARD S. LuLn.... 143 Notes on Camarosaurus Cope; by CHARLES C. Mook........ 143 Relations of the American Pelycosaurs to the South African dinocephalians: by ROBERT BROOM). .4..)csnweos en eeee. | eae 143 CONTENTS 1x Page Results of recent work at Rancho la Brea; by JoHN C. VTE ICAWN TR cena ok ab cy aie ciah CR ganeh Sean e mano eth ates SU cmwna Nya (oe tine w o,0's 143 Systematic position of the Mylodont sloths from Rancho la ERGO ian © HUE SEG SPO OK. <3, sce aa ayersiie eae abaucnmansialle ee 'de ci'sie ss 143 Geology of the Uinta formation; by Har~ DOUGLASS........ 144 New Titanotheres from the Uinta formation of Utah; by O. A. PURI S ON geeec es, Set eetyehe eta oO o0) Shes lapere debe: suche beet Mere Me eRe eice.d -ehls, ha oe 144 Report of progress in the revision of the Lower Eocene PAID SI pCO ot ae VALAUTOPELIC Wi,, 5 wey suet Steve vel aneiet et aaaili ta" ohelalioulene Velrelter's 144 Group of twenty-six associated skeletons of Leptomeryx from the White River Oligocene; by . S: Rieges................ 145 sheeister-ot the Princeton meeting, O13 «oo... ec ces oe sale oe oe 145 Officers, correspondents, and members of the Paleontological So- NN amen errs BeOn Si Visital hemo eNre? evci ss cee valldhie; a aie) or Rie Raha ee aee Silo War sua a aterm ore! « 146 Minutes of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Pacific Coast Sec- tion of the Paleontological Society; by KE. DIckKERSoN, Secre- PC Rene er igs ee aA SU Gd aR R- Hc Vaijanesl as’ Suid eta or ede MG wy Syke, Bre ate IS elope eis 150 Fauna of the Scutella breweriana zone of the Upper Mon- terey series: Labstract|(>. by .B... CLARK... fic. bl oe ee 151 Fauna of Lower Fernando series [abstract]; by WALTER A. FEIN TisTUS ETON me PLOY cure Seance Mee ate clas vy ai's\'O4 aes oy SB-o. avers’ aerarsiedier once Rel tin ad ovo yen ean 151 Some West Coast Mactridze [abstract]; by HarRLE PacKarRpb.. 151 Observations on the use of the percentage method in deter- - mining the age of Tertiary formations in California; by Eee cE ATA al ce ane rateehion eh tantal ata eitel «ace ve leear'a, esa) Bhs see « Ae a soa Spee Dh Caate ks 152 Geological relations between the Cretaceous and Tertiary of southern California [abstract]; by CLARENCE A. WARING.. 152 Echinoderms of the San Pablo [abstract]; by W. S. W. Kew. 152 Fauna of the San Pablo series [abstract]; by B. L. CuarKk.. 152 Terrestrial Oligocene of the Basin region and its relation to the marine Oligocene of the Pacific Coast province; by -) OTENT SIC TS ETE TBR GR Ot oa i EIN Ue Ae A ae 153 Faunal relations of the San Lorenzo Oligocene to the Eocene in California: [abstract]; by Roy E. DICKERSON........... 1538 Vaqueros of the Santa Monica Mountains of southern Cali- LOUD Paste. Dy HAROLD ELANNIBAL 2). oka ule ee oe 153 Lower Miocene of Washington [abstract]; by CHARLES E. AE BURS ABT SU ch TS Salers NY Scien ge ih 153 Fauna of the Oligocene (?) of Oregon [abstract]; by F. M. JAG TIBI SCONES Rea SN ARNO Se, “Oe See Der SORES SR 154 Faunal zones of the Martinez Eocene of California [ab- SLE OUT AR Al On tga 809 gh] Died (0.40 <6 OF SY Oy ee EO PIE Uw A Da 154 Comparison of the oysters of the lower and upper horizons of the Miocene of the Muir synecline [abstract]; by Wut1- EU NWN te OURS Siena, ehonc fa, cFe. cite Tos chrcia here Whe biel dive bce tena Gc eds. Seaderatia es 154 Antelopes in the fauna of Rancho la. Brea [abstract]; by TAMSU NOR B08 AUSTIN G21 OE DR ef CoO RP SOL a Ste a 155 Vertebrate fauna of the Triassic limestones at Cow Creek, Shasta County, California [abstract]; by H. C. Bryant... 155 Xx BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Some physical features of Hawver Cave; by J. ©. HAWVER.. Hawver Cave: Its Pleistocene fauna [abstract]; by CHESTER SOC. eis ee ee oe) (DA AAR Nea Oo Mammalian fauna of the Pleistocene beds at Manix in the Mohave Desert region [abstract]; by JoHn P. BUWALDA.. Occurrence of mammalian remains at Rancho la Brea [ab- stract]; by R. C. STRONMR Gee) ee es Pa eee Correlation of the Tertiary formations of the Pacific Coast and Basin regions of western United States; by J. C. Mini ane SSR Sts O8 Ce RRS wis asa komt nga Rue ae at oe Vertebrate fauna of the Orindan and Siestan formations [ab- stract); by: JAG. AMIBERUAM oi ele. ciackee cote ehich ed aeteue stolen). coe Pioneers in Gulf Coastal Plain geology: Presidential address by E. A. SUT 8G Ue ee ena hone a Re CN Sa AAR SRC, POV RSPR IN Wei Ape Le AMR ORNL Saas MT ACS Bc Ga 0 xeological section along the Yukon-Alaska boundary line between Yukon and ‘Porcupine rivers; by? WD. aoe CAIMRINING cA. ul <.c sis cehsce/ de ss iebeie, lel cuerenenetredenee Age of the Don River glacial deposits, Toronto, Ontario; by G. F. WER EG EDT ie eos es weiade oie area nereyielaifel cere Kea teucGelelete et eee acta (ein sate cateaea ae nr Hvidence of a glacial dam in the Allegheny River between Warren, Penn- Sylvanilay-and.Tionestany bw (Gao WRIGHT Sadie omc te late cq c ann cde eee Pleistocene marine submergence of the Connecticut and Hudson valleys; by: H.-L. Parrceninp.../.... NEED Anne A MINOR Le Se. Magmatiec differentiation and assimilation in the Adirondack region; by A, GRae (akg) BO 0 9 2 epee es lh an, a een Oa eo a en AGO atee tie: H45-3 0 9 co Medina and cataract formations of the Siluric of New York and Ontario; Dive GOS Cir U OHTA I ea Ra CRA ile a a oro a AC rca e nt a ee eer Close .of the Cretaceous and opening of Hocene hime in North America ; bys BY OSBORN 6585 Seis es eke omieileseerace fe toyed fone fee Seater area eee Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in the Rocky Mountain region; by F. H. FRENO WILTON 62 SPSS UN are Bee uaa e re tice, ubenichianiae aheueies tomeue ak tesceecel e: erel oka) cette saat meme Boundary between Cretaceous and Tertiary in North America as indicated by stratigraphy and invertebrate faunas; by T. W. STANTON........... Cretaceous Eocene correlation in New Mexico, Wyoming, Montana, AI- bertars by TBs BROW IN ea Sloe 6 cee eh duate a eriece legion tar asec cts Men en eee eae ‘vidence of the Paleocene vertebrate fauna on the Cretaceous-Tertiary probleny "Dy! Ws De NEAT TEM W S:c6, iste aimee ros, oo atenetine eeliee. dete: chet alta een Recent results in the phylogeny of the Titanotheres; by H. F. Osporwn... New methods of restoring Eotitanops and Brontotherium; by H. S. Os- BORN Ail ae ib oF heat eg ei etia te de oa alle eae Teer Be Cctichiay SOME Ok a Be an ee er Restoration of the world series of elephants and mastodons; by H. F. OSBORN ei sid toe ss ee Bee ene cate gate Ma TSR ee ne pa Rectigradations and allometrons in relation to the conceptions of the “Mutations of Waagen,” of species, genera, and phyla; by H. F. OsBorn. Geology of the Uinta formation; by HARE DOWGLASS.....-.).. 0 oe. eee Cambrian and related Ordovician brachiopoda—a study of their inclosing sediments'sby. li. WD: UBURLING - i's atete ts Zan aint occ on re ee eae Geology of the Diamond Hill-Cumberland district in Rhode Island-Massa- chusetts; “by C. Hy WARREN and ‘SIDNEY: POWERS. ....0..20.2.<0.. 020 The solar hypothesis of climatic changes; by E. HUNTINGTON............ Page 155 155 156 156 156 156 435 ATT ILLUSTRATIONS mmeimian pillow lavas 7 By. de Vis UE WIS. ose cydin cso oe tle ces we eee Taint: Mechanical composition of clastic sediments; by J. A. UDDEN............. Origin of oolites and the oolitic texture in rocks; by T. C. BRown....... Saree MET BAVC UETUUC ay esd rae hihcre seta ches), 10 a oostaliw Lap S- (Gin alse, Se eens: BUS faye wack es Ue ILLUSTRATIONS PLATES Pare VV ATSON: Portrait of W. M. Fontaine... oo. 0.06. cee eee ees ¢ ZED Ens OLtrare: OL Ese JACKSON. 60. Pe se ko sok or wee bie stereo 5 8% . SDE Ni bAMESTONE: DOULGERS. 357.5) Ses cise cst wos a ebe § Cae hle oles ee g 4—CaIRNES: Tindir sections in vicinity of Porcupine River....... oe D Cambrian and pre-Cambrian (7?) beds, Yukon-Alaska ASCHLIMEMETTO NOE enter en fapein cua te cca areder an Kiatare alain cdeuccelytt ae eewde ns . 6 ss Mountain groups composed almost entirely of Paleo- zoie limestones and dolomites.........:.-.....+.-- i 7 * Typical exposures of Mesozoic beds, British Columbia. a 8 - Mesozoic DEMS Shand, WEVER 635.5 ee poe oe eth ons Sve es « ft 9—WRIGHT: Glacial topography, Glade Run Terrace, Pennsylvania. “ 10—FarrcHitp: Approximate marine plane in the Connecticut Valley. Shes eel es Pleistocene marine submergence of the Connecticut and Hudson-Champlain valleys.................+ 12—SaRDESON: Flat sharp-edged pebbles from the Galena formation. 13—ScHUCHERT: Contacts between Siluric and Ordovicie (Cincin- AUANEC oe SH HORUS Mette Crate utialiny i cihdiwes ale, A tateneten sae ols ahaa. 6 ile es Contacts of the Cataract in Ontario, Canada...... eat MNT Sue TONY! LIE SEULUivanckice fc etaney stale Vea re.ered wus as alee cesses ees 16 i. Pillow basalt...... PvE CMe ames witha cai) We Serta ey alineg, suialbe dig nate 1G oh Pillow basalt and glaciated surface of Ely greenstone.. 18 is Pillow lava and “ellipsoidal structure in intrusive DEUS IINE A Wee onelebe tense EG Ubky etis rte r ieee pact seek eet SEU 19 es Pillow surfaces of ellipsoidal greenstone and cross-sec- Hon OLeradial» jombine vol pillow Java. «os +66 a sds, s,0 20 ff Pillow lava and: pillow iahases o.c 6c eas o's oe es i favs 21 ENA Wea lelwel eed LUNES cee deat Alsat ulgyeleote «grow le wi o cuore Me Sei Weepers 22, < Prillowy dave vat iolawed.: PlaAWealits 2:8. seu lnw ate ccctewe Glad acs 23 me TENA Ne MATS 23 wt Se ah Spy 2 MS hear A ea aa a 24 “ FS OMMUEE OL POLIO. DANAE. tac ke > siecle oo alec clcleratelpeve cued os 25 a Spheroidal weathering of basalt..............c0cecees 26—Brown: Micro-sections of oolitic structures................08. Zt ai Micro-sections of oolitic structures...............00:: 28 % Micro-sections of oolitie structures.......-....0. cence FIGURES HOPKINS: Moore: Figure 1—Sketch map of a portion of eastern central New York.. Figure 1—Thin-sections of oolitic and pisolitic barite............. 654 654 778 779 780 69 Xl BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA CAIRNES : Page Figure 1—Sketch map showing Yukon-Alaska International bound- BED MINIM ee tere Oe eee a atads aeons: ee 3k ask le oe gen Tene 181 WRIGHT: Figure 1—Section of Don Valley brickyard, Toronto.............. 206 He 2—Map showing stages of recession of the North American 1CO-SHEE Beaters aoe oie als Che eo eit nce Ske ae 207 “ 3—Map of North American Pleistocene ice-sheet at its maxi- INUIT EX CEN SION ar Aieie cis seks ele cose stele eine ave Sele oae ie ano 212 WRIGHT: Figure 1—Map of the vicinity of Warren, Pennsylvania........... 216 SCHUCHERT: Figure 1—Paleogeography of Medina, Cataract, and Brassfield seas. 294 BROWN: Figure 1—Formations sectioned by the Red Deer River between Red Deer and the mouth of Sand Creek, with location of important fossils in the American Museum collec- GHOIUE sic h2 eats Piesonalevavec enaierleou ecbtals tole cotsa cesses (ecg ees hate een 360 ie 2—Horizontal section of Red Deer River canyon between Red Deer and mouth of Sand Creek...............¢. 363 MATTHEW : Figure 1—Geologic range of land vertebrates in typical American continental formations of late Cretaceous and Tertiary UUM eS oe aware wo be ee: aoe nerer ee naae een eC eae 387 2—Approximate correlations of typical formations of the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary in Europe and western America based on their vertebrate faunas.... 393 3—Division between Cretaceous and Tertiary periods, as in- dicated. by terrestrial vertebrate faunz of typical west- Ln LOMA TLOMNS yi. 5o Xcess ye ee eee ooo once ee 398 OSBORN : Figure 1—Phylogeny of the titanotheres as known to December, PODS oo atthe GAS la eeaieania eueis ee ka oeees ok ee Oe 404 OSBORN : Figure 1—First and last known stages in the evolution of the TICANOLMET ES es oe Te en oat a at eea nee eer Srey een 406 OSBORN : Figure 1—Restoration of mastodon and elephants................ 408 ie 2— Restoration: of elephants: 43.0% sac ee eee 409 WARREN and POWERS: Figure 1—Map of Diamond Hill-Cumberland Hill region.......... 437 a 2—Geological section through Copper Mine Hill............ 469 Ms 3—Geological section through Cumberland Hill............ 471 HUNTINGTON : Figure 1—Solar heat, sun-spots, terrestrial temperature, and vol- CAMO CS He iets ae a. iepeed eu anee ial nba ooh Wee Me Ne ie meee ene 484 } 2—Growth of trees at Eberswalde, Germany, and sun-spots. 495 ie 3 SLOEM tracks am the: United: States... .- 5.61 ue eee 498 6é 4-—-Stormstracks in; WULODE: hiac ie oe eee 500 HUNTINGTON: Figure LEwIs:. Figure 66 Brown: Figure “é (28 plates; PUBLICATIONS X11 5—Storminess during the sun-spot maximum of 1892-1894 compared with that of the sun-spot maximum of 1888- SO ree ens etal Povens Rl See aa ashe: & oy edvcon sae eeu as SIMON rial oes 504 6—Storminess during the sun-spot maximum of 1905-1907 compared with the minimum of 1900-1902........... 505 7—Average storminess of 9 years of sun-spot maxima com- pared with 12 years of sun-spot minima between 1877 VET pel Odi eis eats eater eee te Sree er ede Oe Chale ai oleh oe! a Le veres 506 8—Comparative storminess of North America during the sun-spot cycles of 1889-1900 and 1901-1911........... 508 9—Storms and sun-spots in the main American area of storm-shifting, according to Kullmer’s law.......... 512 10—Comparative storminess of Europe during the sun-spot maximum of 1882-1884 and the minimum of 1877-1879. 516 11—Comparative storminess of Europe during the sun-spot maximum of 1882-1884 and the minimum of 1888-1890. 518 12—Comparative storminess of Europe during periods of MAXIMO ANG MAIMMUNE SUN-SPOESS oe. ee a oe o's 520 -13—Changes of climate in California and in western and CER DN DUNST aie, 7 bye elec slee Stabe ees ol char evs oho She love w ofa ero nar s 530 14—Changes in California climate for 2,000 years, as meas- MECOSDY SLOW EI Ol SEQUOIA TIECS.. 0 hice i.e eteave ewes © 530 tei EI SLOrie: ChAN@eS ith PFECIDICATION. 6 o.%5 8 fed bce a oe oe 542 16—Comparative storminess of 9 years of maximum sun- spots and 12 years of minimum sun-spots in the United States in percentages of mean storminess for EUS EE GSI PURER LE il eo ey Ra 545 17—Comparative precipitation of 9 years of maximum sun- spots and 9 years of minimum sun-spots in percent- ASCs OL tHeaImeaMaprecipitatiON.. ooo. 26 eacem Ob A See ee 546 18—Major and minor sun-spot cycles. ..........ce.scescees 554 19—The double storm belt of the United States............ 570 20—The distribution of loess—its relation to Quaternary glaciation and to present deserts and subarid regions. 575 21—Cloudiness in regions having various temperature anoma- HS ACCOMM SEO DADIC Gases gos ve oo col Saino es ve aut es 82 22—Temperature anomalies for various degrees of cloudi- MESS, (a CCORGIME £6O; VA DLO” Oise cs sracv,osccjecla wat es lee «bias 583 23—Glaciation and the distribution of land and sea during BG CEI POLAR Heras Gael a eR fiat ako Sica cp Wleid ay oes 586 1—Geological cross-section of First Watchung Mountain.... 626 2—Diagrammatie cross-section at Glenside Park, New OUCE Vaart a. Coa Maes SR ee os wa de Leos bale dew le 628 1J—Diagrammatic reproductions of oolitic structure........ 763 2—Graphic summary of mineralogie changes in ores....... 172 47 figures. ) X1V BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA PUBLICATIONS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA REGULAR PUBLICATIONS The Society issues annually, in four quarterly parts, a single serial octavo publication entitled BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SocIETY OF AMERICA, the edi- tion being 700 copies. A small supply of authors’ separates of the longer arti- cles is kept for sale by the Secretary at the prices quoted in each volume. The BULLETIN is sold at the uniform price of ten dollars ($10.00) per vol- ume, with a discount of twenty-five (25) per cent to Fellows of the Society, persons residing elsewhere than in North America, and public and institu- tional libraries; carriage extra. Subscriptions are payable in advance. 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Vols Dy ASSO sie ats oe erate sche aoe orate 593 + xii 13 51 V OL 2 V8OO cievea ac ake ynce c egal ie 622 -- xiv 2a 63 Volieiai vi SOdee eee helcrienne 6 541 + xi Alf (7 WO] PA SO Des Res ate CO tates i nen toads 458 + xi 10 5D AY 0) MES Wiad Be’ Frente are eins CEU RC Ae As ail on, 655 + xii 21 43 VOLE 6,1 894 os shod sie ce ee ae 528+ x 27 40 VOLT VTS VSO a Ces eue sok peters ener 558 + x 24 61 Vol NS ET S967 ii oui lursictiae eee mane 446+ x 51 29 NGL 9) (SOs ails elle neta ol ween: 460 + x 29 49 VOT MOE BOS sisi, ei akleuene rs Ues care cena: 534 + xii 54 83 Index to volumes 1-10.......... 209 5 3 Wil ale PISO Ore ec etedliswenea tn shone te eaee 651 ++ xii 58 Si VOL AZ HAO OO Bestiality cts ena rscohers eeenetnes 538 fi xii 45 . 28 VOL Weal OO dee Ore cuss eto cantare 583 + xii 58 47 VOL Tae 1902 ee ae ee ose tee 609 + xii 65 43 Vole 19082 Aa eee eso ciee teers 636 + x 59 16 NV OUNIGS TOOG ei ee ie abe am eeeae 636 + xii 94 74 VOUT eAG OR Arse ete ten, Olan. ee eres 785 + xiv 84 96 VOLE 18) AG OG cee eecie oe aealetei erie 717 + xii 74 59 VOL ALO! V9OE hots heer casters ateusust cheered 617 + x 41 31 VO1s ZO ISOOS Gece tere neler eencee 749 + xiv Wal 35 Index to volumes 11—20......... 422 ae ae Vol: 201909 . Gisaactencr mae eee 823 + xvi 54 109 VOL 2 2 VOM Oe ce rane nan ck ee ceuee ears 747 + xii on 66 Vol. 23, IO ee ea ae eee 758 + xvi 43 4.4 Vil Da TOU shite unene cenn re crue 737 + xviii 36 60 VOls2); TOUS cite se ciacciateteucuegsietortealee 802 + xviii 28 47 PUBLICATIONS PARTS OF VOLUME 25 PAGes. MM Gil ge ase. 1-204 VDI] SS 2h ne 205-276 MIMI ns lars fone he , 277-434 “ETA Eee 435-802 REPRINTS FROM VOLUME 25 REPRIN''S. Proceedings of the Twenty-sixth Annual Meeting of the Geologi- cal Society of America, held at Princeton, New Jersey, Decem- ber 30 and 31, 1913, and January 1, 1914. E. O. Hovey, Secretary. Proceedings of the Fourteenth An- nual Meeting of the Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America, held at Berkeley, California, April 11 and 12, 1913. GEorRGE D. LoupDERBACK, Secre- HUE 2 Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Meeting of the Paleontological So- ciety, held at Princeton, New Jersey, December 31, 1913, and January 1, 1914. R.S. Basser, ETSI SS a 127-156 Pioneers in coastal plain geology. [U, o8) > Soh Geological section along fewukon Alaska boundary line between Yukon and Porcupine Rivers. PO RAMIENES 5 ccd see eee ee ee Age of the Don River glacial de- posits, Toronto, Ontario. G. F CT CE a Se Evidence of a glacial dam in ine Allegheny River between War- ren, Pennsylvania, and Tionesta. RRM ERAGHT 05/6 .0 ca. ck See es Pleistocene submergence of the Con- necticut and Hudson valleys. Tae ATROHIUD. 05.50 css ese oes Magmatic differentiation and as- similation in the Adirondack re- Pam J. MILER... a) ees Characteristics of a corrosion con- glomerate. F. W. Sarpeson.... Medina and Cataract formations of the Siluric of New York and On- tario. CC. SCHUCHERTT......... 1-118 119-126 167-178 179-204 205-214 215-218 219-242 243-264 265-276 277-320 PAGES. PLATES. FIGURES. ee ee Lee 3 $2.30 9-12 4 -80 13-14 10 1.65 15-28 30 3.90 aod PRICE TO LATES. FIGURES. FELLows. 1-3 es ws .10 se) .20 4-8 1 40 1-3 i) | | 9 ig 10-11 30 . 20 12 18 13-14 Mee ition SO * Preliminary pages and index are distributed with number 4. yj Under the brochure heading is printed PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY. PRICE 10 Pusiic. $3.45 . 20 45 85 ort) PRICE T0 PuBLic. $1.88 45 30 60 .20 XV1 BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA > et i : : PRICE TO REPRINTS. PAGEs. PLATES. FIGURES. Paces Close of the Cretaceous and opening Eocene time in North America. il. . OSBORNE oe. se ae 321-324 ae Cee FOO Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary inthe Rocky Mountain region. F. H. KNOW TO Nie ee are a ee saneeiede 325-340 ae, Hie .15 Boundary between Cretaceous and Tertiary in North America as indicated by stratigraphy and in- vertibrate faunas. TT. W. STan- EOIN os vee SRE OE eS eee Ee 341-354 een baths eli Cretaceous Eocene correlation in New Mexico, Wyoming, Mon- tana, Alberta. B. Browxt.. .. 355-380 Se 1-2 say Evidence of the Paleocene verti- brate fauna on the Cretaceous- Tertiary problem. W. D. Mar- SIS BIWW efit fa Metts von ag Weleaig, Pee au ee tey te ae 381-402 Re ie 1-3 . 20 Recent results in the phylogeny of the Titanotheres. H. F. Ospornt 403-405 New Methods of restoring Coy shock+) 5 sess May 12, 1905 1,000 (10 shares) Ontario Apartment House Com- pany, Washington, D.C., stock. .5..2/...2 March 24, 1906 PURCHASED BY THE PRESENT TREASURER Par value Date of purchase 1,000 St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Rail- way Company five per cent equipment bond, Gale TMS GS aes ee the erate oe anaes February 5, 1908 1,000 St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad Com- pany five per cent equipment bond, due Februarysss IO eee ee eee er December 6, 1910 2,000 Fairmont and Clarksburg Traction Company . first-mortgage five per cent bonds, due Oc- tober cls VOBS reek ee teat cae eee eee teen November 8, 1911 2,000 Consolidation Coal Company first and refund- ing mortgage five per cent sinking-fund gold bonds, due December 1, 1950......... November 5, 1912 2,000 Chicago Railways Company first-mortgage five per cent bonds, due February 1, 1927. November 28, 1913 $18,000—Total U Dividends at the rate of 5 per cent are paid on this stock. 12 Dividends at the rate of 5 per cent were paid on this stock to July, 1909, after which date no dividends were paid until January, 1912, when dividends were resumed at the rate of 4 per cent. TREASURER’S REPORT RECEIPTS Balance in the treasury December 1, 1912..............; Bemawsbhip fees. 1919 (2) ac ckis octia cs ee see's $20.00 OU oer ae cies. © feats ; 30.00 NOUS (2A 753) eatoretere crea 0) hake sac 2,465 .00 OAK Cie. ells hotel Seeitea ele’ store ake 30.00 Gaitiation fees (17)........-. 2s. Rian ONE ahaa ree Snye Interest on investments: Iowa Apartment House Company stock... $50.00 Ontario Apartment House Company stock. 160.00 Texas & Pacific Railroad bonds........... 100.00 U. S. Steel Corporation bonds............ 150.00 St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern PaeURUNa AEE DOT Clee 552 aievegaie anatets Srchare satheudee eras 50.00 St. Louis and San Francisco Railroad equipment DONG: 5. £64.54 eis 0.0 36 wece caferatets 50.00 Fairmont and Clarksburg Traction bonds. 100.00 Consolidation Coal Company bonds....... 100.00 Interest on deposits, Baltimore Trust Co... 89.06 Received from Secretary: StleS Ob MUDIICATLONS so aie cesses sees 8 ose $1,454.20 PAMENGOES SCDATATCS. 3 Src 8 oikace ssn slee swies 151.30 Authors’ corrections....... Shebate sierepew devel §.15 Collection charge added to check......... .10 Binding one volume of Bulletin.......... F250 eeccrar 4 office: EXPENDITURES PMOMHGUIPISTE ATION: 0. ak eee DDO Bris Ole aye orc neg bee aars iene sake cvs 88.54 SURO) G5 RI een DHONI ta SS Ola caver cuchs asec hae ehea tere ote ele ens 3. (G6 yO ns Lecce ected owes 58.17 OS Oates co nue ie Make etacerios 5.17 From this analysis it is seen that the oolites consist chiefly of barite, with small amounts of gypsum and celestite. _Since they are associated with warm water and oil, and since the sandstones are mammillated on the lower side, it seems probable that the barium was carried upward in solution and pre- cipitated by coming in contact with the sulphuric acid waters, which are associated with the oil. The barium may have been carried as a bicarbonate or in a dilute solution of a carbonated alkali. Bischof states that barite is practically decomposed by a dilute solution of a carbonated alkali at a tem- perature of 77° to 82° Fahrenheit, and at 212° only 1,000 parts of water are required to dissolve barium silicate. W. P. Headden describes the Doughty Springs of Colorado, in which Na, Cl, and CO, are abundant, the latter both as free gas and as bicarbonates, and in which barite sinter is being deposited in large quantity.* Whether the barium in Texas be carried as a bicarbonate of barium, as barium sulphate dissolved in a carbonated alkali, or as a barium Silicate, it would readily be thrown down by the sulphuric acid present, as the acid would set free alkali sulphates, which might remain in solution, and precipitate the barium as sulphate. Read in full from manuscript. _ The section adjourned. 27 American Geologist, vol. 33, 1904, pp. 198-199. 22 Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 19, pp. 297-309. 80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING ANNUAL DINNER The annual dinner of the Society was held in Proctor Memorial Hall, about two hundred persons participating. Frank D. Adams acted as toastmaster, and the speakers of the evening were Hugene A. Smith, George F. Becker, John M. Clarke, J. Stanley-Brown, N. H. Winchell, James F. Kemp, and G. O. Smith. SESSION OF THURSDAY, JANUARY 1 At 9.30 o’clock a. m. a public lecture was given in Palmer Hall by Arthur L. Day on “Some Observations of the Volcano Kilauea in Ac- tion,’ presenting the main facts of his revised paper as published in volume 24 of the Bulletin, with additional matter. : SOME OBSERVATIONS OF THE VOLCANO KIILAUEA IN ACTION BY ARTHUR L. DAY (Abstract) This paper is chiefly concerned with the identification of and the reactions between the gaseous ingredients set free by the liquid lava at Kilauea during the summer of 1912. A successful attempt was made to collect these gases directly from the liquid lava at a temperature of about 1,000° before they reached the atmosphere. The collection of the gas before it has become al- tered by combustion with air has proved an insurmountable difficulty hitherto, whether the gases were collected in tubes for analysis in the laboratory or whether they were studied at the point of emergence with the spectroscope. In either case the gases were burned or were in process of combustion, and therefore could not reveal either the true identity or the original relation of the gases participating in voleanic activity below the surface. In so far as the present reconnaissance yields final results, it shows that the gases evolved from the hot lava at the Halemaumau crater are H,O, CO, CO, SO., free H and free 8S, with Cl, F, N,, and perhaps NH, in comparatively in- significant quantity. No argon was found or any of the other rare gases. The chief conclusion, on finding this group of gases in association at 1,000° or higher, is that they can not be in equilibrium at that temperature and must be in process of active reaction among themselves. There can be no equilib- rium, for example, between free sulphur and SO, (and possibly SO;, since water was also present), nor between free hydrogen and SO, or CO,. This is a conclusion of rather far-reaching consequence, for it must mean that the relative proportions of the gases are constantly in process of local change—a fact which is supported by the very considerable differences between the analyses of the gases contained in different tubes which were filled at the Same time. Since these reactions are strongly exothermic, it also follows that a very large and constantly increasing amount of heat is set free during the TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 81 rise of the gases to the surface. In support of this, it was also observed that when the quantity of gas set free was large the temperature of the liquid lava in the basin was higher (July 6, 1912, 4,185°) ; when the amount of dis- charged gas was small it was lower (June 13, 1912, 1,070°), the quantity of lava in the basin remaining substantially the same. Controverting a view recently put forth, H,O0 was found to be present as such among the gases set free, as indeed it inevitably must be, for it has long been known that free hydrogen in association with SO, and CO, will react to form water at these temperatures. ~ Neither hydrocarbons nor chlorine in appreciable quantities was found. The absence of argon is definite evidence that none of the gases composing the voleaniec emanation are of meteoric origin. The paper is somewhat preliminary in character, and will be followed by more detailed studies of the relation of the gases to each other and to the lava at the temperatures which prevailed in the volcanic vent. After Doctor Day’s lecture, the Society repaired to Guyot Hall, where the general session was called to order, with President Eugene A. Smith in the chair. By vote, the Council report was taken from the table, accepted and ordered printed in full in the Proceedings. After several announcements had been made by the Secretary, the Society proceeded at 11 o’clock to the consideration of the scientific papers. TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED IN GENERAL SESSION AND DISCUSSIONS THEREON STRATIGRAPHY OF RED BEDS OF NEW MEXICO BY N. H. DARTON { Abstract) The author presented an outline of results of detailed study of part of Red Beds area of New Mexico during the past summer. The investigation was mainly to determine areas in which chemical deposition had continued longest. Outcrop zones were followed continuously and stratigraphic changes traced in detail. The results show the equivalence of formations differentiated in vari- ous areas and throw much light on conditions of sedimentation during Penn- sylvania-Triassic time. DISCUSSION Dr. WHITMAN Cross: The sedimentary section described by Mr. Darton is very different in some particulars from that which has been studied in much detail in the adjacent portion of Colorado. In the analysis of the New Mexico sections it will be helpful to identify two horizons which have been found in Colorado to represent important stratigraphic breaks. One of these is at the base of the vertebrate-bearing Upper Triassic sediments; the other is at the base of the La Plata Jurassic sandstone. VI—BULL. GEOL. Soc. AM., VoL. 25, 1913 82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING The Jurassic and Pennsylvania rocks of the southern Colorado Section’ are white or gray in prevalent colors. Red is mainly confined to the Triassic and Permian beds. In view of these and other well known variations in the dis- tribution of a notable reddish color in Paleozoic and Mesozoic beds of the Rocky Mountain region, it seems undesirable to continue the use of the term “Red Beds” for the sediments of a particular region. It has not the value in correlation once assumed for it. Prof. D. W. JoHNSOoN: From the Cerrillos region, New Mexico, I have de- scribed two series of Red Beds of a similar appearance only a few miles apart, one of Upper Cretaceous or Laramie age, the other belonging to the group de- scribed by Mr. Darton. Some bitter discussions were waged by the earlier workers in this region as to the stratigraphic position of “the Red Beds” near Cerrillos, the disputants not recognizing that they had observed distinct forma- tions. This emphasizes the need, just pointed out by Doctor Cross, of qualify- ing the term “Red Beds” in such manner as to avoid confusion. Presented in full without notes. The paper was briefly discussed fur- ther by Prof. R. D. Salisbury. SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES BY ELLSWORTH ' HUNTINGTON (Abstract) At the last meeting of the Society the writer presented an hypothesis of the possible relation of solar activity to various terrestrial phenomena. Fur- ther study has convinced him that the hypothesis should be divided into two distinct parts whose degree of probability is widely different. The facts pre- sented as to earthquakes may perhaps indicate some relationship between such phenomena and changes in the sun, but any such relationship is evidently highly complicated, and the data now at hand scarcely suffice to warrant a working hypothesis along these lines. On the other hand, further investiga- tion of the relation of the sun to terrestrial climate brings out some striking agreements. | In all scientific work the normal process is to determine the causes of pres- ent phenomena and then to ascertain whether past phenomena of a similar nature may have been due to similar causes working on a different scale. In the study of geological climates the apparent gap between the great changes of geological times and the minor variations which are now in progress has greatly restricted this method of study. Measurements of the rate of growth of trees in California during the past 3,000 years, however, together with other lines of research, seem to show that the supposed gap between the minor changes of the present and the great changes of the past is bridged by inter- mediate phenomena of almost every grade. Therefore there seems to be strong reason for applying the normal scientific method of investigating the causes of present climatic changes and then determining how far the same causes may apply to the past. The chief objections to the solar hypothesis have been (1) its indefiniteness, (2) the supposed inadequacy of observed solar changes to produce any appre- ciable meteorological phenomena, (3) the lack of any direct evidence that:the TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 83 mean, temperature of the sun has varied in the past, (4) the limited degree to which meteorological and solar relationships have as yet been detected, and (5) the contradictory nature of much of the evidence in regions outside the tropics. © . - In the light of recent discoveries these objections seem to lose much of their force. In the first place, the heat of the sun is concentrated in certain por- tions of the earth’s surface according to the seasons. From this it would be expected that extra-tropical regions, where the concentration is less than in equatorial regions, would not show the same effect as those where the sun acts more directly. The work of Arctowski seems to indicate that variations in temperature move over the earth in waves, and that an increase in heat in a given region within the tropics may not appear noticeably in other regions until after a considerable lapse of time. If such a delay really occurs, it would account for much of the ee contradiction between equatorial and extra-tropical regions. The absence of direct agreement nee solar and terrestrial phenomena may be accounted for in part in another way. The recent work of Hum- phreys, Fowle, and Abbott seems to show that the presence of volcanic dust in the atmosphere may exclude a measurable amount of solar radiation. The disturbing element thus introduced does not seem to be sufficient to account for. the main climatic variations during. the period since observations are available, but it accounts for many apparent discrepancies between solar and terrestrial phenomena. : Among the various elements which combine to make up the earth’s climate none is more difficult to explain than the cyclonic storms which dominate the weather of Europe and America. These have recently been studied by two new methods. The first is the measurement of the growth of trees, by which our knowledge of climatic variations is extended over a much wider range than hitherto, both in Europe and America.’ The second is Kullmer’s method of analyzing the number of cyclones passing over different portions of the temperate zone. Both methods appear to show a direct relationship between the number of sun-spots and the number of storms. Melldrum and others have shown a Similar relationship in the case of tropical hurricanes. More- over, the work of Kullmer shows that not only the number of storms, but their concentration in certain areas varies in response to sun-spots. Hence it appears that changes in solar spottedness, even though unaccompanied by any great change in the mean solar temperature, may influence the circulation of the earth’s atmosphere and thus produce distinct changes of climate. The terrestrial changes, also, do not seem to demand any great change in the earth’s mean temperature for the redistribution of solar and equatorial tem- peratures occasioned by a shifting of the location of storm tracks, and a change in their number would cause pronounced climatic variations, even if the mean temperature changed but slightly. Presented in full without notes. VOTE OF THANKS A most hearty vote of thanks was passed to the authorities of Prince- ton University, the Department of Geology, and the local committee for 84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING the ample accommodations provided for the meeting, the excellent pre- paratory work with reference to all the details of the sessions, and the arrangements made for the dispatch of business and the comfort of the © visitors, and to the local Fellows for their generous hospitality. Par- ticular mention was made of Prof. Gilbert van Ingen, on whom fell the brunt of the preparatory work and the conduct of the local arrangements. The general session adjourned about 12.20 o’clock p. m. TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS PRESENTED BEFORE THE FIRST SECTION AND DISCUSSIONS THEREON The first section convened at 2.25 o’clock p. m., with President Eugene A. Smith in the chair and EH. O. Hovey acting as secretary. OCCURRENCE OF GLACIAL DRIFT ON THE MAGDALEN ISLANDS? BY J. W. GOLDTHWAIT (Abstract) These islands, which lie in the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, 50 miles northwest of Cape Breton, have been reported by James Richardson (1881), Robert Chalmers (1895), and Dr. John M. Clarke (1910) to be non-glaciated. Dur- ing a rapid reconnaissance last summer the discovery was made of glacial boulder-clay containing soled and striated stones of both local and foreign derivation. Some of this evidence of glaciation will be exhibited and its value discussed in the face of the seemingly contradictory evidence presented by earlier observers. Presented by title in the absence of the author. EVIDENCE OF A GLACIAL ICE-DAM IN THE ALLEGHENY RIVER BETWEEN WARREN, PENNSYLVANIA, AND TIONESTA, PENNSYLVANIA BY G. FREDERICK WRIGHT (Abstract) The high level glacial gravel deposits on the east side of Conewango Creek at Warren, Pennsylvania, which were originally supposed to rest on a rock shelf, prove on closer examination to be continuous deposits from the bottom of the valley up. The course taken by the glacial stream which laid down these glacial deposits has been a puzzling one, until in a recent examination of the locality it was discovered that the more southern one of these gravel terraces, beginning near the golf links east of Warren, runs for a mile or more up the Allegheny Valley to the mouth of Glade Run, thus showing that the current was aiming toward the well known Tionesta outlet, in which there 1 With the permission of the Director of the, Geological Survey of Canada. TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 85 were extensive fluvial deposits of glacial age at Stoneham and Clarendon. The only way in which the current could thus have been deflected at that elevation would be by a temporary ice obstruction below Warren. From humerous considerations, it is evident that this obstruction was in the early part of the Glacial epoch, thus throwing doubt on the distance of the col that had to be eroded at Thompsons and emphasizing our conception of the extent of preglacial erosion in this region. Presented by title in the absence of the author. PREGLACIAL MIAMI AND KENTUCKY RIVERS BY N. M. FENNEMAN (Abstract) It is generally agreed that the preglacial Ohio flowed north of Cincinnati to near Hamilton, Ohio (20 miles), and commonly supposed that it flowed thence west and south to the present mouth of the Miami and from there on had its present course. This has been disputed by Girard Fowke, who believes that the preglacial Ohio flowed north from Cincinnati along the line of the Miami (reversed). He depicts Kentucky River as continuing from its present mouth along the line of the Ohio and Miami rivers (reversed) to near Hamil- ton, Ohio, there joining the stream mentioned. The paper here presented - takes up the evidences concerning these three rivers under the following heads: (1) The depth of the rock-floor at various places. (2) The width and apparent age of the valleys at different points. (38) The angles at which tributaries join their mains. (4) Asymmetrical form of divides as indicating recent drainage changes. The conclusion is reached that the preglacial Ohio flowed west from Hamilton, Ohio, instead of continuing northward, but that the present Ohio trough at Madison, Indiana, is the result of recent drainage changes. _ Presented in abstract from manuscript. DISCUSSION Mr. FRANK LEVERETT suggested that the asymmetry near Madison is prob- ably due to the Muscatatuck drainage being in part postglacial. The narrow- ness near Madison is at a place where the bluffs contain a much thicker bed of resistant limestone than at narrows near Cincinnati. It may not be neces- sary, therefore, to assume an old col to occur there. Professor FENNEMAN replied to Mr. Leverett: In regard to the assumption that the rock-floor of the Ohio declines in altitude westward from the mouth of the Kentucky. There has been much drilling in the channel at Madison on account of the prospective dam and locks. Such borings have not revealed a rock trough as low as that known at the mouth of the Kentucky. The argu- ment based on the narrowness of the valley at Madison is made stronger by a consideration of the undissected character of the adjacent uplands. This tends to confirm the conclusion that the Ohio trough at that point is recent, 86 PROCEEDINGS ‘OF THE PRINCETON MEETING DELAWARE TERRACES BY N. H. WINCHELL (Abstract) In this paper the author critically examined the report of Prof. R. D. Salis- bury and the conclusions to which he comes as to the correlation of the ter- races below the glacial moraine south to Trenton. He pointed out the incon- sistencies of that scheme—a scheme which is based on the dominant idea that the terraces as far as Trenton are due essentially to the action of the floods of the Wisconsin ice-epoch.. The author called attention to the presence of an older drift in New J ersey, extending as far south as Trenton, called ‘‘Co- lumbian” or “Pensauken,” whiech-he pareltelized with the Kansan, and to this epoch he assigned the “high terraces” of Salisbury, and to the Wisconsin he attributed but little of the accumulation of the well known Delaware terraces. He called attention to the necessarily flooded stages of the Delaware at the dates of the Glacial epochs which have been found, in the central western part of the country, to have occurred in the interval between the Kansan and’ the Wisconsin epochs, and to these epochs he assigned the yellow sands which: are distributed copiously over older terraces at Trenton and noe eek to the latitude of the Wisconsin moraine. Read in abstract from manuscript. ’ SUBLACUSTRINE GLACIAL EROSION IN, MONTANA BY WILLIAM M. DAVIS | (Abstract) _ ee pk Chief among the results of a Shaler:.Memorial. Wand stitay in idee summer: of 1913 is the following: The great Kootenay-Pend’Oreille ‘Glacier;~ which’ overdeepened the trough of Kootenay Lake in Canada, crossed the Interna- tional Boundary into the United States and’ there divided into three branghes. One branch ascended the upper valley of Clark Fork southeastward in north- western Montana for 100 miles and barred its waters, which thereupon rose in.a large and very irregular lake of fluctuating level, the faint shorelines of which indicate a maximum depth of 1,000 or 1,200 feet and an altitude of about 4,000 feet. Near its middle this branch glacier oversteepened the valley Sides to heights of 1,000 feet or more; near its end to heights of 600 or 300 feet. If the greatest depth of the lake was contemporaneous with the greatest. advance of the ice, as seems probable, the terminal part of the branch: glacier must have done its erosive work while deeply SUE EES in 1 se — of jae water. ; Presented in full without notes. TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 87 GLACIAL LAKE MISSOULA BY RB. W. STONE (Abstract) A large and irregular ice-dammed lake which filled a great part of the drainage basin of Clark Ford, in western Montana, was named and described by J. T. Pardee in 1910. His observations were mainly in the Bitterroot Val- ley. This paper gave evidence of the extent of Lake Missoula in Flathead, Indian reservation, together with a description of an abandoned course of Flathead River. The large arm of Lake Missoula River which lay in the Flathead reservation was connected through its life with the arm in Bitter- root Valley by way of Missoula River Canyon near Paradise, and at its high- est stage by a col at Evaro, 10 miles west of Missoula. The Northern Pacific Railway enters the reservation through this col. The greatest depth of the lake within the reservation was 1,500 feet at Perma and 1,300 feet in the vicinity of Flathead Lake. Lake-cut. benches are common throughout the reservation. Sediment was deposited to a depth of more than 200 feet. Granite boulders indicate floating icebergs. Previous to glaciation Flathead River flowed west 10 miles from the present position of the Big Arm of Flathead Lake, then south through Little Bitter- root Valley. This course was barred by a terminal moraine, and the present stream cuts through a moraine at the lower end of the lake and reaches its former course 20 miles south of the moraine. - Presented in abstract from notes. — PHYSIOGRAPHIC RELATIONS OF SERPENTINE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SERPENTINE STOCK OF STATEN ISLAND, NEW YORK BY WILLIAM OTIS CROSBY (Abstract) The serpentine stock of Staten Island holds the formal relation of a monad- nock to the Cretaceous peneplain, here-buried beneath the coastal plain sedi- ments. That it is a true residuary relief or erosion remnant is shown to be extremely improbable. Likewise mechanical (fracture and slip) faulting does not afford an adequate explanation. ‘But this, it is believed, is found in the generally accepted view that this great body of essentially structureless ser- pentine has originated in the progressive, downward alteration of a stock of some massive, basic, magnesian, igneous rock, such as peridotite. Of this alteration hydration, with the resultant great expansion, is here the most important phase; and the expansion, which may amount to 40 per cent, must take place.mainly upward or in the direction to give it the maximum topo- graphic value. We have here a species of chemical as distinguished from mechanical faulting, and a new physiographic type, a variety of auto-relief not heretofore clearly recognized. Comparison with the spine or obelisk (pelélith) of Mont Pelé is suggested, and this comparison suggests the name statenlith for the new type, which is further shown to include other than 88 PROCEEDINGS. OF THE PRINCETON MEETING Serpentine reliefs. A general classification of reliefs makes more clear the dynamic and structural relations of the statenliths. The chronologic and stratigraphic relations of the type example are also discussed. Read in full from manuscript. DISCUSSION Dr. E. O. Hovey remarked that the spine of Mont Pelé could not be regarded as the elevated or extruded plug of a voleano, but rather as the residue left by explosions of vapor which carried away portions of an exuding dome of Java which had solidified before it formed an ordinary flow. EROSIVE POTENTIAL OF DESERT WATERS BY CHARLES KEYES (Abstract) Since the origin of the dominant relief features in arid lands has been so long and persistently accounted for wholly on the hypothesis of general stream corrasion—by a process differing only in degree from that displayed in a nor- mal humid climate—we may, with advantage, quantitatively measure some of the actual effects as presented under conditions of aridity, at the same time noting some of the limitations which are necessarily placed on water action by the exigencies of the desert. From consideration of the erosional modifica- tions demanded by the special climatic conditions imposed by deficient rain- fall, it follows that the gradational effects of the aqueous agencies must be assumed at the outset to be far below that which is commonly expected of them. Consideration is briefly given to the subjects of desert run-off, sheet- flood action, through-flowing rivers, piedmont arroyos, mountain streams, in- land seas, ephemeral lakes, playas, salinas, and ground-water level. Presented by title in the absence of the author. SUBMARINE TOPOGRAPHY IN GLACIER BAY, ALASKA? BY LAWRENCE MARTIN (Abstract) During the summer of 1913 a National Geographic Society party studied submarine topography in Glacier Bay, especially in Tarr, Muir, Queen, and Tidal inlets. Tarr Inlet is 816 to 1,320 feet deep, in contrast with about 600 feet in outer Glacier Bay. Nineteen years ago the thickness of Grand Pacific Glacier at the international boundary, 12 miles from the glacier terminus of 1894, was over 3,000 feet. The fiord is broadly U-shaped below, as above, sealevel. The longitudinal section shows irregularities impossible for a river-carved and 1 Presented by permission of Henry Gannett, chairman of the Research Committee of the National Geographic Society. TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 89 submerged trench. Delta filling has gone on rapidly since the fiord was ex- posed by glacial retreat. In Muir Inlet the eastern bay near Adams Glacier, 132 to 315 feet deep, has the submerged hanging valley relationship to the main fiord, with a discordance of about 600 feet. North of the ice-front of 1892 the depth of water is 936 to 1,152 feet. Only 21 years ago the ice was 2,500 feet thick at the site of the terminal cliff of Muir Glacier in 1913, 9 miles north of the ice-front of Reid’s time. Judging by (a) the exhumed forest floor discovered in 1913 near Muir Glacier, (b) the stumps of trees there and in Tarr Inlet, and (c) the drumlin- like shapes of ice-sculptured outwash gravels, the main work of glacial erosion was performed during the ancient, prolonged ice-flood stage rather than the modern, brief advance, which buried the lately exhumed forests and which probably had its maximum between 1794 and 1814. From this it is argued that vast lapse of time is necessary for the sculpture of fiords and of sub- merged hanging valleys, which in Glacier Bay are believed to have been carved chiefly by ice rather than running water, and produced with the land essen- tially at its present level. Presented in full without notes. The paper was discussed by Messrs. N. H. Winchell and H. F. Reid. BURIED GORGE OF THE HUDSON RIVER AND GEOLOGIC RELATIONS OF HUDSON SYPHON OF THE CATSKILL AQUEDUCT BY W. O. CROSBY (Abstract) Physiographic history: The Cretaceous peneplain. ; The Miocene baselevel. The Pliocene baselevel. The Pliocene gorge of the Hudson. The Pleistocene elevation. The Pleistocene gorge of the Hudson. Glaciation and glacial erosion. Glacial and postglacial deposits. Bedrock geology: Nature of the bedrock. Joint structure. | Thrust faults and shear zones. Transverse faults. Recent faulting. Gorge of the Hudson not a graben. Storm-King-Breakneck section of the gorge: Contours. Depth. Deposits, ss 90 PROCEEDINGS .OF, THE PRINCETON MEETING The Hudson gorge in the vicinity of New York: The Pennsylvania tunnel profile. _, Correlation of the bedrock channels. Confirmation of the deep Pleistocene channel. Nature of the bedrock floor of the Hudson south of thé Highlands. Possible bearing of differential elevation. Presented by title. The section adjourned. | ABSTRACTS on PAPERS PRESENTED BEFORE THE THIRD SECTION AND DISCUSSION THEREON The third section met. a 2.40 0 nee p- m., aan Vice-President James. EF’. Kemp in the chair and F. R. Van Horn fae as secretary. COMPOSITION OF BORNITE AND ITS RELATION FO OTHER SULFOMINERALS BY EDWARD H. KRAUS (Abstract) As the result of a new analysis of exceptionally well crystallized bornite and a study of the published analyses of the mineral, the composition of bornite is shown to vary considerably. It is, however, possible to establish a definite Series extending from chalcopyrite to chalcocite, the minerals of the series conforming to one general formula. This general formula seems also to underlie the composition of practically all the minerals, which are usually interpreted as sulfoferrites, arsenites, etcetera. Presented in abstract without notes. DISCUSSION Dr. J. EK. PoGuE pointed out the importance of metallographic examination of sulphide minerals subjected to analysis because of the prevalence of inter- grown microscopic impurities. Such examination needs also to be undertaken under high magnification, for impurities not visible at magnifications of, say, X 40 appear at X 200. The divergence of older bornite analyses may be due in part to microscopic impurities. The bornite formulas of Professor Kraus, showing increasing copper content, suggest the relation of the principal copper minerals of the Mount Lyell Mine, Tasmania, which, in the order of their formation, are cupriferous pyrite, chalcopyrite, bornite, and chalcocite—an order corresponding to decreasing iron and increasing copper content. Prof. J. V. LEwis said that all teachers of mineralogy would. be indebted to Doctor Kraus if some simple arrangement in the formule of complex ep: salts, such as suggested by Doctor Kraus, could be PLANE TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 91 Prof. F. R. VAN Horn: We are indebted to Doctor Kraus for a new view- point on the composition of complex sulphosalts. Doctor Kraus quoted analysis of pearceite and polybasite, discussed by Penfield, and later by Van Horn. I do not think that I am willing to admit that such a'series exists here as might be drawn from the two formulz proposed, but that the older formule suggested by Heinrich Rose aah polybasite and Py Penfield for pearceite are not correct: Doctor Kraus answered Dr. Pogue’s questions and was also inclined © to: believe that two formule did not. exist for ae and pe instead of one, as contended by Van Horn. Prof. James F. Kemp participated in the discussion. Wis GENESIS OF GLAUCONITH BY CHASE’ PALMER ” (Abstract) A dense cloudy substance brought to the surface along with the water of a well 2,000 feet deep, newly sunk at Charleston, South Carolina, was studied. The composition of this substance corresponds very closely with that of glauconite. The qualities of the water in the well are compared with the qualities of the river waters of the Piedmont Plateau and Coastal Plain. The coprecipitation of ferric hydrate, potassium oxide, and silicic acid, all of which are essential constituents of glauconite, may take place in the ab- sence of organic matter. An explanation is offered of the mode of formation of glauconite in marine glauconitic shells. Presented by title in the absence of the author. CRYSTALLIZATION OF CERTAIN PYROXENE-BEARING ARTIFICIAL MELTS BY N. L. BOWEN ” (Abstract) The melts dealt with contain lime-magnesian pyroxenes, and certain of them show the crystallization of olivine (forsterite) at relatively high temperatures and its later resorption or reaction with the melt at lower temperatures. There is therefore an interesting analogy with some recorded natural occur- rences. Presented in abstract without notes. 29 Introduced by T. Wayland Vaughan. 30 Introduced by C. N. Fenner. 92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL SYSTEM, LIME-ALUMINA-SILICA AND ITS GEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE BY FRED E. WRIGHT AND G. A. RANKIN (Abstract) The laboratory work on this system is now practically finished. A model, illustrating the temperature equilibrium conditions for the system, has been made and serves to indicate the course of crystallization of the different phases which occur throughout the system. The bearing of the relations thus ob- tained on petrogenetic theory was outlined briefly. Presented in abstract without notes. Remarks were made by Messrs. C. W. Parmelee and J. E. Pogue. The Society adjourned at 4.15 o’clock p. m. CoNSTITUTION AND By-Laws REFERENCES TO ADOPTION AND CHANGES The provisional Constitution under which the Society was organized was ap- proved August 15, 1888, and adopted December 27, 1888 (see Bulletin, volume 1, pages 7-8). These rules were elaborated and the revised Constitution and By- Laws were adopted December 27, 1889 (volume 1, pages 536, 571-578). Several minor changes have been made in these rules, which are on record in the Bulletin as follows: Changes in the Constitution : December, 1894, volume 6, page 432; December, 1897, volume 9, page 400; December, 1909, volume 21, page 19. Changes in the By-Laws: December, 1891, volume 3, page 470; December, 1893, volume 5, pages 553-554; December, 1894, volume 6, page 432; December, 1903, volume 14, page 535; December, 1909, volume 21, page 19. CONSTITUTION ARTICLE I NAME This Society shall be known as THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. ARTICLE II OBJECT The object of this Society shall be the promotion of the Science of Geology in North America. ARTICLE IIT MEMBERSHIP The Society shall be composed of Fellows, Correspondents, and Patrons. 1. Fellows shall be persons who are engaged in geological work or in teaching geology. Fellows admitted without election under the provisional Constitution shall be designated as Original Fellows on all lists or catalogues of the Society. 2. Correspondents shall be persons distinguished for their attainments in Geological Science and not resident in North America. 3. Patrons shall be persons who have bestowed important favors upon the Society. ; 4. Fellows alone shall be entitled to vote or hold office in the Society. ARTICLE IV OFFICERS 1. The Officers of the Society shall consist of a President, First, Second, and Third Vice-Presidents, a Secretary, a Treasurer, an Editor, and ‘six Councilors. (93) 94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING These officers, together with the Presidents for the next preceding three years, shall constitute an Executive Committee, which shall be called the Council. i | 2. The President shall discharge the usual duties of a presiding officer at all meetings of the Society and of the Couneil:-- He shall take cognizance of the acts of the Society and of its officers, and cause the provisions of the Constitu- tion and By-Laws to be faithfully carried into effect. 3. The first Vice-President shall assume the duties of President in case of the absence or disability of the latter. The Second Vice-President shall assume the duties of President in case of the absence or disability of both the President and First Vice-President. The Third Vice-President shall assume the duties of President in case of the absence or disability of the President and the First and Second Vice-Presidents. 4, The Secretary shall keep the records of the proceedings of the Socieny and a complete list of the Fellows, with the dates of their election and disconnection with the Society. He shall.also.be the secretary of the Council. The Secretary shall cooperate with the President in attention to the ordinary affairs of the Society. He shall attend to the preparation, printing and mailing of circulars, blanks and notifications of elections and meetings. He shall super- intend other printing ordered by the Society or by the President, and shall have charge of its distribution, under the direction of the Council. The Secretary, unless other provision be made, shall also act as Hditor of the publications of the Society, and as Librarian and Custodian of the property. 5. The Treasurer shall have the custody of all funds of the Society. He shall keep account of receipts and disbursements in detail, and this shall be audited as hereinafter provided. 6. The Editor shall supervise all matters connected with the publication of the transactions of the Society under the direction of the Council. . The Council is clothed with executive authority and with the legislative aeetate of the Society in the intervals between its meetings ; but no extraordi- nary act of the Council shall remain in force beyond the next following stated meeting without ratification by the Society. ~The Council shall have control of the publications of the Society, under provisions of the By-Laws and of reso- lutions from time to time adopted. They shall receive nominations for Fellows, and, on approval by them, shall submit such nominations to the Society for action. They shall have power to fill vacancies ad interim in any of the offices of the Society. 8. Terms of office. —The President and Vice- Presidents shall be elected annu- ally, and shall not be eligible to re-election more than once until after an interval of three years after retiring from office. The Secretary, Treasurer, and Editor shall ‘be eligible to re-election without limitation. The term of office of the Councilor shall be three years; and these officers shall be so grouped that two shall be elected and two retire each year. Coun- cilors retired shall not be re-eligible till after the expiration of a year. CONSTITUTION 95 ARTICLE V VOTING AND ELECTIONS 1. All elections shall be by ballot. To elect a Fellow, Correspondent or Patron, or impose any special tax, shall require the assent of nine-tenths of all Fellows voting. ae 2. Voting by letter may be allowed. 3. Election of Fellows.—Nominations for fellowship may be made by two Fellows according to a form to be provided by the Council. . One of these Fel- lows must be personally acquainted with the nominee and his qualifications for ‘membership. The Council will submit the nominations received by..them, if approved, to a vote of the Society in the manner provided in the By-Laws. The result may be announced at any stated meeting; after which notice shall be ‘sent out to Fellows elect. 4. Election of officers——Nominations for office shall be made by the Council. The nominations shall be submitted to a vote of the Society in the same manner as nominations for fellowship. The results shall be announced at the Annual Meeting ; and the officers thus elected shall enter upon duty at the adjournment of the meeting. ARTICLE VI MEETINGS 1. The Society shall hold at least one stated meeting a year, in the winter season. The date and place of the Winter Meeting shall be fixed by the Coun- cil, and announced each year within three months after the adjournment of the preceding Winter Meeting. The program of each meeting shall be determined by the Council, and announced beforehand, in its general features. The de- tails of the daily sessions shall also be arranged by the Council. 2. The Winter Meeting shall be regarded as the Annual Meeting. At this, elections of officers shall be declared, and the officers elect shall enter upon duty at the adjournment of the meeting. os: Special meetings may be called by the Council, and must be called upon the written request of twenty Fellows. 4, Stated meetings of the Council shall be held coincidently with the stated meetings of the Society. Special meetings may be called by the President at such times as he may deem necessary. 5. Quorum.—At meetings of the Society a majority of those registered in attendance shall constitute a quorum. Five shall constitute a quorum of the Council. ARTICLE VII PUBLICATION The serial publications of the Society shall be under the immediate control of the Council. ARTICLE VIII SECTIONS Any group of Fellows representing a particular branch of geology may, with consent of the Council, organize as a section of the Society with separate con- 96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING constitution and by-laws, provided that nothing in such constitution and by-laws conflict with the constitution and by-laws of the Geological Society of America, in letter or spirit, and provided that such constitution and by-laws and all amendments thereto shall have been approved by the Council. ARTICLE IX AMENDMENTS 1. This Constitution may be amended at any annual meeting by a three- fourths vote of all the Fellows, provided that the proposed amendment shall have been submitted in print to all Fellows at least three months previous to the meeting. : 2. By-laws may be made or amended by a majority vote of the Fellows present and voting at any annual meeting, provided that printed notice of the proposed amendment or by-law shall have been given to all Fellows at least three months before the meeting. BY-LAWS 97 BY-LAWS CHAPTER I OF MEMBERSHIP 1. No person shall be accepted as a Fellow unless he pay his initiation fee, and the dues for the year, within three months after notification of his election. The initiation fee shall be ten (10) dollars and the annual dues ten (10) dol- lars, the latter payable on or before the annual meeting in advance; but a single prepayment of one hundred and fifty (150) dollars shall be accepted as commutation for life. A Fellow in good standing, however, who has paid annual dues for not less than fifteen (15) years may commute further dues and become a Life Fellow by making a single payment of one hundred (100) dollars. 2. The sums paid in commutation of dues shall be covered into the Publica- tion Fund. 8. An arrearage in payment of annual dues shall deprive a Fellow of the privilege of taking part in the management of the Society and of receiving the publications of the Society. An arrearage continuing over two (2) years shall be construed as notification of withdrawal. 4, Any person eligible under Article III of the Constitution may be elected Patron upon the payment of one thousand (1,000) dollars to the Publication Fund of the Society. CHAPTER II OF OFFICIALS 1. The President shall countersign, if he approves, all duly authorized ac- - counts and orders drawn on the Treasurer for the disbursement of money. 2. The Secretary, until otherwise ordered by the Society, shall perform the duties of Editor, Librarian, and Custodian of the property of the Society. 3. The Society may elect an Assistant Secretary. 4. The Treasurer shall give bonds, with two good sureties approved by the Council, in the sum of five thousand dollars, for the faithful and honest per- formance of his duties and the safe-keeping of the funds of the Society. He may deposit the funds in bank at his discretion, but shall not invest them without authority of the Council. His accounts shall be balanced as on the thirtieth day of November of each year. 5. In the selection of Councilors the various sections of North America shall be represented as far as practicable. 6. The minutes of the proceedings of the Council shall be subject to call by the Society. 7. The Council may transact its business by correspondence during the inter- vals between its stated meetings; but affirmative action by a majority of the Council shall be necessary in order to make action by correspondence valid. VII—BULL, Grou, Soc, AM., Vou. 25, 1913 98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING CHAPTER IIT OF ELECTION OF MEMBERS 1. Nominations for fellowship may be proposed at any time on blanks to be supplied by the Secretary. 2. The form for the nomination of Fellows shall be as follows: In accordance with his desire, we respectfully nominate for Fellow of the Geological Society of America: Full name; degrees; address; occupation; branch of Geology now engaged in, work already done and publications made. (Signed by at least two Fellows.) The form when filled is to be transmitted to the Secretary. 38. The Secretary will bring all nominations before the Council, and the Council will signify its approval or disapproval of each. 4, At least a month before one of the stated meetings of the -Society the Secretary will mail a printed list of all approved nominees to each Fellow, ac- companied by such information as may be necessary for intelligent voting; but an informal list of the candidates shall be sent to each Fellow at least two weeks prior to distribution of the ballots. 5. The Fellows receiving the list will signify their approval or CISA wD of each nominee, and return the lists to the Secretary. 6. At the next stated meeting of the Council the Secretary will ~PRESEEY the lists and the Council will canvass the returns. ’ 7 The Council, by unanimous vote of the members in attendance, may still exercise the power of rejection of any nominee whom new information shows to be unsuitable for fellowship. 8. At the next stated meeting of inate Pelle the Council shall declare the - results. 9. Correspondents and Patrons shall be nominated by the Council, and shall be elected in the same manner as Fellows. CHAPTER IV OF ELECTION OF OFFICERS 1. The Council shall prepare a list of nominations for the several offices, which list will constitute the regular ticket. The ticket must be approved by a majority of the entire Council. The nominee for President shall not be a mem- ~ ber of the Council. One of the nominees for vice-president shall be the nominee for the presidency of the Paleontological Society which has been organized as a section under Article VIII of the Constitution. 2. The list shall be mailed to the Fellows, for their information, at least nine months before the Annual Meeting. Any five Fellows may forward to the Secretary other nominations for any or all offices. All such nominations reach- ing the Secretary at least 40 days before the Annual Meeting shall be printed, together with the names of the nominators, as special tickets. The regular and special tickets shall then be mailed to the Fellows at least 25 days before the Annual Meeting. 3. The Fellows will send their ballots to the Secretary in double envelopes, the outer envelope bearing the voter’s name. At the Winter Meeting of the BY-LAWS 99 Council, the Secretary will bring the returns of ballots before the Council for canvass, and during the Winter Meeting of the Society the Council shall declare the result. 4. In case a majority of all the ballots shall not have been cast for any can- didate for any office, the Society shall by ballot at such Winter Meeting proceed to make an election for such office from the two candidates having the highest number of votes. CHAPTER V OF FINANCIAL METHODS 1. No pecuniary obligation shall be contracted without express sanction of the Society or the Council. But it is to be understood that all ordinary, inci- dental, and running expenses have the permanent sanction of the Society, with- out special action. 2. The creditor of the Society must present to the Treasurer a fully itemized bill, certified by the official ordering it, and approved by the President. The T'reasurer shall then pay the amount out of any funds not otherwise appro- priated, and the receipted bill shall be held as his voucher. 8. At each annual meeting, the President shall call upon the Society to choose two Fellows, not members of the Council, to whom shall be referred the books of the Treasurer, duly posted and balanced to the close of November thirtieth, as specified in the By-Laws, Chapter II, clause 4. The Auditors shall examine the accounts and vouchers of the Treasurer, and any member or members of the Council may be present during the examination. The report of the Audi- tors shall be rendered to the Society before the adjournment of the meeting, and the Society shall take appropriate action. CHAPTER VI OF PUBLICATIONS 1. The publications are in charge of the Council and under its control. 2. One.copy of each publication shall be sent to each Fellow, Correspondent, -and Patron, and each author shall receive thirty (80) copies of his memoir. CHAPTER VII OF THE PUBLICATION FUND 1. The Publication Fund shall consist of donations made in aid of publica- tion, and of the sums paid in commutation of dues, according to the By-Laws, Chapter I, clause 2. 2. Donors to this fund, not Fellows of the Society, in the sum of two hun- dred dollars, shall be entitled, without charge, to the publications subsequently appearing. CHAPTER VIII OF ORDER OF BUSINESS 1. The Order of Business at Winter Meetings shall be as follows: (1) Call to order by the presiding officer. (2) Introductory ceremonies. 100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING (3) Report of the Council (including report of the officers). (4) Appointment of the Auditing Committee. (5) Declaration of the vote for officers, and election by the meeting in case of failure to elect by the Society through transmitted ballots. (6) Declaration of the vote for Fellows. (7) Deferred business. (8) New business. (9) Announcements. (10) Necrology. (11) Reading of scientific papers. 2. At an adjourned session the order shall be resumed at the place reached on the previous adjournment, but new business will be in order before the reading of scientific papers. 3. At the Summer Meeting the items of business under numbers (3), (4), (5), (10) shall be omitted. 4. At any Special Meeting the order of business shall be numbers (1), (2), (3), (9), followed by the special business for which the meeting was called. PUBLICATION RULES OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA (Adopted by the Council April 21, 1891; Revised April 30, 1894, May, 1904, and February 5, 1910) GENERAL PROVISIONS Section 1. The Council shall annually appoint from their own number a Publication Committee, consisting of the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Editor, and two others, whose duties shall be to determine the disposition of matter offered for publication, except as provided in section 12; to determine the ex- pediency, in view of the financial condition of the Society, of publishing any matter accepted on its merits; to exercise general oversight of the matter and manner of publication; to determine the share of the cost of publication (in- cluding illustrations) to be borne by the author when it becomes necessary to divide cost between the Society and the author; to adjudicate any questions relating to publication that may be raised from time to time by the Editor or by the Fellows of the Society; and in general to act for the Council in all matters pertaining to publication. (Cons., Art. IV, 7; Art. VII; By-Laws, chap. VI.) 2. The duties of the Editor are to receive material offered for publication ; to examine and submit it, with estimates of cost, to the Publication Commit- tee; to publish all material accepted by the Council or Publication Committee ; to revise proofs in connection with authors; to prepare lists of contents and general indexes; to audit bills for printing and illustrating; and to perform all other duties connected with publication not assigned to other officers. (Cons., Art. IV, 6; Rules, See. 16.) 3. The duties of the Secretary include the preparation of a record of the proceedings of each meeting of the Society in form for publication, and the custody, distribution, sale, exchange or other authorized disposition of the publications. (Cons., Art. IV, 4; By-Laws, chap. II, 2.) 4. Special committees may be appointed by the Council or the Publication Committee to examine and report on any matter offered for publication. (Rules, See. 11.) THE BULLETIN TITLE AND GENERAL CHARACTER 5. The Society shall publish a serial record of its work entitled “Bulletin of the Geological Society of America.” 6. The Bulletin shall be published in quarterly parts, consecutively paged for each volume. The parts shall be suitably designated and each shall bear a title setting forth the contents and authorship, the seal and imprint of the Society and the date of publication. 7. The closing quarterly part of each volume shall contain an index, paged consecutively with the body of the volume; and it shall be accompanied by a volume title-page and lists of contents and illustrations, together with lists of (101) 102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING the publications of the Society and such other matter as the Publication Com- mittee may deem necessary, all arranged under Roman pagination. MATTER OF THE BULLETIN 8. The matter published in the Bulletin shall comprise (1) communications presented at meetings by title or otherwise; (2) communications or memoirs not presented before the Society; (8) abstracts of papers read before the So- ciety, prepared or revised for publication by authors; (4) reports of discus- sions held before the Society, prepared or revised for publication by authors; (5) proceedings of the meetings of the Society prepared by the Secretary; (6) plates, maps, and other illustrations necessary for the proper understanding of communications; (7) lists of Officers and Fellows, Constitution, By-Laws, resolutions of permanent character, rules relating to procedure, to publication, and to other matters, etcetera, and (8) indexes, title- “pages, and lists of con- tents for each volume. 9. Abstracts, reports of discussion, or other matter purporting to emanate from any author shall not be published unless prepared or revised by the author. 10. Manuscript designed for publication in the Bulletin must be complete as to copy for text and illustration, except by special arrangement between the author and the Council or Publication Committee; it must be perfectly legible (preferably typewritten) and preceded by a table of contents (section 15). The cost of necessary revision of copy or reconstruction of illustrations shall be assessed on the author. 11. The Editor shall examine matter designated for publication, and shall prepare an itemized estimate of the cost of publication and convey the whole to the Publication Committee. ‘The Publication, Committee shall then scruti- nize the communication with reference, first, to relevancy; second, to scientific value; third, to literary character, and, fourth, to cost of publication, including revision. For advice with reference to the relevancy, scientific value, and literary character of any communication the Publication Committee may refer it to a special committee of their own number or of the Society at large or may call to their aid from outside one or more experts. Questions of disagree- ment between the Editor and authors shall be. referred to the Publication Committee and appeal may be taken to the Council. 12. Communications from non-fellows shall be published only by specific authority from the Council. 13. Communications from Fellows not presented at regular meetings of the Society shall be published only upon unanimous vote of the Publication Com- mittee, except by specific authority from the Council. 14. Matter offered for publication becomes thereby the property of the So- ciety, and shall not be published elsewhere prior to publication in the Bulletin, except by consent of the Publication Committee. | DETAILS OF THE BULLETIN 15. The matter of each memoir shall be classified by subjects, and the classi- fication suitably indicated by subtitles; and a list of contents shall be ar- ranged; and such memoir may, at the option of the Publication Committee, contain an alphabetical index, provided the author prepare and pay for it, . PUBLICATION RULES 108 16. Proofs of text and illustrations shall be submitted to authors whenever practicable; but printing shall not be delayed by reason of absence or inca- pacity of authors more than one week beyond the time required for transmis- sion by mail. Complete proofs of the proceedings of meetings shall be sent to the Secretary, and proofs of papers and abstracts contained therein and ex- ceeding one-half page in length shall be sent also to authors. 17. The cost of proof corrections in excess of five per cent on the oe of printing may be charged to authors. 18. Unless the author of a memoir objects thereto, the discussion upon his communication shall be printed at the end thereof, with a suitable reference _in the list of contents. In case the author objects to this arrangement, the discussion shall be printed in the closing number of the volume. 19. The author of each memoir occupying eight pages or more of text in the body of the Bulletin shall receive 30 “separates” without charge, and may order through the Editor any edition of exactly similar separates at an ad- vance of ten per cent. on the cost of paper, presswork and binding; and no author’s separates of such memoirs shall be issued except in this regular form. 20. Authors of papers, abstracts, or discussions less than eight printed pages in length may order, through the Editor, at an advance of ten per cent. on the cost of paper, presswork, binding and necessary composition, any number of extra copies, provided they bear the original pagination and a printed refer- ence to the serial and volume from which they are extracted. 21. The Hditor shall keep a record of all publications issued wholly or in part under the auspices of the Society, whether they be author’s editions of memoirs, author’s extracts from proceedings, or any other matter printed from type originally composed for the Bulletin. DIRECTIONS TO PRINTER 22. Hach memoir of the Bulletin shall begin, under its proper title, on an odd-numbered page bearing at its head the title of the serial, the volume num- ber, the part number, the limiting pages, the plates, and the date of publica- tion, together with a list of contents. Hach memoir shall be accompanied by the illustrations pertqining to it, the plates numbered consecutively for the volume. 23. The author’s separates of each memoir shall be enclosed in a cover bear- ing at the head of its title-page the title of the serial, the volume number, the limiting pages, and the numbers of the contained plates; in its upper-central part a title indicating the contents and authorship; in its lower-central part the seal of the Society; and at the bottom the imprint of the Society. (See also Sections 19 and 20.) 24. The bottom of each signature and each initial page will bear a signature mark giving an abbreviated title of the serial, the volume, and the year; and every page (except volume title-page) shall be numbered, the initial and sub- title pages in parentheses at bottom. 25. The page-head titles shall be: on even-numbered pages, name of author and catch title of: PPADEE on odd-numbered pages, catch title to contents of page. | 26. The date of publication of each brochure shall be the day upon which the last form is locked and put on the press. 104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING 27. The type used in printing the Bulletin shall be as follows: For memoirs, body, long primer, 6-to-pica leads; extracts, brevier, 8-to-pica leads; footnotes, nonpareil, set solid; titles, long primer caps, with small caps for author’s name; subtitles, long primer caps, small caps, italic, etcetera, as far as practi- cable; for designation of cuts, nonpareil caps and italics, and for legends, non- pareil, Roman, set solid; for lists of contents of brochures, brevier, 6-to-pica leads, a new line to an entry, running indentation; for volumes, the same, ex- cept 4-to-pica leads and names of authors in small caps; for indexes, nonpareil, set solid, double column, leaders, catch words in small caps, with spaces be- tween initial letters. For serial titles, on initial pages, brevier block caps, with corresponding small caps for volume designation, etcetera ; on covers, the same, except for page heads long primer caps; for serial designation, long primer; for brochure designation, pica caps; special title and author’s name, etcetera, long primer and brevier caps; no frame on cover. No change in type shall be made to adjust matter to pages. 28. Volumes, plates, and cuts in text shall be numbered in Arabic; Roman numeration shall be used only in signature marks, and in paging the lists of contents, etcetera, arranged for binding at the beginning of the volume. 29. Imprimatur of Editor, on volume title-page; imprimatur of Council and Publication Committee, on obverse of volume title-page; imprimatur of Secre- tary, on initial pages and covers of brochures of proceedings. Printer’s card, in fine type on obverse of title-page. 30. The paper shall be for body of volume, 70-pound toned paper, folding to 16x 25 centimeters; for plates, good quality plate paper, smooth-surfaced, white, cut to 64% x 10 inches for single plates; for covers smooth-surfaced, fine quality 70-pound light-buff manila paper. 31. The sheets of the brochures shall be stitched with thread; single page plates shall be stitched with the sheets of the brochure; folding plates may be either gummed or stitched (mounted on stubs if necessary) ; covers shall be gummed. EDITION, DISTRIBUTION, AND PRICE 32. The regular edition shall be 660 copies in the regular quarterly form and 40 copies separately in covers of each memoir occupying eight pages or more of text. Each author of a memoir occupying not less than eight pages of text shall receive 30 copies of his memoir gratis. If two or more authors contribute to a memoir brochure of eight pages or more in length, the edition shall be enlarged so as to give each author 30 copies. (By-Laws, chap. VI, 2.) 33. The undistributed residue of separates shall be held for sale. 34. The Bulletin shall be sent free to Fellows of the Society not in arrears for dues, and also to exchanging institutions. (By-Laws, chap. I, 3.) 35. The price of the Bulletin shall be as follows: To Fellows, libraries, and institutions, and to individuals not residing in North America, $7.50 per vol- ume; to individuals residing in North America and who are not Fellows, $10. The price of each brochure shall be a multiple of five cents, and shall be, to Fellows, one cent per page plus three cents per plate and to the public an advance of fifty per cent. on the price to Fellows. The prices of the separate brochures and of the quarterly parts may be found in the front of each volume. REGISTER OF THE MEETING REGISTER OF THE PRINCETON MEETING, 1913 Frank D. ADAMS R. C. ALLEN Henry M. Ami GrorcE H. ASHLEY W. W. AtTwoop FLORENCE Bascom Ray SmitH BAssLER GEORGE F. BECKER EpWARD WILBER BERRY S. W. BEYER JOHN A. BOWNOCKER ALFRED H. Brooks Barnum Brown CHARLES W. BRown Henry A. BUEHLER D. D. CarrnEs FRANK CARNEY EH. C. CAs W. B. CLarK JOHN M. CLARKE - ArTHUR P. CoLEMAN A. R. Croox WitiiAmM O. CrosBy WHITMAN Cross N. H. Darton CHARLES A. Davis Witi1aAm M. Davis ArtHour L. Day FRANK W. DE WoLrF RicHARD EH. DopGE JoHN A. DRESSER CHARLES R. DRYER Herrman L. FarrcHiLp OLIvER C. FARRINGTON N. M. FeENNEMAN C. A. FISHER Avcust F, ForrstE JAMES W. GOLDTHWAIT Amapbrus W. GRABAU WALTER GRANGER U. 8. Grant HERBERT E. GREGORY Baird HALBERSTADT RicHarD R. Hick WitiiAm H. Hozsss Tuomas C. Hopxins WiLuiAmM O. HotcHkxiss EpmMuND Otis Hovey ERNeEst Howe 105 ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON JosEPH P. IppInGs ROBERT TT. JACKSON Dougias W. JoHNSON ArtHuUR KEITH ; JAMES EF’. Kemp FrANK H. KNOWLTON Hpwarp H. Kraus GrorGE F. Kunz Wiis T. LEE FRANK LEVERETT J. VoOLNEY Lewis WILLIAM LIBBEY FREDERICK B. Loomis ALBERT P. Low RicHARD Swan LULL Curtis F. Marsur GEORGE C. Martin LAWRENCE MARTIN Epwarp B. MatHrws W. D. MattHew GrorGe P. MerriILy ARTHUR M. MILLER BENJAMIN L. MILLER WILLET G. MILLER 106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING WILLIAM J. MILLER Frep H. Morrit Hiwoop 8S. Moore IpA HELEN OGILVIE Henry F. Osporn SIGNEY PAIGE R. A. F. PENROSE, JR. GEORGE H. PERKINS Louis V. Pirsson JOSEPH EH. PoGuE ALBERT H. PuRDUE Percy E. RAYMOND Fis BR wep WittiAM NortH RIcE HernricH Rizs RuDOLPH RUEDEMANN Rouiin D. SALISBURY FREDERICK W. SARDESON THomMAS E. SAVAGE CHARLES SCHUCHERT WILLIAM B. Scott C. EK. SIEBENTHAL WILLIAM J. SINCLAIR JOSEPH 'T'. SINGEWALD EKuGENE A. SMITH ‘GEORGE OTIS SMITH PuHtuiP 8. SMITH CHARLES H. SMYTH, JR. J. W. SPENCER J. STANLEY-BROWN T. W. STANTON J. J. STEVENSON RALPH W. STONE GroRGE W. STOSsE FRANK B. TAYLOR M. W. TwitcHELL EK. O. UnRicH FrANK R. Van Horn GILBERT VAN INGEN THomas W. VAUGHAN CHarues D. WAaLcorr THomas L. WALKER STUART WELLER Lewis G. WESTGATE Davip WHITE I. C. WHITE GrorRGE R. WIELAND H. S. WILLIAMS A. W. G. WILSon N. H. WINCHELL JOHN E. WouLFr FrepERIc KE. WRIGHT G. FREDERIC WRiGHT FELLOWS-ELECT C. A. REEDs Mienon TALBOT C. A. HARTNAGEL In addition to the foregoing, there were registered at the meeting 14 members of the Paleontological Society, 15 members of the Association of American Geographers, and 106 visitors, including wives of members and specially invited assistants and students. OFFICERS, CORRESPONDENTS, AND FELLOWS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA OFFICERS FOR 1914 President: Grorce F. Beckrer, Washington, D. C. Vice-Presidents: WALDEMAR LINDGREN, Boston, Mass. Horace B. Parton, Golden, Colo. Henry F. Osporn, New York, N. Y. Secretary : Epmunpb Otis Hovry, American Museum of Natural History, New Mork, NEY. . Treasurer: Wm. Buttock Cuarx, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Editor: | J. STANLEY-Brown, 26 Exchange Place, New York, N. Y. Inbrarvan: F. R. Van Horn, Cleveland, Ohio Counculors: (Term expires 1914) S. W. Bryer, Ames, Iowa ARTHUR KerrH, Washington, D. C. (Term expires 1915) Wurman Cross, Washington, D. C. WiuurET G. MiiuEr, Toronto, Canada (Term expires 1916) R. A. F. Penrose, Jr., Philadelphia, Pa. W. W. Atwoop, Cambridge, Mass. (107) 108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING MEMBERSHIP, 1914 CORRESPONDENTS CHARLES Barrois, Lille, France. December, 1909. W. C. Broecer, Christiania, Norway. December, 1909. GIOVANNI CAPELLINI, Bologna, Italy. December, 1910. BARON GERHARD DE GEER, Stockholm, Sweden. December, 1910. Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, Hasslemere, England. December, 1909. ALBERT HeEIM, Ziirich, Switzerland. December, 1909. HMANUEL Kayser, Marburg, Germany. December, 1909. W. KILIAN, Grenoble, France. December, 1912. H. RosENBUSCH, Heidelberg, Germany. December, 1910.** EpuARD SUESS, Vienna, Austria. December, 1909. J. J. H. TEALt, London, Hngland. December, 1912. EMIL TIETZE, Vienna, Austria. December, 1910. TH. TSCHERNYSCHEW, St. Petersburg, Russia. December, 1910.% FELLOWS *Indicates Original Fellow (see article III of Constitution) CLEVELAND ABBE, JR., U. S. Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C. August, 1899. FRANK DAwson ADAMS, McGill University, Montreal, Canada. Dec., 1889. GEORGE I. ADAMS, Pei Yang University, Tientsin, China. December, 1902. JosE GUADALUPE AGUILERA, Instituto Geologico, Mexico, Mexico. Aug., 1896. WILLIAM CLINTON ALDEN, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1909. TRUMAN H. ALpricH, Birmingham, Ala. May, 1889. R. C. ALLEN, State Geologist, Lansing, Mich. December, 1911. Henry M. Ami, Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. December, 1889. FRANK M. ANDERSON, State Mining Bureau, 2604 Attna St., Berkeley, Cal. June, 1902. RoBERT VAN VLECK ANDERSON, care W. J. Carr, 32 Broadway, New York, N. Y. December, 1911. PHILIP ARGALL, First National Bank Building, Denver, Colo. August, 1896. RALPH ARNOLD, 923 Union Oil Building, Los Angeles, Cal. December, 1904. GEORGE HaLL ASHLEY, U. 8S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Aug., 1895. “WALLACE WALTER ATWOOD, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Dee., 1909. Rurus MatTuHer Baae, Jr., Lawrence College, Appleton, Wis. December, 1896. Harry Foster BAIN, 667 Howard St., San Francisco, Cal. December, 1895. MANLEY BENSON Baker, School of Mining, Kingston, Ontario. Dec., 1911. S. PRENTISS BALDWIN, 2930 Prospect Ave., Cleveland, Ohio. August, 1898. Sypney H. Batt, 71 Broadway, New York City. December, 1905. ERWIN HINCKLEY BaArRzBour, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. Dec., 1896. ALFRED ERNEST BARLOW, 328 Roslyn Ave., Westmont, Montreal, Canada. De- cember, 1906. JOSEPH BARRELL, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. December, 1902. GrorGE H. Barton, Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass. Au- gust, 1890. 81 Died January 20, 1914. % Died January 15, 1914, LIST OF MEMBERS 109 FLORENCE Bascom, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. August, 1894. Ray SmitH Basster, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1906. Epson SUNDERLAND BastTIN, U. 8S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1909. Witu1AM S. Bay.ey, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. December, 1888. *GEORGE F'. Becker, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. JosHuA W. BrEEpDE, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. December, 1902. ROBERT BELL, Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada. May, 1889. CHARLES P. BeRKEy, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. August, 1901. EDWARD WILBER Berry, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Dec., 1909. SAMUEL WALKER Bryer, Iowa Agricultural College, Ames, Iowa. Dec., 1896. ARTHUR B. Bissins, Goucher College, Baltimore, Md. December, 1903. ALBERT. 8. Bickmore, 64th St. and Central Park West, New York, N. Y. De- cember, 1889. ELI0ot BLACKWELDER, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Dec., 1908. JOHN M. BouTWELL, 1323 De la Vine St., Santa Barbara, Cal. Dec., 1905. JOHN ADAMS BownockeERr, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Dec., 1904. *JOHN C. BRANNER, Leland Stanford, Jr., University, Stanford University, Cal. EDWIN BAYER BRANSON, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. Dec., 1911. ALBERT PERRY BRIGHAM, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. December, 1893. REGINALD W. Brock, Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Can- ada. December, 1904. ALFRED HULSE Brooks, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. Aug., 1899. Amos P. Brown, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. Dec., 1905. BARNUM Brown, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. De- cember, 1910. CHARLES WILSON Brown, Brown University, Providence, R. I. Dec., 1908. HENRY ANDREW BUEHLER, Rolla, Mo. December, 1909. Bert S. Butter, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1912. G. MonTAGUE BuTLER, School of Mines, Golden, Colo. December, 1911. CHARLES Butts, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1912. De LorRME DONALDSON CAIRNES, Geological Survey Branch, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada. December, 1912. FreD Harvey HALL CaLHoun, Clemson College, S. C. December, 1909. HENRY DONALD CAMPBELL, Washington and Lee University, Lexington, Va. . May, 1889. Marius R. CAMPBELL, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Aug., 1892. STEPHEN REID Capps, JR., U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec, 1911. FRANK CARNEY, Granville, Ohio. December, 1908. ERMINE C. Case, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. December, 1901. GEORGE Hatcott CHADWICK, St. Lawrence University, Canton, N. Y. Decem- ber, 1911. Roituin T. CHAMBERLIN, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. December, 1913. *T. C. CHAMBERLIN, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. CLARENCE RAYMOND CLAGHORN, Tacoma, Wash. August, 1891. FREDERICK G. CiLapp, 502 Fitzsimons Bldg., Pittsburgh, Pa. December, 1905. *WILLIAM BULLOCK CLARK, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. JOHN Mason CLARKE, Albany, N. Y. December, 1897. HrrpMAN F. CLELAND, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. Dec., 1905. 110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING J. Morgan CLEMENTS, Room 1707, 42 Broadway, New York City. Dec. 1894. CoLLieR Cops, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Dec., 1894. ARTHUR P. CoLEMAN, Toronto University, Toronto, Canada. December, 1896. GEORGE L. CoLLiz, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. December, 1897. ARTHUR J. CoLuier, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. June, 1902.. * THEODORE B. Comstock, Van Nuys Bldg., Los Angeles, Cal. EUGENE Coste, 1943 11th St., West, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. Dec., 1906. ALJA ROBINSON CrRooK, State Museum of Natural History, Springfield, III. December, 1898. *WILLIAM O. Crosspy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. WHITMAN Cross, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. May, 1889. GARRY E. Cutver, 1104 Wisconsin St., Stevens Point, Wis. December, 1891. EHpagar R. CuMINGS, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. August, 1901. *HENRY P. CusHine, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio. REGINALD A. Daty, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. December, 1905. EDWARD SALISBURY DANA, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Dec., 1908. *NELSON H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. CHARLES ALBERT Davis, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1910. *WILLIAM M. Davis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.’ ; ARTHUR Louis Day, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution, Washing- ton, D. C. December, 1909. ; . Davip T. Day, U. 8S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. August, 1891. BaASHFoRD DEAN, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. December, 1910. ORVILLE A. DerBy, Serv. Geol. & Mineral. d’Brazil, Praia Vermillia, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. December, 1890. IRANK WILBRIDGE DE Wo.LFf, Urbana, Ill. December, 1909. *JOSEPH S. DiILieErR, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Epwarp V. D’INVILLIERS, 518 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. December, 1888. RIcHARD EK. DopeE, Teachers’ College, New York, N. Y. August, 1897. NoAaH FIELDS DRAKE, Fayetteville, Arkansas. December, 1898. JOHN ALEXANDER DRESSER, 10 Forest Ave., Saulte Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada. December, 1906. CHARLES R. Dryer, Oak Knoll, Fort Wayne, Ind. August, 1897. *KDWIN T. DUMBLE, 1306 Main St., Houston, Texas. ARTHUR S. EAKLE, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. December, 1899. CHARLES R. EASTMAN, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa. December, 1895. Epwin C. EckeLt, Munsey Building, Washington, D. C. December, 1905. *BENJAMIN K. EMERSON, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. WILLIAM Harvey Emmons, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. De- cember, 1912. JOHN HYERMAN, Oakhurst, Easton, Pa. August, 1891. HaARoLtp W. FarrBanks, Berkeley, Cal. August, 1892. *HERMAN L. FAIRCHILD, University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. OLIveR C. Farrineton, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Ill. De- cember, 1895. : NevIN M. FENNEMAN, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. Dec., 1904. CLARENCE NoRMAN FENNER, Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1911. Cassius ASA FisuHer, 711 Ideal Building, Denver, Colo. December, 1908. AuGust F.. FoERSTE, 128 Rockwood Ave., Dayton, Ohio. December, 1899. Myron LESLIE FULLER, 185 Spring St., Brockton, Mass. December, 1898. LIST OF MEMBERS 111 UENRY STEWART GANE, Santa Barbara, Cal. December, 1896. JAMES H. GARDNER, Kentucky Geological Survey, Lexington, Ky. Dec., 1911. RUSSELL D. GrorceE, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. December, 1906. *GROVE K. GiLBerT, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. ADAM CAPEN GILL, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. December, 1888. L. C. Grenn, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn. . June, 1900. JAMES WALTER GoLDTHWAIT, Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. Dec., 1909. CHARLES H. Gorpon, University Library, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. August, 1893. CLARENCE EH. Gorpon, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. December, 1913. CHARLES NEWTON GOULD, 408 Terminal Bldg., Oklahoma City, Okla. Decem- ber, 1904. AMADEUS W. GRABAU, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. December, 1898. WALTER GRANGER, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. ~ December, 1911. ULYSSES SHERMAN GRANT, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Dec., 1890. - JOHN SHARSHALL GRASTy, University of Virginia, University, Va. Dec., 1911. Louis C. GRATON, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. December, 1913. HerBert E. Grecory, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. August, 1901. GEORGE P. GRIMSLEY, Geological Survey of West Virginia, Martinsburg, WW. Va. August, 1895. LEON S. GRISWOLD, Plymouth, Mass. August, 1902. FREDERIC P. GULLIVER, 1112 Morris Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. August, 1895. ARNOLD Hague, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. May, 1889. BAIRD HALBERSTADT, Pottsville, Pa. December, 1909. . GILBERT D. Harris, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. December, 1903. -JoHn BurcHMorE Harrison, Georgetown, British Guiana. June, 1902. Curis. A. HARTNAGEL, State Museum, Albany, N. Y. December, 1913. JOHN B. HAsTINGS, 1480 High St., Denver, Colo. May, 1889. -*HRASMUTH HawortH, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. C. WILLARD HAyeEs, Compania Mexicana de Petroleo “El Aguila,’ Tampico, Mexico. May, 1889. Oscar H. Hersuey, Kellogg, Idaho. December, 1909. RicHARD R. Hicr, Beaver, Pa. December, 1903. Frank A. Hirr, 1315 Mahantango St., Pottsville, Pa. May, 1889. *Ropert T. Hirt, Federal Bldg., Los Angeles, Cal. RicHARD C. Hits, Denver, Colo. August, 1894. Henry Hinps, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1912. *CHARLES H. HitcHcocxk, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. WILLIAM HERBERT Hosss, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. August, 1891. *LrvI HoLprook, P. O. Box 536, New York, N. Y. WILLIAM JACOB HOLLAND, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa. December, 1910. ARTHUR Ho.uick, New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York City. August, 1893. . *JosrEPH A. Hortmes, U. S. Bureau of Mines, Washington, D. C. THomAsS C. HopxKins, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. December,: 1894. WILLIAM OTIS HotcuKIss, State Geologist, Madison, Wis. December, 1911. *KDMUND OTIs Hovey, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. *Horace C. Hovey, Newburyport, Mass. fee, PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING ERNEST Howe, 75 Kay St., Newport, R. I. December, 1903. Lucius L. Hussarp, Houghton, Mich. December, 1894. — ELLSwortH HUNTINGTON, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. Dec., 1906. Louis Hussakor, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. December, 1910. JOSEPH P. Ipprine@s, Brinklow, Md. May, 1889. JoHN D. Irvine, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. December, 1905. A. WENDELL JACKSON, 432 Saint Nicholas Ave., New York, N. Y. Dec., 1888. RogpertT T. JACKSON, 56 Bay State Road, Boston, Mass. August, 1894. THOMAS AUGUSTUS JAGGAR, JR., Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, Territory of. Hawaii, U. S. A. December, 1906. Mark S. W. JEFFERSON, Michigan State Normal College, Ypsilanti, Mich. De- cember, 1904. ALBERT JOHANNSEN, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. December, 1908. DouGLAS WILSON JOHNSON, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Dec., 1906. ALEXIS A. JULIEN, South Harwich, Mass. May, 1889. FRANK JAMES Katz, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1912. GEORGE FREDERICK Kay, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, lowa. Dec., 1908. ARTHUR KEITH, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. May, 1889. *JAMES F.. Kemp, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. CHARLES ROLLIN Keyes, 944 Fifth St., Des Moines, Iowa. August, 1890. EpWARD M. KINDLE, Victoria Memorial Museum, Ottawa, Canada. Dec., 1905. Epwin Kirk, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1912. CyrIL WoRKMAN KNIGHT, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. December, 1911. ADOLPH KwNopF, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1911. FRANK H. KNow tron, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. May, 1889. Hpwarp Henry Kraus, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. June, 1902. Henry B. KUMMEL, Trenton, N. J. December, 1895. *GEORGE EF. Kuntz, 401 Fifth Ave., New York, N. Y. GEORGE EpGar Lapp, State College, N. M. August, 1891. LAWRENCE Morris LAMBE, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada. Dee., 1911. HENRY LANDES, University of Washington, University Station, Seattle, Wash. December, 1908. ALFRED C. LANE, Tufts College, Mass. December, 1889. ANDREW C. LAwson, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. May, 1889. WILLIS THOMAS Lek, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1903. CHARLES K. LEITH, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Dec., 1902. ARTHUR G. LEONARD, State University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, N. Dak. December, 1901. FRANK LEvereTT, Ann Arbor, Mich. August, 1890. JOSEPH VOLNEY LEwISs, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. Dec., 1906. WiILuIAM Lipsey, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. August, 1899. WALDEMAR LINDGREN, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. August, 1890. MicgueEL A. R. Lispoa, Irrigation and Water Supply Service, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. December, 1913. FREDERICK BREWSTER Loomis, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. Dec., 1909. GEORGE Davis LoUDERBACK, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. June, 1902. Rosert H. LoueHrivece, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. May, 1889. ALBERT P. Low, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada. December, 1905. -RicHarp Swann LULL, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. December, 1909. 4 LIST OF MEMBERS eS SAMUEL WASHINGTON McCatiiz, Atlanta, Ga. December, 1909. HrzgaAM Dryer McCaskey, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1904. RicHarpD G. McConneELL, Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. May, 1889. JAMES RIEMAN MACFARLANE, Woodland Road, Pittsburgh, Pa. August, 1891. WILLIAM McINNES, Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Ot- tawa, Canada. May, 1889. Peter McKetxar, Fort William, Ontario, Canada. August, 1890. GEORGE ROGERS MANSFIELD, 2039 Park Road N. W., Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1909. Curtis F. Marsut, State University, Columbia, Mo. August, 1897. VERNON F’. Marsters, San Juancito, Honduras, C. A. August, 1892. GEORGE CurTIS Martin, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. June, 1902. LAWRENCE MartTIn, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. December, 1909. EDWARD B. MatHEwS, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Aug., 1895. W. D. MatrHew, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. December, 1903. P. H. MELL, 165 Hast 10th St., Atlanta, Ga. December, 1888. WALTER C. MENDENHALL, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. June, 1902. JOHN C. MerRRIAM, University of California, Berkeley, Cal. August, 1895. *HREDERICK J. H. MERRILL, 624 Citizens’ National Bank Bldg., Los Angeles, Cal. GEORGE P. MERRILL, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1888. ARTHUR M. MILER, State University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Dec., 1897. BENJAMIN L. MILuerR, Lehigh University, South Bethlehem, Pa. Dec., 1904. WILLET G. MILLER, Toronto, Canada. December, 1902. WILLIAM JOHN MILLER, Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y. December, 1909. FRED Howarp Morrit, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1912. G. A. F. MoLENGRAAF, Technical High School, Delft, Holland. December, 1913. Henry Montcomery, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Dec., 1904. Hiwoop 8S. Moore, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. Dec., 1911. MaAtLcoum JOHN Munn, Clinton Bldg., Tulsa, Okba. December, 1909. *WRANK L. NASON, West Haven, Conn. DAVID HALE NEWLAND, Albany, N. Y. December, 1906. JOHN F’. Newsom, Leland Stanford, Jr., University, Stanford University, Cal. December, 1899. WILLIAM H. Norton, Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Towa December,. 1895. CHARLES J. Norwoop, State University, Lexington, Ky. August, 1894. IpA HELEN OGILVIE, Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. December, 1906. CLEOPHAS C. O’Harra, South Dakota School of Mines, Rapid City, S. Dak. December, 1904. DANIEL WEBSTER OHERN, University of Oklahoma, Manes Okla. Dec., 1911. EZEQUIEL ORDONEZ, 2 a General Prim 438, Mexico, D. F., Mex. August, 1896. EDWARD ORTON, JR., Geological Survey of Ohio, Columbus, Ohio. Dec., 1909. Henry F. Ossporn, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. August, 1894. SipnNey Paice, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1911. CHARLES PALACHE, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. August, 1897. WiLuiaAM A. ParKS, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. December, 1906. VIII—BULL. GEOL. Soc. AM., VoL. 25, 1913 114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING *Horacre B. Patron, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. FRepericK B. Peck, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. August, 1901. Ricuarp A. F. Penrose, Jz., 460 Bullitt Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. May, 1889. Grorce H. Perkins, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt.; State Geologist. June, 1902. JosepH H. Perry, 276 Highland St., Worcester, Mass. December, 1888. Oar Aucust Peterson, Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa. December, 1910. WILLIAM CLIFTON PHALEN, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1912. Louis V. Pirsson, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. August, 1894. JosePH HB. Pogue, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1911. JosEPH Hype Pratt, North Carolina Geological Survey, Chapel Hill, N. C. December, 1898. Louis M. Prrnpre, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1912. *CHARLES S. Prosser, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. -WintIAM FREDERICK Prouty, University of Alabama, University, Ala. De- cember, 1911. : *RAPHAEL PUMPELLY, Newport, R. I. Arsert Homer Purpur, State Geological Survey, Nashville, Tenn. Dec., 1904. FREDERICK LESLIE RANSOME, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Au- gust, 1895. : Percy Epwarp RayMonpd, Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass December, 1907. CHEstrerR A. REEDS, American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. December, 1918. Harry Fietpine Rew, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Dec., 1892. Witi1amM Norru Rice, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. August, 1890. JouHn Lyon Ricu, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. December, 1912. CHARLES H. RICHARDSON, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. Dee., 1899. GrorcE Burr Ricuarpson, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D, C. De- cember, 1908. HEINRICH Ries, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. December, 1893. Eimer 8. Ricas, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, Ill. Dec., 1911. JESSE Perry Rowe, University of Montana, Missoula, Mont. December, 1911. RUDOLPH RUEDEMANN, Albany, N. Y. December, 1905. JOHN JOSEPH RUTLEDGE, Experiment Station, Pittsburgh, Pa. Dec., 1911. OreEsTES H. St. JoHNn, 1141 Twelfth St., San Diego, Cal. May, 1889. *ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. FREDERICK W. SARDESON, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. De- cember, 1892. THOMAS EDMUND SAvaGE, University of Illinois, Urbana, Il]. December, 1907. FRANK C. ScHRADER, U. 8S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Aug., 1901. CHARLES SCHUCHERT, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. August, 1895. ALFRED REGINALD SCHULTZ, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1912. WILLIAM B. Scott, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. August, 1892. ARTHUR EDMUND SEAMAN, Michigan College of Mines, Houghton, Mich. De- cember, 1904. j Henry M. Seety, Middlebury College, Middlebury, Vt. May, 1889. Evias H. SELLARDS, Tallahassee, Fla. December, 1905. Joaquim Canpripo pa Costa SENa, State School of Mines, Oure Preto, Brazil. December, 1908. LIST OF MEMBERS ERS GrorGE BURBANK SHATTUCK, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Aug., 1899. EUGENE WESLEY SHAw, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. Dec., 1912. Soton SHEpD, State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. Dec., 1904. Epwarp M. SHEPARD, 1403 Benton Ave., Springfield, Mo. August, 1901. WiLL H. SHERZER, State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. December, 1890. BoHUMIL SHIMEK, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. December, 1904. HERVEY WooDBURN SHIMER, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. December, 1910. CLAUDE ELLSWORTH SIEBENTHAL, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1912. - *WREDERICK W. SIMONDS, University of eae Austin, Texas. WILLIAM JOHN SINCLaIR, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. Dec., 1906. JOSEPH THEOPHILUS SINGEWALD, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. December, 1911. HARLE SLOAN, Charleston, 8S. C. December, 1908. BURNETT SMITH, Syracuse University, Skaneateles, N. Y. December, 1911. CaRL SmitTH, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1912. *HUGENE A. SMITH, University of Alabama, University, Ala. GEORGE OTIS SmiITH, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Aug., 1897. Purr S. SmitH, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1909. WARREN Dv PRE SMITH, Mining Bureau, Manila, Philippine Islands. Decem- ber, 1909. W. S. TANGIER SMITH, Los Gatos, Cal. June, 1902. *JOHN C. Smock, Trenton, N. J. CHARLES H. SMyTH, JR., Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. Aug., 1892. Henry L. SMytH, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. August, 1894. ARTHUR CoE SPENCER, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1896. *J. W. SpeNcER, 2019 Hillyer Place, Washington, D. C. . FRANK SPRINGER, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. December, 1911. JOSIAH FE. Spurr, Bullitt Bldg., Philadelphia, Pa. December, 1894. JOSEPH STANLEY-BRoWN, 26 Exchange Place, New York, N. Y. August, 1892. TimotTHy WILLIAM STANTON, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Au- gust, 1891. CLINTON RAYMOND STAUFFER, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. December, 1911. LLoyD WILLIAM STEPHENSON, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1911. *JOHN J. STEVENSON, 215 West 101st St., New York, N. Y. RALPH WALTER STONE, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1912. GEORGE WILLIS Stose, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. ©. Dec. 1908. Witu1aM J. Surron, Victoria, B. C. August, 1901. CHARLES KEPHART Swartz, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. De- cember, 1908. JOSEPH A. Tarr, 712 Flood Building, San Francisco, Cal. August, 1895. MIGNON TALBOT, Mount Holyoke College, South Hadley, Mass. Dec., 1913. JAMES H. TALMAGE, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. Dec., 1897. FRANK B. Taytor, Fort Wayne, Ind. December, 1895. *JAMES H. Topp, 1224 Rhode Island St., Lawrence, Kans. Cyrus FISHER TOLMAN, Jr., Leland Stanford, Jr., University, Stanford Uni- versity, Cal, December, 1909, 116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING ARTHUR C. TROWBRIDGE, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, lowa. Decem- ber, 1913. *Henry W. TuRNER, Room 709 Mills Building, San Francisco, Cal. WILLIAM H. TWENHOFEL, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. Dec., 1913. MAYVILLE WILLIAM TWITCHELL, State Geological Survey, Trenton, N. J. De- cember, 1911. JosEPH B. TyRRELL, Room 534, Confederation Life Building, Toronto, Canada. May, 1889. i JOHAN A. Uppen, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. August, 1897. EpwArpD O. ULricH, U. 8S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dec., 1903. JOSEPH B. UmMpiLesy, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Dee., 19138. *WARREN UPHAM, Minnesota Historical Society, Saint Paul, Minn. *CHARLES R. VAN Hiss, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. FRANK RoBeRTSON VAN Horn, Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. December, 1898. GILBERT VAN INGEN, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J. December, 1904. THOMAS WAYLAND VAUGHAN, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Au- gust, 1896. ARTHUR CLIFFORD VEACH, 47 Parliament St., S. W., London, England. Dec., 1906. *ANTHONY W. VoGDES, 2425 First St., San Diego, Cal. . *M. EDWARD WaApDSworRTH, School of Mines, University of Pittsburgh, Pitts- burgh, Pa. *CHARLES D. WALcoTT, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C. THomas L. WALKER, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. Dec., 1903. CHARLES H. WARREN, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. December, 1901. HENRY STEPHENS WASHINGTON, Geophysical Laboratory, Washington, D. C. August, 1896. THOMAS L. WATSON, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. June, 1900. CHARLES EK. WEAVER, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash. Dec., 19138. WALTER H. WEED, 42 Broadway, New York, N. Y.. May, 1889. CARROLL HARVEY WEGEMANN, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. De- cember, 1912. SAMUEL WEIDMAN, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, Madi- son, Wis. December, 1903. STUART WELLER, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. June, 1900. Lewis G. WESTGATE, Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio. Davip WuirE, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. May, 1889. *ISRAEL C. Wuite, Morgantown, W. Va. GEORGE REBER WIELAND, Yale University, New Haven; Conn. December, 1910. FRANK A. WiLpER, North Holston, Smyth County, Va. December, 1905. *HDWARD H. WILLIAMS, JR., Woodstock, Vt. *HENRY S. WILLIAMS, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. IrA A. WILLIAMS, Oregon School of Mines, Corvallis, Ore. December, 1905. BAILEY WILLIS, U. 8S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. December, 1889. ARTHUR B. WitmorttT, 404 Lumsden Building, Toronto, Canada. Dec., 1899. ALFRED W. G. WILson, Department of Mines, Ottawa, Canada. June, 1902. ALEXANDER N. WINCHELL, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Aug., 1901. *FORACE VAUGHN WINCHELL, 505 Palace Building, Minneapolis, Minn. *NewTon H. WINCHELL, 501 Hast River Road, Minneapolis, Minn. LIST OF MEMBERS | 117 *ARTHUR WINSLOW, 131 State St., Boston, Mass. JOHN HE. Wo.rr, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. December, 1889. JOSEPH E. WoopMAN, New York University, New York, N. Y. Dec., 1905. RoBertT S. WOODWARD, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C. May, 1889. Jay B. WoopwortH, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. December, 1895. CHARLES WILL WRIGHT, Ingurtosu, Arbus, Sardinia, Italy. December, 1909. FREDERIC H. WRIGHT, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution, Washing- ton, D. C. December, 1903. *G. FREDERICK WRIGHT, Oberlin Theological Seminary, Oberlin, Ohio. GroRGE A. Youne, Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, Canada. Dec., 1905. CORRESPONDENTS DECEASED | A. MicHEL-Litvy. Died September, 1911. FERDINAND ZERKEL. Died June 11, 1912. HERMAN CREDNER. Died July 22, 19138. FELLOWS DECEASED *Indicates Original Fellow (see article III of Constitution) *CHARLES A. ASHBURNER. Died December 24, 1889. CHARLES BH. BEECHER. Died February 14, 1904. WILLIAM PHIPPS BLAKE. Died May 21, 1910. Amos BowMaNn. Died June 18, 1894. ERNEST ROBERTSON BUCKLEY. Died January 19, 1912. *SAMUEL CALVIN. Died April 17, 1911. FRANKLIN R. CARPENTER. Died April 1, 1910. *J. H. CHaPin. Died March 14, 1892. *HDWARD W: CLAYPOLE. Died August 17, 1901. GrorGE H. Cook. Died September 22, 1889. *KDWARD D. Copr. Died April 12, 1897. ANTONIO DEL CASTILLO. Died October 28, 1895. *JAMES D. Dana. Died April 14, 1898. GrorGE M. Dawson. Died March 2, 1901. Sir J. WILLIAM Dawson. Died November 19, 1899. CLARENCE EpwarD DuTTon. Died January 4, 1912. *WILLIAM B. DwicHt. Died August 29, 1906. *GEORGE H. ELpRIpDGE. Died June 29, 1905. *SAMUEL EF. EMMons. Died March 28, 1911. WILLIAM M. FontTaIne. Died April 29, 1913. *ALBERT HE. Foote. Died October 10, 1895. *PERSIFOR FRAZER. Died April 7, 1909. *HOMER T.. FULLER. Died August 14, 1908. N. J. Giroux. Died November 30, 1890. *CHRISTOPHER W. Hatt. Died May 10, 1911. *JAMES HALL. Died August 7, 1898. JOHN B. HatcHer. Died July 3, 1904. *ROBERT Hay. Died December 14, 1895. *ANGELO HEILPRIN. Died July 17, 1907. Davip HoNEYMAN. Died October 17, 1889. *EpwIn E. Howei, Died April 16, 1911, 118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PRINCETON MEETING THOMAS StTEeRRY Hunt. Died February 12, 1892. *ATPHEUS HyatTT. Died January 15, 1902. THomMas M. Jackson. Died February 8, 1912. *JosEPH F. JAMES. Died March 29, 1897. WILBUR C. KnicHT. Died July 28, 19038. RateH D. Lacor. Died February 5, 1901. J. C. K. LAFLAMME. Died July 6, 1910. DANIEL W. LANGTON. Died June 21, 1909. *JOSEPH LE ConTE. Died July 6, 1901. *J. PETER LESLEY. Died June 2, 1903. Henry McCattey. Died November 20, 1904. *W J McGee. Died September 4, 1912. OLIvER Marcy. Died Mareh 19, 1899. OTHNIEL C. MarsH. Died March 18, 1899. James E. Mitis. Died July 25, 1901. *Henry B. Nason. Died January 17, 1895. *PpTerR NeFF. Died May 11, 1903. *JoHN S. NEWBERRY. Died December 7, 1892. WititiaM H. Nites. Died September 12, 1910. *HDWARD ORTON. Died October 16, 1899: *AmMOosS O. OSBORN. Died March, 1911. *RICHARD OWEN. Died March 24, 1890. SAMUEL L. PENFIELD. Died August 14, 1906. Davip PEARCE PENHALLOW. Died October 20, 1910. *WRANKLIN PLATT. Died July 24, 1900. Wittram H. Perrer. Died May 26, 1904. *JOHN WESLEY POWELL. Died September 23, 1902. *TSRAEL C. RUSSELL. Died May 1, 1906. *JAMES M. SarFrorp. Died July 3, 1907. *CHARLES SCHAEFFER. Died November 23, 1903. *NATHANIEL S. SHALER. Died April 10, 1906. RALPH §S. Tarr. Died March 21, 1912. WILLIAM G. TicHT. Died January 15, 1910. CHARLES WACHSMUTH. Died February 7, 1896. THOMAS C. WESTON. Died July 20, 1910. THEODORE G. WHITE. Died July 7, 1901. *GEORGE H. WILLIAMS. Died July 12, 1894. *ROBERT P. WHITFIELD. Died April 6, 1910. *J. FRANCIS WILLIAMS. Died September 9, 1891. * ALEXANDER WINCHELL. Died February 19, 1891. ALBERT A. WRIGHT. Died April 2, 1905. WILLIAM S. YEATES. Died February 19, 1908. Summary Correspondents Sod fee Sa td Panel Pine CUR SS Wt MRL eR Original Mellows =. cee eee ee nce cree ee ee ee eae Hlected. Fellowsii4 s.0 eee ee ee La hi PR nee one taken Membership..... (SBS See ARAN ES cae hl hs Se RES AM dP bi Racy et gd Deceased Correspondents......... BoAsobeongs hos donee as Deceased: Wellows... Gia eccscine tis eee: AH Hoses ths Ao RI ae Ae BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 119-126 MARCH 80, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FOURTEENTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE CORDILLERAN SECTION OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA, HELD AT BERKELEY, CALIFOR- NIA, APRIL 11 AND 12, 1913.1 GrorcE D. LoupERBACcK, Secretary CONTENTS Page eB EMOTO AN ADT sb cies ic 2s Slane eel hete oldies oats Gi eib oat Pala e Utes 120 Some graphic methods for the solution of geologic problems ; ey W.S. Me ubeeten SITialher ner ns Avatar car. ik els «kia eaten see ee oS Oe Sate ain aeleete§ 120 Polarized skylight and the petrographic microscope; by W. S. Tangier Sypunifelnteys ay aear atere! wa elc's' PERI Sale: BULA Ne den aR Gly ocd 120 Apparent limits of former glaciation in the northern coast ranges of CAlifornia [aApstract 5 by Ws SoHlOlWway v.00. eee ais as ae wc cs wets e's o' 120 Variations in rainfall in California [abstract]; by William G. Reed.. 121 Coal-bearing Eocene of western Washington. I. Pierce County [ab- SER ACH MON MV LLL ATIN HT NOMS seat ois ald sco ole suas. ae ehelarcie Se aree aac 121 Nature of the later deformations in certain ranges of the Great Basin; Me ACG tO IGOT Serta sore srs tet ohh lace aiela’s seine welts vo clee wie es siee.e. s 122 BaP can CUTNIT CS ra ais) ay an vel olla. Sate) st ahielig boars Se eeie abe al aol cue'ie simi aed wears oe ece-s. seo S 123 Geology of the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley [abstract]; by MEME MEO GUC IO oe int earthy Maru a se yde Sk oara cre Gh ed g Miaka’ vera, altace 123 Session of Saturday, April 12, HO Tainanthetatena eee lapel ctaPh eich ct tb acaba! aveia at av share Sel Ze Physiographic features of the Haywards Rift [abstract] ; by David M. PID R Te Uppers are ravey aioe sive sh at ave chia oe W oho eilenanauslece, ei a abe deb eile: Mvellelelner Sie oe! eialetw eave 123 Climatic provinces of the United States west of the Rockies [ab- Sled Cnn Divee VV aun eID Gra PRCOCIS oe ro chotersiarcltcee dialeie ase. eisreie is duevsrerere eee seroiels 124 - Occurrence of free gold in granodiorite of Siskiyou County, Califor- nia [abstract]; by A. F. Rogers and E. S. Boundey................ 124 Nomenclature of minerals [abstract]; by A. F. Rogers. Some contact metamorphic minerals in crystalline limestone at Crest- more, near Riverside, California [abstract]; by Arthur S. Eakle... 125 PMC EHOMEOMOUMLCEES caartere sets tes prderehanars aia acer a-cpat ol cyom) vt sie olaben lee Soave eieseca ova ote 125 ' Resistant surfaces developed by erosion and deposition in the arid and semi-arid regions of Arizona; by C. F. Tolman, Jr................ 125 Occurrence of stibnite and metastibnite at Steamboat Springs, Ne- Vile dea paDStractil + Wy derO. MOMEQ. coi els ewig els Ob celedoeluide bebe edt 126 Devonian of the Upper Connecticut Valley ; by C. EE VEtCheoek: 3.27.4 126 PeMiSter Ob tne! ASeTKeley MECUINS os Gere ves Meeec es deedos cee cewoaud ete’ ces 126 1 Received by: the Secretary of the Society July 23, 1913. (119) 120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CORDILLERAN SECTION SESSION oF Fripay, APRIL 11 The Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the Cordilleran Section of the Geological Society of America was held in conjunction with the Pacific Association of Scientific Societies at the University of California, Berke- ley, April 11 and 12, 1913, in room 105, Bacon Hall. In the absence of the chairman, the first meeting was called to order Friday, April 11, at 2.15 p. m., by the secretary of the section. Prof. A. C. Lawson was elected temporary chairman. Minutes of the Thirteenth Annual Meeting were read and approved. On motion of the secretary, it was voted to postpone the business until Saturday, and the scientific program was taken up. The following papers were presented in the order given: SOME GRAPHIC METHODS FOR THE SOLUTION OF GEOLOGIC PROBLEMS BY W. S. TANGIER SMITH Read by title in the absence of the author. POLARIZED SKYLIGHT AND THE PETROGRAPHIC MICROSCOPE BY W. S. TANGIER SMITH | (Abstract ) This paper deals with the effects of polarized skylight in petrographic in- vestigations and the means by which these effects may be overcome, especially by the use of a simple compensator placed before the polarizer of the micro- scope. Read from manuscript and discussed by the secretary. APPARENT LIMITS OF FORMER GLACIATION IN THE NORTHERN COAST RANGES OF CALIFORNIA BY R. S. HOLWAY . (Abstract) It has long been known that certain areas in the Sierra Nevada and the Klamath Mountains of California were glaciated during Pleistocene time. Glaciation in the Coast Ranges proper was first announced by the writer in 1911. The locality is Snow Mountain, 7,039 feet high, in latitude 39° 22’ north and at the northwestern corner of Colusa County. Two reconnaissance trips since then seem to fix the limits of the glaciated area to favorable situations on the high peaks within a triangle roughly bounded by Snow Mountain, Black Butte in the northwest corner of Glenn County, and Hull Mountain in the TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 2a northern boundary of Lake County. The latter peaks are by checked aneroid slightly higher than Snow Mountain. The signs of glaciation included well preserved striz on bedrock, small cirques, and moraines. The glaciated areas were small, the greatest length of any single glacier so far as found being not over 2 miles. Presented without notes and illustrated by lantern slides. Discussion by Lawson, Turner, and Henley. VARIATIONS IN RAINFALL IN CALIFORNIA BY WILLIAM G. REED (Abstract) Wet and dry years have been recognized in California. An examination of the available records for the past 25 years shows that a wet or a dry period is not always State wide. The State may be divided on the basis of the char- acter of the curves of seasonal precipitation and the time and duration of wet and dry periods into three sections. A northern, a central, and a southern type of rainfall variation have been made out from the preliminary study, although there is considerable irregularity at individual stations. The pre- liminary examination shows the necessity of a careful study of all the records in order that the limits of rainfall variation and the areas which are subject to similar variation may be determined. Illustrated by map. Discussion by Turner and Weber. COAL-BEARING EHOCENE OF WESTERN WASHINGTON. I. PIERCE COUNTY BY WILLIAM F. JONES (Abstract) INTRODUCTION Areal extent: General known areal extent of coal-bearing formations. Producing areas: 1. Roslyn field. 2. King County field. 3. Pierce County field. Previous work: 1. Willis (covering entire field), 1882-1897. 2. Washington State Geological Survey (on King County), 1912. Development in Pierce County: Brief description of mines. 1732} PROCEEDINGS OF THE CORDILLERAN SECTION STRATIGRAPHY Willis’ division: Feet Burnett .........---+-- ee Gace AsgopasdoSreosondeaso ace 8,000 +- WV THK OSOM! co oo 5 cya cain dea e cee ates cece sr oieaors rents les veraquteeore tat tie erate 1,200. Carbonado ec eo ee ote ee ae ee eee et cay ea irate 1,300 + . 10,500 + Present division: SUMMA A Second gcand oo Choo Codcsada gecot ee sec edad oss 8,000 + Wilkesom: hie ee iene | Credle MRR a roiled pats, saan Gate, Racket nee vane 950 + Carbon ado cee sek es Ime once ies anaike one ante mere ume eeuer ea 2,300 OW R29 ba vC0Y 1 aR MRSC Ner MEL Gry aoe siclar MIP URAAC INTs ue he aber gata oA Fata 6il 1,400 PORTER ok bc wap etalon te edu nieces ae toustsie oie ole tale tome etna, 2,000 +- 14,600 +- RELATION BETWEEN WILLIS’ DIVISION AND PRESENT DIVISION OF PUGET GROUP Basis of division: 1. Fossil flora. 2. Lithologie. 3. Coal content. CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH DIVISION Correlation: 1. With marine tertiary. 2. With King County field. STRUCTURE OF PIERCE COUNTY FIELD Major system of folding and faulting. Submajor system of faulting. Minor system of folding and faulting. Subminor system of faulting. Relation of major and minor systems. Faulting independent of major and minor systems. Sequence of structural development. Illustrated by maps and sections. Discussion by Taff and Lawson. NATURE OF THE LATER DEFORMATIONS IN CERTAIN RANGES OF THE GREAT BASIN BY CHARLES L. BAKER Read from manuscript by the secretary in absence of the author. Dis- cussion by Turner, Louderback, Bain, and Lawson. Published in Journal of Geology, volume xxi, May, 1912, pages 273- 278, TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 123 An invitation to the members of the Cordilleran Section to attend an informal reception at the home of President and Mrs. Wheeler from 4.30 to 5.30 was read by the Secretary. The meeting, therefore, adjourned at 4.30. ANNUAL DINNER The annual dinner was held in conjunction with the Le Conte Geo- logical Club and the Pacific Coast Section of the Paleontological Society at the Faculty Club at 7 p.m. Friday. After the dinner the question of meeting place for 1914 was discussed, as a session in the Northwest had been proposed. The meeting voted its approval of Seattle, Washington, provided the Pacific Association decided to meet there. The following paper was then read and very generally discussed: GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN END OF THE SAN JOAQUIN VALLEY BY G. C. GESTER (Abstract) The topography of this region is largely the result of an intense folding and faulting accompanied by torrential erosion, commonly found in the semi-arid regions. There is some evidence to offer that this part of the southern San Joaquin is slowly rising. Lying upon a series of granites, schists, etcetera, which are a direct continuation of similar rocks exposed in the Sierra Nevada, are a series of Tertiary sediments and volcanics. The sediments are a direct continuation of the formations exposed in the Midway Sunset district. The Sedimentation becomes generally coarser toward the south and east. An ex- tensive series of volcanics is found associated with sediments of Lower Miocene age. Presented from notes and illustrated by a geologic map. SESSION OF SATURDAY, APRIL 12, 1913 The meeting was called to order in room 105, Bacon Hall, at 9.45, by the temporary chairman, who, being obliged to attend a committee meet- ing, yielded the chair to Prof. A. S. Eakle. The following papers were presented : PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF THE HAYWARDS RIFT BY DAVID M. DURST (Abstract) Described the location of the rift line and the characteristic topography. Illustrated by map. Discussion by Wilcox, Louderback, and Weber. 124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CORDILLERAN SECTION CLIMATIC PROVINCES OF THE UNITED STATES WEST OF THE ROCKIES BY WILLIAM G. REED (Abstract) The State boundaries form an unsatisfactory method of dividing the area for climatic purposes and it can not be considered as a climatic unit. The grouping here suggested conforms more or less closely with the physiographic provinces and seems to be climatically sound. The area west of the Sierra- Cascade crest may be called the Pacific Province; it is characterized by gen- erally mild temperatures and a winter maximum of precipitation. It may be subdivided into the Californian district with dry summers and the Dregonian district with occasional summer rains. Both districts may be further sub- divided on the basis of the annual rainfall. Hast of the Sierra-Cascade crest is the Rain Shadow area; it is characterized by large daily and annual ranges of temperature and generally deficient precipitation. It may be subdivided into the Great Basin district with generally less than 10 inches annual rain- fall; and the Snake River district with 10 to 20 inches annual rainfall, with a spring maximum. Discussion by Weber, Louderback, and Holway. OCCURRENCE OF FREE GOLD IN GRANDIORITE OF SISKIYOU COUNTY, CALIFORNIA BY A. F. ROGERS AND E. S. BOUNDEY (Abstract) An addition to the very few authentic occurrences of original gold in unal- tered igneous rocks. Illustrated by specimen. NOMENCLATURE OF MINERALS ' BY A. F. ROGERS (Abstract) About five thousand mineral names are in use, though there are not more than a thousand definite minerals known. It would simplify the nomenclature if names of varieties, mixtures, pseudomorphs, and isomorphous mixtures were discarded. Minerals are mainly isomorphous mixtures of simple molecules. The name of a mineral would be determined by its predominant molecule, the name being that of the end member of the isomorphous series to which it be- longed. If this suggestion were adopted, such names as embolite and pisanite would be discarded, while some new names would be added. TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 125 It is recommended that mineral analyses be recorded in the form of metal and acid radicals instead of in the form of oxides, and that the molecular ratios be given with the analyses. Presented from notes. Discussion by Eakle, Louderback, and Weber. SOME CONTACT METAMORPHIC MINERALS IN CRYSTALLINE LIMESTONE AT CRESTMORE, NEAR RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA BY ARTHUR S. EAKLE (Abstract) An interesting deposit of white and sky blue, coarsely crystalline limestone occurs at Crestmore on a contact with granodiorite, and various minerals have been formed, some of them very unusual. The paper described xanthophylite, monticellite, brucite, vesuvianite, garnet, wollastonite, and other silicates and contains the chemical analyses of some of them. Illustrated by specimens. The meeting adjourned at 12.10 for lunch. The afternoon session was called to order at 2.25, with Professor Hakle in the chair. ELECTION OF OFFICERS The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: Chairman, J. C. BRANNER. Secretary, G. D. LOUDERBACK. Councillor, W. S. TANGIER SMITH. On motion of the secretary, it was voted to extend a cordial invitation to the general Society to meet in San Francisco in 1915. It was also voted that the secretary of the section when sending pre- liminary notices of the annual meeting should inclose a list of members of the Cordilleran Section, which may be used as a ballot for the nomina- tion of officers. : The following papers were then presented and discussed: RESISTANT SURFACES DEVELOPED BY EROSION AND DEPOSITION IN THE ARID AND SEMI-ARID REGIONS OF ARIZONA BY ©. F. TOLMAN, JR. Presented from notes. Questions were asked by J. C. Jones, Holway. and Moody, bringing out further evidence for the conclusions presented. Discussion by Jones and Louderback. 126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CORDILLERAN SECTION OCCURRENCE OF STIBNITE AND METASTIBNITE AT STEAMBOAT SPRINGS, NEVADA BY J. C. JONES (Abstract) Antimony sulphide is at present being deposited in two forms at Steamboat Springs, Nevada: the one, stibnite, crystallizing in characteristic acicular crys- tals from the water in one of the pools; the other, the red amorphous meta- stibnite, separating with silica from the water overflowing from the pool. An analysis of the water showed both antimony and arsenic sulphides to be in solution due to the presence of sodium sulphantimonite. Illustrated by table of analyses and specimens. Discussion by Hakle, Louderback, and Rogers. 7 DEVONIAN OF THE UPPER CONNECTICUT VALLEY BY C. H. HITCHCOCK In the absence of the author the manuscript was read by title. The chairman of the section being absent, Prof. C. F. Tolman, Jr., was elected to act as his substitute at the meeting of the Executive Com- | mittee of Pacific Association of Scientific Societies. The section adjourned at 4.35 p. m., sine die. REGISTER OF THE BERKELEY MEETING FELLOWS Frank M. ANDERSON GrorGE D. LoUDERBACK Harry Foster Bain JoHN C. MERRIAM ARTHUR S. EHAKLE JOSEPH A. TAFF AnprEew C. Lawson Cyrus F. ToLMAN Henry W. TURNER Visitors and other geologists taking part in the meeting were: EH. P. Carry J. O. Lewis D. M. Durst W. L. Moopy G. C. GESTER W. G. REED A. 8. HENLEY A. F. RoGers R. 8S. Hotway C. A. WARING J. C. JONES A. H. WEBER Witi1AM F. JoNES A. R. WHITMAN G. A. W1Lcox There were also present a number of students and other visitors. Altogether the attendance was as follows: Friday afternoon meeting, 41; Saturday morning meeting, 24; Saturday afternoon meeting, 20. BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 127-156 MARCH 30, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY, HELD AT PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY, DECEMBER 31, 1913, AND JANUARY 1, 1914. R. S. Basser, Secretary CONTENTS ; Page Sessiomvort vWedanesday,. December -31 4... crc gis ce cates Sle cule ce aliscccunssce 129 Presidential address: Cambrian of western North America; by C. D. ea te NRE Neches cy pao chia dmaasecuth ones ac al eal eslola ala oe e¥asahereiene a/alohiet els. s « 130 Symposium on “The Close of the Cretaceous and Opening of Eocene > Men IME OnE “AMOTICA ee 6 ourg sie slots oe ied, clea oS el Oo ete oso a dlevene es 130 ee SOMOS ay, VANUALY: bes.) cso Geiss bbls s Seles swiclia bee wade ces 130 Meee OMe Ol STD OSTUTM pss sa, e's sroidla-e tesla nlgie'e) AW a-elely obi e dlicve eo elves 130 ete rinteOP Te EINE ONUITE CI ve 6 v.54, cy or ste) cielo) oo ooo. ae eo aidiel aie S40 eG a lo doa OW le Gly bale oe 130 REE MIVA SPH OTE Pao ol aiaiey hated te Nar wie ce aileira erates ainla mleuorbrahe a) dele asin lene 6 131 Pre ASUTErS TOPOMi. caw ik Ce Wk eb ad ewe PART Katee aaa te erator By Appompnent of Auditing -Committeé. sic. s 0 ete el Ck ee esac es 133 HMNECEDIONLOf OLLEETS: ANG MEMPELS eek cele bie e Selle wie cee tee ens tides NEGwWabUSINESS ANG ANNOVNGCEMENIS:. 6.) 6 ces aol y ile eee or ecw we ccs e ees 134 Section of Invertebrate, Paleobotanic, and General Paleontology...... 135 Use of crinoid arms in studies of phylogeny [abstract]; by Elvira SONMORE) lore ere reve ater ee che em cbshe ate che el iater Sie fs avers Bieta coun ahuuals ini oh mele encrea 135 Western extension of some Paleozoic faunas in southeastern Mis- souri [abstract]; by Stuart Weller and M. G. Mehl........... 135 Mounting of rock and fossil specimens with sulphur [abstract] ; BREERO HOS LORMAN EL OCU Sites ora wave Set eh a oeaS a alc chore Bare ahd walk wd we akety a lees & 136 Restoration of Paleozoic Cephalopods; by Rudolph Ruedemann.. 136 Some new paleogeographic maps of North America [abstract] ; by eM iee GLAD A. 22 ce. an . pete eee Reasiiefe efeue) atlas aratauss STUhone era Na ahs emaee 136 Devonic black shale of Michigan, Ohio, Canada, and western New York interpreted as a Paleozoic delta deposit; by A. W. Grabau. 137 Lower Paleozoic section of the Alaska-Yukon boundary [ab- SlleACE boar Dive ee ae oo UNION OF rete ray i Marans ee irciatch oceiclahalict e.g eraraidie eves a do 137 Cambrian brachiopoda, a study of their inclosing sediments [ab- SET CE ese yor leisy ols ExT Sino, wo oie mc-c) al ol aa oS oicusiwr wich aber ocdhel Aer sa 137 Calecareous alge from the Silurian; by Fritz Berckheimer....... 137 Cambrian and Ordovician faunas of southeastern Newfoundland [abstract]; by Gilbert Van Ingen... Seka etcrene tele Citi sebetan/evsiee t= « 138 “Laramie” ? Puerco, and Torrejon in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico [abstract]; by William J. Sinclair.................... 138 Phylogenetic development of the hexactinellid dictyosponges, as indicated by the ontogeny of an Upper Devonian species; by OMIA WV es Chawla eects cS ere tetsnas earl a eulea olanseale auc leur iahale: a etsosep “asetars 138 128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY Page Minutes of the sectional meeting of Vertebrate Paleontology......... 139 Final results in the phylogeny of the Titanotheres; by H. F. Os- TOUT aie ob fe ras Sara: Sees eo aoa eae agian red rereale naman ger carclia ranean PRN Ree a 139 Restoration of some Pyrotherium mammals; by Frederic B. TiO OUMIG (oF. 0) bo. 5 44, Soke ay are Uae Rea or IN a SLE oa enn eae 139 Analysis of the Pyrotherium fauna; by Frederic B. Loomis...... 140 New methods in restoring Hotitanops and Brontotherium; by FESR HOSD ORS 3o.5 ee eRe ie Fe apg 2 Bt RA se Da a 140 Structure and affinities of the Multituberculata ; by Robert Broom. 140 J ok 010)1 deacons entire Un Mie glist Os tenn A ALA rare REDS SING Gi a! 5 9 0 141 Skeleton of Notharctus, an Eocene Lemuroid; by W. K. Gregory... 141 Phyletic relationships of the Lemuroidea; by W. K. Gregory..... 141 Restoration of the world series of elephants and mastodons; by Berks Osborne. 2. eae Oe a ie es ee 142 Fauna of the Cumberland Pleistocene cave deposit; by J. W. GGT EY Ose Oe DOSE er GAN SES ko Lh Ce ns ern 142 Rectigradations and alloimetrons in relation to the conception of the ‘‘Mutations” of Waagen; by H. F. Osborn................. 142 Miocene dolphin from California; by Richard 8. Lull........... 142 . New accessions to the exhibition series at Yale Museum; by Rich- AM: Ss GM sik ee pela ooh hay evar elev eNOh etal hie at ec ah aparece Seae Cn Lee eee 143 . New mastodon find in Connecticut; by Richard 8. Lull.......... 143 Notes on Camarosaurus Cope; by Charles C. Mook.............. 1438 Relations of the American Pelycosaurs to the South African dinocephalians s by VRobert Broomiesc ss. cc acme meres 1438 Results of recent work at Rancho la Brea; by John C. Merriam.. 1438 Systematic position of the Mylodont sloths from Rancho la Brea; by iGhester Stocku sien a eae see eae + ic, ly ongoing 143 Geology of the Uinta formation; by Earl Douglass. ............. 144 New Titanotheres from the Uinta formation of Utah; by O. A. JHMM tidan obo cua ooC UUs OG gou C ONC SDC Ten ob ose n OU Od EOE Fe 144 Report of progress in the revision of the Lower Hocene faunas; bye Wie D: MEA EEIOW 6 chee Sat tage SIP” aac tae Mel Se Ae ee 144 Group of twenty-six associated skeletons of Leptomeryx from the WihitesRiver, Oligocenes:byghp Ss RiGsste. sm cea cee = eels Sener 145 Register;of the) Princeton: meeting, 1913) oo OP. os i Ps cei sre ele ee 145 Officers, correspondents, and members of the Paleontological Society... 146 Minutes of the Fourth Annual Meeting of the Pacific Coast Section of the Paleontological Society ; by E. Dickerson, secretary............ 150 Fauna of the Scutella breweriana zone of the Upper Monterey series, [abstractil.e. bys Bes le Clam ig ane wk teu ee eee 151 Fauna of Lower Fernando series [abstract] ; by Walter A. Hnglish. 151 Some West Coast Mactride [abstract]; by Parle Packard....... 151 Observations on the use of the percentage method in determining the age of Tertiary formations in California; by B. Martin.... 152 Geological relations between the Cretaceous and Tertiary of south- ern California [abstract]; by Clarence A. Waring............ 152 Hchinoderms of the San Pablo [abstract] ; by W. S. W. Kew..... 152 Fauna of the San Pablo series [abstract]; by B. L. Clark........ 152 CONTENTS 129 Page Terrestrial Oligocene of the Basin region and its relation to the marine Oligocene of the Pacific Coast province; by John C. NTS TSTSU EDEN etevaia reste ct war Canoes Giic aiianeuwcalieea. of psalecist Woedavevaiia tele ce) eae) oa 8 \8'e, ae ae 153 Faunal relations of the San Lorenzo Oligocene to the Eocene in California [abstract] ; by Roy HE. Dickerson,..............000 153 Vaqueros of the Santa Monica Mountains of southern California Nabstracel by, Eharold:Hanmibals strc. s feels Se) See dew ea ne 6 153 Lower Miocene of Washington [abstract] ; by Charles EH. Weaver. 153 Fauna of the Oligocene (?) of Oregon [abstract]; by F. M. Ander- SMM RM ROR are otate Ata ene a eect ewan aioe Hsin aus at ecelmjaieiui er area Gane wleie Sa eres «6 154 Faunal zones of the Martinez Eocene of California [abstract] ; by vO ares DTC ORSOMM “iio cucly GG atatlas dciese wisus levee ciie! ersga ldo ed eusite) ete co ar erae 6 154 Comparison of the oysters of the lower and upper horizons of the Miocene of the Muir syncline [abstract] ; by William V. Cruess. 154 Antelopes in the fauna of Rancho la Brea [abstract]; by Asa C. OVATE Ther evsa ate erists) sic ud shee ee ud a Bae ETS OO che ae Ola aaa apis ele ee 155 Vertebrate fauna of the Triassic limestones at Cow Creek, Shasta County, California [abstract]; by H. C. Bryant............... 155 Some physical features of Hawver Cave; by J. C. Hawver....... 155 Hawver Cave: its Pleistocene fauna [abstract] ; by Chester Stock. 155 Mammalian fauna of the Pleistocene beds at Manix in the Mohave Desert region [abstract]; by John P. Buwalda................ 156 Occurrence of mammalian remains,at Rancho la Brea [abstract] ; LSM Ost STON CT artes trees eek fi otan nile. tove: Sr. ei8 or sheids es Soap ieera a ave uee.« ePenons 156 Correlation of the Tertiary formations of the Pacifie Coast and Basin regions of western United States; by J. C. Merriam..... 156 Vertebrate fauna of the Orindan and Siestan formations [ab- SEnCEn Dyer Cy WMICTEIAM) cc's icacc scstre-o oie ene ewer srs 6 £ ora aiate'soe 4 156 SESSION OF WEDNESDAY, DEcEMBER 31, 1913 The Section of Vertebrate Paleontology was called to order at 10.40 a. m. in advance of the Society’s first general session. This became nec- essary in order to allow time for the completion of the program, which had been increased at the last moment by numerous papers on vertebrate paleontology. R. 8. Lull was elected chairman and W. D. Matthew secre- tary of the section. The minutes are printed on pages 139 to 145. PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS At 2.30 p. m. a joint general session of the Geological Society of America and the Paleontological Society was held in Guyot Hall to hear the retiring address by the President of the Paleontological Society, Charles D. Walcott, who chose as. his subject IX—BuLL. GEOL. Soc. AM., Von. 25, 1913 130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY CAMBRIAN OF WESTERN NORTH AMERICA Following this address, which was illustrated by lantern slides, Presi- dent Walcott called the Paleontological Society to order, and announced that on account of the general interest in the proposed symposium the business meeting usually opening the Society’s sessions would be deferred until the symposium had been completed. He then introduced H. F. Osborn, who briefly outlined the purpose and scope of the symposium. The speakers and titles of their special subjects were as follows: SYMPOSIUM ON THE CLOSE OF THE CRETACEOUS AND OPENING OF EOCENE TIME IN NORTH AMERICA H. F. Osborn: Introduction. Ff. H. Knowlton: Paleobotanic and geologic evidence.. T. W. Stanton: Comparative geological evidence. At 5.30 the Society adjourned for the day. Wednesday evening the members took part in the annual dinner with the Fellows of the Geological Society of America at Procter Hall. SESSION OF THURSDAY, JANUARY 1, 1914 Thursday morning the Society met in general session at 9.30 o’clock, with the completion of the symposium first on the program. COMPLETION OF SYMPOSIUM Barnum Brown: The Reptilian fauna of the Upper Cretaceous. (Presented by H. F. Osborn.) William J. Sinclair: Geologic and Paleontologic evidence (Mam- malian). | Z W. D. Matthew: Discussion of the fauna of the Paleocene. Upon the completion of Doctor Matthew’s paper a general discussion of the subject was held, with remarks by Messrs. Schuchert, Stanton, Knowlton, White, Lee, Broom, Osborn, and Matthew. At 11 a. m. Vice-President Williams took the chair and called for the report of the Council as the first matter of business on the program. REPORT OF THE COUNCIL To the Paleontological Society in Fifth Annual Meeting assembled: Following the adjournment of the Society on December 31, 1912, the regular annual meeting of the Council was held at New Haven, Con- SECRETARY S REPORT hoe necticut, when nominations for officers for the following year were sug- gested, new nominations for members, and further business were consid- ered. Since this meeting all business of the Society has been arranged, as heretofore, by correspondence. Details of administration for the Society’s fifth year are presented in the following reports of officers : SECRETARY’S REPORT To the Council of the Paleontological Society: Meetings.—The proceedings of the fourth annual meeting of the So- ciety, held at New Haven, Connecticut, December 30 and 31, 1913, have been published in volume 24 of the Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, pages 99 to 132, and distributed to the members. The scientific papers of the Paleontological Society printed during the year by the Geological Society of America and distributed to the members comprise three papers on vertebrate paleontology and two on invertebrate paleon- tology and stratigraphy. ‘Three other papers delivered at the fourth an- nual meeting have been printed or are in press in other publications. Therefore, of 42 papers presented at the Yale meeting and at the Pacific Coast Section only nine have been published. It is, therefore, believed advisable to continue the practice commenced last year of printing in the annual proceedings rather full abstracts of all papers. The Council’s proposed nominations for officers and announcement that the fifth annual meeting of the Society would occur at Princeton, New Jersey, at the invitation of the Princeton University members, were for- warded to the members on March 15, 1913. | Membership.—During the year the Society has lost by death one of its members, Prof. William M. Fontaine, who was well known for his long services as Professor of Geology at the University of Virginia, and for his paleobotanical researches on the Permian and Mesozoic rocks of eastern North America. A sketch of his life has been presented before the Geo- logical Society and will be published as a part of their proceedings. Two resignations have occurred during the year; three members never _ perfected their membership and five have been dropped for non-payment of dues. The 17 candidates elected at the fourth annual meeting have been placed on the rolls, making the present enrollment 161. At this year’s election for Fellows of the Geological Society of America, members Miss Mignon Talbot and Messrs. Gordon, Hartnagel, Reeds, and T'wenhofel of the Paleontological Society were elected to Fellowship. Pacific Coast Section—The Secretary of the Pacific Coast Section of the Society reports that their fourth annual meeting was held April 8, 132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY 1913, in Bacon Hall, University of California, with President F. M. Anderson presiding. The minutes of this meeting are printed on pages 150 to 156 of this Bulletin. Respectfully submitted. WasuHineton, D. C., December 27, 1913. TREASURER’S REPORT To the Council of the Paleontological Society: R. 8. BassiEr, Secretary. The Treasurer begs to submit the following report of the finances of the Society for the fiscal year ending December 24, 1913: RECEIPTS Cash on hand December 21, 1912: 172.075: .3.5-.... Dues (with arrears from 68 members)............ : EXPENDITURES Treasurer’s office: OSCAR E 1. iiieis ete aiene tera teue te ate eis we ieisrerate: clare sonctle ose romans Printin= and stationery. 22)... Sieiees oh eel eee Secretary’s office : PRD OTIS CG sci eal es) ons ican at athe bolts eakew ce Net ay ogis atte eee ere Secretary’s allowance for clerical help......... Geological Society of America: Separates from volume 24, numbers 1 and 2.... Pacific Coast Section, Paleontological Society : Secretary S:G@xpenSesene oka ures hake ius tale anti 4 Dues returned (sender not a member)........ Balance on hand December 24, 1913............... Net increase in funds................ bene e eens OutstamdineiGues sc is cide k Sra eae Areane ee atl Respectfully submitted. New Haven, Connecticut, December 24, 1913. aia ete ra cerene $183.78 Secs ets aaetons 210.25 —— $394.03 $5.41 18.50 $23.91 $51.24 50.00 101.24 SN UAE as 19.85 NSE oe ee 18.20 Ree ge 3.00 $166.20 a taitg paete TA ak is (oe 227 .83 $394.03 sasha Nee bie heiay set he eee 44.05 5g Spare ee hides Soe 27.00 R. 8. Lunt, Treasurer. ELECTION OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS 1:33 APPOINTMENT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE The chairman then appointed John M. Clarke and William J. Sinclair as a committee to audit the Treasurer’s accounts. ELECTION OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS The declaration of the vote for officers for 1914 and for members was the next matter of business and was announced by the Secretary as fol- lows: OFFICERS FOR. 1915 President: H. F. Oszorn, New York City First Vice-President: F. M. Anprrson, Berkeley, Cal. Second Vice-President: F. B. Loomis, Amherst, Mass. Third Vice-President: Rosert T. JAcKson, Boston, Mass. Secretary: R. 8. BasstER, Washington, D. C. Treasurer: RicHarp S. Lutt, New Haven, Conn. Editor: CHARLES R. Hastman, Washington, D. C. MEMBERS-ELECT WALTER A. BELL, 8 Prospect Place, New Haven, Conn. FRITZ BERCKHEIMER, Department of Paleontology, Columbia University, New York City. JOHN T. DonEGHY, JR., 963 Yale Station, New Haven, Conn. ‘ CLARENCE E. Gorpon, Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. MARJORIE O’CONNELL, Adelphi College, Brouklyn, N. Y. Hart L. PAcKARD, 1522 Grove Street, Berkeley, Cal. CHESTER Stock, 492 Seventh Street, San Francisco, Cal, 134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY Epwarp L. TrRoxeLL, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. CLAUDE W. UNGER, Pottsville, Pa. Francis W. VAN TuyL, Department of Paleontology, Columbia University, New York City. CLARENCE A. WARING, Box 162, Mayfield, Cal. NEW BUSINESS AND ANNOUNCEMENTS The following matters of business, which had been considered previ- ously by the Council, were now on request of the chairman placed before the Society by the Secretary : On the nomination of John M. Clarke the Council recommended to the Society that Dr. Henry Woodward, editor of the Geological Magazine, be elected an honorary Fellow of the Society in recognition of his great services rendered to paleontologic science. It was then voted that the Secretary cast the ballot of the Society for Doctor Woodward’s election. The names of William L. Bryant, Buffalo Society of Natural History, Buffalo, New York; Thomas C. Brown, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, and Alexander Petrunkevitch, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, were not considered by the Council for membership until too late to be placed on the printed ballot. The Council, believing that it would be unjust to cause them to wait another year before elec- tion, recommended that they be elected to membership by the members present. On motion, the election of each was made unanimous. The Society had been requested during the year to appoint a repre- sentative on the Supervisory Board of the American Year Book. The Council considered this matter and recommended that favorable action be taken. On motion, Charles R. Eastman, editor of the Society, was elected as our representative. Methods of increasing the value of the Proceedings of the Society to all of the members and of making them of more general interest were _considered by the Council, and it was recommended that abstracts of the important paleontological articles of each year be prepared and submitted to the Society at the yearly meetings for discussion and possible publica- tion. The members voted approval of this action, and the appolyavens of a committee to prepare such abstracts was left to the Council. ‘The proposition that a chapter dealing with the Paleontology of Man be organized in the Society, suggested to the Council during the year, was next submitted to the members. After discussion and an unseconded motion that the title of the proposed chapter be changed so as to be more comprehensive, it was voted to refer the entire subject back to the Council for report next year.. : TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 135 The final matter of business was the consideration of the invitation of the Pacific Coast Section to hold either a regular or extra meeting of the Society in the vicinity of San Francisco during the summer of 1915. The Council suggested that the Pacific Coast Section be empowered to call an extra meeting for this time, which suggestion was formally adopted by the members. There being no further matters of business, the members then pro- ceeded to the reading of papers in two sections: first, Vertebrate Paleon- tology and, second, Invertebrate, Paleobotanic, and General Paleontology. The minutes of the vertebrate section are given on pages 139 to 145. SECTION OF INVERTEBRATE, PALEOBOTANIC, AND GENERAL PALEONTOLOGY The first paper of this section was presented by the author and illus- trated with lantern slides; 25 minutes. Discussed by A. W. Grabau, A. F. Foerste, R. T. Jackson, with reply by Miss Wood. USE OF CRINOID ARMS IN STUDIES OF PHYLOGENY BY ELVIRA WOOD (Abstract) It has been found, in studying the phylogeny of Paleozoic crinoids, that the few young individuals preserved are usually too far advanced in development to show stages in ontogeny which can be used for working out the phylogeny of the group to which they belong.. The student is thus restricted to infor- mation to be obtained from adults. The number and arrangement of calyx plates in the species of closely related genera show so little variation that they do not give definite stages in ontogeny. A study of the arms of crinoids has shown that in some species the arm, from the proximal to the distal portion, passes through a series of stages which, taken in connection with other char- acters, may be used to determine the phylogeny of the group to which the species belongs. The genus Cactocrinus has furnished an illustration of these facts, and the phylogeny of the genus and its relation to Teleiocrinus has been indicated as far as the material available for study will permit. The next paper was presented by the senior author without. manuscript and illustrated by charts, maps, and specimens; 15 minutes. Discussed by Charles Schuchert and John M. Clarke. WESTERN EXTENSION OF SOME PALEOZOIC FAUNAS IN SOUTHEASTERN ; MISSOURI BY STUART WELLER AND M. G. MEHL (Abstract) The Mississippian sediments in southern Missouri in most localities lie un- conformable on formations of Ordovician age, but in Ste, Genevieve County, 136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY in an old synclinal fold, remnants of Silurian and Devonian formations have been preserved. These formations and their faunas will be briefly described, and specimens from the Lower and Middle Devonian will be exhibited. ~ At 12.30 the Society adjourned for luncheon, meeting again at 2 p. m., with Dr. R. 'T. Jackson presiding. The papers on General and Inverte- brate Paleontology were then continued, the first paper being presented by the author and illustrated with specimens and a demonstration; 10 minutes. MOUNTING OF ROCK AND FOSSIL SPECIMENS WITH SULPHUR BY CHESTER A. REEDS (Abstract) During the year sulphur has been used in mounting rocks and fossils for exhibition purposes in the American Museum of Natural History. The method consists of applying a small amount of molten sulphur to the back of the specimen and inserting a modified paper-fastener. To place the specimen on exhibition, a tablet is selected through which a hole can be bored. The-shanks of the fastener are then pushed through and the protruding ends bent down. Both the liquid and the viscous states of molten sulphur have been used. Specimens varying in weight from a few ounces to more than eight pounds have been mounted in this manner and have been kept in an upright position in an exhibition case for several months without apparent change. The following paper was presented without manuscript and illustrated with lantern slides; 15 minutes. Discussed by C. A. Reeds, with reply by the author. RESTORATION OF PALEOZOIC CHEPHALOPODS BY RUDOLPH RUEDEMANN On account of the shortness of time still remaining, the author com- bined the next two papers, presenting them without manuscript and illus- trating them with charts; 20 minutes. Discussed by Charles Schuchert, L. D. Burling, R. 8. Bassler, and Rudolph Ruedemann, with replies by the author. SOME NEW PALEOGHOGRAPHIC MAPS OF NORTH AMERICA BY A. W. GRABAU (Abstract) A number of paleogeographic maps of North America will be shown and the basis on which they are constructed will be explained. Since they differ, as TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 137 a rule, widely from other maps published, the reasons for these differences will be considered. DEVONIC BLACK SHALE OF MICHIGAN, OHIO, CANADA, AND WESTERN NEW YORK INTERPRETED AS A PALEOZOIC DELTA DEPOSIT BY A. W. GRABAU The author presented the next two papers without manuscript and illustrated them by lantern slides; 20 minutes. Discussed by Charles Schuchert, Rudolph Ruedemann, and R.S. Bassler, with reply by the author. LOWER PALEOZOIC SECTION OF THE ALASKA-YUKON BOUNDARY BY L. D, BURLING (Abstract) The section will be illustrated by photographs and vertical sections, with notes as to the character of the paleontological material collected and its rela- tion to the systematic boundaries, the sedimentation in the district, and the correlation of the different sections. CAMBRIAN BRACHIOPODA, A STUDY OF THEIR INCLOSING SEDIMENTS BY L. D. BURLING (Abstract) A careful study of the 579 known species and varieties of Cambrian and related Ordovician Brachiopoda shows: (1) That from about 72 per cent of ‘the localities represented in the United States National Museum brachiopods have been identified; (2) that, dividing the sediments into three groups (shale, sandstone, and limestone), 40 per cent of the genera and subgenera and 74 per cent of the species and varieties appear to have been identified from but one type of sediment; (3) that 44 per cent of the species occurring in more than one type of sediment have been identified from more than one of the three main divisions of the Cambrian, and (4) that after dividing the nearly 1,400 localities into three entirely distinct and unrelated groups there are ‘ obtained for each of the groups and for each of the types of sediment average figures which bear striking mathematical evidence of the reliability of their indication that the number of species per locality, while remarkably uniform, is smaller in shale than in sandstone, and greatest in limestone. The final paper of the program presented by the author was illustrated by specimens and drawings; 10 minutes. CALCAREOUS ALGH FROM THE SILURIAN BY FRITZ BERCKHEIMER The remaining papers, in the absence of their authors, were read by title. 138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY CAMBRIAN AND ORDOVICIAN FAUNAS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEWFOUNDLAND BY GILBERT VAN INGEN i AUHOD) Cambrian and Ordovician rocks aggregating some 10,000 feet in thickness are well developed in the synclinal troughs of Conception and Trinity bays, where they exist as remnants of original wide sheets infolded in the faulted and overthrust synclines of a fiord coast. The Cambrian stages characterized by Holmia, Protolenus, Paradoxides, and Olenus are succeeded by Lower Ordovician shales carrying the fauna of the Welsh Tremadoe, as indicated by the presence of Dictyograptus, Shumardia, Parabolina, and Angelina. These are overlaid by a series of water shoal, ferruginous sandstones, and sandy shales carrying a fauna of inarticulate brachiopods like those of the Armoricain Grit of Normandy. A sudden change from arenaceous sediments with iron oxides to a Shaly facies with iron sulphides marks the introduction of abundant graptolites of the Didymograptus nitidus type, together with thin-shelled Orthoceratites, indicating a depression of the region during Arenig time to permit the passage of oceanic currents. A return to shoal water bay deposits is seen in the higher arenaceous ferruginous zone, which carries Asaphid and Calymennid trilobites and Schizocranian brachiopods. The highest beds of the district are spherulitic hematites, similar to those below, and fine-grain black shales carrying Schizocrania, Lingula leseueri, and Westonia; possibly of Liandeilo age. All the Cambrian and Ordovician faunas observed in the Avalon Peninsula appear to be related to the Welsh-French facies rather than to the interior North American-Northen Scottish facies. “LARAMIE?” PUERCO AND TORREJON IN THE SAN JUAN BASIN, NEW MEXICO BY WILLIAM J. SINCLAIR (Abstract) Near Oio Alamo, New Mexico, a continuous section through the so-called “Laramie” and the overlying Puerco and Torrejon formations is exposed. Fossils are abundant and the stratigraphic relations of the beds absolutely diagrammatic. It will be shown that dinosaurs, which are abundant in the Oio Alamo beds (‘“‘Laramie”’ of the United States Geological Survey), are not found above the marked erosional unconformity which separates the Puerco ~ clays from an underlying heavy conglomeratic sandstone with many voleanic pebbles and much fossil wood. This unconformity may be traced for many miles about the southern margin of the San Juan Basin and may represent an important time hiatus. The position of the various faunal levels of the Puerco and Torrejon will also be discussed, and measured section will be presented showing their position with reference to the unconformity below the 7 Eee above which dinosaurs are not found. PHYLOGENETIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE HEXACTINELLID DICTYOSPONGES, AS INDICATED BY THE ONTOGENY OF AN UPPER DEVONIAN SPECIES BY JOHN M. CLARKE At 4,30 the Society adjourned. 4 TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 139 MINUTES OF THE SECTIONAL MEETING OF VERTEBRATE PALECNTCLGG i W. D. MATTHEW, SECRETARY The section was called to order at 10.40 a. m., Wednesday, December 31, with R. 8. Lull as chairman. W. D. Matthew was requested by the chair to act as secretary, and the meeting proceeded to the reading of papers. The first paper was presented by the author and illustrated with lantern slides; 15 minutes: FINAL RESULTS IN THE PHYLOGENY OF THE TITANOTHERES BY H. F. OSBORN The author reviewed briefly the final phylogenetic conclusions of his mono- graph on this family, pointing out the numerous parallel phyla represented and the remarkable completeness of the series of stages. Exceptions were found in the break between Lower and Middle Eocene stages in the phyla and another between the Upper Eocene and Lower Oligocene. DISCUSSION Professor Scott called attention to the fact that the generic name Menodus used by the author was antedated by Menodon. Professor Osborn replied that this did not constitute preoccupation according to the ruling of the Interna- tional Zoological Congress that names with the different terminals—uws and on—should not be considered as identical. Professor Scott rejoined that this ruling appeared to be untenable, as it might involve an identical family name for two distinct groups, and that the ruling would probably have to be re- seinded in favor of that adopted by the American Ornithologists Union. There was then presented by the author the following paper; 15 min- utes: RESTORATION OF SOME PYROTHERIUM MAMMALS BY FREDERIC B. LOOMIS The author described the skeletons of four types of mammals of the Py- rotherium ‘fauna—Rhynchippus (order Toxodontia), Prosotherium (order Typotheria), Protheosodon (order Liptoterna), and Pyrotherium (order Pyro- theria). He regarded the last as related to the Proboscidea. DISCUSSION Professor Scott remarked on the importance of Doctor Loomis’s work on the Pyrotherium fauna and noted certain interesting features. He dissented from the author as to the position of Pyrotherium, but.postponed giving his reasons. Professor Osborn was inclined to interpret the resemblance between Pyro- 140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY therium and the Proboscidea as parallelism, and cited certain reasons for this view. Doctor Matthew suggested that in order to determine whether these resemblances were to be interpreted as due to parallelism or to affinity it would be desirable to find out to what extent they were also present in similar adaptive types in other orders of mammals, in particular Diprotodon and Arsinoitherium. The author replied that he had failed to find much resem- blance in Diprotodon, and that he regarded Arsinoitherium as also related to the Proboscidea through its Hyracoid affinities. The same speaker then presented the following paper; 20 minutes: ANALYSIS OF THE PYROTHERIUM FAUNA BY FREDERIC B. LOOMIS The author analyzed the fauna according to its apparent adaptation for grazing, browsing, or other habits of life. It appeared to be in large part a grazing, to a less extent a browsing, fauna, mostly adapted to open country, little or nothing of an aquatic or river bottoms element. It indicates that the country at.that epoch was not unlike its present character. DISCUSSION Professor Scott spoke of certain contrasts between this and the Santa Cruz fauna. The rodent fauna was much less diversified. HEdentates, and espe- cially ground-sloths, were very much scarcer. The large proportion of large mammals is a no less remarkable difference. The next paper was presented by the author and illustrated with lan- tern slides; 10 minutes: NEW METHODS IN RESTORING EOTITANOPS AND BRONTOTHERIUM BY H. F. OSBORN The author explained the anatomical methods used in the recent restorations of these animals by the American Museum. There was then presented STRUCTURE AND AFFINITIES OF THE MULTITUBERCULATA BY ROBERT BROOM The author reviewed briefly the principal types of this order of mammals and stated how much was known of each. The recent description of a Ptilodus skeleton by Mr. Gidley and of a fairly complete skull of Polymastodon here announced were important additions to our knowledge of the group. He de- seribed the principal features of the skull of Polymastodon, and stated the results of his restudy of the Ptilodus skeleton. He compared the Multituber- TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS At culates with Marsupials and Monotremes, concluding that they were allied to the latter group, which appear to be degenerate descendants. DISCUSSION Mr. GIDLEY dissented from Doctor Broom’s interpretation of the supposed pelvis of Ptilodus as a scapulocoracoid, giving reasons why he was unable to accept this view. Professor Osborn commented briefly on the importance of Doctor Broom’s contribution. The meeting then adjourned. The earlier part of the morning of Thursday, January 1, having been occupied by a general session of the Society, the Vertebrate section was called to order by Professor Lull at 11.40 a. m. and the program of papers continued as follows:. NOTE ON THE AMERICAN TRIASSIC GENUS PLACERIAS LUCAS BY ROBERT BROOM The author regards this humerus as undoubtedly Anomodont and with much probability belonging to a species of Dicynodon. It is doubtfully distinguish- able from D. (Kannemeyeria) simocephalus Weithofer of the Upper Trias of South Africa. SKELETON OF NOTHARCTUS, AN HOCENE LEMUROID BY W. K. GREGORY The author exhibited photographs of the skull and principal parts of the skeleton in comparison with the corresponding parts of the modern Lemur, pointing out the fundamental resemblances between them and interpreting the differences as mostly due to progressive or divergent specializations in the modern type. PHYLETIC RELATIONSHIPS OF THE LEMUROIDEA BY W. K. GREGORY The author exhibited on the screen a series of photographs of skulls of the principal genera of modern Lemuroidea, pointing out the affinities and struc- tural evolutionary stages in the several groups. DISCUSSION Professor Osgporn called attention to the importance of these researches, which are fundamental to a satisfactory understanding of the affinities and evolution of the whole order of Primates. Doctor Matthew inquired as to the 142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY interpretation of the enlarged rodent-like teeth of Cheiromys (Daubentonia). The author replied that the lower pair were regarded as canines, the upper pair as incisors: RESTORATIONS OF THE WORLD SERIES OF ELEPHANTS AND MASTODONS BY H. F. OSBORN The author exhibited photographs of a series of models of living and extinct Proboscideans recently executed by Mr. Charles Knight under his direction, and explained the basis of certain new features in the restorations of extinct types. The meeting then adjourned. The afternoon session was called to order by Professor Lull at 2.30 p- m., and the program of papers continued as follows: FAUNA OF THE CUMBERLAND PLEISTOCENE CAVE DEPOSIT BY J. W. GIDLEY . The author described the discovery and situation of this cave and the nature and probable origin of the deposit, and gave a brief résumé of the principal types identified in the material secured by his explorations for. the National Museum. DISCUSSION Doctor MATTHEW commented on the interest of certain African types in this fauna and their possible interpretation as relics of a former Holarctic distri- bution. The author regarded this as the most plausible explanation of their occurrence. Professor Osborn also spoke of the importance of Mr. Gidley’s discoveries, and especially of the positive identification of the eland. RECTIGRADATIONS AND ALLOIMETRONS IN RELATION TO THE CONCEPTION OF THE “MUTATIONS” OF WAAGEN BY H. F. OSBORN The author explained the nature of these mutations which are the progres- Sive changes in a phylum in passing from one species to another, having the same relation to geologic time that regional varieties have to geographic space. The mutative changes are of two kinds, either the progressive development of new and disappearance of old characters along certain predetermined lines of evolution (rectigradations) or changes in proportion of different parts (alloi- metrons). MIOCENE DOLPHIN FROM CALIFORNIA BY RICHARD S. LULL The authors exhibited photographs of the fossil skeleton of an extinct ceta- cean recently presented to the Yale Museum. It appeared to be nearly allied to the modern Dolphin, but more primitive in certain features. TITLES AND ABSTRACTS OF PAPERS 143 NEW ACCESSIONS TO THE HXHIBITION SERIES AT YALE MUSEUM BY RICHARD S. LULL The speaker exhibited on the screen photographs of two notable specimens placed on exhibition in the Peabody Museum at Yale, a remarkably complete skeleton of a Cotylosaurian reptile, Limnoscelis from the Permian of New Mexico, together with a model described by Professor Williston and a mounted skeleton of Hquus scotti from the Pleistocene of Texas. NEW MASTODON FIND IN CONNECTICUT BY RICHARD S. LULL A remarkably complete skeleton of Mastodon americanus recently unearthed (on the property of the late Colonel Opoe at Farmington, Connecticut) under his direction. ‘The skeleton is the most complete ever discovered in New England. . NOTES ON CAMAROSAURUS COPE BY CHARLES C. MOOK The author summarized the results of his studies on the Camarosaurus skeleton in the Cope collection and exhibited a photograph of the life-size reconstruction made many years ago under Professor Cope’s direction. The skeleton is a composite representing several individuals; the reconstruction is chiefly of historic interest as the earliest attempt at restoration of the skeleton of a sauropodous Dinosaur. He called attention to the upright pose of the limbs. The genus Camarosaurus did not appear to be separable from Moro- saurus Marsh, which it antedated by some two months. RELATIONS OF THE AMERICAN PELYCOSAURS TO THE SOUTH AFRICAN DINOCEPHALIANS BY ROBERT BROOM The author compared the principal characters of these two groups and con- cluded that they were fundamentally nearly allied, but represented divergently specialized adaptations. Both were offshoots from the main line of reptilia which led up into the primitive mammalia. Doctor GREGORY commented on divergent views that had been entertained as to the affinities of the Pelycosaurs. RESULTS OF RECENT WORK AT RANCHO LA BREA BY JOHN C,. MERRIAM Read by title. SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF THE MYLODONT SLOTHS FROM RANCHO LA BREA BY CHESTER STOCK The author pointed out the great amount of individual variation in the large Series of skulls from this locality, which appeared to indicate that the genus 144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY Paramylodon Brown was untenable. The skulls appeared to be all referable to a single species of the genus Mylodon. DISCUSSION Doctor MattHew noted the fact that the type of Paramylodon and of the recently described species Mylodon garmani Allen were both from the same quarry, and pointed out that the Santa Cruz ground sloths also showed a remarkably wide range of variation in characters comparatively constant in other groups of mammals. On the other hand, the ground sloths of the Pampean formation appeared to have their characters more fixed. Rapid evo- lutionary progress or the invasion of a new environment were possible causes ef this wide range of individual variability. GHOLOGY OF THE UINTA FORMATION _ BY EARL DOUGLASS Presented in abstract by Professor Osborn. NEW TITANOTHERES FROM THE UINTA FORMATION OF UTAH BY A. O. PETERSON Presented in abstract by Professor Osborn. Two new genera of Eocene Titanotheride were described, one of which has already well developed horns. DISCUSSION Doctor GREGORY inquired as to the possible identity of one of the new genera with Diplacodon Marsh. Professor Osborn replied that he presumed that it had been compared and found distinct. REPORT OF PROGRESS IN THE REVISION OF THE LOWER EOCENE FAUNAS BY W. D. MATTHEW The author stated that the revision was based on the large collections secured by American Museum parties in charge of Mr. Granger in 1905 and 1909-1913. Detailed studies of the stratigraphy had been made by Doctor Sinclair and Mr. Granger, and careful record kept of the exact locality and level of every specimen. This made possible a more exact correlation of the different terranes and a division of the Lower Eocene into four distinct faunal zones. else Oe ode eardloe diese 168 SSIS aM LAUISIAM A ss sic. ca ats Gets mw ea ewe de ee ek awh en eee as 170 SEAN thers Steere eee Sa ONS chee Site chine toe Gels a Wines Su ee ww EB eels ok 763 LP VOTE SIE 5.6, Sis Bro ie eta och tach Fes REO RPE ere RIE REN Mannie in cee lan LP a 174 Cotton Culture Reports of the Tenth Census.............ececceeerecenes 176 Py SEATING LSS OTE NAVE IY (CEC a ep a a ea al Pare INTRODUCTORY When attending the summer meetings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science during the past three or four decades, I have been impressed by the fact that the majority of the papers read before Section H were concerned with the phenomena of the glacial drift. The reason for this is not far to seek, since the drift is the surface formation nearly everywhere present in the northern part of the country, and the question of its origin and the relations of its different phases make it a never-to-be-exhausted subject for the exercise of the imagination and ingenuity of the investigator. I have also been impressed by the results and conclusions of the differ- ent geologists as illustrating how doctors disagree. 1 Received by the Secretary of the Society January 17, 1914. (157) 158 &. A. SMITH——-PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY So in our Southern Coastal Plain we have in the Grand Gulf and La- fayette two formations occupying the greater part of its surface, about which our doctors disagree. As regards especially the Lafayette and its origin, some demand a submergence of the coast and a marine deposit; others an elevation and overwash deposit. We have even a denial of the very existence of such a formation by some, who say, like the immortal Betsy Prigg to Sairy Maas concerning Mrs. Harris, ~ don’t believe there’s no such person.” This condition of things illustrates the great difficulty in the way of a definite classification of incoherent sediments devoid of fossils, and should make clear the importance of much additional field study before official sanction shall be given to any one of the conflicting views now EL by competent observers. In selecting a subject for discussion in this address, I have thought it appropriate to give an outline of the pioneer work on the geology of the Southern States as a suitable background for a more detailed account of that part of the field with which I am most familiar, namely, the Gulf Coastal Plain, or Mississippi Embayment, as it has most appropriately been named by Doctor Hilgard. It is obvious, by reasons of the limitations of time and the proprieties of the occasion, that this outline can not be presented in anything like completeness, and that attention must be confined mainly to a few geolo- gists who have been the first to state clearly the problems involved and who have prepared the ground for those who have since occupied the field. Accordingly I shall speak in more or less detail of the work of Safford in Tennessee, of Tuomey in South Carolina and Alabama, of Hopkins in Louisiana, of Hilgard in Mississippi and Louisiana, of Roemer and Hill in Texas, of T. A. Conrad and Angelo Heilprin in several states, and of McGee in the whole area of the Coastal Plain, while I must pass over with mere mention the many who have taken up the work where these pioneers left off and who have themselves made most important contribu- tions to our science. EARLY WRITERS Prior to the beginning of the nineteenth century and during its first decade writers on the geology of the Southern States were comparatively few in number. What is commonly regarded as the first work on American geology is Johann David Schoepf’s “Beitraege zur Mineralogischen Kenntniss des Oestlichen Theils von Nord Amerika und seiner Gebirge,” published in Sie EARLY WRITERS 159 Schoepf’s examinations extended through the Hastern States and as far south as Florida, and he noted the close similarity of the Coastal Plain lands and the occurrence of waterfalls on all the rivers at the boundary between the Coastal Plain and the hilly region to the northwest, thus recognizing the “fall line’ as a physiographic feature of the American Continent.’ The travels of William Bartram, of Philadelphia, through Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia, east and west Florida, the Cherokee country, the extensive territory of the Creek confederacy and the country of the Choctaws, published in 1791, contain, among other things, an account of the geology, soils, and natural productions of this region, although mainly devoted to observations on the flora and on the manners of the Indians. : In an article entitled “The origin of the national scientific and educa- tional institutions in the United States,” by G. Brown Goode,* reference is made to the scientific activities of Washington during his presidency (1789-1797). On page 63 Mr. Goode says: “He sent out with his own hand, while President, a circular letter to the .best informed farmers in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Vir- ginia, and having received a considerable number of answers, prepared a report on the resources of the Middle Atlantic States, which was the first of its kind written in America, and was a worthy beginning of the great library of agri- cultural science which has since emanated from our Government press.” ( Doctor Merrill, in his “Contributions to American Geology,” * tells us that Thomas Jefferson, when he came to Philadelphia to be inaugurated Vice-President in 1797, brought with him a collection of fossil bones from the western part of Virginia and the manuscript on them, which he read before the American Philosophical Society, of which he had been elected president the preceding year. The paper was published in 1799 in volume IV of the “Transactions of the Society.” Baron Alexander von Humboldt, in the employ of the Spanish govern- ment, spent the years 1799 to 1804 in that part of Mexico adjacent to what is now Texas, and in his book, with map, “Journey to the Equi- noctial Regions of the New Continent,” may be found,’ “Valuable, though indirect, contributions to our knowledge of Texas, which he did not visit personally.” According to Doctor Merrill,® “the year 1809 must ever be notable in the history of American geology, since it brought forth Maclure’s ‘Obser- 4 Merrill: Contributions to the History of American Geology, p. 208. 5’ American Historical Association Report, 1899, pp. 53-161. 4Page 213. 5 Bulletin No. 45, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 9. * Contributions to the History of American Geology, p. 217. 160 2. A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY vations on the Geology of the United States, with a colored map of the region east of the Mississippi. ‘“‘With the exception of Guettard’s Mineralogical Map of Louisiana and Canada, published in 1752, it was the earliest attempt of a geological map of America.” During the second decade of the nineteenth century important addi- tions to our knowledge of the geology of Virginia, Tennessee, and Ala- bama were made by Parker Cleaveland, F. W. Gilmer, and the Rev. Elias Cornelius. The map accompanying Cleaveland’s Treatise on Mineralogy and Geology was practically the Maclure map, with a few changes. AMERICAN GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY In 1819 the American Geological Society was organized at Yale Col- lege, with William Maclure president, and among the members many men who were afterwards important contributors to the geology of the Southern States, such as Emmons, Troost, Morton, Lea, and Vanuxem. Merrill states that “this Society, though continuing only to 1828, and publishing nothing and leaving little that is tangible to tell of its exist- ence, was nevertheless productive of much good in stimulating workers throughout the country and leading to the organization of a number of state geological surveys during the decade 1820-1829.” 7 EARLY GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS With the organization of these state surveys the systematic study of the geology of the Southern States really began, and it is worthy of record that in very many cases the state universities were the pioneers in this work and their professors the first state geologists. North Carolina was probably the first state to organize a geological survey, which was done in 1823, with an appropriation of $250 a year for four years, Denison Olmsted, of the State University, being State Geolo- gist. Worthy successors to Olmsted in this important position were Elisha Mitchell, Ebenezer Emmons, W. C. Kerr, Joseph A. Holmes, and Joseph Hyde Pratt, the present incumbent. All these except Professor Kerr and Professor Emmons were professors in the State University. South Carolina followed closely on North Carolina in establishing a State Geological Survey in 1824, with Lardner Vanuxem as director, who was succeeded in turn by Edmund Ruffin, Michael Tuomey; Oscar M. Lieber, and Earl Sloan, whose term expired May 1, 1911. For the re- 7 Merrill: Contributions, etec., p. 239. EARLY GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS 161 mainder of the year Prof. M. W. Twitchell, of the State University, was State Geologist, but after 1911 no provision was made for the continuance of the Survey. The third decade of the nineteenth century was also an important one in the history of southern geology. The first Geological Survey of Tennessee was authorized by the legis- lature in 1831 and continued until 1850, under the direction of Gerard Troost. During this time Doctor Troost made nine reports, two of which do not appear to have been pub:ished. These reports, though short, con- tain, according to Doctor Safford, much valuable material.® Work oF T. A. Conran, Isaac LEA, AND ANGELO HEILPRIN The year 1832 is conspicuous in the geological history of the Missis- sipp1 Embayment by reason of the beginning of a publication by Timothy A. Conrad, the “Fossil Shells of the Tertiary Formations of North America,” the second and third numbers of which were devoted chiefly to descriptions of the Eocene shells of Claiborne, Alabama, with figures drawn by Mr. Conrad. The third number, published in 1835, contained a geological map of Alabama, which, so far as I know, is the first pub- lished geological map of the state. In this map the following formations are delineated: Primary, Carboniferous or Grauwacke, Bituminous Coal, Greensand, Newer Cretaceous, Eocene, and Recent. In November, 1833, appeared Isaac Lea’s “Contributions to Geology,” devoted mainly to descriptions of Kocene shells from Claiborne, Alabama, collected and sent to Doctor Lea by Mr. Charles Tait, of Claiborne. Nearly all these shells were described about the same time by Conrad, as above indicated, and an unfortunate controversy as to priority arose be- tween the two men. The duplication of the names of the Claiborne shells has naturally been a very great inconvenience to later students. The continuation of Conrad’s work in 1838 was concerned with the fossils of the Medial Tertiary, mainly along the Atlantic coast. From 1837 to 1842 Conrad was connected with the Geological Survey of New York and contributed a number of reports on the Paleozoic fossils of that state. | His subsequent work may best be spoken of here, though out of chrono- logical order. § Dr. Alfred H. Brooks, of Washington, has made the suggestion that the prominence given to agriculture in many of the earlier Geological Survey Reports is due in part at least to the fact that the states were fearful of losing much of their population by Migrations to the richer lands of the Mississippi Basin. XI—BULL. GEOL. Soc. AM., VOL, 25, 1913 162 &. A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY He reported on the fossil shells collected in California by W. P. Blake in 1835; on the fossils collected by the Wilkes Expedition; the expedition of Lieutenant Lynch to the Dead Sea; the Mexican Boundary Survey, and the surveys for railroad routes to the Pacific. In the winter of 1842 Conrad accompanied the surveying expedition of Captain Powell to Florida. Besides the Pleistocene formations of recent shells covering both the eastern and western shores of the peninsula, Conrad found at Ballast Point, Hillsborough Falls, and possibly other localities near Tampa Bay, many silicified shells which he considered as belonging to the later Eocene, and he expresses the opinion that the prevalent limestone of Florida, extending throughout the peninsula as far south at least as Tampa Bay, will be included in this division—that is, later Hocene.® | This prediction has been abundantly verified by later observations. Between, 1842 and 1873 Conrad was a frequent contributor to the American Journal of Science and to the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy of Science and to the Journal of Conchology. His articles, while mainly descriptive of new species of Eocene shells, yet contain many valuable stratigraphical notes. One of his latest contributions was ““New Species of Fossil Shells of North Carolina,” published in Professor Kerr’s Geological Report of that state in 1875. He died in 1877. Concerning Conrad’s personality, his mode of work, and the chief events of his life, much can be learned from the Biographical Sketch by Dr Weel Dallete | His “Contributions to the Tertiary Paleontology of the Gulf Region” probably will remain always among the most important of the publica- tions in this field. Angelo Heilprin was another member of the group of Philadelphia geologists who made important contributions to the knowledge of the Coastal Plain. Besides publishing between 1873 and 1891 a number of papers on the paleontology of the Tertiary formations and a memoir, en- titled “Contributions to the Tertiary geology.and paleontology of the United States,” he published in his “Explorations on the west coast of Florida and in the Okeechobee wilderness” ** the first account of the Floridian Phocene. The value of this discovery is thoroughly recognized by all students of Coastal Plain geology. 3 The work thus begun by Conrad and Heilprin has been worthily con- ®Am. Jour. Sci., 2d series, vol. 2, 1846, p. 47. 10 Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. iv, pp. 112-114. 4. Wagner Free Inst. Sci., vol. 1, 1887. FEATHERSTONHAUGH S RESEARCHES 163 tinued by Dr. W. H. Dall, T. H. Aldrich, and Gilbert D. Harris, but an account of these later works falls outside the scope of the present paper. RESEARCHES OF G. W. FEATHERSTONHAUGH In 1834-1835 G. W. Featherstonhaugh, as government geologist, made a reconnaissance of the elevated country between the Missouri and Red rivers, which embraced the Ozark region of Arkansas and extended to the present eastern border of Texas. His report (1835) on this trip has mainly a historical interest. LYELL’s VISITS Sir Charles Lyell’s two visits to the United States gave undoubtedly a great stimulus to the study of geology in this country. On his first visit, in 1841, he went as far south as Savannah, Georgia, but on the second visit, 1845, he went west to New Orleans and thence up the Mississippi River to Memphis, Tennessee. _ From every important town on his route he made side excursions by private conveyance, in this way making a fairly full reconnaissance of much of the southern country. While in Tuscaloosa he was under the guidance of Professor Brumby, then professor of chemistry, mineralogy; and geology in the University of Alabama. Professor Brumby had already made considerable study of the geological formations about Tuscaloosa and was well qualified to point out to Mr. Lyell the most important features. It was on the occasion of an excursion into the coal regions to the northward of Tuscaloosa that the party foregathered with Mr. David Boyd, an intelligent but independent farmer, who was telling how he and his neighbors got coal by prying it up from the bottom of the river and loading it by hand into boats. Mr. Lyell contended that this was impossible, since coal was so easily eroded that its outcrop in the bed of the river would be covered by other debris. “T don’t know how it is in the books,” said the native, “but I’ll be hanged if it aint that way in the river.” Inside the coffer dam around lock 17 on the Warrior River, I saw last summer in the rock-bottom of the river thus laid dry the outcrop of a bed of coal crossing the river just as Mr. Boyd had described it. A method of getting coal to a market in those early days was to build a barge on the river bank near a coal outcrop, load it with coal during the summer and fall months, and when the river would rise after the winter rains the barge would be floated off and piloted down the river, sometimes as far as Mobile. But very often in going over the shoals above Tusca- 164 4. A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY loosa, and especially over the Squaw Shoals, where there is a fall of more than 50 feet in a distance of about 5 miles, the barges were wrecked and the coal dumped into the river. Near the foot of Squaw Shoals, 25 miles above Tuscaloosa, lock 17 is now well advanced toward completion, a work which in magnitude approaches the locks of the Panama Canal. The lift of 64 feet will give deep water into the territory of the Pratt and Mary Lee seams in the Birmingham district. ; To these visits of Sir Charles Lyell we are indebted for a number of exceedingly valuable papers on the geology of the Southern States. Some of the most important of these are “On the Coal Fields of Alabama,” 1? “On the Newer Deposits of the Southern States of North America,” 12 “On the Eocene of Georgia and Alabama,” +4 “On the Delta and Alluvial Deposits of the Mississippi River.” ** This latter paper contains an ac- count of the Mudlumps of the Delta and of the stump stratum of Port Hudson. “On the Relative Age of the Nummulitic Limestone of Ala- bama,” 7° in which paper he correctly locates the Zeuglodon bed, below the Nummulitic limestone and above the Claiborne. LATER GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS AND STUDIES TEXAS The travels of Bartram and of Baron von Humboldt in the territory now embraced in Texas have already been spoken of. In 1838 the British government sent William Kennedy on a diplomatic mission to the young Republic of Texas. While there he studied closely the topography, natural history, and geology of the country, and on his return to England he published, in 1841, his “Texas” in two volumes, with carefully compiled topographic map. This work contains an account of the natural and political history of Texas and the first scientific de- scription of the region, based on personal observation.?7 In December, 1843, Dr. Ferdinand Roemer came to Texas primarily to study its adaptation to German settlement. He remained in the state until April, 1847. The results of this study appeared in two prelimi- nary papers, published in this country under the titles “A Sketch of the Geology of Texas” ** and “Contributions to the Geology of Texas,” 1° and #2 Am. Jour. Sci., 2d series, vol. 1, 1846, pp. 371-376. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. ii, 1846, pp. 278-282. 13 Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., vol. li, 1846, pp. 405-410. 14 Am. Jour. Sci., 2d series, vol. 1, 1846, pp. 313-315. 16 Am. Jour. Sci., 2d series, vol. 3, 1847, pp. 34-39. 16 Am. Jour. Sci., 2d series, vol. 4, 1847, pp. 186-191. 1” Hill: Bulletin No. 45, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 13.- 18 Am. Jour. Sci.,.2d series, vol. 2, 1846, pp. 358-365. _ : 19 Am. Jour. Sci., 2d series, vol. 6, 1848, pp. 21-28. : Fe Rae TEXAS GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 165 in two important volumes, published in Germany, with the following titles as translated: “Texas, with especial reference to German emigra- tion and the physical condition of the country, based on personal observa- tions, with geological map,” Bonn, 1849; and “The Cretaceous Formation of Texas and its organic remains, with a description of the Tertiary and Paleozoic strata appended,” Bonn, 1852. These volumes, according to Hill,?° contain the first purely scientific discussions of Texas, excelling in accuracy and fullness many of the de- scriptions since published; and the “Cretaceous Formation of Texas,” though published in 1852, still remains the only seem grey devoted entirely to the geology of the state. Texas has also been fortunate in lying across routes surveyed by Federal expeditions, the most important of which are: First. Captain Marcy’s survey of the Red River of Louisiana, the results of which were published _ in 1854, with reports on the geology of the route by Dr. G. G. and Dr. B. F. Shumard. Second. Maj. W. H. Emory’s “Mexican Boundary Sur- vey,’ published in 1857, and including papers on the geology by Schott, Hall, and Conrad, Third. “Surveys of Routes for Railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific,” published in 1856. Two of these routes crossed parts of Texas, namely, the 35th parallel survey, conducted by Lieutenant Whipple, with Mr. Jules Marcou as geologist, and that along the 32d parallel, conducted by Capt. John Pope. Mr. Marcou wrote pre- liminary reports on the geology and paleontology of the 35th parallel survey, but by reason of a misunderstanding between himself and the Secretary of War the final report was written by Mr. W. P. Blake. In 1853 appeared “Sketch of a geological map of the United States,” by Professor Marcou, and in 1858 his “Geology of North America,” includ- Ing an edition of the geological map of the United States above men- tioned. It is not necessary here to speak of the controversies between Professor Marcou and a number of other geologists about some of the correlations published in this work. The last of the Federal expeditions was conducted by Capt. John Pope, in 1857 and 1858, for the purpose of boring artesian wells on the plains. This expedition was accompanied by Dr. G. G. Shumard as geologist. In 1886 Robert T. Hill began his studies of the geology of the Arkan- sas-Texas region, in connection with the United States Geological Survey and with the University of Texas, where he was for some years Professor of Geology. As a result of this work, which occupied most of his time until 1904, a great system was added to the Cretaceous of Texas, as it was known in 20 Bulletin No, 45, U. S. Geological Survey, pp. 15-18, 166 &. A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY the time of his distinguished predecessor, Roemer, and the stratigraphy of the component formations was accurately deciphered. He extended his researches into Mexico, and we owe to him much of our knowledge of the geology of that country. He was later associated with Alexander Agassiz in explorations of Cen- tral America and the West Indies. His publications on these countries, besides describing local geologic conditions, have an important bearing on the correlation of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of the Mediter- ranean region of the Western Hemisphere. The following estimate of the work of Mr. Hill is given by one who is perhaps most familiar with it: “The most important contribution of Mr. Robert T. Hill to Southern States Geology, in my opinion, is his discovery of the true sequence of the Cretaceous formations of the Texan-Arkansan region, the recognition of the Balcones fault and the relations of the physiographic features accompanying it, and the dis- crimination between the Upper Cretaceous (Gulf series) and the Lower Cre- taceous (Comanche series). The Comanche series is considered so important by Chamberlin and Salisbury and Schuchert that they separate it from what they consider the Cretaceous proper (Upper Cretaceous), and give to each equal value as a system. His studies of river terraces were among the first eareful investigations of that kind in this country. His contributions to the geology of Mexico, Panama, Costa Rica, and the West Indies were important. In fact wherever he went he made valuable additions to the fund of geologic information. He is perhaps the first reconnaissance geologist of this day. Hill possesses a synthetic mind and has been able to bring information gleaned from a variety of fields and diverse lines of research to bear on the interpreta- tion of problems of geologic history, and has illuminated all subjects that he has handled.” It would lead us too far to speak in detail of the Texas geological sur- veys as conducted by Shumard, Moore, Buckley, Dumble, Phillips, and others. ARKANSAS Featherstonhaugh’s reconnaissance of 1834 and 1835, embracing part of Arkansas, has already been referred to. In 1857 the first Geological Survey of Arkansas was inaugurated, with Dr. David Dale Owen as State Geologist. His first report was published in 1858. Doctor Owen died in 1860. His second report, edited by his brother, Robert Dale Owen, was published in that year. Between 1868 and 1875 several state geologists were appointed, but no reports were prepared and very little accomplished—a circumstance which may be attributed to the general demoralization of the state government during the Reconstruction period. After an interruption of twelve years ARKANSAS AND TENNESSEE GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS 167 the Survey was revived. Dr. John C. Branner was appointed State Geologist, and served in this capacity to the end of the term set by the legislature, namely, 1893. Time will not permit of more than a passing mention of the splendid reports of Doctor Branner and his colleagues and those of Prof. A. H. Purdue, his successor, who, as Professor of Geology in the State Univer- sity, was by legislative act made State Geologist, ex officio, in 1907. So also we must pass over the excellent work of Gilbert Harris and A. C. Veatch in southern Arkansas and adjacent parts of Louisiana. TENNESSEE Mention has already been made of the first Geological Survey of Ten- nessee, 1831-1850. A second survey was authorized by the legislature of 1854 and Dr. James M. Safford was appointed State Geologist. Doctor Safford published a preliminary report in 1856. In February, 1860, it was thought desirable to publish a full report on the geology of the state so far as it was practicable to do so, and this report was begun then, but the war came on before the work had progressed very far and put a stop to it. In 1868 the legislature again authorized the preparation of the full report, which was published, with geological map and some illustra- tions, in 1869. Doctor Safford continued nominally as State Geologist, but without appropriations, until a few years before his death, which occurred on July 3, 1907. In his final report Doctor Safford treats in Part I of the physical fea- tures of the state; in Part II of the geological structure and formations ; in Part III of the minerals and rocks of special use, and in Part IV of the soils and agricultural features. While the Doctor states that this report is not a complete presentation of the geology of Tennessee, but rather an introduction to such a presentation, it still remains one of the best of the state reports either north or south. Doctor Safford was one of the agents of the Tenth Census in 1880, and prepared the reports on Tennessee and Kentucky for the Cotton Culture Division directed by Doctor Hilgard. In the reports of the United States Geological Survey covering the domain of Tennessee, one looks in vain for many of the familiar names given by Doctor Safford. The “Knox Dolomite,’ I believe, has survived. Now, while “‘a rose by any other name may smell as sweet,” there is yet much in a name to recall the excellence of this early work, and I think we honor ourselves in honoring the pioneer. How much would easily be possible in this direction by a great organization with autocratic power. A third Survey was authorized by the legislature in 1909. Dr. George 168 m8. A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY H. Ashley was appointed State Geologist, with Professors L. C. Glenn and C. H. Gordon as assistants. On the resignation of Doctor Ashley, in | 1912, Prof. A. H. Purdue, of Arkansas, the present incumbent was ap- pointed his successor. SOUTH CAROLINA AND ALABAMA Prof. Michael Tuomey succeeded Edmund Ruffin as State Geologist of South Carolina in 1844 and published his first report in November of the same year. His second and final report appeared in 1848. Meanwhile, in 1847, he was called to the University of Alabama as Professor of Geology, Mineralogy, and Agricultural Chemistry, with the stipulation that he should spend each year a part of his time in geological explora- tions in the state. In accordance with this arrangement he immediately began field studies, publishing in the newspapers of Tuscaloosa such ex- tracts from his notes as might be of general interest. In recognition of this effort, the state legislature in January, 1848, appointed him State Geologist, without salary, and requested him to make to that body a re- port of his work for publication by the state. Thus was begun the first Geological Survey of Alabama. In 1849 Professor Tuomey presented to the legislature his first report, which was published in 1850 by the state. The geological map, however, appeared later. He continued his explorations at the expense of the University of Ala- bama, from 1848 to 1853. In 1854 the legislature of Alabama passed an act providing for a geological and agricultural survey of the state and appropriating funds for the salary of the State Geologist and for the expenses of the Survey. Professor Tuomey was continued as State Geolo- gist, and, until his death in 1857, devoted his entire time to the Survey. His office was at the University of Alabama, where he occasionally deliv- ered a course of lectures. The second report was ordered to be printed in 1856, but was not published until 1858. It included a second zeological map of the state. In these two reports, with accompanying maps, the - geologic subdivisions of Alabama were quite accurately defined and the future importance of the coal and iron deposits of the state clearly fore- told. Concerning Tuomey’s work in South Carolina, the editor of the Amer- ican Journal of Science in an obituary notice** says: “In his survey of South Carolina he brought out many facts of prominent interest, illus- trating important principles in the geology of the continent and the his- tory of seashore deposits.” The treatise of Tuomey and Holmes on the fossils of South Carolina was a work far in advance of its time. #2 Am. Jour. Sci., 2d series, vol. 23, March 30, 1857, p. 448. SOUTH CAROLINA AND ALABAMA GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS 169 Those of us who have followed Tuomey in Alabama realize most fully the comprehensive grasp he had of the geology of the state. No one but a master of the subject could have accomplished what he did in so limited. a time. His reports, after a lapse of more than fifty years, are still con- sulted. His successors have been mainly occupied in filling in with details the outline which he gave. He was a man of great information, and his memory was stored with instructive facts and amusing anecdotes. “These qualities, joined to the manners of a finished gentleman of the old school, and a manly, dignified presence, made him a most agreeable companion. “As a teacher, Professor Tuomey possessed in a remarkable degree the fac- ulty of interesting the student, and those even who cared little for the subject- matter of his lectures were attracted by his style and found both entertain- ment and instruction in his discourses. His native Irish wit did much to render his lectures entertaining, especially to those who were not the victims of it, for it must be admitted that he did not always spare the feelings of the student at whose expense he could make a good point. He was particularly unmerciful in his rebukes and exposures of shams and affectations. “The quality which attracted the students in his lectures makes his geological reports very interesting reading. One of the elements contributing perhaps most to this interest is the impression conveyed that the author is speaking out of the fullness of his knowledge.” ” Suffering from the malady which, on the 30th of March, 1857, termi- nated his life, Professor Tuomey came from Mobile to Tuscaloosa by steamboat, on the arrival of which there was a great number of the citi- zens of Tuscaloosa assembled at the wharf to meet him. As the proces- sion of carriages wound its way up the hill from the river, Professor Tuomey looked out of his carriage window at the long line, remarking that he was probably the first man to be a living witness of his own funeral procession. After the death of Professor Tuomey, the Civil War and the resulting Reconstruction problems overshadowed all other subjects, and no geologic work was carried on by the state until 1873. During this interval, how- ever, a Commissioner of Industrial Resources was one of the regular offi- cers of the state, and four short pamphlets were issued from his office between 1869 and 1874. In 1871 the University of Alabama, on its reorganization, again took the lead in geologic investigations by authorizing the Professor of Geology in that institution to spend a part of his time in geologic field work. 22 Hugene A. Smith: Sketch of the life of Michael Tuomey. American Geologist, vol. xx, 1897. 170 4b. A. SMITH——PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY In 1873 the legislature passed an act to revive and complete the Geo- logical and Agricultural Survey of the state, appointed Prof. Eugene A. Smith, of the University of Alabama, State Geologist, and made a small appropriation for a period of ten years for the expenses of the Survey. The State Geologist received no salary from the state during this period. For most of this time Prof. Henry McCalley was assistant on the Sur- vey, serving also without pay except from the University. In 1883 and again in 1891 the appropriations for the Survey were increased and sala- ries for State Geologist and assistants provided for. During this period, from 1873 to the present time, about forty reports and maps have been issued by the Survey. MISSISSIPPI AND LOUISIANA The organization of the first Mississippi Geological Survey. followed close on that of Alabama, the act taking effect early in 1850. Prof. John Millington, of the University of Mississippi, was the first State Geologist, though the first report was made by his assistant, Prof. B. L. C. Wailes, afterwards State Geologist. In 1853 Wailes was succeeded by Lewis Harper. In 1855 the position of assistant to Harper was offered to Eugene W. Hilgard, then just returned from a European university (Heidelberg), and thus began the career of the most distinguished worker in Gulf Coastal Plain Geology. It is worth recording that Doctor Hilgard accepted this position “amid the sincere condolences of his scientific friends on his assignment to so uninteresting a field, where the Paleozoic formations (then occupying almost exclusively the minds of American geologists) were unrepresented.” The fame which Hilgard has won for himself in this “uninteresting” field is known to all geologists. He has laid the foundation on which most subsequent work in the “Mississippi Embayment,” as he named it, securely rests, and after the lapse of more than fifty years since the publi- cation in 1860 of his report his work is appreciated and referred to as authoritative not only by the farmers and other citizens of that state, but by the geologists who have succeeded him. He became State Geologist early in 1857, which position he held, at least nominally, until 1872, with the exception of a few years between 1866 and 1870, when Dr. George Little was the director. From the beginning of his connection with the State Survey, Hilgard saw that it could never maintain itself in the public esteem on the basis of mineral discoveries alone, and that it must seek its main support in what services it might render to agriculture. He accordingly made a point of paying particular attention to the surface features—vegetation, MISSISSIPPI AND LOUISIANA GEOLOGICAL SURVEYS LayAL soils, water supply, and marls. In the prosecution of these studies the close connection between the surface vegetation and the underlying for- mations became so striking that he was soon largely able to avail himself of this vegetation in tracing out the lhmits of adjacent formations and in | searching for outcrops. In our studies of the Coastal Plain of Alabama your present speaker and his associate, Daniel W. Langdon, have time and again found that this method of geologizing is by no means to be neglected or held in slight esteem. In the 1860 report, about evenly divided between agricultural and geology, chemical analyses of typical soils of the several agricultural re- gions are given, along with discussions and estimates of their cultural value as indicated by these analyses considered in connection with the native vegetation. MHilgard’s later studies of these relations, carried out in the preparation of the Cotton Culture Reports of the Tenth Census, and during many years of research in California, seem to have established the right of soil analysis to be considered as an essential and often de- cisive factor in the estimation of the cultural value of virgin soils. The geological half of the report presents the geology of Mississippi practically as it is known at the present day, except as to the fixing of the age of the Port Hudson beds, as below mentioned, and the investiga- tion of the geology of the Mississippi bottom from Memphis to Yazoo City, and the tracing of the Lower Claiborne formation westward to the border of this bottom. The two latter were assigned to me and carried out in 1870 and 1871. These additions and revisions are shown on a map of Mississippi published by T. S. Hardy, state engineer, in 1872, and reproduced, with some slight changes, in the peel accompanying the report of Hckel and Crider in 1907.?8 In 1867, under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1869, under the auspices of the New Orleans Academy of Sciences, oppor- tunity was given to Doctor Hilgard to extend his researches down the Mississippi River to the passes and through Louisiana in a thirty-day reconnaissance trip. In these excursions the post-Pliocene age of the Port Hudson “stump stratum” and, by inference at least, its extension from the Sabine River to Mobile Bay were definitely determined, and the Coast Pliocene of the 1860 map was changed to Port Hudson. The re- sults of these expeditions may be summarized as follows: 1. The outlining of the Mississippi Embayment in Louisiana and Mississippi. — * Mississippi Geological Survey, Bulletin No. 1. 172 4. A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY 2. The outline geological study and mapping of these two states. He was the first to give a clear and definite account of the origin and dis- tribution of the surface formation which he called Orange Sand, but which later by agreement has received the name Lafayette. While some ques- tion has arisen during the last few years as to the appropriateness of the name Lafayette, I think time will confirm Hilgard’s conclusions as to the existence of a surface formation over the area of the Gulf Coastal Plain, by whatever name it be called, and as to the general mode of its accumu- lation. So, also, he was the first to give a definite account of the great series of river and estuarine deposits, the Grand Gulf, representing, as he claimed, all geological time between the Vicksburg and the Lafayette, although no recognizable fossils had been observed by him. The finding in the last few years of beds containing leaf impressions in various parts of this territory and their identification as Lower Oligo- cene, Upper Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene, respectively, appear to demonstrate the correctness of Hilgard’s original conclusion, and the name Grand Gulf will probably stand or should stand not perhaps as a formation name, but as the collective name of a very definite and appar- ently unique type of Coastal Plain sediments, or shall I say Mississippi River sediments ? 3. The recognition of the Cretaceous Ridge or harwiione of Louisiana, from Lake Bistineau to the chain of Salt Islands, and the determination (inferential) of the Cretaceous age of the rock-salt and sulphur deposits of Calcasieu parish. 4. Study of the exceptional features of the Lower Mississippi delta and of the mud lumps and their origin and the definite correlation of the Port Hudson formation. | This work on the Mississippi delta mainly secured for him member- ship in the National Academy of Sciences. The geology and other natural features of Louisiana have been treatell incidentally by numerous authors, such as Bartram, Maclure, Conrad, and Lyell, above mentioned, and by W. M. Carpenter, 1838; C. Peck, 1851, and C. G. Forshey, 1853; but R. Thomassy’s “Geologie Pratique de la Louisiane,” 1860, with its supplement, 1863, is the first pee treatise on the topography and geology of the state. In March of 1869 the Louisiana State Geological and Topoe eae Survey was inaugurated under the auspices of the State Seminary, sub- sequently the Louisiana State University. The first explorations of Dr. F. V. Hopkins, geologist, followed close on Hilgard’s reconnaissance, and his first report for 1869 in like manner followed close on Hilgard’s pre- GEORGIA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Iie liminary report of his reconnaissance, published the same year. The supplementary and final report of Hilgard’s reconnaissance was published in 1872, by which time three reports had been issued by Doctor Hopkins, of the Louisiana Survey. In these Hilgard found many confirmations of his conclusions and many observations supplementary to his own. Of the excellent work of Lerch, Clendenin, Gilbert Harris, and his associates in Louisiana geology, only bare mention can be made in this address. Hilgard left the University of Mississippi for the University of Mich- igan in 1873, and after two years’ service there he was called to the Uni-. versity of California as Professor of Agricultural Chemistry and Director of the California Experiment Station (the first to be established in the United States) and Dean of the Faculty of Instruction in Agriculture. His continued agitation for agricultural instruction in the public schools of California and the popularization of rational agriculture, to- gether with the broad instruction personally imparted, have given him an extraordinary popularity in that state, just as his 1860 report has done for him in Mississippi. Witness the beautiful Hilgard avenue in Berkeley. : | His achievements in soil investigations, and particularly his work on arid countries and soils, which brought him a gold medal from the Munich Academy, a semi-centennial diploma from the University of Heidelberg, and a world-wide fame, while carried out mainly in Cali- fornia, should at least be referred to here, as they are the logical outcome of researches begun in Mississippi. GEORGIA ‘During the first three decades of the last century the most important notes on the geology of Georgia are to be found in the writings of Bar- tram, Maclure, Cornelius, Morton, and Shepard. The first attempt at a systematic study of it was made in 1836 by the establishment of a State Geological Survey and the appointment of Mr. John R. Cotting as State Geologist. He had previously made investigations and a report on the counties of Burke and Richmond at the expense of those counties, and it was because of these reports that Governor Schley recommended to the state legislature the action above mentioned. Mr. Cotting’s first report as State Geologist was submitted to the legis- lature in 1837. Though-recommended to be printed by the proper com- mittee, this report was never published and the Survey was abolished in 1840. 174 B.A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY Between 1840 and 1874 there were no official investigations of the geology of Georgia, though numerous valuable contributions thereto were made, notably by Conrad, Lyell, Couper, Marcou, Jackson, Stephenson, and Bradley. In 1874 the Survey was revived, with an annual appropriation of $10,000 for five years, and Dr. George Little was appointed State Geolo- gist. Under Doctor Little two annual Reports of Progress were made, and a paper of 126 pages was published on the Geology, Water Powers, ete., of the state in the Handbook of Georgia, issued by the State Agri- cultural Department. A catalogue of the ores, rocks, and woods selected for the Paris Exposition was also published. This Survey was discon- tinued in 1879 and reorganized in 1889, with Dr. J. W. Spencer as director. Doctor Spencer published two reports, and was succeeded in 1893 by Prof. W. S. Yeates, who continued in office until his death, in 1908. His successor, Prof. S. W. McCallie, is the present incumbent. Under the direction of Professor Yeates and Professor McCallie a num- ber of valuable reports have been published, mainly of economic character. FLORIDA The fascination of the “Land of Flowers’ has drawn to its shores ex- plorers and travelers from the earliest times. Witness the travels of Catesby, in 1731; of Bartram, 1807; of John Lee Williams, who has given one of the best descriptions of this region in his volumes published in 1827 and 1837, respectively. It has drawn also a host of scientific men, such as Lieut. J. H. Allen, 1846; Prof, J. W. Bailey, 1850; T. A. Conrad, 1834 and 1846; Michael Tuomey, 1850; Joseph Le Conte, 1857; all of whom have contributed valuable notes concerning the geology of the state as noted below. | Notwithstanding these early records to the contrary, the geological maps prior to 1880 concede to Florida only the more recent formations. In my Florida Cotton Culture Report of the Tenth Census, above men- tioned, it is shown that the peninsula is underlain for the greater part of its length by the equivalent of the Vicksburg limestone, over which there are in many places discontinuous deposits which at that time were classified as Miocene (since in part called Upper Oligocene). This was hailed as an important discovery, although Eocene shells had been ob- served and described from the vicinity of Tampa Bay by Lieutenant Allen, Professor Tuomey, Mr. Conrad, and possibly others; and Mr. Conrad had in 1842 already expressed his opinion that this Upper Eocene limestone, as he defined it in Georgia, would be found to underlie the peninsula. Our observations in 1880 furnished proof of the correctness FLORIDA GEOLOGICAL SURVEY 175 of this conjecture, and also necessitated the restriction to the extreme southern end’of the peninsula of Professor Le Conte’s theory of its growth. Dr. George W. Hawes, of the Smithsonian Institution, who had charge of the building stones statistics for this Tenth Census, received from Alachua County, Florida, a sample of so-called building stone, which on analysis was found to contain over 16 per cent of phosphoric acid. This analysis was forwarded to me and was published in the Florida Report on Cotton Culture, volume VI, of the Tenth Census, and is, so far as I know, the first published analysis of this phosphate, since found to be extensively distributed throughout the state and now forming the basis of a great industry. In 1884 Daniel W. Langdon, while working for the Geological Survey of Alabama, made his memorable discovery of a series of Miocene forma- tions, as they were then called, along Chattahoochee River between Chat- tahoochee Landing and Alum Bluff, thus filling the gap in the knowledge of the stratigraphic sequence of the post-Vicksburg marine Tertiaries of the Gulf Coastal Plain. The third bed from the top of Langdon’s section at Alum Bluff is composed of calcareous sands, which contain well pre- served shells of undoubted Miocene age (according to the present nomen- clature). This bed overlies other fossiliferous sands, which Langdon also considered Miocene, but which are now classed by Dall as Upper Oligocene. The lowest member of the Appalachicola River section, a _ white argillaceous limestone, somewhat resembling the Vicksburg, which, however, it overlies, is seen at Chattahoochee Landing and at several points farther down the river, where it passes below the basal bed of the Alum Bluff section. In contrast to the highly fossiliferous sandy marls exposed at Alum Bluff, this limestone contains relatively few fossils; but a sufficient num- ber and variety have been obtained to establish its essential equivalence with the fossiliferous limestone of the Tampa formation at Tampa, Florida. Langdon was correct in considering it a part of the Miocene, as the period name was then applied. For this limestone formation over- lying the Vicksburg he proposed the name Chattahoochee. Later investigations have definitely fixed its age and at the same time have led to some changes in the nomenclature, the Vicksburg being now classed as Lower Oligocene, the Chattahoochee and the lower beds ex- posed at Alum Bluff= (Alum Bluff formation) as Upper Oligocene, while of the beds exposed at the bluff only some of the upper retain the name of Miocene (Chesapeake) == (Choctawhatchee formation). It is only fair to state that the paleontologists are not yet all-agreed as to the necessity for these changes. 176 B.A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY In spite of the widespread interest in Florida, no definite State Geo- logical Survey was provided for until 1886, when Dr. J. Kost was ap- pointed State Geologist. He published his first report early in 1887, but the appropriation lapsed after that year. After an interval of 20 years the present Geological Survey was organized in 1907, with Prof. HE. H. Sellards as State Geologist. Under his direction the work has been vigor- ously prosecuted, and a number of valuable reports, mostly of an economic character, have been published. In much of this work Doctor Sellards has had the active cooperation of the United States Geological Survey. Cotton CULTURE REPORTS OF THE TENTH CENSUS, Probably no work has done more for the correlation of the scattered accounts of the geology of the Southern States than the Cotton Culture Reports of the Tenth Census (1880), prepared under the direction of Doctor Hilgard, with the enlightened support of Gen. Francis A. Walker, Superintendent of the Census. Besides having general direction of the whole and preparing the general discussions of cotton production in the United States, including soil investigations, the cotton-seed industries, and measurements of cotton fibers, Doctor Hilgard wrote the special de- scriptions of Mississippi, Louisiana, and California. Georgia, Texas, Arkansas, Indian Territory, and Missouri were written up by Dr. R. H. Loughridge ; ‘Tennessee and Kentucky, by Dr. J. M. Safford; North Caro- lina and Virginia, by Prof. W. C. Kerr; South Carolina, by Mr. Harry Hammond, and Alabama and Florida, by Eugene A. Smith. ‘In these reports a summary of the physical and geological features of each state is first given. Then follow accounts of the agricultural fea- tures and capabilities of the Cotton States, such as should be of interest to immigrants and investors, along with special descriptions of each county, with soil maps and maps showing the relation between the area cultivated in cotton and the total area of each state. In the Mississippi and Louisiana reports Doctor Hilgard included many soil analyses made in the laboratory of the University of Mississippi after the publication of the 1860 report. Many new analyses of soils from all the states con- cerned were carried out in the laboratory of the University of Alabama, under the direction of Doctor Loughridge and myself, and altogether the reports are reliable handbooks of the Cotton States as regards general and agricultural information, and deserve to be far more widely known than they are. : In a recent letter Doctor Hilgard comments on these reports as fol- lows: “The Census Cotton Report, for all the hard work it cost, has found little appreciation because of the medium of publication, quarto at COTTON GULTURE REPORTS a PAY) that. Don’t let us do it again.” But all was not lost in the quarto vol- umes, for in Alabama and South Carolina at least the Cotton Culture Reports were republished as State Geological Survey Reports, and have been very thoroughly appreciated and have furnished the meat for numer- ous subsequent handbooks. Personally, Doctor Hilgard is one of the most lovable of men. His extraordinary fund of general as well as of special information, along with his cheerfulness and vivacity, notwithstanding the handicap of a rather frail constitution, make him a delightful companion, and his letters, even on technical or scientific matters, are always enlivened by humorous and witty remarks, so that they are truly good reading. | Although he came to America as a young man, he is master of the English language, as his numerous writings will show, and in his spoken word there is practically nothing of the foreign accent, although there is a slight lisp which might perhaps be mistaken for it. In German, of course, and in French and Spanish he appears equally at home and fluent. Meeting with him in 1891 after a lapse of 20 years, I could see no signs of advancing age, no gray hairs. Only a few months ago in a letter he says, “Don’t forget to come out this way whenever you can—I may live a while yet, despite accidents,” referring to a fall from a step-ladder sus- tained by him a year ago, which resulted in quite a serious shock and the fracture of a bone. May he live long and prosper. RESEARCHES OF W J McGsr This sketch would by no means be complete without special mention of the great work of W J McGee on the Lafayette formation. McGee’s early work was on the glacial formations of his native state, Iowa, but later, as the Chief Assistant of Major Powell, Director of the United States Geological Survey, his studies extended to the formations about Washington, Chesapeake Bay, Potomac River, and thence down the At- lantic Coastal Plain and westward to the Mississippi Embayment. The Pleistocene formations in this territory he named Columbia and _ deseribed in much detail. The Atlantic Coast equivalent of Hilgard’s “Orange Sand” he called “Appomattox.” Since by the rulings of the United States Geological Survey the use of descriptive names for forma- tions was tabooed, he was generous enough to agree to leave to Doctor Hilgard the selection of another name for the formation which would pass muster at headquarters. After a conference between McGee, Hilgard, _Le Conte, and Loughridge, the name Lafayette was accepted, the type locality being the exposures in Lafayette County, Mississippi, in the east- ern part of which many characteristic occurrences of the “red sand” and | XII—BuLL. Grou. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 178 wb. A. SMITH—PIONEERS IN GULF COASTAL PLAIN GEOLOGY pebbles are to be found overlying the Eocene everywhere, capping the hilltops, and unconformable to the EKocene in every case. At the Lunch Club of the United States Geological Survey, McGee was the subject of a good deal of good-natured chaffing for having surrendered his name “Appomattox.” Clearly, Doctor Hilgard was entitled to consideration in this matter of renaming the formation, but how many would have had the unselfishness to do the right thing at the sacrifice of a little personal credit ? Although McGee’s work on the Lafayette belongs to the modern time, it may not be passed over even in a fragmentary sketch like this. While we may not all agree with his conclusions as to the mode of origin of the Lafayette, and while some things foreign have been included by him in his Lafayette, yet his treatise in the Twelfth Annual Report of the Di- rector of the United States Geological Survey will always stand as one of the classics of American geology. — BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 179-204, PLS. 4-8 MARCH 380, 1913 GEOLOGICAL SECTION ALONG THE YUKON-ALASKA BOUNDARY LINE BETWEEN YUKON AND | PORCUPINE RIVERS? BY D. D. CAIRNES (Presented before the Society December 28, 1912) CONTENTS Page MEMRMTNN OL GNI ere, oes Nk ote Sse aia ees ew ais oO a eee Sete Hole eearh ore wale aie eels 179 BETTIS WOES oot BSB Ore creo re cerca Sg oar? as eM eo ee 180 Mme gree alerts NI RMR ae oars ch acta oh act ea Ga or oMonawerial Siroy oera, ote:a%e, ore. avete apelee ele. gueletels <'s © aleie 189) General geology....... PER BA oem ne Bateec ter amis Weccalie ate aoe TE a eee ae 182 alee SU AUETINCI tr.be cress cose? oh aceldle Ghe w ie: Sora fone d ack Pas ese w vie are sob ere S Gale's o's 182 Mean moe hO TMA OMS eS - ; ‘ ‘ fest ent ae ig hae. % enh eth Wey we be tga ‘ge y aw 4 t ur i BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 205-214 JUNE 18, 1914 AGE OF THE DON RIVER GLACIAL DEPOSITS, TORONTO, ONTARIO? BY G. FREDERICK WRIGHT (Presented by title before the Society January 1, 1914) CONTENTS Page 2 LMT TE TE) STROH 5 60) RE eR eR Pt a ee 205 Statement of facts as to date and duration of Lake Warren............. 205 ee mmm PLONE TE (TUT ONS tase liaicvay ov oie da sisotiel sivere oiatie fs 6 lave ane ereke edie eave wis) belo ele o Melee Bias 207 Origin of the warm species of plants and animals in the Don beds....... 210 The Labrador later than the Keewatin glacier. .............ccccccssccees 212 en MS EEE TGP AE BSR Sgt bana a Sai%el We gigisterGi'd elas alg, a Novuele 0 ae Rc Weiavwle eieie/ ote ale 213° INTRODUCTION After a preliminary statement of the main facts, the discussion in this paper will relate (1) to the age of the latest glacial deposits at Toronto connected with the existence of the glacial Lake Iroquois, and (2) to the earliest interglacial deposits containing animals and plants which are characteristic of a warmer climate than that which prevails even now north of Lake Ontario. STATEMENT OF Facts AS TO DATE AND DURATION OF LAKE WARREN The occurrence of warm species of plants and animals in interglacial deposits in the Don River Valley, near Toronto, Ontario, seems at first sight an absolute demonstration of an immense interval of time between the two invasions of glacial ice which are there clearly indicated. Briefly stated, the facts are that in the valley of the Don River and at Scarboro _ heightsenear Toronto there is at the base a deposit of till which, after having been extensively eroded, was covered by sedimentary deposits of glacial origin 150 feet in thickness which had been brought into standing water by the stream to form a delta whose base extended 25 or 30 miles along the shore. The lower strata of this delta deposit are 35 feet below the present level of the lake and probably at about the same relative level - 1Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Society February 17, 1914. XV—BoLL. Grou. Soc. AM., Vou, 25, 1913 (205) % : _ 206 G.F. WRIGHT—AGE OF DON RIVER GLACIAL DEPOSITS as when laid down. But the water from some unknown cause rose as the accumulation progressed until it was 150 feet higher than now, when the upper sediments of coarser gravel were deposited; then the water began to fall and a period of erosion succeeded. This proceeded until at Scarboro a V-shaped channel, one mile wide at the top and 150 feet deep, was worn in the sedimentary deposits, where- upon the ice advanced again and covered the whole with sheets of boulder- clay and assorted rubble drift to a total depth of 200 feet. Here certainly seems to be an interglacial deposit of unusual extent. Nor is the character of the fossil plants and animals included in the interglacial deposits any less noteworthy. Both the fauna and the flora of the lower, or Don, beds indicate a much warmer climate than those of apie ba the upper, or Scar- rage 28 pape boro, beds. In the ao _ 4060 82 Ton’ -beds there meee 5) : Metres - ee deisel oie RCL Tae Tg found leaves and wood of maple, elm, ash, hickory, basswood, and even of pawpaw and osage orange, which a now flourish only in oa pease = a =e latitudes several de- Lowest boulder clay ae eee grees south of ‘To- Lorraine shale = SSS Ss ronto ; also, of the mollusks found in the Don beds, four of the species are not now found in the Saint Lawrence basin, but only after passing the watershed which separates it from that of the Mississippi. On the other hand, the upper, or Scarboro, sands and clays are wanting in the species indicating a warmer climate, but abound in both a flora and a fauna suggestive of Labrador and of the region north of Lake Superior.? ; In the opinion of Professor Coleman, these facts can not be accounted for except on the supposition that the earlier ice-sheet retired from prac- tically the whole region to the northward before the latter one began its advance, which certainly looks very reasonable at first sight. But there are a number of considerations, too much overlooked, which seem to compel, or at least to permit, a contrary conclusion. ‘4 .Scarboro’ peaty clay (cool climate) FIGURD 1.—Section of Don Valley Brickyard, Toronto (Coleman) 2Coleman: “Glacial and interglacial beds near Toronto,’’ Journal of Geology, vol. 9, pp. 285-310. ‘‘Lake Iroquois and its predecessors at Toronto,” Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 10, 165-176. ‘On the Pleistocene near Toronto,’ British Assoc. for Ady. of Sci., Report 1900, pp. 328-834; Guide Book, No. 6, for International Geological Congress, pp. 10-34. STAGES OF RECESSION OF NORTH’ AMERICAN ICE-SHEET 207 AGE oF LAKE [ROQUOIS Beginning with the age of the upper shelf worn in the deposits at Toronto, approximately about 200 feet above the level of Lake Ontario, it is to be noted as bearing on the subject: 1. That it is younger by several thousand years than the beaches of glacial origin about the south end of Lake Michigan and than those formed on the shores of Lake Warren on the south side of Lake Erie. No one will question the statement that the final retreat of glacial ice from the United States and Canada proceeded from the southwest, uncovering successively the western areas of the Great Lakes, until finally the ice barriers to the east over central New York and Quebec gave away and FIGURE 2.—Map showing Stages of Recession of the North American Ice-sheet (Upham) permitted the drainage of the Great Lakes to pursue its present outlet (see map on opposite page). But for a considerable period there was a drainage leading to the Hudson Valley at a higher level along the ice- front through the valley of the Mohawk River in central New York. Whatever age, therefore, we assign to the erosion of the 200-foot shelf at Toronto, the shorelines at the south of Lake Michigan and those of Lake Warren in Ohio must be much older. 7 2. But we are compelled to set moderate limits to the time which has elapsed since the ice withdrew from the southern end of Lake Michigan. a. The dunes at the south end of Lake Michigan represent accumula- tions which have been going on ever since the ice withdrew from that region. They are composed of sand, which is borne along by the waves and currents on the west shore of the lake and is finally caught up by 208 G. FP. WRIGHT—AGE OF DON RIVER GLACIAL DEPOSITS — the winds to form the dunes which attract the attention of all passengers on the railroad going to Chicago from the east. From the amount of these accumulations and from the rate at which the sand is now known to be moving past Chicago along the west side of the lake toward the south end of it, from 10,000 to 15,000 years is more than ample time to account for the accumulation of the entire mass of the dunes. b. The waves of Lake Michigan are constantly eating into the west shore at a rate which, according to the most moderate computations, would produce the 70-foot shelf extending. out to deep water in Jess time than that already allowed for the accumulation of the dunes.® 3. The latest glacial deposits on the south side of Lake Erie are found in the beaches that mark the shoreline of Lake Warren, the highest of which is approximately 200 feet above Lake Erie in Ohio. These beaches, I think I have proved conclusively, can not be more than 10,000 or 12,000 years old. The evidence exists in the small amount of erosion that has been accomplished by the streams of northern Ohio, which have been flow- ing into the Lake Erie basin ever since the retreat of the ice from that region. In particular, attention is directed to the small extent to which Plum Creek, in Oberlin, Ohio, has enlarged its trough. This trough is 50 feet above the highest Lake Warren beach, and only five miles distant, is entirely in glacial deposits, with no rock obstruction, yet it is so narrow and shallow that any calculations making it much more than 12,000 years old, and especially those that make it several multiples of 12,000, involve an absurdly low rate of erosion. Moreover, data have been col- lected from the present eroding efficiency of the stream which give results well within the above figures.* 4. A clue to the length of time during which Lake Warren continued to cover the bordering land on the south side of Lake Erie is furnished by deposits recently uncovered by excavations at Fremont, Ohio. The sedi- mentary plain on which the city of Fremont is built lies below the 100- foot level of the lowest shoreline of Lake Warren. The sedimentary de- posits consist of the material brought into Lake Erie by Sandusky River, which is spread out as a delta. The depth of these lacustrine beds is at least. 25 feet. The thickness of the laminew, according to my measure- ments made in several excavations, is on an average one-seventh of an inch, making 84 to the foot, making a total of 2,100, which would be the number of years required for the accumulation on the supposition that 3 See the paper of Dr. Edmund Andrews in Transactions of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, vol. ii, 1870, pp. 1-23. This and the later facts bearing on the question are fairly and fully discussed by Leverett in Monograph xxxviii of the U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 458-459. “See Wright’s “Ice Age in North America,” 5th ed., pp. 564-568; also Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 23, pp. 278-280. AGE OF LAKE IROQUOIS 209 each lamina represented an annual deposit. Whatever be the date, there- fore, which we assign to the upper beach of Lake Warren, that of the Troquois beach around Lake Ontario must be 2,000 years less. ‘This, according to my calculation, would bring the date of the 200-foot shelf at Toronto at about 10,000 years. 5. To account for the high level of the water in Lake Iroquois, which eroded the 200-foot shelf at Toronto, it is sufficient to note that the shelf has almost exactly the same elevation as that of the col from the Ontario basin into the Mohawk Valley at Rome, New York. Lake Ontario is 247 feet above the sea. The col at Rome is 445. Moreover, as Professor Fairchild has abundantly detailed, ice obstructions in the Mohawk Valley raised the level of the drainage lines into the Mohawk Valley for an in- definite period.® One of the clearest evidences of this exists a few miles southeast of Syracuse, where a stream comparable in size to that of Ni- agara, but in fact doubtless much larger, has eroded a rock gorge of such length and proportions that its formation must have occupied many cen- turies. ‘This stream must have been kept up at this level by the ice bordering it on the north side and filling the valley. 6. All these considerations show that there must be some error in the assumptions which underlie the calculations which assign a date of from 20,000 to 40,000 years to the formation of Lake Iroquois, to the erosion of the 200-foot shelf at Toronto, and we may add to the age of the Ni- agara Gorge. It should be remembered that all these calculations are based on assumptions underlying the interpretation of very complicated phenomena. Among these assumptions the most misleading are those which unduly minimize the rate at which glacial movements and torren- tial erosion may take place. By way of caution it is sufficient to call attention to two facts: a. Within 25 years the front of the Muir Glacier, in Alaska, has re- treated seven miles, while the ablation from its surface during that time amounts to fully 700 feet, thus confirming my original estimate that since Vancouver’s visit in 1794 the glacier has retreated more than 30 miles, and that the ablation of the surface during that time amounts to more than 2,000 feet. This certainly is a movement on a scale sufficiently large to be considered in speculating concerning continental glacial ice- sheets.® | b. Dr. Warren Upham in his exploration of the shoreline of Lake Agassiz obtained evidence which is ample to show that the retreat of the ice-front from the Canadian boundary in the Red River of the North so 5 See Fairchild: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 10, pp. 27-68; ‘Pleistocene geology of west- ern New York,” 20th Rep. of State Geol., 1900, pp. 13-139. ® See Wright’s “Ice Age in North America,” 5th ed., chap. 3, with references, 210 G. F. WRIGHT—-AGE OF DON RIVER GLACIAL DEPOSITS as to open the drainage into Hudson Bay did not occupy more than 2,000 years, making the average rate of the retreat of the ice-front one-half mile per annum.” This evidence consists largely in the small extent of © the dunes at the south end of Lake Agassiz as compared with that of those at the south end of Lake Michigan, and of the small extent of the deltas formed on the western shore of Lake Agassiz deposited by such streams as the Saskatchewan and the Assiniboin. So little is known about the cause of the climatic changes which pro- duce and terminate glacial periods that speculation apart from the facts | at hand is of little value. ORIGIN OF THE WARM SPECIES OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS IN THE Don BEDS The occurrence of warm species of plants and mollusks, referred to, in the Don River Valley takes us back to the earliest stages of the Glacial period, and at first sight seems to prove, as Professor Coleman maintains, that a warm period intervened in that latitude between two successive glacial advances, and implies that the first ice-sheet completely disappeared. from North America and was succeeded by a new and independent move- ment. But when the evidence is closely examined in the light of other well established facts it would appear that such a sweeping inference is by no means necessary. a. It does not appear that the glacial till below the fluviatile beds in the Don Valley contains any roots of the trees and shrubs supposed to have existed in the inter-Glacial warm period, whereas in front of the Muir Glacier in Alaska my photographs distinctly show such stumps and rootlets projecting from the underlying soil into the fluvial beds that had enveloped them and were subsequently covered over by the glacier’s advance.® b. It is entirely possible that the specimens of warm species of plants and animals in the fluvial deposits overlying the lower till were derived from the underlying deposit of late Tertiary age, having been plowed up by a readvance of the ice after a temporary recession and raised without much disturbance to the higher levels, where they are now found. This supposition, which would seem incredible until all the elements involved had been taken into consideration, is rendered easily credible by what has been learned in recent times concerning the deposits of Moel Tryfaen 7See Monograph xxv of U. S. Geol. Survey; Bulletin No. 29, U. S. Geol. Survey; An- nual Report, Canadian Geol. Survey, n. s., vol. iv, for 1889, part E. The facts are suc- cinctly stated by Dr. Upham in Wright’s “Ice Age in North America,” 5th ed., pp. 400- 406 and 543-548. 8 See Wright’s “Ice Age in North America,” 5th ed., p. 63. ORIGIN OF WARM FLORA AND FAUNA P11 in Wales, Macclesfield in England, and various other places. In these localities well preserved shells, such as occur in the Irish Sea, were pushed up by the glacial movement from the north to an elevation of more than 1,000 feet, where on the melting of the ice they were redeposited in tem- porary lacustrian pools and preserved in strata of sand marked by every characteristic of cross-bedding.® While most of these specimens are fragmentary they were by no means all of them so. Professor Kendall reports finding five whole shells in the course of a few hours’ search at Moel Tryfaen alone, while Prof. McKenny Hughes reports that some of the specimens are whole, and he personally assured me that he had found in these deposits some shells with both sides held together by the original ligaments. How these shells could have been brought up to these positions without showing signs of abrasion may be explained on the supposition that large compact masses of the sea-bottom were broken up and pushed before the advancing ice, as great masses of chalk have been pushed inland over the east shore of England and over the southern end of Sweden. Professor Holst took me to visit such a mass of chalk a few miles east of Malmé, which was 3 miles long, 1,000 feet wide, and 100 to 200 feet thick, which had glacial deposits both under it and over it. In the case of a frozen or compact mass of soil containing fossils the process of melting would result in wateriaid deposits containing fossils showing even less signs of abrasion than if carried along tumultuously by a running stream for any considerable distance. All the older geologists interpreted these lacustrian shell beds at Moel Tryfaen and Macclesfield as evidence that the shell-fish had lived and died in that immediate locality, and supposed that to account for them there must have been a subsidence of the British Isles to the extent of more than 1,000 feet, permitting the shells to grow on the ocean bed at the level where they are now found. Among the authorities maintaining ~ this view are to be numbered Darwin, Prestwich, Ramsay, and McKenney Hughes; but at the present time the geologists of Great Britain almost universally regard the deposits as having been formed in the manner de- scribed. In the case of the deposits under consideration at. Toronto, where there has been scarcely any, if any, elevation of the fossils above their original position to get them where they are now found, it would 9 The fullest statement of the evidence bearing on this subject will be found in a com- munication of Prof. Percy F. Kendall, F. G. S., incorporated in Wright’s ‘““Man and the Glacial Period,” pp. 137-181; but see also a paper of T. McKenny Hughes, of Cambridge, England, on “‘The evidences of the later movements of elevation and depression in the British Isles,” Victoria Inst., 1880. See especially, however, “Supposed interglacial shell-beds in Shropshire,” England, by G. Frederick Wright, in Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 3, pp. 505-508 ; and, by the same, “Theory of interglacial submergence in England,” in American Journal of Science, vol. xliii, January, 1892, pp. 1-8. | 212 ° G&G. F. WRIGHT—-AGE OF DON RIVER GLACIAL DEPOSITS seem unwarranted to draw any sweeping conclusion from their occurrence in the lower part of the fluviatile beds overlying the lowest till. - —N Z YY yy) “Ss; ») »)) zA yy) »)) Dy eS )) alr Be i GN hake Me wm ee be EAE AN ZS wy, (Cpe ree LE (CHR SELL). MES AE) aR) 008g. {Ky Yl ea Were Ae Nyy ry “< - ooo FIGURE 3.—Map of North American Pleistocene Ice-sheet at its maximum Hatension Showing the approximate southern limit of glaciation, the three main centers of ice accumulation, and the driftless area within the glaciated region. (United States Geo- logical Survey.) THE LABRADOR LATER THAN THE KEEWATIN GLACIER In discussing inter-Glacial epochs and their time ratios it would seem that too little attention has been paid to the evidence that in America the glacial movement from the Keewatin center preceded that from Labrador. How far east the early movement of the Keewatin ice-sheet extended it is impossible with our present knowledge to tell with cer- tainty; but Lake Superior copper has been found in the glacial deposits in Columbus, Ohio, and still farther north and east in Medina County, LABRADOR GLACIER LATER THAN KEEWATIN Dts Ohio, and, according to Prof. HE. H. Willams, at Warren, in western Pennsylvania, while red jasper conglomerate boulders from north of Lake Huron occur as far east as Ashtabula County, in the extreme north- eastern part of Ohio. It is hardly possible that these materials could have been transported so far east during the later portions of the glacial invasions, for that invasion consisted of Labradorian ice. The so-called Ilnoisan deposits pushed from the eastward across the State of Illinois, and even extended a short distance into eastern Iowa, where in the vicinity of Keokuk red jasper conglomerate boulders from the north of Lake Huron are found in considerable abundance. It is thus certain that the glacial movement from the Labrador center was later than that from the Keewatin center. For a long distance east of the Mississippi River we know that the deposits of the Labrador ice-sheet overlie those of the Keewatin sheet. It is noticeable also, as already indicated, that the ice departed from the western regions long before it disappeared from New York, New England, and Quebec. The distinct signs of inter-Glacial epochs are only in this western field. No satisfactory evidence of ex- tended inter-Glacial epochs has been found in the eastern regions. As bearing on the larger question of an inter-Glacial epoch covering the whole northern hemisphere, it is also significant that the geologists of Great Britain now maintain that they discover no evidence of such an inter-Glacial epoch in the British Isles, nor do the geologists of Sweden in Scandinavia."° I long ago called attention to the fact brought out during the survey of the terminal moraine in Pennsylvania by Professor Lewis and myself that the boundary of the glaciated areas in the central and the eastern part of the United States consists of the arcs of two circles, with their centers respectively in Labrador and the Lake Superior region. The Junction of these arcs is at Salamanca, New York, almost exactly on the meridian of Toronto. It is, therefore, a plausible hypothesis that the deposits of Toronto, where these contending ice-fields met, should reveal many abnormal phenomena. SUMMARY The following order of events would seem to explain all the facts: 1. First, the Keewatin Glacier pushed southward to the glacial limit in the Mississippi Valley and eastward as far as western Pennsylvania 10 See Lamplugh’s “‘Presidential address to the geological section of the British Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science,” at York, 1906; also paper before the Interna- tional Geological Congress, at Toronto, 1913; also Nils Olof Holst’s “Férhistorisk gruf- bryting i Sverige,” in which he estimates the close of the Glacial period in Sweden as not more than 7,000 years ago, . 914 Gg. F. WRIGHT—AGE OF DON RIVER GLACIAL DEPOSITS and the center of Lake Ontario, extending in the vicinity of 'Toronto into a region which was occupied by some species of plants and animals which now exist only at a considerable distance to the south. At that time the lower Don beds were deposited. 2. Later the Labrador Glacier pushed outward as the Keewatin Glacier receded, moving, as is shown by the glacial scratches and transportation of boulders nearly east and west in the basins of lakes Ontario and Hrie, and pushing on as far as the Mississippi River at Keokuk, lowa, there indeed crossing the river for a short distance. During this advance over the deserted Keewatin deposits in the vicinity of Toronto the Scarboro beds, overlying the Don beds, were deposited and some of the fossil plants and animals native to the lower beds incorporated into the lower portions of the upper beds. In the early part of this movement the Rome outlet to the Ontario basin was still free from ice and probably at a lower level than now. This was subsequently either filled with ice or gradually ele- vated so as to account for the rise of the water and the accumulation of the Scarboro beds. 3. On the retreat of the Labrador ice the basin of the upper lakes was uncovered, bringing Lake Warren into existence, while the western boundary of the ice obstructed the drainage to the east. Ata later stage this boundary retreated farther east and north, so as to uncover the Rome outlet into the Mohawk Valley, giving rise to Lake Iroquois and allowing for the erosion of the shelf 200 feet above Lake Ontario, now- covered by Iroquois sands north of Toronto and Scarboro. The elevation of this Iroquois beach at Toronto corresponds closely to that of the col at Rome. 4. At a later stage the ice retreated so as to open the outlet into the Saint Lawrence. 5. Following this there was the rapid differential rise of hal toward the northeast, which elevated the Iroquois beaches toward the north and northeast. Thus we have brought into order all the complicated facts involved in this most puzzling problem, including those which demonstrate the late date of the shorelines of Lake Warren south of Lake Erie in Ohio. Any supposed sequence of events which fails to account for the late date of these shorelines must involve some error which vitiates the theory. While we have no data from which to draw even approximate conclusions con- cerning the date of the beginning of the Glacial period, there is nothing which would appear to contradict the opinion of the geologists both of England and Sweden that while the departure of the glacial ice-sheets was very rapid, taking place only a few thousand years ago, the advance was very gradual, occupying an immense period and accompanied by numerous temporary intermissions. *) oy ea noe ie : OS hy os ie BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 9 FIGURE 1.—SOUTHERN END OF GLADE RUN TERRACH, 100 FEET ABOVE THE RIVER Photographed by A. EH. Ettinger FIGURE 2.—GRAVEL PIT IN NORTHERN END OF GLADE RUN TERRACE, 250 FEET ABOVE THE RIVER Photographed by A. E. Ettinger GLACIAL TOPOGRAPHY, GLADE RUN TERRACE, PENNSYLVANIA BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 215-218, PL. 9 JUNE 18, 1914 EVIDENCE OF A GLACIAL DAM IN THE ALLEGHENY RIVER BETWHKEN WARREN, PENNSYLVANIA, AND TIONKESTA? BY G. FREDERICK WRIGHT (Presented by ttle before the Society January 1, 1914) CONTENTS Page The observable field data as to upper drainage.............0eecceeseeves 215 eee MERINO ATMA LCs rachis oie en's ed sod Geto Slee dee acleejsiss slows eeesvcas vee’ 216 Sime OEE SHNEL Se I re eck 5 cle) Seals: ela avec dlevel metal wv bs leis. ove ¥.9 ees, he eee @s's 06 218 THE OBSERVABLE FIELD DATA AS TO UPPER DRAINAGE The portion of the Allegheny River Valley between Warren, Pennsyl- vania, and 'Tionesta presents some of the most puzzling and important glacial phenomena bearing on the interval of time separating the earliest from the latest advances of glacial ice. ‘The moraine traced by Lewis and Wright here falls several miles short of reaching the Allegheny River at Warren. But older glacial deposits are found several miles south of the Allegheny about the headwaters of Tionesta Creek, at) Stoneham and Clarendon. ‘These are evidently waterlaid, and fill a broad valley open- ing north into the Allegheny about two miles above Warren. The glacial deposits at Clarendon are 308 feet thick. ‘The upper 60 feet consist of gravel containing a noticeable amount of granitic material. This is underlain by 148 feet of sand containing a small amount of gravel. Be- neath this there are 100 feet of clay, in which there is an occasional stratum of logs. The rock-bottom at Clarendon is 160 feet below the present level of the Allegheny at Warren. The descent of the rock-floor in this valley is 125 feet in the 12 miles from Sheffield to Warren, while the descent of the rock-floor in the Conewango Valley is 130 feet from Warren to the State line. This would demonstrate that the preglacial drainage was through the Conewango, were it not that at places the rock- bottom of the Allegheny below Warren toward the mouth of Brokenstraw Creek at Irvine is a few feet lower than it is at Warren, and the depth * Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Society February 17, 1914. (215) 216 G. F. WRIGHT—GLACIAL DAM IN THE ALLEGHENY RIVER of the rock-bottom of the Allegheny below Irvine has not been definitely determined (see the Warren Folio of the United States Geological Survey by Mr. Charles Butts, page 9). Still there can be no reasonable doubt ‘ 6 s = ° . ‘ t) Lt 1) 6 4 i] « 7 age @MARIEN = 177: y [ee = scoeeec! oon FicurE 1.—Map of the Vicinity of Warren, Pennsylwania that the preglacial drainage of the upper part of Tionesta Creek was with that of the neighboring portions of the a to the north through: Conewango Creek. THE SOUTHERN DRAINAGE The point, however, on which we need light is: What was the southern line of drainage during the earliest stages of the glacial invasion, when SOUTHERN DRAINAGE Oy the northern outlet was obstructed by what would be called Kansan ice? Upon this light is shed by study of the high-level glacial terrace deposits in the Conewango and Allegheny valleys east of Warren. 1. It is evident that the low portion of the High Terrace deposits in Hast-Warren just above Indian Hollow, as well as the lower portions of the deposits at Clarendon, were in still water, for in both cases they con- sist of fine sand and blue clay, while the upper portions are of coarse gravel, with occasional pebbles of considerable size, indicating a current of considerable velocity. The elevation of the summit of the gravel ter- race in Hast-Warren is 250 feet above the present level of the river. 2. But most significant of all is the occurrence of a gravel terrace of equal height, beginning at the golf grounds southeast of Warren and running about a mile southeast, up the Allegheny Valley to the mouth of Glade Run, nearly opposite the old northern opening of Tionesta Creek into the Allegheny, and pointing directly to it. This terrace diminishes in height and width toward the southeast, but at its termination contains many large angular rock fragments which must have been brought in by floating ice. It is evident that this was deposited by a powerful stream making for the Tionesta outlet. 3. Concerning the deposits farther south in the Tionesta outlet, Prof. EK. H. Williams gives me the following facts: “The Clarendon gravels are three moraines running north 38° 30’ east. The largest has its crest east of the saddle between Warren and Clarendon, so that a. stream which could carry gravel to Clarendon would find a down grade thence through Tiona, Sheffield, Barnes, and the Tionesta River to the Alle- gheny. “The above crest is 1,110 feet west of Clarendon station. The second and parallel moraine is the slightest and rises but a few feet above the cranberry bog. It is 100 feet broad and its crest is 660 feet east of the station. It has been used as a road-bed across the bog. The third moraine has its edge 920 feet east of the station. It is 360 feet broad, and its height on the south side of the track is 8, and on the north side 10 feet above the railroad track. “The material of the greatest (western) moraine is mostly local. The foreign material is but one in from one thousand to ten thousand. The crys- tallines are like the high level East Warren gravels, and the fossiliferous part like the low level South Warren gravels. The moraines are water-laid. The matrix on the valley sides is a sandy clay, so plastic that it will ball slightly; that in the center has been levitated and is sandy. The crystalline and foreign part is more concentrated in the center; the valley sides are more mixed with slope wash. “Now, here is the point I wish to make. It is down grade from Clarendon through Tiona and Sheffield to Barnes and thence down the Tionesta. If there were a clear channel from Warren to Clarendon—as the latter is over the saddle from the former—any material delivered by water at Clarendon must 218 G. F. WRIGHT—GLACIAL DAM IN THE ALLEGHENY RIVER of necessity have been delivered lower down the steep channel at Tiona, Shef- field, Barnes, and along the trough of the Tionesta; but there are no foreign components in the gravels east of Clarendon. “From Tiona eastward the gravels are the same slabby locals with rounded edges that we find in the unglaciated portions of the Kinzua Valley, and every observer has reported no crystallines in the Tionesta Valley except at its immediate debouchment into the Allegheny.” CONCLUSIONS From these facts it is clear that (a) the deepest rock erosion at Warren was preglacial; (0) the earliest glacial drainage must have been through the Tionesta outlet rather than down the Allegheny Valley to Tionesta ; (c) the absence of northern drift material east of Clarendon indicates that the continuance of the glacial stream through the Tionesta was tem- porary; (d) before the northern drift material had proceeded far in fill- ing that valley the drainage was diverted down the Allegheny, which would indicate that for a short period there was an ice-dam below Warren which, on giving way, permitted the diversion to the present channel; and (e) it is therefore improbable that there existed at that time a col at Thompsons, as has been surmised. It is fair, however, to say that Prof. E. H. Williams supposes that all the phenomena can be best accounted for by the supposition that there was at first a col somewhere below Tionesta which impounded the water and raised the level to that of the highest glacial terraces at Warren and Clarendon. This would seem to render the theory of an ice dam below Warren un- necessary, since it would provide slack water at Warren, Stoneham, and Clarendon long enough to account for the limitation of northern drift to the upper part on the Tionesta Valley. On this supposition the de- sertion of the Tionesta outlet would be due to the fact that the col at Thompsons had already been worn lower than the level of the moraine © between Stoneham and Clarendon. But an examination of the map will show that it is difficult to see why, if the channel at Thompsons had always been open, the swollen glacial current coming down the main channel of the Allegheny should not have pushed past the Tionesta open- ing and carried its material along the present course of the channel below Warren, instead of down Glade Run toward the Tionesta. In view of the evidence that the ice did actually cross the Allegheny below Warren, the existence of the ice dam supposed seems to give the easiest and, in- deed, the only explanation of all the facts connected with the singular distribution of the gravel deposits described in the text. BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 219-242, PLS. 10-11 JUNE 29, 1914 PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE OF THE CON- NECTICUT AND HUDSON VALLEYS: _ BY HERMAN L. FAIRCHILD (Presented before the Society December 31, 1913) CONTENTS Page AMER UTORRENT Setar ara chs de hale! o Secctary Sia S aio See TE ele eS ae ae oleae nee’ s 220 Mra Ne MPM ey eR ORs Boel edias oe ey aSie dM eacleg hae bd Sede Gare e wered 220 Views of Edward Hitchcock and C..H. Hitchcock..........3........ 220 Naor ol aren ree TANES 1D). TV ATVA Sic g/ot2 eine ec) emia cares, ees pie elelsiejes de le e.ew svele tes 224. Sh reuene emeay iA VGclTORET CW OIMATIA 8! Jv cts cue. hic) si ssiie oy aie « clove a: ele¢s el sie'e!e.ckerai'e's oie ees s 222. aa La INS NO TINE ESOT) sais coc ieee git e wo ork ie) WS pOhe aT hee ek ellace Siegal ee alisace ei 224. The river theory; difficulties and inconsistencies.............ccceseeeece 225 Mee MeEMaAMOM ENE TOWER VAlICV ein Soak os sr Seale occ we ovale c 0 ese wows we DS ee ied PNR Ue yan a? sle'ta GPa gp ttcls «Sherer Sie idee iatere coe aa eieielb e beales 226 SUC SPR ee te ain ian net arn ah inchs ete sree com cis iekeiioler Miotane we, eke oe ee 4, ste Cais side's 2250 “1 EEG TCE DY S/N IN 2 oO ne PP htenadarete Bests Papa POS COMIAGLE AGC Ctra mentary a's cha atte se ce sna ets ares ea a Wot Oke, isons faak pos Buel avee arated DG Terraces in the Hudson-Champlain Valley............eccceccece 228 TEE SULM PME NEN WEAN ARS t/a ici oA ay apa c: araicNahaj'as aiesel Goad o. das! er aah ahora ee v weleceree hiwre a 229 ULE MALAI CMRP E TMP TR yen aes eo chore: of Sar ale oh g © 1s Sinle, aod Salone chare-e' eel Waves. ors,cre 229 ey AREA Toe Peres We aris nies aye aVane eee es Giatave severe eleva a -ahorulee geal ete abe 229 LETSNG TIEN oe Gidery C200) CUP UR CACHE fe MR hai te Ee ga EPR CP a 230 LDPE CC RRUO)A ee Oo sc Ese eI Ree PION EDI Sg IA a ue ig DO 201 TEMS CEICS EO bei PUMTING 8, tg oth suenSid ol ooh caleba oboe Buetekcrtinne glo oboe ee cea Ube 231 eM MOGI E TRO TONS eircfer aleve SiGvel ch cteaie & cise idm S20 6 rch syicleheva Wie wete: e Lacbe reece coe Bi 232 eaeaetage Me oe pee nt OMNI N escalate. on Bro ata erordbcc dred eal eum e bidtele Moai Be ela eke 232, Api Rigi i MODE OTC Cer ee rare aways SA wey aie wi aie, See Cue Ae Wie ap c-o\e hve vlielece bce eek 6 hake fenZoo Bosman eae TN ANRC cree Goran oc tat lc, cys cari gree nca fe upbces ihe te raed tia ngewe eh sw es 233 Gonnecticut, Valley Pekerencess Jo. . Wels eee. odes Chis ce ok ee een 235 Endson-Champlain, Walley Tererences's.2)..0< weno 0 4 sss wes ewes cis «4 235 Comparison Of datawe.s. 66.4 « MUN atch oii age Tetetiae odes ncienh raga clas alice elias ater Seaver reiial 238 Pen Omend OL DIe-SuMmmMLG Teyelo. fc. se class cca Ose cece scledevoee ces 239 Pret APUC LULA an te See Met tare pee vis Warulictens Dh MAc a d’u cw ota loe ea E ele Wie wo 241 HEARS OL Abe TOWier IOVEISs cos. aos oickic als owwlavelg dace ciel adjecem epics 241 Rel ee Obes THETIC POSSI cts ian ates e a cee ietsi reais) oar dpe fi elec vce h sales celeis'e ees 242 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Society December 31, 1913. Published by permission of the Director of Science, Department of Education, New York State. (219) IMA) H. L. FAIRCHILD—-PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE INTRODUCTION Some postglacial submergence of New England has long been recog- nized, but the amount has not been determined. Recently it has been shown that the marine plane in the Hudson-Champlain Valley rises from zero at New York Bay to about 750 feet on the Canadian boundary.? It is evident that the territory adjacent to the Hudson Valley must have participated in the depression and uplift of the land, and it seems quite certain that the Connecticut Valley, lying parallel with the Hudson- Champlain Valley and only 60 miles distant, should exhibit similar evi- dences of submergence in oceanic waters. After reviewing the literature on the Connecticut Valley terraces an examination was made of the valley from Long Island Sound northward to Wells River, Vermont. The uplifted plane of the static waters as determined by Professor Emerson for Massachusetts was taken as the provisional datum, and it was found that this plane when projected north and south throughout the valley coincided, with unexpected pre- cision, with the highest shoreline features. The plane is shown in the diagram, plate 10. The tilted marine plane in the Connecticut Valley has nearly the same gradient as the corresponding plane in the Hudson Valley, but lies 50 feet higher for the same latitudes. The isobases consequently he about 20 degrees north of west by 20 degrees south of east. The elevated terraces on the slopes of the Connecticut and neighboring valleys, which have been attributed to enormous river floods, are really shore deposits, spread out in sealevel waters as the land was slowly lifted out of these waters. The summit plane of these waters, as indicated by scattered beaches and deltas, has not been previously recognized south of Massachusetts, because the phenomena lie higher than the broad terraces, often far back on the valley slopes, and are inconspicuous. The physical history of the Connecticut Valley, and of all New Eng- land, is so radically different from the prevailing river me that it seems desirable to review the entire problem. HISTORICAL VIEWS OF EDWARD HITCHCOCK AND C. H. HITCHCOCK In the Geology of Massachusetts, 1841, Edward Hitchcock speaks of only the lower terraces of the Connecticut Valley, which he attributed to 2New York State SLUG Ay Bull. 164, 1913, pp. 23-25. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 24, 1913, pp. 157-160. B VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 10 WADRANGLES. Peis re 2 43-00 43°-15' | 45'S 45-30 . eve see pee ee 800 XS a= ae 700 3 {sae —| J 500 § 1 a oy ees | — 200 § . eae zoo f ee er — [fe a8 Aa) Raa ee el SJADY SARATOGA 6L,/0709/ Boundry ES SCHUYLERVILLE Fb A ' THE HUDSON- CHAM 43°-00° | 43215" 45-15" 45°230' u mere a 800 4 ae Bee eee i Ea 500 3 ao ee es, 2 ia Pee cee y ee Pri teat ye Pn _ SAT eer 7 Peer Men = VE Ss 6 fe Sarrchila ‘ 49/3 ‘NECTICUT VALLEY. GRAD BULL. GEOL. soc. AM. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 10 LATITUDE AND QUADRANGLES. #2°-30" 42745" 43°00 One quadrangle = (7.25 tiles One degree = 69 miles Diagram covers F485 miles Sa ee ——— a STATEN ISLAND PATERSON RAMAPO. SCHUNEMUNK _NEWBURG ROSENDALE = CATSKILL COXSACKIE ALBANY SCHENECTADY SARATOGA GLENS Bor ARLEM TARRYTOWN WEST POINT POUGHKEEPSIE RHINE BE: NS FALLS WHITEHALL TICONDEROGA PORT HENRY WILLSBORO DANNEMOR. 7) NELLA a) USHKEEPSIE RHINEBECK COPAKE KINDERHOOK TROY CAHOBS SCHUYLERVILLE FORT ANN CASTLETON BRANDON MIDDLEBURY BURLINGTON BSbuee nsonns. ee CANADA APPROXIMATE MARINE PLANE IN THE HUDSON-CHAMPLAIN VALLEY. Gradient, 2.23 [7 per mile Fe 40-45 41°-00 40-15 ‘00' 427-15" 42°- 30" 43°-00" 43715" 43'-30" i #¢%o00 LEGEND -—~ Glacial stream channel m Summit terraces — Wave-built gravel bars cc. Wave-cuk chiffs COM NECT/CUT ine? 200 BROOKLYN OYSTER BAY STAMFORD DANBURY VERIDEN GRANBY GRANVILLE CHESTERFIELD GREENFIELD BRATTLEBORO HANOVER: STRATFORD HEMPSTEAD NORTH PORT NORWALK DERBY MIDDLETOWN HARTFORD SPRINGFIELD NORTHAMPTON WARWICK KEENE SUNAPEE BABYLON SETAUKET BRIDGEPORT, NEW HAVEN GILEAD TOLLAND FALMER BELCHERTOWN FIRE ISLAND MORICHES ‘LONG ISLAND) GUILFORD RIVERHEAD SOUND SAYBROOK WHITE FIELD MT. WASHINGTON Wh Fairchild «1973. APPROXIMATE MARINE PLANE IN THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY. . GRADIENT, 2.30 FEET PER MILE ayaa aie ce ont pe ae re STL vsti LEN\ = siamboug ae : 2S aE oa SSNR SS APPROX Lata re Ma emite Spr We | ase ees 43) ales | ie Aopeomtacary HISTORICAL DAL the work of the river, cutting down through 100 feet to its present in- active condition. He does not discuss the higher terraces nor the deltas at the mouths of tributary valleys. The Geology of Vermont, 1861, gave positive adherence to the iceberg theory of drift origin. New England was supposed to have been deeply submerged in the ocean. Vermont had been buried 5,000 feet in the sea and marine beaches were found up to a present height of 2,196 feet (volume 1, page 183). EHvidently the high-level glacial gravels and glacial lake deposits were mistaken for marine features. ‘The terraces of the Connecticut Valley were described and figured by C. H. Hitchcock with considerable detail. They were considered the product of the com- bined action of the lowering sealevel (and lake) waters with that of river flow. This view was essentially correct; but the upper limit of the static waters was not recognized, because of the belief in deep submergence, and no discrimination was made between the terraces built in standing water and those due wholly to river work. WORK OF JAMES D. DANA The earlest important writings on the terraces in the southern part of | the Connecticut Valley were made by James D. Dana in his Manual of Geology, in the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Science, volume 2, and chiefly in the American Journal of Science. In the early edition of his Manual, 1867, he recognized the depression of the land during the “Champlain Epoch,” with increase in height of the marine plane toward the north. Elevations were given as follows: 30 to 50 feet in northern Connecticut, 100 to 170 feet in Massachusetts, and 170 to 200 feet in New Hampshire. In 1873 (in American Journal of Science, volume 5, pages 198-211) he expressed the view that the amount of Champlain submergence was about 50 feet on Long Island Sound and greater northward, and that the high valley terraces were river floodplains which “once filled the valley across’ to depth of 200 feet. In subsequent papers his estimate of the amount of submergence was less for the shore of the Sound. Extended writings up to 1876, in volumes 9-12 of the Journal, dis- cussed the phenomena in much detail, holding the view that “the ocean took no part in the formation of the river terraces”; “the height of the flood the chief cause of the height of the terraces” (volume 10, page 435). He thought that the river had a depth in glacial flood of 150 feet and a width of 15 miles in the Hartford-Turners Falls section (page 507). The depression of the Connecticut coast he estimated as 15 feet. The publication by Warren Upham in 1878 of detailed description of XVI—BULL. GEOL. Soc. AM., Von. 25, 1913 D2? H. L. FAIRCHILD—-PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE the terraces in the head section of the Connecticut Valley stimulated Dana’s critical interest in the study. He made surveys and reviewed © Upham’s data and published a second series of papers, with detailed de- . scription and refined discussion of the phenomena, in the Journal, voi- umes 22-23, in 1881-1882. Dana confirmed Upham’s measurements for — altitude, but disagreed as to the height of the glacial flood. Upham had taken as the “normal” terraces, representing the summit of the flood waters, the higher of the broad or more extended and continuous terraces, and regarded the deltas or “delta terraces” at the mouths of the side © valleys and tributary streams as much above the river level. Dana clearly showed that the high delta terraces were built in waters that must have flooded the whole width of the valley, and that consequently they are the best indication and measure of the full height of the “flood” (wvol- ume 23, pages 94-96). Probably Upham realized the great difficulties involved in admitting a river of sufficient depth and volume to include the high “tributary” delta terraces. Dana was forced to accept the fact in spite of the conse- quent difficulties, and then proceeded to wrestle with the problems. His subsequent writings on the subject are mostly efforts to harmonize incon- sistencies or ingenious explanations of difficulties that were unexplainable - under the river theory. Professor Dana found difficulty in accounting for the source of the immense volume of water to produce and sustain a river of such great size and steep gradient (volume 23, pages 367-372), the fine character of the terrace material, chiefly clay and fine sand, being inconsistent with a stream flow of such volume and velocity (pages 191-194) ; the necessity of postulating dams in the Connecticut and adjacent valleys in order to check the velocity of the flood (volume 25, pages 440-448) ; the source of the enormous mass of detritus required to fill the valley to the depth of 200 feet, and the lack of the coarse material that should complement the fine, and particularly the disposition of the detritus derived from excavating the width of the valley to the depth of 200 feet. The problem of the valley terraces does not appear to have been seriously considered by Dana after 1883. In the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, volume 32, page 198, speaking of the New Haven region, he says: “Twenty-five to thirty- five feet is the greatest amount of submergence that the facts sustain.” WORK OF WARREN UPHAM In 1878 Warren Upham published a description of the terraces in the upper part of the valley, in New Hampshire and Vermont, in the third HISTORICAL yee volume of the Geology of New Hampshire. ‘This is a praiseworthy paper, based on detailed study of 200 miles of the valley with spirit-level meas- urements of the terrace altitudes and without good base maps. Upham’s conception of the large element in the problem was unlike that of either Dana or Hitchcock. He allowed no depression of the land, but, following Adhémar, thought that the gravitational attraction of the ice body on the sea deepened the ocean in the northern region. “Tt seems quite probable that the submergence of the Glacial period, of which we have proof, amounting to 50 feet in southern New England, 200 feet on the coast of Maine, and about 400 feet in the valley of the Saint Lawrence, was not caused by any downward and upward movement of the earth’s sur- . face, but by the attraction of the immense masses of ice.” . Upham’s claim that “neither the deposition nor terracing of the modi- fied drift requires any submergence, as by lakes or sea” (page 175), ap- parently was meant to apply only to the New Hampshire section of the valley ; for, accepting statements made by E. Howe, Jr. (Popular Science Monthly, volume 10, page 440), he writes: “These glacial sheets, when at their greatest extent and depth, caused the sea to rise 200 feet higher than now at Long Island, as shown by marine shells” (page 331). “The valley of the Hudson River was also filled with modified drift to a height at Albany of 330 feet above the sea” (page 3832). This would seem to concede that the terraces in the Massachusetts and Connecticut section of the valley might have been built in sealevel waters. And granting a stand of the sea at 330 feet at Albany should naturally require a similar height of sea on the south border of New Hampshire, in the same latitude and only 60 miles east. His “normal” terraces on this latitude are beneath this height of 330 feet. The recognition of static-water influence in the lower section of the valley might have suggested similar effects farther north. Upham’s de- scription of the valley features begins at the river head, in Connecticut Lake, and proceeds down-stream. If his field-work had the same sequence it helps to explain the non-recognition of the static water features in the lower sections of the valley. From its source to the mouth of the Pas- sumpsic River, about 83 miles, the Connecticut River was above the ma- rine plane and the detrital deposits are to be credited wholly to the river. Below that point the valley features are very different, as he recognized. (See below, page 225.) _ Holding the theory of the flooded river as the only effective agent, the author probably realized the inconsistency of the weak features in the 294 H.L. FAIRCHILD—PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE upper, narrow valley, while recognizing in the lower valley a river oi such enormous volume as to account for the high “tributary deltas.” Certainly he left the deltas hung up in the air and without sufficient ex- planation. While Upham could not admit any depression of the land in glacial | time, yet he thought that after the departure of the ice-sheet the sea stood below its present level, which implies a rise of the land; and he ap- peals to this to explain the disappearance of the enormous volume of detritus that under the river theory must have been swept into the sea at the river mouth. Conceding that the invasion of ocean waters in the Hudson and Saint Lawrence valleys was due to the attraction of the glacier, then as the ice-body waned and the gravitational force decreased, the water surface should have fallen. Consequently the marine plane should decline toward the north, instead of rising. WORK OF B. K. EMERSON In the State of Massachusetts the Pleistocene features of the Con- necticut Valley were carefully studied for many years by Professor Emerson, and his results are found in two admirable publications by the U.S. Geological Survey, “Geology of Old Hampshire County, Massachu- setts,’ Monograph XXIX, 1898, and the Holyoke Folio, Number 50, 1898. Professor Emerson recognized that the terraces and all the plains ex- cept the very lowest in the valley were the product of static waters, and that the highest deltas or sand plains on the borders of the open valley indicated the summit level of those waters. He credited to the river only the lowest terraces, as floodplains. ‘The level of the standing water in the open valley he accurately differentiated from the higher and varied . levels of the deposits made by streams and by glacial lakes. He was non- committal as to the nature or control of the static waters and simply called them the “Connecticut lakes.” He did not attempt to show their extent north and south of his State, nor to determine the barrier or outlet. The name “lakes” as used by Emerson is not inappropriate, in his de- scription of the local features, even if it be understood that the waters were an extension of or confluent with the sea, since the connection with the sea was by two narrow straits, the gorge of the Connecticut below Middletown and the Quinnipiac Valley at New Haven, and the water was kept fresh by the southward current. Professor Emerson did not publish any diagrams or profiles of the ter- PHENOMENA AFFECTING RIVER THEORY DAR. races or the water-plane, but he clearly states that the water-plane lies today at 400 feet above tide on the north boundary of the State and at 288 feet on the south boundary. These figures are adopted for the datum plane of the Connecticut Valley sealevel waters and are found to coincide very closely with the highest shoreline features. (See the diagram, plate 10.) 2 THE River THEORY; DIFFICULTIES AND INCONSISTENCIES THE UPPER AND THE LOWER VALLEY ~The mouth of the Passumpsic River, at the foot of the “Fifteen-miles Falls,” is made by Upham the division between the “upper” and the “lower” valley. He found very conspicuous differences between the two sections of the great valley, and these differences are suggestive and im- portant in the light of present knowledge. Speaking of the 20 miles of upper valley, with steep gradient, immediately above the division point, he says: ? | “The noticeable features of the valley in this distance are that it is deep and narrow, with sloping sides of till, and destitute of the level alluvial ter- races and intervals which occupy a large width everywhere else along the river” (page 24). In contrast, he writes of the lower valley: “The modified drift of this lower valley is everywhere well developed and occurs in extensive terraces of various heights, three or four often on each side, the upper one being usually from 150 to 200 feet above the river” . (page 26). No explanation is offered for the change in the character and amount of deposits at this point in the valley. If the terraces were all river work. then the valley clear to its head should have been filled with detritus, the same as the lower valley, since the source of material was chiefly from the melting ice and filled the valley from south to north, following the re- ceding ice-front. The true explanation of the difference between the two sections of the valley is found in the fact that the lower section of the valley was occu- pied by the sealevel static waters, while the upper section was above the marine plane and held only the river. The lower valley contains all the detritus that was swept out of the upper valley by the river flow. By reference to the diagram it will be seen that the hypothetic or datum plane (plate 10) lies at 650 feet at the mouth of the Passumpsic River, / 226 . H. L. FAIRCHILD—PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE latitude about 44° 17’, which is precisely the figure that Upham gives for his “normal” terrace at that point. DELTAS The most conspicuous features in the northern part of the “lower” valley (the section forming the boundary between Vermont and New Hampshire and south of the mouth of the Passumpsic River) are the high sand plains, the deltas of tributary streams. In some stretches it is possible that the valley was filled clear across except for the current chan- nel. In such cases the water would have been a true river, but prac- tically at the level of the standing waters below. Upham says of the deltas: “Tributary streams . . . frequently formed extensive deposits, similar in material to the floodplain in the main valley, but having a greater height. Sometimes these deltas, being partially undermined, form conspicu- ous terraces a hundred feet above the highest normal terrace, which is the remnant of the river’s continuous floodplain” (page 16). Several of the heavier deltas are well described by Upham: of Wells and Ammonoosuc rivers, at Wells River and Woodsville (page 29) ; at mouth of Jacobs Brook, in Fairlee and Oxford (pages 33, 34); Mink Brook, at Hanover (page 38); Lulls Brook, at Hartland (page 41) ; Little Sugar, Black and Williams rivers (page 51); Black River (page 52) ; Cold and Saxtons rivers, below Bellows Falls (page 54) ; at North- field, Massachusetts (page 57). 2 Upham’s explanation of the great discrepancy between the height of the “normal” terrace and the “tributary” delta terrace is that “the accu- mulation was too great to be cleared away by the current in the main valley” (page 33). Dana criticised this hanging up of the side deltas so far above the main stream, and he took the summit of the deltas as marking the flood level; but his gain in consistency in the genesis of the deltas was overbalanced by the inconsistencies and difficulties in- volved in assuming such an immense flood (American Journal of Science, volume 23, page 96). The form of some of the tributary deltas is evidence that they were not built into a river having the strong flow that the assumed gradient would demand. Built in a vigorous river, the deltas would be chiefly developed on the down-stream side, in this case on the south side of the mouth of the tributary. ‘Thisis not apparent. But it is true that the most effect- — ive winds were from the north, and the currents due to winds and water supply toward the south. Moreover, with the lifting of the land and PHENOMENA AFFECTING RIVER THEORY 220. relative lowering of the waters, with the reduction in the dimensions of the valley, the southward current became more effective. Consequently the inferior terraces, specially in narrow sections of the valley, undoubt- edly exhibit some effects of the southward currents. It will be difficult to distinguish the lower terraces from the true river plains. It is pos- sible that in narrow stretches of the New Hampshire section some of the delta terraces will show effects of current in the open valley. The form and structure of some deltas prove that they were never eroded by any current past their front, though they are bisected and eroded by the stream that built them. The convex front of these deltas, with their constructional frontal slope intact, as shown by the forest beds, prove their construction in quiet water. Mink Brook delta, at Hanover, New Hampshire, shows clearly its constructional frontal slope and lack of undercutting. In the wider valley, in Massachusetts and Connecticut, many of the broad detrital plains lie in secluded areas or so sheltered that river work is positively ruled out. A TERRACES Occurrence.—The benching or terracing of the detrital deposits in the. Connecticut Valley, and specially in the narrower New Hampshire sec- tion, is the feature which has been chiefly discussed by the former writers and which has been taken as the main evidence of river work. The higher terraces are developed on the deltas, the detrital deposits at the mouths of the side valleys, and they are very weak or entirely lack- ing in the longer intervals between the deltas. This fact discredits the river theory, for a river of great volume and steep gradient, such as must be assumed here, would sweep the detritus down its course and build it as floodplains in the embayments or slack-water areas. Discordance——The want of uniformity in the altitude of the higher of the “normal” terraces and the lack of continuity throws another doubt on their origin as river plains. An example of this discordance may be quoted from Upham: “In Thetford and Lyme we come to an abrupt change in the height of the upper terrace plain. . . . At North Thetford this line of the highest terrace suddenly rises to 525 (from 440) and in a mile and a half farther south to 524 feet’” (page 35). This variation in altitude in short distances, with discontinuity, is a character that does not belong to river plains. Rivers flowing freely make floodplains uniform in gradient and consequent altitude, even if somewhat discontinuous. 228 H. L. FAIRCHILD—-PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE Terraces in the Hudson-Champlan Valley.—Terraces are displayed in the Hudson and Champlain Valley on even a larger scale than in the Connecticut Valley. ‘They are more conspicuous in the latter valley and for longer distances because of the narrowness of the valley and the smaller size and closer grouping of the benchings. In the Hudson-Cham- plain the terraces usually do not lie grouped within the range of close vision. A remarkable benching of detrital deposits is exhibited in the Hudson Valley from Troy north to Glens Falls. Into this stretch of 45 miles of sealevel water five rivers poured their glacial flood—the Mohawk, Hoosick, Anthony Kill, Fish Creek, Batten Kill, and the upper Hudson. An enormous volume of detritus was swept into the slowly falling waters of the marine inlet. Wave and current action combined, working at succes- sively lower levels on the deposits, produced a display of terraces on a large scale. For illustration the reader may look at the Cohoes, New York, topographic sheet. The terraces of the Hoosick delta shown on this sheet have been discussed and figured by Professor Woodworth in New York State Museum Bulletin No. 84, pages 134, 200, and plate 24. Perhaps the finest example of terraces, and comparable in every way to the Connecticut Valley features, is found on the delta of the Winooski at Burlington, Vermont, and up the Winooski Valley as far as Mont- pelier. On the Burlington sheet the terraces are shown at all levels from Lake Champlain (100 feet) up to 500 feet. The reader might claim that these are river-made terraces, since they le in the river valley and on its delta. This is not true. There was another agent involved. We know that oceanic waters occupied the Champlain and Winooski valleys when these elevated deposits were made. ‘The writer finds clear evidence of the standing waters up to height of at least 640 feet on the parallel of Burlington. The Winooski delta was built in the open waters of the great Champlain Valley, and the splendid display of terraces was carved in the subsiding static waters by the combined work of waves and cur- rents. ‘The sealevel waters extended southeast up the narrow Winooski Valley to beyond Montpelier, and the terracing of deposits on the valley walls are abundant and conspicuous, like those in the upper Connecticut Valley. We have in the Winooski features a record of the same history as in the Connecticut Valley: a narrow valley, deeply flooded with sea- level waters, abundant inwash of detritus by tributary streams, and the benching of the deposits by wave erosion and gentle currents, due to the slow outflow of the lowering waters. ‘The action was not that of a river, but of an “inlet.” PHENOMENA AFFECTING RIVER THEORY 229 Other examples of terracing are found: at Port Kent, on the delta of _ the Ausable; in the Hudson Valley, at Catskill, Kingston, Newburg, and Haverstraw. ‘The fact that the benchings are not conspicuous or visible in groups from single viewpoints has no bearing on the question of their genesis. Origin.—Enough has been said to make the fact clear that the terraces of the Connecticut Valley, like those in the Winooski, Champlain, and Hudson, are not the product of simple river work, but were made by the combined action of subsiding static waters, inflowing tributaries and out- flowing currents. ‘The important fact to recognize is that the terraces were formed in static waters. Whether these waters were lake or sea is another matter. © At the higher levels the wave-work of the static water and the tributary stream inflow were the more effective factors. With the falling of the water level and consequent restriction of the area the outflowing currents increased in effectiveness, until finally the river was left as the sole agent, producing the plains at, and possibly just above, the present river level. DETRITUS. Character—The fine composition or clayey character of most of the material composing the terraces and the difficulty of explaining it under the river theory was recognized by Dana. Illustrating this we quote: “Hrom the above, the mean velocity for the whole river from Haverhill to Middletown would have been, assuming that the relations of the land to the sealevel were the same as now, over 12 miles an hour, even supposing the mean width to have been but 2,500 feet. “This great velocity, or even one of 10 miles an hour, is not compatible with the character of the deposits which lie at different levels beneath the surface of the stream, both those at 140 feet below the surface and those at higher levels” (American Journal of Science, vol. 23, page 192). “It is to be remembered that the sand beds and those of finer material ordi- narily make not only the lower terraces, but also the highest, where tribu- taries are absent to within 50 or often 20 or 30 feet of their tops, and that this is so even high up the Connecticut, as at Barnet, not two miles south of the junction with the Passumpsic, where these finer deposits extended to a level of 150 to 200 feet above low water in the river” (page 194). To reduce the velocity of the supposed river, appeal was first made to dams; but such were ruled out, except a possible ice-jam below Middle- town. Dana says: “For making the clay-beds north of Amherst the Middletown dam would have been of no avail, and besides this dam there is no satisfactory evidence of any other” (page 195). . 230 H. L. FAIRCHILD—-PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE Appeal was then made to the depressed attitude of the land during the ice waning, as shown by marine fossils. Taking the uplift at New - Haven as 15 to 25 feet; Middlebury, Vermont, at 403, and Montreal, 520 (page 196), he calculated a mean rate of uplift northward along the Connecticut Valley at 1.25 feet per mile (page 198). From this Dana calculates the water surface at the Middletown dam (?) as 137 feet; Springfield, 1835; South Vernon, 236; Windsor, 299, and Haverhill, 383 feet (page 199). ‘This calculation reduced the gradient of the imaginary river, but yet failed to harmonize the facts. After further discussion and calculation, he says: “But it is not so evident what slope would harmonize the facts; that is, would cause a velocity sufficient to make or leave coarse valley deposits near and at flood level, . . . and at the same time leave almost undisturbed beds of sand or of fine pebbles along its bottom” .. . (page 200). The article ends with the difficulty unsettled. But the difficulties all disappear under the recognition of a Connecticut marine inlet instead of a river. Amount.—The river theory involves difficulty when the volume of de- tritus is considered. Both Dana and Upham thought that the valley had been filled with alluvial material up to the level of the higher terraces, and that the filling had been swept out by the river in its diminished flow after the glacial flood. “In this way the Connecticut River .. . has excavated its ancient high floodplain of the Champlain period to a depth of from 150 to 200 feet” .. . (Upham, page 15). “The formation of the terraces has taken place by excavation of a vast de- posit that filled the river valley with these upper plains” ... (page 59). Upham gives the widths in the New Hampshire section of the valley up to 244 miles and an average of fully 1 mile. If we take the greater width at the summit of the deltas, it is over 4 miles. In Massachusetts and Connecticut the width of the valley between the high terraces is from a few miles up to 12 or more. Detrital plains occur in the very wide as well as in the narrow sections. If the volume of the river, without dams, was great enough to occupy the wide sections of the valley at Hartford and Springfield, it would have left no detritus in the constricted sections. One condition seems not to have been recognized. The deposition of detritus was not a process of down-stream migration or the eroding of an upper section of the valley to supply material to fill a lower section. The valley was opened by the recession of the ice-front from south to north, j PHENOMENA AFFECTING RIVER THEORY 931 and the glacial flood existed all that time, following the glacier. There- fore the fill of the valley with the stream detritus proceeded from south tc north, and the volume of detritus would have been as great as if the valley had been wholly filled its entire length at one moment. Considered in its implications, this is an unreasonable amount. Disposition—The fate of such an enormous volume of alluvial materia as the river theory requires is a serious difficulty. Where is the detritus now? It had to be dropped when the river reached sealevel. To Dana this was in Connecticut, in which case the broad valley should have been filled below Hartford with a great delta plain. ‘There are no remnants of such plain. Even if such plain has been carried away, it should re- appear farther south as a delta in Long Island Sound. The only recognition of this problem was by Upham, who suggested that after the ice-cap disappeared the ocean might have stood beneath its present level. But the Coast Survey charts do not indicate any sub- merged deltas. The truth is that the valley never contained much more detritus than it does today. The deposits from the tributary streams were laid along the margins of the sealevel waters, but those from the glacial outwasa were swept into the open valley. During the subsidence of the waters (land uplifting) some of the detritus was rinsed down the slopes and re- accumulated at lower levels. The lower terraces are therefore of finer material, more massive, more continuous, and with greater resemblance to river plains, into which they blend at or near the valley bottom. When the river came into life, which it did very gradually, such detritus as it could grasp in its eroding stretches was dropped farther down in the slack-water areas, forming the lower plains which we see today in the southern part of the valley. Lower series of plains —Upham refers to a set of lower terraces, more continuous or connected in series than the upper, “normal” terraces. He suggested that they might indicate a pause in the river erosion. Such hesitation in the relative lowering of the waters would really be due to a relative pause in the rising of the land. It is possible that the rate of uplift was not uniform. However, it may be that the series of more continuous plains only represent the dominance of outflowing currents or initial stream-work, at the lower levels, over the static water effects which dominated at the higher levels. The lower, broader plains have an altitude in the New Haven-Hartford region of about 100 feet, at Springfield about 200 feet, and at Brattleboro about 300 feet. They lie something like 100 feet beneath the summit 239 H. L. FAIRCHILD—-PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE plane of the marine waters. Without study directed to this point we’ can not know if this correspondence has any significance, as suggesting a rela- tive pause in the uplifting of the land, or whether the broader develop- ment of the lower plains is merely due to the topography of the valley. MEANDERS ; OX-BOWS If the terraces were the product of river work they should exhibit the characteristic features due to streams, such as meanders, channels, ox- bows or cut-offs, etcetera. The edges of the terraces should be frequently scalloped, or cut into concavities and cusps. ‘The writer is not aware of any clear features of these kinds at the higher levels. They should occur near the level of the present river and on its graded floodplain. Hmer- son’s map in folio 50 shows such river features in his “Terraces of Hro- sion,” which he at low levels and evidently are the work of the Connecti- cut River; but his “Terraces of Construction,” at the higher levels and above the range of the present river, do not exhibit the features character- istic of river work. KETTLES The occurrence of glacial kettles in the Connecticut Valley has been thought to argue against deep and long submergence of the area. Kettles large enough to be represented on the topographic maps are few. ‘The largest appear on the Middletown sheet, lying east of Portland, at altitude about 100 feet. Small kettles are shown on the New Haven and the Hartford sheets, at various altitudes up to 200 feet. ‘The writer has seen none of the kettles and can discuss them only in a theoretic way. The objections to long submergence of the kettles or their localities would apply with more force to the river theory. The burial of the ice- blocks took place at the margin of the ice-sheet. If the ice melted out and the detrital cover slumped in while the mass was submerged in the river, the drifting detritus would be more likely to fill and so destroy the basin; but in the more quiet standing water the basins would have much better chance of escaping unfilled. It would also seem that detached ice- blocks would be buried much more easily when the ice was faced by stand- ing water than when the glacial outwash formed rivers. ‘ When kettles lie in definite terraces or other deposits that were built or shaped by either stream or waves, it follows that the slumping occurred subsequent to the completion of the deposit, and this may imply a long time of burial of the ice before its melting. The physical factors here in- volved require consideration. We assume marine submergetice. PHENOMENA AFFECTING RIVER THEORY 233 When the ice-block was detached from the front of the glacier the tem- perature of the waters and the detritus was near 32 degrees Fahrenheit. The mass of buried ice and its detrital cover were practically at freezing temperature. For a long time, while the ice-front was in the neighbor- hood, the accumulating deposits were very cold. During all the time, certainly thousands of years, that the ice-sheet lay across the Connecticui Valley, the outflow from the glacier was a cold, bottom current or drift southward down the inlet. Then even after the glacial flood ceased the more quiet water at the bottom of the inlet could not readily be warmed above the maximum density, whatever that was, depending on the salinity. Circulation of the water in the cold gravels or sand or clay at the bottom of the standing water was certainly sluggish and ineffective. All the conditions would seem to favor the preservation of the buried ice-block, and it seems probable that the larger blocks and those buried more deeply did not melt until the locality was lifted out of the water and exposed to the sun and atmosphere. Doubtless some ice-blocks did melt in time for detrital filling of the depressions, in which case we find as kettles only the few basins that were very late in forming. Such kettles as lie in areas of submergence that were never subjected to stream flow or currents, or even to currents which carried no detritus, | might have formed quickly and yet have remained unfilled. MARINE SUBMERGENCE THEORETIC PLANE The Connecticut Valley can not properly be studied alone. Any up and down movement of the land must have involved wide territory. The other valleys of New England and the Hudson-Champlain must be used in comparison. In the Hudson-Champlain Valley, with its greater dimensions and larger drainage area, the summit-level phenomena are stronger and more definite than in the Connecticut Valley. They afford a clearer history and stronger argument for the reasons that no one could suggest river work and because the great valley extends north at low altitude, so as to connect New York Bay with the Saint Lawrence depression. The phe- nomena due to marine submergence can be compared with present sea- level at both ends of the valley and the marine plane be determined more accurately. ‘The Connecticut Valley rises rapidly in its head-waters sec- tion and the sealevel waters extended north only to the mouth of the Pas- sumpsic River. The uplifted and tilted plane of the sealevel waters is indicated in the 234 H. L. FAIRCHILD——PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE chart, plate 11, for both the Connecticut and the Hudson-Champlain val- leys. The form of this chart is borrowed from Woodworth’s Plate 28, in Bulletin 84, New York State Museum. For the Connecticut Valley the theoretic or datum plane is based on Emerson’s figures, 288 feet on the south line of Massachusetts and 400 feet on the north boundary.’ So far as observation has reached, the summit-level phenomena throughout the valley agree remarkably close with this hypothetic plane. The line representing the Hudson Valley plane is drawn coincident with numerous summit features. It is not supposed that the actual uplifted and tilted marine plane is a perfectly straight surface, but such irregularities or warping as exists would probably not be evident in the condensed chart. The area of New England and New York probably was not uplifted as a rigid mass, yet any wavelike uplift following the waning ice-body might in its final result approach the regularity of a plane. The altitude variations of the shore- line features of the summit level will usually not vary from the indicated plane more than the natural variation in height of such phenomena com- bined with the errors of measurement that refer to the 20-feet contours of the old topographic sheets. Shoreline features or phenomena of standing water found much above this datum plane will belong to glacial waters held up by the ice-front. When evidences of standing water are found much below this plane, search should be carefully made for higher features; but it should be _ emphasized that local absence of shoreline features is very common, and such negation has no weight against positive occurrence of the phenomena at other places. Long stretches of shoreline may yield very faint evi- dence or even none at all. The slope or gradient of the marine plane in the Connecticut Valley is 2.30 feet per mile. In the Hudson Valley it is 2.23 feet per mile. This close correspondence is not closer than should be expected. But in the Connecticut Valley the plane lies about 50 feet higher than in the Hud- son. This throws the isobases about 20 degrees north of west by 20 de- grees south of east, as depicted in the map, plate 11. In the northern part of the valleys the marine plane apparently has a steeper gradient, or, in other words, the original plane is warped upward at an increasing rate in the Champlain Valley and probably in the New Hampshire portion of the Connecticut Valley. In the Champlain Valley heavy beaches which can not be referred to glacial lakes lie much above our datum plane, which at the international boundary is about 695 feet, while strong cobble bars occur two miles south at 730 feet. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 11 BULL. GEOL. SOC. 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VOL, 26, 1913, PL, 11 T= oar Ine PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE OF THE CONNECTICUT AND HUDSON-CHAMPLAIN VALLEYS The shaded areas were flooded sealeyel waters as the latest ice-sheet deserted the TEE Isobasal lines show present altitudes, in feet, of the theoretic or datum marine plane. ‘The Champlal Baller, and probably the upper part of the ‘Conneeticut Valley, have been upwarped higher than the im plane. pat pr0r oe Ov fe Satu woe ¢ 3 I Sa ig ie ao Pservunennen = & ; Oe Renna fs p ete detn on a DATA AFFECTING SUBMERGENCE THEORY 235 Exact data for the New Hampshire section are not yet available in sufficient amount. At Hanover the datum plane marks about 555 feet, but a fair bar, apparently formed im submergence, is 565 feet, and the delta terraces are 575 or higher. Beyond the north line of Massachusetts the available data is meager. ‘lhe writer has seen the abundant features, but has not taken measurements on the summit level. The figures for altitudes given by Upham and Dana can not confidently be used, since they did not recognize standing water and in consequence did not discrim- inate the static plane. The “normal” terraces are far below the level of the standing waters, while the “tributary,” or delta, terrace levels evi- dently include floodplain deposits much above the static water level. Connecticut valley references——The numerals refer to the features in- dicated on the chart. 22. Portland, Connecticut. Two heavy gravel bars on west side of hill, in the northwest part of the village, at 200 and 220 feet by the map. 27. Plains at Manchester, Connecticut, 9 miles east of Hartford. Summit, 260 feet. For Massachusetts the reader is referred to Emerson’s maps, the datum plane being based on his data. For New Hampshire and Vermont the data are taken from Upham’s paper, except number 64. The altitudes are those given for “tributary” deltas. 44. Northfield, Massachusetts, delta terraces, 375-390 feet. 46. Hinsdale, New Hampshire, 380—430. - 48. Brattleboro, 409-425. 49. Dummerston, 420—440. 53. Bellows Falls, 1 mile south, 465-486. 57. North Chesterton, 475-530. 59. West Claremont, 520-540. 60. Windsor, 540. 63. White River Junction, 550. 64. Hanover, delta of Mink Brook; bar, 565; upper terraces, 575. 65. Mouth of Pampanoosic River, 590. 68. Oxford and Fairlee, 560-590. 70. Piermont, 500-650. 71. Bradford, up to 600. 73. Wells River, 600-660. 76. Stevens River, 675. 77. Mouth of Passumpsic River, 650, “normal.” Farther north the river valley lies above the marine plane. Hudson-Champlain valley references—From New York Bay north- ward to Haverstraw Bay numerous terraces have close agreement with the 236 H. L. FAIRCHILD—-PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE datum plane, but they require more precise measurement. These will be inserted in a future report for New York State. . Croton Point delta, 100 feet (Woodworth’s number 4). Silt plain south of Short Clove, 2 miles south of Haverstraw, 100-120 feet. bo bo 24. Haverstraw to Stony Point, 100-120. 27. Fort Montgomery, bar, 140. 29. West Point terraces, 150-160; Cold Spring terraces, 160. 32. Newburg deltas and Beacon deltas, 160. 33. Beacon, broad plain, 140. 36. Marlboro and Wappinger Falls, 160. . Poughkeepsie, broad plain, including Vassar campus, 180. . Hyde Park terrace plain, 200 (Woodworth’s number 10). . Rosendale Plains, delta of Wallkill and Rondout rivers, up to 220. . Kingston, delta of Esopus Creek; Kingston Point and Port Ewen ter- races; broad plains at Rhinebeck, 220. . Mount Marion glacial stream channel, 2 miles southwest of Saugerties, 240. . Great Falls, 6 miles north of Saugerties, glacial stream channel, 260. . Greendale, 3 miles southeast of Catskill, bars, 240; terraces, 260. . Kinderhook, plains west: of Kinderhook Lake, 300. . South Bethlehem, 10 miles southwest of Albany, terraces, 310. . Voorheesville, 9 miles west of Albany, glacial channel, 340. . Schenectady, Mohawk River delta, 350. . High. Mills, delta plain 5 miles north of Schenectady, 360. . Schaghticoke, Hoosick River delta summit, 375. . Mechanicsville, gravel bar 3 miles northwest, 380. . Ballston Spa, 3 miles southwest, Mourning Kill delta, 390. . Ballston Spa, broad sand plains, delta of Kayaderosseras Creek, 400. . Greenwich, Batten Kill delta, 510. . Fort Edward, 5 miles southwest and south of Durkeetown, heavy bars, 420. . Glens Falls, 5 miles southwest, east of Palmertown Mountain, Hudson River delta, gravel bars, 440. In Argyle, 5 miles east of Fort Edward, wave-cutting in shales, up to 440. 93. Glens Falls, 6 miles north, southeast side of French Mountain, terraces, 440 and upward. 108. Brandon, Vermont, for 3 miles north of village, bars, cliffs, and terraces up to 520. Seven miles northwest, in Whiting and Sudbury, wave-work and bars from 520 down to 400. 109. Ticonderoga, 3 miles northwest, at Street Road, gravel bars on kame area from 360 to at least 500 (Woodworth’s number 31). 111. Crown Point, bars 3 miles northwest, about 530 (Woodworth’s number 32). Terraces west of Crown Point beautifully displayed up to 500. 113. Middlebury, Vermont, bars around Chipman Hill, north of the village, up to 540. 114. Port Henry, bars 1144 miles southwest, 530-630. Terraces west and north- west of village, up to 640. 123. Essex, 4 miles west of village and northwest of East Bouquet Mountain, terraces up to 610. Be Be PB Co oO bo eR & OK © ocomouonNaaAtaaal ®D @& oo oo AWE OMA DH OOH OF Oe) We) DATA AFFECTING SUBMERGENCE THEORY 237 124, Essex, 114 miles northwest of East Bouquet Mountain, bars from 500 to 550. 127. Burlington, Vermont, 7 miles east and 1% miles northwest of Williston, gravel bar, 610. 128. Burlington, 10 miles east, on northeast corner of Burlington quadrangle, ; east side of Saxon Hill, cliff and plain, 646. 129. Port Kent, 2 miles southwest, heavy gravel bars on northwest slope of Trembleau Mountain, 450-585 (Woodworth’s number 43) ; 8 miles west, at Harkness, bars both sides of Ausable Valley at 500-580; 4 miles southwest and 1 mile southeast of Keeseville, bars on ee slope of Prospect Hill at 585. 131. Peru, 3 miles west, glacial channels at 700; bars at 706 down to 500. 132. Schuyler Falls, 2 miles northwest and 7 miles southwest of Plattsburg, heavy gravel bars, 540-630; cliff at 630. 133. Morrisonville, 3 miles southwest, glacial channels down to or below 700. 134. Morrisonville, 2 miles southwest, bars, 635 down to 560. 136. West Beekmantown, 11%4 miles south by west and 7 miles northwest of Plattsburg, on north edge of Dannemora quadrangle, heavy bars, 645 down to 560. 138. West Chazy, 3 miles southwest, bars, 680 down to 600. 139. West Chazy, 3 miles northwest, Cobblestone Hill, heavy bars, 660 down to 580 (Woodworth’s number 50). 140. Altona, bars about 700; terraces, 720. 143. Cannon Corners, 8-miles west of Mooers, heavy bars extending for 3 miles north and south, 695 to 735; glacial channels, down to 720; heavy cobble deltas, 750 down to 700. (Woodworth’s number 53 refers to bars 24%4 miles north of Cannon Corners, in .the extreme corner of Mooers quadrangle, at 730 to 710.) 145. Covey Hill Post-office, one- -half mile west, on Sone of hill, cliffs and ter- races, inconspicuous, 640 and 725. The series of heavy bars north and south of the international boundary, well known as the Covey Hill beaches, are indicated on the diagram but not numbered. They range from 525 feet down to 300 and lower, and represent an inferior stage of the sealevel waters. From Covey Hill Post- office they extend westward about the slope, reentering New York north of Chateaugay, and have been mapped through the Saint Lawrence into the Ontario Valley. They are the beaches of the “Gilbert Gulf.” The features given in the chart are only part of those which mark the highest level of the valley-wide standing water. The inferior phenomena are profuse and commonly obtrusive, and while of value as showing effective water action they are not important in the present study. More data could be added for the summit plane, but these are thought sufficient to fairly show the present attitude and gradient of the uplifted marine planes. XVII—BULL, GEOL. Soc,-AM., VoL, 25, 1913 238 H.L. FAIRCHILD—PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE The student of this subject will be able to use the chart for the discoy- ery and mapping of shore features, and the numbering is left open to per- mit insertion of new data. In territory east or west of either valley some recognition should be — given to the variation of the isobases from the latitude parallels. It is estimated that the variation in altitude going east or west is about 0.8 feet per mile; this is to be deducted toward the west and added eastward. In illustration of this variation two localities may be noted. Prof. Joseph, Barrell showed the writer a small but excellent delta at Westville, a northwestern suburb of New Haven, the summit altitude of which ac- cording to the map is 165 to 170 feet. This is about 15 feet low for the same latitude on the Connecticut River, but, being 18 miles west, is near the theoretic height. Prof. H. E. Gregory pointed out the elegant sand plains in the Naugatuck Valley at Seymour, Connecticut. The map alti- tude is 160 to 180 feet. If we take 170 feet as the best figure, we find it is about 20 feet under the datum plane for the latitude (41° 23’). Sey- mour lies 22 miles west of Middletown, which makes the water level 17.6 feet lower. Of course these figures are not precise, but merely illustrate the principle. COMPARISON OF DATA _ Taking the continental depression at Montreal as 520 feet Dana, cal- culated the rate of uplift as 1.5 to 1.25 feet per mile (volume 23, pages 197-198). On this basis he estimated the marine plane at several locali- ties in the Connecticut Valley. The following table gives Dana’s figures for his marine plane and his river flood levels in comparison with what is now regarded as the approximately true marine plane: DATA AFFECTING SUBMERGENCE THEORY 239 Dana’s Dana’s at : Locality. marine ie ene Upham’s figures. PAGEL DL aes cc. ce a DUO Uy sos cusker SO ene ii let ee Mia URI) arse sohar alk ceshare oe 6 Stratford Hollow.... 345 960 710 Wineaster .........- > 318 910. | 675 Peg POU ine Tae Low. Waterford.....| ...... 843 | 650 Raier ace EZR 1 295 677 640 618, “normal.” VEL S263 oe re cr 660 620 600-660, ‘‘tributary.” Sieid 170] eee 272 655 GOSS Eni pathmapreR nore Race nara ey eg Pe TMOVET: ci cna = eco pO RRO geeks 580 555 540, normal. UB RANG peerless eee | es ee 550 OU oes ti tlle eaten, a eielutraia sine Maeve << IG So) Ga Bilerate oreo 520 520 540, tributary. TSOUIONGR ME ANSicis cc. sc ce ie as 480 465 465-480, tributary. PEC WOLO! ciscls sc a's] ee ss oe 410 425 409-425, tributary. South Vernon....... ~ 160 396 e(Dobeoea eae lta OD ah orn resent meee es Gere MORE MME OL MASS. vel. sec eel [eee eas AOS Ace vane ies eee ee ee he he 2 If TEESE) ae eee Re 390 395 375-390, tributary. North Hatfield.....| . PNe een St 350 | SCIP 0S eee re 240° | 300 South line of Mass...| ...... 230 288 SETA ICC I See re 210 250 IMT GTECOWI. cc. cele | oe ee bos 195 Daley Long Island Sound.. 25 25 160-125 rele AOR ee el Css ces | cm ese Pela Southampton MOM AMTES Ges terse cd NES. G okacsi bog 100 PHENOMENA OF THE SUMMIT LEVEL The features marking the highest stand of the waters are the ordinary shoreline phenomena, beaches, and deltas. The beach phenomena, as bars and cliffs, are usually not conspicuous, because in the sections of the valley having sufficient width for effective wave-work the marginal waters were either too shallow or too secluded. However, close examination of the valley sides along the theoretic plane will probably discover definite shore features at many localities. Two heavy gravel bars lie northeast of Middletown, on the west side of the hill at Portland, which were found by using the theoretic level. By the map contours the higher bar is 220 feet, which is the precise theoretic altitude of the. marine plane. It needs to be emphasized that absence of expected shore phenomena at any locality, or even along a stretch of shoreline, is not conclusive nega- tive evidence. Shore features are capricious and are often lacking where most confidently expected and where the fact of water is demonstrable by good features on both sides of the negative locality. On the other hand, strong features are frequently discovered where not expected. Bars and deltas may occur at all altitudes inferior to the summit or initial water level, and more abundantly ; hence it is not safe to take the highest feature in isolated localities as marking the summit. Only by 240 H. L. FAIRCHILD—-PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE correlation along considerable distances of shoreline can the true summit plane be confidently predicated. In this glaciated area there is, fortunately, another class of phenomena which is positive as marking the static water summit, even in single occur- rence, namely, the channels and deltas of glacial drainage. The ice- border drainage was ephemeral and it dropped its detritus in the waters that were laving the ice-front and which were then at their maximum altitude. Glacial stream channels and the sand and gravel plains which can be correlated with the debouchure of glacial streams give the approxi- mate marine plane. The writer has not sought these features on the sides of the Connecticut Valley, but they must certainly occur there abundantly. In the Hudson-Champlain Valley they have afforded posi- tive data. ; Naturally the summit-plane phenomena in the broader sections of the valley are relatively weak and inconspicuous, and it is not surprising that in the lower stretch of the Connecticut Valley they have been overlooked. They must be sought with some idea of the proper altitude. There are several reasons for the weakness of the summit features. The sealevel waters soon fell away from their summit plane, due to the rising of the land. Of the rate of land uplift we have no idea, but it was doubtless in progress as the ice-sheet was waning. The amount of de- tritus in the grasp of the earliest water was little more than that contrib- uted by streams and glacial outwash. Time was not allowed for the cutting of cliffs and building of bars, except in the most favorable locali- ties. At lower stands of the water detritus was accumulated by the rins- ing down of the upper slopes. In the lower part of the Connecticut Valley, with great width and irregular topography of the walls, the shore phenomena are detached and usually weak and inconspicuous. Naturally they would not be associated in origin or correlated in their altitudes without study directed to that end. A wrong philosophy has prevented the recognition of these scattered features as the products of one high-level water body. In the New Hampshire section of the valley the deltas of streams, either land or glacial drainage, are the common features which mark the summit water-level. In the Massachusetts-Connecticut section the stream-buiit sand plains are not evident, as the smaller ones with good form lie far back on the slopes, while the heavier deposits of the larger streams have been spread out as indefinite plains or left as alluvial flats in the lateral or tributary valleys. It should be understand that the marine waters flooded all the valleys of New England to a height correlating with the plane in the Connecticut Valley, and similar evidence of the standing water will be found in them. DATA AFFECTING SUBMERGENCE THEORY © 241 Many of the streams now tributary to the Connecticut River were, during the postglacial submergence, independent streams, and their detrital con- tributions to the sealevel deposits must be sought at the theoretic eleva- tion and often outside the Connecticut Valley proper. * An inspection of Emerson’s maps of the Pleistocene, in his two writings above noted, will show the “high delta sands” and “lake-shore beds” miles back from the river and in lateral valleys now having no essential relation to the present Connecticut River. GLACIAL DELTAS The most easily recognized proofs of the high-level waters, and prob- ably the most frequent, are the small deltas of unmistakable form and structure left hung up on the valley sides. These have been attributed to glacial waters, local ice-border lakes or pondings in side valleys or re- entrants of the valley wall.. Such genesis of some deltas is certainly pos- sible and the theory is legitimate. In some cases the composition or partial content of the delta argues for the immediate presence of the glacier. But ice-border lakes on the sides of the open valley must have been rare and the production of definite deltas very doubtful, for the following reasons: The writers seem to agree that the waning ice in the Connecticut Valley was not strongly lobate, and a lobate or tongue form is the more favorable for such pondings. Moreover, such waters with outlet alongside the ice border are’ fluctuating in level and ephemeral. To have steady level, a glacial lake required an outlet over land, and such outlet channel should be found in order to confidently postulate a lateral glacial lake. In lateral valleys with northward down-slope glacial lakes occurred, and Hmerson shows such in hismaps. Any deltas or other shore phenomena at high level on the sides of the open valley or in south- leading valleys should be attributed to the marine level, and confidently so if the altitude is found to coincide with the theoretic marine plane. Some deltas deposited in the sealevel waters may have been built near or even against the ice-front, and such might contain unassorted mate- rials. Doubtless some deposits were made by glacial drainage that poured directly from the ice-front or along the ice border, but such deposits are not likely to have good delta form for the reason that such drainage was shifting and commonly subglacial. FEATURES OF THE LOWER LEVELS As the land slowly lifted out of the sealevel waters the finer detritus was partially rinsed down the steeper slopes, and with the diminishing breadth and depth of the waters the detrital deposits became broader and more continuous. ‘The conspicuous, extended and clayey plains are in- - ferior levels. As examples we may note: at Broad Brook, 13 miles north- 242. H. L. FAIRCHILD—-PLEISTOCENE MARINE SUBMERGENCE east of Hartford,.100 to 200 feet. (theoretic plane, 275); in Long Meadow, south of Springfield, 200 feet (theoretic, 300); Turner Falls and: Greenfield, 300 feet (theoretic, 375) ; Hanover, 500-540 -(theoretic, 565). Passing north, the broad ae more Se apera the marine | level. 3 If the heehest a the road! “flats” in the open valley could reaeee ile be. regarded as indicating the primitive level of the river flood, they cer- tainly can not be so considered for static waters. : ‘ In the lowering waters the conditions for production af cliffs ont bars became more and more unfavorable. The deltas, being proportionately of finer material, were spread out thinner into indefinite shape and not so clearly correlated with the contributing tributary streams. When the waters became quite contracted the southward currents were still more effective and the detritus still better distributed. Eventually the south- ward currents of the narrow sections became continuous throughout the valley and constituted the primitive postglacial Connecticut River. ‘ABSENCE OF MARINE FOSSILS The two chief objections to the theory (or fact) of marine submergence will be: first, the lack of conspicuous summit-level phenomena, and, sec- ond, the absence of marine organisms. The weakness of the shore phe- nomena at the higher levels has already been sufficiently discussed. The lack of marine fossils in the Connecticut Valley terraces is not proof of non-marine origin, for the negative evidence is inconclusive. No fresh-water fossils are found, which fact might be used as argument against the river theory. We know that large terranes of oceanic origin are quite destitute of organisms. But there is a positive and satisfactory explanation of the absence of fossils in these sediments. Even at the summit level the sealevel waters in the valley had connec- tion with the open sea only through the straits at Middletown and New Haven. The lower waters had only one pass to the sea, through the Mid- dletown narrows. Moreover, the valley waters were always freshened by the drainage from the north, and at the higher levels received the copious flood of cold water from the melting ice-sheet. 'The waters were estua- rine, and probably only the southern waters were even brackish. -The term “lakes,” applied by Emerson, is not inappropriate. Marine fossils have been reported, but not always verified, from ele- vated points on Long Island and from various localities in New England. They should be sought in the valleys of Connecticut which open freely southward, but probably they will not be found in the valley of the Con- ' necticut River, BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 243-264 JUNE 29, 1914 MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION AND ASSIMILATION IN THE ADIRONDACK REGION? BY WILLIAM J. MILLER (Read before the Society December 80, 1913) CONTENTS Page © SU DESS PEL DEES oe SRO i er tat an et crat oS aiee sare 243 Facies of the great syenite-granite intrusive body.............e.. ae ee 244 (GOMEEDE ODSCTVALIONS. «6.6 cee cee ec ane ee a ere AEG SS ae oe te oe ares 244 MPT ERS VETS iucle gic ois soles ele wise s sie cieleieeie sd slcs cele CMe Me oid ste eed acter ad 245 ISIGRMMASES OL THE SYEMILE. 0 cise ek ce he cle ce ec cise cece encesesees 245 ee MAE RSENS a re ereta eo, oo) ae als) craVauso. evai'e ciate, ou Save 6) eele' ea) 516s sla.e. 3s 246 GramievanG. STanite POrpHyry.... 0. c.ncc.cnssaes Boe ole tales area si 6 ol ohos 246 Differentiation of the syenite-granite magma.......... ee wear et abeter haters tate 246 Pee MME TENS Wars ere arte are rs syensics kaze mits a 24 Ey ae ree 5d 13 7 US es eae 1 ] Mattes 23 2 a 23 22 ed eRecae se 5 A |. 3g; elite a eee 21 25 38 5 27 Se) SRS Sea cae becail A Ye | Atttle Number 24 is a rather basic (dioritic) rock greatly resembling certain phases of basic syenite; number 23 is a granitic syenite, and number 21 is a good pink granite. 'These types grade back and forth into each other several times in this one outcrop. There are many narrow streaks, layers or inclusions of Grenville dark, biotite-feldspar gneisses sometimes con- taining garnets. At times these streaks are pretty clearly defined, while again they are not, but always, though often locally twisted, they roughly follow the gneissic bands. The texture and composition, especially of the granite, vary considerably, and a few garnets occur sporadically in the syenite and granite. The ledge is perfectly bare, with relationships well exhibited, and it is certain that the dark, dioritic bands or streaks are Grenville which have been more or less fused into the molten granite. Where thoroughly assimilated, the basic rocks have resulted, and where not thoroughly fused-in the streaks are still visible. Every stage of the assimilation process is shown. 2W. J. Miller: N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 170, 1914, p. 28. - ASSIMILATION OF THE SYENITE-GRANITE MAGMA | 257 Similar phenomena exhibited on a much more extensive scale may be seen in excellent outcrops along the creek from one-fourth to one-half mile below Dunning Pond (Lake Pleasant quadrangle). ‘The variable red, granitic gneiss is so full of gray Grenville inclusions as to make up a considerable percentage of the rock. ‘There are all stages, from thor- oughly fused in or assimilated Grenville to some which has been but little affected. ‘A very definite case of the assimilation of the border of a large Gren- ville gneiss inclusion by the inclosing syenite is shown at the Rogers gar- net mine** on Gore Mountain (Thirteenth Lake quadrangle). This in- clusion, which has a length of three-fourths of a mile and a maximum width of 100 feet, consists of a medium grained hornblende-garnet eneiss. ‘This typical garnet-bearing rock (number 1 of the table below) passes by perfect gradation through an 8-foot or 10-foot zone into a basic ‘syenite or acidic diorite (number 2 of the table), which contains distinct dodecahedral garnet crystals up to an inch or more across. ‘This rock, in turn, grades into a hornblende (quartzless) syenite (number 3 of the table) which merges into the typical country rock of quartz-hornblende syenite, these two latter rocks being at times somewhat garnetiferous. This transition zone has certainly been formed by assimilation or actual fusing together of the syenite and the border of the great inclusion at the time of the intrusion. © o 0 o 3 a S eg es = ; S : 2 & aS ® 2 2 3 6 an rs io i S S a ce 20 Lab 20 40 3 15 1 TRAP a Lars 30 Ol. An. 30 40) eel ena ae AC 1 2 little at 50 An. 25 Pays a le ES aha pie ee es it Hittlew ees ee. At the Hooper garnet mine, just east of the northern end of Thir- teenth Lake, the whole mass of rock mined is almost precisely like the transition rock just described. All evidence points to the origin of this Hooper mine rock as due to pretty thorough melting of an admixture of syenite and Grenville sediment where the Grenville inclusion was perhaps deeper down in the magma, or possibly a number of smaller hornblende gneiss inclusions, maybe with some limestone, were assimilated by the molten syenite. *W. J. Miller: Econ. Geol., vol. 7, No. 5, 1912, p. 500. 258 w.J. MILLER—-MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION AND ASSIMILATION A Grenville inclusion, one-half mile long and well exposed in the bed of Elbow Creek, 1144 miles north of Wells (Lake Pleasant quadrangle), consists chiefly of dark hornblende-garnet gneiss. Its borders are clearly fused. by the inclosing normal syenite giving rise to peculiar looking rocks of distinctly intermediate character. On, the eastern shore of the lake, 134 miles northeast of Long Lake village (Blue Mountain quadrangle), a pink granite very distinctly grades into a wide band of biotite-quartz Grenville gneiss. Magmatic assimilation on larger scales, however, is to be best observed in areas of so-called “mixed gneisses.” These are really areas of Gren- ville which have been all cut to pieces, and in some cases more or less fused by the intrusive magmas. In some areas true Grenville rocks pre- dominate; in others true igneous rocks prevail; while in still others the - most common rock appears to be of intermediate character due to an actual melting and incorporation of Grenville sediments by the intru- sives. Except along fault lines, these mixed gneisses everywhere grade into either true Grenville or syenite or granite, and the drawing of boundary lines is largely a matter of personal judgment. On such a larger scale, good examples of rocks of intermediate charac- ter make up much of the mixed gneiss area which lies just east of Ches- tertown”’ (North Creek quadrangle). ‘Thus the whole top of Prospect Mountain consists of gray, fine grained, very massive rock which has the composition of a biotite granite. This rock is pretty homogeneous except for occasional patches or stringers of gray Grenville gneisses which are fused into the mass. Passing southward and southwestward down the mountain side, this rock grades perfectly into a medium grained, bio- tite granite which contains very few Grenville inclusions, and this rock, -in turn, grades perfectly into the typical biotite granite porphyry at the base of the mountain. _ Passing. westward down the mountain side, however, the fine-grained granitic rock at the top gradually becomes coarser grained and contains more numerous and more clearly defined inclusions of Grenville gneisses, with these rocks, in-turn, grading into pure biotite-garnet and quartzitic Grenville gneisses at the base of the mountain.’ Thus we have a perfect transition from the gray, granitic rock into the granite porphyry on the one hand and into the Grenville on the other, so that there appears to be no escape from the idea that | these gray, granitic rocks were formed by actual fusion and incorporation of more or less of the Grenville into the granite porphyry magma. .The presence of the inclusions does not necessarily oppose this view, because 2 WwW, J. Miller: N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 170, 1914, pp. 23-24, ASSIMILATION OF THE SYENITE-GRANITE MAGMA 259 they may well enough simply represent fragments of Grenville which were caught in the granite magma just before consolidation, or when the temperature was not high enough to actually melt the fragments. Gray granitic rocks of apparently the same origin are common throughout this mixed gneiss area, which occupies about 2 square miles. Another interesting mixed gneiss area is the one just north of the vil- lage of Horicon?® (North Creek quadrangle). In the vicinity of the quarry at the base of the mountain the rock is very typical granite por- phyry, which contains a few long, narrow, sharply defined Grenville eneiss inclusions. Going up the mountain side from the quarry the granite porphyry, which at times (in patches or wide bands) appears typical, is intimately associated with Grenville. This Grenville occurs as large and small inclusions, often sharply defined and nearly always drawn out parallel to the foliation. The included rocks are chiefly banded biotitic, hornblendic, and quartzitic gneisses often in bands from 20 to 30 feet wide. ‘Toward the top of the mountain the rock is mostly like the gray granitic rock already described as occurring at the top cf Prospect Mountain, and the inclusions are fewer and not so sharply de- fined. Here again this granitic gneiss appears to be an assimilation product, while farther down the mountain side the temperature seems not to have been high enough to cause any considerable melting or assimila- tion of the included gneisses. . Excellent exposures in an open field between Blue Mountain Lake vil- lage and Crystal Lake (Blue Mountain quadrangle) afford a practical demonstration of the very intimate relations of granitic and Grenville gneisses with intermediate rocks due to more or less assimilation. ‘The granites are pinkish to grayish and rather'variable. In certain outcrops Grenville gray, biotitic or dark garnetiferous or pyroxenic gneisses may be seen to grade into the igneous rock with no visible contacts. In a few cases contacts are fairly sharp. Most of. the exposures, however, consist of rocks of intermediate character, clearly the products of assimilation. An area of what is regarded as a basic (gabbroic) phase of normal sye- nite extends from Speculator Mountain to Indian Head Mountain (Lake Pleasant quadrangle), showing a length of 5 miles and a maximum width of 144 miles. The most typical rock contains 75 to 80 per. cent oligoclase to labradorite ; 6 to 9 per cent pyroxene ‘(usually augite) ; 3 to 10 per cent hornblende ; 1 to 4 per cent magnetite ; 0 to 5 per cent garnet: 0 to 2 per cent biotite, and usually slight fee of zoisite or apatite. In some places the rock looks very gabbroic, and in others much like cer- *W. J. Miller: N. Y. State Mus, Bull, 170, 1914, p. 24, 260 w.J. MILLER—MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION AND ASSIMILATION tain basic border phases of the Essex County anorthosite. ‘Much of the rock, however, looks much like the normal syenite, though it is always without quartz. ‘The degree of foliation varies considerably, though it is generally pronounced. The clear red garnets are not thought to be of secondary origin. Along the borders, especially to the east and south- east, the rocks of this area grade into normal quartz-syenite. ‘This area of so-called basic syenite appears to have been produced by magmatic assimilation where dark, basic Grenville gneisses were incorporated into the normal syenite magma. A considerable inclusion, one-half mile southeast of the southern end of Lake Pleasant, has an important bear- ing in this connection. The inclusion contains 40 per cent hornblende; 30 per cent oligoclase to labradorite; 18 per cent hypersthene; 1 per cent garnet, and 2 per cent magnetite and pyrite. Its borders have been well fused, and the assimilation product greatly resembles the most typical phase of the syenite just to the west. A complete assimilation of many such basic Grenville fragments by the normal syenite magma would cer- tainly account for the so-called basic syenite. ‘The view that the syenite magma did break through and actually assimilate considerable quantities of such Grenville rocks is strongly supported by the following facts: The very presence of the above-mentioned inclusion, which is taken to repre- sent a late stage in the stoping and assimilation process; the fact of the former existence of much basic Grenville gneiss over the site of the basic syenite area as proved by numerous inclusions and the present occur- rence of large masses just northward; the variable composition and ap- pearance of the rock which would be expected because of differences in amount and character of the rocks assimilated; the gradation of the basic syenite into normal syenite; and the fact that the rocks so very closely resemble rocks definitely known to have been produced by the action of a similar syenite magma upon similar Grenville rocks in the Thirteenth Lake quadrangle (see description above). GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS The widely different views held by petrologists regarding magmatic assimilation are suggested by the following brief references to several recent papers. Loewinson-Lessing believes that assimilation of invaded rock has a great influence upon differentiation, and says: . “Ts not assimilation a phenomenon that must be expected a@ priori in intru- Sive bodies, for it is difficult to imagine a magmatic basin heating the rocky masses in contact with it for a long period without partly dissolving them.” ” #7 F, Loewinson-Lessing: Geol. Mag., n. s., Dec. V, VIII, 1911, pp. 248-257, 289-297. ASSIMILATION OF THE SYENITE-GRANITE MAGMA 261 A few years ago Daly?* worked out an elaborate magmatic stoping and . assimilation hypothesis according to which the intrusions of many great acidic, batholithic magmas have been accompanied by extensive assimi- lation of stoped blocks of invaded rock. Van Hise”? admits that cases of local fusion or absorption of frag- ments or borders of invaded rocks by intruding magmas are known, but he does not believe any proved case of fusion on a large scale is known. Referring to Lawson’s*® work in the Rainy Lake and Lake of the Woods districts of Canada, Van Hise dissents from the view that extensive or so-called “subcrustal’ fusion of the invaded rocks has been proved for those districts. | Adams and Barlow,*! in an elaborate report on the Haliburton and Bancroft areas of Ontario, say: “The further question as to how far granite, having caught up inclusions of the rock through which it breaks in the manner described, dissolves, digests, or further acts on them, is one on which it is more difficult to get conclusive evidence. That it does so in some cases is certain.” They describe several examples where, rather locally, the granite magma, has been rendered basic by the solution of amphibolite in it; but they say that undisputed evidence of such solution on an extended scale has not yet been obtained. ‘The conclusions reached by these two geolo- gists regarding this Canadian region are of particular interest as com- pared with the writer’s conclusions regarding the Adirondacks, since the geological conditions are so similar in these two regions. Cross,*” in a review of certain petrological papers, states: “That many magmas represented in rocks open to investigation came from depths where the conditions of fusion and assimilation existed is seemingly incontestable. . . . But the assumption that assimilation has taken place generally in large intrusive bodies at contacts now visible is not plain to many petrologists.”’ Iddings,** in his book on Igneous Rocks, states that: “Hvidences of absorption by the igneous magma of material from adjoining rocks are very slight, even in cases where these rocks have been profoundly 28R. A. Daly: Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. xv, 1903, pp. 269-298; ibid., vol. xvi, 1903, pp. 107-126; ibid., vol. xxvi, 1908, pp. 17-50. 7 C. R. Van Hise: U. 8. Geological Survey Monograph XLVII, 1904, pp. 730-735. 80 A. C. Lawson: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 4, 1890, pp. 185-186. 1. D. Adams and A. E. Barlow: Department of Mines, Canada, Memoir 6, 1910, pp. 116-117 and 122-123. _ W. Cross: Jour. Geol., vol. 20, 1912, p. 364. | J, P. Iddings: Igneous rocks, 1909, p. 282. 262 w.J. MILLER—-MAGMATIC DIFFERENTIATION AND ASSIMILATION affected by the intruded magma. . . . It appears from a study of intruded igneous rocks that they were not sufficiently heated to melt or dissolve invaded rocks to any appreciable, or at most to any considerable, extent.” Some of the facts very favorable to magmatic assimilation in the Adi- rondack region are the following: (1) The tremendous masses of the syenite-granite intrusive body; (2) The vast number of masses of Grenville rocks which were either actually caught up as inclusions or almost completely enveloped by the magma, these masses ranging in size from an inch or less in width anda | foot or two long, to others some miles wide and many miles long; (3) The very deep-seated conditions under which the Grenville rocks were intruded by the magma; and (4) The at least frequent highly fluid dhatanter of the magma, as shown by the very intimate and minute penetration of certain of the in- vaded rocks by the magma. That the stoping and engulfment of such small to large Grenville masses by the tremendous body of intruding magma were very common processes throughout the Adirondack region is abundantly established by recent detailed geological surveys. Also that many of these masses must have sunk deep into the magma is proved by the persistent occurrence of such inclusions throughout the region, irrespective of existing differences of thousands of feet of altitude and the variable amount of the profound denudation to which this region has been subjected. In spite of these very favorable conditions, there is no positive evidence whatever that great bodies of the Adirondack syenitic or granitic magma have been appreciably changed in composition due to the incorporation or assimilation of Grenville gneisses or other rocks. As the above de- scribed examples show, however, magmatic assimilation has been of com- ~ mon occurrence, but always of pretty local extent. Of the large number of definitely known cases very few involve areas as large as a few square miles, while by far most of them involve masses or belts only a few feet or rods in width and less than a mile in length. The differential character of the assimilation process is also note- worthy. ‘Thus at one place there will be unquestioned evidence of assim- ilation, while within a stone’s throw inclusions of similar rock may have been enveloped by the same magma with no apparent sign of fusion. These latter inclusions were doubtless enveloped by the magma when its temperature was too low to bring about fusion. In the Adirondacks, assimilation products appear to have been pro- duced in at least three ways: (1) By the so-called “lit-par-lit”. and ORIGINAL BANDED STRUCTURE 263 “mosaic” types of injection as described by Cushing; (2) by simple melting and absorption of borders of small and large inclusions, and (3) by engulfment and partial to complete assimilation of Grenville frag- ments or inclusions. _ ORIGINAL BANDED STRUCTURES IN THE SYENITE AND GRANITE Features of special interest in connection with the granites and sye- nites, especially the former, are the frequent and comparatively sudden transitions from the gray to the pink varieties and from the more sye- nitic:or basic phases to the more truly granitic phases. The effect is to give wide bands or layers, from 1 or 2 to 100 or more feet wide, of vary- ing color and composition, and yet all clearly belonging to the same rock mass because of the true, though often pretty rapid, gradation of one band or layer into another. ‘These bands always appear to be arranged parallel to the foliation. Many examples of such es have been observed by the writer. Cushing and Kemp have described such banded ae in the Long Lake** and Elizabethtown-Port Henry*® quadrangles, respectively, and they: are inclined to regard the banding as due to differentiation of the magma into layers of varying composition. For many cases, at least, the writer agrees with this view, though in certain other cases, however, he believes the banded structures have been produced by more or less thor- ough fusion, but only partial assimilation of long, narrow Grenville gneiss inclusions. Detailed records of observations in support of this view are being accumulated, and the results will be presented in a later paper. 34H. P. Cushing: N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 115, 1907, p. 478. 3 J, F. Kemp: N. Y. State Mus. Bull. 138, 1910, pp. 48 and 128. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 12 BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. FLAT SHARP-EDGED PEBBLES FROM THE GALENA FORMATION BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 265-276, PL. 12 JUNE 29, 1914 CHARACTERISTICS OF A CORROSION CONGLOMERATE * BY FREDERICK W. SARDESON (Read before the Society December 30, 1913) CONTENTS Page RRR TMT COIN Ug OD Tye coer eel Tarai) aiicies eo, ooo Gis" og) sceole oo ereie a due. sohete Sis eee a ae ee 6a ceie’s 265 Pe eat ee MORI SICLIS SUOTA Heriot ec) cl eves ene ale vo cue'aus oi She ww theleve.e eae sie seo 6 Slee se ce 265 Gp AA MTOM SOR DT OINS cf ne4e,c. ov fo we bel crane weal o tevete a Bis vale eters au ew etadceecees 268 SUTiaE IGRI SHIR UI ES WIE EMC S Crate Eley coals: wl sire oo oe) aifes elias euicie oe Wi eeiay we, w/O saree ete "eb lele o ote wave 268 COTM SOM COM PTOMETALE . 5.c coc cs. she eis ce 0)oia v0.00 ©ri wi0he o'e-e tee e sob nie a 269 Conglomerate in the Galena formation... ..........00ccceeecssscccceecs 269 eM et ae M@ESCEUMULOM es cievacks si as clelcls > ¢ alothro ei bee's si e.b sie eoje wie mela e'cde ce en 269 Origin of limestone pieces in the Shale... ...cccccecccccccccccccccees 270 Condition of the shale on the sea-bottom..........ccc cece eececccees 271 BERMAN ONG Me acl Fare Silenka.ris'wiNe; p/ss" aireite, as x0 tei SPcl se usttewlese-e chetene wince aversive bye Ce‘ a 271 TNE) SHALE) ES OCS ENS OR TEN 4&0 (IR gr) 262 Characteristics of corrosion conglomerate... ... ccc ccc eens cece ces vecccs 273 Gene MmOMPEACLETISUIES Rc... n's as vies cs ca cece eu erelevedicevoccucseeecevs 213 armesinteniroieDWIOSs. oo. ches ec coda cecscedecevdcevecvendeas 273 SOLIS. en cc US Bet CROon tire) Groth PRES SE a ia SCS ee tee ee a eS 273 SSAC IEGIOC IIL Cireasaic-scc is chcier sievate.c ro cieaa eile, clelwie'e eieieie © Siove'elvie » Ha ceed 274 Amount and distribution............. Pore coke hes fo ict rane bare roae ers bedS beeen 274 LE ERS EL EV EOTD Gey gS oc 0 Soe i NSM RO 275 OA MINGUTES EN - 95 2 5 AAGIEH SRE IGG SIGNER EAC RORS IE I I POA eg ee 273 INTRODUCTION GENERAL DISCUSSION The conglomerates of the Galena-T'renton series of the Ordovician have been once before described? in an article in the American Geologist. At that time those conglomerates were interpreted as intraformational in contradistinction to basal or interformational conglomerate. They were 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Society December 31, 1913. 2. W. Sardeson : Intraformational conglomerates of the Galena series. The American Geologist, vol. 22, 1898, p. 315. 3 Charles D. Walcott : Paleozoic intraformational conglomerate. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 5, 1894, p. 191. (265) 266 F. W. SARDESON—A CORROSION CONGLOMERATE interpreted as corrosional in contrast with suchas are commonly formed by erosion. It is my purpose now to describe one of those conglomerates in particular and to discuss its significance in relation to other con- glomerates. The conglomerate to be described here is a thin or scattering deposit in the form of black-surfaced pebbles of limestone (see plate 12) in a greenish shaly limestone matrix. It occurs above the base of the Galena limestone formation proper. It is best known at Saint Paul, Minnesota, but is seen also at Kenyon, near Mantorville, and in other places where the base of the Galena is exposed. The mere occurrence of conglomerate in this region is not exceptional. There are many conglomerate beds in the Upper Cambrian and the Ordo- vician in the territory near Saint Croix and Mississippi rivers, in Minne- sota and Wisconsin. Nearly all, if not all, of the several formations comprised in the Cambrian and Ordovician here have some conglomerate in them. The conglomeratic beds are, as a rule, thin deposits and, if taken all together, they would not be very great in amount. They cor- respond in that respect with the rather thin, very widely extended rock formations in which they lie. They are all noteworthy as geologic evi- dence, even though they are thin or inconspicuous. The bed of con- glomerate here in the Galena limestone formation is even thinner or more scattered than many others. On the other hand, its pebbles are remark- ably well preserved and very favorable for study. That which is considered to be most noteworthy about this particular conglomerate is that it appears to be the result of corrosion, or at least not of the ordinary processes of erosion. Obviously, a widely different conclusion results from the interpretation of a particular conglomerate bed as a marine corrosional product, as compared to that which follows if it is interpreted as a basal erosional conglomerate. Whether the sea made this conglomerate while relatively quiescent, or whether the sea withdrew some hundred miles southward and returned again, leaving as record: of its changes these blackened cake-shaped pebbles, is the question involved in case of the conglomerate here described. In regard to the interpretation of all conglomerates in this region, they all lie in or adjacent to formations that bear marine fossils, and where evidence to the contrary is not in preponderance they may, there- fore, all be forthwith interpreted according to prevailing theories at the present time, as evidence that the sea had: been repeatedly withdrawn from the region and again returned to it. I.may say here that I think several of them may have been produced in such recession and readvance of the sea, but that some others were not, and of these in particular the SECTION AT ST. PAUL 267 =0Z ONE No. 8. al OLN Da NOE bese 9% - cries -Za _ZONE No.6: =I-Oolite I. -60' * = ZONE. No.5. Sh. Decorah | PLEO EEN Saint Peter FicurE 1.—WSection at Saint Paul, Minnesota Showing the position of corrosion surfaces and conglomerates 268 F. W. SARDESON—A, CORROSION CONGLOMERATE one here described. There is in fact a variety of conglomeratic deposits comprised in the Cambrian and Ordovician in this region. Sea-beach pebbles, probably also river gravel, certainly some lag-gravel, with “drei- kanter,” and some marine corrosion pebbles, besides reef breccia, or con- glomerate, characterize different ones of the known conglomerate beds, and they show that there was a diversity of conditions under which cou- glomerates were formed. Several of the conglomerate beds appear to be problematic, and they may be considered more especially at some future time. With them are placed for the present certain false conglomerates. FORMATIONAL RELATIONS A. brief outline description of the corrosion phenomena and the reason for calling the deposits intraformational corrosion conglomerate may be given again here. At Saint Paul, Minnesota, there are eight zones at which evidence of corrosion is found in a vertical section of about 110 feet. Of the eight zones two (numbers 2 and 3, figure 1) are merely blackened corroded top faces of limestone strata. ‘Two others (numbers 1 and 7) are corrosion surfaces, with associated black pebbles, while the rest (numbers 4, 5, 6, and 8), including the one especially considered here (number 8), are conglomeratic only. The eight zones are in the several distinguishable beds or faunal zones of the Galena-Trenton series next above the Saint Peter sandstone. As properly named, the Platteville limestone includes beds numbers 1 and 2, the Decorah shale includes beds numbers 3, 4, and 5, and the base of the Galena limestone, which is rather shaly here also, is bed number 6. Thus the corrosion zones 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, and 8 are intraformational, and numbers 3 and 7 are pactically so, too, since the formational distinction is mainly technical. Further, the zones numbers 2, 3, and 7 can be nothing other than the result of corrosion, as shown by their features, which are as follows: CORROSION SURFACES The faces of certain limestone strata are uniformly blackened by a stain which penetrates with a diminishing intensity an inch or so down- ward into the fresh limestone. The black-stained surfaces lie, as a rule, along seams between strata, but belong distinctly to the top of the sub- jacent stratum and never to the bottom of the superjacent one. Where the black surface or seam cuts through fossils, as frequently occurs, there are remaining parts of them in the limestone below the seam, but none above it, just as must be the case where the top of a limestone had been corroded or eroded before the succeeding stratum was deposited. There is in fact an unconformity on a small scale at each corrosion surface, GENERAL DISCUSSION 269 which is quite noticeable in freshly quarried rock, because the limestone or shales that cover them are not discolored and yet penetrate holes and cavities of the corroded surfaces. The particular reasons for interpreting these as marine corrosion surfaces are because the caverns and burrows extending down into the blackened limestone are filled with fresh marine sediment and not with terrestrial residuum. The black coating of iron and manganese is unlike that of weathered surfaces excepting perhaps those of the deserts. The blackened surfaces are found to be encrusted occasionally by marine fossil animals, and some of the encrusting fos- sils are in turn corroded. The manner in which the black surfaces origi- nated is believed to be simply this: that the deposition of terrigenous material, chiefly clay, ceased for a time, and the lime deposit was mean- while dissolved away by the sea-water as fast or faster than it was con- tributed by sea-weeds, shells, and the like. The black surface deposit of iron is a sort of residuum. CORROSION CONGLOMERATE In the conglomerates the pebbles have the same general surface char- acteristics as those of the described corrosion surfaces. In the lowest corrosion zone (number 1, figure 1) these are in fact small, blackened, irregularly shaped pebbles associated with the corrosion surface, so that their-origin as loosened, corroded fragments is not far to seek. The other conglomerates in zones numbers 4, 5, 6 and 8 (figure 1) are not directly associated with the blackened surface of a corroded limestone stratum. Their pebbles are in fact isolated in matrix of clay-shale or of shaly lime- stone. 'The pebbles themselves are, however, limestone, with blackened surfaces, the black stain penetrating with diminished intensity into them, as in the case of the corrosion surfaces of limestone strata described. In the corrosion zones numbers 5, 6, and 8 (figure 1) the pebbles are large. They are mostly a few inches wide, but range in size from that of coarse sand to pieces a foot wide. They are in fact too coarse to be explained as incidental fragments from a corroded limestone surface, even if they were directly associated with such a surface. Further explanation is needed, therefore, to account for them. It will be sufficient to explain one of these conglomerate beds, since the others are essentially like it. CONGLOMERATE IN THE GALENA FORMATION GENERAL DESCRIPTION Taking the conglomerate of the base of the Galena—zone number 8, figure 1, as the best example—the matrix of this bed (number 6) is XIX—BULL, Geo, Soc, AM., Vou, 25, 1912 270 Ff. W. SARDESON—-A CORROSION CONGLOMERATE bluish gray in color, so that the corrosion pebbles, which are black, appear in strong contrast. The matrix is shale and shaly lhmestone, with some thin strata of compact limestone. It contains also many lenticular lime- stone laminz and many nodular or irregular pieces of limestone besides the conglomeratic pebbles. Those lenticular and irregular limestones in the shaly matrix appear to be the kind of materials out of which the blackened pebbles were made. 'The limestone pieces have the bluish color of the shaly matrix, and thus are different from the conglomeratic peb- bles in not being black. They are distributed in zones throughout the bed vertically, while the conglomerate is in a limited zone. Those bluish limestone pieces are not at all encrusted by marine fossils, while the con- elomeratic pebbles often are. In shape these bluish limestones and the black pebbles are, however, much alike; both comprise also the same di- versity of texture, and they contain the same species of fossils. That the conglomeratic pebbles are merely corroded and blackened limestone pieces, such as those still abundant in the shales of this bed, is further evident from the fact that a few flat pieces of limestone, 2 or 3 feet wide, have been discovered to have their upper side blackened and corroded like those of the pebbles, while their lower side is that common to mere lime- stone pieces—that is, they are half-made pebbles. The pebbles contain fossils—Receptaculites owent Hall, Chitambonites diversa Shaler, and others—some of which occur only in this bed nuinber 6, so that the con- glomerate could not have come from the disruption of an older bed. Finally, there is no noticeable change of fauna between the strata below and above the conglomerate. It is strictly intraformational. In considering the conditions under which this conglomerate was formed, (1) the origin of the limestone lenses and nodules in the shales, and (2) the force that turned some of them over as pebbles to be cor- roded on both sides need to be explained. ORIGIN OF THE LIMESTONE PIECES IN THE SHALES The nodules and lenticular layers of limestone in the shales of bed number 6 are the direct result of deposition of lumps and cakes of lime on the sea-bottom. The entire Galena-Trenton series has such deposits, and evidence of their origin can be seen in other parts of it, as well as in bed number 6. For example, limestone bed number 1 is made up partly of shaly seams, but mainly of irregular patches of more and less calcare- ous material.* This structure is the pseudobrecciation as described by R. C. Wallace in the same limestone formations of the Ordovician in 4For chemical analyses of these, see C. W. Hall: Bull. Minn. Acad. Nat. Sciences, ~ol, 3, p. 120. 1889, GALENA FORMATION CONGLOMERATE AT Ib Manitoba.° Where there is a predominance of shale, that material takes the place of the less calcareous part of the rock, while the more calcare- ous part lies in more or less abundance in layers, lenses, and nodular patches within the shale. In the base of bed number 3 lumps, cakes, and lenses of pure light-colored, fine-grained limestone lie isolated in a brown fucoidal shale, and the evidence is there very clear that the lime was originally deposited in lumps or masses. The lime quite certainly came mainly from the decomposition of marine alge in the manner lately de- scribed by Thomas C. Brown.® Without entering into a discussion of the question as to what plants and animals may have contributed to the lime deposit, or in what manner the lime was collected, it is sufficiently evi- dent to me that something deposited lime in small and large masses. The lenses and lumpy patches of relatively pure lime im all parts of the Galena-Trenton frequently inclose fossil shells, etcetera, in a way to show that these lime bodies were soft when deposited—that is to say, they often partly inclose shells, stipes of graptolites, fucoids, etcetera, either in the manner of objects overflowed by soft ime or in the manner of objects partly sunken into such a soft deposit. Shells of Lingula are | found which had bored into them, and the boring was, of course, done while they were not yet consolidated. In case of the bed number 6, the strata consist partly of clay-shale that was deposited particle by particle and partly of the limestone lenses and pieces that appear to have been deposited in small masses. CONDITION OF THE SHALE ON THE SHA-BOTTOM On the floor of the sea all appears to have been hard or solidified ex- cepting the newest mud and new lumps of lime on its surface. There is at least no good evidence that the sea-floor was muddy. Even the fossil bivalves, the Pelecypoda are not of the kind here that necessarily bur- rowed in mud, but all are referable to either Anisomyaria—such as live anchored, or to 'Taxodonta—such as could presumably flatten the foot and crawl on firm surfaces as the living Nucula is said to do. The Brachiopod Lingula occurs also, as said, chiefly in the limey lumps, into which it could burrow while those were fresh, not yet consolidated. FUCOIDS An apparent objection to the view that the sea-floor was hard should be explained here. There are many fossils, such as might be at present 5R. C. Wallace: Pseudobrecciation in Ordovician limestone in Manitoba. The Journal of Geology, vol. 21, 1913, p. 402. - 6 Thomas C. Brown: The origin of certain Paleozoic sediments. The Journal of Geol- Osy, Vol, 21, 1913, p. 232: 272 ¥F. W. SARDESON—A CORROSION CONGLOMERATE most acceptably spoken of as worm-burrows, but which are more famil- iarly called “fucoids.” An abundant species of them here has been named and referred by E. O. Ulrich to the fossil sponges. These fossils are twig-shaped, from 5 to 10 millimeters wide, more or less branched, and are bluntly rounded at the ends. Their surfaces have organic sym- metry, but internally they are filled with heterogeneous concentrate of shell fragments, or whatever kind of coarse grains the surrounding ma- trix contains. These “fucoids” lie horizontally in the shales, but often bend conformably to the surfaces of shells or pebbles. I think they were most probably the root-like hold-fasts of sea-weeds, the hollows or in- teriors of which were later used by robber-worms as holes or burrows. The hold-fasts were, of course, attached to the sea-floor, and in many cases, if not as a rule, they were buried under partially consolidated sedi- ment before being inhabited and consequently filled with the refuse plunder of robber-worms. They are even frequently associated with undoubted fucoidal imprints that have the same size and profile as the Camarocladia, but are flat. Those may belong to the same organic spe- cies, but were not filled out with sand or other coarse debris. There are also “fucoids” besides Camarocladia rugosa. The Licrophycus _ otta- waense Bill., occurs in the bed (number 6) here and might be interpreted as worm-burrows. None of these “fucoids” nor any worm-burrows pene- trate the shales as if the sea-bottom had had more than a thin covering of unconsolidated mud at any time. THE WORK OF SEA-WEEDS The corrosion of lenses and nodules of limestone into conglomerate may be explained as the consequence of slow deposition of sediment and the action of sea-weeds in pulling up the sea-bottom. The corrosion of the exposed surface of limestones has already been explained. To ac- count for flat conglomeratic pebbles of limestone which are corroded on both sides, they must further be supposed to have been turned over by some force. Flat pebbles, a foot wide, would require a considerable force to turn them over. The force might have come through sea-weeds. The “fucoids,” already described in the preceding paragraph, indicate the ex- istence of large kelp-like sea-weeds, which when anchored to calcareous lumps on the sea-bottom and drawn by sea current might readily drag them or turn them over. Whatever the force that turned the flat pebbles over, it also occasionally left one as now found standing edgewise. The reason for ascribing this conglomerate to the disturbance by sea- 7 Camarocladia rugosa Ulr.: Final report Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota, vol. 3, part 2, 1897, p. xcv. CHARACTERISTICS OF CORROSION CONGLOMERATE Dales: weeds rather than to the usual force of waves is frankly admitted here to be because it appears impossible for waves to have made such pebbles. The amount of waste or wear of the pebbles was great. It has reduced them to a half or a tenth, of the bulk of the original limestone pieces, yet it has not reduced them to uniform size or shape. The pebbles have, of course, a flattened and smoothed appearance, but the raised or jutting parts of them are not more worn than are hollows and depressions of the surfaces. Their edges are not regularly rounded, as is the case with well-worn beach pebbles, but rather their edges are sharp and thin and often jagged. CHARACTERISTICS OF CORROSION CONGLOMERATE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS The characteristics of marine corrosion conglomerate—the features by which such deposit is.to be recognized—can perhaps not be fully deter- mined from its occurrence in one place. The features of the conglom- erate here described are, briefly, the following: The pebbles are lme- stone in either shale or shaly limestone as matrix. They have a black and more or less smoothed surface. Their surface is rounded convex and concave or pitted and jagged. They are often flat and sharp edged, but retain more or less of the original shape of the lmestone lenses and nodules from which they derived. The fossil contents in the pebbles are the same as those that characterize the strata in which they le. COMPOSITION OF PEBBLES In case of other conglomerates which like this one formed at some dis- tance from the shore, some, if not all, of the same features should be found on them and may be recognized. Such a conglomerate, for ex- ample, should contain limestone. A relatively soluble rock, such as a limestone, is the only one which when broken on the sea-floor would be corroded readily so as to form conglomerate. A sandstone with lime cementing material might, of course, be made into pebbles, and the in- soluble concretions, chert, etcetera, from a disrupted limestone might - also mingle with pebbles of limestone; but those materials other than hmestone might seldom, if ever, be perceptibly corroded or blackened. COLOR The black stain, together with smoothed corroded surface, is a marked characteristic in the conglomerate here described, but in other cases the black stain might be inconspicuous—for example, where the matrix is 274 F. W. SARDESON——A CORROSION CONGLOMERATE also black or where the stain has been altered or weathered. The black may be changed to the yellow color of limonite. Associated with the corrosion conglomerates in the Galena-Trenton series at Saint Paul, Minnesota, there are two zones of yellow oolitic limonite (see figure 1). The largest grains of the lmonite have the form of corrosion pebbles. Grains of this limonite are found that are an inch wide and one-fourth of an inch thick and are shaped, as said, like corrosion pebbles, while small grains are round, oolitic. This limonite-oolite is a form of corro- sion conglomerate, or, as it appears to me, it is a black corrosion’s product changed by the addition of ferruginous deposition. If this limonite is considered as a corrosion conglomerate, then black color appears a less dependable characteristic than is the form of the pebbles; also weather- ing or leaching of the black coating on the pebbles of zone number 8, here described, changes it to rusty brown. In such cases the pebbles look - very much like ferruginous concretions when seen broken in a solid ma- trix, or when they are weathered free from a shaly matrix and their color has faded they can be recognized only by their shape. SURFACE OF PEBBLES Pitted or jagged surface features would presumably not appear on corroded pebbles if the limestones of which the pebbles consist were very uniform in texture and composition; but if the original surfaces of such limestone pieces were concave or angular they might remain more or less concave and angular, just as the original form of lenses and lumps is re- flected still in the conglomerate here described. If, for example, the sea- floor should be brecciated by the shock of earthquakes, either alone or combined with the drag of sea-weeds, such breccia might remain com- paratively rhombic even when well corroded. In other words, corrosion conglomerate may be expected to bear close resemblance to breccia in some cases as it does to concretionary structure in others, such as in the one here described. AMOUNT AND DISTRIBUTION In amount of deposit corrosion conglomerate may be expected to be rather thin, widely scattered, as in this case. Its distribution may also | be irregular. The black pebbles of the Galena at Saint Paul, Minnesota, sometimes lie in small heaps, as if thrown together, and again they are very thinly scattered. They recur for 80 miles. A few stand on edge. Not enough stand edgewise in this case to make an “edgewise conglom- CONCLUSION 215 erate,” ® but the possible relation or confusion locally with edgewise con- glomerate may be at least mentioned here. PRESERVATION ‘The conglomerate in the Galena is finely preserved. This is evident from association of many perfect fossils, as well as from the pebbles themselves. Fine preservation can, of course, not be claimed as a char- acteristic of conglomerates of any kind. If they occur in undisturbed shaly matrix or associated with many well kept fossils, the condition of the pebbles should at least be good. But the probability that corrosion conglomerates often lie in porous limestone or sandstone where they can be leached and more or less defaced must be considered in addition to the probability, as indicated in the preceding paragraphs, that conglom- erate formed at least in essentially the same way as these may originally bear little that is characteristic. Any limestone conglomerate, therefore, that does not contain pebbles which are characteristic of lag-gravel, river, sea-beach, or other gravel may be suspected of being corrosion con- glomerate. I may add here that the name corrosion conglomerate is used by me not because no mechanical agent is involved in forming them, but merely because corrosion surface would be the most persisting fea- ture when once developed. CONCLUSION As interpreted, the occurrence of conglomerate in the Galena is in itself not of great significance. It represents merely a time of quiet or failure of sedimentary deposition. ‘Times of no deposition were probably common enough while formations of the Cambrian and Ordovician were making—that is why they are thin—in this region. Some of those times are represented by intraformational conglomerates and some are not, if conditions of the Galena-Trenton are typical. Greater significance arises from the example or evidence which the study of this conglomerate af- fords, tending to show that conglomerate can be formed in the sea under diverse conditions; that not all marine conglomerate is made on the shores. In conclusion, an estimate is attempted with respect to the agents and to the probable limit of the conditions under which corrosion con- glomerate might have formed. ‘Two probable agents—giant sea-weeds and earthquakes—have already been mentioned. Giant sea-weeds an- chored to the bottom, if entangled by rafts of other sea-weeds driven by 8G. W, Stose: Folio 170, U. S. Geological Survey. 276 F. W. SARDESON—A CORROSION CONGLOMERATE storms or by sea-currents—a sort of sargasso—would appear to be a suf- ficiently powerful agent to tear up the bed of shallow sea, at least under favorable conditions, over very wide areas. Earthquakes might be the direct cause of loosened stone on the sea-bottom; or, again, of currents such as to cause dragging up of the bottom by sea-weeds. C. D. Walcott? mentions ice as a possible cause of Paleozoic intraformational conglom- erate. Folding or faulting of the sea-bed, as it appears to me, might raise and expose an area to sea-current and thus prevent deposition for a time, and allow corrosion conglomerate to form, without the sea-bottom anywhere rising above sealevel. Since the conglomerates are found in hmited horizons instead of throughout the beds or formations, their origin is to be attributed rather to catastrophies such as rafts of sea- weeds, etcetera, than to mere exposure of the sea-bottom by cessation of sedimentary deposit or to other general cause. ‘The agents and circum- stances just mentioned would further indicate shallow sea as the place where corrosion conglomerate formed. [Its place of origin lies, therefore, more or less closely to the seashore or to where beach gravels might be forming. The significance of shore-erosion conglomerate and of corro- sion conglomerate in regard to the place or depth of sea indicated by the one or the other is not widely different. There-is a much greater differ- ence with respect to permanence of the sea. If intraformational or other conglomerate that extends 50 or 100 miles wide is interpreted as ero- sional, it means that the sea once retreated and, of course, readvanced its shore across that entire area; while if the conglomerate is interpreted as corrosional, it means a quiescent period, at least as to retreat and read-_ vance of the sea. ® Toe. cit. ge ae ; : = LOGICAL socIETY OF AMERICA eee FG GS Pan 2 Bs BE eae Pe " OFFICERS, Lae eee ae pee ie. "Prestion Eke oy: va Gronee F. so at, Washington, D. C. - } ae : Tide Preside: iy ae ae peers WALDEMAR Lanparsn, Boston, Mass. Sis eee Horace B. Patton, Golden, Colo. : So Se ae - Henry F, Oszorn, N eWay OFK.SN w=! S i S * a Pe ste Ee | “ x Spats oe “York, NY. tees rs ys eee ae Treasurer: | eg eee Rie a. Br BurtocK Cuan, Johns Hopkins Vasey Baltimore, Md. oe ae Editor: | S Bae: Caran: a0 R. Van a es Cleveland, Ohio aa 3 oes | Councilors: po (Perm expires 1914) Se - 3. Ww. BEYER, Ames, Towa : ate car ARTHUR Korn, Washington, Do; : ¥ (Term expires 5M SS eo ea —Warran Cross, Washington, hee oe Teg tact | Wier G. MILLEr, Toronto, Canale 220s me ee a cs - (Term expires 1916) cee é wi Boe. “B A. F. PENROSE, JR., Philadelphia, Pa, au ay eee Af ae orn aah ae WwW. Ww. ATWOOD, Cambridge, Mass. — | ogical Society of America oe ae oe 3 NUMBER 3° i ee SEPTEMBER, 1914 ean CONTENTS Medina and Cannel Formations of the Siluric of New York wads Onitano. «By. Charles:Schuchert = = -" =." 2. - 1 = Close of the Cretaceous and Opening of Eocene Time in North © me America. By Henry Fairfield Osbom - - - - - ~ - 321-324 Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary in the Rocky Mountain Region. By “2, Fata Fe Fl. Knowlton a2 25 og ee ee ee - 323-348 Boundary Between Cretaceous and Tertiary in North esc as Indicated by Stratigraphy and Invertebrate Faunas. By Timothy. SS W. Stanton °- *- es C2 oe Cretaceous-Eocene Correlation in New Mexico, Wyoming, Montana, — Alberta By-Baraum Browns 2-) 222-7 Se ee 355-38 Evidence of the Paleocene Vertebrate Fauna on the Cretaceous- ‘Tertiary Problem. By W? Do Matthew -~°- = =.= = Recent Results in the Phylogeny of the Titanotheres. By Henry enield Osborn: = <2 s 7 age eS ee New Methods of Restoring Eotitanops and Brontotherium. By Henry Faitield Osborn :.-" - 2-3 - > = = 3 ee 8 Ae Restoration of the World Series of Elephants and Mastodons. By —— ency Fairheld ‘Osborn: 42-) = 3-2 See ee 407-41 . Rectigradations and Allometrons in Relation to the Conceptions of . the "Mutations of Waagen," of Species, Genera, and Phyla. fe By Henry Fanfield Osborn = + = -- -'-.= 5 - - = 74] 1-416 — Geology of the Uinta Formation. By Earl Douglass Bene a ‘ Cambrian and Related Ordovician Brachiopoda—a Study of 1a om Inclosing Sediments. By Lancaster D. Burling - - - - 421-4 BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Subscription, $10 per year to individuals residing in North America; $7. 50 to institutions and libraries and to individuals residing elsewhere than in North America. -Communications should be addressed to The Geological Society of America, care of po ' | Street N. W., Washington, D. C., or 77th Street and Central Park, West, New York City. . NOTICE.—In accordance with the rules established by Council, claims for non-receipt of a preceding part of the-Bulletin must be sent to the Secretary of ee Society within aes m: ane of the date of the receipt of this number in order to be filled gratis. . es Entered as second-class matter in the poekO mee at Washington, D. Cy under the Act of Congress of July 16, ies a Ap ~ - Sh he ee Pea PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C, ) BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 277-320, PLS. 13-14 SEPTEMBER 1, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS OF THE SILURIC OF NEW YORK AND ONTARIO? (Presented in abstract before the Society December 30, 1912) BY CHARLES SCHUCHERT CONTENTS Page usairitnernriaes IDNR tint LF Fara eu seve als S(aSexerore @ aie pio: w!Sc5 atv oie, 6a Ck how Wl lela o Wg er elec k hats 278 ee PR cl ooo cae Cty Sua! «kao Gicw a, e eiea ss dled a Sliiehe’e ngi's Gio Golem wa%eiee celewe 278 WOE Met ci, TOMMAtIONS. 62 oo. co eek eo vs obec adc eho aw ee: 278 Senerueaiscussion: Of the formation... oe. Cec dec ecco ee eke. 278 Upper Cataract or Cabots Head shale member..............000. 280 Middle Cataract or Manitoulin limestone member............... 280 basal Cataract.or Whirlpool samdstone.:... <5. bee. da 6. ce oe ee 281 ONE LUC SPM GH 12 UOTE ee Seu cei eu EOL gee Oe ea eee 281 See era ME ee OTM LVOM ol giao are sods oe mk Soe e Con he Bole ee oo emcee. 285 We Mec NINA ee fs ee bee seuss bes eck oe obs Ooo bebe 288 imembous Of the Cataract to other Siluric faunas....................- 290 precio. Ol LHesOntarach (amid .: 6. u. ov acl. e fia eon ie she ee ok el. 290 4 iereuiotmnO: Me aNedina sage fe. Soil bec oe oe oo a eS 290 2 Restart POs We REA SSTELC. << oc05. i. cel cicceld cs cs eo a cn eb ee hn ee 291 ein CO Lime Siuric Of ANtICOSti: .. os. .6 0. soo oe in ws oe 292 Contacts between the Medina, Cataract, and Clinton................ 292 Summary of sections 340 miles apart...... Oro Meee Maina he a ee 296 IE soo ee ek Ve coh ce ok Ses ode bobo 297 E ame er the: Medina “formation... .c...... seis sec ecccc¥ cc. flee. 297 : EMO MU EOI sare Stee oe ea She ele wi, Fig dos oe OR. gah Be 297 : Pre RO OI NC ea oe chic at ee wk a he we 298 J REDD OS) TSIM S00 (6 cy Sede ae Agee sre tN ah Sg ee a ee eee ce 299 Soy Bic TSIGNG BIG Ss Ss ea ne ee ee 302 PEG Ea MU act ide wate ea a 302 Mimi, VME eT a ik eae ee ee eee ge ee 303 The Siluric sections in detail from Rochester, New York, to the head MCC MENU ON eas ei. rn ae Gee cn eo ee, 304 Berane sver.sNeWaNOlk SeChOlt: oi. co oe ek ee ee 304 Pre uncee We rork, (SeChiOnd wt fu acc. be i ee OA a Se 306 Maeimon wNewW. VOr kK: SCCHON, “040 eee ed 8 307 Niagara Gorge, New York-Ontario, section......... Sig sae pe aries ara 308 :: 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society March 17, 1914. =| XX—BULL, Guo, Soc, AM., Vou. 25, 1913 (277) 278 C. SCHUCHERT—-MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS Page Thorold, ‘Ontario, Sectlom. 255: aceasta ree ae eee 310 Grimsby, Ontario, section........... is ge So ale aane Secteetiens tia nee 310 Stony Creek, Ontario; Section. .c:. 2. 1a ZENA] 4 = ie) iE io is He © at is Mest OO 5 z fips Le TRA cA WA PRR RGRAY BAY YC an OG ISAs ia. ct (horizontal lines 1.—Paleogeography of Medina (diagonal lines), Catara vertical lines) Seas FIGURE C. SCHUCHERT—-MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS 296 eeeeee puowyory j=) : Yea) Sxxs > XX Xi X XX uojsusen?e) 0 09-0¢ | 99-236 0 GI CY 0 0€ cL 0 GL 0G 91 GS G9 ee 5 a . 8 6 9L OL 0€ 0S GL 8 OL Sere GG G&S Die Oe Q P| ele Bot ieee. ee (72) Bonne fon qOBIVIBO OFZ erorels cae waa Pet eerleceees[eeeeeeleccsesl resell Gor Sivas tall ectaneek gut ia Meee] ean eo MTN eg tet tars Saceeel le eaters x secrerseeral| wave teease retfeee ee ale cere slece reel eee sell gay SUPE EO Io bU uno le pc onisbaaa.: Rae Sil teva hn Se S Aegan Horeeestigeg fecceccferrecefeee ce edfere seed] ye 8 0 6 0 g 9 0 Oz 6L 0 OL 0 v cI é x 8T 0 6 0 v GG é x GG 0 OL 0 v 6& 8 x x 0 9T 0 OL Td x x ¢9 0 Ié-éT} 0 GI-OT| 09 6-9 OST 6S 0 Ie-cI| 0 CI-OL| 09 ¢ OST cg eo fectttcfeeseeelee ees 5 siete Mey A, ‘ 09 FG PL VG 8T G8 c-3 cel PN — S| epee ees ole ueno ees od = oO = Sh, ey @) od 5 @ fe) 9 ® © © ro] =) ie B RS a = S) g\¢e)3 : 5 + uoJUulTO j10d yoo'T UeZ01q UOT}IeS — soul] e[qnop ‘peuruJejep jou ssouyoIy) ynq yuoserd = X “yuaserd you = Q LYVdV SATIN Ot SNOILLOAS AO AUVANAS meal +5 Sue Gy.) », SULUBMOILUBIL i age ea ” a 4 yas | Min, i unog UeEMO "“(qsemyqqiou ,, gf) »» ‘pooMsuIT[OD aure (rp tS Senay eee OIEIRD) Bg ( you st a is eee ae ” ” Yourr'T ""(qSomyjtou ,, @ ) om ; ‘sepunqg ecreceee ( Be a 9 ) ¥ U0} [le Fy wifeHel eile! ialle 2 Ha on) # reyes rc teue ede 99 ” 0G ” : QSUOTI+) se rutce eke (qSOM SOTIUI OL) OLBIUG ‘proroyy, cl rs va) yn: (OBLOS BIVSINT nell ” oe) CT. ’ ” “410d yoo] (qsom soprur QF) ,, ,, ‘BUIPeTL 5 icc arrange beeen YOR Md ‘TaIS9 OY SES INVESTIGATORS OF THE MEDINA PAS Part II HISTORY OF THE MEDINA FORMATION Amos Haton.—This pioneer geologist of New York, who was the first to write of the rocks now under discussion, states in 1824?* that he was the first “who attempted a particular classification of American rocks,” and justifies his ability to do this with the statement that he had then taught over two thousand pupils in geology, and “had travelled more than three thousand miles on foot, and two thousand by water and car- riage conveyance, in search of geological facts,’ before he came under the patronage of Hon. Stephen van Rensselaer. “I have added more than five thousand miles of land and canal travelling, in pursuit of the same object, during the last four years,” he states as further proof of his ability. : In this old book we see applied to the Medina formation for the first time the names “Saliferous Rock,” “Grey Band (or Grey Feke),” and “Millstone Grit.” The term “Grey Band” is still in use, though recently Grabau (in Kindle) has proposed to replace it by Thorold sandstone. The Saliferous Rock, Eaton states, “is an aggregate of minute rounded grains of quartzose sand, or of minute argillaceous and quartzose grains, formed into red or greenish sandstone, or soft red or greenish brittle clay slate.’ The gray band “is a hard fine-grained grey rock, which is so com- pact that it may be considered as homogeneous. It is a thin but continu- ous stratum, everywhere overlaying the red saliferous rock; and might be called grey saliferous rock.” Among the localities cited are Genesee Falls, Oak Orchard Creek, 4 miles west of Rochester to Lockport, and Lewiston ; a number of other places are given where red rocks are exposed, but these clearly belong in the Salina formation, and from the occurrence of salt in these localities came the term Saliferous, a name somewhat though not entirely misapplied to the Medina. At Oak Orchard Creek are noted an abundance of stylastrites, “with very distinct transverse or torulose ridges.” ** These are now known as Arthrophycus alleghaniense. The same formations and names appear in Haton’s Geological Tect- Book,?° where they are classified as of the “Lower Secondary, or Third Series.” In the second edition of this text-book*® Eaton is in doubt as to the proper disposition of the Saliferous in the geological column (he ' had included in it Queenston, Medina, and Salina, hence his trouble), 23 Geol. and Agric. Sury. Erie Canal, N. Y., 1824, p. 9. % Op. cit., pp. 12, 35-36, 102-116. 251830, pp. 39-40. 761832, pp. 65, 82-88, 94, 96, 120, 298 C. SCHUCHERT—MEDINA AND CATARACT. FORMATIONS and he now refers it to a “Subordinate Series, embraced in the third Regular series (Lower Secondary).” Here again the gray band is placed as before, and he cites the same localities, with the addition of the Ni- agara River. The most interesting addition here, however, is that Haton mentions Lingula mytiloides (== L. acuminata) and Encrinus giganteus (described as new) as the fossils characterizing the “Saliferous.” The latter turns out to be nothing other than the widely known Arthrophycus harlani Conrad, though no one would readily come to this conclusion from Eaton’s figure 8 on plate 1. It is defined thus: “2. giganteus (red - coralline) branching, red or grey: often compressed, whirls uniform and generally obscure: branches of great length; mostly lying in the direc- tion of the layers, or nearly so. Found in saliferous rocks at Oak Or- chard, Mineral Hill in Blenheim, and a mile south of Mt. House [Cats- kills]” (page 37). The two last named localities must refer to something else and are not typical, for on page 83 he states: “I find the encrinus giganteus in all of them; though the whorls are often indistinct or not manifest. They are most perfect at Oak Orchard Creek.” 'This conclu- sion is confirmed on page 120. Eaton is, of course, in error in eee these burrows as casts of the stems of crinoids. T. A. Conrad—We now pass over an interval of five years before an- other mention is made of the Medina formation. In 1836 the Geological Survey of the State of New York was authorized and organized, and in the following year was printed the first report. T’. A. Conrad, who was appointed State Geologist of the Third District, reported on the Medina as follows: “Red or Variegated Sandstone of Niagara River. We have chosen this name because it is descriptive of the only sandstone developed in the course of the Niagara River. . . . This widely distributed series of red and gray sandstones and shales has been termed ‘saliferous rock’ by Eaton, but it is by no means proved that it contains salt. . . . This formation is very interesting, in consequence of the peculiar and uniform nature of its organic remains.” Those that he notes, however, are from Oak Orchard Creek at Medina. ‘The most striking feature in these sandstones and shales, is the vast abundance of fucoid, or marine plants, particularly that species termed Fucoides Brongmartia by Dr. Harlan. These penetrate every portion of the shale which constitutes the upper portion of the mass. . . . Testaceous remains are seldom found where fucoids are numerous, but immediately beneath the strata containing them, fresh water [an error which he recognizes and corrects in the Fifth Report, 1841, page 41] and marine shells abound in a limited space.” They occur in “three narrow approximate veins filled with Cyclostoma, INVESTIGATORS OF THE MEDINA 299 Planorbis and Unios [also Orthoceras|, and with marine depositions above and beneath them. . . . They occur below the fall in the banks of Oak Orchard Creek at Medina. Mingled with these, we find a few specimens of Lingula | cuneata|, which just below are profusely dissemi- nated through the rock. . . . All the larger layers are variegated with stripes of different hue, oblique to the plane of stratification, dipping at various angles and in different strata to opposite points of the compass. Other fine sections of variegated sandstone are furnished by the Genesee River, north of Rochester, in the vicinity of the me lower falls” (pages 166-168). Conrad’s usage here of Niagara as a formation name is original, and that he intended the name to stand is proven by the Third Annual Re- port (1839, page 63), where in a table it is placed as “Niagara sand- stone (red),” and more especially by the Fourth Report (1840, page 201). Under these circumstances, and according to the rules of forma- tion nomenclature, it should have been adopted. In this case, it would have applied through characterization rather to the Medina sandstone than to the “red marl,” now the Queenston, which was also included in his discussion of the section along the Genesee. In the Fifth Report (1841, page 31), however, Conrad seems to have forgotten his term Niagara sandstone, for here he writes “Red sandstone.” In any case, to revive at this date the term Niagara for the Medina would displace the series term Niagara or Niagaran introduced by Vanuxem in 1842, and as this would cause more confusion than otherwise the writer does not care to make the substitution. James Hall.—Conrad, after his first year as field peo of the New York State Survey, became the State Paleontologist, and James Hall, a pupil of Eaton, was assigned Conrad’s area in the western part of New York. In the Second Report (1838, pages 294-297, 357) Hall writes of the Medina, and the following extracts are taken from his report: “Red Marl and Sandstone.’ As may be seen above, Conrad had the year before called this formation the “Red or Variegated Sandstone of the Niagara River;” Hall now objects to the characterization ‘“varie- gated” as “being already appropriated, as designating a member of the new red sandstone series. . . . Besides this, there are only a few of the upper strata which are variegated.” 7 “The rock below the grayband is variegated to the depth of 20 or 30 feet, with gray or greenish gray spots and seams. Although this forma- tion has been called sandstone, much the largest proportion of it is an indurated marl, containing too little siliceous matter to entitle it to the “name of sandstone. On the Niagara River, where there are more than 300 C. SCHUCHERT—MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS five hundred feet in thickness developed, we find no more than forty feet of a siliceous character. . . . The marl in the lower part of the for- mation is striped, vertically and horizontally, with seams of green shale.” It is therefore seen that Hall here follows the example of Eaton .and Conrad in including the marl (== Queenston) and the higher sandstones (== Medina) all in one formation, a correlation that was continued until 190d. “At Medina, about forty feet from the top of this rock, we find a stratum, two feet thick, of siliceous sandstone of a greenish gray colour, containing Lingula, Cyclostoma, Planorbis, Unio and Cytherina. The points at which this formation can be most advantageously exam- ined, are along the Genesee River, below Rochester, at Medina, Orleans County, and along the Niagara River, near Lewiston.” We now come to Hall’s Third Annual Report (1839), important be- cause it is here for the first time that the principle is defined as to how formations shall be named. The use of a geographic name of the locality where the formation is typically developed was not new with Hall; but to him we must give the credit in that he was the first American to see clearly what must be done in this matter and to act accordingly, so that stratigraphers thereafter might become more certain of what they de- scribed. | Hall relates that he traveled with his colleague, Vanuxem, for “several weeks in examination along the boundary line between the Third and Fourth Districts.” Vanuxem, learned and conservative, a graduate of the School of Mines in Paris, had great influence over Hall, as the latter related to the writer in 1889. Undoubtedly the principle of a type local- ity was formulated by Hall during this association in the summer of 1838, and in his report of 1839 many of our formation names now in use take their origin. He says: “Hereafter we shall be enabled to avoid collision and discrepancy in our descriptions, and to designate groups without confounding them with each other. We have also found the solution of many difficulties, in part arising from previous partial examinations, and also from the fact that the character of several rocks below the Onondaga limestone entirely or materially change in their eastern prolongation; and more especially after passing the longitude of Cayuga Lake. “Hivery one who has studied rocks even partially, is aware of the in- sufficiency of mineral or lithological characters for giving nomenclature, and the many errors into which he may be led, whether in his own re- searches or by the mistakes of others. So likewise in the present state of our knowledge, we are unable in all cases to give names from fossil INVESTIGATORS OF THE MEDINA 301 characters ; for though without doubt every group embraces its peculiar fossils, yet in all localities these may not be so marked as to excite atten- tion, and in some may possibly be absent. It thus becomes a desideratum to distinguish rocks by names which cannot be traduced, and which, when the attendant circumstances are fully understood, will never prove fal- lacious. The basis of this nomenclature is derived from localities; and the rock or group will receive its name from the place where it is best developed. For example, the rock denominated in the section [of the last report] calcareous shale, simply to distinguish it from the green argillaceous shales below, will be called Rochester shale. In lithological characters it is extremely like one far higher in the series, but the fossil contents are entirely different. This contains the Asaphus caudatus, Trimerus delphinocephalus, Platynotus Boltont, besides species of Orthis and Delthyris, all peculiar to this rock, and the characters if studied and well understood at Rochester, will guide the observer in all subsequent examinations. The limestone at Lockport excavated for the passage of the canal, we propose to call Lockport limestone. At this place the rock possesses in an eminent degree the geodiferous character, which has hith- erto given it its name; but this is quite inapplicable to the same rock where seen in Wayne County” (1839, pages 288-289). In the Fourth Annual Report (1840, pages 374, 453-455) we meet for the first time with the term Medina in Vanuxem’s report. Evidently he did not intend to stand sponsor for the name, as Medina is not in his geological district (Third), but is in Hall’s Fourth District. Vanuxem writes: “Medina sandstone. Called in former reports the red sandstone of Oswego. Predominant colour red, more rarely whitish and greenish. This rock is confined to Oswego County, to the high grounds of Oneida at Florence village, and other parts of the town of Florence, and to the extreme north parts of the counties of Onondaga and Cayuga” (page 374). Hall in the same report writes as follows: “Medina, sandstone, red marl and shale. This rock is the lowest in the 4th District, it being found bordering the shore of Lake Ontario, from Niagara River to the eastern limits of Wayne County.” He intimates that it rests on the Salmon River group, which is now known to be of Lorraine or Maysville age. ‘The fossils mentioned are the regulation Medina species. In the final report,?” in 1843, Hall gives a general summary of the Medina, and here he notes as synonyms all the names given above and as well Niagara sandstone, but as to this latter name states nothing fur- ther. He says: “At Medina, on the Oak-orchard Creek, we have the best exposure of the mass which exists in the State, and hence its name. 7 Geol. N. Y., Fourth Dist., 1843, pp. 24, 34-57, 302 C. SCHUCHERT—-MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS The thickness here exposed is not greater than on the Genesee River, nor so great as on the Niagara at Lewiston, but it exhibits all its fossil types in the greatest perfection” (page 43). He then gives a generalized sec- tion of the Medina, separating it into four divisions as follows: (1) Grey-band of Eaton. “The grey or greenish grey terminal portion. It always appears more or less as a part of the Medina sandstone, possessing the same lithological features.” Thickness, 2 to 10 feet. = Thorold member of Grabau. (2) The main red sandstone mass. Red marls and sandstones “gradually passing into a more sandy form in the western portion of the district.” (3) “Grey quartzose sandstone entirely distinct’ from the grey-band. At Niagara Falls the basal sandstone, 25 feet thick, has been named the Whirlpool sandstone member. These three members were later called the Upper Medina and redefined as the true Medina by Grabau. (4) “Red marl, and marly or shaly sandstone.” Later on this member was called the Lower Medina and the Queenston by Grabau, who referred it to the Ordovicic as the equivalent of the Richmond and Lorraine of the Cincinnati series. C. A. Hartnagel—In 190728, Hartnagel gave a good account of the Medina (as defined by Hall) as exposed about Rochester. Here he divides it into the “Lower Medina shale” and the “Upper Medina sand- stone and shale.” The former, he states, extends east to Rome, and is underlain by the Oswego sandstone, while the latter goes 40 miles farther to Cherry Valley. East of Oneida County the Upper Medina is known as the Oneida conglomerate and has the characteristic fossil Arthrophy- cus alleghanense. ‘The year before,?? Hartnagel had clearly shown that the Oneida is equivalent to the Upper Medina, as the above mentioned fossil had been found near Utica, in the type section of the formation, near Verona, in Oneida County, and at the falls of the Oswego. “The presence of this fossil and the stratigraphic relations of the Oneida con- glomerate as shown in the Mohawk Valley can leave no doubt of the upper Medina age of the Oneida conglomerate.” A. W. Grabau.—In his well known Guide to the Geology and Paleon- tology of Niagara Falls and Vicimity,°° Grabau gives a good detailed de- scription of the four members of the Medina and includes all in the Siluric system. In 1905*' he returns to this formation, separating the lowest or fourth member from the Medina proper and placing it in the _Ordovicic. He states that the Oneida and Medina “were not deposited in the open sea, but rather under peculiar conditions, 1. @., estuarine, if not 28 Bull. 114, N. Y. State Mus., 1907, pp. 10-12. 2 Bull. 107, N. Y. State Mus., 1906, pp. 34-35. 30 Bull. 45, N. Y. State Mus., 1901, pp. 87-95. %1 Science, vol. 22, 1905, pp. 528-529, 532-5338, INVESTIGATORS OF THE MEDINA 303 ‘continental. .. ...... Moreover, it is now pretty well ascertained that the typical Oneida conglomerate of Oneida County is the time equivalent of the Upper Medina of the Niagara section, and that both probably should -be united to the Clinton, while the lower 1,100 feet of the Medina of -western New York may possibly represent the continental or estuarine phase of deposits, representing elsewhere the later Richmond period.” In 1908*? Grabau names the Lower Medina the Queenston, writing as follows: “The dividing line between Ordovicic and Siluric is drawn at -the base of the Upper Medina or the Medina proper [about 125 feet thick at Niagara River]. For the red Medina shales now recognized as of Ordovicic age the name Queenston beds is proposed, from the town of that name on the Niagara River opposite Lewiston, where these beds. are - partly exposed.” Later in the same year Chadwick** also names the Lower Medina, calling it Lewiston after Lewiston, Ontario, and regarding ‘it as the equivalent of the Richmondian. With the Clinton the Upper Medina “might be merged without violence. In any case the (restricted) Medina falls within the Niagaran.” Finally, in 1909,?4 Grabau ranges the Medina and Oneida of New York and the Tuscarora of Pennsylvania with the Clinton in the Siluric, while the Oswego of New York and the Tyrone (later renamed Bald Eagle because of preoccupation) are referred to the Lorraine; the Queenston and the Juniata are, in the main, re- garded as of Richmond time, while “the lower part must be considered as Lorraine.” Lardner Vanuxem.—lf we are to remain strictly by the law of priority in naming formations, we can not accept either Queenston or Lewiston, but must go back to Vanuxem, 1839,*° and his term Oswego. To make this matter clear let us study Vanuxem in the original. He says: ““Red Sandstone of Oswego. 'The red sandstone of Oswego is the lowest rock” of the counties “Madison, Onondaga and Cayuga. . . . From the east- ern part of Oswego County, to the Niagara River, numerous brine springs -are found in this red sandstone.” The rocks which “appear from under the ‘millstone grit? [== Oneida = Upper Medina], and from above the green shale of Herkimer . . . are the shales and green sandstone of Salmon River, and the red sandstone of Oswego.” The latter appears “immediately under the ‘grit.’ ” Nor can we accept Oneida, for Vanuxem has named an equivalent in 1839 °° “Gray Sandstone of Cayuga. To the south of the red sand- 32 Science, vol. 27, 1908, p. 622. : , 8 Ibid., vol. 28, 1908, p. 347. } 34 Tbid., vol. 29, 1909, pp. 354-8356; also Jour. Geol., vol. 17, 1909, pp. 234-2388. 8 Third Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Geol. Sury., 1839, pp. 244-246. . % Op, cit., pp. 242, 246, 304 C. SCHUCHERT—-MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS stone, and reposing upon it, is a gray sandstone, the lower part often variegated with the red oxide of iron, and the upper variegated with green shale. . . . This mass for position corresponds with the ‘mill stone grit’ to the east and the ‘gray band’ to the west.” ‘The ‘millstone grit, which is thirty and more feet in thickness in Herkimer and Oneida, gradually attenuates in going westward, being from four to five feet at Rochester. The materials of which this rock is formed, gravel and sand, prove that their source was eastwardly.” It is in the following report (1840, page 374) that he proposes “Oneida conglomerate. ‘The “mill- stone grit? of Prof. Eaton, which has been changed, to do away with all ambiguity.” Here it is, too, that Vanuxem lays aside his term Oswego for “Medina sandstone. Called in former reports the red sandstone of Oswego.” THE SILURIC SECTIONS IN DETAIL FROM ROCHESTER, NEW YORK, TO THE HEAD ‘OF LAKE HURON Rochester, New York, section—Examined by the writer in August, 1913. Use has also been made of Hartnagel, Bulletin of the New York State Museum, page 114, 1907, and Hall, Geology of New York, Fourth District, 1843, pages 58-117. Lockport dolomite. Thickness present, 107-125 feet. The lowest beds are studied to best advantage in the large quarry on North Goodman street, where the Rochester is also worked for building stone (foun- dations). Here the lower 5 feet of the regulation Lockport consists at the top of fine-grained, dense, crystalline dolomite. Downward in this 5 feet appears more and more of sand, and finally the lowest foot or more is a regularly bedded, laminated, fine-grained, brittle sandstone. Beneath is a dark, bituminous, thin-bedded sandy shale, filling the hummocky depressions in the beds below. The same ir- regular contact may be seen at the Upper Falls of the Genesee. De Cew member (Williams MS., 1914). The top of the Rochester is hum- mocky to the extent of at least 4 feet. Between these depressions and over the top of the ridges is deposited from 2 to 5 feet or slightly more of irregularly bedded (sea-churned) impure limy cement beds, not unlike the Rochester below. Irregular wavy contact ? Time break, if any, short. Rochester shale. Thickness about 85 feet. At Rochester the formation has more lime and the strata are much harder and more resistant to weathering than at Niagara Falls, where there is less lime and the beds are more laminated into thin-bedded shales. Clinton formation. ‘Thickness about 80 feet. | Irondequoit limestone member, 18 feet thick. Thin-bedded limestones with shale partings. Locally between Rochester and Niagara Falls small Bryozoa reefs are developed near the top of this member, and some of these project several feet into the Rochester shale. Other- SILURIC SECTION, ROCHESTER TO LAKE HURON 305 wise the transition between the Clinton and Rochester is quick, but no break in sedimentation is apparent. ‘Then, too, many of the species are common to both formations. Below there is a gradual transition into the Williamson shale member, 24 feet thick. Thins rapidly to the west and is absent at Lockport. A green shale series at the top (8 feet), below which are more green shales (4 feet) with very thin pearly lime- stones replete with Ce@lospira hemispherica, and finally purplish and black shales (12 feet), the latter with Monograptus clintonensis and Retiolites venosus in abundance. Wolcott lwmestone member, 14 feet thick. 'Thin-bedded greenish lime- stones that come in rather sharply over the Sodus shale, but shade into the Williamson. ‘Three feet above the base occurs the Furnace- ville iron-ore, here about 1 foot thick. It is decidedly cross-bedded, made up of fragmented and worn fossils, some sand, and less oolite; the fossils are crinoidal fragments, Bryozoa, and Tentaculites, all altered or coated with iron. The beds below the ore and the ore itself show wave action. Pentamerus oblongus (Clinton form) and Hyattidina congesta are guide fossils. Sodus shale member, 24 feet thick. A green, fine-grained shale almost devoid of fossils, other than “fucoids” and trailings. It rests abruptly and without the least transition upon the Medina. The Sodus thins rapidly to the west and is only 3 feet.thick at Medina. Contact very sharp between adjacent beds. Probably no time break. Medina formation. 'Thickness about 60 feet. Thorold member, or “gray band.’ A massive white sandstone, 5 feet thick. Heavy-bedded, channeled, red and mottled, dirty sandstones, with but little shale and many zones of intraformational shale pebble con- glomerates, 15 feet thick, with Dedalus archimedes throughout and Arthrophycus alleghaniense in upper 6 feet. Regularly thin-bedded, lighter red sandstones, with more prominent shale partings, about 20 feet thick. A. alleghaniense and Lingula cuneata in upper 5 feet and much sun-cracking in upper 2 feet. Basal thick-bedded, very coarse red sandstones, as follows: At the top 10 feet of irregularly bedded sandstones, followed by one bed 4 feet thick, also much cross-bedded, and then the basal zone of 6 feet, regu- larly bedded below, and cross-bedded and often deeply channeled above. Here again the sandstone fills into the sun-cracked surface of the Queenston below. Disconformity. Base of Siluric. Queenston formation. Top of Ordovicic (Richmondian). There has been much uncertainty here as to the lower limit of the Medina, but the heavy, and much cross-bedded gray sandstones easily mark the base. The uncertainty is due to the fact that the Queenston is here much more sandy than farther west and that there are horizons of local sandstones. Still farther east these sandstones pass into the Oswego. Here the Queenston in the upper 40 feet consists of red, micaceous, sandy _ Shales, with thin zones of gray localized sandstone. There are many 306 Cc. SCHUC A AND CATARACT FORMATIONS worm burrows, now distorted, squeezed, and slickensided, but none are of Arthrophycus. ‘These are Palwophycus tortuosum. Then -a shaly red sandstone, 10 feet thick, followed below by more ned sandy shales. Total thickness of Queenston, exposed and underground, is said to We about 900 feet. f Medina, New York, section (40 nules west of Rochester).—Hall, Geol- ogy of New York, Fourth District, 1848, pages 34-57. Clinton. Medina formation. At least 54 feet, but probably nearer 65 feet. The upper part is to be seen in the many quarries along the Erie canal and along Oak Orchard creek, while the lower beds are exposed below Medina Falls, to the west and northwest. “Gray band.” Hall says this is 4+ feet thick. The zone from which came the originals of Dictuolites beckii, which are sand fillings in sun- eracks rilled by water. A zone estimated to be 8 feet thick, not seen ae the writer. Thin-bedded dark red sandstones and a considerable amount of red sandy shales, 8 feet thick. Intraformational conglomerates of shale pebbles are common. Seen along the tow path of the canal. Two feet down occurs a zone 18 to 34 inches thick, made up of the spirals of Dedalus archimedes (in the creek above the falls this zone is 30 inches thick and made up of vertical plates only). Arthrophycus alleghaniense occurs throughout the 8 feet. The lowest part of these beds is again seen at the top of the quarries. Upper quarry level of thin-bedded red and pinkish sandstones with thin red shale partings, 15 feet thick. A. alleghaniense occurs here also in the upper half. In the lowest beds are found LZ. cuneata in abun- dance and Modiolopsis rarely. Lower quarry level near the falls, of thin-bedded red sandstones with red shale partings, 10 feet thick. Lingula cuneata throughout these beds. In the top of this zone occurs the bulk of the described fauna, as Pterinea (?) primigenia, Modiolopsis (?) orthonota, Pleurotomaria (?) pervetusta, Bucanopsis trilobata, and Isochilina cylindrica. White sandstones, sometimes slightly tinged with red blotches or faintly pinkish, about 21 feet thick. The upper 3 feet ere thinner bedded, with shale partings, with the sandstones often replete with ZL. cu- neata. Here also occur [sochilina cylindrica, Modiolopsis (?) ortho- nota, Pterinea (?) primigenia, Pleurotomaria (?) pervetusta, and Bucanopsis trilobata, all of which were originally derived from this locality and horizon. The greater central mass (12 feet) is more heavily bedded, with almost no shale (formerly quarried at the falls), while the lower 6 feet of thick beds (in places up to 10 feet) are much cross-bedded, of much coarser sand, with many black or greenish black streaks. All of the lower beds appear to be barren of fossils. Disconformity. Base of Siluric. Queenston brick-red shale. Top of Ordovicie (Richmondian). At water-level some distance below the falls. - SILURIC SECTION, ROCHESTER TO LAKE HURON 307 Lockport, New York, section (15 miles west of Medina).—The se- quence here is difficult to make out because of the disconnected local sec- tions. A visit in August, 1913, revealed the following: ; Lockport dolomite. Thickness about 150 feet. Gasport limestone member (Kindle, 1918), about as at Niagara gorge. De Cew member (Williams MS., 1914). At the head of the ‘Gulf’ near the brick-paved north-south road may be seen the basal beds. They are essentially like those in the Niagara gorge, with the upper contact line much more irregular than the lower one, which is fairly even with the Rochester shale. Thickness about 5 feet. Irregular wavy contact. Time break, if any, short. Rochester shale. About 60 feet thick. About as at Niagara gorge. Clinton formation. About 30 feet thick, and as at Niagara gorge. Disconformity. Sodus shale absent. [Grabau as censor questions the break here. He says it is another case of lateral change. ] Medina formation. Thickness about 53 feet without the basal sandstone, with it 70 feet. This formation was studied back of the United Indurated Pipe Co., along the stream, on the opposite bank, and finally in White- more quarries. The Medina is here-essentially a very shallow water deposit with occasional preservation of the strand-line, or nearly so. “Gray band,” a white fine-grained sandstone, 2 feet thick. Dark red thin-bedded sandstones and red sandy shales, 10 feet thick. Arthrophycus alleghaniense occurs at the very top and probably also throughout the entire zone. Local zones of Daedalus archimedes (the type locality for this fossil). Here in two beds with a combined thickness of 2.5 feet. In one hori- zontal direction these burrows were seen to vanish within 500 feet. Red sandy shales, thin ferruginous mud bands, and red and white sand- stones, with an estimated thickness of 30 feet. It is in the upper 20 feet that the Whitemore quarries are located, from which, in the red and ferruginous layers near the top of the quarry, the bulk of the Medina fauna of Lockport has been derived. From this zone and place Hall described Rhynchotreta (?) plicata, Whitfieldella oblata, Pleurotomaria (?) litorea, Murchisonia (?) conoidea, Oncoceras gib- bosum, and Orthoceras multiseptum. The red sandstones are often replete with intraformational red shale pebble conglomerates in layers up to 4 inches thick. Some of the white sandstones abound in Lingula cuneata, and some of the layers have smooth beach-washed surfaces with stranded Lingulas, proving the shore conditions of deposition. The sandstones are a series of shallow lenses laid down in red muds. Light greenish sandy shales alternating with thin sandstones, with an estimated thickness of 10 feet. No fossils were seen. Basal white sandstone, 17 feet thick. The upper 11 feet are thin-bedded, while the lower 6 feet are massive. The under surface fills in the sun-cracked furrows of the Queenston below. May be equivalent to the Whirlpool sandstone. Disconformity. Base of Siluric. Queenston. Top of Ordovicie (Richmondian). Four feet of this formation may be seen above the canal leading to the turbine of the Pipe Co. 308 Cc. SCHUCHERT—-MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS Niagara Gorge, New York-Ontario, section (20 miles west of Lock- port).—Along line of New York Central Railroad and Grand Gorge Trolley. See Grabau, Bulletin 45, New York State Museum, 1901, pages 87-95, and Kindle and Taylor, Geologic Folio 190, U. 8. Geological Sur- vey, 1913. Lockport dolomite. 'Thickness about 150 feet. The main upper mass of about 120 feet is a dark bluish gray to brownish colored, thin-and thick-bedded, more or less coarsely crystalline dolo- mite that is somewhat petroliferous and with geode cavities contain- ing gypsum, selenite, dog-toothed spar, ete. In the highest beds are the precursors of the Guelph fauna, here always rare in species (see Clarke and Ruedemann, Mem. 5, N. Y. State Mus., 1903). The fos- sils include Celidium macrospira, Pterinea subplana, Phragmoceras parvum, ete. Otherwise the fauna is largely a modified Rochester assemblage. Gasport member (Kindle, 1913). ‘‘Crinoidal limestone” or marble. Usu- ally a non-magnesian limestone, but may also be transformed into a dolomite; replete with crinoidal fragments and local diagenetically changed Bryozoa reefs. From 7 to 20 feet thick. Fauna essentially that of the Rochester, with Callicrinus, Ichthyocrinus conoideus, Hucalyptocrinus tuberculatus, ete. DeCew member. Drab to bluish gray, fine-grained, impure limestone or cement rock, that in the upper 3.5 feet is more or less strongly wave- worked, 6 to 9.5 feet thick. This horizon is in many places marked by irregular contacts, both above and below, and by the lithic differ- ences between the adjacent formations. The upper contact is very regular, but the lower one is here decidedly irregular. No fossils. In some ways this member seems to be a transition zone under dis- turbed conditions from a shallow muddy sea to deeper limestone- making waters. Irregular wavy (? eroded) contact. Time break, if any, short. [Grabau as sensor questions the broken contact here. It becomes, according to ade writer, more and more prominent to the northwest. The former states that it is another case of lateral change in the sedimentation. ] Rochester shale. About 60 feet thick. The upper part of this formation has many thin layers of limestone re- plete with many species of Bryozoa described by Bassler (Bull. 292, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1906). The fauna gradually vanishes upward and in the uppermost beds there are almost no fossils. The lower portion is all shale and is rich in fossils, especially toward the base. It has been described by Hall (Pal. N. Y., II, 1852) and is in ’ the main derived from about Lockport. Much of this fauna appears in the Clinton below (Irondequoit). The more characteristic common fossils are Caryocrinus ornatus, Stephanocrinus angulatus, Eucatyp- tocrinus celatus, Thysanocrinus liliiformis, Lyriocrinus dactylus, Ich- thyocrinus levis, Dictyonella corallifera, Anastrophia interplicata, Rhynchotreta americana, Spirifer niagarensis, Trematospira camura, SILURIC SECTION, ROCHESTER TO LAKE HURON 309 Dalmanites imulurus, Homalonotus delphinocephalus, Lichas bolion, ete. Clinton formation. Thickness about 380 feet. Irondequoit limestone member, 10 to 15 feet thick. Very heavy-bedded, crystalline, crinoidal, pinkish gray limestone, with occasional Bryozoa reefs within and at the top of the limestone. In the latter case the reefs project several feet into the Rochester. Also has zones of stylolites. Transition into Rochester quick, almost abrupt. Fauna essentially that of the Rochester shale. Wolcott limestone member, 12 to 21 feet thick. Thin-bedded magnesian . limestones with a sparse fauna. Pentamerus oblongus, Celospira plicatula, Hyattidina congesta. Basal shale, 2.5 to 6 feet thick. Green to grayish shales, with Celospira hemispherica and C. plicatula. Rests abruptly on the Medina. This zone is often correlated with the Sodus member at Rochester, but there is nothing of value to support this reference. Disconformity. Contacts sharp between adjacent formations. Sodus shale absent. Medina formation. Thickness about 65 feet. Thorold member. Massive, greenish white, cross-bedded sandstone, 8 feet thick. The “gray band” of Eaton. Red and greenish gray, much cross-bedded and channeled sandstone, with very little shale, about 15 feet thick. Arthrophycus alleghaniense and Lingula cuneata occur 2 feet beneath the top. Thin-bedded red sandstones, with considerable red shales, and two or more zones of localized storm-rolled mud balls (concretions of authors), 85 to 40 feet thick. Gray sandstone with green shale partings, 5 feet thick. Poor Medina fossils here, noted by Hall in 1838. Cataract formation. Thickness about 54 feet. Seen best on each side of the small tunnel and in Evan’s gully, on N. Y. C. R. R. Upper dark green shales, 5 feet. Thin-bedded green sandstone at top, followed by yellowish magnesian and argillaceous limestone, with small black shale pebbles» 5 feet, abounding in Helopora fragilis, fragments of Lingula, Camétotechia neglecta, Isochilina cylindrica, and small gastropods. Middle green shales, 10 feet. Dark. green shales, with very thin-bedded argillaceous magnesian lime- stones, 5 feet. Helopora fragilis common, Lingula in fragments, Camarotechia neglecta, and Whitfieldella. Lower dark green fissile shales, 7 feet. Whirlpool sandstone member (Grabau, 1909), 22 feet thick. Heavy- bedded, clean, white, somewhat coarse, cross-bedded sandstone. 'Thin- bedded in upper 5 feet. No fossils seen in the gorge exposures. See plate 138, figure 1. Disconformity. Base of Siluric. The slightly undulatory contact with the Queenston is well shown along the Grand Gorge trolley line. Queenston (Grabau). Top of Ordovicic (Richmondian). Exposed for 115 feet. Thickness in deep wells 1,085 feet. Brick-red sandy shales with oxidized green streaks. No fossils. XXII—BULL. Grou. Soc. Am., Vou. 25, 1913 310 C. SCHUCHERT—-MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS Thorold, Ontario, section (10 miles west of Niagara Gorge).—Recon- structed from Logan, Geology of Canada, 1863, pages 313, 322-323. Lockport dolomite. Present about 33 feet. Eroded unconformity as at Niagara Gorge. Rochester shale. Thickness about 71 feet. Dark bluish bituminous limestone, often rich in Rochester fossils. Thick- ness 8 feet. Many corals, Stephanocrinus angulatus, Eucalyptocrinus decorus, Caryocrinus ornatus, ete. Bluish gray cement rock. Thickness 8 feet. Bluish black shales, with thin bands of impure limestone having Ddal- manites limulurus. Thickness 55 feet. Clinton formation. Thickness 26 feet. Irondequoit limestone member. Gray, coarse-grained, suberystalline lime- stone, with iron and copper pyrites. Thickness 10 feet. Rhyncho- treta cuneata, Whitfieldella cylindrica. Wolcott limestone member. Bluish gray magnesian limestones with shale partings. Thickness 10 feet. Common near base, Pentamerus ob- longus and Stricklandinia canadensis. According to Logan these two members thicken to the west. Bluish drab argillaceous limestone, a cement rock. Thickness 3 feet. Bluish gray limestone with much iron pyrite. Thickness nearly 3 feet. Disconformity. Medina formation. Thickness exposed 14 feet. Bluish green argillaceous shale, with Arthrophycus alleghaniense. 'Thick- ness 4 feet. Thorold member or “gray band.’ Habe ar tiinest “of Owen Sound):—Information . ‘from. Dit. “M: Y-" Wittiams:*~ Also see Logan, Geology of Canada, 1863, pages 319-320. Lockport dolomite, Massive cliff-making. Present 165 feet (Logan). 320 Cc. SCHUCHERT—-MEDINA AND CATARACT FORMATIONS Disconformity. Cataract formation. 'Thickness 60 feet. Cabots Head member. Top probably eroded away. Soft gray shale locally tinged with red, 4 feet. Thin-bedded limestones with branching Favosites and Helopora fragilis, 5 feet. Hard green argillaceous shale, 36 feet. Manitoulin member. Massive dolomite, 15 feet. Disconformity. Base of Siluric. This contact is illustrated in plate 14, figure 2. Queenston. Top of Ordovicic (Richmondian). Hard and soft red shales, about 45 feet, down to level of Lake Huron. The last place to the north that these red shales are seen, for on the Manitoulins all of the strata beneath the Cataract are calcareous ngrmal marine deposits and have an abundance of Richmondian fossils. Manitowaning, Manitoulin Island, Ontario, section (45 males north- west of Cabots Head).—Seen by the writer in 1912 under the guidance of M. Y. Williams. See Williams, Guide Book No. 5, Twelfth Interna- tional Geological Congress, 1913, pages 89-97. Lockport dolomite. Actual thickness as measured by Williams 240 feet (Bell’s 450 feet was calculated from the dip). Disconformity. eee cs Cataract formation. (Clinton of Bell.) Thickness averaging 100. feet. Cabots Head member. Usually a covered zone of friable red clay (red marl of Bell), almost barren of fossils, from 27 to 66 feet thick. At the top the shales are nearly always oxidized into green shale by percolating waters. nen Manitoulin member, 50 to 60 feet thick. Thin-bedded, gray to yellowish, fine-grained, magnesian limestones to massive dolomites, without Shale partings. In the upper 20 feet there are many small reefs of Bryozoa, Stromatopora, and corals. Fossils as pseudomorphs. Clathrodictyon vesiculosum, Halysites micr oporus, Heliolites, Fa- vosites venustus, Diphyphyllum vennori, Acervularia (?) gracilis, Pachydictya crassa, Platystrophia biforata, Orthis flabellites, Heber- tella cf. daytonensis, Dalmanella elegantula, Rhipidomella hybrida, Schuchertella subplana, Camarotachia neglecta, Atrypa n. sp., Celo- spira planoconvexa, Whitfieldella, Cyclonema cancellatum, ete. Disconformity. Queenston red shales absent and transformed into the Richmondian formation. The best exposures are at Clay cliff. on the eastern end of the island, where good fossils are plentiful in a Richmondian section at least 160 feet thick. Beneath are about 100: feet of Lorraine, and 130 feet of Eden. Deep wells give the thickness of the entire Cincinnatian deposits as not less than 485 feet. East of Manitowaning 1.5 miles may be seen along the roadside a good exposure of the uppermost Richmondian in contact with the Cataract sandy limestone. Below these Siluric beds are 12 feet of greenish. clays without fossils, followed by a series of thin-bedded, sandy and shaly, magnesian limestones, 15 feet: thick, with many Bryozoa through- out, other fossils being almost absent. : BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 321-324 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY CLOSE OF THE CRETACEOUS AND OPENING OF EOCENE TIME IN NORTH AMERICA # BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN (Presented before the Paleontological Society December 31, 1913) In introducing this symposium on a critical point in geologic time emphasis must first be laid on the fact that the Periods were defined dur- ing the last century by European paleontologists, and that American events can be dated only by comparison of American with European faunas and floras, unless simultaneous and world-wide diastrophic move- ments can be demonstrated to have occurred. The demarcation between the Cretaceous and the Eocene periods of Europe rested first on the work of Deshayes on the extinct molluscan fauna of the Paris basin. It gradually developed in definition and clear- ness under Lyell, D’Orbigny, Mayer, and Eymar. Gradually also verte- brate reptiles and mammals entered into the problem, and the formations along the northern coast of Europe and Belgium, with their contained marine fossils, served to define the Mestrichtien stage (Dumont, 1849), while in the north another late Cretaceous phase typified the Danien stage (Desor, 1846). According to Haug (1912), the Danien overlies the Mestrichtien concordantly, and thus closes the Cretaceous period. The fauna is purely marine and exclusively Cretaceous. Some authors also place the overlying Montien in the Cretaceous. The Mestrichtten as exposed in Belgium includes a rich reptilian fauna, which comprises several kinds of mosasaurs, great marine turtles, iguanodont dinosaurs, and their enemies, the carnivorous dinosaurs. This is our last view of the dinosaur life of Europe. The Mestrichtien fauna has not been closely correlated up to the present time with an American fauna. According to Williston, it is subsequent to any known American mosasaur fauna, and this author regards the Mestrichtien as a lower phase of the Danien. It is to be noted also that no late Cretaceous terres- 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 12, 1914. This paper is an introduction to the symposium on this subject held at the Prince- ton meeting of the Society December 31, 1913, and January 1, 1914. (321) 322) He PAOSBORN ‘LOSE OF CRETACEOUS AND OPENING OF EOCENE trial fauna is known in Europe corresponding with the Damen time epoch or with the “Lance” fauna of North America. The very ancient Paleocene formations of northern Tivone: including the problematic Montien epoch and the well defined Thanétien marine phase, are along the sea borders, and consequently are unfavorable to the preservation of mammalhan life. They contain no -dinosaurs or mosa- saurs. Among these are the Sables de Rilly, seashore sands containing many marine mollusks which are similar to those in the Sables de Bra- cheuz, another Paleocene formation. In France, however, as long ago as 1841, one fluviomarine formation yielded a single mammal, Arctocyon promevus, in beds correlated in time with the Thanétien. At a slightly | subsequent period of Thanétien time a river-borne formation includes the celebrated mammalian fauna’ of Cernay and the single surviving Cretaceous reptilian type Champsosaurus. Without exception it may be said that all the paleontologists of Europe have considered the Cretaceous as the period of the final extinction of the terrestrial dinosaurs and the marine mosasaurs; and they have similarly defined the Paleocene not only by. its new forms of marine mollusca, but by the survival of the characteristic plagiaulacid mammals of the Mezo- zoic and the first general appearance of a primitive mammalian land fauna, which broadly corresponds with a similar Puerco- Torrejon- -Fort Union fauna in North America. The discussion to which we are devoting this session of the Paleonto- logtcal Society is of great interest and importance because a number of eminent American paleobotanists and geologists, as well as certain inver- tebrate paleontologists, are of the opinion that the close of Cretaceous time occurred long before the extinction of certain great families of ter- restrial dinosaurs, and that as a consequence the opening of Eocene time is not the beginning of the so-called Age of Mammals, but embraces a prolonged closing chapter in the Age of Reptiles. ‘The various kinds of evidence which may be adduced in favor of this interpretation of the succession of phenomena in North America will be presented by Dr. F. H. Knowlton, who, firstly, will demonstrate that paleobotany does not indicate any sharp line of demarcation between the Upper Cretaceous (“Lance”) and Lower Eocene, and, secondly, he will point, out the evidence, which is accepted by a considerable number of — American geologists, for the belief that there is widespread .diastrophism occurring at a certain period long before the close of the Age of Reptiles. This diastrophic movement is believed by Doctor Knowlton to correspond with the close of Cretaceous and opening of Eocene time. It occurs long before the close of the Age of Reptiles. | CONTRIBUTORS TO THE SYMPOSIUM SAS The more traditional view that the sequence of life events was con- current in America and Europe will be presented by the other speakers, who will contend that the Cretaceous terminates at the close of the Age of Reptiles and is marked by the extinction of the great terrestrial dino- saurs. Dr. T. W. Stanton will consider the evidence of geology and inverte- brate paleontology, and will endeavor to show that there is insufficient evidence of any general diastrophism prior to the close of the Age of Reptiles. 3 Mr. Barnum Brown will point out that the succession of Ceratopsian faunas in Upper Cretaceous time affords several distinct phases, the last of which is that of the so-called “Lance’”’ formation, which alone contains the culminating genus T'riceratops. _ Dr. W. D. Matthew will compare the “Lance” and “Belly River” ver- tebrate faunas with those of the Paleocene of the Puerco and Torrejon, our oldest mammal-bearing horizons, and those of the Thanétien and Cernaysien beds of France and Belgium. Dr. William J. Sinclair will describe the substitution of a rich mam- malian for a terrestrial dinosaur fauna as it occurs in the succession of the Ojo Alamo (supposed Upper Cretaceous) and Puerco (supposed Paleocene) formations in northern New Mexico.’ 2 Doctor Sinclair’s paper has been published as article xxii, vol. xxxiii, Bulletin Amer- ican Museum of Natural History, 1914, pp. 297-316. a rae ae * cant Sr apele 2 ‘Z, =i, w/ 6 Soros: & elevals Bue oLe 6 eislaleiele'elera ere 339 RE NITMNS ER CHIRGT CMMMNAD SN Dae t ee: LCP eA ete ge agne Wie, wveuas Sich eave aver alu fag oi tiaene bias Maen 340 INTRODUCTION The thesis of this paper is as follows: It is proposed to. show that the dinosaur-bearing beds known as “Ceratops beds,’ “Lance Creek beds,” Lance formation, “Hell Creek beds,’ “Somber beds,’ “Lower Fort Union,” Laramie of many writers, “Upper Laramie,” Arapahoe, Denver, Dawson, and their equivalents, are above a major unconformity and are Tertiary rather than Cretaceous in age. : As this is essentially a stratigraphic problem and not, as some assume, an exclusively paleontologic one, a certain amount of structural data are necessary as a setting for the paleontology. It is proposed, therefore, first, briefly to present the evidence on which this unconformity is predi- -cated. STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE The geological formations here involved are spread widely over the States of New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, the Dakotas, Montana, and 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 14, 1914. Contribution to the symposium held at the Princeton meeting of the Society Decem- ber 31, 1913, and January 1, 1914. Published with the permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. (325) 326 F. H. KNOWLTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY adjacent Canadian territory. It is held that the dinosaur-bearing beds ubove mentioned are separated from underlying beds by a major uncon- formity which makes the logical line of separation between Cretaceous and Tertiary. In eastern Montana, eastern Wyoming, and the Dakotas, where far removed from the influence of the Rocky Mountain uplift, the forma- tions involved are approximately horizontal. In a majority of cases within this area the dinosaur-bearing Lance formation appears to rest conformably on the underlying beds, and it is this condition apparently which has led many observers to deny the possibility of the existence at these points of a time interval of any importance. It needs but a mo- ment’s_ reflection, however, to show that because one formation lies in apparent conformity on another, this is not of necessity proof positive that the process of deposition continued uninterruptedly from the begin- ning of the first to the close of the second. It may often happen that we must go outside the area where such ap- parent conformity obtains for the evidence which shall not only prove the existence of the stratigraphic break, but also the value of the hiatus. It happens, however, that even in the flat-lying beds in the Dakotas there is some evidence of the measure of this time interval. “The maximum thickness of the Fox Hills—-the formation beneath the Lance—is given as +50 feet, yet in many places it is 75 feet or less, and in exceptional cases appears to be entirely absent, and the Lance then rests on Pierre. An element of caution is necessary in interpreting this condition. Ine- qualities in the thickness of a formation of the well known character of the Fox Hills may be due to erosion or to irregularity of original deposi- tion. That this unequal: thickness in the Fox. Hills is actually due to erosion and not to irregularity of deposition is indicated in at least two ways: First, by the finding of actual erosion surfaces, as, for instance, the one described by Calvert on Grand River, South Dakota, where within a horizontal distance of 500 feet there is an observed vertical cut of at least 72 feet, and other similar occurrences in western North and South Dakota and eastern Montana, and, second, by the difference in the invertebrate fauna in the lower and upper portions of the full Fox Hills section, which is approximately 1,000 feet in thickness. In the type sec- tion of Fox Hills at Fox Ridge, South Dakota, the beds show a thickness of only about 325 feet. The fauna in this type section is said to show more or less of a commingling of Pierre forms, and for this reason it was at one time the inclination to abandon the use of Fox Hills as a distinct - formation and to regard it as merely a near-shore phase of the Pierre. Where the full 1,000-foot section of Fox Hills is present, as in the Denver STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE Beard basin of Colorado, it appears, according to Dr. C. A. White, that the invertebrate fauna in the upper portion, while it contains some of the species of the lower portion, is on the whole distinct. This is taken to indicate that the full section of Fox Hills is nowhere present in the Da- kotas, and that the incomplete development of the formation here is to be ascribed to removal of the upper part by erosion rather than to diminished rate of sedimentation or to stratigraphic overlap. In Worthless Creek Valley, South Dakota, the pre-Lance unconformity is angular as well as erosional, the Fox Hills dipping north at an angle of 4 degrees, whereas the overlying Lance is horizontal. On the Moreau River, near Govert post-office, South Dakota, the Lance is horizontal, while the underlying beds dip northwest at an angle of 10 degrees. At a number of points in the eastern part of Custer County, Montana, the Lance rests on a distinctly eroded surface of the Fox Hills. Likewise, according to Barnum Brown, the same condition obtains on Hell Creek, in Dawson County, Montana. : Throughout much of Montana and Wyoming the conditions are the same as those above described, namely: The Lance is found resting on Fox Hills of different thicknesses, often with eroded surface, and in some cases, as at Forsyth, Columbus, etcetera, the Fox Hills is entirely absent and the Lance rests on Pierre and not always on its uppermost member. It has been suggested that in those casés where the Lance rests directly on Pierre the lower sandstones of the Lance may be the fresh-water phase of the Fox Hills. Proof of this contention would be the finding of an area in which there is evidence either of a transition laterally from the purely marine conditions of the Fox Hills through brackish water to the suggested fresh-water facies of the “Lance,” or a barrier separating two such areas of deposition on which neither facies was laid down. If the country within which the Lance is found resting on Pierre was one in which the stratigraphic relations were obscure on account of few or poor’ exposures, such transition or barrier might possibly have escaped detection; but on the contrary it is a region in which exposures are numerous and ample, and moreover is one in which investigation in recent years has been intensive, but no such condition has been observed. _ In the cases thus far considered the discordance between the Lance and underlying beds is not always evident, nor is it always conspicuous when present, and hence it is held by some geologists to be of no more _ importance than unconformities acknowledged to be present at various horizons in the Lance. The essential difference lies in the fact that the unconformities within the Lance are obviously local and can be traced only for short distances, whereas the evidence in support of the pre-Lance 328 F. H. KNOWLTON——-CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY interval is cumulative, since it occurs at the same horizon throughout four great States. Of much greater significance, however, is the fact that this pre-Lance interval marks the boundary between the last of the under- lying series of chiefly marine Cretaceous beds and the succeeding exclu- sively continental deposits which prevailed thereafter in the Rocky Moun- tain area. In other words, with a single exception this boundary marks the final retreat of the marine waters from the Rocky Mountain province. The most complete measure of this pre-Lance unconformity is to be found in the vicinity of the mouth of the Medicine Bow River, in Carbon County, Wyoming. This unconformity was first detected and studied by A. C. Veatch in the vicinity of the town of Carbon, which is about 25 miles south of the Medicine Bow River. Veatch holds that this time interval represents the removal of more than 20,000 feet of strata. The horizon below this unconformity was called “Lower Laramie” by Veatch ; but it is now regarded by the writer as the true Laramie, while the horti- zon above was called “Upper Laramie,’ now, in the writer’s opinion, proved to be the dinosaur-bearing Lance formation, since it contains the remains of Triceratops. The line then recognized as the boundary be- tween these two formations was structurally correlated northwest to the vicinity of the mouth of the Medicine Bow River, and thence up that | stream for a distance of some 25 miles above its junction with the North ~ Platte. According to Ball, at a point about 20 miles above the junction the “Upper Laramie” and “Lower Laramie” were found in contact with marked angular discordance. | During the present field season [1913] C. F. Bowen, of the United States Geological Survey, found remains of dinosaurs 1,000 feet or more below the horizon at which Veatch, in his reconnaissance work, had drawn the line between his “Lower Laramie” and “Upper Laramie.” On account of the lithologic similarity of the rocks of this region, careful areal work may be necessary before the line can be drawn exactly. The line taken by Doctor Peale and the writer as that of the major uncon- formity may prove to be only one of the minor breaks known in the Lance, in which event Bowen’s discovery. merely reduces the supposed thickness of “Lower Laramie” rocks from 6,000 feet to 4,000 or 5,000 feet. On the other hand, indeed, it may be possible that dinosaurs act- ually occur in the “Lower Laramie,” ? since they undoubtedly existed somewhere at this time, but none properly identified have as yet been found in undoubted Laramie. - 2 Since the above was written Bowen has informed me that the only dinosaur found in the lower part of the so-called ““Lower Laramie” is about 700 feet above the top of the Lewis shale and 100 feet or more below a horizon containing Halymenites. - This shows that probably it is not in the “Lower Laramie” at all, but in the Fox Hills unit, which in that area is mapped with the “Lower Laramie” ! STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE 329 Another fact of importance may be pointed out regarding this Medi- cine Bow region, namely: Bowen reports that he has found dinosaurs at a number of horizons that are from 300 to 500 feet above the top of the “Upper Laramie” as fixed by Veatch. This shows the extent of the ver- tical range of the dinosaur fauna. In North Park, Colorado, the upper plant-bearing beds are sppatontly the same as those in Carbon County, Wyoming, as the two areas are closely connected, and from there it is but a step to the Denver basin of Colorado, where Whitman Cross demonstrated the presence of the great unconformity which separates the dinosaur-bearing Arapahoe and Den- ver formations above from the Laramie beneath. The Laramie is here reduced in thickness to about 1,600 feet, and at Colorado Springs, 75 miles south of Denver, which is the southernmost point at which Lara- mie is known, the thickness is reduced to 425 feet. W. 'T. Lee has shown to the satisfaction of many that the full Cretaceous section, to and in- eluding the Laramie, was laid down uninterruptedly over the area where the Rocky Mountains now exist. As the most complete section believed to represent the Laramie—namely, near Carbon, Wyoming—has a thick- ness of 5,000 feet, and as the Laramie in the Denver basin is only 425 to 1,600 feet thick, it is an indication that the unconformity may have re- moved at least 4,000 feet of beds and probably it was very much more; in fact Cross’s estimates places it at 12,000 to 15,000 feet. _ Between the Denver basin and Colorado Springs is a series of arkosic beds to which the name Dawson arkose has been given. The Dawson rests with marked discordance on all underlying beds, and is shown by its stratigraphic relations and contained flora to be the time equivalent of the Denver and Arapahoe formations. The Dawson contains abun- dant remains of dinosaurs, and in direct association with them Richard- son found a mammal bone which Gidley pronounces to be characteristic- ally Creodont, and says: “From our present knowledge the type repre- sented could not be older than Wasatch.” This association of dinosaurs and mammals is obviously of importance. _ | In the Raton Mesa region of southern Colorado and adjacent New Mexico, W. T. Lee has also demonstrated the presence of the same great unconformity, which by actual measurement has removed over 6,000 feet of beds and probably it was much more. Lee has also demonstrated the presence of the unconformity of many points around the southern end of the Rocky Mountains and up along the western, base to southern Colorado. In this Raton Mesa region the beds above the unconformity, called the Raton formation, are not known to be dinosaur-bearing; but they do contain an ample flora, which is correlated with the Denver and 330 F. H. KNOWLTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY Dawson to the north, and to the south with the Kocene Wilcox formation of the Gulf region. The Wilcox formation is underlain by the marme Midway formation, at the base of which is the Tertiary-Cretaceous. line of the Gulf coastal plain. This post-Cretaceous hiatus has now been traced over a wide areal ex- tent from the Canadian border to New Mexico, and it has been definitely tied in with a marine section in the Gulf region. It has been shown to occupy the same relative position throughout, and we are now in position to measure its magnitude. It appears to have involved at least the re- moval of the full thickness of Fox Hills and Laramie, where the maxi- mum thickness of Fox Hills is 1,000 feet, and the thickest known section of Laramie is about 5,000 feet, or a total of 6,000 feet that may have been removed. It is not now known whether in Montana; eastern Wyo- ming, and the Dakotas the Laramie and the full Fox Hills section was ever deposited; but it seems certain to me that the pre-Lance hiatus is the time interval during which they were deposited in various areas sand subsequently removed in whole or in part. Suppose, for the sake of argument, we deny the validity of this uncon- formity as a criterion for establishing the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary. Where, then, shall this line be placed? Take first the Lance formation. It is now established beyond question that the sedimentation was con- tinuous and uninterrupted? from the beginning of the Lance to and through the Fort Union. At the hundreds, even thousands, of localities where the two occur in the same section it has been found absolutely im- possible to draw any satisfactory lne between them on structural or lithologic evidence. The Lance is not mapable as distinct from the Fort Union. In one of the latest publications of the United States Geological] Survey,’ which covers a very large area in eastern Montana, the two are mapped together, for, as W. R. Calvert, its author, says: “As a result of these conditions [outlined above] no attempt is made on the index map, or on the maps of the various areas treated in this report, to differentiate the Lance formation from the overlying strata described in connection with the Fort Union formation :” and he continues, “The lowest persist- ent lignite bed was in the field arbitrarily considered to be the upper limit of the Lance;” . . . and he concludes, “It cannot be emphasized too’ strongly that the upper limit adopted is merely suggestive, as the finding of Triceratops bones higher in the section will necessitate the upward extension of the formation.” It would seem that a ge system ought at least to be a mapable. unit! | 2 Bxeept possibly in the Gatinonball region of North Dakota, which will be considered later, and within a single township in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming. Bull. 471, U. S. Geological Survey, 1912, p. 25. STRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE | Doll The vertebrate paleontologists apparently would place the top of the Lance at the highest point at which dinosaurs have been found; but unfortunately in those areas—and there are very many of pin here no dinosaurs are known the Lance will be without a known top, and even where they do occur this sliding scale makes the fixing of the boundary dependent on the accident of discovery, and the point accepted as the line today may be very different from that. necessitated by the work of tomorrow. The invertebrate paleontologist would fix the top of the Lance by the highest point at which marine invertebrates have been found. This cri- terion is even more limited in its application than the last, since marine invertebrates are known from a-comparatively small-area in North and South Dakota. It is obvious, therefore, that ie fixing of this boundary has a practical aspect that must be considered, as well as the technical, stratigraphic, and paleontologic sides. If we subordinate the taxonomic significance of - this pre-Lance datum plane as certain paleontologists would do, we sub- stitute for it a criterion of vague, obscure, and unequal application. “Next to natural relationship the quality of convenience is the prime desideratum in stratigraphic taxonomy,” says Ulrich in discussing the Ordovician-Silurian boundary; and he continues, “Let us, then, be rea- sonable and practical and accept with proper valuation these diastrophic boundaries, which nature has most clearly and widely indicated.” PALEOBOTANICAL EVIDENCE _Iam possibly prejudiced when I say that to my mind the pal Jeobotanical evidence is convincing and of the highest importance. First, as to the evidence it affords regarding the Tigtcnes: of this time break: In the Raton Mesa region the Vermejo formation, the first beneath the unconformity, has a flora of 108 species. The Raton forma- tion, the one next above the break, has a flora of 148 species. Only four species have been found in common. In the Denver basin the Laramie has a published flora of 97 species, six of which are found also in the Raton flora and 10 in the Arapahoe and Denver floras. In Carbon County, Wyoming, the’“Lower Laramie” (true Taramie,. in the writer’ 8 opinion) has a flora of about 50 species, fiye or six of which. occur also in the dinosaur-bearing beds above, which has a flora of about 70 species. Throughout the vast area over which the Lance formation is known there have been reported 16 species of plants that come into its flora from beds below the unconformity—that is, from the Laramie, Montana, etcetera. On eliminating the duplications in these several lists, as well as the SA F. H. KNOWLTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY few forms now known to have been incorrectly identified, we have a total of only 21 or 22 species that are known to have crossed the line of the unconformity. The full significance of this small number is brought out when we aggregate the floras in the beds below and above the uncon- formity. In the lower beds—that is, Vermejo, Laramie, Montana, etcet- era—there are 350 species, and in the upper beds—Raton, Dawson, Arap- ahoe, Denver, Lance, etcetera—there are over 700 species. Twenty-one or 22 species in common with 350 below and over 700 above is an insig- nificant number. It shows that more than 90 per cent of the Cretaceous flora was wiped out by the disturbances attending this diastrophic move- ment. The length of this time interval is indicated by the flora in another way other than in the destruction of the species. If the flora in the beds above the unconformity was wholly or even largely of a different type from that in the beds below, it might mean that it had come in suddenly, “ready made,” from an adjacent area, without great lapse of time; but as a matter of fact it is in the main a continuation of the Cretaceous flora, and its evolution from the Cretaceous, remnants implies a considerable length of time. 7 We may now consider the eye | evidence regarding the corre- lation, age, etcetera, of the formations here involved, beginning with the area, where our knowledge is most complete and passing over the ground in a reverse order from that in which the structural relations were dis- cussed. By common consent the akasicell break is made ‘ihe basis of the separa-- tion between the Cretaceous and Tertiary in the Atlantic and: Gulf coastal plain. In the Gulf region the Cretaceous Selma chalk and the Kocene Midway formation are on opposite sides of the line, and both are of marine origin. In a paper recently read before the Geological Society of Washington, Dr. L. W. Stephenson stated that the hiatus between the Cretaceous and Tertiary represented a longer time, regarded as due to evolutionary development, as measured by the change in life forms, than is indicated by the full Upper Cretaceous section of the region. Above the Midway formation is the Wilcox formation, which is also marine except in the Mississippi embayment. ‘The Wilcox contains a published flora of about 65 species, of which number about 25 are found also in the Raton formation. But Mr. E. W. Berry is engaged in the preparation of an. elaborate monograph of the Wilcox flora, in which he will enumerate over 300 species, not one of which, by the way, has been found in the Cretaceous anywhere. Less than 80 of its species have been found outside of this formation. Between 30 and 40 species are now PALEOBOTANICAL EVIDENCE 333 known to be common to the Raton and Wilcox formations, and when Mr. Berry’s work is available it will be found that there are probably not less than 50 common or closely related species. Mr. Berry is of the opinion that the Wilcox may be shghtly younger than the Raton, and it may be that it is the equivalent of the upper part or perhaps the whole of the Midway, as well as a portion of the Wilcox. This correlation of the Raton formation with the Wilcox and Midway is Important, since it ties the Rocky Mountain section with the marine section of the Gulf, where the geologic relations are definitely known. This correlation was first pointed out by Lesquereux more than 40 years ago, when he had at his disposal only a handful of specimens from either area, and it is a pleasure to attest its correctness, which is not changed, with the fullest collections ever brought together for any Rocky Moun- tain area. The Raton hauistion, as already indicated, contains a flora of 148 species, only four of which are known to occur in the Vermejo formation immediately below. This flora is especially characterized by vast num- bers of palms, some with leaves 6 or 8 feet in diameter, and is rich in figs, cinnamons, magnolias, bread-fruit trees, etcetera, and indicates a moist, warm, possibly subtropical climate. The Raton formation is cor- related by its flora, as well as by its stratigraphic relations, with the Denver formation of the Denver basin. The latter—the Denver—has a — published flora of 98 species, over 40 per cent of which are common ta the Raton, and there is a large mass of unworked material, which when elaborated will undoubtedly increase the number of species common to these two formations. The Arapahoe formation has a flora of 32 species, nearly all of which _ have been found also in the Denver. The flora certainly lends sopeat to the view that they are not greatly different. | On the south and southeast of the Denver basin is the area occupied by the Dawson arkose, which, as already stated, is believed to be strati- graphically continuous with the Denver and Arapahoe formations; the difference between them being largely lithological, the Denver being ande- sitic and the Dawson arkosic. The flora of the Dawson numbers between 30 and 40 species, nearly all of which are typical and well known Denver species. There can be no doubt, therefore, that the two are of the same age. The correlation of the Denver and the Raton is also well attested by the flora. The plant-bearing beds in North Park, Colorado, may next be consid- ered. There is very little topographic relief within this area, with the result that exposures of the strata are few and usually poor. The coal- XXIV—BuLuL. Grou. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 334 F. H. KNOWLTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY bearing and plant-bearing beds appear to rest on marine beds perhaps as old as the Mancos, the Laramie, so far as known, being absent. The flora in these beds, although small, is undoubtedly the same as that in the “Upper Laramie” near Carbon. Dinosaurs have not been found in North Park, though they are abundant in the beds in Carbon County, Wyoming. The flora of the “Upper Laramie” in Carbon County embraces about 70 species, of which number nearly one-half are common to the Lance of other areas, and there are also large unworked collections that will prob- ably still further augment the number of common species. As already indicated, five or six of these species are known in the underlying “Lower Laramie.” | We have now come to the consideration of the flora of the Lance. I have already shown that the Lance formation is inseparable—structurally and lithologically—from the overlying Fort Union, and the flora is like- wise so markedly of Fort Union facies that it is often quite impossible to distinguish the one from the other without stratigraphic or other data. As the Tertiary age of the Fort Union is admitted by every one, it is not necessary to dwell on this point. It has a large flora of perhaps 500 species, many of which are still undescribed. | The Lance flora embraces about 100 named and described species, as well as a considerable number not yet described. Of these 100 species, over 75 are typical Fort Union species that have never been found in older beds and most of them only in the Fort Union. I am, of course, well aware that statistics may mean little or much, depending on how they are compiled—that is, the mere presence of a species in a list may have little significance or real value. In the present case, however, many of these Lance species are found at dozens of localities and often in hundreds of individuals. ‘To any one familiar with the Fort Union flora, its prepon- derating element in the Lance flora is apparent. The evidence regarding the post-Cretaceous floras has now been pre- sented for the vast area which extends from New Mexico to Alberta. It has.been shown that in the south the Raton formation is to be correlated with the marine Hocene of the Gulf region, and step by step the correla- tion through the Dawson, Denver, and Lance has been traced until it - merges inseparably with the Fort Union, which is of acknowledged Ko- cene age. DIASTROPHIC HVIDENCE I had hoped to be able to present certain diastrophic evidence, which I consider of the highest importance, if any serious attempt is to be made in settling the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary, but it has been deemed DIASTROPHIC EVIDENCE 335 inexpedient to discuss this at the present time. I may only say, there- fore, that we are not concerned with the various theories as to why the earth changes its form, but simply that it does do so, which is unques- tioned. ‘That these changes or crustal movements are periodic in their action is also evident, and, moreover, it is possible to demonstrate a cer- tain amount of rhythm in these activities. That is to say, while some of these. movements: have obviously been-more or less local in their action, others have been not only continent-wide, but practically and simultane- ously: world-wide. » These: grand periods of diastrophic - re which have: been variously called “revolutions,” ‘critical periods,” or “grand eycles’”. in the history. of the earth, have. long been Soe and ac- cepted by most geologists. According to Ulrich, there have been at least four such major periods of activity on the North American continent, the Jatest important one being the one here involved, namely, at the close of Cretaceous time. The Cretaceous was a period of maximum sea extension cision the vont, and its close was marked by maximum sea exclusion. According to Schuchert’s paleographic maps of North America, the Cretaceous Sea was spread over a wider continental area than had previously been occu- pied by marine waters since perhaps Silurian or Devonian time. The Eocene witnessed the sea withdrawal in Europe as well as in North America. ee THE Evropran Time Scanp This is perhaps an opportune point at which to consider the so-called Huropean standard and to compare it with the American conditions and requirements. -In this connection I must express my indebtedness to Mr. W. T.. Lee, who has spent much time in consulting the literature. It is recognized that the subdivision of stratified rocks into systems is imperfect. Probably no system is completely represented in any one place. It is recognized that the type locality of a system may not contain its fullest expression as to range and age. Hence a type standard—such, for example, as the European standard—is at best only temporary, since it was based on incomplete information and must eventually give place to a-standard of world-wide application. It is, therefore, obviously unwise to set up a European standard for measuring American systems, as if that standard were final. I say a European standard rather than the Huropean standard, for there are disagreements among Huropen geolo- gists as to the line of separation between Cretaceous-and seen just as there are in America. a Arar gaat ah In order to answer the question “How does the European standard: ce 336 F. H. KNOWLTON——CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY in drawing the line of separation between the Cretaceous and Tertiary in America?” it is necessary to go back and determine at several critical points what constitutes this standard. The Cretaceous and Tertiary systems were worked out in the Anglo- Parisian basin. The type area of the Cretaceous—or Chalk, as it was called until 1822, when d’Halloy introduced the term Cretaceous for 1t— is in the London basin, and the Tertiary was first worked out near Paris. Geikie says, concerning them, that both in France and in England “the lithologic sequence, being the more obvious, was first established before it was confirmed and extended by a recognition of the value of the evi- dence of organic remains.” This statement, that the systems were estab- lished on a physical basis, is abundantly verified by the early writings. As the systems were studied in other regions, conflict of opinions devel- oped as to the position of the Danien and Montien beds, which seem to contain a mixture of Cretaceous and Tertiary forms. Some of the Ku- ropean geologists place these formations in the Cretaceous, others in the Tertiary, while Dollo, Haug, and others assign the Danien to the Creta- ceous and the Montien to the Tertiary. It is significant that, although several fossils of Cretaceous type occur with those of Tertiary type in the Montien, Haug reverts to the original criteria for determining the sepa- ration between the two systems, arid places the Montien in the Tertiary because it lies unconformably on the older rocks. In his summary of the Montien, Haug states that it contains, together with Tertiary forms, several survivors of the Cretacecus faunas, among which are crocodiles, magalosaurs, and other dinosaurs. 2 Two things mentioned above are especially significant: (1) The Cre- ceous and Tertiary systems were originally established on a physical basis, and the exact line of separation between them was determined by the structure; (2) after more than a century, during which the several lines . of evidence have been tested, the last authoritative word on the European standard is to the effect that the structure is the determining factor in separating them, and that even dinosaurs, that have been appealed to so often as proof of Cretaceous age, did not end with the Cretaceous. Probably all American geologists will agree as to the desirability of conforming the American geologic time scale as closely as possible to the European standard, and probably all who have thought seriously on the subject will also agree that it is impracticable, perhaps impossible, to do so in all cases. “I do not hesitate to express the opinion,” said the late Dr. C. A. White,® “that it [the European standard] is not of infallible. ‘5 Proc, Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. 38, 1889, p. 225.. VERTEBRATE EVIDENCE 337 application to other parts of the world, except perhaps as to its larger divisions, and that even in this respect it will need modification.” VERTEBRATE HVIDENCE I shall have very little to say regarding the vertebrate evidence. If the presence of dinosaurs is to be taken as prima facie indication of Creta- ceous age, then this discussion might as well end at once, for it is beyond question that dinosaurs are present in beds above the unconformity which, in my opinion, separates Cretaceous from Tertiary. ; Vertebrate paleontologists have claimed that the dinosaur fauna of the Lance, Denver, etcetera, does not give any indication of this time break, thereby implying that there is a dinosaur fauna immediately below the unconformity which can be directly compared with the Ceratops fauna. But is this true? So far as known to me, from field observations and a study of the literature, dinosaurs have not been found in the beds which immediately underly the unconformity—that is, in Laramie, Fox Hills, uppermost Pierre, etcetera—except possibly in Alberta and below the Puerco formation, where the relations are in doubt. The nearest dinosaur fauna with which that of the “Ceratops beds” can be compared is in the Belly River, which is stratigraphically some 2,000 feet below the unconformity, and when we make this comparison we find, I am told by Mr. Gilmore, that not a single species, and perhaps only a single genus, is common to Belly River and “Ceratops beds.” The Ceratops fauna, therefore, proves clearly that there has been a very dis- tinct change in passing over the line of the unconformity. A word may be said regarding the Edmonton of Canada, which has been, supposed to be the same as the Lance formation of the United States. According to Barnum Brown, the dinosaur fauna of the lower portion of this formation—the so-called lower Edmonton—is distinctly more primitive than that of the Lance, being in fact much more closely related to that of the Belly River. In one of his later papers, dealing with this field, Mr. Brown has announced his intention of establishing a new formation for this lower Edmonton; but until the full data, strati-. graphic as well as paleontologic, have been published it is perhaps useless to speculate further concerning the fauna. I may say, however, that Mr. Brown has kindly permitted me to study the fossil plants of the Edmon- ton section, and I have found them, with the following exception, to be uniformly of Fort Union or Lance types. The collection from 16 miles below. Tolman, in beds stated-on the labels accompanying the specimens to be lower Edmonton, is distinct from anything before submitted to me. 338 F. H. KNOWLTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY This lot contains a Ginkgo nearest to and probably identical with Ginkgo laramiense Ward, from Point of Rocks, Wyoming, a cycad—Pterophyl- lwm—of a type not found above the Cretaceous, and two species of dicoty- ledons; Viburnum, an unpublished. species from Point of Rocks, and — inn wardw ? Kn., from the OTE Montana of the Missourt River below Coal Banks, A oncae In my opinion, this collection has a distinct Cretaceous aspect, though it is obviously too small to predicate positively its age. This may explain why the fauna exhibits such an evident affinity with that of the Belly River. I am forced to the conclusion that two very distinct horizons may have been confused under the name of Edmonton. It is just possible that this may be the long lost Laramie fauna. This issue can not be avoided, as Doctor Matthew and others have pro- posed doing, by extending the definition of Laramie from a formation to a group, for then we shall not only contravene the original definition, but we shall have the anomalous condition of the “Laramie group” being divided by a major unconformity and falling within two systems. The original pronouncement of King, and as emphasized by Cross, Peale, and others, fixes the Laramie as “the uppermost member of the conformable Cretaceous series above the Fox Hills.” Being above an unconformity, the “Ceratops beds” are not a part of the “conformable Cretaceous series,” and hence can not be Laramie. This condition was correctly appreciated by Barnum Brown, who, in his paper on the “Hell Creek beds,” says: “Strictly following King’s definition of Laramie, neither of these de- posits [“Hell Creek beds,” “Ceratops beds,” etcetera] can be considered as such, for neither one represents a continuous sedimentation from the marine Fox Hills. They should therefore be grouped with the Living- ston, Denver, and Arapahoe beds and may be considered post-Laramie.” It was thought at one time that the ceratopian dinosaurs might be found in the same beds with the Puerco mammals, but, according to Doc- tor Sinclair, apparently this is not so. The Puerco formation rests uncon- formably on dinosaur-bearing beds, beneath which is the “Laramie” of the region. I have shown elsewhere, however, that these latter beds are undoubtedly much older than Laramie. The “Ceratops beds,” immedi- ately beneath those containing the Puerco fauna, have been practically traced into the Animas formation, which Cross holds is of Denver age. The Animas formation is now known to extend eastward to the eastern border of the San Juan basin, near Dulce, New Mexico, where it is con- glomeratic at the base and consists of an andesitic matrix, in which are pebbles of many kinds of older rocks; above this conglomerate are Eocene leaves. ; INVERTEBRATE EVIDENCE 339 INVERTEBRATE EVIDENCE ° In ninety-nine one-hundredths of the area over which the dinosaur- bearing beds are distributed there are either no invertebrates at all or they are fresh-water forms, which are generally recognized as of little value in fixing age. Marine invertebrates have come into this discussion from limited areas in North and South Dakota, where it is claimed they have been found in or above the Lance. In North Dakota from the Cannonball River northeast to Heart River, a distance of perhaps 75 miles, is a long, narrow, somewhat irregular area of sandy shales and sandstones from 200 to 300 feet in thickness which contains a considerable marine fauna. ‘This has been called the Cannon- ball marine member of the Lance formation. Its proposers, Messrs. Win- chester, Hares, and Lloyd, of the United States Geological Survey, de- fined its top as the highest point at which marine invertebrates have been found, and its base as the highest point at which dinosaurs occur. It was regarded by its proposers as a lens in the Lance formation, and is con- sidered in whole or in part as the marine equivalent of a non-marine, coal-bearing horizon to which the name Ludlow lignitic member of the Lance has been given. Three possible explanations have been advanced by different geologists to account for the presence of this Cannonball member: (1) That it isa lens in the Lance, in which case it must have resulted from a temporary invasion of the sea after the inauguration of Hocene time; (2) that it is an erosion remnant of Fox Hills, surrounded by and projecting through the Lance, or (3) that Fox Hills time continued through Lance to Cannonball time. The first of the alternative explanations—that the Cannonball is above or a lens in the Lance—was the one adopted by the original namers of the member, is still entertained by them, and has been accepted by the United States Geological Survey." This means that the Cannonball is separated from the Fox Hills by 400 feet or more of Lance beds—that is to say, that marine conditions similar to those of the Fox Hills were re- stored for the short interval of Cannonball time after the deposition of the fresh-water Lance beds. It has in its favor the following points: (1) — Its position is above the Lance; (2) it is not known to be structurally connected with the Fox Hills; (3) its fauna, though differing some- what, is apparently most closely related to that of the Fox Hills; (4) it 6 See Knowlton, Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 11, 1909, pp. 226-228. 7 Lloyd: The Cannonball River Lignite field, North Dakota. Bull. 541G, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1914, pp. 1-51. 340 F. H. KNOWLTON—-CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY may be a recurrent fauna surviving from the Fox Hills fauna, which is itself partially recurrent from the Claggett (lower Montana). But this explanation requires a connection with the sea, presumably after the in- _auguration of Kocene time. CONCLUSIONS The thesis of this paper, as stated at the beginning, is that the line between Cretaceous and Tertiary in the Rocky Mountain region is to be drawn at the base of the dinosaur-bearing and equivalent beds—that is, at the base of the Lance, “Ceratops beds,” “Hell Creek beds,” “Somber beds,” Arapahoe, Dawson, Raton, and “Laramie” of many writers. Evi- dence, believed to be competent, has been presented in support of this view from the side of stratigraphy, diastrophism, and paleobotany, and what is thought to be the weakness and insufficiency of the vertebrate and invertebrate evidence has been pointed out. The vertebrate paleontolo- gist would place the Cretaceous-Tertiary lne at the highest horizon at which dinosaurs are found, notwithstanding the fact that this is a vari- able boundary unattended by structural or diastrophic action. The in- vertebrate paleontologist would place this line at the highest point where marine invertebrates of Cannonball types occur. The paleobotanist would place the line at the lowest horizon at which Tertiary plants have been found which corresponds with the structure. The paleontologists are not in accord. It is unlikely that they will ever be in complete agreement. What, then, is to be the court of final appeal? There is but one answer: Structure resulting from diastrophism. The evidence from these sources supports the thesis. Why, then, shall we not be logical and rational, and agree to place the line where nature plainly indicated it rather than at some shifting, vague, and indefinite point simply to maintain a tradition? BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 341-354 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY “BOUNDARY BETWEEN CRETACEOUS AND TERTIARY IN "NORTH AMERICA AS INDICATED BY STRATIGRAPHY AND INVERTEBRATE FAUNAS? | 7 BY TIMOTHY W. STANTON (Presented before the Paleontological Society December 31, 1913) _- CONTENTS Typical Cretaceous and Eocene of western PHUITODE seco ess ccs aes Oe Contact between marine Cretaceous and marine Hocene in North America. 342 Variations in Upper Cretaceous sedimentation of the Interior Province. . 348 General AESETSS TO Tike et eee ee ee BRR Sead cam Pe es Seavaire ne ca ee Gat cso Caulk am owe 343 Evidence of land areas in the Rocky Mountain region.. = A acer theme 344. MEO OF MIMCONTOLIMILICS.. ......c se le ce enw cece hee ce tebepeas 347 EMME eae Mgrima tion 5 60. oe ae ee ee Se Oe ga vee 348 : Distribution and general character...............00.00. Sts whee statis 348 ~ Development in North and South Dakota...-........... Nero he ees 349 PRS EVAEWE Of TU VOSUISA TIONS 22 cxege cingciowieid © omit an wie lee elepaie baie epee wens 2e- 349 Lower member and its relations with the ox EHills......co.. -.. 850 Marine member and its Cretaceous fauna..........0..seesceees 351 Sem ROTI cans Reece Pe Satine ec nd Gia Sg Go oats Sales A obs bb ase eegeene rae 353 TYPICAL CRETACEOUS AND KOCENE OF WESTERN EuROPE It should be remembered at the outset that the Cretaceous system was first described in England, and that the Anglo-Parisian basin can per- haps with justice be considered the typical area of both Cretaceous and Eocene. Among English geologists there has been some difference of opinion concerning the real character of the boundary between Cretaceous and Hocene, but the statement by Geikie in his text-book may be ac- cepted as conservative. He says: “In England the interval between the Cretaceous and the next geological period represented there by sedi- mentary formations is marked by the abrupt line which separates the chalk from all later accumulations, and by the evidence that the chalk seems to have been in some places extensively denuded before even the oldest of what are called the Tertiary formations were deposited upon the 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 14, 1914. Contribution to the ea held at the Princeton meeting December 31, 1913, and January 1, 1914. Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. : (341) 342 T. W. STANTON——-CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY surface. There is evidently here a considerable gap in the geological record.” Remembering that there is also a very remarkable faunal break here, it is evident from this description that the boundary between Cre- taceous and Tertiary as originally established complied with all the de- mands of the most advanced modern school of stratigraphy in which diastrophism theoretically holds the highest place. The old-time paleon- tologists were also equally well pleased with the boundary because the marine invertebrate faunas on either side of it are in very sharp contrast. Not only is there an abrupt change in the species, but many genera, families, and even orders which flourished in the Cretaceous do not pass beyond its upper limits, while many new types are introduced in the suc- ceeding Hocene. Where such conditions exist, as they do in many parts of Europe, there is no difficulty in fixing the limits between Cretaceous and Tertiary ; but in Denmark, in Belgium, in the middle of the Paris basin, and in some other parts of Europe there are deposits, in part marine and in part con- tinental, which seem to belong between the highest Cretaceous and the lowest Eocene represented in England. These intermediate deposits have been called Danian, Montian, and other more local names, and have been assigned by some geologists to the Cretaceous, by others to the Tertiary, and by still others part to the Cretaceous and part to the Tertiary. The limits that have been given to Danian and Montian and the various senses in which these names have been used by different geologists show almost as great variety in usage as our own much abused term Laramie has re- ceived. It is interesting to note that the latest Kuropean dinosaurs come from formations concerning whose classification perfect agreement has not yet been reached. All will agree, I think, that when two contiguous systems as originally defined are separated by an unconformity or there is other evidence of a break in sedimentation, it is probable that intermediate deposits will be found in some part of the world, and that when found, if they are sub- ordinate in character, they should be assigned in each case to the system to which they are most closely related. The practical difficulty lies in demonstrating the close relationship, and that difficulty is not removed by applying new criteria and new principles of classification or by rede- fining a system to make it fit local conditions in a restricted distant area without consideration of the type section. CONTACT BETWEEN MARINE CRETACEOUS AND MARINE EOCENE IN NortH AMERICA In America, as in England, wherever marine Cretaceous is directly overlain by marine Eocene there is no difficulty in recognizing the bound- MARINE CRETACEOUS AND MARINE EOCENE CONTACT 343 ary between them, and there is no controversy concerning the boundary. Dr. L. W. Stephenson has emphasized this fact for the Atlantic and Gulf coastal plain of the United States in a paper recently presented to the Geological Society of Washington, but not yet published. He’ showed that at many places where the actual contact between Cretaceous and Kocene is visible there is evidence of an interval of erosion, and he stated that the faunas are so distinct that they suggest a very long unrecorded interval. Such a suggestion of a very long interval should be received with caution, however, for the reason that very few if any of the Hocene species can be supposed to be directly descended from Cretaceous species of the same area. They are immigrants from some other region, and we have no record of the time that was required for their development. The only other area in North America where marine Eocene is known to follow marine Cretaceous is on the Pacific border west of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges. For many years it was believed that there was a gradual transition from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary in California, and that this transition was marked by a mixed fauna, in which many persistent Cretaceous species were associated with Eocene types. It is now known that this belief was erroneous, and that it was caused by im- perfect knowledge of both the stratigraphy and the paleontology of the region. ‘The detailed stratigraphic and faunal studies of Merriam,’ Weaver,® Dickerson,* and others, with some of my own earlier work,® have shown that the boundary between Cretaceous and Eocene is as dis- tinct on the Pacific coast as it is on the Atlantic side of the continent. In both these areas the close of the Cretaceous is marked by uplift and consequent withdrawal of the sea and the Kocene begins with the return of the sea, though it is extremely doubtful whether the limits of the interval between the retreat and return of the sea are the same ia both areas. VARIATIONS IN UPPER CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTATION OF THE INTERIOR PROVINCE GENERAL DISCUSSION In the Interior Province, including the Great Plains and Rocky Moun- tain regions, conditions were different. The Upper Cretaceous Sea dur- 2J. C. Merriam: The geologic relations of the Martinez group of California at the typical locality. Journal of Geology, vol. 5. 1897, pp. 767-775. °C. E. Weaver: Contribution to the paleontology of the Martinez group. Cal. Univ. Publ. Bull. Dept. Geol., vol. 4. 1905. pp. 101-123. *Roy E. Dickerson: The stratigraphic and faunal relations of the Martinez formation to the Chico and Tejon north of Mount Diablo. Cal. Univ. Publ. Bull. Dept. Geol.. vol. 6, 1911. pp. 171-177. °T. W. Stanton: The faunal relations of the Eocene and Upper Cretaceous on the Pacific coast. Seventeenth Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 1, 1896, pp. 1011-1060. 344 T. W. STANTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY ing the Colorado epoch covered a large part if not the whole of the prov- ince, and by the end of the Cretaceous it had entirely retreated from the area; but the Eocene Sea did not return into this province at all. In- | stead of marine deposits great continental deposits were formed, begin- ning in the Cretaceous and continuing with many interruptions and with increasing restriction of areas throughout Tertiary time. In the early days of geological exploration of the Rocky Mountains and Great Plains many geologists believed that all these continental deposits are Tertiary; but with greater knowledge of the history of the region that idea was long ago abandoned, and many of the continental formations have been recognized as of Cretaceous age, especially those that were subsequently covered by marine Cretaceous sediments. , ' EVIDENCE OF LAND ARHAS IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION A brief consideration of some facts in the history of the province dur- ing later Cretaceous time will aid in the correct interpretation of events nearer the close of the period. On another occasion® I have pointed out some of the variations in the sedimentary record which clearly show that conditions were not uniform throughout the region. The idea has some- times been expressed that this was a period of quiet and universal sub- — mergence for the province with no land-masses within it until the end of the period when the whole area was lifted above sealevel by a single move- ment. There are many facts opposed to this view—so many that they form convincing evidence that at several times during the period there were differential movements which brought previously submerged local areas above sealevel. The greatest extension of the sea and presumably the deepest submergence seems to have been near or after the middle of the Colorado epoch; but even at that time it is probable that there were —— large islands. The local variations in thickness and character of the sedi- ments bespeak the nearness of land at some localities. No argument is needed in support of the statement that a coarse con- glomerate among marine sediments generally means the proximity of land or that coal beds were formed above sealevel, especially when they are accompanied by strata full of the well preserved foliage of land plants or with an abundant fresh-water fauna. By these and other criteria it can be shown that in many parts of the Rocky Mountain region there were uplifts which made land of parts of the Cretaceous area in both the Colorado and Montana epochs, and that these movements were not suffi- 6Timothy W. Stanton: Some variations in Upper evctaceeus strditigtapiae Jour. Washington. Acad. Sci., vol. 3, 1913, pp. 55-70. VARIATIONS IN UPPER CRETACEOUS SEDIMENTATION ay Nas ciently general to drain the sea from the whole region. A few examples will suffice. In the Datil Mountain area of western New Mexico coal-bearing strata, with a land flora, were deposited early in the Colorado epoch. These were again covered by the sea, but near the close of the Colorado the area again emerged and received a thick series of continental deposits, with many thin coals and numerous land plants. So far as the record shows the sea never again invaded this particular area. Farther north in New Mexico and in southwestern Colorado marine sedimentation was continuous throughout the Colorado epoch, and it was not until later in the Montana epoch, at the time represented by the Mesaverde formation, that the land emerged sufficiently to support forest growth and permit the formation of coal beds. Ft is true that the Mesaverde formation in- eludes some marine strata, but it consists in large part of non-marine beds deposited above sealevel. These continental deposits of the Mesa- verde formation cover large areas in western Colorado, in eastern Utah; and in southern Wyoming from the Laramie Plains westward. East of the mountains in Colorado and a part of Wyoming there was no break in marine sedimentation’ in either the Colorado or the Montana epoch. There is, however, some evidence of differential movement and of locally derived sediments in both epochs. In the Colorado group a sandstone is developed as the uppermost member of the Benton immedi- ately beneath the limestone of the Niobrara. This sandstone at some localities in Huerfano Park, southern Colorado, is 40 feet thick and con- tains an abundant littoral fauna, which, like the sands in which it is embedded, indicates a near-shore deposit. It is 20 feet thick in the Arkansas Valley above Pueblo, and northward decreases to 3 or 4 feet in northern Colorado. : North of Denver, in Colorado, the ‘middle and upper dna of the Pierre shale contain a large proportion of marine sandstones (of which the Hygiene sandstone member is an example). Lithologically these sandstones resemble the sandstones of the Mesaverde formation in north- western Colorado and in the Laramie Plains and other parts of southern Wyoming, and as they occupy approximately the stratigraphic position of the Mesaverde it is probable that their materials were derived from the erosion of the same land-masses. Other areas of land in the Colorado epoch are indicated by coal-bearing formations in the Harmony, Colob, and Kanab coal-fields of southern Utah, in Soe ‘Utah, at ce ee eo aaitiy the local structural breaks described by “Eldridge ; in the Denver ste are an exception. See Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. 27, pp. 91-111. 346 T. W. STANTON——-CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY Frontier formation. At Coalville there is also the evidence of a very coarse conglomerate 60 feet thick at or near the top of the Colorado group. There are lenses of coarse conglomerate near the middle of the Colorado at Cody, in Bighorn basin, Wyoming, and a still greater: deyel- opment of conglomerate at about the same horizon at Livingston, Mon- tana. These conglomerates are unquestionably. oS — which indicate land of considerable elevation: 9... ~ 4 ya23 ee During the Montana epoch there is abundant evidence ah scien movements and resulting more or less temporary ‘land conditiens froni northern Wyoming northward’ through. Montana and in- the, Canadian territories. This is seen’ in the coal beds and land plants of the: Hagle sandstone and the coals and land and fresh-water faunas of.the Judith River formation, in each case found in formations interstratified with purely-marine deposits. In the Blackfoot Indian reservation and farther north beyond the international boundary the ratio of continental-to ma- rine deposits was greatly increased, and during the epoch there was: only one decided incursion of the sea, represented by the Bearpaw shale, which passes by gradual transition through overlying littoral: and ~ brackish- water deposits into continental deposits. In the Bighorn basin the: final change from marine to continental deposition came canter, near the beginning of the Montana. : In the country surrounding the Crazy Mountains and near Live Montana, there is evidence of another kind that the late Cretaceous was not a time of quiet, uniform, marine submergence. On the contrary, there was great volcanic activity, beginning early in the Montana epoch, while the. Eagle sandstone was being deposited and continuing, probably with many interruptions, until well into the Eocene, or at least furnish- ing material for sediments until that date. The debris from these erup- tions was deposited in part above sealevel and in part beneath it, in some places fingering out between more nearly normal marine sediments. These andesitic tuffaceous deposits constitute the Livingston formation, which was described by Weed 20 vears ago as resting unconformably on the “Laramie,” and which has frequently been cited as similar to the Denver formation in character, relations, and age. The more detailed stratigraphic and areal work of Stone® and Calvert has shown that the unconformity described by Weed as at the base of the Livingston has no existence in. fact, and Wer while the pees pay of the formation Bae be : eR: W. ‘Stone. and W. 12 Calvert: “Sinatieraphile Pelatione of the livingeton fee of Montana. Economic Geology, vol. 5, 1910, pp. 551-557, 652-669, 741-764. ie aes EVOLUTION OF UNCONFORMITIES 347 Montana time. This is one example of the failure of the “great post- Laramie unconformity” to hold its place. EVOLUTION OF UNCONFORMITIES Enough evidence and examples have been given to emphasize the fact that the Upper Cretaceous in the Interior Province was an epoch of re- peated differential movements which brought now one area, now another, above sealevel. With such a record the question is, When did the Cre- taceous period end? The retreat of the sea from any particular local area can not be taken as a criterion because, as we have seen, the time of the final retreat varied considerably from place to place. Even in the Denver basin this final retreat occurred before the close of the Cretaceous. All are agreed in referring the Laramie of the Denver basin to the Cre- taceous because it rests conformably on the marine Cretaceous Fox Hills and represents a transition from marine to non-marine conditions. Its. upper part was formed above sealevel. Now as soon as.an area is ele- vated above the sea and, even before that, as soon as it is brought within reach of strong tidal currents it necessarily becomes more or less subject to erosion. For this. reason an erosional unconformity in estuarine or continental deposits may have very little time significance and its im- portance must be tested by paleontologic and other criteria. Likewise a conglomerate in continental deposits has no such essential importance as a basal conglomerate of a marine formation. It may mean only a slight change in the grade of a stream, or even nothing more than a change in climate which has made erosion and transportation more active. Full consideration should be given to the physical evidence of the post- _ Laramie unconformity in the Denver basin and to the sudden change in the lithologic character of the formations which follow it; but in my opinion the length of the erosion interval between the Laramie and the Arapahoe, which immediately succeeds it, has been very greatly exagger- ated on account of a wrong conception of the history and physiographic condition of neighboring areas during later Cretaceous time. It has been supposed that the post-Laramie-pre-Arapahoe interval is measured by the erosion of at least 14,000 feet of sediments because the conglomerates of the Arapahoe contain pebbles derived from formations stratigraphic- ally that. far below the top of the Laramie. But this supposition is based on the assumption, which I believe to be unwarranted, that there were no upward movements and no lands subjected to erosion in adjacent areas from the beginning of marine Cretaceous SG oe m es region! a the close of the Laramie. hs ce Granting that the post-Laramie diastrophic avemert was ghnportant: 348 T. W. STANTON——CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY and that the erosion interval may have been long in the Denver basin, there are still other questions to be considered before deciding that. the break marks the boundary between Cretaceous and Tertiary. How great an area was affected by the movement? Can the break be identified with the one which separates marine Cretaceous from marine Tertiary in other areas? What is the testimony of paleontology in all its branches: concerning the relationships of the faunas and floras in the ee immediately above the unconformity ? | The answers. to these questions are not all harmonious, but some prog- ress has been made toward ascertaining the facts, and this conference ought to mark another step in advance. The presence of andesitic ma- terial in sediments can not now be accepted as evidence that “the great unconformity” is beneath it, nor can the occurrence of ceratopsian dino- saurs be taken as proof of general diastrophism just before they came on the scene. The unconformity beneath the Livingston has disappeared. The unconformity described by Veatch in southern Wyoming between “Tower Laramie” and “Upper Laramie” must await more detailed areal and stratigraphic studies before it can be properly evaluated. It will suffice for the present to state that in the only area where his “Upper Laramie” which has yielded Triceratops or dinosaurs of any kind, the “Lower Laramie” also contains ceratopsian remains, and that the two geologists (Beekly and Bowen) who have recently examined the area in detail have failed to find there any conclusive evidence of unconformity between the Triceratops-bearing beds and the “Lower Laramie.” The post-Vermejo unconformity of northern New Mexico has been correlated by Lee and Knowlton with the post-Laramie unconformity of the Denver basin on the evidence of fossil plants in the overlying Raton formation, and this correlation may be correct. No other classes of fossils have been — found here to serve as a check on the plants. THE LANCE FORMATION DISTRIBUTION AND GENERAL CHARACTER it a be remembered that in eastern Wyoming, South Dakota, North Dakota, and some other areas north of the Denver basin it has not been possible to-agree on the proper use of the term Laramie, and therefore the non-committal name Lance formation has been adopted for the non- marine dinosaur-bearing formation, formerly called “Ceratops beds” and various other names, overlying the Fox Hills sandstone where that for- mation as such is present. The Lance formation has a vertebrate fauna — whieh. is closely: related to-the-fauna of the Denver: formation and less THE LANCE FORMATION 349 closely to the Judith River fauna; a brackish-water invertebrate fauna developed locally in.its lower part, which is in part identical with the Laramie fauna and is evidently derived from older Cretaceous faunas; a fresh-water invertebrate fauna which is in part restricted to the Lance, in part identical with the Laramie, with a few forms passing up into the Fort Union, but altogether much more closely allied to Cretaceous than to Tertiary faunas, and a flora which is closely related to the Fort Union flora and regarded by Knowlton as somewhat younger than the Denver flora. : DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH AND SOUTH DAKOTA Review of investigations—In 1910 I published evidence® tending to prove that in eastern Wyoming and the Dakotas there is gradual transi- tion with practically continuous sedimentation from the Fox Hills sand- stone into the Lance formation, and that the local erosion, of which there is evidence, in some places could not represent any important time inter- - val. Stratigraphic details and faunal lists from localities in the Standing Rock and Cheyenne River Indian reservations made it clear that the ero- sion and other phenomena, believed to indicate a break, occurred while the marine Cretaceous Sea was still present. In the same paper attention was called to an oyster-bed in the Lance formation near Yule, on the Little Missouri, North Dakota, in strata approximately 500 feet above the base of the formation and a less distance above beds in the same neighbor- hood containing Triceratops and other dinosaurs. This oyster-bed was cited as evidence that the Cretaceous Sea was still near enough to send its tidal brackish waters to the Yule locality. It is now known that that sea lay to the eastward in southern North Dakota and northern South Dakota, and that its marine sediments, with a thickness of 200 or 300 feet, form- ing a marine member of the Lance formation, cover the 400 feet of con- tinental deposits belonging to the same formation which overlie the Fox Hills sandstone in the Indian reservations just mentioned. It is not pos- sible and it would not be appropriate for me to give the full evidence for this statement at this time; but the facts of stratigraphy and areal dis- tribution on which it is based are well known, and will be published in detail in a series of reports in press and in preparation by members of the Western Fuel section of the United States Geological Survey. These reports describe a connected area extending from the Missouri River across the Standing Rock and Cheyenne River reservations to the western boundary of North and South Dakota. The Indian reservations are de- ° Fox Hills sandstone and Lance formation (‘‘Ceratops Beds’’) in South Dakota and eastern Wyoming. Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. 30, 1910, pp. 172-188. XXV—BULL, GEoL, Soc. Am., Vou. 25, 1913 350 T. W. STANTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY scribed’? by W. R. Calvert, A. L. Beekly, M. A. Pishel, and V. H. Bar- nett, and other separate parts of the area are treated by E. Russell Lloyd, D. E. Winchester, E. M. Parks, and C. J. Hares. The marine member of the Lance formation and its stratigraphic relations will be especially described and discussed in the current volume of the Journal of Geology in a paper by Messrs. Lloyd and Hares, who first discovered it and have collected most of the data concerning it. This marine member has such an important bearing on the topic of the present discussion—the bound- ary between Cretaceous and Eocene—that it must be briefly considered, and in order to explain that bearing it 1s necessary to review some facts in the history of investigation and discussion of the geology of the area during the past four years. | Lower member and tts relations with the Fox Hills—The map- ping of the Indian reservations by Calvert and his assistants and of the Bismarck quadrangle by Leonard'? developed the fact that the Fox Hills sandstone, with its marine Cretaceous fauna, is exposed for many miles along the Missouri River, extending as far north as old Fort Rice, about 20 miles below Mandan, and that it is also exposed for considerable distances up the Cannonball, Grand, and Moreau rivers. Throughout this area the Fox Hills sandstone is immediately overlain by non-marine deposits, which in many localities weather into bad-lands forms and have been referred to the Lance formation on the evidence of the vertebrate fauna. Dinosaur bones are widely distributed through the beds, and at a few places, as, for example, in section 12, township 20 south, range 22 east, near Grand River, nearly south of McIntosh, South Dakota, the bones are abundant and well enough preserved to be identi- fied as Triceratops, Trachodon, etcetera, clearly belonging to the Lance fauna. At this place the dinosaurs are less than 50 feet above the base of the formation. A considerable flora has been listed by Knowlton’? from 10 localities in these same deposits, ranging in stratigraphic posi- tion from 4 feet to 300 feet above the base of the formation. Knowlton says of it: “The plant collections obtained from the Lance formation by Mr. Calvert and the members of the several parties under his charge show conclusively that the relation of this flora is unmistakably with the Fort Union. In fact, with the information at hand regarding distribut- tion, it is practically impossible without stratigraphic data to distinguish 10 Geology of the Standing Rock and Cheyenne River Indian Reservations, North and South Dakota. Bull. 575, U. S. Geol. Survey. 1b A. G. Leonard: Bismarck folio (No. 181), Geol. Atlas U. S. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1912. 4%2Further data on the stratigraphic position of the Lance formation (‘‘Ceratops Beds’). Journal of Geology, vol. 19, 1911, pp. 358-376. THE LANCE FORMATION Sik - between the flora of the Lance formation and that of the acknowledged Fort Union.” There was agreement, therefore, that these non-marine beds immediately above the Fox Hills are Lance, or at least not older than Lance. The contact between the Fox Hills and the Lance in this area shows irregularities at some localities which have been interpreted as proof of an unconformity and erosion interval. In the paper just cited Knowlton publishes a statement by Calvert advocating this interpretation, and he adds his own opinion concerning the magnitude of the unconformity in these words: “Whether the Laramie and various post-Laramie beds were deposited and later removed throughout the Dakotas, Montana, and Wyo- ming is not at present known, but certain it is that the unconformity at the base of the Lance formation represents the time interval during which in other areas they were laid down and subsequently removed in whole or in part.” Presumably in this case “various post-Laramie beds” means Arapahoe and Denver and the associated unconformities. My own con- clusion that there was practically no hiatus here at the base of the Lance and the evidence in support of that conclusion have already been cited. Marine member and its Cretaceous fauna.—tIn the summer of 1912 “Mr. EH. Russell Lloyd began the examination of the area immediately north of the Standing Rock Indian reservation in the valley of Cannon- ball River and its tributaries. He there found marine invertebrate fossils at a number of localities believed to be in the Lance formation several hundred feet above its base, and these fossils were identified as belonging to the Fox Hills fauna. Mr. C. J. Hares also found a few marine fossils of the same character at, apparently about the same horizon much farther west near the headwaters of Grand River. Mr. Lloyd’s work during 1913 has multiplied the localities and greatly extended the area in which this marine fauna is found, so that the known localities are distributed in a belt extending from old Fort Lincoln, on the Missouri, near Mandan, North Dakota, to Haley, North Dakota, on the north fork of Grand River, a distance of more than 100 miles. His work has also fixed the position of the marine member in the upper part of the Lance formation, as locally developed, and above the 400 feet of non-marine Lance which contain Triceratops and other reptilian fossils, with a flora that is said by Knowlton to be indistinguishable from the Fort Union flora, and hence believed by him to be Eocene. _ In my opinion, the invertebrates from the marine member of the Lance belong to a Cretaceous fauna. This is indicated both by their close rela- tionship with the Fox Hills fauna and by the known paleogeographic facts of the late Cretaceous and the Eocene. The fauna contains a num- 352 T, W. STANTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY > ber of species identical with Fox Hills forms, others that are closely re- lated, a few that were ascribed to the Fox Hills, but apparently were actually collected by the early explorers from beds now assigned the ma- rine member of the Lance, and a considerable number of new species, which so far as known do not occur outside of the marine member. The list of forms recognized is as follows: Nodosaria sp. Caryophyllia ? sp. Anomia sp. Perna sp. Crenella sp. *Cucullea shumardi M. and H. +Glycimeris subimbricata (M.and H.) *Leda (Yoldia) scitula M. and H. *Leda equilateralis M. and H.? *Nucula planimarginata M. and H. tCrassatellites evansi (H. and M.) Solemya ? sp. x*Zucina occidentalis (Morton) Corbicula cytheriformis M and H. +Cyprina ovata M. and H. *Cyprina ovata var. compressa M. and H.? Veniella ? sp. Callista sp. a. Callista sp. b. Tellina ? sp. Thracia sp., related to T. subgra- cilis Whitfield +Teredo globosa M. and H. +Teredo selliformis M.. and H. Corbula sp. FEntals sp. Scala ? sp. Turritella ? sp. x*Lunatia concinna (H. and M.) Cerithium ? sp. t*Anchura americana (EK. and S.) Anchura americana (H. and §&.), robust variety. Helicaulax ? sp. +*Cantharus (Cantharulus) vaughani M. and H. “*Pyrifusus (Neptunella) newberryi M. and H.? *Fasciolaria buccinoides M and H. *Fasciolaria (Piestochilus) culbert- sont M. and H. *Turris contortus M. and H. Turris sp., related to T. contortus M. and H. *Turris minor (HH. and 8.) ? Cinulia sp. *OCylichna scitula M. and H.? In this list of about 40 forms there are 21 named species and varieties, of which 15 (marked *) occur in the Fox Hills, 4 (marked {) occur in the Pierre, and 5 (marked +) were originally described from rocks now known to belong to the marine member of the Lance. One species, Cor- bicula cytheriformis, was described from the Judith River, and is known in the Mesaverde and the Lance of other areas. The fossil seaweed, Haly- menites major, which is common in the Fox Hills and other sandy forma- tions of the marine Cretaceous, is also associated with the above listed fauna. The fauna lacks a number of common Fox Hills species and contains a considerable proportion of new forms, so that it may be called a modi- fied Fox Hills fauna. It gives evidence that the Cretaceous Sea had not yet finally retreated from the province, and it may reasonably be sup- posed that in some area not far away, probably on the east or southeast. THE LANCE FORMATION ao the sea was present while the lower non-marine member of the Lance was being laid down, so that there were continuous marine conditions from Fox Hills time on until the whole of the marine member was deposited. The fossils do not include any that especially suggest an Eocene fauna, and the geographic location makes it extremely improbable that a marine Kocene fauna could have reached the area, which when located on Pro- fessor Schuchert’s'* paleogeographic map of the Eocene is seen to be al- most exactly at the farthest point from known marine Kocene that can be found in the United States, the nearest Eocene localities being the Mississippi Valley near the mouth of the Ohio on the one side, and Ore- gon west of the Cascade Mountains on the other. If there was general uplift-and long continued erosion throughout the province preceding the Lance, as one current view requires, there would be no place on the conti- nent where the marine fauna of the Lance could have been retained, and it must have come in from some ocean area at least a thousand miles away. In that case it is not probable that it could have been so closely © related to the provincial Fox Hills fauna or that it could have escaped bringing Eocene elements with it. That a marine Cretaceous fauna. could have persisted in this region after the Eocene was well advanced in the Gulf coastal plain of the United States is, to my mind, too improbable to deserve serious consideration."* CONCLUSION In my opinion, therefore, the conclusion is justified that the Cretaceous period did not end in the Interior Province until the sea had completely retreated from the province, and that the Lance formation should be assigned to the Cretaceous. The final retreat of the Cretaceous Sea from the Interior Province was doubtless associated more or less closely with local orogenic movements which caused active ergsion to begin or to increase in various areas; but in other areas within the province the products of this erosion were laid down as terrestrial deposits, which taken together practically bridge the gap between Cretaceous and Tertiary. The boundary between the two systems in such areas is not marked by an important break caused by general diastrophism, because the breaks and discordance and erosion 18 Charles Schuchert: Paleogeography of North America. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 20, 1908, pl. 96. “4 That this hypothesis does not seem unreasonable to many of my colleagues is evi- dent from the fact that since this paper was read before the Geological Society the United States Geological Survey has decided to classify the Lance formation, including its marine member, as Tertiary (?), although the Cretaceous affinities of its marine fauna were acknowledged by those who made the decision. 304 T, W. STANTON—CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY BOUNDARY intervals in an area of continental deposition are not dependent on the same conditions that cause the major breaks in marine sediments. Even if it be true that there was a world-wide movement at the close of the Cretaceous which caused a break between marine Cretaceous and marine EKocene in all the areas where such sediments are now accessible, such a movement would not necessarily affect the accumulation of continental deposits of detrital material in an area already above sealevel, and in this case apparently it did not affect it, On the other hand, terrestrial de- posits are characteristically and necessarily irregular, and the importance of breaks and unconformities in them must, therefore, be tested with ereat care, using all kinds of available evidence. The Lance formation is believed to be Cretaceous on account of its inti- mate stratigraphic relation with the underlying marine Cretaceous, on account of the close relationship of its vertebrate and non-marine inverte- brate faunas with Cretaceous faunas, and on account of the occurrence in one area of a marine Cretaceous fauna within the formation. This ma- rine Cretaceous invertebrate fauna is held to establish the Cretaceous age of the plants which occur in the beds beneath it, in spite of the fact that these plants are said to belong to Eocene species. In other areas where the Lance formation does not include a marine member, but has a thicker development of strata, with a large vertebrate fauna of Mezozoic types, it is a fair inference that the whole formation, with its contained flora, is also of Cretaceous age. If, then, the Lance flora is in fact a Cretaceous flora, notwithstanding its close relationship with Eocene floras, it is obvious that the correlation of other formations with known Eocene for- mations on the evidence of fossil plants alone is open to serious question. Tn the case of the Denver and Arapahoe formations such a correlation is directly opposed by the evidence of the vertebrate fauna, which allies them closely with the Lance formation. BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 355-380 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY CRETACEOUS EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO, . ~ WYOMING, MONTANA, ALBERTA? BY BARNUM BROWN (Presented before the Paleontological Society January 1, 1914) CONTENTS Page MTARCRISRG URES re are Rec Nn oa raie are viel Sin ao sie be tie hele see eisie ass Oe e 0 soles 355 Peme@recic formation, Montana:. 0.5... 6c e ccc cc ccc cee cet cece sees 356 Red Deer River, Alberta, Canada...................... OSES ine Sar Sea ns 359 Fie DROVE MPLOUIMA LION. .icPas ccs sss ccee s ocla e's soe 8 es sos d od ajo cus ee ae Serene SORE ges 362 MMO MEON-EICITC CONTACL.. 2. ccc cs ccccsscsncesccesecve Spal al aide ath eh at ove ae o's 368 EUR MRS CUS ie ct = feta terete chov'ei'e cele Gielarei cues c e-wcivie eels elsie mercies stag seis sles 369 Sammy of the Red Deer River Section. .....05..ccccsaccsecncetceccees ara Bede ea OP aeHO MT ltl MN arate ocean aero ny eneveh cere 80 oro. siehate o Sq )% = es bution separating as it does + ge §& strata of markedly different 2328 ¢ : See) a ay character and different faune, & Re geage @ aed a . . mae bey) SS is considered by Tyrrell to be & ae Sees 5 2 : — 5 F; 1 a the upper limit.of the Creta- || 222 & Bee a Ww q@ Oo Geous RN sediments change rapidly in & Jit Seed } = 2 = character. In color they are = = = 5 Zrle lies fen = é a S HOOS OOdVSVd GAS 364 B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO almost white. No massive sandstones characteristic of the Paskapoo series were seen under the thick coal vein. At a point about 114 miles below the Grand Trunk Railroad bridge the river cuts through a nearly white sandy clay filled with glistening particles of mica. This stratum is very homogeneous and weathers in vertical faces. It continues down the river several miles, and in the val- ley of Tail Creek forms the conspicuous white band near the top of the formation. Below this conspicuous white layer the beds are as a whole lighter than those above the big coal vein and are distinctly banded in light colored sandy-clay strata, thin coal seams, and carbonaceous clays. The first dinosaur bones, a humerus and vertebre of T'rachodon sp., were found at water level 1 mile above the wagon bridge across the Red Deer River at the mouth of Tail Creek. This is the highest level in the Edmonton beds in which dinosaur bones were found, approximately 100 feet below the big coal seam that marks the top of the formation. For several miles below this point there is little appreciable change in the character of the beds; talus and brush obscure most of the banks and elean-cut escarpments are seen only in bends of the river. About 30 miles below Tail Creek opposite the mouth of Big Valley. occurs the most rugged exposure of this formation along the river. Here on the west side for a distance of a mile the beds are eroded into bad lands that extend a mile back from the river. The beds are composed chiefly of clays, with sandstone layers toward the top, and are distinctly banded light and dark toward the top and light blue-gray at the base, with an occasional thin seam of ironstone that weathers to a rust-brown ‘color. The prairie level is 470 feet above the river, and no less than 50 feet of the upper strata seen at Tail Creek, including the big coal seam and some of the white sandstone layers, are missing. A generalized section taken at the lower end of the bad lands, not the highest point, shows as follows: Feet BOULAErSCLAW (ees eee Ra eee asec eet eel ee er 10 Loosely cemented white sandstone and clay............... 40 Impure Menites sec noc. es eee ee oe eee 1 Licht (clay.5. 22 eee ee Sic’ oils Veale sate’ sce :desio ge ~< valle oppo ™caacet casis Ree 10 Tagnite: 25 hack 28 hs Pope a vdaeeeyilatn eiela ge teen 2 oie ore ee ance or, Clay, dank = eray . > 225 <2 ae aie ee ec ee ein eee 20 Tilenites sa eet et ek See eee Pieris 1: Sandy clay, light gray above, darker below................ 25 Impure lignite and carbonaceous Clay..::.........-.:.:.-;- 6 White sands Clay 2.2. SS. oe ee ae ae ee ee ee 20 Brown-gray clay. with, iromstoness.2 3... os ee eee 40 EDMONTON FORMATION 365 Feet Sr MRPU VA RVAELE DE a Cll Waco Ricmecect 's Gao Seale: ou) oo8 el elaie ob oe die alae ote Ware's s ef eur 15 Hard laminated sandstone, generally persistent............ ot Light clay, occasional sandstones...... Saar tate tame Ree eae 100 Laminated reddish sandstone, fossilS numerous...........0- 5 Clay and iron-encrusted pebbles, fossils numerous.......... 30 SELLS OTe ees es eee “Sates tic houeby oedacor tho Grol op BE his pea AUTO ONY, (CLAY cs ras» ecems che 6 erskc Snide clubs biaeieelb ewes ecce 70 408 Many vertebrate fossils were collected at Big Valley, ranging from near the top to the bottom of the exposures. In the upper 50 feet of sand- stone a few vertebre of Champsosaurus sp., an occipital condyle of a crocodile, and fragments of a Trionychid turtle were secured, the only representatives of those families seen in the Edmonton formation, with exception of one Trionychid turtle collected near the bottom of the beds at Willow Creek. The following invertebrates were secured from a stratum about 100 feet above the river: Spheriwm sp., Physa sp., Viviparus sp. related to V. raynoldsanus M. and H., Viviparus sp. related to V. prudentius White, Goniobasis tenuicarinata M. and H., Goniobasis tenuicarinata var., Gonio- basis sp., Campeloma sp., Thaumastus linneiformis M. and H.? In his comments.Dr. T. W. Stanton says that “there is nothing characteristic of either Lance or Judith River in this lot and some of the forms are more suggestive of Fort Union.” Below Big Valley the banks are clean scarped and the beds continue of similar character for several miles. A workable seam of lignite, about 3 feet thick, appears near the top of the bank 3 miles below the mouth of Big Valley and a seam, probably the same one, appears again just above Tolman Ferry. The upper part of the beds continues banded in light -and dark color, with white argillaceous sandstones interstratified with impure lignite and carbonaceous clays. Iron-encrusted sandstone lenses increase toward the base and the lower strata are composed chiefly of light gray clays. From Big Valley down to the end of the formation the upper strata disappear about as rapidly as the fall of the river brings the lower strata to view, so there is no great variation in the height of the banks. Not less than 200 feet of the upper strata have been eroded at Tolman, where the canyon walls are estimated to be 300 feet high. Throughout the Edmonton formation water ripple-marked sandstones are common. At a point 2 miles above Tolman Ferry on the left bank there is a bed 100 yards square, and in which four successive series of XXVI—BULL. Grou. Soc, AM,, Vou. 25, 1913 366 B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO ripples are preserved one above the other. Hach series was evidently formed by currents coming to the shoreline from a different angle, as no two are parallel. On one of these slabs collected there are worm tracks and several impressions of a horsetail rush, identified by Dr. A. Hollick as Hquisetum sp. nov. One and one-half miles above Tolman, at a point 190 feet above the river, a skull and partial skeleton of Ankylosaurus was collected, and with it were associated several fruits, identified by Dr. F. H. Knowlton as Ficus russell. At this same station several poorly preserved plant re- mains were secured from a hard argillaceous sandstone at the water level. They are identified by Dr. A. Hollick as a rhizome ?, possibly of an aqua- tic plant, Cycad ?sp., a leaf, and Cycad ?sp., a fruit, but are not diag- nostic of the age of the beds. : Below Tolman for 16 miles there is little appreciable change in the appearance of the beds, which are chiefly clay; local strata of hard sand- stones appear and disappear in a short distance, and in two or three places there are beds, unmistakably, of stream channels. One particu- larly noticeable is seen at water level 3 miles above Tolman and another at.a point capping the section 16 miles below Tolman. : Four miles below Tolman on the right bank, at a point 100 feet above the river, there is a conspicuous bed of shells: Anomia micronema Meek, Corbicula occidentalis M. and H., Panopwa simulatria Whiteaves, Pano- pea curta Whiteaves, all brackish-water forms, associated with broken shells of Ostrea sp. This shell bed appears again 6 miles below ‘Tolman on the left bank, about 110 feet above the river, and 1 mile farther down the river, where shells, Corbicula occidentalis, form a solid bed 18 inches thick. | . At Stauffer’s, 16 miles below Tolman on the left bank, there is a bed of Ostrea sp. 2 feet thick in approximately this same horizon. The same oyster-bed appears at the head of Fox Coulee, 1 mile from Munson, in the cut of the Canadian Pacific Railroad, 20 feet below the prairie level, where the following shells were collected: Ostrea glabra M. and H., Anomia sp., Mytilus sp., Lunatia concinna M. and H. ?, all brackish-water and marine Cretaceous types that are common to the Judith River and the base of the Lance. The stations represented by these four lots of shells do not vary 25 feet above or below a horizontal plane, and I think they are on the same level. A Plesiosaur skeleton, which I have described under the name’ Leuro- spondylus ultimus, was found in approximately the same stratum, 6 miles ‘below Tolman on the left bank, 120 feet above the river. This ‘specimen _ is interesting chiefly because it extends the history of the group of Meso- EDMONTON FORMATION 367 zoic marine vertebrates considerably later in time than any heretofore recorded. In the same level, close by, was found a fragmentary skull of a - Ceratopsian, number 5259, soon to be described as the paratype of a new genus. . About 14 miles below Tolman sathe: prominent coal seam comes to view at water level, but does not continue downstream more than a mile. Carbonaceous layers are, however, more numerous and the exposures be- come in consequence darker in appearance. Iron-encrusted lenses and pebbles also increase in number, uniform layers frequently extending long distances. There is a greater amount of ironstone and evidently more plant remains in the lower part of the beds from here down to the Pierre and the clays become more and more shaly. Limbs and sections of trees usually encrusted by chalcedony, with brilliant quartz crystals at points of fracture, are abundant, though the mass of vegetal material is poorly preserved. Near the home of Mr. Simpson, on the left bank, 20 feet above the river and almost opposite the mouth of Kneehills Creek, there is a bed of leaves from which several well preserved specimens were secured. They are identified as follows: Populus cuneata Newb., Populus acerifolia Newb., Populus nebrascensis Newb., Populus amblyrhyncha Ward, Pterosper- mites prob. Whiter Ward, Ginkgo laramiensis Ward, Sequoia nordens- kioldu Heer, Sequoia langsdorfii (Brgh.) Heer, Glyptostrobus sp. After examination of the plants collected in 1911—that is, Sequoia nordenskioldu, S. langsdorfu, Glyptostrobus ? sp., Pterospermites prob. Whitet, and Populus cuneata—Dr. Knowlton reports that “the species indicate beyond all manner of question or doubt that the age is Fort Union.” Additional better material was secured from the same spot in 1912, and the species enumerated in the complete list above were deter- mined by Doctor Hollick, who says that “the specimens from the Edmon- ton formation (near Simpson’s house, opposite mouth of Kneehills Creek, etcetera) indicate, unquestionably, the Fort Union age of this horizon.” The position of this plant layer in the Edmonton beds is not less than 250 feet below the Ostrea layer, in which the Plesiosaur skeleton Lewro- -spondylus was collected. The definite location of these horizons is most important, for whereas the age of the land reptiles has been considered debatable, the marine reptiles are clearly of Mesozoic age, and the same species of land reptiles are found above and below the marine. forms. From the vertebrate and invertebrate remains it seems very clear that these rocks are not of Fort Union age, but as shown by the plants. the climatic conditions of Fort.Union time were oe foreshadowed toward © the close of: the Cretaceous, ae RS oy a ev 368 B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO From Kneehills to the end of the formation there is no marked litho- logic change. The beds are chiefly shaly clays, alternating with in- durated sands and pronounced dark carbonaceous layers. There are many lignite seams of good quality, several of which are mined at Drum- heller, near the mouth of Michichi Creek and at the mouth of the Rose- bud. One large seam, which apparently continues over a large area, is prominent below the mouth of the Rosebud on the left bank. One mile below the mouth of the Rosebud it has been burned, and the clays above and below to a depth of 50 feet indurated sufficiently to resist erosion, so that brilliant vermilion cliffs stand out in front of the somber back- ground. Four miles below the mouth of the Rosebud this seam measures over 6 feet in thickness where it is approximately 100 feet above the Pierre. | EDMONTON-PIERRE CONTACT Twelve miles below the Rosebud a small stream—Willow or Saule — Creek—joins the Red Deer from the east. Many fine sections, showing the contact of the Edmonton and Pierre, appear near the junction of these two streams. The first unmistakable marine beds containing fragments of Ammo- nites sp., Scaplites sp. were observed 1 mile above the mouth of Willow Creek. The clay-shales of these beds are thin, finely laminated layers from one-half inch to 3 inches thick, interstratified with seams of ocher, and vary from buff to a deep coffee color, the colors alternating with one another. Above the shales and conformably overlying them in all. ob- served points of contact are 50 feet of light, almost white, sandy clays, sometimes cross-bedded and interstratified with layers of dark carbona- ceous clays. Selinite crystals occur all through these strata. The over- lying sandy clays mark the transition from purely marine. to brackish- water beds. In them frequently occur beds of oysters and considerable wood. At the mouth of Willow Creek, in the bluffs back of the home of Mr. J. H. Caldwell and 50 feet above the coffee-colored shales, I collected the following shells: Ostrea subtrigonalis E and S8., Ostrea glabra M. and H.? Doctor Stanton comments on this lot: “These two species are found in both Judith River and Lance formations.” Near by in the same hori- zon were the remains of a Trionichid turtle. The Edmonton formation differs greatly in lithologic character from the Fox Hills, which occupies the same relative position in the United States where it is a sandstone formation, but I believe it to have been, in part at least, synchronous with the Fox Hills. It may possibly be correlated with the Laramie, according to its origina] definition. | EDMONTON-PIERRE CONTACT 369 - The following section was taken 3 miles below the mouth of Willow Creek : Feet Glacial boulders and yellowish fine-grained Pleistocene (?) silt unconformably overlying beds below................. 30 Pees ATC-COLOPEH: ClAYn . c60 es win dete enn clce wees dvecsesasees 20 ale “CArDONACCOUS CLAY... ceca es cdce wcteadaenecaseveesont 4 MTN Era aires ore cain Siero ae case's oie 8G Ye sh, wit c'e orn 4 ee die's sls t 6.0, e/e.s 1 RTM AVTEL CSAIL! — CLAY. craic sic oc ecw civ, ccicies dala ot suis eieleesiew ene 8 (enerOus Yellow CIAYs <5 ve oc ees ce edes ces Erode Beaches So oe 15 SE PEMOMACCOUS MALCTIAL 65 ca cice nc cena casas scocsseccdcbcecens 2 White indurated sand, some concretions..........se2sss005 15 Coffee-colored fine-lined Pierre shale............2ece0eee0002 50 145 The upper 30 feet of material in this section is a fine-grained yellow- ish sandy silt, non-fossiliferous and without lines of stratification. It unconformably overlies the beds below and varies from a few feet to 50 feet in thickness, and is present in most sections. In the upper part there are frequently glacial boulders and gravel. This material may have been derived from the Miocene rocks of the Hand Hills during Pleistocene times. The coffee-colored Pierre shales are about 100 feet thick and continue _ down the river as far as Dorothy, where dark slate-colored shales appear below similar to the typical Pierre shales of the United States. Frag- mentary Ammonites, Scaphites, wood, and occasionally fish bones were seen in these strata. The Pierre shales are seen along the river for a distance of nearly 30 miles below Willow Creek, with clean-cut escarpments in the bends of the river, though the banks are mostly sloping and grass-covered. Betty River BEpDs Near Fieldholme, the old Marquis of Lorne Crossing, about 6 miles below the mouth of Bullpound Creek, a new series, the Belly River beds, appear underlying the marine Pierre. This is distinctly a fresh and brackish-water series composed chiefly of soft sandstones and clays. Vegetal matter is less abundant than in the Edmonton formation and there are few beds of lignite. The sedimentation of the Belly River beds is exactly comparable to that of the Judith River beds with one exception—the false or cross-bedding is much more pronounced through- out the Judith River area. The first stratum recognized was seen on the left bank of the river, a 370 3B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO light-gray sandy clay layer 4 feet thick overlying a seam of impure lignite 114 feet thick. Twelve miles below Fieldholme, in the big bend of the Red Deer, where it again turns east, a thick vein of lignite, prob- ably the same one noted above, appears on the left bank. At this point the full section of the cut-bank is composed of Belly River beds capped by glacial gravel and large boulders. ‘The overlying Pierre entirely dis- appears near Matjiwin Creek. Below this point the banks of the river gradually increase in height, and at the mouth of Berry Creek, near Steveville, are eroded back into the prairie in picturesque bad lands on either side of the river. At water level, on the left bank 100 yards above the ferry at Steveville, there is a compact ledge of sandstone in which plant remains are well preserved. The following species were collected from this ledge: Dammara sp., possibly D. acicularis Knowlton, Castalia stantoni Knowlton, Castalia sp. nov., Aspidium sp. Dr. A. Hollick iden- tified these fossils, and says that “the specimens from the Belly River formation (Steveville, Alta., etcetera) are nearly all species which are typical of the Judith River formation and indicate the stratigraphic identify of these two formation.” Extensive bad lands continue down the river as far as the mouth of Sand Creek, 12 miles below Steveville, where the banks are about 300 feet in height. Below Sand Creek for 15 miles, in what is known as “Dead Lodge Canyon,” the banks gradually decrease in height and near the end of this course become sloping and grass-covered. A few clean-scarped ex- | posures again appear near the ranch-house of Mr. M. J. Stapleton, in section 15, range 1x, township 22, where the lower strata of the Belly River beds are composed chiefly of compact yellowish indurated sand and lamellar sandstones. In this yellow compact sand, 1 mile below Stapleton’s, I collected a nearly complete skull of Monoclonius sp. The lower sand strata exposed on the Red Deer River closely resembles the lower part of the Belly River series exposed on the Belly River at Big Island, 12 miles below Lethbridge, described by Dawson in Canadian Geo- logical Survey, keport of Progress, 18828384, pages 73—74C. The upper strata of the few clean-scarped exposures near the mouth of Blood Indian Creek contain Baculites sp. and Scaphites sp., and un- doubtedly belong to the Pierre. The lower 50 feet are composed chiefly of yellowish sand and sandstone, the base of the Belly River series. Below Blood Indian Creek the banks are mostly sloping and grass- covered, with few exposures, which are said by McConnell to be chiefly yellowish sand and sandstones, representing the base of the Belly River series, which are exposed at intervals down to a point 25 miles west of the confluence of the Red Deer River with the South Saskatchewan. PASKAPOO FORMATION StL Beyond these determinable exposures the sloping banks are grass-covered, and below the forks of the river the underlying Pierre appears. SUMMARY OF THE RED DEER River SECTION PASKAPOO FORMATION The Paskapoo beds consist of more or less hard, light gray, or yellow- ish sandstones, usually thick-bedded and sometimes cross-bedded; also of light bluish-gray and olive shales, often interstratified with bands of concretionary blue limestone. It is essentially a sandstone formation. The strata are purely of fresh water and eolean origin. Near the mountains these beds, according to Tyrrell, appear to rest conformably on the Pierre shales. On the Red Deer River and else- where they are separated from the underlying brackish-water Edmonton beds by a widely distributed coal seam of varying thickness. No other sign of unconformity has been recognized, but a considerable time elapsed between the close of the Edmonton and the beginning of the Paskapoo— a time interval represented by all or the greater part of the Lance. No dinosaurs are found in these beds, and the abundant and varied dino- saurs of the underlying Edmonton formation are an older facies than those of the Lance. Before the sedimentation began the entire group of dinosaurs had become extinct. A mammalian fauna now takes its place. This fauna is more varied than that of the Lance and is comparable to it, according to Dr. Matthew. | The invertebrates are all fresh-water species. Eocene climatic con- ditions had by this time become well established, as shown by the varied species of plant life. VERTEBRATES Multituberculata : Meniscessus sp. indesc. Ptilodus sp. Cimolodon sp. Trituberculata : ’ Thleodon sp. ? Gen. indesc. ? Gen. indesc. Pantolestidz gen. indet. Didelphops sp. ? Batodon sp. ? Marsupiala ? Insectivora ? Creodonta ? Taligrada 372 B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO In the lists of plants accredited to this formation by Tyrrell and Penhallow some errors may have been made in determination and loca- tion of horizons, so I have given them separately. INVERTEBRATES Red Deer American Museum Collec- Red Deer River and elsewhere listed tion by Tyrrell Unio sp. Unio Dane M. and H. Spherium sp. Spherium formosum var. Goniobasis tenuicarinata M. and H. Limne tenuicosta M. and H. Planorbis sp. _Physa copei White. Viviparus sp. Acroloxus radiatulus Whiteaves Campeloma sp. Thaumasters limne formis M. and H. Goniobasis tenwmcarinata M. and H. Hydrobia sp. Campeloma producta White Viviparus Leai M. and H. Valwata filosa Whiteaves Valwata bicincta Whiteaves. PLANTS List published by Tyrrell for entire series of Paskapoo apecunen: identified by Sir William Dawson Onoclea sensibilis Linn Populus arctica Heer Sequoia nordenskioldii Heer Ficus sp. Sequoia langsdorfii Heer Salix laramiana Dawson Sequoia conttsie Heer Viburnum asperum Newb. Taxodiuwm occidentale Newb. Viburnum saskatchnense Dawson - Platanus nobilis Newb. Catalpa crassifolia Newb. Corylus macquarrii Heer Sapindus sp. Quercus sp. Carya antiquorum Newb. Populus acerifolia Newb. Juglaus sp. Populus richardsoni ? Heer Nelumbium saskatchnense Dawson To this list Sir William Dawson added a year later: Podocarpites tyrrellii Dawson Populus nervosa ? Newb. Populus genetriz Newb. Trapa borealis Heer. Complete list from Red Deer region published by D. P. Penhallow, Department of Mines, Canadian Geological Survey Report Number 1018, pages 14-15, 1908 . Almites grandifolia Newb. Cornus rhamnifolia O. Web. Carya antiquorum Newb. Corylus americana fossilis Newb. Catalpa crassifolia Newb. Corylus macquarri (Forbes) Heer Cercis parvifolia Lesq. Equisetum arcticum Heer Clintonia oblongifolia Penh. Ficus sp. EDMONTON FORMATION 2S Glyptostrobus europeus (Brongn.) Heer Quercus ellisiana Lesgq. Juglaus sp. Quercus sp. Juglaus acuminata A. Br. Quercus ellisiana Lesq. Juglaus lauwrifolia Knowlton Saliz laramiana Dawson Juglaus leconteana Lesq. Sapindus sp. Juglaus occidentalis Newb. Sequoia conttsi@e Heer Lastrea fischeri Heer Sequoia langsdorfii (Brongn.) Heer Maiantheriwm grandifoliuwm Penh. Sequoia nordenskioldii Heer Nelumbium saskatchnense Dawson Sphenopteris blemstrandi Heer Osmunda macrophylla Penh. Sphenopteris guyotti Lesq. Phyllites carneosus Newb. Sphenozxamites oblanceolatus Penh. Populus acerifolia Newb. Taxodium distichum miocenum Heer Populus arctica Heer Taxodium occidentale Newb. Populus cuneata Newb. Typha sp. Populus daplinogenoides Ward Viburnum ovatum n. sp. Populus obtrita Dawson Viburnum asperum Newb. Populus richardsoni Heer Viburnum saskatchnense Dawson. EDMONTON FORMATION The terms Upper and Lower Edmonton should not be employed, for the formation is lithologically and faunistically an indivisible unit. The terms were originally used by the present writer as a check on the loca- tion of fossils. When the entire series of beds were closely examined it was found that such distinction was not warranted. The Edmonton formation consists chiefly of siliceous clays interstrati- fied with seams of lignite and thin strata of whitish sandstones. It is essentially a hgnite formation. The strata are of marine and brackish-water origin and everywhere conformably overlie the marine beds below. The whole series shows an uninterrupted successive sedimentation from purely. marine conditions at the base through brackish-water during most of the period, with a gradual freshening toward the top. | This formation fulfills the original definition of the term Laramie. Vertebrate remains are abundant. Neither mammalian nor fish re-. mains have been recorded. One turtle has been found at the base of the beds, and a turtle asso- ciated with a rhynchocephalian and a crocodile were found near the top of the formation. These are semi-aquatic forms, and their remains - would be expected in sediments deposited chiefly in water, but they are noticeably absent. It is evident that the environment was not suitable to such forms. Marine vertebrates (plesiosaurs) are found as high as the middle of the beds. 374. B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO Dinosaurs are found in great numbers from near the top to the bottom of the beds, and the same species occur throughout the formation. The remains occur as individual skeletons and partial skeletons, but are frequently massed together in great numbers as separate bones and partial skeletons. The bones are silicified and frequently they are filled with calcite. The vertebrate fauna is distinct from that of the Lance and few species are common to the two formations. Most of the Edmonton genera are structurally more primitive than those of the Lance and several genera ~ not found in the Lance are common to the Judith River. The faunal facies, as a whole, is intermediate, but closer to that of the Judith River formation than to the Lance. Trachodonts are most numerous of all the dinosaurs in this forma- tion. All are papillate-toothed species. ‘Three well defined genera— ~ Trachodon, Saurolophus, and Hypacrosauwrus—are known. Of these Trachodon ranges from the Belly River beds through the Edmonton and to the close of the Lance, but the Lance species, 7’. mirabilis and 7’. annectens, have not been recorded. Hypacrosaurus occurs in the Belly River and Saurolophus, or a closely related genus, oceurs there also. Ceratopsians are comparatively rare and are represented by a large form of primitive skull structure and a small aberrant form, neither of which has been described. The characteristic genus, Triceratops, and its less abundant contemporary, Torosawrus of the Lance, do not occur in the Edmonton. | Armored dinosaurs are somewhat more numerous than the Ceratopsia. The Lance genus and species Ankylosaurus magniventris occurs in this formation and A. tutus is found in the Belly River. An allied genus, not yet described, is common to this formation and to the Belly River, but does not occur in the Lance. Palwoscincus, another related genus, occurs in the Belly River and in the Lance, but has not been recorded in the Edmonton. : Carnivorous dinosaurs are as numerous as the armored forms. Tyran- nosaurus of the Lance does not occur, but a common form about one half as large and ancestral to it is Albertosawrus sarcophagus. Orni- thomumus altus is a Belly River species which: occurs here and has also been noted in the Lance. The dinosaur fauna forms a series of successive genera, the phyletic relationship of which is determined by the evolutionary development of skeletal parts, and there is no break in this series from its first appear- ance low down in the Cretaceous to the final disappearance of the entire group in what we propose to call the close of the Cretaceous. EDMONTON FORMATION wae The invertebrates corroborate the testimony of the vertebrates. The identifications were made by Dr. T. W. Stanton, whose comments are as follows: “T have recently examined your invertebrates from the Edmonton and Paskapoo formations of Alberta. Those which you have already sent from the Edmonton beds include several lots composed of brackish-water shells, with a slighter mixture of marine forms (Lunatia) and several lots of purely . fresh-water shells. The brackish-water collections are certainly Cretaceous, and consist of species which all occur either in identical or very closely related forms in both the Judith River and in the brackish-water bed, which occurs at the top of the Fox Hills and the base of the Lance. “The fresh-water collections contain no species characteristic of either the Judith River or the Lance, and while some of them, like Goniobasis tenuicari- nata, occur in the Lance, the general aspect of the fossils is somewhat more suggestive of the Fort Union species as occurring in the Belly River beds of Alberta, and it may be that more of these types than we have supposed range down as low as the Judith River.” The plant remains from this formation, though not extensive, are nevertheless of considerable importance. Practically all of the described species were made known from later deposits, and few if any of the species have been found in earlier deposits. The paleobotanists (Dr. F. H. Knowlton and Dr. A. Hollick) who have examined this collection are of one opinion that the plants are of Fort Union age. The Edmonton beds are practically horizontal, and the stratum containing all but one of the identified species of plants lies 250 feet below that in which plesio- saurs (animals of accepted Mesozoic age) occur. It seems not impossible to reconcile the evidence of the flora with that of the fauna. The location of the plants is positive and the determina- tion admitted, but their significance has probably been misinterpreted. Lesquereaux, in the study of Cretaceous floras, long ago expressed the opinion “that groups of identical fossils, especially vegetable ones, do not prove or indicate contemporaneity of the formations which they charac- terize when these formations are observed at great distances or under different degrees of latitude.” In this upper part of the Cretaceous called into question by the pres- ence of Hocene plants it is probable that Eocene climatic conditions had already begun. During the close of the Cretaceous and the beginning of the Tertiary there was a long period of equable climate, and it is evident that the flora was temperate and of wide-spread distribution. For these very good reasons the plant remains do not prove whether widely sepa- rated beds that contain the same species are strictly contemporaneous or successive. } 376 B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO VERTEBRATES Red Deer River, American Museum Collection Saurolophus osborni Brown Albertosaurus sarcophagus Osborn Hypacrosaurus altispinus Brown Ornithomimus ? altus Lambe Trachodon sp. . Sp. Certopsia gen. et sp. nov. Leurospondylus ultimus Brown “s gen. et sp. nov. Champsosaurus sp. - Ankylosaurus magniventris Brown Trionychidze Ankylosaurids gen. et sp. nov. Crocodilia = Sp. INVERTEBRATES Red Deer River, American Museum Collection Spherium sp. Physa@ sp. Viviparus sp., related to V. raynolda- nus M. and H. Viviparus sp,, related to V. prudentius White Viviparus sp., probably undescribed Goniobasis tenuicarinata M. and H. Goniobasis * var. Goniobasis sp. Campeloma sp. Thaumastus limneiformis M. and H. Unio sp., related to Unio dane M. and H. Ostrea glabra M. and H. Ostrea subtrigonalis B. and S. Anomia micronema Meek Mytilus sp. Corbicula occidentalis M. and H. Corbicula cytheriformis M. and H. Panopsea simulatriz Whiteaves Panopea curta Whiteaves Lunatia concinna M. and H. PLANTS _ Red Deer River, American Museum Collection Populus cuneata Newb. Populus acerifolia Newb. Populus nebrascensis Newb. Populus amblyrhyncha Ward. Ginkgo laraniensis Ward Sequoia nordenskioldii Heer Sequoia langsdorfii (Brgh.) Heer Glyptostrobus sp. Carpites cf. C. lineatus Newb. Pterospermites prob. P. Whitet Ward Equisetum sp. nov. Ficus russelli Knowlton Cycad ? sp. Other species accredited to this formation by Tyrrell: Trapa borealis Heer Salisburia sp. BELLY RIVER BEDS This series consists of lght-gray clays and soft whitish sandstones interbedded with ironstone-encrusted pebbles in the upper two-thirds of the formation and soft yellowish, massive sandstones at the base. The beds are chiefly of fresh-water origin and appear to be a continua- tion of the Judith River Beds. _ | BELLY RIVER BEDS Shh Cross-bedding is less frequent and sedimentation took place under quieter and more uniform conditions than in the Judith River Beds. Only two or three local beds of lignite of inferior quality appear in the upper part of these beds on the Red Deer River and vegeial remains are less common than in the Edmonton. Fossil remains are more abundant than in any of the Cretaceous for- mations and the dinosaurs are more varied in genera and species than in earlier or later formations. The dinosaurs are distinctly more primitive than those of the Lance, but there is no change in facies. This is con- elusively demonstrated in those families adequately known from both formations, such as Deinodontide, Ceratopside, Trachodontide, and Ankylosauride. While there is a marked contrast between different genera that do not tun through, several in the Lance are clearly derivable from Belly River genera through intermediate forms in the Edmonton. In the Deinodontide Deinodon of the Belly River, Albertosaurus of the Edmonton, and Tyrannosaurus of the Lance form a phylogenetic series. In the Ceratopside the phyla are not so clear, but it seems probable that Triceratops of the Lance was derived from Ceratops of the Belly River through a known but not yet described genus of the Edmonton. The Trachodontide may now be divided into two groups which share in common a ducklike bill. In the first group the skull is without ornamentation, pelvis with ischium terminating in a blunt rounded point. Trachodon, typical of this group, ranges through the Belly River, Edmonton, and Lance. — Closely related to it is the genus Kritosaurus, which is known only from the Belly River Beds and the Ojo Alamo Beds. In the second group the skull is ornamented by a crest; pelvis with ischium terminating in a large footlike end. This group is not known to occur in the Lance, but three genera are now known from lower horizons. Hypacrosaurus occurs in the Edmonton; also in the Belly River. Saurolophus occurs in the Edmonton, and a closely related genus not yet described is at present known only from the Belly River. In the Ankylosauride the genus Ankylosaurus passes through the Belly River, the Edmonton, and the Lance. A closely related genus not yet described occurs in the Belly River and the Edmonton, but is not known from the Lance. In the Ornithomimide Ornithomimus passes directly through the Belly River, Edmonton, and Lance. The invertebrates and plants are determined unquestionably of Judith 378 B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO River age, and the plants are said to have very little affinity with the flora of the Lance or Fort Union. The vertebrates, on the other hand, are of Judith River age and are beyond question closely related and in most genera and species directly ancestral to those of the Edmonton and Lance. Many of the genera and species of dinosaurs founded by Leidy, Cope, and Marsh were based on material inadequate for the present, standard of classification. The characters assigned to many species by these early investigators are now known to have only generic or family value.. For this reason it seems inadvisable to append the long list of species of each - formation. Species known from the Belly River Beds on the Red Deer River INVERTEBRATES Unio dane M. and H. Anadonta propatoris White Unio sp., ef. U. supenawensis Stanton Anadonta ? sp. PLANTS Castalia stantoni Knowlton Castalia nov. sp. Aspidium sp. Cunninghamites elegans ? (Corda) _Endlicher Dammara sp. VERTEBRATES Pisces : Myledaphus bipartitus Cope Acipenser albertensis Lambe Lepisosteus occidentalis Leidy Rhineastes (Ceratodus) eruciferus Cope Diphyodus longirostris Lambe Batrachia : Scapherpeton tectum Cope Reptilia : Plesiosauria Cimoliasaurus magnus Leidy Chelonia Aspideretes (Trionyx) foveatus Leidy By ‘Basilemys (Adocus) variolosa Cope é Bena antiqua Lambe Boremys pulchra Lambe Neurankylus eximius Lambe Lacertilia and Incertz Sedis Froddon.formosus Leidy ——s_—* Stegoceras validus Lambe Crocodilia Crocodilus humilis Leidy Leidyosuchus canadensis Lambe Megalosauria: Theropoda Deinodon horridus Leidy ? a explanatus Cope ? 3 hazenianus Cope Aublysodon mirandus Leidy Stegosauria . Paleoscincus costatus Leidy 2Ankylosaurus tutus Lambe - _ Ornithomimide Ornithomimus altus Lambe Ceratopsia M onoclonius (Centrosaurus) os sont Lambe Brachyceratops montanensis Gil- more Ceratops oer canaden- sis Lambe -~ _Ceratops ( Chae) belli Styracosaurus albertensis ‘Lambe’ OJO ALAMO BEDS 379 Iguanodontia: Ornithopoda Rhynchocephalia Kritosaurus (Gryposaurus) nota- Champsosaurus profundus Cope bilis Lambe ch annectens Hypacrosaurus altispinus Brown eo brevicolliis Cope Trachodon selwyni Lambe Mammalia: 3 marginatus Lambe Ptilodus primevus Lambe ee altidens Lambe Boreodon matutinus Lambe THe Oso ALAMO BEDS This name was proposed by the writer (Bulletin of the American Mu- seum of Natural History, volume xxviut, article xxiv, pages 267-274, 1910) for the upper part of the Cretaceous series which unconformably underlies the Puerco formation at Ojo Alamo in New Mexico. The Puerco is a clay formation, approximately 250 feet thick in the Ojo Alamo section, probably of fluviatile origin. It contains an exten- sive and varied mammalian fauna of Paleocene age. The reptilian fauna, which is limited, embraces several genera and species of turtles, several undescribed species of crocodiles, three species of the Rhynocephalian Champsosaurus, and a single species of the Ophidia. Dinosawrs are notably absent. Invertebrates are not abundant and all are land and fresh water types. A small collection of plant remains has been identified by Doctor Knowl- ton, who states that “the age indicated is that of the Denver or perhaps as late as Fort Union.” On. Coal Creek, in the immediate vicinity of Ojo Alamo, the Puerco clays rest on massive sandstones which mark the top of a distinct series of sediments.- At the point of contact Messrs. Granger and Sinclair have noted a distinct erosional unconformity, and 30 to 70 feet below this point another discordance appears where the sandstones rest on a thick bed of conglomerates. The underlying shales and sandstones, more than 200 feet thick, are lithologically distinct from the clays of the Puerco and the fauna is totally different. No mammals have been recorded from this horizon, but EASE re- ~ mains, chiefly dinosaurs, are abundant. Most of this material is poorly preserved ame bones are pols asso- ciated. Phe Ceratopsian genera Le iceratops and. Tor OSaUurUus, “which are s charac- teristic of the Lance, do not occur in these, beds, but the known’ frag- mentary remains pertain toa more pe smaller form comparable, to - Monoclonius or Ceratops. pene. 2 380 3B. BROWN—CRETACEOUS-EOCENE CORRELATION IN NEW MEXICO The large carnivorous dinosaurs are smaller than Tyrannosaurus of the Lance and may be compared with Albertosaurus of the Edmonton or Deinodon of the Judith River. The Trachodont dinosaurs furnish the most satisfactory evidence for the correlation of these beds. The genus J’rachodon, which represents the family in the Lance formation, is not known here, but a primitive genus, Kritosaurus, of extraordinary skull development, described from this formation, 1s common. Recently Mr. Lawrence M. Lambe, Ottawa Naturalist, volume xxxvit, number 11, February, 1914, described a perfect Trachodont skull from the Belly River beds of Canada. In all respects, including the remark- able development of the nasals, premaxillaries and predentary and the reduction of the orbital portion of the frontal, it agrees with the type of Kritosaurus, and there is no doubt of its generic identity. A single species of turtle, Thescelus rapiens Hay, is not known else- where, though a closely related species, T. wnsiliens, is described from the base of the Lance. Invertebrates are as yet unknown and the flora, represented by numer- ous fossil trees, has not been determined. | The vertebrate fauna is distinctly older than that of the Lance. I have expressed the opinion that it was comparable to the Edmonton, but from the recent discovery of Kritosaurus in the Belly River formation and the primitive structure of the contemporary dinosaurs the Ojo Alamo beds appear to be synchronous with the Judith (Belly River) formation. The vertebrate fauna now known is as follows: Kritosaurus navajovius Brown Crocodilia ? Monoclonius sp. Thescelus rapiens Hay ? Dienodon sp. Lepisosteus sp. CoNCLUSION Briefly, in conclusion there is no doubt that the Hell Creek beds were synchronous with the “Lance,” and little doubt that the Belly River and Ojo Alamo beds should be correlated with the Judith River. The Kd- monton is intermediate in age between the Judith River.and the Lance. A comparison of the reptilian faune shows an uninterrupted succes- sion of genera from the Judith River through to the close of the Lance. In some cases genera pass through without any marked change. They show those changes brought about through a lapse of time, but there is no evidence of any great migration changes which would be apparent as a result of any great diastrophic movement. BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 381-402 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY EVIDENCE OF THE PALEOCENE VERTEBRATE FAUNA ON THE CRETACHOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM? BY W.-D. MATTE EW (Presented before the Paleontological Society January 1, 1914) CONTENTS Page Meee a COLIN PALCOCENC. oo. ci aie ewes eee eden cwacegrelsetnedenaes 381 Characters of the Paleocene vertebrate faunas...........ccceeeeeeeeees 382 List of typical Paleocene vertebrate faunas............. cece ee eee eee 383 Comparison with Lance and Belly River faunas...............0. eee eeee 386 Comparison with Wasatch (Lower Eocene) faunas.......... 0.00. eee ee ee 388 Merereers or the PAaskapood. FAUNA Se. Phi cw ee coc ca cece wae ieee 388 Mieacrers of Fort Union fauna, with list. 0... celine ce cece eee cee e es 389 iMrecpreisuion Of the vertebrate- faunas: : 2.0.0... ee ee ec we serene 390 memnonnor the Judith River fauna. 2... 45 .6c ccc dice eee cece ea 393 Cerrelation with the Huropean. SUCCESSION. . 2.0... 00. cee eee eee ances 394 Sf B03 11” CUTS TIS STI alias OO Ie ocala ea 394 Thanetian (Cernaysian) equivalent to Torrejon..................... 39D asim riemt® ISTA SMe I sleet UIMT Aen oe ees cola oix CSc cie oc Woo iene wis 0.6 eee d Sieve eRe 395 Sparnacian and Ypresian equivalent to Wasatch.............-.....42. 396 The Puerco has no certain equivalent in Hurope............ baer 396 ithe Lance is equally difficult to correlate... .. 60.00. ewe ee ees 396 Pema hOons ANG’ CHAaStYOPHISM. .. 0. 6s. ee os oe ke ee a ele ei ce ees 397 (LS GT TERS eS Se eS RTD Ss ere ple fA a a 399 Appendix A. Alleged occurrences of dinosaurs in Tertiary formations.... 400 Appendix B. Unconformity between the Laramie and the Lance......... 401 UsE oF THE TERM PALEOCENE _ The character of the Paleocene fauna, its relations to the preceding and following faunz, and its European correlations aré an important part of the evidence on this problem. 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 14, 1914. Contribution to the symposium held by the Paleontological Society at the Princeton meeting December 31, 1913, and January 1, 1914. XXVII—BULL. GEOL. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 (381) 382 W.D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM The term Paleocene, current in Kurope,” has hardly come into use in this country. As applied here it denotes what we have been calling Basal Kocene, comprising the Fort Union, Puerco and 'Torrejon, and other equivalent formations older than the Wasatch or typical Lower Hocene. The reasons will appear later for its acceptance as an epoch distinct from the Eocene. The typical and best known Paleocene fauna is that of the Puerco and Torrejon formations, Nacimiento terrane, of New Mexico. The strati- graphic relations of the faunz of the four fossiliferous levels of this ter- rane have been explained by Doctor Sinclair. There is no marked strati- graphic break in the terrane, but there are two distinct faune, no species surviving from one to the other. Some of the genera and most of the families pass through, represented in the later horizon by distinct species or genera, usually more progressive. In their broader aspects the two faunze have much in common to distinguish them from those of earlier or later age. The Fort Union (not including the Lance) is provisionally correlated with the Nacimiento terrane. In its upper part is found a mammalian fauna composed in part of species identified with Torrejon species, but the rest of this fauna is not comparable with anything in either Puerco or Torrejon. A small flora from the Puerco is identified by Doctor Knowlton as indicating “Denver or perhaps as late as Fort Union” age. The diverse element of the Fort Union fauna is best interpreted as indi- cating a somewhat different environmental facies, somewhat more of a swampy delta and less of a floodplain type of deposit being indicated by the lithologic features. CHARACTERS OF THE PALEOCENE VERTEBRATE FAUNAS (1) The mammals are dominantly Placentals of archaic orders. A minority are Multituberculates, related (auct. Broom)? to the existing Monotremes. Approximately 10 per cent of the fauna is Multitubercu- late. The remainder belong to groups of placentals which became extinct during the Eocene. The later Tertiary and modern orders of mammals are not present except the Carnivora and certain groups doubtfully re- ferred to Insectivora and Edentates. There are no Perissodactyls, Artio- dactyls, Rodents, or Primates, these orders appearing suddenly at the beginning of the true Eocene. 2But not always with the significance here given to it. Some authors include in it the London Clay, equivalent to our Wasatch or Lower Eocene. *I do not indorse this view. New evidence bearing on it will shortly be published by Mr. Granger. Z CHARACTERS OF PALEOCENE VERTEBRATE FAUNA 383 (2) The Multituberculates are nearly related to those of the Lance formation, but the species of each phylum are larger and more special- ized. The placentals have apparently no predecessors in the Lance; at least this is true, in my judgment, of the bulk of the placental fauna and so far as the present evidence indicates. The Lance mammal fauna is so fragmentary that statements about its composition should be carefully qualified. (3) The reptiles are chiefly Chelonia, Crocodilia, and Choristodera. One snake has been recorded; lizards were present, although not re- corded. No dinosaurs are present ;* the marine reptiles of the Mesozoic would not be expected. The reptiles all belong to families that originated in the Cretaceous (Belly River) or earlier. Three of the families still survive, one disappeared with the Eocene, another with the Paleocene. The dominant Tertiary families of Chelonians (Emydide and Testudi- nide) are not present, appearing first in the Lower Eocene. The absence of Tertiary types of lizards and snakes is of little weight, as it may be merely a matter of defective record. LIst OF TYPICAL PALEOCENE VERTEBRATE FAUNAS Clark Fork. | Puereo. | Torrejon. REPTILIA Order Testudines Fam. Baenidz (Cretaceous-Hocene) ACCUM CSCUC GAC) TRAY 25 < gs molestus Cope.......... uy SDs sees te ate eee Ptilodwus nmedicvus Cope. 21. ss. i.e ones: a trovessartianus Cope........e.ee. inate Polymastodon tacensts Cope. «....-- 022-6: x is attenuatus Cope........... x £8500 CHS = CODE: icas araneee wares Catopsalis foliatus Cope..........eeec aes Order Fere (sub-ord. Creodonta ) Fam. Miacidz (Paleocene-EHocene) Didymictis haydenianus Cope............ “ cf. leptomylus Cope........... Fam. Arctocyonide (Paleocene-Lower Eocene) ClENOGON COTTUGATUS. Wc tow. cc aces eect ss ; oe POL OG ESS ae oe eet ane ene (aes DTOLOVONMMOLDCS Ae hee ote es Fam. Mesonychidze (Paleocene- Hocene) Triisodon quivirensis Cope............... < heilprinianus Cope............. oe gaudrianus Cope........+.0.66- Sarcothraustes antiquus Cope............ Goniacodon levisanus Cope............-+. Microclenodon assurgens Cope........... Dissacus saurognathus Wortman......... ne navajovius Cope.......... Braces Fam. Oxyclenidz (Paleocene )‘ Oxyclenus cuspidatus Cope.............: o simplex “COpes.. 2. 0. es chars Loxolophus hyattianus Cope............. i DIMISCHWS CODCs) ac Sire eee es atlenuatus O: & Wis... oes: Carcinodon filholianus Cope............6. Paradoxodon rutimeyeranus Cope........ Protogonogdon. DENTACUS. ©. 0055 oe es ew co ee CRrIGCUS = DEIUIDENS--3 owe es eee a LL UNCOTUS® cio ect oles Cee eee tte “ QULOTG TAS Re anid at ee coe as SCNIOSSEPIONUS <5 soo heicus whe ee Ge TTAICENtES: SUDITIGONUS2. 2 = oe ae CEASSTCOIMGCNS 25a ca 6 cee ee Dettatheriwm fundaminis..... 0.2... 20. Fam. Oxyeenids (Upper Paleocene-Eocene) Dipsalidictis platypus indesc............. Paleonictis or Oxyena, sp. indesc....... Oxyena cequidens sp. indese............6. Order Insectivora (Paleocene-Recent) Fam.? Centetidz (? Paleocene-Recent) Paleworyctes puercensis Matthew......... 8 0 Fam.? Pantolestidz (? Paleocene-Hocene) Pentacodon inversus Cope....... fis ohenene ae ~~: x X X XXX KK KKK * Sand Coulee beds, at base of true Hocene. 7 One doubtful species of Chriacus in the Lower Eocene. xxx xX! xxx xx xxxXxxxXX: > es Clark . Fork. xX X LIST OF TYPICAL PALEOCENE VERTEBRATE FAUNAS 389 Puerco. Torrejon. Fam. Mixodectide (Paleocene-? Eocene) MimOdect€S PUNGENS... ce ccreesreesuccaes 5 aes CROSSUUSCULUS) ca oo oe Sia ele tes THOLOUOIW MALITISK. 05 oes Sa ee bee ee Order Tzeniodonta (?? = Xenarthra) Fam. Stylinodontide (Paleocene-Eocene ) Wortmania otariidens Cope.............. Psittacotherium multifraguin Cope....... Fam. Conoryctidze (Paleocene) Onychodectes tisonensis Cope............ uy EORUSHOS Co Wess te ee ee ee Conoryctes comma Cope............00085 Order Xenarthra (Palzanodonta, Paleocene-Hocene) Fam. Metacheiromyidze Palewanodon sp. indesc........... 2.00000. Order Condylarthra Fam. Phenacodontide (Paleocene-L’r Eocene) Tetraclenodon puercensis Cope........... a minor Matthew........... TCH UCOGUS SP). Gi... 5 6 nc sa cs «2 lew wee Fam. Mioclenide (Paleocene) Miocle@nus turgidus.... 0... ccc cc cc wwe fe VYGECIGIEETIANUS ls noe oo ee owe ie HET IEEONOCS! Fpasatens erensritons eo eee 6 ae OCOLWUWS ES 1k Soo BART oC Sek eS He CUP OCUUNCUVUS. Sou ve else ch ve ne = MWB OULMCWS 5c aa le ek a Protoselené opisthaceus...........2.05. a Oayacodon*® apiculatus O. & B.......... ¥ ce agapetillus Cope............. Order Taligrada Fam. Periptychidze (Paleocene) Periptychus carinidens Cope............. a “rhabdodon Cope............. -: COONGLATUS : COPE... 6 .5i so 3 bs Ectoconus ditrigonus Cope. .............% Conacodon entoconfis Cope............... a COMUWALEH OPC aeiactiee os ckkee ake Hemithleus kowalevskianus Cope....... Z Anisonchus gillianus Cope.............6. % Sectorius COPCn. 0. ee ec we Haploconus lineatus Cope............0.5. saat corniculatus Cope............ Fam. Pantolambdid (Paleocene)... Pantolambda bathnodon........... WR eee COUIVIGUUS. Ba oe Gali wate acs Order Amblypoda Fam. Bathyopsidse (Up. Paleocene-L’r HKocene) GiGMec TMA GSC tite ode ree cee eiole Surcme ee Lan wea Oi =— xX xxx! IDS xX xx: xxx xX 8 May he better placed under Periptychide. 386 W. D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM COMPARISON WITH LANCE AND BELLY River FAUNAS (1) The vertebrates of the Lance and Belly River are: (1) Horned Dinosaurs (Ceratopsia), (2) Duck-billed Dinosaurs (Trachodonts), (3) Large carnivorous Dinosaurs (Megalosaurs), (4) Armored Dinosaurs (Ankylosaurs), (5) Smaller Dinosaurs of the predentate and theropod divisions, not yet cleared up as to relationship, (6) Chelonians of the families Baénide, Dermatemydide, and Trionychide, (7) Crocodiles of the family Crocodilide, (8) Choristodera (fam. Champsosauride), (9) Lizards of the family? Iguanide (recorded from Lance only), (10) Multituberculate mammals, (11) Trituberculate mammals (positively recorded from Lance only), some demonstrably marsupials, others of uncertain relationship, none demonstrably Placentals. | Comparing the Belly River with the Lance, we find the same groups represented throughout, exceptions in (9) and (11) being probably a matter of imperfect record, as these groups are extremely rare. Among the Dinosaurs the Belly River types appear to be more varied and less extremely specialized, the phyla which pass through being represented by more primitive stages in the Belly River. Among the mammals the multituberculate mammals are recorded in the Belly River by a single genus, apparently a more primitive stage of one of the Lance phyla. Additional specimens will be diligently searched for. “The trituberculate mammals have not yet been found in the Belly River, except for a single tooth of uncertain affinities, and are rare in the Lance.® Whatever their affinities, these mammals do not appear to include ancestral stages of the placental phyla of the Paleocene, certainly not of the majority, probably not of any of them. The chelonia, crocodilia, and choristodera belong to the same phyla, in large part to the same genera, in the Belly River as in the Lance, and afford little evidence of progressive evolution. Comparing the Lance with the Paleocene, we find that none of the numerous Dinosaur phyla pass through. The entire order becomes ex- tinct and none have been found associated with the placental mammal fauna of the Paleocene (but see Appendix A).7 The Chelonians, Croco- diles, and Choristodera pass through, represented by the same phyla and without much progressive evolution as far as known. The Multituber- culata pass through, but with an appreciable amount of progressive evo- lution, amounting in one phylum to generic, in another to marked spe- cific difference. The Trituberculate mammals apparently disappear, al- ®It is worthy of note that the greater abundance of small mammals in the Lance as - compared with the Belly River is wholly due to the presence of numerous ant-hills seat- tered over the exposures. Practically all the Lance mammals have been found in these ant-hills. ; GEOLOGIC RANGE OF LAND VERTEBRATES fossil Verlehrales Orders and Families REPTILIA Ceralopsta Trachodontidde Ank yl Osauridae Lguanodoniidae einodonlidae Ornithomumidae CHORISTODERA CAampsosauridae CROCODILIA Crocodilidae Baénidaes Te rionychidae Dermatemyid TESTUDINES he oes Tesludtnidae LACERTILIA Iguanidae SPHIDIA rolalidae MAMMALIA MULTITUBERCULAUPag iaulacidae | Thlacodontidae ' Cimolestidae Centelidae Mixodechidae Fantolestidae INSECTIVORA Lepticlidae Hyopsodontidae Ce alpldae | Oxyclaentdde BELLY RIVER DINOSAURIA 2? MARSUPIALIA Arclocyon dae Miacidae Oxya entdae Hyaenodonlidae Mees nychidae | Notharclhdae ERAS ' Sas RODENTIA Jsc romylaae EDENTATA Mie eed nares ae 1 Stylinodontidde TANI ODONTA Conorgclid TILLODONTIA 71llotheriidae | Periplychidae TALIGRADA , Pantole mbaidae | Coryphodontidae AMBLYPODA | Bobusileidar Phenacodontidde CONDYLARTHRA Mioclaenidade Menscotheritdae Lophiodontidae | Tapiridde CREODONTA PERISSODACTYLA | ida | Titanothertidae ARTIODACTYLA Dichohunidae TORREJSOWV WASATCH MIDDLE AND UPPER EOCENE Se) HicuRn 1.—Geologic Range of Land Vertebrates in typical American continental Formations of late Cretaceous and Tertiary Time 388 W. D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM though some of them may have left descendants in the rare and little known marsupials and small insectivores of our Tertiary formations. The numerous phyla of placental mammals which take the place of the dinosaurs and mammals of the Lance are not derivatives of any part of the Lance fauna, but a new appearance. CoMPARISON WITH WasatcH (LOwkER EocENE) FauNas (1) The Multituberculates disappear at the end of the Paleocene, al- though a few rare survivors (three specimens) have been found at the very base of the Wasatch. (2) Some of the placental phyla disappear at the end of the Paleocene, but over half of the families survive into the Wasatch, some into the Middle or Upper Eocene (see U. 8. Geological Survey Bulletin Number - 361, pages 100-103). (3) The larger part of the Hocene fauna from the base of the Wasatch up.is composed of genera of Perissodactyla, Artiodactyla, Rodents, and Primates; orders not found in the Paleocene. They are not descended from known Paleocene ancestors, but represent a newly arriving fauna. In the Clark Fork beds at the top of the Paleocene we find these orders still absent, although the genera of the Paleocene orders are identical with those of the Wasatch and more advanced than those of the Torrejon. (4) The Choristodera disappear. ‘The crocodiles and the families Baénide, Dermatemydide, and Trionychidze among chelonians continue through with little change. The dominant groups of Tertiary chelonians, Emydide and Testudinide, first appear in the Wasatch (but not at first in great numbers) and are not derivable from known Paleocene chelonia. CHARACTERS OF THE PASKAPOO FAUNA A small fauna has been secured by Mr. Barnum Brown from the Pas- kapoo beds in Alberta. It consists wholly of mammals, no dinosaurs occurring in this formation. The mammals, according to Mr. Brown’s identifications, checked by the present writer, are unmistakably those of the Lance fauna in part, but include an element which has not been found in the Lance and appears to belong to the Paleocene groups of mammals, although none of its representatives compare at all closely with any Puerco or Torrejon genera. I suspect that it will be found to compare more nearly with the Fort Union fauna. It is evident at all events that there was a considerable element of placental mammals in the fauna. But the Multituberculates are those of the Lance and some of the tritu- berculates appear to be identical. There is no indication of the presence of any of the Kocene orders of placentals. THE PASKAPOO FAUNA 389 List of Paskapoo Mammalia Multituberculata : Meniscessus sp. indese. Ptilodus sp. Cimolodon sp. Trituberculata : _ Didelphops sp. ?Batodon sp. ? Marsupialia ? Thleodon sp. ? Gen. indesce. ? Gen. indesce. ? Insectivora ? Pantolestidz gen. indet. ? Creodonta and Condylarthra ?? Taligrada CHARACTERS OF THE Fort UNION FAUNA, wWiTH LIST This fauna as described by Douglass and Gidley consists of a few mam- mals, and Hay has described a single Trionychid chelonian. A consid- erable collection of, mammals from the upper Fort Union will shortly be described by Mr. Gidley; other reptilia are probably present, but have not been described. The mammalian fauna corresponds in part to that of the Torrejon. It includes a minor element of Multituberculates, of which Ptilodus is the only described genus, the species closely allied to those of the Torre- jon. A number of Placental genera of the Torrejon are represented, but there are several genera, apparently Placentals, which have no near rela- tives in the typical Paleocene faune. In the following list the mammals are auct. Douglass 1908, but I have added some critical comments based on his figures and descriptions. List of Fort Unian Vertebrates REPTILIA Order Testudines Fam. Trionychidse Aspidereteés nassau MAMMALIA Order Multituberculata . Fam. Plagiaulacidse ; Ptilodus montanus (Torrejon stage of evolution) Order ? Marsupialia Fam. ? Cimolestidz Marsh - ? Batodon sp. (Not figured; valueless in correlation) ? Cimolestes sp. (Reference very questionable; ? placental) Fam. Didelphyidze | ? Peratherium sp. 390 W.D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM Fam. ? Epanorthidse Picrodus silberlingi. (Family position doubtful, as this family is unknown outside of South America. Possibly a Multituberculate of undescribed family) Order Insectivora Fam. incert. Coriphagus montanus Megapterna minuta Fam. ? Mixodectidse ? Mixodectes sp. (Not Mixodectidz; doubtfully Insectivore) Order Carnivora (Fer) Fam. Oxyclenidze Protochriacus sp. (Reference questionable) ? Chriacus sp. (Not figured; of no value in correlation) ? Tricentes sp. ? Deltatherium Order Teniodonta Fam. Stylinodontidze Calamodon sp. (Agrees better with Psittacotherium ) Order Condylarthra : Fam. Phenacodontidsz Euprotogonia (= Tetraclenodon) sp. Fam. Mioclenids Mioclenus sp. Order Taligrada Fam. Pantolambdide Pantolambda sp. Fam. Periptychidze Anisonchus sp. INTERPRETATION OF THE VERTEBRATE FAUNAS The evidence of fossil vertebrates in correlation is very valuable, pro- vided it is interpreted correctly. Owing to the complex structure of the hard parts preserved and their capacity for relatively rapid and extreme progressive and adaptive changes in these hard parts, they afford a more precise and exact measure of time than do any other animals. This is peculiarly true of the mammals; dinosaurs, perhaps, rank next; other vertebrates are much less progressive. But as they respond more quickly to the opportunities for evolution afforded by lapse of time, so also they are more sensitive to difference of environment and more subject to change of geographic range and great migration movements, conditioned by great environmental changes in other regions. Moreover, the evidence is often fragmentary, and the reference of recorded genera and species doubtful and provisional to a varying degree. Omitting this element of doubt, the difference between two vertebrate faunze may be due to INTERPRETATION OF THE VERTEBRATE FAUNAS 391 1. Lapse of time. 2. Difference of local environment. 3. Migration movements representing a change in environment some- where else, not necessarily in the region concerned. Lapse of time will be represented by changes in the evolutionary stages of the phyla which pass through from one to the other. It will not bring about sudden changes in the composition of the fauna, although certain phyla may diminish, while others increase in numbers. A difference of local environment will involve the absence of certain eroups of more or less restricted habitat, whose continued existence may yet be known by their presence in both earlier and later faune of differ- ent facies, or may be inferred from more indirect evidence. A migration movement may cause the sudden appearance of new groups, the disappearance or extinction of older ones, with or without any apparent change in the facies or environmental type of the faune compared. In attempting to apply the vertebrate evidence to correlation of the later Cretaceous and earlier Tertiary formations, these principles must be kept in mind or the results will be misleading. If properly understood they serve to reconcile what have appeared to some authors to be contra- dictory statements by vertebrate paleontologists. Marsh in his descrip- tion of the Lance fauna lays weight on its resemblance to the Jurassic and Lower Comanchic faune. This is quite correct, inasmuch as it con- sists of Multituberculates unknown in the Tertiary except for a few Paleocene survivors, and of T'rituberculates of rather remote affinity to the Tertiary placentals and similar in several features to those of the Jurassic. _ Osborn, on the other hand, pointed out that the Multituber- culates of the Lance were much more closely allied to their Paleocene successors than to their Jurassic ancestors, and rightly concluded that there was no wide time-gap between the Lance and the Paleocene. The evidence as presented by Marsh and Osborn is not conflicting, but it pre- sents different aspects of relationship. The Lance mammal fauna is near to that of the Jurassic in facies; it is much nearer in time to the Paleocene faune. Comparing the Belly River and Lance faune, we find evidence of a considerable gap in time as represented especially by the progressive evolution in the Ceratopsia and other dinosaurs. But there is no good evidence of any change in facies or of the appearance of new immigrant groups of reptilia or mammalia. The reptilian phyla one and all con- tinue through, some with little change, others with more considerable progressive evolution. The scanty evidences of mammals from the Belly 392 W. D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM River indicate a fauna of the same facies as the Lance, doubtfully more primitive in stage. Comparing the Lance with the Puerco and Torrejon, we find a fauna’ of very different facies, but indicating no very wide gap in time. It is not very clear whether the great faunal difference is due to diverse local environments or to a great movement of faunal migration, but a combi- nation of both seems to fit the data most exactly. Comparing the Puerco and Torrejon with the Wasatch, we find faune which appear to represent similar facies, but a very danled change in the sudden appearance of new orders and families of mammals and rep- tiles which can best be accounted for as immigrants. The lapse of time, as measured by the change in phyla which pass through, is not very great between Torrejon and Wasatch and very slight between Clark Fork beds and Wasatch. But the close of the Paleocene is marked by a great migra- tion movement. Comparing the mammal fauna of the Upper. Fort Union with that of the Torrejon, we find that it appears to be of the same age, as indicated by the identity of a part of the fauna. But it apparently represents a somewhat different facies, with certain points of analogy to the Lance. Comparing the Paskapoo fauna with the Lance, it appears by the same criteria to be equivalent or only slightly later in age, while apparently older than the Puerco and presumptively older than the Upper Fort Union; but it represents a facies very different from that of the Lance, corresponding more nearly with that of the Puerco and orrejon, and per- haps still more closely with that of the Fort Union. It throws some light on the interpretation of the break between Lance and Puerco, for it con- tains an element that may be regarded as ancestral to a part of the Paleo- cene placentals, but does not appear to be related to the major and more progressive part of them. This would indicate that the absence from the. Lance of the more primitive and archaic groups of the Puereco-Torrejen fauna is a matter of facies; but that the absence of the larger, more pro- gressive and abundant Paleocene placentals from the Lance is to be ascribed to a migration movement at its close. The evidence on this point is, however, too scanty to be of any considerable weight. By similar methods of corrélation Brown has shown that the Edmon- ton formation underlying the Paskapoo and overlying the Pierre and the Ojo Alamo beds, which he unconformably beneath the Puerco, are older than the Lance and equivalent to*the Belly River, and that the Hell Creek beds of Montana are equivalent in age to the typical Lance, all representing nearly the same facies, but the Canadian formations some- what more accessible to the marine fauna, as indicated by the finding of CORRELATION OF TYPICAL FORMATIONS 393 a Plesiosaur skeleton in the Edmonton, and by the characters of the in- vertebrate fauna. WESTERN WYOMING EUROPE NEW MEXICO _ eee ee Wasatch MONTANA ort Union Hell Creek Fox Hills Tks Fe Te Airey Lance FIGURE 2.—Approximate Correlations of typical Formations of the late Cretaceous and early Tertiary in Hurope and western America based on their Vertebrate Faunas Fox Hills Lower * Stratigraphic position ais led. 5 ; e710Nlan RELATIONS OF THE JuDITH RIvER FAUNA On account of the disputed age of this formation it is better to rest the vertebrate evidence on other faune of unquestionable stratigraphic relations. JI may say, however, that the fauna described by Cope from beds which Peale regards as equivalent to the Lance is unquestionably closely allied to that of the Belly River and of approximately the same age. The attempt made by Peale to show that it is identical with that of the Lance is based chiefly on a list of fragmentary specimens which, as stated by Hatcher (American Geologist, 1903, page 374) are practi- 394 W. D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM cally valueless for exact correlation. His attempt to show that there are any common genera among the Ceratopsia hinges entirely on the identi- fication of a specimen from the Denver beds, identified by Marsh as Cera- tops montanus or some nearly allied reptile,!° and stated by Lull" to be “too fragmentary for accurate determination.” It will be sufficient to say that the published lists of species identified from both Judith River and Lance are in large part based on material too fragmentary for exact identification and of no value in exact correla- tion, as has been shown in detail by Mr. Hatcher, and that all that are sufficiently characteristic and complete to be of use in this way show that the “Judith River” of Cope’s localities is of practically the same age and facies as the Belly River.'? The age of the Judith River, like any other problem in correlation, must be settled by bringing al/ the evidence into conformity. It can not be settled by balancing conflicting evidence and assigning more weight to one than to another class of data. Doctor Peale’s attempt to bring all the evidence into conformity is undoubtedly right in principle, although biassed in method. But his solution of the vertebrate evidence is impos- sible of acceptance, especially in view of the recent researches in the Belly River fauna. . CoRRELATION WITH THE EUROPEAN SUCCESSION GENERAL DISCUSSION The dividing line between Cretaceous and Tertiary in England is drawn between the uppermost beds of the chalk and the littoral and “fresh-water” beds which overlie it—the Thanet sands and London clay. But between these there is known to be avery considerable gap in time. This gap is partly filled on the continent by various intermediate forma- tions, the highest stage of the chalk, the Danian, being absent in the English succession. While this is generally recognized as Cretaceous, there appears to be a difference of opinion as to the position of the Mon- tien of Belgium and its equivalents. De Lapparent and other writers reckon it as the latest stage of the Cretaceous, while Dollo, Rutot, and 10 Amer. Jour. Sci., vol. xxxvi, 1888, p. 477. 11 Ceratopsia monograph, p. 183. As Doctor Peale quotes and comments on the next preceding sentence in this reference, he could hardly have missed seeing this statement, to which he makes no allusion, although it invalidates his whole argument on this point. 12 A recent note in “Science” by Mr. C. H. Sternberg puts a new light on the evidence. If his recollection of the stratigraphy is correct, Cope’s Ceratopsia specimens came from a formation underlying the Pierre, while most of his fragmentary material came from the typical localities which Mr. Sternberg recalls as overlying the Pierre. The evidence from fossil vertebrates would accord with this, although I do not think it in any way confirms it. CORRELATION WITH THE EUROPEAN SUCCESSION 395 others consider it as the earliest Tertiary, equivalent in age to the Thanet sands. Here, as in our own succession, the difficulty les in the correla- tion of faunas of diverse facies. Into the place of these disputed forma- tions it will not be necessary to go. It is sufficient to state that the latest unquestioned Cretaceous stage is the Danian and the earliest unques- tioned Tertiary stage the Thanetian. THANETIAN (CERNAYSIAN), EQUIVALENT TO TORREJON The Cernay conglomerates, Rilly sands, and the La Fere glauconites have furnished a small fauna of mammals and reptiles, comparable in facies to our 'Torrejon and apparently of equal age. Arctocyon, Dissacus, and Neoplagiaulax are very characteristic types closely allied or identical with Torrejon genera. The remainder of the fauna affords rather inde- cisive comparison with the Torrejon except for Pleuraspidotheriuim, which"? is singularly like certain isolated teeth from the Paskapoo. A thorough revision of this Cernaysian fauna is very much needed, but there appears to be little present prospect of it. Whether the Cernaysian fauna corresponds with the whole of the Thanetian or only a part of it is impossible to say. LIST OF CHERNAYSIAN FAUNA Creodonta : Arctocyon primevus gervaisti Close to Clwnodon sp. div. due H LEE ES gaudryt ! perce Dissacus europeus Insectivora : | Tricuspiodon : Procynictis } Possibly related to Paleoryctes Orthaspidotherium Pleuraspidotherium aumonieri pa eee ~ Hele See: . ?Paskapoo fauna Plesiadapis tricuspidens é (oie ais Possibly comparable with the small i gervaisn species of Mioclenus Adapisorex gaudryi ee chevillioni Adapisoriculus minimus Protoadapis copei A doubtful primate Multituberculata : Neoplagiaulax eocenus = marshii Close to Ptilodus sp. div. ‘ copes 18 Auct. Osborn’s figures in his review of the Cernaysian mammalia. 396 W. D. MATTHEW——_THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM SPARNACIAN AND YPRESIAN EQUIVALENT TO WASATCH The London Clay, Argiles plastiques of the Paris basin, and equiva- lent formations in Belgium and elsewhere contain the Coryphodon fauna, which extends through our Lower Eocene or Wasatch faune. The older part (Sparnacian) is probably equivalent to the Gray Bull or Systemodon Zone of the Wasatch, marked by the sudden appearance of Coryphodon, Paleonictis, Hohippus, Pachyena. The newer part (Ypresian) may be more doubtfully compared with the upper part of our Wasatch, the Lysite and Lost Cabin (Heptodon and Lambdotherium zones), the evolution of the faune being on divergent lines, with no new invading migrants to link them together. THE PUERCO HAS NO CERTAIN EQUIVALENT IN EUROPE It is arbitrarily correlated by Osborn with the Montian. But the only mammal found in the Montian is Coryphodon from the upper beds of that horizon, and this, if correctly identified, would indicate not Paleocene, but Kocene age of a part of the formation. On the other hand, in the Lower Landenian of later age, according to Dollo, the only recorded vertebrate of any value in exact correlation is Champsosaurus, a characteristic Cre- taceous-Paleocene genus. Dollo, however, correlates the horizon as Lower Kocene. In view of these contradictory data, and of the doubtful char- acter of such slight evidence and the frequent confusion due to redeposit in these scattered littoral formations, it seems better to leave the Montian problem for our European confréres to solve and content ourselves with the reasonably certain data. THE LANCE IS HQUALLY DIFFICULT TO CORRELATE There are no Huropean formations of corresponding facies in the late Cretaceous. Dinosaurs are found in the later Cretacic of Europe at least as late as the Mestrichtian (== Upper Senonian or Danian), but not suffi- ciently abundant or complete to afford correlation data. The Gosau for- mation is of similar facies to the Lance, but is much older—Lower Seno- nian. No dinosaurs are found in the Montian or any of the European formati is that are reckoned to the Tertiary. The Lance flora is shown by Knowlton to be nearly allied to the Fort Union flora, and through this to the Paleocene floras of Gelinden and Sezannes. But, as there are. no late Cretacic floras of similar type to compare it with, it is not thereby shown to be post-Cretacic, as Stanton has observed. z FAUNAL MIGRATIONS AND DIASTROPHISM 397 FAUNAL MIGRATIONS AND DIASTROPHISM In the foregoing discussion of the vertebrate faunas of the late Cretacic and early Tertiary the differences in faunz have been ascribed to three factors: (1) Lapse of time; (2) Difference of facies; (3) Wide-spread migration movements. ‘The first affords a measure of the time interval between two formations. The second, when occurring in superposed for- mations, indicates a change in local conditions, often accompanied by a stratigraphic break or unconformity. The third, occurring often inde- pendently of any local changes in environment, points to changes in the conditions in some other region, usually in the center of dispersal, where the migration movements originated. It is usually assumed by paleogeographers that these changes consisted in the union of regions formerly isolated, permitting land animals to invade areas hitherto isolated. But it has been very conclusively shown by C. Hart Merriam that the range of land mammals is limited not so much by mountain barriers or even oceanic barriers as it is by climatic zones. ‘This is also true of land reptiles, and presumably of the land fauna generally. A change in range is therefore conditioned not merely by the land connection which permits or facilitates the migration, but by climatic change which forces the movement through the changed environ- ment. This climatic change will be largely dependent on great and wide- spread movements of elevation or submergence. A wide-ranging migra- tion movement resulting in the simultaneous appearance in Europe and North America of identical new types is, therefore, to be ascribed not merely to such slight changes as might serve to make a land connection, but to a great movement of upheaval of the land, affecting a large part, if not the whole, of the intervening region from which the new types are presumably derived. These great migration movements therefore I regard as caused by diastrophism. .If the evidence is properly interpreted and the migrations adequately proved, they afford, it seems to me, the most reliable and in some sense the only evidence of diastrophism ; for it is not possible, save through the evidence of the paleontologic record, to prove that t + move- ments of which the stratigraphy gives evidence were simultaneous or to correlate them exactly in different regions. The extent and an.jyunt of the stratigraphic break between the Lance and the formations of the Montana group is a matter of dispute. But were it not, I fail to see how we could correlate it with the break between the European Cretacic and ‘Tertiary series save through the faunal evidence. XXVIII—BULL. Grou, Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 398 W.D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM Faunal Break due lo migration WASATCH - Faunal Break due lo migration and change of facies NEO- PLACENTAL 4 MAMMALS UERCO-TORREJON PALAO-PLACENTAL |PALAO-PLACENTAL MAMMALS No Faunal Break here V BELLY RIVER =e ew we = & oe a oe == == 2 2TRITUBERCULATES| @,MARSUPIAL) MULTITUBERCULATE|MULTITUBERCULATE}] MULTITUBERCULATE MAMMALS MAMMALS MAMMALS MAMMALS LANCE TRITUBERCULATE DINOSAURS DINOSAURS (Cera lopsians , Tracho- (Ceralopsians »Tracho donts , Ankylos@urs, Ig-| donts, Ankylosaurs , Iq- uanodonls ,Deinodonts, uanodonts, Deinodonts Ornithomimids ele ») Ornithomimids etc.) CROCODILES CROCODILES CROCODILES CROCODILES TUR cil eeS AP RARE S| TURTLES TURTLES (Trionychids, Baénids\ (Trionychids, Baénids, (Trionychids, Baénids,| (Trionychids, Baénids Dermalemydds ) Dermatermydids) “| Dermatemydids Dermatemydids , Marsh Turtles and \ t Torlotses S) Dividing line Dividing line Dees line advocated b currently accephd, suggested 5 Tciewlton et ad. and supported by Cope and Hay Stanton et al. FIGURE 3.—Division between Cretaceous and Tertiary Periods, as indicated by terrestrial Vertebrate Faune of typical western Formations FAUNAL MIGRATIONS AND DIASTROPHISM 399 As I read the evidence from the vertebrates it is to this effect : (1) From the Belly River to the Lance there is a considerable lapse in time, but they represent the same faunal facies and they indicate that there was no great migration movement intervening, and hence no great upheaval, either continental or universal. There was undoubtedly a con- siderable local uplift along the Rocky Mountain ridges and extensive recession of the sea from the plains to eastward of them. (2) Between the Lance and the Paleocene there is a somewhat smaller lapse in time, but a very marked change in fauna; but they do not repre- sent the same facies, and while a great migration movement is probably indicated by the extinction of the Dinosaur phyla and incoming of cer- tain groups of placental mammals (Creodonta, Condylarthra, etcetera) its extent remains a little uncertain. (3) Between the Paleocene and Eocene a great migration movement intervenes, the progressive orders of placental mammals, of turtles, and perhaps other groups appearing simultaneously in Europe and North America. he lapse of time between the uppermost Paleocene and lowest Hocene is slight. : If, therefore, we are to use diastrophic criteria as the basis of our geo- logic classification, the dividing line between Cretaceous and Tertiary should be drawn either between the Lance and the Paleocene or between the Paleocene and Eocene. It should not be drawn between Belly River and Lance. It is perhaps apropos to recall that the late Professor Cope was for a long time of the opinion that the Paleocene should not be included in the Tertiary, but distinguished along with the Lance and associated faune as post-Cretaceous. Doctor Hay has also expressed the opinion that it might be better to include the Puerco and perhaps also the Torrejon in the Cretaceous. CoNCLUSIONS The question to my mind shapes itself thus: Does the evidence con- clusively support the present classification; and, if not, is it sufficiently conclusive to warrant our changing it? I have indicated what I regard as the weight and trend of the vertebrate evidence. Without entering into any detailed criticism of the stratigraphic and paleobotanic evidence. a task for which others are far more competent, | may say that to me it appears to be inconclusive because it does not allow for the characteristics of epicontinental formations nor for the varying facies of faunas and 400 W. D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM floras; that the asserted magnitude of the break between Laramie and Lance rests not on evidence, but on a definition of the Laramie (see Appendix B), and that no really adequate evidence has been adduced of its relations to the Cretacic-Tertiary break in Europe. The paleobotanic argument for placing the Lance in the Tertiary is the resemblance of its flora to that of the Paleocene and its great difference from that of the true Laramie. But there is no evidence that the Lance flora was absent from Europe in the late Cretaceous, and the Laramie clearly represents a different facies from the Lance. Doctor Knowlton has insisted strongly on the entire absence of dinosaurs in the true Laramie, apparently with the idea that it showed it to be much older than the Lance. But as the same phyla of dinosaurs are present in the older Belly River and in the newer Lance, their absence from the Laramie is obviously due to a dif- ference in environmental conditions. The facies of the fauna is different and much, if not all, of the difference in flora should be ascribed to this cause. ; For these and many other reasons, the evidence summarized by Doctor Knowlton in favor of transferring the Lance and associated formations to the Tertiary appears to me inconclusive, and it is directly in conflict with the evidence from fossil vertebrates, so far as I am able to under- stand it. But in view of this conflict, real or apparent, I do not regard the problem as a settled one Until all the data have been brought into, conformity and the exact position of the principal diastrophic break con- clusively shown from more convincing data than are at present available, it seems to me better to hold to the current classification, which is at least supported by evidence better, in my opinion, than any that has been brought forward in favor of Doctor Knowlton’s views. APPENDIX A. ALLEGED OCCURRENCES OF DINOSAURS IN ‘TERTIARY : FORMATIONS Doctor Knowlton has asserted that dinosaurs do occur in the Fort Union formation. The evidence, as far as I am acquainted with it, is that dinosaur remains have been found some hundreds of feet above an arbitrary line taken as the line of separation between Lance and Fort Union. They have not been found associated with Paleocene vertebrates ; ‘nor are they known to be different from the dinosaurs of the Lance beds beneath them. Fossil plants if found associated would give no trust- worthy evidence, since the floras of the Lance and Fort Union are almost identical, most of the species being common to the two. The obvious inference would be that the dividing line, confessedly arbitrary, was APPENDICES A AND B AOL drawn in the wrong place. A precisely parallel case is shown by Sinclair in his contribution on the Puerco-Torrejon stratigraphy. The division between these two formations was arbitrarily placed by Gardner at a certain sandstone level between the upper and lower fossiliferous beds, the upper carrying the Torrejon fauna, the lower the Puerco fauna. Subsequently Granger and Sinclair found the Torrejon fauna at a level 100 feet below Gardner’s. line of division. The natural conclusion was that the division line had been placed at least 100 feet too high up. As to the alleged occurrences of Dinosaurs associated with Tertiary mammals in Patagonia, this is positively asserted by Ameghino and Roth, who, however, consider the beds Cretaceous, not Tertiary. Loomis, who has recently collected in these formations, has shown that the mammal-bearing beds occur in stream-channels and pockets in the older formations, and believes that the reports of dinosaur remains in strata “above” the mammal-bearing beds are due to errors in stratigraphy in failure to recognize these conditions of deposition. ‘There would indeed be no a priori improbability in the survival of dinosaurs in the isolated continent of South America after their extinction in the northern world ; but the evidence that they did so seems“open to very serious question. APPENDIX B. UNCONFORMITY BETWEEN THE LARAMIE AND THE LANCE “The asserted magnitude of the break between Laramie and Lance rests not on evidence but on a definition of the Laramie.” This remark appears to require explanation, although the subject is outside the scope of this paper. The evidence for an “unconformity of 20,000 feet” is not, as one might suppose from Knowlton’s repeated references to it, derived from measurements of the strata removed beneath an angular uncon- formity. It is based on the occurrence in the basal conglomerates of the Lance and equivalents of pebbles derived from the older formations of (presumably) the adjoming mountains. The asswnption is made that the Laramie, along with the rest of the underlying formations, had ex- tended over the area of these mountains and was upheaved, swept away by erosion, and the underlying formations cut down to the Paleozoic series, from which these pebbles are derived, during the interval between Laramie and Lance. But although Lee has reported evidence for such an extension of the older Cretaceous beds in New Mexico, there is no evidence that the Laramie had the same extension, save its definition as the “latest conformable member of the Cretaceous succession.” It was to this circumstance that the remark had reference. It appears to me, on the other hand, that whatever inferences may have been made from 4()2 Ww. D. MATTHEW—THE CRETACEOUS-TERTIARY PROBLEM the definition, it is very improbable that the Laramie was coextensive with the original limits of the older Cretaceous formations. Between the Niobrara and Laramie there was a widespread and considerable uplift on the plains, probably much intensified along the mountain ridges, and the erosion due to the latter probably supphed the materials for the Laramie sedimentation, as their further uplift did for the subsequent continental formations of that region. : BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 403-405 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY RECENT RESULTS IN THE PHYLOGENY OF THE TITANOTHERHS ? BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN (Read before the Paleontological Society December 31, 1913) Recent discoveries have modified the author’s earlier opinions as to the lines of descent of the titanotheres and still further changes are an- ticipated with increase of knowledge of the connections between Upper Kocene, or Uinta, titanotheres and those of the Lower Oligocene, or White River. The main lines of division are indicated in the proportions of the limbs, whether cursorial, mediportal, or graviportal; the proportions of the skull, whether mesaticephalic, brachycephalic, or dolichocephalic ; the development of fronto-nasal horns, whether accelerated or retarded ; the molarization of the premolar teeth, whether accelerated or retarded ; the presence or absence of incisor teeth; the abbreviate or elongate, the triangular or oval form of the fronto-nasal horns as developed in Oligo- cene times. . With these criteria the various phyla may readily be distinguished as follows : : A. Wind River titanotheres, face more elongate than cranium: IT. Lambdotheriinz, light-limbed, cursorial.. Genus, Lambdotherium IL. Hotitanopinze, medium-limbed, mediportal. Hotitanops B. Bridger and succeeding titanotheres, cranium longer than face: IIT. Palzeosyopinie, short-limbed, brachyceph- Genus, Palwosyops, alic. Limnohyops IV. Telmatheriinz, mesaticephalic to dolicho- Telmatherium, cephalic. Sthenodectes V. Diplacodontins, dolichocephalic, with ac- Diplacodon celerated molarization of the premolars, imperfectly known. VI. Manteoceratinze, mesaticephalic to brachy- Manteoceras, cephalic, accelerated development of the Protitanotherium horns, mediportal. c 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 15, 1914. (403) 404 H. F. OSBORN PHYLOGENY OF THE TITANOTHERES Oreodon Zone Upper White Rive VWaseiae Up per B Upper WA okie LowerB Lower Uint Up pe A FIGuRE 1.—Phylogeny of the Titanotheres as known to December, 1913 YET, NCELE. cx. ml. PHYLA OF THE TITANOTHERES Dolichorhinz, mesaticephalic to dolicho- cephalic, limbs, so far as known, ab- breviate. Menodontinz, mesaticephalic to dolicho-—* cephalic, with abbreviate, triangular horns, with incisor teeth reduced or wanting, feet and limbs elongate. Brontopine, brachycephalic, horns abbre- viated, rounded or oval, incisors per- sistent. . Megaceropinz, mesaticephalic to extreme brachycephalic; horns elongate, verti- cally placed, no incisor teeth. Brontotheriinze, mesaticephalic to brachy- cephalic, horns elongate, transversely flattened and divergent. 405 Dolichorhinus, Mesatirhinus, Sphenocelus, Metarhinus, Rhadinorhinus Menodus (= Ti- tanotherium ), Allops Brontops (=Meg- aceratops), Diploclonus Megacerops (=Symborodon ) Brontotherium The free use of subfamily divisions to express the distinct phyletic series is similar to that which the author has adopted in the phylogeny of the rhinoceroses. theres into four subfamilies only. More conservative usage would divide the titano- BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, P. 406 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY NEW METHODS OF RESTORING HOTITANOPS AND BRONTOTHERIUM ' BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN (Read before the Paleontological Society December 31, 1913) An advance in method based on very.thorough study of the muscula- ture of the Perissodactyla has been adopted in restoring Hotitanops and Brontothervum as representing the first and the last stage of this great family of titanotheres. Dr. W. K. Gregory assisted by Mr. Erwin Christ- man undertook an exhaustive research on the myology of the titanotheres based on the detailed studies of the anatomy of the*horse and tapir by Schmalz, Murie, Windle, Parsons, and others. On this basis the super- ficial musculature of Palwosyops and of Brontops has been almost com- pletely restored, giving the special significance of all the areas of origin and insertion of the various muscles and tendons. With this knowledge in hand, the restoration of Brontotherium was undertaken afresh and a very precise scale drawing of the skeleton of Brontops robustus was projected with the complete musculature. With these data the modeling of Hotitanops, a largely conjectural skeleton, and of Brontops, a fully known skeleton, was undertaken by Mr. Christman under the direction of the author. The result is a far more authentic restoration of both of these animals than any which has been attempted or published. -Now that these typical perissodactyls have been restored in this thorough manner, the same muscle data and methods may be em- . ployed in the restoration of other perissodactyls with increasing approxi- mation to the truth. Figure 1.—Virst and last known Stages in the Evolution of the Titanotheres Models by Erwin Christman, under direction of the author, December, 1913 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 15, 1914. (406) BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 407-410 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY RESTORATION OF THE WORLD SERIES OF ELEPHANTS AND MASTODONS*? BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN (Read before the Paleontological Society January 1, 1914) Under the author’s direction the animal sculptor Mr. Charles R. Knight has been engaged during the past two years on a series of models of the elephants and mastodons to a uniform scale of 114 inches to the foot, or a one-eighth scale. Three living and three extinct types have been completed, and the series will finally include the ancestral proboscidian stages as far back as Palwomastodon, all to the same scale. The standards of shoulder height of the recent forms are taken from the well known records of Rowland Ward (1907), and the estimates of shoulder height of extinct forms are taken partly from actual skeletons, as in the case of the mastodon and woolly mammoth, and from fore-limb measurements in the case of the imperial mammoth. These heights in descending order are as follows: Imperial mammoth, Hlephas imperator, 13 feet 6 inches, estimate of F. A. Lueas. | African elephant, Loxvodon africanus, 11 feet 8% inches, record of Rowland Ward. Indian elephant, Hlephas indicus, 9 feet 10 inches, record of Rowland Ward. Indian elephant, Hlephas indicus, 10 feet 6 inches, record of Rowland Ward. Hairy mammoth, Hlephas primigenius, 9 feet 6 inches, estimated from skeleton. American mastodon, Mastodon americanus, 9 feet 6 inches, estimated from skeleton. Pigmy African elephant, Loxodon cyclotis, 6 feet 2 inches, present height of type specimen in New York Zoological Park. The tusks in each type, which in these models are also record tusks as to length and curvature, are selected as the most generally characteristic in form and curvature or are actual tusks, as in the case of L. africanus, EH. primigenius, and H. imperator. The living forms have been studied by Mr. Knight directly from types in the New York and other zoological parks. They are regarded by experts as excellent models except in the 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 15, 1914. (407) 408 H. F. OSBORN——-RESTORATION OF ELEPHANTS AND MASTODONS FicurE 1.—festoration of Mastodon and Elephants A, American mastodon, Mastodon americanus ; B, Imperial mammoth, Hlephas imperator ; C, Wooly mammoth, Hlephas primigenius. Models in the American Museum RESTORATION OF ELEPHANTS 409 Vicgtre 2.—Festoration of Elephants D, Indian elephant, Hlephas indicus; EK, Congo elephant, Loxodon cyclotis; KF, African elephant, Loxrodon africanus. Models in the American Museum proportions of the neck, which are far more massive and powerful than as represented by Mr. Knight in the African bull, for example. The mastodon is drawn very closely on the famous Warren mastodon skeleton in the American Museum of Natural History. The imperial mammoth 410 —_H. F. OSBORN—RESTORATION OF ELEPHANTS AND MASTODONS is almost entirely conjectural since the top of the skull has not yet been discovered, and it is not known, therefore, whether the animal had the characteristic peaked cranium of the true mammoth type, or the flattened cranium of the African type, or the bulbous cranium of the Indian type. The hairy mammoth is by far the most probable restoration in the extinct series because it is based, first, on the complete skeleton, second, on the data furnished by the frozen Siberian mammoth, third, and most important, by the extraordinary likeness which prevails in all the numer- ous drawings, engravings, and sculptures of H. primigenius by the artists of Upper Paleolithic times. In preparing these models we were at once struck by the highly dis- tinctive differences in the contour not only of the forehead but of the backbone. The L. cyclotis, for example, while of diminutive size and with rounded ears, has the distinctive backbone profile of the African elephant, which is hollow between the shoulders and the hips. The back- bone of the Indian elephant is uniformly arched upward; that of the mammoth rapidly falls away toward the hind quarters, and a similar character is doubtfully attributed to the imperial mammoth. The extraordinary dome over the head of the woolly mammoth, sepa- rated by a deep valley from the dome over the back, is probably due to an accumulation of hair and wool and possibly to the presence of a storage reservoir of adipose tissue, because we know that this rounded form does not coincide at all with the peaked, flattened forehead of the skull within. For purposes of casting, the hair, which nearly touches the ground be- neath the neck and belly of the mammoth and constitutes a uniform. fringe around the lower part of the limbs, is reduced. BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 411-416 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SCCIETY RECTIGRADATIONS AND ALLOMETRONS IN RELATION TO THE CONCEPTIONS OF THE “MUTATIONS OF WAAGEN,” OF SPECIES, GENERA, AND PHYLAt BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN (Read before the Paleontological Society January 1, 1914) CONTENTS Page Gemeral GISCUSSION..... 0.0.6.0 fee cee teen TOES ipak Samo ec nied ae te a haan oar an nel 411 Mmiscussion- of the illustrative diagramS.....:....000.0.0bsceuee Phenict nae 413 Space, geographic divergence, and evolution.............. 00.0 eee eee eee 414 eae MG MOMSEN ULTOM re soc ok sv sce sis aed oie whe este Siciee st ie alb wS ee calle ane eae s 416 GENERAL DISCUSSION The new problem raised in this contribution is that of the comparison of a geologic ascending evolutionary series in time, like that of the titano- theres, with a contemporaneous geographic series of species, subspecies, and varieties which may be grouped within a single genus: In what re- spects do the characters observed in a genus ascending and developing in geologic time resemble or differ from the characters observed in a genus distributed in geographic space? The superb materials assembled by Osborn with the cooperation of Wilham K. Gregory for the study of the titanotheres enable us to deter- mine with precision that in a time series there are two kinds of characters in the hard parts of mammals, namely, allometrons, or changes of pro- portion, and rectigradations, or the appearances of absolutely new charac- ters. For example, a new cusp or a new horn rudiment is regarded as a rectigradation in its initial stage; but when it takes on profound changes of proportion in the course of evolution these changes are known as allom- etrons. ‘I'hese characters appear to evolve under a different combina- tion of causes. The accumulation of allometrons and rectigradations marks the steps from “species” to “species” and the minute continuous 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 15, 1914. (411) 412 H. F. OSBORN—RECTIGRADATIONS AND ALLOMETRONS transition stages between species which correspond to the “Mutations of Waagen.” TABLE I.—Showing the space, or geographic differences in mammals observed by the zoologist, and the time, or geologic differences observed by the paleon- tologist. A, central or stem form, A-C, A,-D,, geographic “species.” A-F, geologic species. am Oo Continuous geologic “ascending mutations,” “subspecies,” “genera,” im the same region in which also the environment and habits may be slowly: changing. > SPACE space | < D C BOA (A) A B C ; 2 ? 6. Contemporaneous geographic “species,” “subspecies,” “varicties,” in widely separated localities in which there may be wide differences of} cuvironment and ontogeny or habit, TIME In a geographic, or space series, on the other hand, as in the case of genera of very wide geographic range, we observe both color changes, changes of proportion, or allometrons, and in rare instances new struc- tures which appear to resemble rectigradations. These geographic sub- DISCUSSION OF DIAGRAMS 413 species and varieties have been studied extensively by Merriam, Miller, Osgood, and other mammalogists, but the characters which have been used to distinguish them have not yet been analyzed in comparison with the characters which are employed by paleontologists to distinguish the ascending geologic mutations and species. DISCUSSION OF THE ILLUSTRATIVE DIAGRAMS The accompanying diagrams present in graphic form this future prob- lem for the cooperation of the zoologist and paleontologist who have made observations independently hitherto without comparison of their separate results. The very circumstance that these facts have been garnered inde- pendently by workers in two fields of observation, with no purpose but the close definition and distinction of nearly related forms, renders all the more valuable any results which may be obtained in the future. In other words, the facts have been garnered both in zoology and vertebrate paleontology without that bias or preconceived theory which often influ- ences us to observe some facts rather than others. The problem of this comparison between zoologic and paleontologic series is complicated by the fact that all zoologic series which are of wide geographic range must necessarily be widely separated in time as well as im space. For example, the genus Peromyscus as studied by Osgood (1909) presents a continuous series of transitions in color and form - from the types which we observe on the Isthmus of Tehuantepec to those we observe in Alaska. In the northerly region we find a larger animal, with a relatively longer tail and a skull which may be somewhat longer or more dolichocephalic. The genus Perognathus offers better examples of skull change in connection with geographic distribution, for instance, in the form of the interparietal bone. The wide distribution of Pero- ~myscus may have taken place from some common center during post- Glacial time, that is, during the last 20,000 years. In this period there has been both a space evolution and a time evolution, the latter being comparable to that which would be observed in a geologic series. This principle is clearly brought out in the accompanying diagram, in which A represents the stem or central form from which the geographic races have been given off, which in course of time, undergoing an evolution in time of from 5,000 to 40,000 years, diverge from the parent form (A) _ precisely like the geologic or time series. Forty thousand years may have elapsed since a geographic species or subspecies separated off from the parent form. Even in geologic estimates 40,000 years is an appreciable interval, in which new allometrons may arise and new rectigradations may appear. | | XXIX—BULL, Gzon. Soc, AM., Von. 25, 1913 414 H. F. OSBORN—-RECTIGRADATIONS AND ALLOMETRONS TABLE I1.— Contrast between space cvolution (geographic) and time evolution (geologic) from a central or stem form A A I-VI is an aetually recorded series of ascending ‘““Mutations of Waagen” and “species,” assembled in the ‘“‘genus” d/enodus. ~ A-D and A*_-D? are hypothetical geographic varieties, et cetera, of Menodus, which probably existed in Lower Oligocene times for the “genus” is now known to have ranged geographically from South Dakota to the vicinity of Prag, Bohemia (J/enodus bohemicus). a ae VI Menodus giganteus au ascending ‘* mutations ”’ (So) Oe = 5 66 » o 8 ® wees Z, S| a i aC g se : S 3 B 6 66 S i Ga 5 ¢é Liss a SS a ay} qd 4 66 Se I= 6 Z OS 6s < 23 3 3) SS = e Ge 3S 6 2 rs ce z (74 & € op ah S — & if a Ot V Menodus giganteus ie oF) = 4 Ge fay St © a : me GG Oo Be uw) 3 — o~ o pe. ioe Hd 9 oS 2 - 2 322 7 ¢ S gas 1 ; SC OHO ; a mm Bo IV Menodus trigonoceras fo ret al a = BS : 62 “Sy = 3 a oOo Ba SX Saber 6 iS) Eos 2 oe as SNe Ea 1 « = (oD parties oO ons : * aa cs Ss IIL Menodus proutu ib} nes & 1 ‘ = = 5p SS & Om Ts 7 A EOS IT Menodus torvus C 2 cos ce EE (0) eae eg 5 on a I Menodus heloceras Humid ; Arid base-level high-level environ- environ- ment ment D! C! B! A} A B C Melanistiec and Pallid and per- perhaps large haps dwarfed forms forms SPACE, GEOGRAPHIC DIVERGENCE, AND HVOLUTION Somatic changes rapid and conspicuous; germinal changes gradual Environmental (ecologic) and ontogenetic (habitudinal) influences produc- ing divergent somatic effects on animals of similar ancestral stock, “environ- SPACE, GEOGRAPHIC DIVERGENCE, AND EVOLUTION 415 mental or ontogenetic species,” ‘‘sub-species,” “races,” “varieties,” distinguished by different coloring, habits, proportions (“allometrons”), and perhaps by “rectigradations.”’ It follows that to institute a true comparison between a geographic series and a geologic series precisely the same methods of observation should be employed. Direct measurements of length and breadth should be recorded from which indices (proportions of single structures like the skull) and ratios (proportions between different parts hke the upper and lower segments of limbs) should be established. It is already known that allometrons,. or changes of proportion, in every part distinguish the various geographic species and subspecies of Ursus, for example, as studied by Merriam, the changes technically known as dolichocephaly, brachycephaly, dolichopy (or elongation of the face), brachyopy (abbreviation of the face), brachypody (abbreviation of the feet), dolichopody (elongation of the feet), brachymely (abbre- viation of the limbs), dolichomely (elongation of the limbs), occur in zoologic series in thew inciment stages exactly as they occur in paleonto- logie series. The only distinction is that in paleontologic series they may be followed through vastly greater periods of time in all the stages from incipiency to the various climaxes. For example, the ten phyla of titanotheres described in the preceding contribution are distinguished by progressive changes of proportion in different directions. Thus one phylum is progressively brachycephalic until it reaches an extreme in which the breadth of the head is as great as the length; another phylum is progressively dolichocephalic until the head reaches a long, attenuated form. TABLE III.—Showing that geographic or space distribution and geologic or timc distribution may take place coincidently from a central stem form A during such an epoch as the post-Glaciual. YEARS, GEOLOGIC EVOLUTION 416 H. F. OSBORN—RECTIGRADATIONS AND ALLOMETRONS GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION Whether the causes of these changes are to be sought in heredity or ontogeny or environment or selection, or in the interactions of these four coefficients of evolution, is a problem which remains obscure to the pale- ontologist working in paleontology alone; but it may be illuminated by the combined observations of the paleontologist and the zoologist in co- operation, as proposed in this paper. The zoologist has already demon- strated that there is direct relation between certain types of coloration and environment, as well as between certain habitats and harmonic in- crease or decrease in size; it remains to be determined, chiefly by the zoologist, whether certain environments induce uniformly similar allom- etrons. Our present evidence indicates that this is not the case. Anthro- pologists have failed, for example, to establish any definite relation be- tween environment and human head form. Again, the selection-value of allometrons, or changes of proportion, is obvious in certain cases, but not at all apparent in others. Gerritt S. Miller also fails to observe any direct relation between environment and head proportion, although an indirect relation may arise in connection with differences of food and feeding habits in different environments. The author has already (May, 1914) been promised the cooperation of a number of eminent mammalogists in a comparison of zoologic? with paleontologic data which may be fruitful of important results. 2Gerritt S. Miller (May, 1914) observes that there are abundant illustrations of the direct action of environment on color in mammals, but that as to proportions, size, and cranial characters the case is quite different. In other words, there are plenty of in- stances of color changes of different character affecting many different members of a fauna in the Same way, as when we pass from a wet to a dry climate or from a low to a high altitude, but there do not appear to be any parallel set of changes in proportions, size, or structure. BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 417-420 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGY OF THE UINTA FORMATION? BY EARL DOUGLASS 2 (Presented before the Paleontological Society by H. F. Osborn January Let On 4) CONTENTS Page nt PaINCNT AIT fe eters 6 as tice. Dee bees Shade da dbeecc 417 acme anooOeatioOnN Of the formation. 2... cc. ccc ccc ec cw ees ees esasece 418 DESaR MT MOE COED OSIESii. cs) «cas eicvs's dcglels aww Glave w Gepeie’s ole lels wuss cass alee ww dee’ 418 INTRODUCTION The deposits here discussed were called the “Uinta Group” by Clarence King in 1878. The great thickness of reddish sandstones and quartzites of the Paleo- zoic of the Uinta Mountains were previously, in 1878, named “Uinta” by Powell. It is best, therefore,-at present to designate the deposits now under discussion as the “Uinta Group” or the “Uinta Tertiary.” The Uinta Tertiary has furnished many interesting mammalian and reptilian remains, and several expeditions have been sent into the Uinta Basin to collect fossils. Some of these show that at least part of these deposits are newer than the typical Bridger and older than the White River Oligocene; therefore the name of the group has given the name to a stage in the development of vertebrate life called the “Uinta stage.” The main area. containing the Uinta Group is quite extensive, but hes in one compact body and the boundaries, as a rule, are quite well defined. _ It furnishes an excellent area for the study of Upper Eocene geology ; but there never has been a careful survey of the region, nor has there 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society June 15, 1914. 2 [Introduced by H. F. Osborn. (417) A18 E. DOUGLASS—-GEOLOGY OF THE UINTA FORMATION ever been published a detailed geological section of any portion of it. The present government geological survey, which has done some work in adjacent coal-bearing and oil-bearing formations, has left some phases of the geology of the Uinta in greater confusion than before. Mr. O. A. Peterson was the first and almost the only geologist to give us an outline of the subdivisions of the Uinta Group and to furnish a true basis for more detailed work. Prof. KE. S. Riggs has added very valuable observations on the lithological characters and on the occurrence of fossils in the lower portions of the deposits. Until the large amount of vertebrate material which has been collected at various times by O. A. Peterson and Karl Douglass, which is now being prepared for study in the Carnegie Museum, has been studied in connec- tion with sections and extensive field notes, only a provisional outline of the geological conditions and their significance can be given; but it is hoped that this brief outline of section of: the Uinta will supply some long desired and such needed hght.on this interesting group. EXTENT AND LOCATION OF THE FORMATION The lower portions of these deposits may be, and probably are, con- temporaneous with portions of deposits in the Bridger and Washakie basins and with other deposits elsewhere. But these beds from the Green River formation up to the superficial deposits, which in some places over- lie them at the foot of the Uimta Mountains, will for the present be treated under the old name “Uinta Group ;” but it must be borne in mind that it is probably only the upper portion which belongs to the distinctive “Uinta stage.” 3 , The Uinta Tertiary deposits are in Uinta and Wasatch counties, Utah. The extreme extent is something hke 75 miles east and west and 40 miles north and south. They occupy a large portion of the Uinta Basin in the southern base of the Uinta Mountains. DIVISIONS OF THE DeEpostts The deposits were divided by Peterson into A (lower), B (middle). and C (upper) Uinta. Uinta “A” occupies the southern portion of the area. The lower por- tion of “A,” on White River at Wagonhound Canyon, is about 585 feet in thickness. No determinable mammalian remains have been found in it, DIVISIONS OF THE DEPOSITS 419 but there is much fossil wood, and there is one band of shale which con- tains fossil leaves and insects, which implies a temporary return of con- ditions under which the underlying Green River beds were deposited. The beds below this band of shale, however, are very. puzzling and their mode of deposition difficult to explain. So it is doubtful whether the lower 170 feet of this section should be placed with the Green River, Uinta A, or in a separate transitional formation by itself. If we take away this portion of the section it would leave only 415 feet as the thick- ness of Lower A. The upper portion of Uinta “A” is somewhat fossiliferous at several levels, containing remains of Uintatheres, Titanotheres, and other mam- mals; also turtles and unios. _Much of the best material collected by Riggs came from these beds and Mr. Peterson made a valuable collection from them in 1912. They are 270 feet thick. | The total thickness of Uinta “A” is, therefore, from 685 to 855 feet thick, depending on whether we place the lower 170 feet in the Uinta of Green River. Uinta “B” is about 420 feet in thickness. In these beds there is a less proportion of heavy river sandstones and more sandy shales and clays, which are green, gray, and red. From these beds came a large proportion of the collections of verte- brates made by Peterson for the American Museum of Natural History and the later collections made by Douglass for the Carnegie Museum. The latter was made from perhaps 20 or more levels, and so far as possi- ble records were made, so that the fossils can be referred to their proper horizons. . Uinta “C” was measured farther to the westward, beginning about 2 miles east of Cottonwood Grove, on White River, near the Uinta Stage Line, and proceeding in a direction west of north to the highest exposure on Dead Man’s Bench, about 16 to 18 miles south of Vernal. ‘This in- cluded about 1,440 feet of strata. The beds here, as in most other por- tions of the deposits, were dipping at an angle of 3 degrees or more to the northwestward. Lying to the northwestward across Green River were mesas and benches of Uinta deposits, apparently several hundred feet in height and evidently lving higher geologically than the geological base on which we stood. The total thickness of Uinta “C” is apparently not less than 2,000 feet. The total measured thickness of the Uinta Group here is 2,275 feet, exclusive of the 170 feet at the bottom. The original thickness was prob- ably not less than 3,000 feet. 42.0 E. DOUGLAS—GEOLOGY OF THE UINTA FORMATION With regard to the subdivisions of the Uinta, Mr. Peterson and Mr. Douglass have discussed the matter together and with Professor Osborn, and the latter has gone over the matter with Mr. Riggs, and there appears to be an agreement as to the dividing line between Lower and Upper “A” and between “A” and “B.” Though the exact division line between “B” and “C” has not been fixed with certainty, Peterson and Douglass agree as to where it should be placed provisionally. BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 421-434 SEPTEMBER 15, 1914 PROCEEDINGS OF THE PALEONTOLOGICAL SOCIETY CAMBRIAN AND RELATED ORDOVICIAN BRACHIOPODA— A STUDY OF THEIR INCLOSING SEDIMENTS * BY LANCASTER D. BURLING (Read before the Paleontological Society January 1, 1914) CONTENTS Page Introduction.......... eee ee eh nt aera v Couanegh anle, Pea aie lako see eas Pig’ Ghee a bagels 421 oe PPESPUUD ES TRE TEL Re SS Ge a er er ar ne a 422 Number of species and varieties occurring in the different types of sedi- COVESE.(. 5 2 et en's G SEMES (See ces ee ie a Bang area ue ner ae a oe ere 423 Genera and subgenera identified from but one type of sediment.......... 427 Lithologic, stratigraphic, and geographic range compared................ 428 Data as to inclosing sediment classified and compared................... 429 a. For species occurring more than once in the same section.......... 429 b. For all species occurring more than once.................... 0008s 429 Number of localities and number of species per locality in the different AVES M OM SOOMIMEM becc clo day sg ache lo tidy or Sabb loko es Mince ae woe be ve Slee Summary INTRODUCTION In his work on the Cambrian and related Ordovician Brachiopoda the writer has had access to approximately 1,350 of -the Cambrian fossil localities represented in the collections of the United States National Museum,” from about 72 per cent of which, or 975, brachiopods have been identified. All of this material and all known references to the occur- rence of Cambrian Brachiopoda throughout the world were utilized in this study of the nature of their inclosing sediments, an investigation which was first suggested by Professor Schuchert in a letter to Mr. ‘Wal- cott, and seemed to be justified by the abundance of the material, its 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Geological Society April 10, 1914. Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and the Director of the Geological Survey of Canada. 2 This represents only the number which were available for the work on Monograph 51 of the U. S. Geological Survey on the Cambrian Brachiopoda. The collections of Mr. EK. O. Ulrich contain many brachiopods from the Cambrian, as that term is usually defined. (421) AD? L. D. BURLING-——-CAMBRIAN AND ORDOVICIAN BRACHIOPODA variety, and the magnitude of its geographic range. The present report is based on the study of 44 genera, 15 subgenera, 477 species, and 59 varieties of Cambrian Brachiopoda, and 3 genera, 1 subgenus, 42 species, and 1 variety of exclusively Ordovician Brachiopoda from 1,460 localities within the national boundaries of 16 countries. The United States is represented by collections from 28 States, Canada by localities in eight of her provinces, and among the continents of the world Africa alone is unrepresented. The sediments were divided into three classes (limestone, shale, and sandstone) and the following tables were prepared: (1) By genera and subgenera, giving the number of species of each identified from the dif- ferent sediments ;° (2) by genera and subgenera, listing only those groups which, appear to be confined to one type of sediment and giving’ the number of species of each and the number of localities from which they have been identified; (3) by types of sediment, classifying the mutual relationships between the several horizons of species occurring more than once in the same section; (4) by character of gradation shown between the horizons of all species occurring more than once, and (5) by three arbitrary groups, giving the number of localities and the number of species per locality in each of the three classes of sediment. Previous Work Foremost among previous investigations of a similar character is the exhaustive work of Bigsby.* Based on (@) general divisions into cal- ecareous and non-caleareous sediments and (b) minute discriminations, recognizing 10 or 12 different types of sediment, his results can not be directly compared with those in this paper, but the following figures may be of. interest: “The calcareous or deep-sea sediments are much more fossiliferous than the arenaceous or shallow bottoms, being as eight to one [823 to 102 (page 264) ] in New York and two to one [1,003 to 724 (page 264) | in Wales” (page 260). “Most of the genera of Brachiopoda furnish examples of arenicolous and argillicolous species” (page 262). “Of 254 species of Brachiopoda in New York, of known matrix, only 24 [24 out of 237 (page 264)]| are found in non-calcareous sediments : whilst in Wales the distribution is much more general, there being 207 appearances in the beds just spoken of, against 309 in the limestone rocks” (page 262). Dividing the sediments into groups necessitating a Hoe preliminary draft of this table was incorporated in Cambrian Brachiopoda. Monogr. U. Ss: Geol. Survey, vol. li, pt. i, 1912, by Charles D. Walcott, p. 160 ts Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 15, 1859, pp. 251-335: Part TII.—An inquiry into the sedimentary and other external relations of the Paleozoic fossils of the State of New York. PREVIOUS WORK ADS discrimination between “caleareous argillaceous shale” and “argillo-cal- careous shale,” for example, and applying the term divergents to those species which are not constant to single units of this character but devi- ate into others, he secures the following figures (page 269): Of the 766 known Welch species, 380, or 49 per cent, are divergents; of the 167 known Welch Brachiopoda, 114, or 68 per cent, are divergents; of the 841 known New York species, 93, or 11 per cent, are divergent, and of the 225 known New York Brachiopoda, 18, or 8 per cent, are divergent. He considers the figures for the American area as “an inadequate esti- mate of the true divergence” (page 267). The apparently complete lack of correlation between the different figures given by Bigsby in his ex- haustive compilation would seem to indicate a source of error which 1s probably attributable to the attempt to carry to so fine a degree of mi- nuteness statements by many different authors as to the nature of the inclosing sediment. Furthermore, determinations based on statements as to the lithologic character of the formation from which a species has been identified have not proven to be dependable, since a shale series may contain thin interbedded limestones filled with their own peculiar fauna. NUMBER OF SPECIES AND VARIETIES OCCURRING IN THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF SEDIMENT Table I was compiled from a list® of all the species and varieties of Cambrian and related Ordovician Brachiopoda described in Monograph 51 of the United States Geological Survey, giving the number of times each has been identified from each of the three classes of sediment—for example, Lingulella ferruginea was recognized in 25 faunules, of which 9 were in limestone, 15 in shale, and 5 in sandstone; Obolus apollinis was recognized in 23 faunules, all of them being in sandstone ; etcetera, etcet- era. Subtracting from the total number of species and varieties included in this list (579) the species for which we have no data as to the inclos- ing sediment (24), we obtain 555 species, of which 412, or 74 per cent, have been identified from but one type of sediment. This number (412) includes 218 species that have been identified from one locality only, a fact which, under the conditions governing the separation into localities, pre- cludes their identification from more than one type of sediment. The elimination. of this number causes the percentage of species identified from but one type of sediment to fall to 35, a figure still sufficiently high, in view of the restrictions under which it was secured, to indicate the pronounced influence of the character of the sea-bottom on the distribu- tion of the brachiopodous species. | >This list covers 25 manuscript pages, and the figures for the individual species do not appear to be important enough to justify its inclusion in this paper. ae) “MmrOnn nn nW BRACHIOPODA MAAR NOHS e . e . ° . . e . . . . nN nN Oo nN l~ “10 G uid l Il -_onr AND ORDOVICIAN Ponte NWA = rm AQHinON Omir banal HP] cwmon, | *aegl? | cron | Sem?) moa, | yet? won, | AE “XO Th see) Teo 29.1} | LIV “9u0JSpUvS “aleys ‘euojspues pus 9eys pue ouoj}soull'T puv ouoysoul'y “9UO}SPUBS ‘a[Vys "9U0ISOWIIT ee oe (srdaynburT ) (wojoquayda'T ) ee ee oe @ © oe D)10(1NDUT ss NWI 4OIN “8° pybuysashay ms 010UaN A “** plUassawMy—a “* DIBINQUIOYUUT DUIWOY AOS OFF sees? 84 QLOOM . ° e 8 DVD sisdouisrvg > $1da10UIDSU SNUL07]990 * pyapphiad DIULOQADIT “ proyang “** DAY ADIO pipsOls1og DYISOUN NE Peres prong "* PIOMOMOV OS OSS NH UNOLION * (D10YOUNPI ) 9104 JOLOV VIDUBSQUS pus BIOUIS L. D. BURLING——-CAMBRIAN - 1a — ie@) ~ quaunpas fo sadh, quasafvp ay. WU OUYLINIIO sayawna pun saveds Jo saqunu bua “ppodovyovig WDIDAOPAQ PI}DJA4 PUD UDLIQUDO {0 DLOUIDQNs 424 puw niavayp—] aATaVy, TABLE OF GENERA AND SUBGENERA a Oyes| alse! -HNAAHHO 7A N NWA eAA tenor eae OT OO -oConotonood Tat “OAT AN ct Oo -0 - HAHN Oana 4 10S © re . -OOn ort QI Ol “8 * DIOWOWAM, DYYPAOQIOA SN1OQOJDWAIAT, pvydomuny DIUOLUDNY DIBAZOUOYALY DULMOYINYIR syoydozryon “"* Wwoqupelyos Pt Nasnay °* pagan (n10ado'T ) SUfZAOLOLE DAPIYIWM d * DIsn4O 8s HISN4O "** 99:p101N91940 see ee oe (n1uo1sa # ) mss (DU PYWMYoR ) "5" (8N1090H)0 ) “"* (DiaZpNYOVIT ) sree (snjoqoniw'T ) (DUPLO ) mrss (Mla0004g ) Sreneyehe(esels (S1QUOYV ) 81090 oe eee oe (snu.dniy) ) eee a 01121000 Nae had (01)/08OWD [*) Dib bee scene esse moense nT ithe §n10Q09.N ret (puptayd ) st (onapyay) ies earn: DlayUo4oUTT ane: ; mienayourt Pen PIG. ke * D]JOWUOSSADUUYT AND ORDOVICIAN BRACHIOPODA L. D. BURLING—-CAMBRIAN 426 a ‘OUOISPUKS PUB ‘“O[BYS ‘oUOJSOUIT] UT T puv ‘auoJspuvs pure 9s[Vys Ul SULIIMDOO F ‘8_VYS puR VUOJSOWMI] YIO( Ul SuLAIMdO J ‘a[VYS 0} pouyUoD o1v JeqJ OT Jo dn speui a1% 9[VYS UL punoy sopeds QZ 94) ATLL[LUTIS £ (9UOJSpULS PUL ‘ofVTS ‘sUOJSOUITT) 991} T[V UL [ PUB V[LYS PUL BUOJSOTUT[ AOC Ul SULLINDDO J ‘JUITUTPas ]Vq} 0} peuyuUoD 21% G ATUO ‘BUOJSOUTIT UL PUNOJ Useq DAB IVY} 970Y70/0P JO SetoodS JT 941 JO : ABM SITY] Ul poulvydxe oq ABUL PepPIATpP Weeq BAB SUTIN[O) JUSUITPES 9} TOTP O}JUL SUOTJOES [BIOJ PUB BAISN[OXE VY,[— ALON | | | | a | | eset tices ieee ale Nees ete : x Seen eae SG OS4 {=26 Peles ob 6S jes) | iG ViG-| GEL S6E | 96 | OI8 16L Sool | | | | | | -BA pue SoLedy OURS SL ee lee em GG ee. bons OG Saxe Shea Sc CSs al eaG ag 8 "oo tes BIOUSS | | | | -qns pure vieue*) OG Oe ala de Boe lene | T T | z T eles eas | z berber sects ss manag PUG Wats 1a IOY A | p oithg a ost pote |. ee Gay) oo Sood I ena se | eee epee erie see ee NIKI any | Au ae Delete mek ees | Goes PAINTS . ‘ : ; “QAISNIO enon, | Sees choy ae aera a ton Ee sone ep eeu a ae ‘slouasqns puvy BIIEX ‘auoISpUBS ‘ayeys ‘euojspuBs : : 2 v pue a[eys pue ouojsewry pus ouojsowy Sug SBUGs STS suo Re UAL PONUTIFWODN—DpOdOMIDAG UDWIAOPLO PIIDIAL PUD UDILQUDD {0 DLABUAHQns pun DAaVaH—T] AAV], IDENTIFICATIONS FROM ONE TYPE OF SEDIMENTS AQ7 GENERA AND SUBGENERA IDENTIFIED FROM BUT ONE TYPE OF SEDIMENT In the following table are listed the twenty-six genera and subgenera which have been identified from but one type of sediment. In all they form 41 per cent of the total number of these larger groups which have been recognized, but they include within their number twelve genere which are represented only by single species in single faunules. Of the more or less cosmopolitan genera, therefore, only 14 (or 22 per cent) appear to be confined to one type of sediment. TABLE II.—Genera and subgenera of Cambrian and related Ordovician Brachi- opoda identified from but one type of sediment, giving numbers of species and localities. E Inclosing sediment. ° ; = >= Genera and subgenera, those represen ted Number eens by single species in single faunules be- of Sarak ing placed in this column only, together species | 50 _o4 with a statement as to the inclosing Lime- Shale Sand- in each Ses See sediment. stone. ; stone. genus. Sen o¢ oo Fs Acrothele (Redlichella) (lime- SS NR PP Re isa caer eet te lnta fecal | - octet, feces dauee wfaguers taba & [Di tasett [SABOGD. 2. 5s 6 BRC CRORE eee eee NC parertallecteeyeetel Online teehee 2 6 Pet racen am IMCSTONG))c 5 cies setae ee | cs | Pelee | owe ete SP oe eee bees Mae Ter mm ES AMO SCOME)) fret occ. 2) See") ee else |e noe abe [wae ne Me Saas rate ten MEME SLONE))..2 2.5 See] ee ee [8 wee | Sew eee [a eeew o} oe bees BT EGTA: SUDSTES RRS gee ia reel Se chen tl a es (ce ae gee SER CICS. academe xx 1 2 POSUOPROMECNY 2a ioc coe oe te es SPI We eal cares oy il 2 My OWE: ete coron x 2 sien aes wn |e dee ee | aes y< 3 Zl LEE ELS BUN 5B EE Re (aoe a es SK 1 3 EOD US EITC CGI a 6 eee Sod ae eae 3 > > ay . <4 SOS SN, g > — NO N ys : % . Y << NS fs > 's < ~ ~ . RSS KS BED Wr 2S NS h \, GeL|N Ip els XQ . \ \ aS ; See NN ANY S RSS SA , Sh | EUS 1G Sx RSS N i NN = —< oN AWW, VAY KO My “ QU Y \ Caan ae Rae SO A Ry \ aes | ay A \ S\ 7 N Sl Seale ° 3 ‘ 2 3 Miles Contour Inferval 100 feer FIGURE 1.—Map of Diamond Hiil-Cumberland Hill Region on the map. It may be noted that the paucity of outcrops at many critical points seems to be a characteristic of the area and makes it diffi- cult or impossible to settle certain questions of considerable interest with the certainty that is desirable. A comparison of this map with that pub- LEGEND SEDIMENTARY Rocks Bellingham series } S Narraga o sett Series oR i Ashton schist Z Z Cumberland quartzite Ienrous Rocks Diabase dikes Veiu quartz Boece Diamond till felsite and agglomerate Riebeckite granite Riebeckite granite porphyry NARA Joes Rock granite aoe Fine granite yy NAA. Grants Mills granite Milford granite Cuniberlandite Labradorite porphyry dikes kee wt Gabbro 438 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT lished by Emerson and Perry,? where the two maps overlap, will show certain points of difference. However, the very considerable care with which the writers have gone over the area in question inspires them with considerable confidence as to the accuracy-of the map herewith presented. Previous Work e first work on the general region of which the present limited area is a part was done by Dr. C. T. Jackson and was recorded in ne report on the “Geology and Agriculture of the State of Rhode Island,” pub- lished-in 1840. The next work of importance was by Shaler, Wooc- worth, and Foerste in their monograph® on the “Geology of the Narra- gansett Basin.” Professor Woodworth in his section of the monograph describes some of the igneous and sedimentary rocks occurring in the region now under consideration. B. K. Emerson and J. H. Perry, in the bulletin previously referred to, discuss the green schists and associated rocks in the region south of Iron Mine Hill. B. L. Johnson* has de- scribed briefly the geology of Iron Mine Hill, and one of the authors has described in See detail the petrography of the cumberlandite and the closely associated gabbro° from the same locality. LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY The Diamond Hill-Cumberland Hill area is located at the northeast- ern corner of the State of Rhode Island and in the adjoining part ox Massachusetts. The western edge of the district is a mile east of Woon- socket, Rhode Island. In the center of the area is Copper Mine Hill, on the east is Diamond Hill, and on the west is Iron Mine Hill. All three hills rise to an eleva- tion of over 400 feet above sealevel, or about 300 feet above the two streams in the region—the Blackstone River on the west and Abbotts Run on the east. On the north the upland topograph 1y continues beyond - the boundary of the map. The relation of topography to bedrock geology is clearly shown. -The three hills mentioned above consist of igneous rock, as does the ridge to the north. On the northwest and southeast are rather flat, low regions underlain by the softest and most easily eroded rock in the region—Car- boniferous sediments. The meandering brooks in these low regions are 2 Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 311. ® Monograph U. 8S. Geol. Survey No. 33. *Am, Jour. Sci., vol. 25, 1908, pp. 1-12. >Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 25, 1908, pp. 12-38. SOE cel tn tale ty 5 “= oe wi oe RSet ee LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY 439 of postglacial development. ‘The Blackstone River flows through granite and hard quartzite, but the course of this river was determined in pre- glacial times by the strike of the bedding and of the schistosity of the rocks. Both the bedding and schistosity in this locality trend in a north- west-southeast direction. The effect of Pleistocene glaciation has been to modify the topography, scouring off the hills and filling the valleys. Prof. N. S. Shaler esti- mated that at least 200 feet of cumberlandite had been removed from the top of Iron Mine Hill by the various glacial advances. He traced the boulder train from this hill for 60 miles.® In the region west of the Blackstone River and in the district north of Grants Mills the bedrock is quite effectually concealed under glacial de- posits consisting largely of stratified gravels; also the Carboniferous sedi- ments are covered with glacial material, making it impossible to trace out the boundary of the Bellingham series. Postglacial erosion has removed less than an inch from the softer rocks of the region and weathering has in general penetrated the granites for a distance of only a few inches. Glacial strie have in general been removed from the rocks. in the pre-Cambrian conglomerates the glacially pol- ished hard pebbles stand out in relief from the softer matrix. SUMMARY TABLE OF Rock FORMATIONS Following is a concise summary of the formations in the area under consideration : Sedimentary rocks. Pre-Cambrian. Cumberland quartzite, including interbedded schist. Ashton schist, including chlorite-epidote schist, hornblende schist, blue quartz schist, and interbedded Smithfield limestone. Lower Cambrian. ; Limestone fossiliferous boulders, red and light yellow shale, and some fragment of quartzite. i Pennsylvanian. z Narragansett series. Wamsutta red beds, including conglomerates, shales, and sand- stones of red color.. Pawtucket formation, including some conglomerates, but princi- pally sandstones and shales, often of reddish-green color. Bellingham series. Green schists. Conglomerates, greatly sheared. ® Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard Wniv. No. 16, 1893, pp. 185-225. 440 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT Igneous rocks. Pre-Cambrian. - Gabbro. Cumberlandite. Labradorite porphyry dikes. Middle Devonian. — Quartz diorite. Milford granite. Grants Mills granite, including fine granite. Joes Rock granite, including quartz porphyry, feldspar porphy ry, fine granite, and felsite. Lower Pennsylvanian. Diamond Hill felsite. Middle Pennsylvanian. 'Riebeckite-xegirite granite. Riebeckite granite porphyry. Diamond Hill quartz veins. Sheldonville quartz vein. Post-Permian. Diabase dikes. PRE-CAMBRIAN Rocks: BLACKSTONE SERIES NOMENCLATURE In the region southeast of Woonsocket and west of Providence there occur two large areas and several small areas of highly metamorphosed rocks referred by Woodworth’ to the pre-Cambrian and named the Black-. stone series. They consist of green schists, quartzites, and some lime- stones. ‘These metamorphic rocks occur as huge isolated blocks in granite. On one side only they are in contact with the Carboniferous sediments, and this contact is either a fault or an unconformity. The largest of the “blocks” extends from Lonsdale, northwest of Paw- iucket, to Copper Mine Hill. The northern half of it is shown in the accompanying map. The other occurrences of the Blackstone Series are south of the area here mapped. | Woodworth divided the rocks of the series into three formations—the Cumberland quartzites, the Ashton schists, and Smithfield limestones. He did not map these formations, but used the names as locality terms. Emerson and Perry* separated the series into four formations, dividing the schists into two parts. They named the quartzite from a similar rock at Westboro, Massachusetts. These subdivisions, with their relative positions, are as follows: 7 Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey No. 33, p. 104. § Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 311, p. 10. PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS: ° . AAT fe “7. A central band of phyllite and fine-grained micaceous quartz schist, the Albion schist member... “2. Two flanking bands of granular massive quartzite, the Grafton quartzite. “3. Two broad exterior bands of green schists and amphibolite, the Marlboro formation. “4, Thick beds of crystalline limestone, the Smithfield limestone, with inter- calated soapstones and serpentine.” It has been found that there is no continuous central band of schist as mapped by Emerson and Perry. Instead, there are only occasional out- crops of green schist’ ina mass of quartzite which is well exposed along the east side of the Blackstone River in rocky ledges. The schist is ap- parently interbedded in the quartzite. The line of the new Grand Trunk Railway extends along the east side of the river to’a point just south of Albion, and the excavations have exposed several contacts of the quartzite and schist. Northwest of Albion, along the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad, there are large outcrops of both quartzite and schist. Interpreting the schist in this manner, it is necessary to adopt the nomen- clature proposed by Woodworth. STRUCTURE The structure of the Blackstone series is very obscure on account of the large amount. of alteration and. metamorphism to which these rocks have been subjected. The series, has in general a northwest-southeast strike and a prevailing dip to the east, usually at a high angle. ‘The cen- tral band of quartzite and interbedded schist is older than the Ashton schists. ‘The evidence of this is found in the pebbles of quartzite found in the conglomeratic facies of the Ashton schists. The previous workers in the region have held a similar opinion as to the relative ages of the two formations. ‘The quartzites appear to form a closed anticline, with the Ashton schist on either side. ‘There are several isolated patches of quartzite on the east, indicating that quartzite underlies the Ashton schists in this locality. It is difficult to account for so broad a band of schist—originally 4 miles or more—on the east, but this is not a valid reason for considering that the series was be aan more than two miles in puuclatess. CUMBERLAND QUARTZITE - The Cumberland quartzite, as here defined, consists of quartzite and interbedded schist. As noted above, the schist can not be distinguished in mapping from the quartzite. The latter is a fine-grained, massive, quite pure white rock, usually stained light yellow by the introduction of ‘Iron. oxide. _When it is impure, thin plates of muscovite have been developed along planes of shearing. By a further increase of mica the rock becomes a schist. i ge la lata 442 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT The massive quartzite is exposed near Albion, on the east side of the Blackstone River, in a long ridge extending parallel to the river. The cuts of the Grand Trunk Railway expose a sectién from this point to Manville, on the east side of the river. Occasionally bands of greenish gray phyllite occur in the quartzite and furnish a guide to the bedding. » The quartzite is practically confined to a broad belt along the Black- stone River. A small amount of the same rock occurs northwest of Iron Mine Hill, at the State line. ‘There are a number of outcrops of quartz- ite at this point, with Ashton schists on the east. North of Little Pond are several xenoliths of quartzite of considerable size in Grants Mills granite. The phyllite is exposed southeast of Manville, on the east bank of the river, and also in some railroad cuts on the west bank. The rock is usually dark gray in color and thin-bedded, showing abundant mica. The phyllite consists of minute grains of quartz, flakes of muscovite and biotite, and crystals of magnetite. Epidote does not appear to be present in the fresh rock. ASHTON SCHISTS The most widespread rock of the entire area is a green to almost black schist which stretches far east of the Blackstone River, inclusions of it being found in the granite of Joes Rock. All the igneous rocks of the area have apparently been intruded partly into this schist and the older Cumberland quartzite, which together formed the “Grundgebirge” of the region. ; | The Ashton schist is in the main a greatly sheared and altered chlo- ritic rock, usually thin-bedded and green in color, with abundant epidote developed as nodules and as ramifying veins. Sometimes, however, it is a hornblende schist, a green actinolite schist, or a massive, blackish quartz schist. West of Manville there is a micaceous blue quartz schist asso- ciated with the common green chloritic variety. In several places the schist grades into a conglomerate. ‘There is an exposure of the latter a short distance north of the gabbro which outcrops west of Iron Mine Hill. The conglomerate here consists of occasional pebbles of Cumberland quartzite in a green schistose matrix. The peb- bles are, on an average, an inch long and well rounded. The maximum length of the pebbles is 4 inches. The beds strike north 72 degrees west and dip 45 degrees east. Another exposure of conglomerate is found on a hill one mile west of the West Wrentham station, near the contact of the riebeckite granite with the schist. 'The pebbles here consist largely of a granite which superficially resembles the Milford granite, but which is not now represented in the area. PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS 443 The common type of schist is colored green by the abundant chlorite. Epidote occurs in the body of the rock as well as in conspicuous nodules and veins. Some of these veins are a foot in width, but most of them are less than half an inch wide. ‘The epidotization has apparently taken place in connection with the folding of rocks in pre-Cambrian times and also in connection with later granitic intrusion. Epidote is often found covering quartzite pebbles, as if replacing quartzite. One large “augen”’ of feldspar has been found in the schist. Under the microscope the normal schist is seen to consist of chlorite, sericite, quartz, magnetite, biotite, and muscovite. The rock is very fine- grained. Hornblende schist is found in the vicinity of Sneech Pond and also a mile north of Little Pond. It shows hornblende crystals half an inch - in length by a quarter of an inch in width. The origin of the rock is _possibly igneous. | The blue quartz schist west of Manville occurs at the contact of the Ashton schist with the Milford granite. The quartz crystals are rather conspicuous in a matrix of greenish mica and fine quartz grains. In thin-section the rock consists of knots of brecciated quartz, abundant bio- tite, with smaller amounts of plagioclase, epidote, hornblende, chlorite, and a little magnetite. In all probability this rock was of igneous origin. SMITHFIELD LIMESTONE Occasional patches of interbedded limestones occur in the Ashton schist. Several beds of this Smithfield limestone occur 3 miles south of Albion, at Lime Rock. Limestone was quarried on Copper Mine Hill in the latter part of the eighteenth century for the copper it contained, and one quarry is still visible about one-half mile east of Sneech Pond, north of the road to Diamond Hill. Dr. C. T. Jackson in 1840° reported a bed of limestone near Sneech Pond 6 to 10 feet thick, with a strike of north 25 degrees west and a dip of 35 degrees east and overlain by granite. He states that the limestone contained chalcopyrite, tremolite, asbestos, and actinolite. The origin of this limestone may be a large calcite vein in the Ashton schist, for sev- eral smaller calcite veins occur in the vicinity. AGE RELATIONS Previous to the work of Emerson and Perry, the Blackstone series were considered pre-Cambrian by C. T. Jackson, Crosby, Shaler, and ® Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of the State of Rhode Island. 444. WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT Woodworth.*° The latter bases his opinion as to their age on the relative degree of metamorphism between this series and the Lower Cambrian fossiliferous series of Hoppin Hill, North Attleboro. He says: “The Olenellus fauna occurs in little-altered, red calcareous shales and slates at North Attleboro in close proximity to granite. Four miles west of this -inlier of the Carboniferous area occur the sediments involved in the Black- stone series complex. ‘These strata are highly altered sediments, now horn- blendic and chloritic schists, mainly of a green color, altered sandstones or quartzites, and crystalline limestones. . ... The criterion appealed to in this ‘case is embodied in the statement that where two sets of rocks coexist in the same dynamic field, that group which has undergone movement more than the other is the older. If this view is maintained, this series of rocks falls into the pre-Cambrian.” | As no fossils have been found in these rocks, the only criteria for the | determination of age are the lithological resemblance of the series to the rocks in near-by fossiliferous horizons and the relative degree of meta- morphism. ‘These will be discussed in this order. Any determination of age on purely lithologic evidence is of doubtful value. In the district under consideration four fossiliferous Cambrian localities have been found.1? Three of these are near Hoppin Hill, al- ready referred to, and the other is at a place about two miles north of the town of Diamond Hill, within a few hundred feet of the Massachu- setts-Rhode Island line. The Cambrian “consists chiefly of reddish and greenish shales and slates with whitish and reddish layers and nodules of limestone. Sandstone beds are known at almost all exposures, but form only a very unimportant element of the Olenellus Cambrian, so far as this horizon has been definitely recognized.” ” Kmerson and Perry say of the Blackstone series: “The highly ferruginous and highly calcareous green schists must have been derived from rocks exactly like the red calcareous shales of the ‘Attleboro series,’ and the quartzites from rocks closely like the sandstones of the Brain- tree Cambrian” (page 34). On the other hand, there is apparently no reason why the rocks of the “Attleboro series’ could not have been derived from the Blackstone series, or why both could not have been derived from similar rocks. They - then attempt to compare with the Blackstone series the Cambrian quartz- 10¢C, T. Jackson: Op. cit. W. O. Crosby: Geology of Eastern Massachusetts, 1880, p. 128. Shaler: Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard College, vol. 16, 1888, p. 15. Woodworth: Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey No. 33, p. 105. 11 A, F. Foerste: Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey No. 33, pp. 386-393. 2A, EF. Foerste: Op. cit., p. 393. PRE-CAMBRIAN ROCKS 445 ites of Berkshire, which are obviously too far away to enter into the ques- tion. ‘They also compare the former with pre-Carboniferous schist at the southern end of Conanicut Island, and with other similar unfossil- iferous rocks near Little Compton and Newport, whose age is unknown. There is nothing conclusive about any of these instances. Therefore the only criterion remaining is that of relative metamorphism. In southeastern New England only two periods of mountain-building have been recognized, the pre-Cambrian and Permian. ‘The effects of the latter are apparent throughout the Narragansett Basin and in other rocks in the vicinity. The metamorphism accompanying this orogenic movement has been more intense in the southern part of the Narragan- sett Basin than in the northern part, but no sharp line can be drawn, as Woodworth represented, between the metamorphosed and the unmeta- morphosed portions.** In the area considered in this article the metamorphism has affected most severely the part west of a north-south line connecting Sneech Pond with Iron Mine Hill. Thus the granite porphyry on Cumberland Hill, the riebeckite granite at its western edge, the cumberlandite and gabbro near Iron Mine Hill, and the Milford granite and Bellingham series west and northwest of the cumberlandite are all more or less sheared, often with a development of a gneissic or schistose structure. The Milford granite and Bellingham series have been sheared the most, as will be dis- cussed later. ‘The main mass of the riebeckite granite and biotite granite east of it show less metamorphism. The Blackstone series, occurring to the north and to the south of the riebeckite granite, and the large body of green schist surrounded by the granite show the effects of an intense and ancient metamorphism accompanied by alteration producing chlorite and epidote in all of the green schists. It is clear that this metamor- phism could not have taken place in the Permian revolution, or the gran- ite would be affected near the schist. Moreover, a half mile north of the last outcrop of this schist north of Grants Mills occur Cambrian fossil- iferous limestone boulders which Foerste considers to be almost in place." This limestone is not metamorphosed. : On the strength of all this evidence, it seems fairly certain that the Blackstone series are pre-Cambrian and were metamorphosed in pre- Cambrian times. | CAMBRIAN Rooks In his work on the Narragansett Basin, Foerste found some boulders 13%, H. Lahee: Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 33, 1912, p. 249 ff. 14 Op. cit., p. 393. 446 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT of fossiliferous Lower Cambrian rocks on the Joes Rock granite hill south of West Wrentham, a short distance north of the State line. “After following the southern margin of the granite hill eastward along the pase of the hill for a distance of several hundred feet, a change in direction of the border toward the northeast takes place. Here a number of red lime- stone boulders are found on the hillside. Toward the brow of the hill there is a fair exposure of red shales dipping at a high angle westward and striking east of north. West of these, quartzitic beds probably occur, as is shown by fragments in the soil and on the hillside. “The loose boulders on the hillside evidently are almost in situ and contain Hyolithes princeps ? and Hyolithellus micans ?. From the top of this part of the hill it is a distance of about 100 feet to the border of the granite mass . forming the main body of the hill. Along the brow of the hill westward the granite is purplish or brownish rock, which may possibly be fragments of Olenellus Cambrian shale hardened by metamorphism.” * ‘TEhe purplish rock referred to last was found on the hill, included in Joes Rock granite, as described. ‘The inclusion is about 3 feet long, but only a few inches wide. Under the miscroscope the rock is seen to be quite different from the pre-Cambrian and Carboniferous schists. It consists largely of hematite and magnetite with some quartz and musco- vite. With the purple slate was found one of light yellowish color. ‘The fossiliferous limestone boulders were not found. | PENNSYLVANIAN Rocks ° SUBDIVISIONS The Carboniferous rocks of the area considered in this paper are divided into two series, now separated by about 4 miles of other rocks. In the eastern and southeastern part of the area the sediments of the Narragansett Basin occur. For convenience they will be called the Narragansett series. In the northwestern part of the area there is an- other sedimentary series which is more fully exposed near the town of Bellingham ; it will therefore be called the Bellingham series. The rela- tion of these two series is at present unknown, but it is probable that they were formerly connected with each other and with the Carboniferous sediments of the Boston Basin, the Norfolk Basin, and the newly discoy- ered South Framingham Basin. ‘The most apparent difference between the Narragansett series and the Bellingham series is in the color of the sedimenis—the former are red and the latter are dark green. ‘There is also a great difference in the amount of metamorphism to which these sediments have been subjected. The Boienn series has been intensely 15 Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey No. 33, p.-393. ; } | PENNSYLVANIAN ROCKS 447 metamorphosed, whereas the Narragansett series has been folded with but httle shearing. NARRAGANSETT SERIES _ The northeastern edge of the Narragansett Basin is in the area south of Sheldonville, Massachusetts, and east of Diamond Hill, Rhode Island, at the northeastern edge of the area mapped in the southern end of the Norfolk Basin. The Narragansett series consists, according to Wood- worth, of four formations: Dighton group, Pawtucket formation,*® Wamsutta red beds, Pondville arkoses, arranged in the order of their stratigraphic position. In the area mapped in this paper the Pawtucket and Wamsutta fomma- tions are exposed, the former along a narrow strip south of the Diamond Hill felsite and the latter on the east of this strip and of the Diamond Hill felsite.*” The structure of the Narragansett series in a section from Arnolds Mills westward is monoclinal, the beds dipping southwest at an angle of about 30 degrees and striking north 75 degrees west. They are cut off by the north-south fault running west of Diamond Hill. Near Sheldon- ville the strike is nearly parallel to the northeast-southwest fault and the dip is about 40 degrees north. The existence of these faults is proven by the dips of the strata near them. The downthrow has apparently been on the side of the Narragan- sett series. The north-south fault past Diamond. Hill was mapped by Woodworth. He also drew a north-south fault east of Sheldonvilte which is shown on the map accompanying this paper. The steep cliff of Joes Rock granite northeast of Sheldonville, and on this fault line, ap- pears to substantiate the existence of the fault. The Wamsutta red beds consist of red conglomerates, shales, and sand- stones. ‘The rocks have been tilted and compressed, as is shown by some of the conglomerates in which the pebbles have been dented or flattened by each other. Near the reservoir east of Diamond Hill there are nu- merous exposures of moderately coarse conglomerates and some inter- bedded red shales. The pebbles in the conglomerate vary in size to about 4 inches in length, but on the average they are one inch in length. They iéThe term Pawtucket formation is introduced in place of the “‘Coal Measures” of Woodworth in order to avoid confusion with the Coal Measures of other localities. 17 Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey No. 33, plate 17. 448 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILIL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT consist of quartzite, felsite (probably Joes Rock type), and fine and coarse granite of the biotite type. Half a mile south of West Wrentham the conglomerate pebbles consist almost wholly of Joes Rock felsite. At Arnolds Mills, near the stream called Abbotts Run, is an exposure of coarse conglomerate lying above fine reddish conglomerate.. The former consists largely of pebbles of Hoppin Hill granite exposed just east of the area mapped, some of which are 10 inches long and 6 inches in diam- eter; also there are quartzite, vein quartz, greenish schist, Joes Rock felsite and quartz porphyry, and red sandstone pebbles of an average length of 4 or 5 inches: all are well rounded. Along the road through Sheldonville there are several exposures of fine conglomerates, red shales, purple fine-grained sandstones, and red sandstones. These sediments are much finer-grained than those farther to the south. In an outcrop just north of the Sheldonville road, at the western end of the village, there is a cast of a Carboniferous tree-trunk 8 inches wide and 114 feet long. , The Pawtucket formation outcrops just south of the area shown on the map. It consists largely of saridstones and shales with some conglom- erates. In one outcrop 10 feet in width nine alternate bands of sand- stones and shales were exposed, the former varying in composition from an arkose to a fine quartz conglomerate. One coarse conglomerate was found 114 miles southeast of Hunting Hill in which some of the pebbles — are 16 inches long. The prevailing strike of these beds is north 38 de- grees east and the dip is 70 degrees south. , The age of the Narragansett series has been considered to be Potts- ville-Allegheny (Pennsylvanian) because of the evidence. furnished by plant remains. Besides these plant impressions, insect remains and a number of impressions of amphibian footprints have been found. Re- cently Mr. W. P. Haynes?® has found impressions of the carapaces of the bivalve crustacea Hstheria sp. and Leaia tricarinata, M. & W., associated with the leaves of Cordaites and Calamites in the Pawtucket formation at Central Falls (5 miles southeast of Arnolds Mills). These fossils in- dicate a Conemaugh age, but are not good horizon markers. BELLINGHAM SERIES In the northwestern part of the area shown on the accompanying map a series of lustrous green schists and sheared conglomerates are exposed in a few outcrops. These rocks occur in greater abundance north of this area, in Bellingham, where there are some amygdaloids.*® This series 18 W. P. Haynes: Science, n. s., vol. xxxvii, 1913, pp. 191-192. 1 This information was kindly furnished by Mr. Laurence La Forge, of Washington, D. C. PENNSYLVANIAN ROCKS 449 extends southward through Woonsocket, as noted by Emerson and Perry. The conglomerates of the Bellingham series in Woonsocket are of very coarse white quartzite pebbles “mashed to rods and plates 12 to 14 inches long.” 2° A similar conglomerate is exposed near the town of Crooks Corners (one mile west of Mechanicsville). Here the conglomerate con- sists of quartzite and Milford granite pebbles varying in length from an inch to a foot, all greatly sheared and mashed, the elongation of the peb- bles being in a north-south direction. Pebbles 1 foot in length have a diameter of 3 inches. ‘They are cemented by a light green paste. LElse- where, as west of Crooks Corners, the green conglomerate is exposed in contact with schist. Often films of biotite have been developed along the shearing planes and on the sides of the platelike pebbles. The latter con- sist principally of white quartzite and green schist derived from the Blackstone series near by. In some of the sheared material the pebbles are one-fourth of an inch thick and 2 inches long or one-third of an inch thick and 3 inches long. The schist of the Bellingham series is dark green, massive, and fine grained. It is exposed in two railroad cuts, one a mile west of Wads- worth and the other west of Crooks Corners, at the margin of the Frank- lin sheet. In thin-sections it is seen to consist of muscovite, quartz, chlorite, and zoisite, with some magnetite. The Bellingham green schist can be distinguished from the green schists of the Blackstone series by its freshness, lack of alteration, and absence of epidote nodules. It is also more massive than the Ashton schists. Its relation to the latter must be an unconformity, but out- crops are so scarce in this drift-covered area that the contact of the two series can not be accurately drawn. The age of the Bellingham series is supposed to be the same as that of the Narragansett series. The character of the rock with its associated amygdaloids places it unquestionably in the Carboniferous. IanEous Rocks PRE-CAMBRIAN Gabbro.—West of Iron Mine Hill is a mass of highly altered gabbro. It is surrounded by pre-Cambrian schist and Milford granite. Several inclusions of the gabbro have been found in the cumberlandite of Iron Mine Hill. A mile west of the West Wrentham railroad station, near the contact of the Milford granite and the quartz diorite, is some pre- 20 Hmerson and Perry: Op. cit., p. 38. 450 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT Cambrian schist and a highly altered and sheared rock which appears to have originally been a gabbro. The latter is intrusive into the schist. This gabbro?* is exposed in a relatively fresh condition only in cuts along a deserted railroad running from Iron Mine Hill to the Woon- socket road, a mile to the west. From this locality it may be traced into a greenish white schist, the extremely sheared and altered phase of the rock. _ The fresh gabbro is a medium to coarse-grained, greenish to brownish rock consisting originally of plagioclase, augite, ilmenite, magnetite, and apatite. In the least altered phase the plagioclase is a. labradorite of about the composition Ab,An,, occurring in tabular crystals. These are comparatively fresh, but are colored brownish by a pigment present within the crystals. ‘The augite has been largely altered to secondary hornblende accompanied by more or less biotite. In this alteration have with the augite, and the adjacent labradorite crystals. Further altera- tion, accompanied by shearing, has saussuritized the feldspar, altered the hornblende and biotite to chlorite and epidote or zoisite, and scattered these products generally through the rock. The remaining ilmenite formed leucoxene. The original texture of the gabbro is thus largely destroyed. Further metamorphism has reduced the rock to a compact ereen schist in which almost all traces of the original rock structure has been lost. For further details of the chemical composition and meta- morphism, etcetera, of this rock the paper above referred to may be consulted. The age of the intrusion of the gabbro is placed in the pre-Cambrian, in part by reason of the evidence found west of West Wrentham, as noted above, and in part by reason of the fact that this gabbro is probably a southwestward extension of a band 2 miles wide of very similar rock ex- tending from near Sheldonville through Sharon to Canton Junction, a distance of 14 miles. The gabbro east of Sheldonville is cut by biotite granite and is, therefore, older than the granite.” Cumberlandite——The cumberlandite is perhaps the most interesting rock petrologically which is found in the area, but as it has been fully described by one of the writers a brief summary will suffice here.2? The rather prominent rounded knob known as “Iron Mine Hill’ consists entirely of this rock. It is exposed as a roughly elliptical, dikelike boss 21 See paper by C. H. Warren in Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 26, 1908, pp. 469-477. 22This rock has been studied by Mr. W. P. Haynes and also by Mr. G. BE. Goodspeed, Jr., whose.field reports were consulted by the writers. 23 Op. cit. IGNEOUS ROCKS 451 having a length of at least 1,200 feet and a width of about 600 feet. It cuts the pre-Cambrian schist on the east and the gabbro on the west. The northern and southern extensions are obscured by drift. The greater part of the mass, as at present exposed, consists of altered phases. The extreme phase is greenish black in color and consists of a dense, fine- grained mass of ilmenite, magnetite, serpentine, chlorite, and actinolite. Its otherwise almost dense texture is relieved by irregular dull green spots of serpentine and chlorite which mark the positions of original lab- radorite phenocrysts. In the less highly altered phases a considerable part of the original olivine remains. The original rock, exposed on the west- ern central side of the hill, consists of a fine-grained groundmass of olivine (hyalosiderite), 40 per cent, and enmeshing magnetite and ilmen- ite, 18 and 20 per cent respectively, crystallographically intergrown. embedding relatively large phenocrysts of labradorite occurring singly and in clusters. ‘The feldspar constitutes about 10 per cent of the whole. In the ore matrix are about 3 per cent of dark green spinal crystals.* In narrow veins traversing the cumberlandite are found crystallizations of actinolite, clinochlore, and hortonolite.2> Occasional narrow veins of fibrous, brittle serpentine also occur in a few places. Many years ago the cumberlandite, containing, as it does, 30 per cent of iron, was mined, and when mixed with hematite ores from other localities, particularly that of Cranston, Rhode Island, is said to have yielded an excellent qua!- ity of iron. It has been more recently exploited, without apparently much success, as a road metal. The cumberlandite is known to be younger than the gabbro on the west. Further than this, there is no evidence concerning its age. It was probably intruded in later pre-Cambrian times and may be a differentiate of a pre-Cambrian magma. It may, on the other hand, be of much later date. Serpentine veins——In a field west of Iron Mine Hill, underlain by either granite or gabbro, probably by the former, there are several large angular boulders of dense, bluish gray serpentine which appear to be almost in place. These boulders form a mass about 5 feet in width, 10 feet in length, and 5 feet in height. Dr. C. T. Jackson in 1840 reported serpentine to occur at this locality in the form of a dike. It is probable that these boulders are in place, but that they have been blasted to make the field suitable for ploughing. The serpentine to the west of the hill 24 Rounded boulders of this rock are abundant in the drift to the southward of Iron Mine Hill, and when deeply altered and covered with rust, as they usually are, they suggest very strongly a meteorite in appearance. Such boulders are, in fact, frequently mistaken for meteorites. 2C. H. Warren: Z. K. No. 19. XXXII—BoLLt. Grot. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 452 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT may be connected in origin with the alteration of the magnesium-rich cumberlandite only a short distance away. | Labradorite porphyry dikes—Three dikes of labradorite porphyry have been found, all of which cut the Ashton schists. One of them is half a mile east of Sneech Pond, a few hundred feet south of the upper road. A second is found north of Iron Mine Hill outcropping in a north-south road. A third and narrow dike (4 inches) is noted by Johnson,”® cut- ting the gabbro southwest of Iron Mine Hill. At the first locality the rock is dark gray and badly weathered, and the large labradorite phenocrysts, many of which were one inch long, have now in large part disappeared, calcite being deposited in their place. A thin-section shows that the rock consists of large labradorite phenocrysts in a fine groundmass of lath-shaped labradorite, biotite, calcite, magne- tite, and quartz. In the dike north of Iron Mine Hill the rock is also dark gray in color, but is fine grained. The feldspars are about one-eighth of an inch long, and are well striated. There are several outcrops in this locality, but the contact with the Ashton schist is not exposed. The dike is cui by numerous stringers of Milford granite. The dike east of Sneech Pond shows shearing and long weathering. The age of these dikes is post-Ashton schist, pre-Milford granite, proba- bly late pre-Cambrian. MIDDLE DEVONIAN Quartz diorite—Quartz diorite outcrops in four localities in the area mapped. The largest and most conspicuous is a mass of irregular out- line beginning west of West Wrentham and extending south and south- west toward Iron Mine Hill. The boundaries of this mass are concealed by drift. Another mass is found south of Grants Mills. It outcrops in several places and appears to underlie the valley at this place. A third locality is found at the extreme southern end of the area, south of Hunt- ing Hill. Here again lowlands and drift conceal most of the bedrock. The fourth locality is a dikelike mass only a few square feet in area, $9 far as can be judged from the outcrop, a half-mile north of Albion. Emerson and Perry mapped this outcrop and reported another “at the northern foot of Copper Mine Hill, on the northern border of the green schist area at the contact of the schist and the granite.” ** This outcrop was not found by the writers, and is therefore not mapped. The main mass of quartz diorite is well exposed both west and soutkh- 2% Loc. cit. 2 Op. cit., p. 45. IGNEOUS ROCKS 453 west of the West Wrentham station. The rock is dark gray in color and consists essentially of plagioclase feldspar, abundant biotite, and subor- dinate microcline and quartz. It is fine in grain and somewhat schistose in texture. In thin-section the plagioclase is apparently an oligoclase and is more or less automorphic in habit. Mlicrocline, with a small amount of plagioclase intergrown with it, is distinctly subordinate to the oligoclase in amount. The quartz is crushed and is less abundant than the microcline. Biotite is abundant, mostly in the form of small flakes unevenly disseminated through the rock. Grains of iron oxide, probably titaniferous, since they are often margined with leucoxenic material, and apatite are accessory, while epidote and sericite are abundant secondary products. The last two, together with much of the biotite, are scattered through the plagioclase crystals. The rock has evidently been subjected to considerable metamorphism. The quartz diorite of this locality is cut by many small dikes of a fine biotite granite of the Milford type, and these appear to resemble very closely the fine granite which occurs in small amount northwest of Grants Mills near the State line. Another mass of quartz diorite outcrops prominently on the west side of the road leading from Grants Mills to Diamond Hill. A little farther west this is replaced by large ledges of the Grants Mills granite, which here seems to grade distinctly toward the diorite in mineral composition, but the contact or transition, whichever it is, between these two is unfor- tunately not exposed. A similar quartz diorite is found in the fields southeast of Grants Mills and also in the fields west of the quarry on Diamond Hill. The quartz diorite from this Grants-Mills-Diamond Hill locality is a rather dark greenish gray rock, fine in grain and quite strongly sheared. It consists of heavily saussuritized oligoclase or andesine feldspar (filled with zoisite, etcetera), abundant pale green hornblende, subordinate quartz, and little or no microcline. The accessories are magnetite or ilmenite, zircon, and apatite. Some leucoxene has developed. The third locality is south of Hunting Hill, in the southern part of the field. The quartz diorite is here a dark gray-green rock of about the same grain as that west of West Wrentham. The plagioclase is andesine and is very heavily altered. Much chlorite is present, probably secondary after biotite. The southern extension of this mass has not been traced. The Albion quartz diorite occurs apparently as a small dike cutting Cumberland quartzite. The outcrop is situated a few feet west of the railroad track, near the first quartzite outcrop north of Albion. The tock is very dark gray in color and shows hornblende crystals. In thin- 454 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT section it is seen to consist of plagioclase (probably andesine), much altered green hornblende, biotite with abundant magnetite (much of it in the hornblende), sericite, and apatite. ‘The presence of hornblende suggests that this rock is much like that at Grants Mills. ‘The quartz diorites in the four localities named are apparently very closely related rocks and doubtless are identical as to origin and age. West of West Wrentham the diorite clearly cuts the pre-Cambrian Ashton schist and probably cuts also the gabbro. It is itself cut by dikes of the Milford type of granite. Although somewhat metamorphosed, as is also the Milford type of granite in the region about the diorite, neither are anywhere nearly so strongly metamorphosed as are the pre-Cambrian rocks which they cut. At Lime Rock, 3 miles south of bina’. in the limestone quarry, - Emerson and Perry found diorite pebbles in a conglomerate belonging to the Ashton schist series. Near by they found a diorite ledge with several types of rock, some of which resembled those shown in the pebbles. On this evidence they conclude that the diorite is older than the Ashton schist. There is no good reason why there may not have been diorites of pre-Ashton schist age in the area, exposed during the deposition of the schist and from which the diorite pebbles may have been derived; but the diorite found near the pebbles has not necessarily any connection with the latter. The other masses of diorite described above are quite clearly intrusive into the pre-Cambrian schist. Moreover, at a locality west of West Wrentham, as described above, pebbles of granite were found ia the Ashton schist conglomerate, the pebbles resembling the Milford type of granite and its fine-grained porphyritic phases; and yet the Milford granite cuts the schist only a few hundred feet from the conglomerate outcrop. From what has been said it appears that the quartz diorite ot this area is at least later than the pre-Cambrian schist, although it ap- pears to have come into place before the granites. | Milford grante-—The Milford granite extends from its best known locality at Milford, Massachusetts, southward through the area mapped inthis paper to a point below Providence, Rhode Island. The typical granite, like that from the well known quarries at Milford, Massachu- setts, is a pale pinkish to cream colored rock of medium grain and dis- tinctly gneissoid structure, marked by irregular streaks or linearly ar- | ranged patches of black mica, and to a less extent by a banded arrange- ment of the quartz and feldspar. The quartz is in large part “sugary.” Emerson and Perry?® state that the quartz is blue. So far as our ex- 28 Loc., cit., p. 45. IGNEOUS ROCKS 455 perience goes, the quartz of the quarry granite is not characteristicaliy blue, nor is what we should call “blue quartz” always characteristic of this granite in the present area. With a lens; and sometimes without, minute epidote grains may be seen, usually associated with the biotite, and also occasional reddish garnets. In thin-section the rock is seen to consist of distinct crystals of albite or albite oligoclase, finely twinned after the albite, less commonly the Carlsbad law, and always more or less filled with minute grains or rods of epidotic material and scales of white mica; crystals of orthoclase or “oitter’” microcline, somewhat kaolinized, in which are irregular thin lamelle of albite, are rather sparingly present; quartz, sometimes as regular grains, but much more generally in the form of granular mosaics; strongly pleochroic, dark greenish brown to yellow biotite in ‘shreds and flakes, to some extent scattered, but usually strung along through the rock in streaks and elongated patches in which grains, crystals, and granular aggregates of epidote, garnet, and occasionally orthite crystals, the latter margined by epidote, are present. Some epi- dote and garnet occur sporadically. The feldspar crystals possess little of definite outline, although the albite sometimes indents the microcline and shows, of the two, a tendency toward more automorphic outlines. The quartz is often strung out into elongate granular streaks between the feldspars, and with the mica gives a strongly gneissoid appearance to the rock. | The characteristic thing about this granite, as of all the biotite gran- ites of this and neighboring areas, in contrast to the riebeckite granites, is that there are present distinct crystals of sodic plagioclase and ortho- clase or “gitter” microcline, the latter containing a little perthitically intergrown highly sodic feldspar; that there is epidote and sometimes garnet and orthite present, and that the dark constituent is biotite. This granite in the area here described differs from the quarry granite at Milford in being in part more sheared, frequently with the develop- ment of blue quartz and also of films of muscovite along the planes of shearing. In the central and eastern parts of the area the granite is per- haps rather finer grained than the quarry granite and not so greatly sheared as to the westward. The intensely sheared variety is well exposed in several Grand Trunk Railway cuts northeast of Woonsocket between the first and second roads south of the State line. In some places the rock has become in appear- ance a mica schist. The feldspar has been granulated with the quartz, but occasionally retains its pinkish color. | Kast of the gabbro near Iron Mine Hill the rock has a granulitic 456 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT texture-alternating bands of finely granular quartz and feldspar. Only a few feldspars retain their original size. The Milford granite cuts the pre-Cambrian metamorphic series and is older than the riebeckite granite. | Joes Rock gramte, porphyry, and felsite——In the upland country north of Sheldonyille and in a small area near the Massachusetts-Rhode Island State line just south of West Wrentham, a pink granite is exposed. In places it becomes fine and aplitic; in others it is almost felsitic, again a quartz or feldspar porphyry. 7 This granite is in fault contact with the Carboniferous Narragansett series in a fault running in a northeast-southwest direction just. north of Sheldonville. Another fault in a north-south direction east of Sheldon- ville probably exists, although its extension for over a mile north of the other fault is doubtful. On the east side of this fault Joes Rock granite occurs, extending eastward through Foxboro. The exposure of granite south of West Wrentham is separated from the Narragansett series by a valley filled with glacial drift, but the sediments are known to rest un- conformably on the granite. The granite extends northward through Franklin, where it is exposed in the southern part of the village. Its extension farther north has not been traced; but, from the evidence presented below, it is probable that the granite continues northward to Ded#dham and merges into the Dedhain granite. On the western side of Joes Rock the valley is filled with Pleistocene deposits completely covering the bedrock. Therefore the relation of the Joes Rock granite to the Milford granite can only be inferred from their petrographical characters. The typical Joes Rock granite has been exposed by mining operations near Sheldonville, described below. The freshest rock exposed is a coarsely crystalline feldspar quartz rock with occasional red or green spots. The pink feldspars sometimes attain a size of one-half inch square, but the average size is somewhat smaller than this. The quartz grains are about the same size, but more rounded than the feldspars. The occasional red patches consist principally of hematite and magne- tite, the green patches, of chlorite. Under the microscope the rock is seen to consist essentially of quartz, plagioclase, and microperthite, with some hematite, magnetite, sericite, chlorite, epidote, and calcite. The plagioclase is an albite or albite oligo- clase and is hypidiomorphic in outline. The microperthite is slightly more abundant than the plagioclase. ‘The microperthite consists of an intergrowth of microcline and subordinate sodic plagioclase. The quartz IGNEOUS ROCKS 457 shows undulatory extinctions indicating shearing and it has often been granulated. The feldspar, however, has not been greatly affected. The biotite is now largely altered, the hematite in the rock being doubtless a resulting product. The characteristic features of the rock are the small amount of femic minerals, richness in quartz, and the presence of sepa- rately crystallized sodic plagioclase. The microperthite is more abun- dant and richer in plagioclase than the type Milford granite. In the northern part of the area west of Uncas Pond the granite con- tains more or less light greenish feldspar as well as the pinkish feldspar. This makes the rock appear similar to the Dedham granite which occurs about 17 miles farther northeast. It is probable that these granites belong to the same batholithic injection. The fine granite phase of the Joes Rock granite occurs on the hill south of West Wrentham on which the Cambrian pebbles have been found. it also.occurs one-half mile north of Joes Rock. It is a pinkish to purplish rock with distinctly visible crystals and very little femic material. In the northeastern corner of the area, south of Uncas Pond, is a feldspar porphyry with white plagioclase feldspar phenocrysts one-sixteenth to one-fourth of an inch long in a fine-grained pink groundmass; also there is a quartz porphyry of fine grain and dark gray color within a few hun- dred feet of the feldspar porphyry. A felsite of dark red color outcrops on the hill one mile south of West Wrentham. An aplitic phase of the Joes Rock granite outcrops on the road froin Sheldonville to Franklin, 2 miles north of the former town. It is a very fine-grained rock, pale pink to dull red in color. Small feldspars one-sixteenth of an inch in length and a few small chlorite nodules are visible in the rock. Under the microscope it is found to consist of com- paratively large plagioclase and some microperthite crystals in a more finely crystalline mass of quartz, plagioclase, microperthite, and a very small amount of calcite and chlorite. The plagioclase is an albite oligo- clase and is free from sericite. Contact specimens of the fine and coarse granite have been found which show that the latter retains its coarse crystal form to the sharp line of contact. The aplitic phase probably represents a marginal facies now included in the granite. On top of Joes Rock, and near Franklin, 3 miles north of Joes Rock, are several outcrops of pre-Cambrian green schist. Another mass of Ashton schist was found near the Sheldonville quartz vein described below. These are inclusions in the granite and they indicate that the granite intruded the pre-Cambrian; also they show that the latter for- merly had a much wider distribution than at present. 458 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT At Hoppin Hill, south of Attleboro and 2144 miles southeast of Arnolds Mills, is an exposure of coarse biotite granite similar to that of Joes Rock ; for convenience, it may be called the Hoppin Hill granite. The large potash feldspar crystals are the most conspicuous feature of the rock and give it something of a porphyritic habit and also its character- istic pinkish color. ‘These feldspars may reach a length of one inch and have a thickness of one-third of an inch. The proportions of the two feldspars to the quartz is about the same as in the Joes Rock granite, but biotite or its chloritic alteration appear to be more abundant. Thin-sections show that the feldspars are oligoclase and microcline con- taining the usual perthitically intergrown lamelle of albite or oligoclase. The oligoclase and microcline microperthite are about equal in amount, and the former contains the usual minute inclusions of secondary min- erals. The biotite is largely altered to chlorite. As the rock appears to have been only slightly metamorphosed, the quartz retains its original large grains with the usual allotriomorphic outlines. The general tex- tural relations of the minerals are those found for the two previously described granites. | Grants Mulls granite—In a narrow north-south belt passing through Grants Mills a coarse biotite granite is exposed which will be called here the Grants Mills granite. ‘There is a small quarry in this rock near the State line, at the side of the railroad running through Grants Mills. It is also well exposed on the hill west of there; other good outcrops occur along the north-south road a mile north of Hunting Hill. This granite is closely associated with the Milford granite, but the boundaries between the two can not be accurately drawn because of lack of outcrops. A fine- ~ grained aplitic to feebly porphyritic granite appears northwest of Grants Mills cutting the other granites. Megascopically this granite is a coarse, rather unevenly grained rock of cream, pale greenish or even pinkish color. The rather abundant larger feldspars are unstriated and attain a length of an inch or over; it is these that are sometimes greenish or pink and give color to the rock. The remainder of the rock is a rather coarse mixture of quartz and feld- spar in which are quite numerous specks and platy aggregates of dark green to black biotite or chlorite. Locally the granite has been strongly sheared. The feldspars are microcline or orthoclase, with some interwoven plagi- oclase and albite or albite oligoclase. In amount they are probably about equal. The plagioclase is the more automorphic of the two; it contains many minute secondary crystallizations, and in the run of sections, which do not contain the larger potash feldspar crystals, seems to predominate. IGNEOUS ROCKS 459 Biotite, now more or less altered to chlorite, is quite abundant. The fine granite appears to be an aplitic phase of the same granite. Comparison of the biotite granites—Comparing the Grants Mills and the Joes Rock granites, we find that they are substantially the same rock mineralogically and texturally, or at most they show only minor differ- ences. ‘There seems to be no reason why they may not belong to the same intrusion. ‘To the northeast of the present area, at Franklin, they ap- pear to blend, and further northward, in Sharon, they appear to merge into the Dedham granite, which, although on the whole somewhat finer in grain, possesses essentially the same mineralogical and textural features. Compared with the Milford granite, they are coarser in grain and show a greater tendency toward a porphyritic habit. The Milford granite is also, as a rule, much more strongly sheared. Aside from the tendency of the Grants Mills and the Joes Rock granites to develop larger crystals of microcline or orthoclase, they are texturally very similar to the less _ sheared phase of the Milford, and mineralogically they are substantially the same. So far as we can see, there is no field evidence to show that they are not of the same age and belong to one batholithic intrusion. It has not been possible to carry out a chemical study of the various types, but the microscopic evidence makes it highly improbable that there are any substantial differences chemically between them. Such differences as exist are not other than might be expected in different parts of a large batholithic intrusion such as the Milford batholith undoubtedly is, and until some positive field evidence is brought forward to show that they are of different age, we hold it best to group them all together as belong- ing to one period of batholithic intrusion. We may remark here that a careful chemical study of the various types of biotite granites in eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island is desirable. It is true that three analyses of the Milford have been made and pub- lished,”? but study of them shows wide variations in several respects and leads to the suspicion that either they were not executed on suitably chosen samples or that there are errors in the analyses. At all events, they are as they stand of doubtful value from the petrographical point of view. The age of these granites is known to be pre-Carboniferous because pebbles of them occur abundantly in the Narragansett series. On the east side of Hoppin Hill, north of the railroad track, the granite out- crops within 50 feet of the red Lower Cambrian shale. South of the railroad, 150 feet north of the road across the reservoir, are outcrops of 2 These are quoted by Dale in Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey No. 358. 460 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT buff-colored sandstone or quartzite within 50 feet of the granite. This outcrop is now exposed only when the water in the adjoining reservoir is exceptionally low, but unfortunately the actual contact is even then under the groundwater level and can not, therefore, be seen. The granite is considered to be intrusive for the following reasons: (1) The strike of the Lower Cambrian fossiliferous sediments is in part at high angles . to the line of outcrop of the granite; (2) the dip of the Cambrian is at a high angle, usually toward the granite; (3) the line of outcrop of the granite is irregular, apparently due to intrusion and not to faulting; (4) the Cambrian sediments nearest the granite are, in outcrops within a few hundred feet of each other, red shale, limestone, and sandstone— a relation which could not be brought about by simple faulting.*° Many years ago excavations were made on the west side of Hoppin Hill which showed the granite in fault contact with the sediments. ‘The gran- ite has been considered to be pre-Cambrian because it was coarsely crys- talline in its nearest outcrops to the Cambrian and because the latter showed no evidences of contact metamorphism. This reasoning does not seem sufficient to the writers to place the granite in the pre-Cambrian, for experience in this field generally shows that such granites. sometimes remain coarse grained to within a few inches of their contact, nor do the sediments necessarily show evidences of strong metamorphism at distances as great as 50 feet from the contacts. : The only other evidence concerning the age of the granites is unsatis- factory. As discussed above, Foerste found Cambrian boulders on the Joes Rock granite hill south of West Wrentham. Furthermore, he says: “Along the brow of the hill westward, the granite is seen to inclose long thin layers of an argillitic purplish or brownish rock, which may possibly be fragments of the Olenellus Cambrian shale hardened by metamorphism. It is impossible to determine from these inclusions whether the granite of these regions is to be considered as pre- or post-Cambrian in age. If the fragmental inclusions referred to be Olenellus Cambrian shales the granite must evidently be considered as post-Cambrian.” 5 These inclusions of metamorphosed slate are, in our opinion, Lower Cambrian. From this and the other evidence presented in the field it seems best to date the subalkaline granites as post-Lower Cambrian. The age of the earlier series of Paleozoic biotite granites of New England must, we believe, be determined from relations found in Maine and in Nova Scotia. Near Hastport, Maine, the granites cut Silurian volcanics and pebbles of the granites are found in the Perry Basin sediments of Chemung (Upper Devonian) age. At Torbrook, Nictaux, Nova Scotia, 30 For a map of a part of this locality see U. S. Geol. Survey Monograph 33, plate 37. IGNEOUS ROCKS 461 the biotite granites cut slates of Oriskany (Lower Devonian) age, and arkose derived from the same granites is found in the Horton series of Pocono (Lower Mississippian) age at Horton Bluff. Therefore, the age of these granites of the eastern Appalachians is inferred to be Middle Devonian. LOWER PENNSYLVANIAN Diamond Hill felsite——In the region about Diamond Hill, east of the north-south fault which separates the biotite granite series from the Nar- ragansett sedimentary series, is a large mass of felsite. Diamond Hill, as will be shown below, forms a part of the felsite area and has been ex- tensively replaced by silica. The extent of the felsite is 2 miles in length and three-quarters of a mile in breadth. Another small occurrence of similar felsite has been found just northeast of the area here mapped. The felsite is in general a fine-grained dense, dark green rock showing occasional phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar. It is everywhere highly altered, and in the vicinity of Diamond Hill quartz veins of microscopic and megascopic size ramify it. In general, the felsite to the south is lighter green in color than that to the north, and where it is partly re- placed by silica, it is light brown in color, resembIng a fine-grained sand- stone in appearance. The felsite just south of the Massachusetts-Rhode Island State line resembles a green schist, it being very dark green in color, with occasional patches of chlorite. It is cut by calcite veins which vary in width up to one-eighth of an inch. The unsilicified felsite of Diamond Hill is a dark greenish rock of aphanitic texture. Under the microscope it is seen to consist of a fine, indefinite mixture of feldspar and quartz, chlorite, calcite, sericite, and magnetite, sprinkled with grains of epidote. With this material are grains and patches of coarser epidote and an occasional phenocryst of plagioclase and quartz. ‘The feldspar phenocrysts are badly altered and can not be determined very accurately, but may be as basic as andesine. A part of the quartz may be secondary. The felsite from near the Massachusetts-Rhode Island line consists of feldspar and femic constituents or their alteration products and a minor amount of quartz. The feldspar appears to be oligoclase. Epidote is not present to any extent, but magnetite and calcite are, the chlorite often occurring in patches evidently secondary after some original femic con- stituent. Near the outcrop of this-felsite is another of a light pinkish color. It is essentially aphanitic in texture, but shows a few phenocrysts of albite-oligoclase feldspar and quartz; also patches of chloritic material. It is also considerably altered. 462 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT Northeast of Grants Mills is developed what appears to be a flow of felsite which has incorporated a great number of angular fragments of felsite—a felsite flow breccia. he fragments vary in size, one-quarter of an inch being perhaps an average size. The rock is badly weathered, films of limonite being developed about the felsite fragments, so that they can be easily. separated from the matrix. Farther north is a sheared phase of the same rock. It appears that these felsites represent a series of flows from a fissure or fissures or a central vent probably located under Diamond Hill. The flows are of shghtly varying composition (rhyolitic or dacitic), as indi- cated by their microscopic characters, and they were in all probability ex- truded in Wamsutta (Lower Pennsylvanian) time and presumably had a much wider extension formerly than at present. The contact between the Narragansett series‘is not exposed and it is therefore not certain whether the flows are interbedded with this series or not. Felsite does occur interbedded with the sediments at a point several miles away (see below). Neither can the direction of the flows be very well determined. Wamsutta volcanoes.—Woodworth found a series of interbedded dia- bases and felsites in the Wamsutta formation of the Narragansett series. These outcrop around the margin of the horseshoe-shaped fold in which the Wamsutta is exposed. The felsites are found near South Attleboro, the diabases from North Attleboro to South Attleboro, and around the horseshoe up toward Arnold Mills; also there are some amygdaloids as exposed near 158 Elm Street, North Attleboro. Later studies have shown that these igneous rocks are probably surficial lava flows. Wood- worth says: “The peculiar features of the Wamsutta series—the rapid thickening of the sandstones and conglomerates toward the northwest corner of the present area, the felsites with definite flow structure, the gray ash beds or Attleboro sandstone, the agglomerates composed in large part of felsite pebbles—all point to a voleano or volcanoes existing in this field in Carboniferous time.’ * Woodworth concluded that the source of these volcanics was probably from vents now occupied by the granite porphyries in Cumberland. It seems more probable, however, that this series of lava flows represent local fissure eruptions. Diamond Hill is composed of felsite of similar age to that at South Attleboro, but the distance between these two places is over 6 miles. Furthermore, the stratigraphic distance is 7 or 8 miles because of the folding of the Narragansett series. Therefore it seems best to explain the South Attleboro felsites and diabases and the Diamond Hill felsites by local fissure eruptions of contemporaneous age. 4% Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey 33, p. 155. IGNEOUS ROCKS 463 MIDDLE PENNSYLVANIAN Riebeckite-wgirite granite-—West of Diamond Hill, on Copper Mine Hill, is a considerable mass of alkaline granite with which is associated granite porphyry as a contact phase. A small boss of the same granite outcrops 2 miles north of the main mass. Several quarries have been opened in the granite, the most accessible of them being situated about a ‘mile northwest of Diamond Hill. | The fresh granite is a medium, inclining to a fine-grained rock of a light gray color, with often a slightly bluish or greenish shade. In addi- tion to its granitic texture, it possesses a slightly gneissoid structure. Megascopically it consists of distinct, gray or slightly bluish or greenish- eray unstriated feldspar crystals which will average not far from 2 milli- meters in length by somewhat less in width; quartz, for the most part finely granular (sugary) in character; abundant small, black, lustrous prismoids of black hornblende, and less easily detected particles of dark- green egirite. The hornblende grains are sometimes nearly as large as the feldspar, though in general smaller. The dark minerals possess a certain amount of alignment through the rock, which is responsible in large part for the feeble gneissoid texture above noted. Grains of purple fluorite may occasionally be detected. With a pocket lens many minute scales of a bright brownish yellow (dull brown in weathered specimens) mineral can be seen which the microscope shows are astrophyllite.*?| The smaller grain of the quartz and hornblende relative to the feldspar, as the result of movement or crushing, produces the effect of a porphyritic texture, and indeed some portions of the rock, probably from its marginal parts, seem to have originally possessed a porphyritic texture. In the writers’ opinion, however, the rock as a whole is not correctly defined as having a porphyritic texture, though Emerson and Perry*? apparently call it a porphyry. Tn altered specimens the quartz is often stained yellow, as are also to some extent the feldspars, while the hornblende, etcetera, have gone .over to magnetite and other ferruginous products. Thin-sections examined under the microscope show that the minerals present are microcline microperthite, quartz, riebeckite, and egirite, with astrophyllite, fluorite, zircon, ilmenite (?), and a leucoxenic (?) material as accessories. The microperthite is an albite-microcline intergrowth and possesses much the same characteristics as that of the well known Quincy granite to the north. The intergrowth appears in general, however, to be - 31 Some biotite -occurs, but this is pretty certainly the remnants of small.inclusions of schist, diorite, or granite. 22 Op. cit., p. 53. 464. WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT somewhat more patchy in character, and albite is not in general developed about the margins of the grains to the same extent as in the Quincy gran- ite ;°° albite in separate crystals about the larger feldspars is also of rare occurrence. The microcline member is somewhat altered and shows, as compared with the albite, a marked tendency to include microliths of riebeckite and zgirite, which are abundant in the feldspar, as is the case in the Quincy granite and such rocks generally. Of all the minerals- present, the microperthite is the most nearly automorphic, the crystals showing a rather strong tendency toward rectangular forms, although the margins, if originally well defined, which is doubtful, have been destroyed by shearing. Quartz, in grains comparable in size with the feldspar, may sometimes be seen, but even these show very broken extinctions, and most of the quartz is in the form of granular mosaics or streaks of small grains. The riebeckite sometimes forms good sized, irregular crystals, but is generally in smaller irregular prismoids or splinters and commonly shows a strong tendency toward subparallel aggregation, doubtless a result of movement. It is always of the strongly absorbing, pleochroic variety, deep blue or bluish green to black for the rays near c’ and b, yellow or greenish yellow © for the ray near d. ‘The extinction is small (6 degrees to 8 degrees) on the cleavage. In short, it appears to be the same riebeckite that has been described in the Quincy granite.** ; The pyroxene appears to be a pure egirite and is closely associated with the riebeckite, sometimes in parallel intergrowth with it, but more often irregularly grown into or upon it in the form of small prismoids, often with a subradial arrangement. A mineral having the characteristics of astrophyllte or a closely re- lated species is an important and quite abundant accessory. It is found in the form of slender plates or fibers about the riebeckite and egirite, between their grains, along their cleavages, or penetrating the crystals irregularly ; a small amount is found alone lying along the boundaries of the feldspar and quartz grains. It sometimes forms minute clusters and stellate groups. With its bright colors, yellow to orange, and marked micaceous habit, it is a striking constituent of the rock. While this min- eral is a rare constituent of the Quincy granite, it is here very abundant and is perhaps the leading peculiarity of this granite. Zircon 1s present, but comparatively rare, at least in a form that can be positively identified. Fluorite, on the other hand, is common and may 33°C. H. Warren: Petrology of the alkali-granites and porphyries of Quincy and the Blue Hills, Massachusetts. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 49, No. 5, 1913, p. 213. % Loc. cit., pp. 216-219. - oe IGNEOUS ROCKS 465 be locally very abundant. While sometimes colorless, it is often of a deep | purple color. It forms shapeless grains or aggregates and is commonly found in close association with the riebeckite and wegirite. It is also com- monly found associated with a finely granular material whose exact char- acter is somewhat in doubt. This material forms masses of minute rounded or irregular grains which rarely reach a diameter of 0.2 milli- meter. ‘They are colorless to pale yellow, are usually filled with dusty particles, possess a high index of refraction, a strong double refraction, and not infrequently an obscure fibrous, radiated structure. In reflected light they have the peculiar white color generally associated with leu- coxenic material. This granular material is very closely associated with the egirite and riebeckite, particularly along zones in which shearing seems to have been particularly strong. The grains appear sometimes to be a replacement of egirite or perhaps of the riebeckite which occurs with it. In some instances black oxide particles are found in the granules. Though the properties described for this material are not very positive, itis thought that it is in the nature of a leucoxenic alteration®’ developed during the period of shearing, and is also very likely closely connected with pneumatolitic action prevailing in the granite at that time. In fact, the general textural appearance of the granite is such as to suggest that the shearing may have accompanied the intrusion and consolidation of the rock when mineralizers were still active, and that the granular ma- terial described, as well as the astrophyllite, were a product of this period which also affected the textural relations of the riebeckite, egirite, and quartz. Quantitatiwe studies.—lt has not been possible for the writers to make chemical analyses of the riebeckite rocks. However, a Rosiwal estimate of the mineral composition has been carried out on a large thin-seetion cut from a typical specimen of granite from one of the quarries. Although not as precise as could be desired, on account of the textural peculiarities of the rock, it will serve to show very well the approximate mineral com- position, and from it has been calculated the approximaté chemical com- position. These are given below, together with a chemical analysis of the “riebeckite porphyry” *° from the same mass, of the Quincy granite, and of the riebeckite granite from the Island of Sokotra. 85> This identification is supported by the occurrence of titanite as an alteration product of the riebeckite in the Quincy granite (loc. cit., p. 217). 86The specimen on which this analysis was made is said by Emerson and Perry to have come from the ‘‘top of hill one mile northeast of Sneech Pond,’ which according to their map would seem to be in their ‘“‘granite-porphyry” area. From their description and from the writers’ acquaintance with the field, it would appear to be a granite porphyry representing (see later) a phase of the igneous mass occurring nearer the porphyry than the granite of the quarry whose composition has been estimated by us. 466 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—-CUMBERLAND DISTRICT I Tel III Heldspary cas 2 he tedss Sie Miata Sinpetne phe rete tera else eae eee teae 48.9 55.6 52.6 QUTAT EZ FPS PUTS OR RRs Ue Na ire nae ne ee eae 35.0 33.3 41.4 ee amare Ie Seam Aw Weary! 1 Baa. Pansat 8.5 } 9.6 6.0 PN ya} ts] = Par GR are Th a GRR IEA Uae eG ah a me nd Re ala 8 tO MCECRSSOTICS) Ho ipa ins Chae Se eee ee AER eat a aE 2.3 1 4 0) 321) PR ea ee A ran ae Cope mae Soh A ear fies Oral cs. 100.0 100.0 100.0 NS) OB GPT Bio PS MAR Pe SE re Ar Pie Tate Ty AR SAR 2.73 2.66 la Ila Illa IV Saree ARI e Tr eer as, 2 maar ee Rawat 74.9 74.86 78.49 (Aoi PENT © UP ptt carpets Airey id ee pa cesar tr aa, Bey Fane 9.3 6m 9.99 a Ws ays He Ose oca 4iS Bec Bee kA ee Sn a pe a oye fh 2.29 1.94 2.58 EOD acc ale as eae shar anced ae 1.8 1,25) 1.18 3.66 CAO eae elie eels ss hi ee ee gener Bee AL .30 vé3) INAS Ours faks Sean ncone tin big han Micra nsuaieean i 4.0 4.30 3.74 5.56 1 GA a Nana a agree aE Pet Saige tae | ea ed Se 4.2 4.64 3.84 3.66 AVESE Wiehe Sa eRe ee Se eels ae See 25 .81 ceil > SL > VvvvY VV VvvYvVVYVYYVv Vey Grants Mills granite Vein quartz VAs Quartz diorite Felsite PRS Cumberlandite Narragansett series ++ Gabbro Riebeckite granite Ashton schist Milford granite FIGURE 2.—Geological Section through Copper Mine Hill See AA on map, page 437 consequently show now no riebeckite nor egirite, but in their place is found abundant magnetite, together with other alteration poducts. The phenocrysts of microperthite are fairly abundant, the quartz being usually larger than the feldspar. | From the mineral and textural character described and from their field relations, it seems clear to the writers that the riebeckite-egirite rocks represent the upward projections of a single intrusion of a siliceous alkaline magma, and that the porphyritic phases represent simply’ the more quickly cooled marginal facies of the magma. Around the margin of the granite, as on the southeast, the rock becomes a porphyry. The granite and porphyry cut only the pre-Cambrian metamorphics and the granite of the Milford type. The stock does not appear to have been 470 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT. uncovered until after Carboniferous times; at least no fragments of it have been identified in the conglomerates of the Narragansett series. The accompanying sections, AA and BB, will serve to convey the au- thors’ conception of the structure relations of the riebeckite and asso- ciated rocks. The mineral composition of the riebeckite-wgirite rocks here as well as their mode of occurrence are closely analogous to those of the Quincy- Blue Hille batholith 20 miles to the north, as well as to a small interme- diate mass at Rattlesnake Hill, Sharon, Massachusetts,*? and there can be no doubt that the two masses: possess a similar origin and history and are of the same age of intrusion. ‘The Quincy mass is later than the Middle Cambrian and earlier than the Norfolk Basin conglomerates of Carboniferous age. If the three occurrences are of the same age, we have proof now that they are later and cut the biotite granite series, just as the similar alkaline rocks to the north of Boston cut the biotite granite (Saugus) of that region. The age of the alkaline granites is apparently the same as that of the Sterling granite of southern Rhode Island, the younger series of granites of western Massachusetts, and the alkaline granites of northeastern Massachusetts. As shown by Loughlin,* the Sterling granite cuts the Kingstown series of the Narragansett Basin, which is the equivalent of the Pawtucket formation on the north, and pebbles of the granite are found in the Dighton conglomerate. The dias- trophism which accompanied the intrusions of these various batholiths took place in Middle Pennsylvanian time, as is shown both in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick (above the Mispec, Riversdale-Union and Coal Meas- ures) and in the Narragansett Basin. 41TIn the fall of 1912 Dr. KF. H. Lahee called the writer’s attention to the occurrence at Rattlesnake Hill, Sharon, Massachusetts, about 10 miles southwest of the Blue Hills and an equal distance northwest of Diamond Hill-Cumberland area, of a hitherto un- known small stock of riebeckite granite. This occurrence has since been studied by Messrs. W. L. Whitehead and R. C. Foster under the direction of Doctor Lahee and the writer, and the results were incorporated in thesis for the bachelor’s degree in geology. Their report may be summarized as follows: A coarse-grained riebeckite granite iden- tical with the Quincy granite in general appearance and in mineral composition, except that no egirite is present, occurs on Rattlesnake Hill. This is surrounded on all sides by a fine-grained granite of the same composition, the whole forming a roughly circular mass about one mile in diameter. Contacts are not exposed, but the mass is surrounded on all sides by a biotite granite of the type found in Weymouth and Dedham. 'The coarse and fine granite appear to blend rapidly into one another. Occasional pegmatitic spots are found with very coarse riebeckite crystals. There can be no doubt that in this mass we have another upward extension (cupola) of the alkaline granite magma more largely developed to the north in Quincy and the Blue Hills and to the south near Diamond Hill, Rhode Island. The riebeckite granite of Sharon is almost identical, so far as can be told without an analysis, with the fine granite of eastern and southern Quincy and northern Weymouth, and there appears to be no doubt but that the relations of the coarse and fine granite in the two localities are identical.—C. H. WARREN. * Am. Jour. Sci., vol. 29, 1910, pp. 447-457, and vol. 32, 1911, pp. 17-32. IGNEOUS ROCKS 471 Diamond Hill quartz deposits—This hill is undoubtedly the most striking geologic feature of the whole area. On the west the hill rises abruptly from a flat valley to a height of 280 feet. Its western top forms a jagged, picturesque ridge, barely covered by a scanty growth of small brush. The whole hill covers about one-third of a square mile, and of this at least one-third is either quartz or highly silicified felsite. To the east of the ridge, which is quartz, the hill slopes off rather gradually and is made up of felsite more or less cut by quartz veins for some distance away from the main center of silicification. The hill was briefly referred to by Woodworth in his report on the Narragansett Basin and was made the subject of a careful study by Messrs. R. A. Barber and H. 8. Mears.* The western third of the hill is practically a replacement of felsite by quartz largely in the form of veins. These vary in width from those of microscopic dimensions to those 5 inches in width, and many of the Cumberland Arnolds Hill Dike Malls y {- M7 i, 4 s Fe Labradorite porphyry dike Pi Narragansett series fexx =| Riebeckite granite with porphy UN Ashton schist ritic marginal facies [Me | Grants Mills granite AAG Cumberland quartzite rad Sarat A FIGURE 3.—Geological Section through Cumberland Hill See BB on map, page 437 larger ones are of great length. While these have a very distinct trend parallel to the longer axis of the hill, they may be found running in all directions and, with innumerable ones of smaller size, form a most intri- cate and amazing network of veins. Their directions seem to have been determined by the jointing and fracturing of the rock. The quartz is chiefly of the milk-white variety. In the veins, the crys- tals grow perpendicularly to the walls, giving rise to comb structures and very often with central vugs. In these the crystals are beautifully termi- nated and, as the rock commonly breaks along the line of these vugs, natural surfaces are covered with a mass of small quartz crystals which _glisten like diamonds in the sunlight—a phenomenon that has given the hill its appropriate, though to the non-mineralogical mind a misleading, name. ‘I’here are often successive layers of crystals separated at times bv “ Unpublished thesis. Mass. Inst. Technology, Boston, Mass., May, 1906. 472 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT thin films of red iron oxide. Iron oxide films a millimeter or more thick sometimes cover the quartz crystals in the vugs, and there is sometimes a segregation of the same along the sides of the veins.in what was originally fragments of the felsite. There is, besides, a more or less general stain- ing of the silicified felsite inclosed between the veins. ‘he iron oxides are in part turgite, in part geothite, with perhaps some hematite and limonite. Under the microscope the quartz is typical vein quartz, often containing minute black specks or fine dark dust. Every stage in the replacement of the felsite by the quartz may be seen. Sericite and kaolin appear as products in the replacement. ‘The iron oxide is probably re- sidual from the felsite, although some of it may have been introduced by the siliceous waters. Sulphides are not now found, but were doubtless present, as they are found in other quartz veins in the neighborhood, and by their oxidation may have furnished part of the iron oxides. Some chalcedonic and opaline silica are found in fissures and lining pockets on the top of the hill, and jasper agate is reported by Kunz** as occurring on the hill in comparatively large amounts. At the southern end of the hill, where a railroad cut has been made, a coarse granite of the biotite type occurs in contact with the felsite. This has also been almost com- pletely silicified, so much so that the actual contact with the felsite is obscured. A number of quartz veins run out for great distances into the eranite at the eastern base of the hill, as well as into the felsite on the western side. Another feature of mineralogical interest is the frequent occurrence in the quartz of casts of square, rectangular, or tabular outlines. These are surrounded by combs of quartz crystals and an incrustation of the same occurs on the walls of the casts. The casts will measure from one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch on a side. All of these have been identified as casts of barite crystals by Prof. Charles Palache, of Cambridge. The injection of the quartz at Diamond Hill evidently took place after the granitic intrusion in Middle Carboniferous time. ‘Toward the end of the mountain-building movements a north-south faulting occurred along the western edge of Diamond Hill. This faulting was accompanied by a brecciation of the felsite and the development of north-south fissures. Up these fissures came hot silica-bearing solutions, presumably the pneu- matolitic fraction of the adjacent granite magma. The quartz, then, rep- resents the dying phase of igneous activity in this locality. The quartz replaced the felsite where the brecciation was greatest and forced its way ' through the adjoining rock. It is very noticeable that the silicification was largely confined to the felsite, which was more easily fractured than 48 Min. Res. U. S., 1893-1894, p. 749. IGNEOUS ROCKS 473 the granite on the west side of the fault. The quartz veins found in other near-by localities, some of which attain a considerable size, can be dated as contemporaneous with the silicification at Diamond Hull. Determinations of the silica percentages of the altered and unaltered felsite show the extent of the replacement. The quartz rock on the west face of the hill contains 98.6 per cent Si0,; the brown altered felsite contains 95.7 per cent $10,; the felsite just east of the zone of maximum silicifieation shows 76.5 per cent SiO,, and the normal felsite 68.7 per cent Si0,.44 This low silica percentage indicates that the rock is an apodacite, the average SiO, per cent of dacite analyses being, according to Daly,*® 66.9 per cent. ‘Together with the chemical evidence concern- ing the nature of the rock is the petrographic evidence of the small amount of original quartz and the large amount of plagioclase feldspar and femic minerals, now highly altered. ‘Therefore the rock may be classed as an apodacite. Woodworth in his report on the Narragansett Basin briefly mentions Diamond Hill, ascribing the origin of the quartz to the action of hot springs following the decadence of igneous activity in the region. He dates the quartz veins in Wamsutta time, but the lack of metamorphism of the quartz veins indicates that they were not injected until toward the close of the orogenic movements in Middle Pennsylvanian time. Two similar deposits of quartz have been described by G. F. Loughlin in Bulletin 492 of the U. 8. Geological Survey. The principal one is at Lantern Hill, Rhode Island, and the other is at Swanton Hill, North Stonington, Connecticut. The origin of the quartz in Lantern Hill is a replacement of alaskite by pneumatolytic action. The quartz occurs in distinct veins with well developed comb structure in a very similar man- ner to that at Diamond Hill. The veins of the former deposit sometimes contain a few irregular crystals of pink feldspar. The quartz is filled with dirty specks and fluidal inclusions very much as that of Diamond Jenne The Diamond Hill quartz has been quarried for a number of years. The crushed and powdered quartz has been used for road metal, poultry grit, roofing gravels, fireproof brick and fire sand. It is now used as crushed stone for concrete and is being mined in a large cut in the west side of the hill. Sheldonville quartz vein.—A short distance north of the village of Sheldonville, Massachusetts, and 3 miles northeast of Diamond Hill is a _ mineralized quartz vein which first attracted attention about 1896, and 44 Analyses by Barber and Mears in 1906. 4 Average chemical composition of igneous rock types. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 45, No. 7, 1910. 474 WARREN. AND POWERS—DIA MOND HILI+CUMBERLAND DISTRICT was subsequently exploited for copper, silver, and gold, but has for some time been abandoned. It is claimed that two carloads of picked ore run- ning some 9 per cent in copper and with small values in silver and gold were at one time shipped from the vein. It is exposed for 380 feet and attains a width of 12 feet. Its strike is north 6 degrees west, dip 45 degrees west. There are a number of smaller veins in the immediate vicinity. The vein cuts the Joes Rock granite and an inclusion of the pre-Cam- brian schist has been encountered in the mining operations. ‘The Car- boniferous conglomerate has also been found near the vein. ‘This indi- cates that the present surface of the land at this point was also the Middle Carboniferous land surface invaded by the sea which deposited the Wam- sutta conglomerates. The highly weathered character of the granite and of the schist inclusion support this view. ‘The composition of the red Carboniferous sediment at its contact with the granite shows that the former was a residual deposit derived from the latter. The quartz vein coming in after the deposition and consolidation of the Carboniferous sediments has a very fresh appearance, forming a marked contrast to the deeply weathered and altered granite and green schist. The vein has been opened at several points, in one place by a shaft 100 feet deep, and its character is well exposed for observation. The quartz is, where not stained by oxidation of the iron-bearing sulphides, of the milky white variety, is distinctly banded, and often shows comb struc- tures with small vugs. A number of minerals are found in the quartz, either as scattered crystals or as small veins between the layers of quartz. Pyrite is the most abundant mineral, with chalcopyrite next. Sphalerite, galena, pyrrhotite, tetrahedrite, siderite, limonite, and turgite have been noted. Small cross-cutting veins of chalcopyrite and galena occur. Al- though fabulous values in silver have been reported, an assay made on a carefully taken sample*® showed only 40 cents in silver and a trace of gold. | A similar quartz vein 2 miles east of Sheldonville, cutting the same biotite granite, has been exploited for gold and silver. These and many of the other smaller veins of quite similar general characteristics are all referred to the same period of silica deposition as the Diamond Hill quartz lode. POST-PERMIAN DIABASE DIKES Inthe area discussed in this paper there are a few diabase dikes, some of which are the youngest rock in the region. Such dikes are frequent in 46 Lord and Gregory: Unpublished thesis in mining engineering. Mass. Inst. Tech- nology, 1909. SUMMARY 475 New England, and their age is usually considered as Triassic. There is probably another older series of similar dikes, judging by the extensive alteration of some of them. In the Blue Hills, near Quincy, Massachu- setts, there are diabase dikes which cut Middle Cambrian slates, but which are older than the pre-Carboniferous riebeckite granite. Several diabase dikes occur in the vicinity of Iron Mine Hill cutting the pre-Cambrian schists and the gabbro. In the northeastern corner of the area, south of Uncas Pond, is a dike cutting Joes Rock quartz por- phyry. Boulders have been found in which diabase cut riebeckite gran- ite; therefore some of the dikes must be younger than those of the Blue Hills, and it seems best to refer them to the Triassic. SUMMARY The geological history of this region as now exposed begins in pre- Cambrian times with the deposition of what is now the Cumberland quartzite. With this sediment were deposited beds of shale until finally the sedimentation was entirely of shale, with some conglomerate com- posed largely of pebbles from the earlier sandstone. A small amount of limestone is interbedded with the shale. A part of the schist is probably of igneous or gin. After the close of the sedimentation, masses of gabbro and probably the cumberlandite, with accompanying dikes of labradorite porphyry, were intruded into the sediments. A period of diastrophism followed the pre-Cambrian sedimentation and initiated Lower Cambrian sedimentation, only two remnants of which are now exposed—at Hoppin Hill and south of Joes Rock. During the Acadian revolution of Middle Devonian age the biotite granites were intruded, accompanied by quartz diorites and fine granites or fine granite porphyry as facies of the main intrusion. At the begin- ning of Pennsylvanian time the deposition of the Narragansett and Bel- lingham series of shales, conglomerates, and sandstones with interbedded volcanics commenced. In Middle Pennsylvanian time a period of dias- trophism interrupted the sedimentation. The riebeckite granites were intruded, followed by the injection of quartz veins at Diamond Hill. Sedimentation recommenced with the deposition of the Dighton con- glomerate of the Narragansett Basin, but was brought to a close by the Appalachian revolution. Since this time the region has been one of ero- sion. A few diabase dikes were intruded probably in Triassic time. The various sedimentary and metamorphic-sedimentary rocks have been briefly described. A summary description has also been given of the gabbro and the ultra basic rock, cumberlandite. A megascopic and micro- XXXIV—BULL. GEOL. Soc. AM., VOL. 25, 1913 476 WARREN AND POWERS—DIAMOND HILL—CUMBERLAND DISTRICT scopic description of the biotite granites found in the area is given. On the basis of field relations and of the general mineralogical and textural similarity of the unsheared phases of these granites, they are all believed to form parts of one batholith—the Milford batholith. Local facies, quartz diorites, and fine granite or fine granite porphyries are briefly referred to. eG | The riebeckite-egirite granites and porphyries are described and shown to be of strikingly different texture and mineral composition, as well as of later age, than the biotite granite series. ‘They form a single intrusion and the porphyries appear as the marginal chilled phase of the invading mass. They are correlated with the closely similar granites and porphy- ries found in larger development in the Blue Hills and Quincy, and form, so far as known, the southernmost extension of the great series of rocks characterized by the presence of microperthitic feldspars and highly alkaline hornblendes or pyroxenes, or both. The occurrence of a smaller -- intermediate mass of the same type at Rattlesnake Hill, in Sharon, re- cently discovered by Dr. F. H. Lahee, is noted as forming still another upward protuberance of the alkaline magma. BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA VOL. 25, PP. 477-590 NOVEMBER 2, 1914 PHH SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES? 9 BY ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON ~ (Read before the Society January 1, 1914) CONTENTS Page “NSPE CSCS a See aie Se Ree ah a cine calret ae Nance eee a set nd 479 Geological importance of study of present climatic changes............ 479 Hypotheses in explanation of present climatic changes.................. 481 itnesmeteorological hypothesis.........0 0.0... c0 5 cece ee wee eee setae 481 The voleanic hypothesis......... NUS epee ahrciaucs ste Seoeeh nhs Noceth ah i aecealig @ateoetl ce 483 PRLS RCM MAIO MESIS ect a. .Yetudiviegeiecs = eitcs'e Wal dais Ghee atone ee swiele tye ne 484 MCT S CUS Ole yr aco enacts al iia eis- aes ite: Se’ eas: ayaa Moro msioued eter ete nck a leeuy Si 484 Disagreement between solar and terrestrial temperature changes. 485 Present status of the solar hypothesis................ 02.0 eee 486 Newcomb’s conclusions as to temperature.................. A486 Relation of temperature changes during sun-spot cycle to AAC ALTO emepen terry Nie Macte uty a tens Arado eralig Mae Bae olin enotiin, beter maa mete uy sis 490 Apparent contradictions between temperature changes in dif- HEREC ATeESE Ol The, WOLITC Mey be5 . cc toa are be tues, 4 Siemens ied Spare 491 Effect of Arctowski’s pleions on the distribution of temperature... 492 Gyelonice Storms. within sthe tropics. 22 ce. Sse he ed Oe eee lee gees 493 Continental versus marine climates in Europe during the sun-spot CORA PM Rayer ee Bet ak veh sca Md ate ean eet whe aia Sos ie id Rramehen ee dete sapien ae 494 Cyclonie storms in temperate latitudes.............. 0. cc wee eee 497 lvesearches ot Professor IKullmet. 3... je. oe eee eo 8 tee weer 497 Cyclonic storms during the sun-spot cycle.................. 501 Kullmer’s law of the shift of the storm track............... 502 Shifting of storms in the main storm belt................... 510 A test of the shifting of storm tracks by means of correla- tion coefficients with sun-spots...... 2... 2k we ee ene oe 513 Cyclonie storms and; volcanic eruptions. ..:..). 0... .. 0.6%... 515 Shifting of the storm track in Hurope....................4. 517 The “cyclonic” versus the “ealoric” form of the solar hypothesis... 521 The reduction of terrestrial temperature by cyclonic storms..... Liye A possible magnetic or electric cause of cyclonic storms......... 524 ere Re LMM ATCL OL MISTORIC EINES S03 5 x00 ayers so wie cia'e see lahw ere wee wales dole sie ob sl letels 526 SMe ee CES CUS SIOMme eS ti marwuenenes ders, cyaiscecals false vaver ere: Guel'e Siete: ©. 0h ef mibcepiere ahacels 526 1 Manuscript received by the Secretary of the Society July 10, 1914. 2 With the cooperation of Charles J. Kullmer and E. E, Free, XXXV—BULL. Guot. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 (477) 478 8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ‘ Page “The trend of opinion as to the climate of the past.................+-- 526 Progressive desiccation during historic times...................0.00- 527 Climatie uniformity ducing, historic CliMES fa ..ecs oo keke ee cee 528 Climatic pulsations: during Historie Gumes: oo y4lees oe eae 529 Trees AS (2 (CLUMATLIC VWATASTICIG rein isi iaeacw ee ciievs Cats ee Ree cates notte enone cadet eee 529 Climatic pulsations according to critics of the hypothesis of progres- Sivie CeSLCGAETON 23h. 4 Gi cn oavG feces aaa na ke ets cee eT eee att eae ee 532 Objections to the hypothesis of climatic changes...................e. 534 Aneientdroughts and famines: . oS os he ae aoe eee 534 The existence of deserts in ancient times—Alexander’s march... 534 The distinction between changes of temperature and changes of DECEIPITATION Scie Fede ROR Wee Se ieee dane bak get o oia sae eea cen ee 536 Examples of large variations in rainfall accompanied by slight variations in, temperature... . 2)... 0. .2.s bee koe eee 538 Diversity of changes of climate in different regions.................. 539 The shifting of climatic zones—Penck’s hypothesis................. 540 Possible explanations of historic changes of climate................. 544 The meteorological hypothesis... s..525. 400422. eee 544 The voleanic hypothesiss 26s... + Siaicness acs ok oeeie el cielo See 544 The’solar Hypothesise ss /o0 ahs Si icis ale weed a cin caters tow cil tee 544 General: GIScuSssionys Beas ees Bak eee es ST oe eee 544 The United Statese ec ie 2.2. Sais 62 ok cise Score ene oa nee 545 ASDA ele eis So ieie wate 6 pak eo lene oe eae tate e Reh eee ete Se 549 HuUrope ee ee kee che ede Blea Pa dig oe nea UU eae 549 The probability of great changes in sun-spots in the past................ 552 Pettersson’s sun-spote hypothesis oe. 22a). esi eeeeta shee eee .. 552 The searcity. of early :sun-spot data. 32 S20 425..0% see 2 el eee 5D3 Major sun-spot‘eycles of the present time... : 4s... 1 oe eee 553 The nature Of SUN-SPOtTS so vec Ochs ai ewin eleva sl ouect ob i clola e etele Bea reise nee 559 The connection between historic changes of climate and the Glacial 1 Ae) C0, 0 aaron rer SO enn A MeL HN ed ae Slg hd cig go Gc ace | 556 Complexity of post-Glacial climatic variations in the Southwest..... 5D6 Free’s data as to old strands in the Southwest...........-.....++:-s6 DDS The inclosed lakes (Of; Asia p52 wesw Cai cheake one Stes eis eee ee 563 The causes of’ the Glacial period... 24.2426 csc bene eae eee 565 General GIScuSsignic he oe et eis ee Bak nT Ue eee neat 565 The carbonic acid hypothesis ics oc cee os eae wee wa See eee 566 The -eyclonic solar hypothesis: 5.22... 955. 2.22.8 "sia lovetat's taal akon 567 General, \disCussion oo. ees nook as oo wlan ei en See ene 567 che ‘double storm belt tm Ameri@at coc: 7 cate. cents One ee 568 The, glacial stormy belis:of Huropes. .f -. fc ape eee 572 The effect of the glacial storm belts on temperature and precipita- IONS pele pee eoye meee eee ene POT Oech Gein MAGS oe NN TOA mae ao oo 572 The glacial precipitation of The sAlps. v2.00. 2. sas es See eee DTA - The: distribution “of AOess.4 5. wis See ee eles cos eee ane 575 Permian P1aeCla tion ee ee ea ek ee era ee Ea 578 Generals Giscnssione sa. 20. 5 sce es eee eh een dete Siete 578 IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING CLIMATIC CHANGES 479 Page The effect of a Permian cloud blanket in low latitudes.............. 580 Piesplanketine eitect of Clouds at present. ...0... 2.0. 0k cee sc ee ee 581 Gnemeermian desert, im the north... 2.5 6 eo ee ce elec e deel ee 587 SeReMNEINE SIME RTT Foe ae ea vg ae CR Sh eb ool eo Severe aud Slora wl nveJecel a Ld ee tete she thas he 589 INTRODUCTION In the study of glaciation and of other ancient climatic phenomena it has been tacitly assumed that changes of climate in the geological past have been due to causes which are not now in operation, or whose effects during the past few generations have been so small that they have es- caped observation. .This is a natural assumption. In the first place, the phenomena of the last Glacial period, which may serve as the standard example for all the main climatic changes, are so vastly greater than anything that we can now observe that the mind naturally supposes them to have been due to some cause of correspondingly grand proportions. In the second place, the phenomena of that period have appeared to be wholly different from anything now occurring. No one, for instance, has hitherto described any modern occurrences corresponding to the glacial accumulation of snow in Labrador and Scandinavia, or to the apparently coeval aridity which gave rise to loess in the Mississippi Valley and cen- tral Europe. In the third place, meteorologists have insisted that their records give no support to the idea of any recent changes of climate greater than the little fluctuations which every one notices from decade to decade. They have expanded this into the doctrine that the present causes of climatic instability are not competent to produce anything more than temporary variations, which disappear within a few years. In view of this, geologists have apparently had no choice except to assume that Glacial periods, epochs of aridity, and the other main climatic vicissi- tudes of the remote past have been phenomena distinct from anything that we can now actually observe. GEOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF STUDY OF PRESENT CLIMATIC CHANGES Two lines of recent study suggest that there may possibly be ground for modifying this commonly accepted opinion. In the first place, mete- orologists and climatologists have of late become more and more con- vineed of the instability of all climatic conditions. Cycles of 11 and 35 years are now accepted by numerous students. Many phenomena in cen- tral and western Asia, the American Southwest, California, North Africa, and Central America seem to suggest that cycles lasting hundreds of years 480 8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES may be the rule in all parts of the world. This opinion is, of course, open to question; but even those who oppose the idea of any permanent change during historic times are willing to accept the idea of cycles with a duration of centuries.2 So careful and conservative a chmatolo- gist as Hann, the author of a work on Climatology which is universally accepted as a standard, is convinced that, in central Asia at least, the climate has changed during the past two thousand years.* In the second place, various lines of evidence, part of which have been presented else- where® and part of which will be presented here, seem to show that pres- ent variations of climate are connected with solar changes much more closely than has hitherto been supposed. Moreover, these changes, in spite of their short period, show a considerable number of phenomena which display a striking similarity to the vastly greater phenomena of Glacial periods. In view of these facts, it is not impossible that the cause of glaciation, or at least an important contributory cause, may be discovered by a study of present climatic variations. Accordingly, the first portion of this paper will be devoted to an investigation of the causes of present climatic variations—a line of study which leads at once to a consideration of the possible relationship between terrestrial climate and the activity of the sun’s surface. The object before us is primarily geological, but in treat- ing this part of our subject we shall be obliged to follow meteorological methods. By so doing we shall be prepared to take up the purely geo- logical phases of the matter, for the facts here presented suggest strongly that the present is the key to the past. That the climate of the earth varies from year to year needs no demon- stration. The variations can readily be seen in equatorial and polar regions ; they become more pronounced in the subtropical zone, and they reach their highest development in the temperate zone of cyclonic storms. The first step in obtaining a satisfactory knowledge of climatic varia- tions of all kinds, whether large or small, would seem to be to ascertain the cause of such differences between the weather of one year and an- other. Three hypotheses seem to be worthy of consideration. The first is the common meteorological explanation. ‘The second is the new hy- pothesis of voleanic dust. The third is the solar hypothesis, which has hitherto been somewhat indefinite. Let us consider each of them in detail. 3 For instance, in the Geographical Journal for 1914 J. W. Gregory and P. Kropatkin advocate the hypothesis of climatic uniformity and of progressive desiccation, respec- tively, but both admit cycles having a duration of centuries. In the Annales de Geo- graphie for 1914 Herbette makes a similar admission, although he strongly opposes the present author’s general conclusions as to pulsatory climatic changes. 4J. Hann: Klimatologie. Stuttgart, 1908, vol. 1, p. 352, note. 5Elisworth Huntington; The Climatic Factor. Washington, 1914. EXPLANATORY HYPOTHESES A81 HYPOTHESES IN HXPLANATION OF PRESENT CLIMATIC CHANGES THE METEOROLOGICAL HYPOTHESIS No one can doubt the importance of purely meteorological causes in producing the climatic variations which we observe from year to year. The annual change in the sun’s altitude from season to season sets in motion a train of consequences which can scarcely act in precisely the same way each year. Accidental circumstances, such as the veiling of certain areas by clouds, slight alterations in the strength or course of oceanic currents, and many other circumstances, all may, and indeed must, occur. If several accidents happen to lead in the same direction, we may have a winter of unusual warmth or a summer with more than the usual rainfall. Therefore students of meteorology and climatology almost uni- versally believe that purely meteorological causes are adequate to produce a large part of the variations by which t*s weather of one year differs from that of another. A few hold that such fortuitous causes may pro- duce marked variations lasting scores of years. None, however, maintain that they are the cause of great chmatic changes lasting through long periods. Hence this hypothesis would have little importance from the geological point of view were it not that it has led geologists to search for the cause of glaciation in conditions whose operation can not now be observed. Because of this effect it seems necessary to consider the matter somewhat further. Two important lines of reasoning seem to indicate that although the hypothesis of purely accidental meteorological variations may explain many minor phenomena, it does not fully explain the larger variations from year to year. In the first place, the vast majority of climatic vicis- situdes in temperate regions are due to variations in the number and location of cyclonic storms. These in turn, as the Indian Meteorological Service has shown,® are associated with distinct and systematic changes in the winds, which cause the equatorial rainfall of Abyssinia and the Nile floods on the one hand, and the monsoon rains of India on the other hand. Cyclonic storms, as will soon be shown in detail, are probably the climatic phenomenon which varies most markedly in harmony with sun- spots. Hence there may be ground for the opinion that although these occurrences are apparently accidental, they are probably not really so. The second reason for not accepting the purely meteorological hy- pothesis, except in respect to minor phenomena, lies in the fact that the ®Memoirs Indian Meteorological Department, vol. xxi, part vii, 1913. The cold weather storms of northern India, by G. T. Walker. See also part ii, p. 34, in the same volume. 482 4. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES very essence of accidents is that they should not occur regularly, and that the same kind of accident should not occur throughout a large part of the world again and again at the same time. Yet this is exactly what occurs, as is clear from the painstaking sifting of climatic records carried on by Arctowski. As J have discussed his work in “The Climatic Factor” (pages 243 ff.), I shall here merely sum up the results there set forth. It should be added, however, that since that volume was written further investiga- tion has led to the conclusion that changes of solar temperature, as dis- tinguished from other solar changes, may perhaps be less important than at, first seemed probable. The work of Arctowski is of unusual impor- tance because of his extremely accurate and detailed methods, and because he has branched out into certain new and suggestive lines of research. One of his chief pieces of work has been a most careful analysis of varia- tions of temperature apart from those due to the seasons. After elimi- nating all possible effects of seasonal changes, he finds that essentially the same series of slight departures from the normal mean temperature is found in widely remote areas, including much of the southern and oceanic part of the torrid zone and the great continental interiors of the northern hemisphere. These are the parts of the world where the climate is most directly under the immediate control of solar radiation. In other regions, where the temperature is largely influenced by the heat carried by ocean currents and winds, Arctowski’s curves show that the same vari- ations occur, but that they are either more or less masked and so appear smaller than elsewhere, or else show a lagging which seems to be due to the fact that heat is transported from other regions. Leaving these doubtful cases out of account, however, we seem justified in concluding that the systematic recurrence of the same variations of temperature in cycles having a length of about two vears, more or less, in regions as diverse as Peru, South Africa, Madagascar, Mauritius, Java, Ceylon, New York, the interior of Russia, and the Arctic Ocean is not in harmony with any theory which appeals to purely accidental agencies pertaining to the earth’s own atmosphere and determined by local conditions. Such variations can only occur under the impulse of some widely acting cause which must be world-wide in its effect.°# 64 See Henryk Arctowski: A study of the changes in the distribution of temperature in Hurope and North America during the years 1900 to 1909. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 24, 1914, pp. 39-113. In this publication, which did not come to hand until the present paper was in print, Arctowski gives abundant reasons for believing that some cause of extra-terrestrial origin is constantly giving rise to short-lived variations of temperature. In certain regions, such as those mentioned in the text, the variations are of the Arequipa type, while elsewhere the peculiar con- ditions of topography, winds, and currents cause them to be reversed. When a ‘‘pleion” or “antipleion’’—that is, an area of excess or deficiency of temperature—is once formed EXPLANATORY HYPOTHESES 483 THE VOLCANIC HYPOTHESIS We turn next to the highly geological hypothesis of volcanic dust as the cause of climatic variations. It owes its importance to Abbott and Fowle,’ working together on the one hand, and to Humphreys,*® working by himself on the other hand. These authors seem to have shown almost beyond doubt that volcanic eruptions of the explosive type are respon- sible for a slight lowering of the earth’s temperature. Their results are summed up in figure 1, which is taken unchanged from Humphreys. The upper curve shows the amount of solar radiation which actually reaches the earth, as measured by the pyrheliometer. The next curve is that of sun-spots inverted. ‘The third will be described in a moment, as will also the fourth. At the bottom the chief explosive volcanic erup- tions are indicated. In general the eruptions appear to be accompanied or closely followed by a fall in the pyrheliometric curve, thus indicating that the volcanic dust cuts off a small part of the solar radiation. ‘T’he fourth curve, marked “temperature departures,” shows the average amount by which the temperature of a number of selected stations de- parted from the normal from 1880 to 1912. The stations were widely distributed, but were confined to equatorial regions or else to continental interiors—that is, to the parts of the earth where the temperature de- pends most directly on the sun and is relatively little influenced by winds and currents. These, it will be remembered, are the regions where Arc- towsla finds his synchronous variations of temperature in a two and a half year cycle. This cycle does not appear in figure 1 because this is based on annual means, and the cycle is so short that it can be detected only by the use of monthly means. An inspection of figure 1 shows that the temperature curve does not agree with that of the pyrheliometer. In 1903 and 1912, however, both are at a minimum, which suggests that they are influenced by a common cause. The low places in the pyrhelio- metric curve in 1885 and. 1891 occur one and two years, respectively, after the minima of the temperature curve to which they are supposed to give rise. Moreover, the maxima of the two curves do not agree at all closely. ‘The most probable conclusion seems to be that the presence of voleanic dust in the upper atmosphere is of real importance in determin- it swings back and forth across its continent, or even out into the ocean, and carries conditions of high or low temperature with it. Such pleions or anti-pleions may last for years, and may diminish in force and again be rejuvenated. 7C. G. Abbott and F. EB. Fowle: Volcanoes and climate. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 60, 1913, 24 pp. SW. J. Humphreys: Volcanic dust and other factors in the production of climatic changes and their possible relation to Ice ages. Bulletin of the Mount Weather Obser- vatory, vol. 6, part i, 1913, 26 pp. 484 8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ing the temperature of the lower air, but that other causes are of much greater importance. THE SOLAR HYPOTHESIS General discussion—Having reached the conclusion that, although both purely meteorological and volcanic causes of climatic variations are oS p js) ® : Per Dana _@ FECA EAE @ 93 PEPER SEE ep ae fe ESS Ta [ea Bae 0 CCCCEPECEor eT eyreromarety coca Numbers S | IZ y g ali ps& Ls ee ele (Aig SE Bz ene Hz Se Sia HAS qe ileal ea eS eS Ele] HS ales wa na ) | a IN| oak ea me Sun-spot eo ie BO NSIS A i aeralaae ie enone eeu al NGGmBe doo BSS TSN TD a Ne 7 es oe ees ae ee Py Ban UEP ane eS ae eee. CEN Eee eee Et Pf See Oe eR eh oe o8 lea PS eo a eee Re SCcmReGeeeee oo ~ PSS TT oT TIAA PA sc PaCS esas eee Reese eee RHR Se EEE aE ay oe EBZGNZE=8V4ALCNERRRREPARSLSURREEREARN Krakatoa larawera Bogoslof Pelé Colima Katmai Bandaisan Awoe Santa Mania FicurE 1.—Solar Heat, Sun-spots, Terrestrial Temperature, and Volcanoes (After Humphreys) actually in operation, they are probably of relatively minor importance, we are prepared to turn to the solar hypothesis. It is most interesting to see that Abbott and Fowle and also Humphreys, in spite of their natural enthusiasm over the discovery of a new factor in the determination of climate, have not attempted to assign to it a major role. They have been compelled to turn to the solar hypothesis. The second curve from the EXPLANATORY HYPOTHESES 485 top in figure 1 shows Wolfer’s sun-spot numbers inverted. A comparison of this with the curve of temperature departures shows considerable agreement. Nevertheless there are also pronounced discrepancies. Rec- ognizing this and also feeling convinced of the importance of solar radia- tion, our two sets of authorities have both adopted the same method. They have combined the pyrheliometric curve with that for sun-spots. The result is given in the third curve, P+ 8. This agrees with the tem- perature departures much more closely than does either of the other eurves. Apparently, if we judge from the curves of figure 1 alone, the earth’s temperature depends on at least two primary factors: first, the type of solar activity indicated by sun-spots, and, second, the amount of solar heat which can reach the earth’s surface through an atmosphere which is sometimes relatively clear and at others more or less filled with dust. Between the two factors, as appears in figure 1, there seems to be a great difference, for changes of temperature seem to agree with variations in solar spottedness much more closely than with volcanic eruptions. Disagreement between solar and terrestrial temperature changes.—At this point attention should be directed to a somewhat striking phenom- enon. Few people would question that if the sun should become notably warmer or cooler the earth’s temperature would also change. This con- clusion, apparently inevitable, is the basis of the ordinary form of the solar hypothesis of climatic changes. Yet in figure 1 we see that the actual measurements of the radiation received from the sun do not agree with the temperatures recorded in the parts of the earth’s surface where the sun is able to act most effectively. The changes in the amount of solar radiation which gets through the atmosphere and reaches the earth’s surface appear to have a distinct effect, as is evident from the fact that the P + 8 curve is more like the temperature curve than is the simple $ curve which represents sun-spots alone. Yet apparently there is some other solar factor whose influence on changes of terrestrial temperature - is much greater than that of variations in the amount of solar heat. This conclusion is emphasized by another fact. Abbott® states that the net result of observations made by the Smithsonian Institution and by other agencies during a long series of years is to show that during years of maximum sun-spots the solar constant is higher than during years of minimum spots. This is exactly contrary to the conditions of terrestrial ®C. G. Abbott: Science, vol. 39, 1914, p. 347. ‘‘An increase of a hundred sun-spot numbers corresponds to an increase of about 0.07 per square centimeter per minute in the solar radiation outside the earth’s atmosphere.”’ Abbott gives the mean value of the solar constant as 1.933 calories. Since sun-spot maxima at present range from Sun-spot numbers of about 45 to 155, this means that during the sun-spot cycle the solar constant may be from 1.6 per cent to 5.6 per cent greater at sun-spot maxima than at minima. 486 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES temperature, as is evident from the fact that in figure 1 the sun-spot curve has had to be inverted in order to correspond to the temperature curve. This does not mean that the slight additional heat received from the sun during times of many sun-spots does not produce its due effect in warming the earth. It merely suggests that at the times when the sun is active and is unusually well supplied with spots two agencies are at work in modifying the earth’s temperature. One of these is the increased temperature of the sun’s surface; but the effect of this is so small that it is not merely nullified, but actually reversed by the other agency. What that other agency may be we must now proceed to investigate. The experiences of every day show that the temperature of any part of the earth’s surface depends on two chief factors: One of these is the - amount of heat received from the sun; the other is the winds, which not only act directly, but which cause ocean currents, and thus transport large bodies of heat from equatorial regions to places such as the North Atlantic and western Europe. If variations in the actual mean tempera- ture of the sun are too small to be of appreciable importance, as they seem to be, the winds remain as by far the most important determinant of variations in terrestrial temperature. ‘Their importance seems greater than is often realized, for they carry heat from place to place not only horizontally, as is universally recognized, but also vertically—a fact which people who are not meteorologists are apt to lose sight of. The intensity of both kinds of movement may and does vary. Our task will be to’ see what connection this appears to have with changes in the sun and then with possible causes of glaciation. Present status of the solar hypothesis—Newcomb’s conclusions as to temperature.—Before proceeding to this task, it is necessary to obtain a clear conception of the exact status of our present knowledge of the rela- tion of sun-spots and climate and of the reasons for and against belheving that any relation really exists. In considering this the reader must re- member that previous studies have been based on the natural assumption that if such a relationship exists it must be due to changes in solar tem- perature. According to the hypothesis here to be developed, on the con- trary, it may be due merely to a redistribution of the present amount of heat, both horizontally and vertically. One of the most thorough investigations of the relation of solar and terrestrial phenomena was made by Newcomb.?° His conclusions are based on a comprehensive study of terrestrial temperatures at periods of 10 A search for fluctuations in the sun’s thermal radiations through their influence on terrestrial temperature, by Simon Newcomb. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc., n. s., vol. 21, 1908, | Dp. V. PRESENT STATUS OF SOLAR HYPOTHESIS 487 maximum as compared with minimum sun-spots. His figures can scarcely be questioned, although his theoretical conclusions are not equally con- vincing. Huis main conclusion is expressed as follows (page 379) : “A study of the annual departures [from mean temperature] over many re- gions of the globe in equatorial and middle latitudes shows consistently a fluctuation corresponding with that of the solar spots. The maximum fluctua- tion in the general average is 0.18° C. on each side of the mean for tropical regions. [The maximum temperature comes at times of minimum sun-spots. ] The entire amplitude of the change is therefore 0.26° C. [0.47° F.], or somewhat less than half a degree of the Fahrenheit scale.” Several points in this conclusion deserve emphasis. In the first place, Newcomb does not stand alone. Koppen** has made a similar study, al- though not quite so exhaustive. His conclusion agrees with that of New-. comb. He finds that at the equatorial stations which he made use of the difference between the temperature at periods of maximum and minimum sun-spots amounts to 0.75° C., while in temperate latitudes it decreases and becomes less and less noticeable, the average being 0.54° for regions beyond the tropics. The variations of temperature within the tropics may be seen in the following table, which shows the amount by which the mean temperature for individual years of the sun-spot cycle is above or below the mean for a long series of years. The table is that of Koppen, but it has here been copied from Hann’s Klimatologie, volume 1, page 356: TABLE 1 Variations of Mean Temperature within the Tropics in the Sun-spot Cycle Sun-spot minimum (ap- Sun-spot maximum (ap- proximately) .......... +0.38° C. DLOXEMATElY soe eee we —0.32° C. 1 year after minimum.... +0.15 6 years after minimum... —0.27 2 years after minimum... —0.04 7 years after minimum... —0.14 3 years after minimum... —0.21 S years after minimum... +0.08 4 years after minimum... —0.28 9 years after minimum... +0.30 10 years after minimum... +0.41 The maximum temperature comes about 0.9 of a year before the sun- spot minimum, while the minimum temperature practically coincides with the maximum of sun-spots.1!@ 1 W. KOppen: Uber mehrjaihrige Perioden der Witterung ins besondere tiber die II-, jihrige Periode der Temperatur. After this paper was in type there came to hand an important article by K6éppen (W. Koppen: Lufttemperaturen, Sonnenflecke und Vulcanausbriiche; Meteorologische _“eitsehrift, vol. 7, 1914, pp. 305-328). In this he reviews his former conclusions on the basis of a greatly increased body of meteorological data, most of which have been arranged by J. Mielke (Archiv der Seewart, Jahrgang 1913; Hamburg, 1914). All parts of the world where records are available have been considered, and the data cover 488 8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES For polar regions we have as yet no good compilation of data. If the decrease, which both Newcomb and Képpen notice as one passes away from the equator, continues indefinitely poleward, it would appear that in polar regions the difference between periods of sun-spot maximum and minimum may almost disappear. ‘The importance of this will appear later. Other authorities, as well as the two just mentioned, have found differences in terrestrial temperature corresponding to variations in sun- spots. For example, Arctowski,1”” shows that according to his geograph- ical method the difference between the mean temperature of the earth in 1893, a year of maximum sun-spots, and in 1900, when the spots were almost at a minimum, amounted to about 0.5° C. The agreement among the various authorities is so complete that we may safely consider that the relation. of solar changes and terrestrial temperature is an established fact. This, however, does not necessarily prove that the earth’s climate is appreciably influenced by changes in the amount of heat emitted by the sun. Newcomb holds that this is not the case, and Hann, the great au- thority on climate, is inclined to agree with him, although he expresses the century from 1811 to 1910. Hence the results are even more reliable than those of Newcomb. They are summed up in the following table: Departures from Mean Temperature during the Sun-spot Cycle ion South : North Year of sun-spot cycle. eae Temperate Temperate World (lands). : Zone. Zone. Approx. sun-spot minimum.. +0.36° C. +0.23°.C. +0.381° C. +0.32° C. 1 year after minimum...... +0.11 +0.08 —().04 +0.11 2 years after minimum..... +0.07 +0.03 0.07 +0.07 3 years after minimum..... —0O.11 +0.03 —-0.07 —0.08 4 years after minimum..... —0.23 —(0.20 —0.06 —0.13 Approx. sun-spot maximum. —0O.11 —0.20 —0.12 —0.14 6 years after minimum...... —0.13 —0.08 —0.08 —0.11 7 years after minimum..... —0O.11 —0.08 —0.20 —0.16 8 years after minimum..... —0.18 —0.04 0.07 —0.04 9 years after minimum..... +0.02 +0.00 —0.04 —0.02 10 years after minimum.... +0.24 +0.25 +0.07 +0.18 These figures agree with those quoted above except that the amplitude of the change of temperature from maximum to minimum is somewhat less. K6éppen shows further that the new figures strengthen the conclusion that the variation during the sun-spot cycle is most regular and of greatest amplitude in the tropics, while in the far north, although it can still be detected, it is unimportant and there are often contradictions. Another important matter is that, so far as the data go, there does not seen to be a compensation of low temperature in one region by high temperature in another. Inas- much as the data cover only about one-sixth of the earth’s surface, the rest being either water or lands where no data are available, this can not be regarded as positive proof that the mean temperature of the earth’s surface as a whole actually suffers a reduction at times of many sun-spots, but it points in that direction. When one sun-spot cycle is compared with another, KOppen does not find reason to think that the mean tem- perature varies in harmony with the range of spottedness—that is, when the difference between maximum and minimum spots is great, there does not seem to be a corre- spondingly great difference in the mean temperature. In support of this he gives the PRESENT STATUS OF SOLAR HYPOTHESIS 489 himself guardedly. On page 341 of the work already cited, Newcomb Says: “Although the reality of this 11-year fluctuation [both solar and terrestrial ] seems to be beyond serious doubt, the amplitude being several times its prob- able error, its amount is too small to produce any important direct effect upon meteorological phenomena.” Again, on page 384, he puts in italics the last part of the following quotation : : “Tt follows as the final result of the present investigation that all the ord- nary phenomena of temperature, rainfall, and winds are due to purely terres- trial causes, and that no changes occur in the sun’s radiation which have any influence wpon them.” Newcomb’s opinion carries great weight. Nevertheless, while his con- clusions as to the difference in temperature between periods of maximum and minimum sun-spots seem to be unassailable, his conclusion as to changes in meteorological phenomena stands on quite a different basis. It following table, which I have modified so as to place the sun-spot cycles in the order of their intensity. Difference between temperature at times of maximum and minimum spots. Difference between 3 | | SOT aa Let a, First year of maximum and ne. sun-spot cycle. minimum sun-spot A B C numbers. North Be onieal South ; Temperate Pa Temperate Zone. : Zone. Ses RW sapewereks eld olay erie ee 3's 126 Deh 5.1 rs SUSE Taio iG, coe SyS NOR OR Reece Matin 126 —0.1 ile 2.9) EAA MeN eR MW WeVio rs. woe; sys ails sien e ecko 116 ORS 1.5 Dae, ISD die) 5 6h oes cue eee 88 2.8 Ie 2.0 HES SO Mrmr kee Y ise tie bose a eas 80 0.6 2.4 1 1 ees Gio eee) ONGRO eee nn me 61 1.4 2.4 Me ISAS) 6. ol Godel GR eSNG het nen meer 59 eS Prsal es IST'S eo eiehig: Sub etne. Sree aC TER ar ioaG 45 3.2 In the north temperate and tropical zones the table supports K6ppen’s conclusion, but in the south temperate zone there is a perfectly regular decrease in range of tem- perature in harmony with the decrease in range of spottedness. The north temperate and tropical zones contain large masses of land, and the figures for temperature repre- sent the conditions as influenced by the irregular circulation and other peculiar condi- tions of continents. The south temperate zone contains so little land that it may be regarded as representing marine conditions. If similar conditions are characteristic of the ocean as a whole—except in the parts where large bodies of heated water are brought in from other latitudes—the mean temperature of the entire earth would prob- ably rise and fall in harmony with the sun-spots, not only when parts of the same sun-spot cycle are compared, but when different cycles are compared. The last part of K6ppen’s paper is devoted to a discussion of the effect of volcanoes on temperature. He comes to the conclusion that no important effect seems as yet to be proved. He bases this chiefly on the fact that if voleanic dust is a main factor in causing a reduction of temperature, years showing a large minus departure of tempera- ture ought to be more numerous than years showing a large plus departure. The contrary is the case. lb Henryk Arctowski: L’Enchainment des variations climatiques Bruxelles, 1909. 490 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES is an inference, and he does not go into details to demonstrate its truth. He has apparently failed to consider two important matters. One is the effect which even a slight change of temperature may have on meteoro- logical conditions, provided it be permanent. The other is the possibility that while the mean temperature of the earth’s atmosphere may vary only slightly, the distribution of temperature may vary considerably. In other words, he has not considered the possibility that the mechanism whereby solar heat is distributed may be so altered that the air at high altitudes or in tropical latitudes may become warmer or cooler, while that at low altitudes or in polar regions may suffer the opposite change. This might occur without any appreciable change in the mean temperature of either the earth as a whole or the sun. To put the matter in another way, cer- tain climatic phenomena, such as cyclonic storms and their attendant winds, may change their intensity and location, and may thus alter the distribution of temperature without any great change in mean tempera- ture, provided all parts of the atmosphere are averaged together. ‘The possibility of this depends entirely on the cause of storms, a matter as to which we are still in doubt. Relation of temperature changes during sun-spot cycle to glaciation.— ‘Turning now to the first objection to Newcomb’s conclusion, let us con- sider the true importance which a range of 0.26° C. between the tem- perature at times of maximum and minimum sun-spots would have, pro- vided the temperature did not fluctuate between the extremes every 11 years, more or less, but remained constant at one extreme for a few cen- turies. As I have discussed this matter in detail elsewhere,’? I shall here merely summarize that discussion. The usual estimates of the change of mean temperature from the height of the Glacial period to the present time range from 3° C. to 11°. The average is 5° or 6°. This means that the best authorities hold that a change of temperature amounting to only about 24 times the change that now takes place from periods of sun-spot minimum to sun-spot maximum sufficed to cause the difference between an epoch when ice covered all northwestern Europe and the northern United States, and the present epoch, when the ice has retreated almost entirely, except in Green- land and Antarctica. If the conditions which Newcomb states to be those characteristic of periods of minimum sun-spots should prevail steadily for a few centuries and then should give place to those characteristic of periods of sun-spot maxima for an equal length of time, the climate of the world would be so altered that it would have gone one twenty-fourth 12'The climatic factor as illustrated in arid America. Pub. 192, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1914, pp. 242-2438. PRESENT STATUS OF SOLAR HYPOTHESIS 491 of the way toward a Glacial period. To take a concrete example, the Rhene glacier is now, according to Geikie, barely 6 miles long; the foot of the ice stands at an altitude of 5,780 feet, and the surface near the head of the glacier is 10,200 feet above the sea. During the period of maximum glaciation the glacier was 240 miles longer than now; its foot stood about 4,700 feet below the present level, and the surface in the upper portions was 1,400 feet higher than today. It seems fair to assume that the results of a small change of mean temperature would be propor- tional to those of large changes. If this be so, the difference of 0.26° C., which Newcomb finds between sun-spot maxima and minima, ought to produce a change in the ice equal to about 4 per cent—that is, one twenty- - fourth—of the change since the height of the last Glacial epoch. In that ease, if the form of its valley were favorable, the Rhone glacier might become 10 miles longer than it now is, or if the gradient of its valley bottom be assumed as uniform it might descend to a level 180 feet below that of the present ice-foot, or it might increase 56 feet in thickness. | The exact nature of the change in the glacier and its exact dimensions would depend, of course, on the topography of the Rhone Valley and on the relation of precipitation to temperature, winds, and other meteoro- logical phenomena. The figures which have just been given, however, show the order of magnitude of the results which might be expected from a lowering of the mean annual temperature of the earth to the extent of 0.26° C., provided the change were permanent rather than temporary. A change of temperature capable of producing such results, or even re- sults half as great, would scarcely seem to be too small to produce “any important effect on meteorological phenomena.” ‘The truth of Newcomb’s conclusion appears to be at least an open question. The other point which Newcomb has failed to consider, namely, the possibility of a change in the distribution of terrestrial temperature with- out a corresponding change in the mean temperature of the earth as a whole, will be taken up later. It is closely allied to another objection to the ordinary form of the solar hypothesis, namely, the improbability that the mean temperature of the sun can change so rapidly as to cause our terrestrial changes. Both of these matters will be discussed later, after we have considered the question of cyclonic storms. Apparent contradictions between temperature changes in different parts of the world—Leaving now the direct effects of temperature, let us consider the effect of movements of the air on temperature and on our view of the probability that solar changes are the cause of the variations of terrestrial climate. In the opinion of meteorologists, the greatest ob- jection to the solar hypothesis is probably the numerous apparent con- 492 E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES tradictions which beset the path of the investigator. ‘The general opinion may be expressed in the words of Hann :'3 “The results of very numerous and complex investigations of the connection of the sun-spot period with variations of the meteorological elements have not wholly corresponded to expectations. The influence of the sun-spots on the meteorological elements has been proved as comparatively unimportant. Only in the most favorable cases is one in the position to consider that the traces of a parallel course in the progress of certain meteorological elements and in that of the sun-spot frequency is proved. There can be no thought of the prediction of the course of the weather on the ground of the sun-spot cycle.” From this broad statement Hann goes on to show that the amount of agreement between sun-spots and climatic phenomena varies greatly, ac- cording to the part of the earth and the precise climatic elements which are investigated. The reader who would carry the matter farther is re- ferred to the last chapter of volume 1 of Hann’s Klimatologie and to the large number of references there cited. In general, Hann unqualifiedly accepts the conclusions of Newcomb and Koppen as given above. He shows that aside from temperature the strongest evidence of a sun-spot cycle is found when a single element, such as summer rains or tropical cyclones, to take the best two examples, is considered alone, and when it is investigated by the use of means for a large number of stations and for long periods. When single stations or single sun-spot cycles are con- sidered, there is likely to be no visible relation whatever. Such things as frosts do not seem to fit into the sun-spot cycle with any definite rela- tionship, and there are often contradictory results when the same climatic element is investigated in different regions or different periods. In rain- fall, as in temperature, there is decidedly more evidence of a sun-spot cycle within the tropics than in other parts of the world. Effect of Arctowskvs pleions on the distribution of temperature. From what has just been said, it is evident that the temperate zone is the critical region. It is there that we find the contradictions which are the main objection to the solar hypothesis. Students of the question have apparently supposed that if the sun really does play an important part in determining terrestrial variations of temperature, this ought to be as evi- dent in the temperate zone as in the torrid. The work of Arctowski, however, as I have shown in “The Climatic Factor” (pages 244-250), suggests that the apparent conflict between the evidence in equatorial and temperate regions is the expectable condition. For example, in the part of the torrid zone south of the equator his curves of fluctuations of temperature agree closely in all longitudes. Coming north to Bombay, 13 J. Hann: Handbuch der Klimatologie. Stuttgart, 1908, vol. 1, pp. 355-356. ARCTOWSKI’S PLEIONS A938 however, we find the same periodicity as in the regions farther south, but with a lag of about a year. This is what would be expected in a region whose climate depends largely on the monsoons. These winds, as is well mown, drive the waters of the southern Indian Ocean up into the Ara- bian Sea. They thus eventually bring to Bombay the heat which was originally accumulated in the broad oceanic regions farther south. Under such circumstances we should naturally expect that if the torrid zone were unusually warm at a certain period, no matter what might be the cause, the heat would be carried northward in such a way that the warm- est time at Bombay would be later than in the more oceanic regions to the south, and thus we should get an apparent contradiction. Arctow- ski’s work shows that similar contradictions are found elsewhere, in such regions as the West Indies and the neighboring coasts of Florida, where the influence of oceanic currents is particularly strong. In Europe, where the general type of climate is dominantly under the influence of winds which have been warmed by the waters of the Gulf Stream and its con- tinuation in the Atlantic Drift, we should expect a still greater degree of lagging. If the torrid zone were warm during one particular year, the effect of that would presumably be felt in course of time in Europe. How great the delay would be we can not tell. Nansen** has shown that “Variations in the temperature of the Atlantic Current off the Norwegian coast from one year to another seem to be succeeded two years later by similar variations in the quantity of ice in the Barents Sea in the spring.” This means that in this far northern region the heat which the Atlantic Drift and the Gulf Stream have brought in varying quantities from the torrid zone is carried along at the rate of much less than a thousand miles a year. In its earlier course the heat is carried faster; but as it travels from 7,000 to 10,000 miles, several years must be consumed in the jour- ney. Under such circumstances it is clear that in Europe, where the subject has been most carefully investigated, we should fully expect that the conditions of temperature would be quite different from those of the torrid zone. Such a difference would neither prove nor disprove a pos- sible relation between sun-spots and climate. This conclusion, if well grounded, removes one of the chief objections to the solar hypothesis. Cyclonic storms within the tropics—Having seen that, so far as tem- perature is concerned, there seems to be no good reason why we should not accept the solar hypothesis and many good reasons why we should, let us turn to some of the other climatic elements. The winds, as we have already seen, are by far the most important determiner of tempera- ture, aside from the sun itself. In their investigation attention has been 14, Nansen: The sea route to Siberia. Geographical Journal, vol, 43, 1914, p, 492. XXXVI—BULL. GEOL. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 494. &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES directed mainly to the general scheme of movements, and this has proved so complicated that relatively little is yet known of how the total move- ment of the air varies from year to year. This is true both of such regular phenomena as the trade winds and prevailing westerlies and of such irreg- ular phenomena as cyclonic storms. Such storms prevail to a slight degree in equatorial regions, where they are known as tropical hurricanes, and to a high degree in temperate regions, where they are the element which adds constant variety to the climate of North America, Europe, and Japan. Quantitative measurements of the trade winds and westerlies for a series of years appear never to have been compiled, and the task is sure to prove difficult. Cyclonic storms, however, are recorded with accuracy by the various weather bureaus of the world. This is fortunate, for although among the least understood of climatic phenomena, they are among the most important. Hach of the two types—that is, tropical hurricanes and the ordinary storms of the temperate zone—seems to show a close con- nection with sun-spots. Tropical hurricanes have been investigated in the Atlantic Ocean by Pocy and Fassig and in the Indian Ocean by Mel- drum. ‘Their number and intensity vary in harmony with the number of sun-spots. Wolf? has compared the number of hurricanes with the num- ber of sun-spots and gets the interesting result, shown in Table 2. Here we seem to have an unmistakable relationship: TABLE 2 Number of hurricanes per year Relative sun-spot numbers Bers be tay = enc gear ge eH aU Ai ined tre hen aban RGIS aN TO EM alii} Boa eet aaa aE ey Lo & Sec dicao Wage RUGr ace hae PRCT, Ths ecg Ee a 59 - AAR i aii ret cote eh ae BUA CHE SLANT a eee aig Se Vea 2 ER ee RR 62 Boa ig sana cc oltere he vege Cana UL Oe awe Re aa eons Ce ead Oe 70 GRAIL Tie Ure tone bake cee One tee 80 eis Pe Vaan aot a oak ale mn Rt Re SRN is a a Oo 88 Continental versus marine climates in Europe during the sun-spot cycle——In temperate latitudes cyclonic storms are far more numerous and important than within the tropics. In fact they are the controlling element of the climate, and any changes which have occurred in the past must be closely associated with them. Unfortunately, the storms of Hu- rope can not easily be investigated as yet, except for a short series of years, for the barometric records have not been charted in such a way as to show their movements. Later, in connection with the storms of Amer- ica, we shall consider those recorded in Europe. For the present, how- ever, let us turn to a new line of evidence which sheds light on climatic changes in quite a different way. In “The Climatic Factor’ much space “J, Hann; Klimatologie, yol. 1, p. 360. CONTINENTAL VS. MARINE CLIMATES IN EUROPE 495 has been given to the investigation of the relation between climate and the rate of growth of trees. It has there been shown that if the proper methods are employed, even a small number of trees will give a fairly accurate record of the particular climatic elements on which growth chiefly depends. The method was first developed by Prof. A. E. Douglass, who measured the yellow pine in Arizona. His methods are described by himself in “The Climatic Factor.” In Germany, at Eberswalde, near Berlin, he has made some measurements which are of importance in the present connection. The results are shown in figure 2. The lower curve is that of sun-spots. ‘The curve above it shows the growth of thirteen pine trees. ‘T'his has been smoothed to eliminate minor vagaries, but not in such a way as to influence the main sinuosities. It has also been cor- rected in order to eliminate the effect of the more rapid growth of trees os. 40.8500 20 go. 90 1900 1910 FIGURE 2.—Growth of Trees at Hberswalde, Germany (middle curve), and Sun-spots (lower curve). (After Douglass) Novre.—The small upper curve indicates the number of summer storms (April-November) in youth than in maturity and old age. ‘These processes have been dis- cussed in full in “The Climatic Factor,” and the reader who would under- stand them is referred to that publication. It will there be seen that the whole matter is mathematical, and that the personal opinion of the investigator can not materially influence the results. The extent to which the two main curves of figure 2 agree is remarkable. With one exception the seven maxima of the sun-spot curve are faithfully reproduced in the tree curve. The minima agree equally well. The only exception begins in 1892 and continues until 1899. It has not been possible to ascertain its cause. It may be due to some meteorological condition or to some such thing as insect pests. If the growth of the trees had not been checked, its curve would probably have agreed closely with that of the ‘sun-spots. This conclusion is strengthened by the fact that in 1900 we have a little minimum corresponding to the minimum in the sun-spot curve, but occurring slightly before it, as is usually the case. In order to determine exactly what climatic conditions are indicated by the tree curve of figure 2, I have worked out two sets of correlation 496 E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES coefficients for each month of the year, one set being the relation of tem- perature and tree growth and the other rainfall and tree growth. A period of 50 years, 1851 to 1900, was used for rainfall, and 42 years, 1866 to 1907, for temperature, these years being determined merely by the records which happened to be at hand. The coefficients show that rapid growth depends chiefly on two conditions. The first is relatively high temperature in the late winter and early spring. The second is abundant rainfall from April to November. ‘he amount of snow in the winter is of comparatively little importance except where it prevents the ground from warming up in the spring. ‘The summer temperature also makes relatively little difference. These facts suggest that the most favorable conditions for the growth of trees in Germany are periods when rainfall is abundant during the summer and when the winters are comparatively free from storms and snow, so that the trees can begin their growth early in the season. The amount of rainfall in climates like that of northern Germany depends largely on the number of cyclonic storms, although in summer it is considerably influenced by minor showers which are not ac- companied by pronounced barometric disturbances. In order to illustrate the relation of storms to the growth of the trees, I have added to figure 2 a little upper curve showing the number of storms from April to Novem- ber, inclusive, during the period from 1876 to 1891, the only period dur- ing which such data are available. This curve is based on figures which have been kindly supplied by Prof. C. J. Kullmer. They include all the storms whose centers passed within 246° north or south of Eberswalde. The curve has been smoothed to correspond with the smoothing of the other curves. Its earher portion probably falls too low; for, as Professor Kullmer points out, the records of storms in Europe during the early years of the present series are not particularly reliable. The curve thus obtained agrees in its main features with the curve of the trees. The agreement is not perfect, however ; for other factors, such as the tempera- ture of the early spring, play a part in determining the rate of growth. Nevertheless it 1s so close that we are possibly justified in concluding that the curve of tree growth shown in figure 2 represents the main fluctua- tions in the cyclonic storms of summer. ; The curve of tree growth represents not only the number of summer storms, but also the conditions of the winter, as has already been said. Where the curve is high the months of February and March appear to have been fairly warm and dry. It will be noticed that these conditions— that is, abundant storms and rain in summer and an early heating up of the ground in the spring—are typical of continental climates. In oceanic climates, although the winters are on the whole warm and wet, the springs CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 497 are relatively cool and the summers are not apt to show markedly more precipitation than the winters. In view of this, then, we may interpret the curves of figure 2 as meaning that when sun-spots are numerous, rela- tively continental conditions of climate prevail in northern Germany. This carries with it the implication that at such times the ‘continental areas of high pressure tend to become intensified in winter, so that the air blows outward from them and cyclonic storms are compelled to move along the margins of the continent rather than toward its interior. In summer, on the contrary, the low-pressure areas of the center of Hurasia appear to become intensified, and this causes the winds to blow toward the interior and to bring abundant moisture. The full importance of this will appear later, when we come to discuss changes of climate during the past two or three thousand years. Cyclonic storms in temperate latitudes—Researches of Professor Kull- mer.—We now come to much the strongest type of evidence as to cyclonic storms and their relation to sun-spots. Prof. Charles J. Kullmer,'® of the University of Syracuse, has made a careful investigation of the matter, both in the United States and Europe. His first work appears. as a chap- ter in “The Climatic Factor,’ but since that was published he has gone into the matter much more thoroughly. From the maps of the United States Weather Bureau he has compiled monthly and yearly data from 1874 to 1912. Omitting the earlier years, where the degree of accuracy is not great, he has found the average for the 30 years from 1883 to 1912 and has thus prepared the accompanying map, figure 3. His method was to divide the United States and Canada into a series of rectangles, each of which extends 214° in latitude and 5° in longitude. He then counted the number of storm tracks passing through each rectangle during each month of the year. The total for the year gives the relative storminess. The figures for the various squares are the average values for 30 years. The map shows a pronounced bow-shaped area of great storminess swing- ing down from British Columbia into the northern United States, across the Great Lakes and down the Saint Lawrence Valley. A minor area of relatively high storminess is found in southeastern Colorado. The num- ber of storms in one area as compared with another is not a measure of 16Jn the remainder of this paper the name of Professor Kullmer will recur again and again. When the paper was originally written it was expected that before its publjica- tion Professor Kullmer’s data would all have been published, but various unforeseen circumstances have prevented this. His results were given to the world, however, at the meeting of the Association of American Geographers at Princeton in January, 1914. Both before and after that meeting Professor Kullmer most kindly permitted me to make the fullest use of all his material. Now, with rare courtesy, he has permitted me to publish a large number of his maps and other data prior to the appearance of his own report. I can not too strongly express my appreciation of his great kindness. A998 #&. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES from 1883 to AAA : a \ ‘| as aa S latitude and 5° in longitude each year during the thirty years . After Kullmer = | Ny eee nls Paee a} ul eee "o Ce > Sar Ne: za & \ J W S a 3 > << R \2 3 ~ Ss 3 S eh {\ k K 4 z 3 % S 3 3 "o “aR | ©. = $ Fea Z 3 ys jor"30" se! 110" ne hae ua'se! U0” 1oy38) as CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 499 the amount of rainfall, since that is largely influenced by latitude, near- ness to the ocean, the location of mountains, and other topographic con- siderations. When a given area is compared with itself at different periods, however, the number of storms is roughly proportioned to the rainfall up to certain limits, for the topographic conditions in any one place, of course, remain constant. The data for storms in Europe are much less reliable than in America. The only available series of charts is that of the “Deutsche Seewarte,” where, as has already been stated, the 16 years from 1876 to 1891 are included. Unfortunately, the maps for the different years are not homo- geneous. ‘The area which they cover varies. Moreover, in the later years the data not only cover a wider area than at the beginning, but barometric minima of smaller dimensions have apparently been included. ‘The rea- son for thinking this is that if we take the area included in the first year and compare it with the same area in later years we find that the number of storms apparently increases enormously. This is illustrated in the following table : TABLE 3 Storminess for Periods of 4 Years in Europe and America in per cent of Averages for 16 and 30 Years respectively Years HKurope America Per cent Per cent Smit 4 eycli, Ristorae vise) 3 Sa PSs koe aie RGals waddle s 67.5 89.5 SSS | ISS on tO AE ee se oa 103.0 79.0 J) SisSe=JuStSr, alg Sake ERE RR atare Oe nT es eae se ke an 104.3 90.0 Sees Neen MEPL TAN Dee More tol. ge stress a dibie Lck a ale whee 123.8 99.9 Se Ea TUSS ec RN a a a cea Bie 110.1 PSS IC SAS GS) Oh HUN cao ar PC ea Ae a ae eee. 103.0 “STIS TEC CSE Re Ae Wie 100.5 “LEEDS We, SR ati se i A ee 105.7 WOO S911 CBM olioe ia he Ren rat ec eae eae ne a a Boke 8 98.6 Here the 16 years have been divided into four groups, each containing four years. ‘The average number of storms for the 16 years in the area covered by the first map is called 100 per cent. he figures show the number for each successive series of years. It will be seen that in the last group the number is almost twice as great as in the first. In America the figures are much more homogeneous, as appears in the same table, although here, too, the earlier years show a deficiency which is probably due to scarcity of observations. In the American figures for the first two groups of years allowance has been made for the fact that the data only extend as far west as the 100th meridian, while in later years the whole ' Woda s.reat U90}XIS oq} Surinp a1eek yore opnyisuo, ut 4 ‘pue spnjyey Ul ,%Z svete SuUIsso1d sas}us. wd. / JO Aoquanu < AMOUNT UWL SYODA, WAOZS—"F AVANT 500 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 501 country is included. Kullmer’s map for storminess in Europe is given in figure 4. Here it will be seen that there are three areas of great storminess. One of these has its southern limit at the Hebrides Islands, and extends northeastward beyond the Arctic Circle and to the north of Europe. The second begins in southern England and extends northeast- ward so as to cover Holland, Belgium, northern Germany, southern Swe- den and Norway, the Baltic Sea, and southern Finland. The third is of smaller size than the others. It is located in northern Italy and in the Mediterranean area just west of that region. It is probable that the intensity of the storminess here is exaggerated because of the sinuous character of the tracks in this region. Cyclonic storms during the sun-spot cycle-—Before proceeding to a discussion of these maps let us ascertain to what extent the actual amount of storminess varies in harmony with the number of sun-spots. Let us take first the American data, since they are more reliable than those from Kurope. The matter may be investigated in various ways. First, let us take the three years of fewest sun-spots, which in most cases would be the year of minimum spots and the years before and after, and let us com- pare these with the succeeding three years of maximum spots. This method is of especial interest, because these are the groups of years used by Kullmer in the highly significant maps which will shortly be presented. An inspection of the sun-spot curve of figure 2 shows that since storm records have been kept there have been three complete sun-spot cycles, all of which have been of mild intensity compared with their predecessors. In these we have three periods of minima and three of maxima. — =| 4 ee he | Poe be Le Mae ae ae wS of 1900-1902. (After IKkullme ‘ed with the Minimum the Sun-spot EH 6.—Storminess during 506 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ac ete Cet yates eer il Serie ~ Ns iia Ris i Be hy lies We 7 H ry Ph eee Fiat i S | 5 es J : CO el AL: | la | ee | & 1 if ‘ ae : ar me ’ = : + us S| ! 4 y ry S > ea . ; 2 ‘ Q > ; “nue? } f U i 4 and 1912 -spot minima -spot maxima than at times of sun of sun CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 507 average number of storm tracks for a single year and not for groups of years, as in the other maps. The most striking fact about these maps is that all of them show the same general features, and that although the location of the features varies somewhat from map to map, the variation is so slight that all the features of the individual maps reappear in a somewhat generalized form in the combination map of figure 7. The most noticeable feature is an arc- shaped area which lies along the southern border of Canada and is char- acterized by increased storminess during periods of many sun-spots. It begins in latitude 55° north on the west, drops down to about latitude 48° in the Great Lakes region, and then bends northward once more down the Saint Lawrence Valley. A second prominent feature is a pe- culiar projection which on each of the maps extends southward from the center of the area of excess. It almost divides into two parts the next prominent feature, which is a pronounced band of decreased storminess extending from Oregon through the central United States to Nova Scotia. South of this we have a second great area of increased storminess during times of many sun-spots. Although slightly broken in some of the maps of individual groups of years, it forms a continuous band in the combi- nation map of figure 7. It is particularly well developed over the arid regions from California to western Texas and over the Atlantic Ocean. In one map, however, it becomes intensified in southern Texas. Finally, in the far south we find that in times of many sun-spots there is a slight suggestion of another little belt where storms decrease during times of many spots. This, however, is not well enough developed to be given much importance. In all these cases it should be understood that the words “increased” and “decreased” are used in a purely relative sense. In the northern belt of increased storminess the number of storms is always great, both at times of few sun-spots and of many. In the south- ern belt, on the contrary, the storminess is never very great, although at times of many spots it is distinctly greater than at times of few. I shall deal with this matter more fully later. As a further test of the relation of storms and sun-spots Kullmer has constructed still another map, figure 8. In this case, instead of taking merely years of maximum and minimum sun-spot frequency, he has com- pared two complete sun-spot cycles with one another. Unfortunately, only two cycles are as yet available, but they are enough to provide an interesting test. One cycle consists of the 12 years from 1899 to 1900, inclusive, and the other of the 11 years from 1900 to 1911. In the first cycle the average sun-spot number was 38.8 and the average storminess 107.4 per cent. In the second the average sun-spot number was 33.3 and 508 #8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES Sas iad Woo 38.8) and y — Cpe AS EN Neo x: GF co . wh id — 4 Ze UY tree. oO 0 es Py DK ‘3 some E ii fet) Sra ee [| | a Sea) | I pe i TEs PASSING ER] Be 3 K ‘N D ‘ Ho = [ON PER Wegpata Wr FS ring the of North America’ du Sun-spot Numter 1901-1911 (Average the first cycle and the minus sign nd. (After Kullmer) during rminess sto CYCLONIC STORMS IN 'TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 209 the storminess 99.8 per cent. Years of few as well as many sun-spots are, of course, included in both cases. Nevertheless there is a difference between the two cycles, as may be seen in figure 8. Here, just as in the other cases, we see a belt of increased storminess at the north, with a southward projection in its center. The deficiency in the central portion of the United States is more marked than in the other maps and extends more distinctly into the Pacific Ocean. Yet, as in the other cases, it is most pronounced toward the east and the west and almost disappears in the center. Finally, in the south there is a well defined, although not very intense, belt of increased storminess at times of sun-spot maxima. The only feature of the other maps which does not appear is the most southerly belt of decreased storminess. A similar comparison of the eyele from 1878 to 1888 with the succeeding cycle, 1889 to 1900, shows the same general features for the area east of the 100th meridian, which is as far as data are available. Even the southern belt of deficiency is faintly apparent. | The resemblances of all these maps apparently lead to the conclusion | ‘that we are dealing with a phenomenon’ which repeats itself regularly with every repetition of the solar cycle. Not only does the number of storms seem to vary in harmony with the number of sun-spots, but also, and much more markedly, there is. a pronounced shifting of the area of storminess. The shifting is so regular that we can not avoid the conclu- sion that Kullmer has discovered one of the important laws of nature. Uther investigators, such as Bigelow,’® have noted that the location of storm tracks and the occurrence of cold waves have a relationship to sun- spots; but it has remained for Kullmer to put the matter into such form that we can definitely speak of the law of the shifting of storm tracks in harmony with changes in the intensity of solar activity. The meaning of Kullmer’s law may be summed up briefly. The great area of excessive storminess in southern Canada means that when sun-spots are numerous the main storm belt shifts northward. This is the point on which Kull- mer most strongly insists. I would add that at such times the main storm belt tends to split. The major portion moves northward, while a smaller, but by no means unimportant, portion shifts southward and oceanward. Thus the storminess of the center of the continent is less at times of many sun-spots than at times of few, while southern Canadz and a large area in the south and over the ocean become more stormy. If this process went farther it would apparently result in two storm belis—a boreal belt of great severity and a subtropical belt of minor severity. It 1 Wrank H. Bigelow: Studies on the circulation of the atmospheres of the sun and of the earth. Monthly Weather Review, 1904. XXXVII—BUuLL. Grou. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 510 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES must be clearly understood, however, that during recent times the process has not gone far enough to produce belts which stand out unmistakably. How far the process usually goes will be shown on a later page. In this connection Kullmer points out that Spoerer’s law of the shift- ing of sun-spots in latitude may also apply to cyclonic storms. At the beginning of a new sun-spot cycle spots appear in about latitude 30° on either side of the solar equator. As the sun’s activity increases, the loca- tion of new spots is farther and farther toward the equator. When the maximum intensity is reached, the average position is about 15° from the equator. ‘Then as a cycle dies away the zone of chief activity falls to a latitude of 10° or less. Before this happens a new cycle begins in higher latitudes, and for a period of about three years there are two distinct belts, one waxing and the other waning. The double terrestrial belt at times of maximum sun-spots may be of similar origin. The matter is introduced here merely as a suggestion of one of the many interesting lines of research which are opened up by the study of storms. Shifting of storms in the main storm belt.—In order to ascertain how closely the shifting of the storm belt coincides with solar phenomena, I have made an independent investigation of the area where there is the greatest change in storm frequency from times of maximum to minimum sun-spots. ‘This area is inclosed within heavy meridians and parallels on the map (figure 3). In a limited area of this sort the number of storms depends almost wholly on the amount of shifting of the storm belt and only slightly on the actual change in total storminess for the whole country. Asa first step, the 30 years for which accurate data are available have been divided into six groups of five years each, in accord- ance with the number of sun-spots, just as was done for the whole country on an earlier page. ‘The results are given in Table 4, on page 502. The general conclusion is the same as for the continent; but the differences between the groups are far more marked, because we are dealing with a shift as well as with actual differences in the total storminess. Making allowances for the possible error in the group having a sun-spot number of 58.0, where the figure for 1905 and 1906 is 101.0, instead of 98.2 for the whole group, we see that in general the number of storms increases with the spottedness. The middle groups are none of them far from 100 per cent. The difference between the highest and lowest groups, how- ever, which for the whole continent amounts to 15.8 per cent, has here increased to 46.9 per cent. The excess of 46.9 per cent over 15.8 per cent represents the effect of the northward shifting of the main storm belt. If we divide our period of 30 years into four groups instead of six, the relationships of sun-spots and storms becomes much clearer than with CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 511 a division into six groups. When this is done, the table appears as ' follows: TABLE 5 Per cent 7 years, with sun-spot numbers above 60 (average, 70.4)...storminess 114.1 8 years, with sun-spot numbers from 35 to 60 (average, 46.8) .storminess 101.6 7 years, with sun-spot numbers from 10 to 35 (average, 21.1).storminess 99.3 8 years, with sun-spot numbers below 10 (average 5.7).....storminess 85.4 The similarity between these figures and those for tropical hurricanes in Table 2, on page 494, is striking. It seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that the same phenomena are repeated on both the northern and southern borders of the region where cyclonic storms prevail. The maps which we have discussed above make it equally clear that in the intervening region there is a corresponding decrease of storminess. Before leaving this subject let us take the area of maximum change of storminess—which is the area included within the heavy lines in fig- ure 3, and which is also the area of maximum storm frequency—and compare it with the sun-spots year by year. In this comparison I shall include the early years from 1874 to 1882, as well as the later and more reliable years when the data cover the whole country. These earlier years are probably more or less closely comparable with one another, although the first years are less reliable than the later ones, and there is a shght break between 1882 and 1883. Moreover, as already implied, the years 1883 to 1885 may not be so reliable as those that follow. The results of the comparison are given in figure 9. The upper heavy line represents the variations in the number of storms in the American area of maximum storminess. From 1876 to 1891 a dotted line has been added, indicating the combined storminess of the American area and of a similar area in Europe, but the European area is less well defined than the American and the data are of less value. Confining our attention to the American curve, we see that for the seven years from 1874 to 1880, inclusive, the curve of storms agrees closely with that of sun-spots, which appears below it. Hven the little maximum of 1877 appears in both curves. In 1881, however, the amount of storminess drops suddenly, although the number of sun-spots keeps on increasing. Then for four years the two curves again agree, for both approach a maximum in 1884 and begin to fall in 1885. The next year the storms again behave differently from the sun- spots, but this does not continue long, for in 1887 and 1888 both curves again decline. The following year the storms increase in number, while the sun-spots remain stationary. If the two sets of phenomena are really due to the same cause, the delay of the sun-spot curve may possibly be due to the fact that the atmosphere of the earth is much smaller and per- E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES 12 v IYSMOJIIY OF SUIPIODOB ‘NAO ul ‘edinbo1y 48 a1njR10dWe} UvoM oY} WOA, soinjavdop oy} SMOYS OUT] Teddn sug oy, ‘“suoTdnaie OfuRd]OA JUBIOdM O}VOTPUT SsAIB1G WOT S,AOW)INS 02 Guipsoson “burigfrys-wWs0zgg JO DaAV UWHAIUIWP WOW BYyZ Ud (AA4Nd waMmo7) Szods-unyY pun (Aaund swaddn UW) sSums0Z59—G WUnYIA 0 cI 0& cP Gc TT G 8.2.99 PS -o TG] 8) 2-9 39 =7 SGT 0b 6) Sec 8 Sir GG Ol Ge ee eS asl CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 518 haps more mobile than the lower portion of the sun’s atmosphere where sun-spots apparently originate. ‘l'herefore, when the exciting cause be- gins to act, the earth may respond immediately, while a certain amount of time must elapse before the sun becomes sufficiently disturbed to show much evidence of it. This perhaps explains why in 1890 storminess has become highly pronounced, although the spots of the sun are only begin- ning to become active. The degree of importance to be attached to this explanation is not great, however, for in 1894 and 1908 the maxima of storms come a year after those of spots. The increase in storminess after the spots have passed their maxima is, to be sure, only slight, but it de- serves notice. At present our knowledge is too scanty to enable us to determine the minor causes which induce the sun-spots and storms to act differently in certain cases. To resume our analysis of the curves, in 1891 both rise, but the follow- ing year shows disagreement. Thereafter for 20 years a high degree of agreement is observed. It pertains not only to the major fluctuations, but to such little variations as the minor maxima of 1898 and 1900, both of which appear as irregularities in the sun-spot curve. In the last of the three sun-spot cycles the agreement is more striking than anywhere else. Hach of the three ne in the upper curve is plainly appar- ent in the lower. A test of the shifting of storm tracks by means of correlation coefficients with sun-spots——The relationship shown in the two curves of figure 9 forms, so to speak, a concrete summary of the main fact of Kullmer’s law of the shifting of storm tracks. It thus illustrates the most important sin- gle piece of evidence on which is based the hypothesis here under discus- sion. ‘Therefore it should be tested most rigorously. The most severe mathematical test which can be applied to two such curves is that of cor- relation coefficients. It will be remembered that in computing these it is first necessary to find the amounts by which each of two phenomena dur- ing each of a series of years departs from the average for the entire series of years. From these values a standard mathematical process makes it possible to determine the exact degree of relationship. If the two phe- nomena are absolutely unconnected the coefficient is zero. If they are absolutely connected so that one never occurs without the other, and so that their relationship can be expressed by an invariable mathematical formula, the coefficient is 1. Such a relationship is like that of the rising of the sun to the rotation of the earth, or of the driving wheels of an engine, which can not turn except in harmony with the stroke of the pis- ton. Other related phenomena, such as the amount of food which a man eats and the amount of work that he does, are expressed by coefficients 514 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES which can not possibly be as high as 1, nor can they possibly fall as low as zero. If the data used in the computations are free from perceptible error, a coefficient approaching 0.50 indicates a high degree of connection. The coefficients may have either a plus or a minus sign. The sign is posi- tive when the maxima of one phenomenon are connected with the maxima of the other, while it is negative if the maxima of one are connected with the minima of the other. In the case of the two curves of figure 9 the correlation coefficients — have been computed in various ways, as shown in Table 6. The table shows the correlation coefficient between the number of storms in any given year and the sun-spot numbers of various years or combinations of years. For instance, the first line, “Storminess of a given year and sun- spots of the third year previous, +0.074,” indicates that when the storms of a given year are compared with the number of sun-spots during the third year before that time, the correlation coefficient is only +-0.074. So small a coefficient is unimportant. It indicates that there is no par- ticular relation between the storms, say of 1914, and the sun-spots three years previously—that is, during 1911. The next line shows that when the storms are compared with the sun-spots of two years before—that is. when the storms of 1914, for example, are compared with the sun-spots of 1912—there is a connection, and if the number of sun-spots was on the increase in 1912 the number of storms is likely to be great in 1914. The next three lines show coefficients of +-0.41, +-0.49, and +0.46. This indicates a high agreement. It is noticeable here that there is more agree- ment between the storms of any given year and the sun-spots of the suc- ceeding year than between the storms and the sun-spots of the preceding year. This is significant because it supports an idea which has already been suggested, namely, that the storms are not due directly to the spots, but to certain conditions of the sun, which cause an excitement of. the sun’s atmosphere manifesting itself in spots, and also of the earth’s at- mosphere manifesting itself in storms. The disturbance seems to pro- duce its maximum effect on the earth slightly sooner than on the sun. The last three correlation coefficients show that when the storms of a given year are compared with the sun-spots not only of that year, but of that year combined with the year before or the year after, or with both, the relationship is ligher than when individual years are considered. Tt reaches its maximum, -+-0.535, when the storms of a given year are com- pared with those of that same year, together with the succeeding year. From the mathematical point of view, this affords the strongest possible demonstration of a relationship between the two phenomena. CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 515 TABLE 6 Correlation Coefficients between Storminess in the Main Storm Track Area of North America for the 30 Years from 1888 to 1912 and Sun-spots during various Years and Combinations of Years Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the third year previous.. -+0.074 Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the second year previous. + 0.220 Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the first year previous... +0.409 Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the same year........... +0.486 Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the first year later....... +0.463 Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the second year later.... -+0.232 Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the same year, together With pEeCedINe ANG SUCCEEGINE VALS... 6.6.6. cee ee ce eet e eae + 0.530 Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the same year, together Pam aMDPTCE CECT ON ViCATC S2P Sava crates aseleleleWers aces 1 @.0se\ei.0 eae) dei ee oisiai'ee, dial ood + 0.465 Storminess of a given year and sun-spots of the same year, together ee RCE UNC AITy 7 cialis overs ya \cic-eis sis eG) m sleiie ule epaie-eleid eid ele ele.ete, 6/8 eres + 0.535 Cyclonic storms and volcanic eruptions.—Turning back now directly to the curves of figure 9, we see that during the entire period of 38 years covered by both curves the only distinct disagreements are 1881, 1886, and 1892, to which we ought probably to add 1883. The cause of these may be found either in the volcanic eruptions or meteorological accidents, already discussed, or in some other cause as yet unknown. We can test them as to volcanic eruptions, but not in other respects. Such a test gives a negative result. Volcanoes, as we have seen, appear to have a direct in- fluence on the earth’s temperature. Therefore, if storms depend primarily on conditions of temperature acting through barometric pressure and winds, we. ought to be able to trace the influence of volcanic eruptions in the storm curve. ‘This does not seem to be possible, as may be seen in figure 9, where stars indicate eruptions according to the data of Hum- phreys given in figure 1. The eruption of Krakatoa, in 1883, falls two years after the most notable year of disagreement between sun-spots and storms. he eruption of Tarawera, in 1886, coincides with an anomalous increase in storminess; that of Bandai San, in 1888, corresponds with a decrease which is normal, if we assume that sun-spots and storms are really due to the same cause. The outburst of Bogoslof, in 1890, comes at a time when the storms increase in number, but it is noticeable that the increase is more than would be expected on the basis of solar relation- ship. The eruption of Awoe, in 1892, on the contrary, is accompanied by a decrease. The four remaining volcanic eruptions occur when the num- ber of storms is small. It may be worth noting that 1903 is a somewhat abnormal year, for the number of storms remains lower than would be anticipated, yet the storminess increases somewhat and is thus in har- ‘ SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES 516 &. HUNTINGTON (1OWTINY AIJV) “6g7—-LzgT Jo wnumunyy ay, pun tssr-essr Jo wnunevy yods-ung ay, Ouiinp odowng Jo ssaurwm.s0rg 914. DADAWOO— OT I pa Osx <----- 4 ~~ : ees ad. So =? By "Peer —- ere s. quod CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES yily mony with the sun-spots. ‘Taking the eruptions as a whole, it is hard to see that they have had any special influence. The only possible generali- zation seems to be that as a rule the volcanoes are active at times when the number of storms is somewhat lower than would be expected, but 1886 and 1890 are exceptions. ‘The logical conclusion seems to be that while voleanic eruptions may have a temporary effect on the general tem- perature of the earth, the changes of temperature thus caused do not perceptibly influence cyclonic storms. This supports the idea that storms are not due primarily to conditions of temperature. It thus strengthens our previous conclusion that although volcanic eruptions may be of 1m- portance, they are nevertheless only a minor factor in causing climatic changes. It also strengthens the conclusion that storms are not due pri- marily to conditions of temperature. It does not, however, shed any light on the reason for the occasional disagreements between the curves of sun-spots and of storms. That problem must for the present be left unsolved. 3 Shifting of the storm track in Hurope——Having reached this conclu- sion, we must next ascertain whether the phenomena of Europe are sim- ilar to those of America. Because of the scarcity of data for European storm tracks and because of the lack of homogeneity in the 16 years for which records are available, we can not as yet determine whether the total storminess is greater in periods of many sun-spots than in periods of few. Fortunately, this does not prevent us from comparing the distribution of storms under different circumstances.'® In Europe only one period of maximum spots is available, the years 1882-1884, but there are two mini- mum periods, 1877-1879 and 1888-1890. Therefore each of these has been compared with the same maximum. The results of this comparison are shown in figures 10, 11, and 12. The first two show the relative number of storms in periods of minimum sun-spots, 1877 to 1879 and 1888 to 1890, respectively, as compared with the intervening maximum of 1882 to 1884. The third diagram, figure 12, shows the other two combined. Figure 11 covers a much larger area than the other two maps, since the region where observations were in- cluded after 1882 was much larger than in the preceding period. In spite of certain places where there is a good deal of doubt as to the relia- 19 We can not compare the figures directly, as was done in America. By the use of percentages, however, we can obtain a fairly satisfactory result. ‘The method is merely to find the average storminess for all squares during each three-year period of maximum or minimum spots, and then to call this average 100 per cent. On this basis the value of each square for each period is computed and the differences are determined. Pro- vided that all parts of the country were mapped in the same way during a given period, the results are the same as if direct comparisons were instituted according to the method employed in America. SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES 518 E. HUNTINGTON (aawTINY JeIJy) ‘o6gr—sssr fo wn 2y2 DUD fst —~eger Jo wnuxnyT yods-ung ay, Suimp adoumg Jo ssauwusorg sopeacese 2 ~-* ‘ §t- ee eT Tt hae aanywvsADawWoO— TT AHS A CYCLONIC STORMS IN TEMPERATURE LATITUDES 519 bility of the maps, the general features stand out quite strongly. In the first place, as to the unreliable parts, it is doubtful whether in figure 11 the areas of deficiency in the far northeast, northwest, and especially the southwest, should be so pronounced as they are. This feature probably arises from the fact that more abundant observations were available at the time of the sun-spot minimum of 1888-1890 than in the preceding maximum. Disregarding these features, however, we see that there is a distinctly belted character like that of the American maps. In the first place, each map shows a belt of deficiency in the North Atlantic Ocean near Iceland. Then follows a belt of excess occupying the oceanic area between Iceland and Scotland and extending over into Scotland and the northwestern part of Scandinavia. The next belt of deficiency begins in Ireland, covers southern and western England and northwestern France. Although broken in figure 11, it extends northeastward across the North Sea into Scandinavia, crosses the northern arm of the Baltic, and after another interruption becomes pronounced once more in Finland. The third belt, which is an area of great storminess during sun-spot maxima, begins in central France and extends northeastward into Russia. Its southwestern extremity, however, is more or less detached from the rest and seems to be on the point of disappearing in figure 11. Farther to the east an area of comparative deficiency in figure 10 and of actual de- ficiency in figure 11 lies over southwestern Russia and Hungary. Beyond it there is a third belt of increasing storminess lying over the Balkan Peninsula. Until more exact data are available it is not possible to place much reliance on the minor features of these maps. The division into belts running northeast and southwest, however, is unmistakable, and so, too, is the tendency for these belts to be broken in certain places, such as southern France, Hungary, and the region just north of the Alps. The phenomena are essentially the same as in America. There are at least two and possibly three main belts of excessive storminess and an equal number of belts of deficiency at times of numerous sun-spots. Local cir- cumstances, such as seas and mountains, disturb the continuity of the belts, and this is perhaps the reason why they are less regular than in America. During periods when the sun-spots are few the belts tend to disappear and the storms are concentrated in the main continental area. The surrounding areas are characterized by diminished storminess. This corresponds with the evidence of the trees at Eberswalde. ‘The trees grow fast, it will be remembered, at times when the rainfall of the months from April to November is particularly abundant. Figures 10, 11, and 12 show that northern Germany is one of the areas where storms notably increase at periods of sun-spot maxima. This does not mean, 2 EEE oe ee (peurquios TT pue OT soinst,7) sj0ds-uny wnwiny pun wnuacvy fo spoldad Ousnp adosng JO SSaUIWM10Z9 2AY4VDADIWON—ZT FUNDA SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ‘ 520 #8. HUNTINGTON “OYCLONIC” vs. ‘‘CALORIC”? FORM OF SOLAR HYPOTHESIS 521 however, that winter storms increase. Not only do the trees suggest that the winters have relatively few storms, but Kullmer’s figures demonstrate it. Ifthe average number of storms from December to March during the years 1877-1879 and 1888-1890, when the sun-spots were at a minimum, be taken as 100, the number during the intervening period of maximum spots, 1882-1884, is 81.8. Ifthe summer storms from April to November are taken in the same way, the figures become respectively 100 and 160. In other words, at this particular time of maximum spots winter storms decreased somewhat in northern Germany, while summer storms in- ereased greatly. The long curve of tree growth in figure 2 suggests that this happens regularly during each repetition of the sun-spot cycle. If _ this is true, it has an important bearing on what we shall soon say as to changes of climate in earlier times. | 7 The “cyclonic” versus the “caloric” form of the solar hypothesis.—This brings us to the end of our consideration of modern climatic variations and their causes. In summing up the matter, we see first that the unas- sailable evidence of Newcomb, Koppen, Hann, and others proves that there is a close relationship between changes of temperature in tropical regions and changes in the sun-spot cycle. The work of Arctowski shows — that in tropical regions and in the extratropical areas where the climate is under direct solar control, there are synchronous departures of the temperature from its mean value, and that these must be due to some widely acting cause, probably the sun. An amplification of Arctowski’s work indicates that where we find discrepancies and apparent contradic- tions between the variations of temperature in different regions, they appear to be explicable as the result of the transportation of heat by cur- rents of air, and to a much greater degree by currents of water. Other discrepancies appear to be due to the dust of volcanic eruptions, and probably there are still other causes which we have not yet discovered. Next we have seen that in spite of our conclusions as to the influence of the sun, the measured variations in the solar constant do not lead to the belief that such variations are the main cause of differences in terrestrial temperature. This leads to the consideration of other climatic phenom- ena which may be related to solar changes. We find. that in tropical regions there is strong evidence that the number of cyclonic storms varies in direct harmony with the sun-spots. In northern Germany the growth of trees shows that when sun-spots are at a maximum the climate tends to become continental, with wet, stormy summers, relatively dry winters, and early springs. When sun-spots are few, on the contrary, oceanic con- ditions prevail and the contrast between summer and winter diminishes. The actual figures as to the number of storms support this conclusion. 522 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES In North America Kullmer’s figures point to an increase in the total number of storms at times of maximum sun-spots, no matter in what way we investigate them. In both Europe and North America there seems to be an unmistakable shifting of the zone of storminess in response to changes in solar spots. Taking the evidence as a whole, we seem justified in saying that, in spite of previous conclusions to the contrary, we actually find as much agreement between climatic phenomena and sun-spots as would be expected on the assumption that variations in the sun are the main factor in producing variations in terrestrial climate. This, in brief, is the outline of what may be called the “cyclonic” solar hypothesis as distinguished from the old “caloric” solar hypothesis. The reduction of terrestrial temperature by cyclomc storms.—Let us now return to a subject which has continually confronted us, but which it has not been possible properly to elucidate until the question of cyclonic storms had been discussed. One of the most important objections to the solar hypothesis is the disinclination of astronomers to believe that the mean temperature of the sun can have changed repeatedly to such an extent as to cause the observed climatic changes of the geological past. This view is supported by the fact that although the changes of climate now in progress show a close relationship with changes in sun-spots, they do not agree at all closely with changes in solar radiation as measured by ~ the pyrheliometer. This raises the question of the effect which varia- tions in the intensity of storminess may have on the temperature of the earth’s surface. In answering this, as will shortly appear, we seem to be led to the conclusion that the temperature observed on the earth’s surface can change in harmony with the sun-spots without demanding any ee of temperature in the sun. We have seen that in North America the amount of storminess may be as much as 15 per cent greater during years of the greatest sun-spot fre- quency than during those of least. In Europe equally great variations take place. For example, Kullmer’s unpublished charts show that in 1885 the number of storm centers passing over a small area between Marseilles and Corsica was only 16. Four years later, in 1889, more than three times as many, 55 in all, passed over the same area. Part of the difference may be due to variations in the method of recording data, but much of it is real, for we find many similar occurrences elsewhere, both in Europe and America. Let us inquire into the necessary consequences of such changes, if they take place in such a way as to cause a general increase of storminess throughout the world. On the southern side of ordinary cyclonic storms in the northern hemisphere, no matter whether they are tropical hurricanes or the far more numerous storms of tem- REDUCTION OF TERRESTRIAL TEMPERATURE BY STORMS 523 perate regions, air is drawn in from warm southerly latitudes. On the opposite side air is drawn in from relatively cold regions, especially in the main storm belt. In the center of the area of low barometric pressure, which is the fundamental feature of a cyclonic storm, the cold, heavy air from the poleward side flows under the warm, light air from the equator- ward side. Thus, in the center, where there is a strong tendency for the air to rise because of the surrounding high pressure, it is the warmer air which rises. The rising air is carried far aloft. As it reaches higher alti- tudes, where the atmospheric pressure is less, it expands little by little and grows cool, according to the usual adiabatic laws. At the same time it grows cool by radiation, but this last process is much slower than the adiabatic cooling. Accordingly, air which is unusually warm when it leaves the earth’s surface is still relatively warm when it reaches high altitudes. Manifestly such air carries heat away from the earth’s surface. Having once reached a high altitude, it stays there a long time, for there are no rapid downward movements of the atmosphere at all comparable to the strong upward currents in the centers of cyclonic storms. During this period it grows cool by radiation, and much of the heat thus sent out _ is a complete loss, so far as the earth’s surface is concerned. During periods of many sun-spots the increase in the total intensity of the earth’s storminess must cause a corresponding increase in the amount of air carried from low to high altitudes. The average rate of movement also increases in all probability, for the storms are likely to be more severe. When the amount of warm air that goes upward increases, and still more if it rises at a more rapid rate than formerly, it is evident that the amount of heat which is carried away from the earth’s surface and is dissipated in the upper air must increase to a corresponding de- gree. As the air which thus rises is derived from regions to the equator- ward of the storms, there would naturally be a distinct tendency to lower the temperature of the entire equatorial and subtropical area between the storm belts of the two hemispheres. Apparently the fact that at times of maximum sun-spots the storms tend to increase not only in a boreal, but a subtropical belt nearer to the equator than the present storm belt, increases the extent to which the equatorial regions are cooled by the draining away of their warmer air. Such a process of cooling the regions to the equatorward of the storm belt must apparently occur whenever the number of storms increases, no matter whether the amount of heat re- ceived from the sun changes or remains constant. In the storm belt a similar, but less noticeable, effect seems to be produced. More air than formerly is drawn in from the south, but more also comes from the north, and the two perhaps balance one another. The warm air, however, rises 524 . HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES much more than the cold air, and hence the total result must probably be to lower the temperature. 3 In polar regions the effect would be different. Recent explorations have established the fact that Antarctica and the great ice-cap of Green- land are regions of high pressure, and hence of descending air. The temperature of this air depends on the degree to which the air which has ~ ascended in other places has had time to give off its heat before it begins to descend. It seems probable that when a given body of warm air rises in equatorial or temperate regions it stays aloft so long that when a por- tion of it finally descends in the midst of a polar area of high pressure it has lost as much heat as it can by radiation—that is, its temperature will be almost the same, no matter how warm it may have been when it rose. In that case the temperature of polar regions will suffer little change except in so far as there is a variation in the amount of heat received from the sun. | In view of the conditions here described, it appears as if changes in the storminess of the earth must cause changes in the mean temperature of the atmosphere at low levels, even without any change in the amount of heat received from the sun. The variations would take place in accord- ance with the phenomena which we actually observe and which have been tabulated by Koppen and others. 7 A ‘possible magnetic or electric cause of cyclonic storms.—The verity of the conclusion just reached depends in part on the cause which future investigation may assign to cyclonic storms. We have seen that such storms seem to be directly connected with changes in the sun. We have also seen that certain phenomena, such as the apparent absence of any effect of volcanic eruptions on storminess, seem to imply that the loca- tion and intensity of storms is not due primarily to temperature alone. Kullmer has advanced some interesting reasons for suspecting some con- nection between storms and terrestrial magnetism. He points out that there are three centers of storminess, corresponding to the three magnetic poles. In the southern hemisphere there is only one magnetic pole. The cyclonic storms of that region circle around it in about latitude 60° south.?° Their average path is not concentric with the pole of rotation, but with the magnetic pole. In the northern hemisphere the main mag- netic pole lies in the northeastern part of North America, approximately in latitude 70° north and longitude 97° west. Corresponding to this we have the main stormy area of the world. It extends from the western 20 See W. J. S. Lockyer: Southern Hemisphere. Surface air circulation. London, 1910. Also National Antarctic Expedition, 1901-1904: Meteorology, Part II, comprising daily synchronous charts, 1st October, 1901, to 31st March, 1904. London, Royal Society, 1913. MAGNETIC OR ELECTRIC CAUSE OF CYCLONIC STORMS BAS part of America, in about latitude 50°, across that continent to Hurope and as far as the confines of Asia, where it gradually dies out. Here, just as in the southern hemisphere, the average path of the storm does not follow an are concentric with the pole of rotation, but one much more nearly concentric with the magnetic pole. Finally, in Siberia, there is a minor magnetic pole. Corresponding to this there is a third stormy area which centers in Japan. Another fact which Kullmer points out as per- haps of importance in this connection is that in the Atlantic Ocean the lines of equal total intensity of magnetic force follow the same direction as the main storm tracks. The relation between the location of storms and the magnetic pole is brought out in most of the storm maps. Heavy solid lines have been drawn with the magnetic pole as a center. In North America the more northern line is drawn at a distance of approximately 25° from the magnetic pole. It does not run exactly parallel to the belt of maximum storminess or to the belt where storminess increases most rapidly during times of sun-spot maximum. Nevertheless there is a cer- tain degree of correspondence. In figure 6 a southern line has been drawn about 38° from the magnetic pole. It does not agree with the southern storm belt to anything like so great a degree as does the other line with the northern storm belt, perhaps because the central protuberance of the northern belt pushes the storms unduly far to the south. Its continuation, however, is the more northerly line in the European maps. This, as may be seen in figure 4, lies not far from the main northern area of abundant storms. How significant this possible agreement of magnetic and cyclonic phe- nomena may be can not yet be determined, but it is certainly worth in- vestigating. The earth’s magnetic field is closely connected with that of the sun. It is well known that among all the phenomena of the earth magnetism is the one which shows the most unequivocal connection with the solar changes which manifest themselves as sun-spots, protuberances, and other variations in the solar atmosphere. Hence, if cyclonic storms are in part a magnetic phenomenon, we should expect to find that they vary in harmony with the spots of the sun. Such variations would prob- ably be also in harmony with changes in the amount of solar radiation, but they would not be due to it primarily, and might be of considerable magnitude when the temperature changes were slight. Although physi- cists are slow to believe that solar temperature can change rapidly, they all agree that electrical and magnetic changes may take place with great speed. ‘These considerations are highly speculative and they are not _ essential to our main conclusions. They are of value, however, as sug- gesting some of the lines along which investigation may prove fruitful. XXXVITI—Buuu. Grou. Soc. Am., Von. 25, 1913 526 E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES THE CLIMATE OF HISToRIC TIMES GENERAL DISCUSSION Having completed our survey of present climatic conditions, we are prepared to consider the climate of the past. The first period to claim attention is the few thousand years covered by written history. Strangely enough, the conditions during this time are known with less accuracy than are those of geological periods hundreds of times more remote. Yet if pronounced changes have occurred since the days of the ancient Baby- lonians and since the last of the post-Glacial stages, they are of great im- portance not only because of their possible historic effects, but because they bridge the gap between the little variations of climate which are observable during a single lifetime and the great changes known as Gla- cial epochs. Only by bridging the gap can we determine whether there is any genetic relation between the great changes and the small. A full discussion of the climate of historic times is not here advisable, for it has been considered in detail in numerous other publications. Our most profitable course would seem to be to consider first the general trend of opinion and then to take up the chief objections to each of the main hypotheses. THH TREND OF OPINION AS T0 THE CLIMATE’ OF THE PAST In the hot debate over this problem during the last decade or two the ideas of geographers seem to be going through much the same metamor- -phosis as nave those of geologists in regard to the climate of times far autecedent to the historic period. It is scarcely necessary to remind geologists of the way in which opinion has changed in regard to the cli- inate of geological times. An admirable summary of the subject may be fonnd in Schuchert’s paper on “Climates of Geologic Times.” which forms the concluding part of “I'he Climatic Factor.” publication 192 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. As every geologist well knows, at the dawn ot geology people believed in climatic uniformity—that is, it was supposed that since the completion of an original creative act there had been no important changes. ‘I'his view quickly disappeared and was superseded by the hypothesis of progressive cooling and drying, an hy- pothesis which had much to do with the develooment of the nebular hypothesis. and which has in turn been greatly strengthened by that hy- puvuesis. ‘lhe discovery of evidence of wide-spread continental glaciation, however, necessitated a modification of this view, and succeeding years have brought. to light a constantly increasing number of glacial, or at least cool, periods distributed throughout almost the whole of geological CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 527 time. Moreover, each year, almost, brings new evidence of the great com- plexity of Glacial periods, epochs, and stages. Thus, for many decades, geologists have more and more been led to believe that the climate of the past has been highly unstable, and that its changes have been of all de- grees of intensity. PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION DURING HISTORIC TIMES Geographers are now debating the problem of the reality of historic changes of climate in the same way in which geologists debated as to the reality of Glacial epochs and stages. Several hypotheses present them- selves. In the first place, the hypothesis of progressive desiccation has been widely advocated. In many of the drier portions of the world, espe- cially between 30° and 40° from the equator, and preeminently in west- ern and central Asia and in the southwestern United States, almost in- numerable facts seem to indicate that two or three thousand years ago theclimate was distinctly moister than at present. The evidence in- cludes old lake strands, the traces of desiccated springs, roads in places now too dry for caravans, other roads which make detours around dry lake beds where no lakes now exist, and fragments of dead forests extending over hundreds of square miles where trees can not now grow for lack of water. Still stronger evidence is furnished by ancient ruins, hundreds of which are located in places which are now so dry that only the merest fraction of the former inhabitants could find water. The ruins of Palmyra, in the Syrian Desert, show that it must once have been a city like modern Damascus, with one or two hundred thousand inhabitants, but its water supply now suffices for only one or two thousand. All attempts to increase the water supply have had only a shght effect and the water is notoriously sulphurous, whereas in the former days, when it was abun- dant, it was renowned for its excellence. Hundreds of pages might be devoted to describing similar ruins. Some of them are even more remark- able for their dryness than is Niya, a site in the Tarim Desert of Chinese. Turkestan. Yet there the evidence of desiccation within 2,000. years is so strong that even so careful and conservative a man as Hann,” pro- nounces it “iiberzeugend,” although in other regions he does not feel that the matter has yet been settled. In all the discussions of the matter, so far as I am aware, no opponent of the hypothesis of climatic changes has ever even attempted to show by careful statistical analysis that the ancient water supply of these ruins was no greater than that of the present. The most that has been done is to suggest that there may have been sources of water which are now unknown. Of course, this might be true in a 1 J, Hann: Klimatologie, vol, 1, 1908, p. 352, 528 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES single instance, but it could scarcely be the case in many hundreds or thousands of ruins. The arguments in favor of a change of climate during the last two _ thousand years seem too strong to be ignored. Their very strength, how- ever, seems to have been a source of error. A large number of people, among whom I plead guilty of having been included during the earlier days of my geographical work, have jumped to the conclusion that the change which appears to have occurred in certain regions occurred every- where, and that it consisted of a gradual desiccation. CLIMATIC UNIFORMITY DURING HISTORIC TIMES Other observers, quite as careful as those who believe in progressive desiccation, point to evidences of aridity in past times in the very regions where the others find proof of moisture. Lakes such as the Caspian Sea fell to such a low level that parts of their present floors were exposed and were used as sites for buildings whose ruins are still extant. Elsewhere, for instance in the Tian Shan Mountains, irrigation ditches are found in places where irrigation never seems to be necessary at present. In Syria and North Africa during the early centuries of the Christian era the Romans showed unparalleled activity in building great aqueducts and in -watering land which then apparently needed water as much as it does today. Evidence of this sort is abundant and is as convincing as is the evidence of moister conditions in the past. It is admirably set forth, for example, in the comprehensive and ably written monograph of Leiter on the climate of North Africa.?? The evidence cited there and elsewhere has led many authors strongly to advocate the hypothesis of climatic uniformity. They have done exactly as have the advocates of progressive change, and have extended their conclusions over the whole world and over the whole of historic times. CLIMATIC PULSATIONS DURING HISTORIC TIMES The hypotheses of climatic uniformity and of progressive change both seem to be based on reliable evidence. They are diametrically opposed to one another, but this is apparently because the various lines of evidence have not been grouped according to their dates. When this is done, it appears that evidence of moist conditions is found during certain periods ; for instance, four or five hundred years before Christ, at the time of Christ, and 1000 A. D. The other kind of evidence, on the contrary, cul- minates at other epochs, such as about 1200 B. C. and in the seventh and 22H. Leiter: Die Frage der Klimaanderung wahrend geschichtlicher Zeit in Nordafrika. Abhandl. K. K. Geographischen Gesellschaft. Wien, 1909, p. 1438. CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 529 thirteenth centuries after Christ. It is also found during the interval from the culmination of a moist epoch to the culmination of a dry one, _ for at such times conditions would be growing drier and the people would be under stress. This was seemingly the case during the period from the second to the fourth centuries of our era. North Africa and Syria may have been moister than at present; but they were gradually becoming drier, and the natural effect on a vigorous, competent people like the Romans was to cause them to construct all manner of engineering works to provide the necessary water. The considerations which have just been set forth have led to a third hypothesis, that of pulsatory climatic changes. According to this, the earth’s climate is not stable, nor does it change uniformly in one direc- tion. It appears to fluctuate back and forth not only in the little waves which we see from year to year or decade to decade, but in much larger ones, which take hundreds of years or even a thousand. These in turn seem to merge into and be imposed on the greater waves which form Glacial stages, Glacial epochs, and Glacial periods. At the present time there seems to be no way of determining whether the general tendency is toward aridity or toward glaciation. The seventh century of our era was apparently the driest time during the historic period—distinctly drier than the present—but the thirteenth century was almost equally dry, and the twelfth or thirteenth before Christ may have been very dry. TREES AS A CLIMATIC YARDSTICK The best test of an hypothesis is actual measurements. In the case of the pulsatory hypothesis we are fortunately able to apply this test. The growth of vegetation depends on many factors—such as soil, exposure, wind, sun, temperature, rain, and so forth. In the case of any individual tree, however, the variations from year to year depend largely on climate. The most critical factor for the great majority of plants is the amount of moisture during the few months of most rapid growth.** In the case of trees, the work of Douglass** and others has shown the thickness of the annual rings affords a reliable indication of the amount of moisture avail- able during the period of growth. This is especially true when the growth of several years is taken as the unit and is compared with the growth of 23 A most careful and convincing study of this problem is embodied in an article by J. W. Smith: The effects of weather upon the yield of corn. Monthly Weather Review, vol. 42, 1914, pp. 78-92. On the basis of the yield of corn in Ohio for 60 years and in other States for shorter periods, he shows that the rainfall of July has almost as much influence on the crop as has the rainfall of all other months combined. 24See chapter by A. E. Douglass in “The Climatic Factor’; also article by M. N. Stewart: “The Relation of Precipitation to Tree Growth,” in The Monthly Weather Review, vol. 41, 1913. ANGES £ SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CH 0002 008T saaug, nionbag fo yzaoup fq pawnsnou SD °S1DaX 000 Ol a2DWUQ DIULOLYDO %*W SabwoYO—FT BAAS OO8t OOLT 0091 00ST OOFT O08 O0ZT OOTT 0001 006 008 002 009 00s 007 008 002 Oot d'V 0/4 | | Tle (OU) PzZZOP) DISP 1D.1QUad pun wWtazsaa UL puD (JU) pYLOs) DiUsOfyYO UL apoDWyO Jo SabuUnYyO—ET BAX A -4--------- eee ee enw eee IN aaresente senceetennea meceneetene® ee oe ately pe fees cue 08 ooor ' og 009T O0FT 0021 O00T 008 009 007 006 G'V Da 006 007 009 0 00ST CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 531 a similar number of years before or after. Where a long series of years is used, it is necessary to make corrections to eliminate the effects of age, but this can be done by mathematical methods of considerable accuracy. It is difficult to determine whether the climate at the beginning and end of a tree’s life was the same, but it is easily possible to determine whether there have been pulsations while the tree was making its growth. If a large number of trees from various parts of a given district all formed thick rings at a certain period and then formed thin ones for a hundred years, after which the rings again become thick, we seem to be safe in concluding that the trees have lived through a long dry period. The full reasons for this belief and details as to the methods of estimating climate from tree growth are given in “The Climatic Factor.” A brief summary of the results set forth in that volume is as follows: During the years 1911 and 1912, under the auspices of the Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, I measured the thickness of the rings of growth on the stumps of about 450 Sequoia trees in California. These trees varied in age from 250 to nearly 3,250 years. The great majority were over 1,000 years of age, 79 were over 2,000, and 3 over 3,000. Even where only a few trees are available the record is surprisingly reliable except where occasional accidents occur. Where the number approxi- mates 100, accidental variations are largely eliminated and we may accept the record with considerable confidence. Accordingly, we may say that in California we have a fairly accurate record of the climate for 2,000 years and an approximate record for 1,000 years more. The final results of the measurements of the California trees are shown in figure 13, where the climatic variations for 3,000 years in California are indicated by the solid lines. The high parts of the line indicate rainy conditions, the low parts dry. An examination of this curve shows that during 3,000 years there have apparently been climatic variations more important than any which have taken place during the past century. In order to bring out the details more clearly, the more reliable part of the California curve, from 100 B. C. to the present time, has been reproduced in figure 14. This is identical with the corresponding part of figure 13 except that the vertical scale is three times as great. In addition to the solid line of figure 13 there is a dotted line. This indicates the approximate climatic fluctuations of central and western Asia as I had inferred them before doing any work on this subject in America.”> It is avowedly imperfect, especially in the earlier portions. Before the time of Christ information is so scanty that in some cases there are gaps of two or three centuries where no data are yet available. *'The curve is taken from ‘‘Palestine and its Transformation,” pp. 327 and 403. 5382 BE. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES In spite of this, however, if the earlier, less reliable portions of the curves are omitted, the main features of the Asiatic curve agree in general with those of the California curve. Both curves seem to point to the conclu- sion that during the past two or three thousand years the climate of these two far removed portions of the world has been subject to approximately the same kind of climatic pulsations. The agreement of two such diverse lines of evidence is one of the strongest reasons for accepting the pulsa- tory hypothesis. . CLIMATIC PULSATIONS ACCORDING TO CRITICS OF THE HYPOTHESIS OF PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION Another reason for accepting it is found in the attitude of authors who support the hypothesis of chmatic uniformity. As examples of this I shall take four who have written for the express purpose of controverting the views which I have expressed in “Explorations in Turkestan,’ “The Pulse of Asia,’ and “Palestine and its Transformation.” Their argu- ments, however, are not directed against the idea of pulsatory changes, but against the idea that the climate of western and central Asia two thousand years ago was moister than at present. These four authors— Hedin, Gregory, Berg, and Herbette—state distinctly their acceptance of the modern geological conclusion that since the Glacial period there have been climatic pulsations of the type known as post-Glacial stages. They hold, however, that by the beginning of the Bronze Age, say 1500 or 2000 B. C., these pulsations had come to an end. From that time onward for 3,000 or 4,000 years they state that the climate has been uniform. Never- theless they all qualify this by admitting that during the past 1,000 years, more or less, there have been pulsations of greater magnitude than those which can be observed during the life of a single individual. For in- stance, the Swedish traveler Hedin”® speaks of lakes Manasarowar and Rakas-tal, in southwestern Tibet, as forming admirable rain gauges. Both are without outlet most of the time. Manasarowar, however, over- flows at fairly frequent intervals, perhaps in accordance with the Briick- ner cycle, and sends a stream to Rakas-tal. This lower lake overflows much more rarely and only in times of unusually marked precipitation. Hence its occasional periods of overflow at intervals of a few hundred years are taken by Hedin to indicate climatic pulsations having this dura- tion. Hedin*’ also says that “the fact that the Caspian Sea was much lower 750 years ago than it isnow . . . proves more clearly than any- thing else that the desiccation of the climate of central Asia and of the | Jakes by no means follows a regular curve.” Elsewhere he says that 26 Sven Hedin: Trans-Himalaya, vol. 3, p. 284; see also p. 288. * Sven Hedin: Overland to India, vol. 2, p. 209, CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 533 “oscillations between dry and moist climates have succeeded one another all over western Asia. The opposite would be both unnatural and physi- cally unaccountable.” | The Russian geographer, Berg,?* speaks in much the same way. He states that “during the 13th and 15th centuries and part of the 16th in western Asia and eastern Europe some increase in the precipitation was noticed. For instance, during this time the Amu Dariya sent a branch to the Caspian Sea through the Uzboi. . . . There is nothing to as- sure us that in the future such an abundance of water may not repeat itself.” Herbette,”* a French geographer, expresses practically the same opinion. In discussing the curve of the fluctuations of the Caspian Sea, which I have published in “The Pulse of Asia” (page 349), he objects strongly to the earlier portions before the low stand in the fifth, sixth, and seventh centuries of our era. I may add parenthetically that later work has led me to modify these earlier portions, although not to the extent advocated by Herbette. From the fifth century onward, however, he seems to accept the curve as reliable, for he says that “the rest of the curve indicates only that in the Middle Ages there were fluctuations of the level of the Caspian Sea more accentuated than those of our day.” Finally, the English geographer Gregory, the last of our four authors, admits the desiccation of Asia, and is also convinced that in northwestern Europe the climate has become more oceanic during the last few cen- turies. He says®°® that “‘both the summers and winters are now more moderate (than in the time of Tycho Brahe, whose observations cover the period from 1582 to 1597), while the temperatures of spring and autumn are unchanged.” In Roumania** he holds that the climate is now more moist than formerly. It thus appears that although the four authors here cited are among the strongest opponents of the hypothesis of a gradual drying up of the earth, and although they all expressly state their belief that there has been no pronounced change of climate during historic times, they all admit the main elements of the pulsatory hypothesis. From the height of the last Glacial epoch to about 1500 or 2000 B. C. they agree in believing that pronounced pulsations took place. They also agree that during the last thousand years, more or less, there have been *8L. Berg: Variations of climate in historic times (On Russian). Zemleveduié, Moscow, 1911, p. 75. 2 Francois Herbette: Le Problem du Dessechement de l’Asie Centrale. Annales de Geographie, vol. 23, 1914, pp. 1-30. 30 J, W. Gregory: Is the earth drying up? Geog. Jour., vol. 43, 1914, pp. 148-172 and 293-318. 31See G. Murgoci: The climate in Roumania and vicinity in the late Quaternary times. Postglaziale Klima veranderungen. Stockholm, 1910. 5384 8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES minor pulsations of one kind or another which are larger than those ob- served during a single lifetime or than those recorded since accurate ob- servations were possible on a large scale. In other words, a careful study ‘of the available facts has led these four authors to reject the hypothesis of progressive changes and to accept the hypothesis of large pulsatory changes previous to about 2000 B. C. and of small changes of the same kind since about 600 A. D. The only point where their view differs radically from the one advocated in this paper is in the interpretation of the evidence from 2000 B. C. to the early part of the Christian era. Were the pulsations of that time of the small type which seems to have pre- vailed during the last 1,500 years, or were they intermediate between those and the larger ones of post-Glacial stages? OBJECTIONS TO THE HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES Ancient droughts and famines——Reasons for believing that the pulsa- tions were intermediate rather than small have already been mentioned in our discussion of ruins and allied phenomena. It will now be advis- able to consider the objections to this view. Only three of chief im- portance can be taken up. The first is the unquestionable fact that’ droughts and famines have occurred at periods which seem on other eyi- dence to have been moister than the present time. This argument has been much used, but it seems to have little force. Jf the rainfall of a given region averages 30 inches and varies from 15 to 45, a famine will ensue if the rainfall drops for a few years to the lower limit and does not rise much above 20 for a few years. If the climate of the place changes during the course of centuries, so that the rainfall averages only 20 inches, and ranges from 7 to 35, famine will again ensue if the rainfall remains near 10 inches for a few years. The ravages of the first famine might be as bad as those of the second. They might even be worse, be- cause when the rainfall is larger the number of people is likely to be greater and the distress due to scarcity of food would affect a larger num- ber of people. Hence historic records of famines and droughts do not indicate that the climate was either drier or moister than at present. They merely show that at the time in question the climate was drier than the normal for that particular period. The existence of deserts in ancient tumes—Alexander’s march.—The march of Alexander from India to Mesopotamia illustrates a second type of objection which is often urged against the idea that the climate of that time may have been moister than that of the present. Hedin gives an excellent presentation of the case in the second volume of his “Overland to India.” He shows conclusively that Alexander’s army suffered terribly CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 535 from lack of water and provisions. Various other authors, among whom I have been one, have taken the opposite view, and have maintained that the large size of Alexander’s army, and especially the presence of ele- phants, prove that the march would have been impossible under present climatic conditions. Asa matter of fact, it is extremely doubtful whether any reliable conclusion can be drawn from this one incident when taken by itself. We do not know whether Alexander’s march took place during an especially dry or an especially wet year. In a desert region like Ma- kran, in southern Persia and Beluchistan, where the greatest difficulties occurred, the rainfall varies greatly from year to year. We have no rec- ords from Makran, but the conditions there are closely similar to those of southern Arizona and New Mexico. In 1885 and 1905 the rainfall for five stations in that region was as follows: SS Mean rainfall dur- ing period since PEEP cee observations began. “Uzi ISAC 02 A a 2 ate, 11.41 ites MID PARVZON Gs oa. co. 5 5 own 5 eacs winless Se tik 19.73 CPL SC SORE AEUAOIIA. co cos see asda ccs ieee es 5.26 24.17 11.66 Mordspure, New Mexico............5..... 3.99 19.50 8.62 El Paso, Texas (on New Mexico border) .. Gad 17.80 9.06 28 SETS Apis 4.61 18.52 7.95 These stations are distributed over an area nearly 500 miles east and west. Manifestly a traveler who spent the year 1885 in that region would have had much more difficulty in finding water and forage than one who traveled in the same places in 1905. During 1885 the rainfall was 42 per cent less than the average, and during 1905 it was 134 per cent more than the average. Let us suppose, for the sake of argument, that the average rainfall of southeastern Persia is 6 inches today and was 10 inches in the days of Alexander. If the rainfall from year to year varied as much in the past in Persia as it does now in New Mexico and Arizona, the rain- fall during an ancient dry year, corresponding in character to 1885, would have been about 5.75 inches. On the other hand, if we suppose that the rainfall then averaged less than at present—let us say 4 inches— a wet year corresponding to 1905 in the American deserts might have had a rainfall of about 10 inches. This being the case, it is clear that our estimate of the importance of Alexander’s march must depend largely on whether 325 B. C. was a wet year or a dry year. Inasmuch as we know nothing about this, we must fall back on the fact that a 536 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES large army accomplished a journey in a place where today even a small caravan usually finds great difficulty in procuring forage and water. Moreover, elephants were taken 180 miles across what is now an almost waterless desert, and yet the old historians make no comment on such a feat which today would be practically impossible. These things seem more in harmony with a change of climate than with uniformity. Never- theless, it is not safe to place much reliance on them except when they | are taken in conjunction with other evidence, such as the numerous ruins, which show that Makran was once far more densely populated than now seems possible. ‘Taken by itself, such incidents as Alexander’s march can not safely be used either as an argument for or against changes of climate. The distinction between changes of temperature and changes of pre- cipitation.—The third and last objection which we shall here consider is also the strongest. It is based on the condition of vegetation. ‘The whole question is admirably set forth by Gregory,*? who gives not only his own results, but those of the ablest scholars who have preceded him. His con- clusions are important because they represent one of the few cases where a definite statistical attempt is made to prove the exact condition of the climate of the past. After stating various less important reasons for believing that the climate of Palestine has not changed, he discusses vege- tation. The following quotation indicates his line of thought. I have italicized a sentence near the beginning in order to call attention to the importance which Gregory and others lay on this particular kind of evi- dence: ‘“‘Some more certain test is necessary than the general conclusions which can be based upon the historical and geographical evidence of the Bible. In the absence of rain gauge and thermometric records, the most precise test of cli- mate is given by the vegetation; and fortunately the palm affords a very deli- cate test of the past climate of Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean. The date palm has three limits of growth which are determined by tempera- ture; thus it does not reach full maturity or produce ripe fruit of good quality below the mean annual temperature of 69° F. The isothermal of 69° crosses southern Algeria near Biskra; it touches the northern coasts of Cyrenaica near Derna and passes Egypt near the mouth of the Nile, and then bends northward along the coast lands of Palestine. “Yo the north of this line the date palm grows and produces fruit, which only ripens occasionally, and its quality deteriorates as the temperature falls below 69°. Between the isotherms of 68° and 64°, limits which include north- ern Algeria, most of Sicily, Malta, the southern parts of Greece and northern Syria, the dates produced are so unripe that they are not edible. In the next cooler zone, north of the isotherm of 62°, which enters Europe in southwestern 3 J, W. Gregory: Is the earth drying up? Geog. Jour., vol. 43, 1914, pp. 148-172 and 293-318. CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 537 Portugal, passes through Sardinia, enters Italy near Naples, crosses northern Greece and Asia Minor to the east of Smyrna, the date palm is grown only for its foliage, since it does not fruit. “Hence at Benghazi, on the north African coast, the date palm is fertile, but produces fruit of poor quality. In Sicily and at Algiers the fruit ripens occasionally and at Rome and Nice the palm is grown only as an ornamental tree. “The date palm therefore affords a test of variations in mean annual tem- perature of three grades between 62° and 69°. “This test shows that the mean annual temperature of Palestine has not altered since Old Testament times. The palm tree now grows dates on the coast of Palestine and in the deep depression around the Dead Sea, but it does not produce fruit on the highlands of Judea. Its distribution in ancient times, as far as we can judge from the Bible, was exactly the same. It grew at ‘Jericho, the city of palm trees’ (Deut. xxxiv: 3 and 2; Chron. xxviii: 15), and at HEngedi, on the western shore of the Dead Sea (2 Chron. xx:2; Eccles. xxiv: 14) ; and though the palm does not still live at Jericho—the last appar- ently died in 1838—its disappearance must be due to neglect, for the only climatie change that would explain it would be an increase in cold or moisture. In olden times the date palm certainly grew on the highlands of Palestine; but apparently it never produced fruit there, for the Bible references to the palm are to its beauty and erect growth: “The righteous shall flourish like the palm’ (Ps. xcii: 12) ; ‘They are upright as the palm tree’ (Jer. x: 5); ‘Thy stature is like to a palm tree’ (Cant. vii: 7). It is used as a symbol of victory (Rev. vii: 9), but never praised as a source of food. “Dates are not once referred to in the text of the Bible, but according to the marginal notes the word translated ‘honey’ in 2 Chron. xxxi:5 may mean dates. “Tt appears, therefore, that the date palm had essentially the same distribu- tion in Palestine in Old Testament times as it has now; and hence we may infer that the mean temperature was then the same as now. If the climate had been moister and cooler, the date could not have flourished at Jericho. If it had been warmer, the palms would have grown freely at higher levels and Jericho would not have held its distinction as the city of palm trees.” * In the main Gregory’s conclusions seem to be well grounded, although even according to his data a change of 2° or 3° in mean temperature would be perfectly feasible. It will be noticed, however, that they apply to temperature and not to rainfall. They merely prove that two thousand years ago the mean temperature of Palestine and the neighboring regions was not appreciably different from what it is today. This, however, is in no sense out of harmony with the hypothesis of this paper. As we have already seen, students of glaciation believe that during the last Glacial epoch the mean temperature of the earth as a whole was only 5° or 6° C. colder than at present. If the difference between the climate of today 3 Geog. Jour., vol. 43, pp. 159-161. 5388 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES and of the time of Christ is a tenth as great as the difference between the climate of today and that which prevailed at the culmination of the last Glacial epoch, the change in.two thousand years has been of large dimen- sions. Yet this would require a rise of only half a degree centigrade in ‘the mean temperature of Palestine. Manifestly, so slight a change would scarcely be detectable in the vegetation. 7 Hxamples of large variations in rainfall accompanied by slight varia- tions in temperature.—The slightness of changes in mean temperature as compared with changes in rainfall may be judged from a comparison of wet and dry years in various regions. For example, at Berlin be- tween 1866 and 1905 the ten most rainy years had an average precipita- tion of 670 mm. and a mean temperature of 9.15° C. On the other hand, the ten years of least rainfall had an average of 483 mm. and a mean temperature of 9.35°. In other words, a difference of 137 mm., or 39 per cent, in rainfall was accompanied by a difference of only 0.2° C. in tem- perature. Such contrasts between the variability of mean rainfall and mean temperature are observable not only when individual years are se- lected, but when much longer periods are taken. For instance, in the western Gulf region of the United States the two inland stations of Vicks- burg, Mississippi, and Shreveport, Louisiana, and the two maritime sta- tions of New Orleans, Louisiana, and Galveston, Texas, lie at the margins of an area about 400 miles long. During the ten years from 1875 to 1884 their rainfall averaged 59.4 inches,** while during the tew years from 1890 to 1899 it averaged only 42.4 inches. Even in a region so well watered as the Gulf States, such a change—40 per cent more in the first period than in the second—is important, and in drier regions it would have a great effect on habitability. Yet in spite of the magnitude of the change the mean temperature was not appreciably different, the average for the four stations being 67.36° F. during the more rainy decade and 66.94° F. during the less rainy decade—a difference of only 0.42° F. Itis worth noticing that in this case the wetter period was also the warmer, whereas in Berlin it was the cooler. This is probably because a large part of the moisture of the Gulf States is brought by winds having a southerly component. Similar relationships are apparent in other places. We select Jerusalem because we are now discussing Palestine. At the time of writing, the data available in the Quarterly Journal of the Pales- tine Exploration Fund cover the years from 1882-1899 and 1903-1909. Among these 25 years the 13 which had most rain had an average of 34.1 inches and a temperature of 62.04° F. The 12 with least rain had 24.4 54 See A. J. Henry: Secular variation of precipitation in the United States. Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., vol. 46, 1914, pp. 192-201. CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 039 inches and a temperature of 62.44°. A difference of 40 per cent in rain- _ fall was accompanied by a difference of only 0.4° F. in temperature. The facts set forth in the preceding paragraphs seem to show that ex- tensive changes in precipitation and storminess can take place without appreciable changes of mean temperature. If such changed conditions can persist for ten years, as in one of our examples, there is no logical reason why they can not persist for a hundred or a thousand. ‘The evi- ~ dence of changes in climate during the historic period seems to suggest - changes in precipitation much more than in temperature. Hence the strongest of all the arguments against historic changes of climate seems to be of relatively little weight, and the pulsatory hypothesis seems to be in accord with all the known facts. : DIVERSITY OF CHANGES OF CLIMATE IN DIFFERENT REGIONS Before the true nature of climatic changes, whether historic or geo- logie, can be rightly understood another point needs emphasis. When the pulsatory hypothesis was first framed, it fell into the same error as the hypotheses of uniformity and of progressive change—that is, the assump- tion was made that the whole world is either growing drier or moister with each pulsation. A study of the ruins of Yucatan, in 1912, and of Guatemala, in 1913, as is explained in “The Climatic Factor,’ has led to the conclusion that the climate of those regions has changed in the oppo- site way from the changes which appear to have taken place in the desert regions farther north. These Maya ruins in Central America are in many cases located in regions of such heavy rainfall, such dense forests, and such malignant fevers that habitation is now practically impossible. The land can not be cultivated: except in especially favorable places. The people are terribly weakened by disease and are among the lowest in Cen- tral America. Only a hundred miles from the unhealthful forests we find healthful areas, such as the coasts of Yucatan and the plateau of Guate- mala. Here the vast majority of the population is gathered, the large towns are located, and the only progressive people are found. Neverthe- less, in the past the region of the forests was the home of by far the most progressive people who are ever known to have lived in America previous to the days of Columbus. They alone brought to high perfection the art of seulpture ; they were the only people who invented the art of writing. It seems scarcely credible that such a people would have lived in the worst possible habitat when far more favored regions were close at hand. There- fore it seems as if the climate of eastern Guatemala and Yucatan must have been relatively dry at some past time. The Maya chronology and traditions indicate that this was probably at the same time when moister 540 4. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES conditions apparently prevailed in the subarid or desert portions of the United States and Asia. THE SHIFTING OF CLIMATIC ZONES—PENCK’S HYPOTHESIS These considerations, and others described in the works already referred to, suggest that climatic changes consist largely of a shifting of the earth’s chmatic zones, sometimes poleward and sometimes equatorward. At times of equatorward shifting, polar conditions apparently cause glacia- tion in the northern portions of North America and Europe. In sub- tropical latitudes greater moisture prevails than formerly, for the storms of the temperate zone are shoved equatorward of their former courses. Still farther toward the equator the subtropical zone of aridity appears to invade the zone of equatorial rains, while the equatorial zone itself suffers contraction. | The hypothesis of the shifting of climatic zones, as outlined in the pre- ceding paragraph, needs modification; but before proceeding to that it will be well to turn for a moment to the Glacial period and consider a recent article by Penck.*® In this article, which appeared almost simul- taneously with “The Climatic Factor,” he explains the conditions of cli- mate during the Glacial period by almost exactly the same hypothesis which I have offered in respect to historic changes of climate. Indeed, he apparently means that his hypothesis shall apply not only to glacial climates but to historic times, for near the beginning he speaks as follows : “There are . . . many indications that, some centuries after the begin- ning of the Christian era, there was in central ‘Asia a period of extreme dry- ness, which exercised a considerable influence on the conditions of settlement, and even, it would appear, upon migration.” [This is the dry period which, in the curves of figures 13 and 14, culminates about 650 A. D.] Penck sums up his conclusions as follows (page 288 ff.) : “Thus from the New as from the Old World we may draw the following conclusion: On the equatorial side of the Great Desert regions are flat pans occupied with slightly saline or occasionally fresh water, while on the polar side occur strongly saline lakes. . . . On the equatorial side . . . of the desert belts we have to do with rising lakes, on the polar side with shrinking pans. Both point to variations in climate, to increase of aridity on the polar side, to increase of humidity on the equatorial side. . . . Very characteristic are the phenomena in the Sahara. In the north there are living dunes consist- ing of bare wind-blown sand; the dead dunes, however, covered by sparse vege- tation are confined to the south, and these dead dunes stretch beyond the arid region far into the humid zone along the right bank of the Niger. The dunes % A. Penck: The shifting of the climatic belts. Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. 30, 1914, pp. 281-291. CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 541 of the Kalahari are for the most part dead, and so stationary are they that the traveler can find his bearings from the number of dunes which he passes. The circumstances which have led here to the formation of dunes no longer obtain on the equatorial side of the desert zone, but prevail solely at the pres- ent day on the polar border. “All this leads us to assume that the area of extreme aridity in Africa once lay much nearer the equator than it does today, exactly as was the case in both Americas, and guided by the phenomena of the Great Basin we may fix this period in the Ice Age. The great Ice Age presents itself, then, neither as a period of extreme cold—as was originally held—-nor as a period of excessive humidity over the whole earth, but as a period during which the climate belts of the world lay some 4 or 5 degrees nearer the equator, while the snow-line was found more than 3,300 feet lower. . . . The shifting of the climate belts, however, during the Ice Age has never gone so far that one belt has entirely usurped the position of another.” In explanation of this supposed shifting of the climatic belts Penck states his belief in a lowering of temperature “Which would bring about not only an advance in the snow-line, but at the same time a shifting of all the climatic belts equatorwards. If the heat supply of the earth decreases, the atmospheric circulation will become less intense. The great areas of high pressure will become weaker and the horse-latitudes must move toward the equator. And it is they that determine the position of the arid areas upon the land-masses. Thus everything points to the fact that the . . . climate of the Ice Age was a period of reduced heat supply.” This last conclusion does not agree with those to which we seem to be led by a study of solar activity. Cold years, it will be remembered, are times not only of intense solar activity, but of intense movement of the air, as evidenced by an excess of tropical hurricanes and temperate cyclonic storms. This, however, need not be discussed further at this point. For our present purpose the importance of Penck’s conclusion lies in two con- siderations. In the first place, it is somewhat remarkable that by lines of reasoning which are apparently wholly separate, students engaged in the study of glacial climates and of historic climates respectively should be led to almost identically the same hypothesis at approximately the same time.*° In the second place, Penck has rendered an important serv- ice by calling the attention of geologists to the fact that during the Ice Age the same kind of climatic change did not take place everywhere, nor did all places suffer from a change of such a character as to produce any important results. Thus, to use Penck’s terms, we have to do with rela- %6In this connection see C. E. P. Brooks: The meteorological conditions of an ice- sheet and their bearing on the desiccation of the globe. Quart. Jour. Royal Meteoro- ‘logical Soc., vol. 40, 1914, pp. 58-70; and also W. F. Hume and J. I. Craig: The Glacial period and climatic change in northeastern Africa. Rept. Brit. Asso., 1911, p. 382, XXXIX—BULL, GEOL. Soc. AM., Vout, 25, 1918 542 Be. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES (SUOTJIPPS YIM ‘KTOSAIH “AM “fF AV) “wWoIgMzIdwWaIg UP SaDUDYD 91.10}S1}H— CT GAoOdI yy [/Ojulod JO aSo0asIap Of BNP VOYoI0ISep JO e2Uapira JOOW $1 a4sEY1 249Y/A SAN)/090/ SBjOUz;9 = AOUS x UIDs pasoos2us f9 DI2UPPIAT SI 9494 iDyd Sajousp + pabsoyoun uaag soy Saiuy O1104S1y UI 940Us1/2 OF) Py 104) AQUAP/ZE UDLNAW). S/ P4AaW) fOus Sa4ouUap FJ “Torneyidineag ur eSurqo 9qy Fo TMorjsonty 94} JO CATzeEajSTYTL dep ae Ses ——+ +10 we “estes |jo Stdoay[~ To DeNe Varmieh ove CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 543 tively constant regions and relatively shifting regions. Gregory, in the article already cited, has gone even farther in this direction, and called the attention of geographers to the fact that an impartial survey of the evidence from the world as a whole shows that, so far as historic changes of climate are concerned, there are three types of areas: those which have grown drier, those which have grown moister, and those where no change has occurred. He has wisely adopted the plan of determining the type of change in each region separately and plotting it on a map of the world. This map is so valuable that it is here reproduced as figure 15. ‘Two changes have been made in it. In the first place, | have added some plus signs in Yucatan and Guatemala to indicate increased precipitation on the basis of the ruins described above. In the second place, I have drawn lines through the U’s, which indicate unchanged conditions in north Africa, Syria, Makran, and the Caspian region, and have added minus signs in their places. ‘This is because the U’s of the original map are largely based on the evidence of the palm and other vegetation, while. almost no attention is paid to ruins, old strands, and other evidences which seem to me conclusive. Moreover, as Gregory himself states in a later publication,** he did not take the pulsatory hypothesis into considera- tion, and hence when he found evidence both of drier and wetter condi- tions he was forced to conclude that there had been no change. Other portions of the map remain as originally drawn; I do not feel that my knowledge is sufficient to justify any expression of opinion as to the por- tions south of the equator. In the northern hemisphere there may per- haps be some question as to China and the far northern portions of America, but the map at least represents the best knowledge that is avail- able thus far. Before proceeding to a consideration of the possible causes of changes of climate during historic times, let us sum up our conclusions as to their nature. The changes appear to be pulsatory in nature, but have no defi- nite periodicity. The same phenomena recur in cycles of all magnitudes from the little cycles now in progress to those that have a length of thou- sands of years. In general the changes vary from region to region in such a way as to suggest that they are due to an alternate poleward and equatorward shifting of the great climatic belts. The matter is more complex than this, however, for in the same latitude one side of a con- tinent may differ from the other. So far as can be detected, historic changes of climate do not seem to differ from those of the Glacial period or from the little variations that we see from year to year except in degree. 81 Geographical Journal, vol. 44, 1914, p. 210. 544 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES POSSIBLE EXPLANATIONS OF HISTORIC CHANGES OF CLIMATE The meteorological hypothests—Let us now see how far each of the main hypotheses of climatic change is competent to explain these historic changes. Omitting the precessional hypothesis as no longer a possibility, we have six others before us. They are the meteorological, volcanic, de- formational, and carbonic acid hypotheses, and the solar hypothesis in its old or “caloric” form and in its new or “cyclonic” form. The historic fluctuations, as shown in the California curve, for example, seem to be of such length and magnitude that they can scarcely be due to purely meteorological causes. The meteorological hypothesis is so vague, how- ever, relying as it does on mere accidents, that it presents no tangible points of contact by which it can be proved or disproved. It stands, therefore, as a last resort so long as no other hyporie offers a better explanation. The volcanic hypothesis—The next hypothesis is that of volcanic dust. We must assume, apparently, that just as the meteorological hypothesis is of great importance when we. come to the details of the weather of every day, so the volcanic hypothesis is of importance at particular times. So far as the past 3,000 years are concerned, however, there seems to be no good reason for assuming that its importance has been any greater than during the last 30 years. The recorded volcanic eruptions show no apparent relation to the climatic changes indicated in the California curve. If there had been volcanic eruptions sufficient to cause the pro- nounced pulsation which figure 14 shows to have occurred between 1300 and 1500 A. D., it seems scarcely credible that they should have attracted so little attention. We can not assert this positively, however, for certain parts of the world where volcanoes are now important were not then known and their history is not recorded even by tradition. Our chief reason for believing that the volcanic hypothesis is of only minor impor- tance is that this appears to be its position today, and that the same seems to be true of the geological past, as Professor Schuchert points out in “The Climatic Factor.” 3 The solar hypothesis—General discussion.—The hypotheses of crustal deformation and of carbonic acid gas were never intended as explana- tions of fluctuations which from the geological point of view are so small and short as those now before us. They are of the greatest importance when Glacial periods are considered, but for the present they do not con- cern us. The solar hypothesis, therefore, remains as the only one to be considered. Inasmuch as we have already seen reason to choose the cy- clonic form in preference to the caloric, we shall confine our attention to the former. Two questions present themselves: In the first place, CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 545 How far do the changes which have taken place in historic times agree _ with those which now take place during the sun-spot cycle? In the second place, Is there any reason to think that the activity of sun-spots may have varied more in the past than at present? In answering these questions we shall confine ourselves to the United States and Hurope, with only brief consideration of western Asia, since these are the only regions where sufficient data have as yet been worked up. eee ee Cf nx LEGEND The figures indicate the percentages by which the average storminess of the years of mazgi- 0 to + 28 per cent. mum sun-spots exceeds or falls short of the average storminess of the years of minimum sun-spots. The mean storminess for 30 years Less than —14 per cent. is taken as 100 per cent. Over -+ 28 per cent. O to —14 per cent. FIGURE 16.—Comparative Storminess of Nine Years of Maximum Sun-spots and Twelve Years of Minimum Sun-spots in the United States in Percentages of mean Storminess for Thirty Years. This diagram is the same as figure 7, except that it has been calculated in percentages, and covers only the United States The United States—The United States is probably the best of all areas for the study of the problem now before us, for nowhere else is so large a body of reliable and homogeneous observations easily available. On the basis of the observations of the United States Weather Bureau, the maps of figures 16 and 17 have been compiled. Figure 16 shows the 546 £. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES extent to which the number of storms during years of many sun-spots exceeds or falls short of the number during years of few spots. It em- bodies the same material as figure 7. The only difference is that the per- centage of excess or deficiency has been used iastead of the actual number of storm centers, and lines have been drawn so as to divide the entire area into four parts of approximately the same area. ‘The interpretation The heavy black shading means that when sun-spots are RE PRL L | ip] pa is simple. N Ke NIG SS Lz WN LEGEND The figures indicate the percentages by which Over + 16 per cent. O to + 16 per cent. 0 to —8 per cent. Less than —8 per cent. the average rainfall of the years of maximum sun-spots exceeds or falls short of the average of the years of minimum spots. The mean pre- cipitation since records have been kept is taken as 100 per cent. IeGurEe 17.—Comparative Precipitation of Nine Years of Maximum Sun-spots and Nine Years of Minimum Sun-spots in Percentages of the mean Precipitation numerous storms are abundant; the dotted areas indicate that when spots are numerous storms are comparatively few. The other two kinds of areas—that is, those shaded by means of lines and those left unshaded— indicate that the amount of storminess does not change greatly, although where the lines occur there is a slight increase in storms at sun-spot maxima and in the other areas a slight decrease. : Figure 17 is constructed according to the same method as figure 16 except that rainfall instead of storminess is used. It is based on all the CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 5A7 stations in the United States where rainfall records go back as far as 1877. In some cases the records are imperfect and have been supple- mented by those from neighboring stations. Elsewhere two or three sta- tions which he close together have been combined. The entire number of stations is 183. The 33 years from 1877 to 1909 contain three sun- spot cycles. The three years of minimum and of maximum spots in each of the three cycles are the same that have been used in Kullmer’s work on storm tracks. They are as follows: Years of Sun-spot Years of Sun-spot minimum spots. numbers. maximum spots. numbers, Li) See 1s 1882 Sec Pee ee 59.7 LSS * eee 3.4 TSSS Sie ome eee 63.7 LOLS (oe = Set oer 6.0 TS RE RS tS eats ot al areas 63.5 eS Sod) ae 6.8 do 9 aa oe on Ae rot ae 73.0 LESS 0s See eee 6.5 TOA TS Tere peed re hspu hake hae tee 84.9 LEMOS 6 256 eee eal PISOD Ee noi ee 78.0 LS) OS Sg clea eae 9.5 OOS) 22.1 ee zeae eeameae Bee 58.6 liu Se ee Deut TOG eR eut erates eavaterema mee nas 52.8 LUE ee Ge 4.7 LOOK Ae ees oi ekenteutnne e 64.5 Average for nine years of minimum sun-spots, 6.5. Average for nine years of maximum sun-spots, 65.5. For each station the average rainfall for the nine years of minimum and for the nine years of maximum has been computed, and the departure of this from the mean for the entire period covered by records has been ob- tained. Then the difference between the departure when sun-spots were few and when sun-spots were many has been ascertained. ‘his has been reduced to percentages of the mean rainfall and has been inserted on the map. This is better than the use of the actual differences, since a change of 2 inches in a place where the average rainfall is 10 inches is much more important than a change of 2 inches where the rainfall is 50 inches. By the use of percentages these figures would appear as 20 per cent in one case and 4 per cent in the other. The shading of figure 17 has the same significance as in figure 16. The two maps show certain differ- ences, partly because the map of storms is based on a slightly larger number of years than the other; but much more because the rainfall map includes not only the precipitation which accompanies ordinary cyclonic storms, but that which comes in thunder-storms and other local showers. In spite of minor differences the two maps show the same main fea- tures. They indicate the general conditions which would be expected if the conditions which now prevail at times of many sun-spots were to be- come permanent. ‘The most prominent feature is a large black area in 548 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES the southwest where the rainfall is decidedly more at times of many sun- spots than of few. This is the area from which most of the American evidence of desiccation during the past few thousand years is derived. It includes the Big Trees of California and the ruins of New Mexico and Arizona. Although many authors, here as elsewhere, have doubted whether the evidence of climatic changes is convincing, there seems to be a growing tendency to think that such is the case. The matter has been well set forth by Hewett, Henderson, and Robbins,?* who come to the conclusion that the climate has suffered a distinct change toward aridity since the days when the main Pueblo ruins were in their prime. On Gregory’s map, figure 15, this region is shown as one of the chief areas where a change of this kind has occurred. 7 The next feature of figures 16 and 17 is a discontinuous belt of scanty rainfall at times of many sun-spots. It begins in Montana or Idaho, runs southeastward, and then southward along the great plains to the Gulf of Mexico. The center of this belt lies in the middle of the United States, not far from the center of Kansas. Here the deficiency during years of many sun-spots amounts to 30 per cent of the average rainfall. It is apparently a phenomenon which recurs whenever sun-spots are numerous, for each of the three sun-spot cycles shows it. The figures for Hays, Kansas, the station where the deficiency is most marked, are as follows: Date of Rainfall during Date of Rainfall during | \mount by which rainfall minimum 3 years of mini- maximum 3 vears of maxi- | of maximum is less than sun-spots. mum sun-spots. sun-spots. mum sun-spots. that of minimum. Inches Inches Inches. 1877-1879... ZO 1882-1884. . 18.8 9.9 1888-1890... 20.9 1893-1595... 14.2 6.7 1900-1902... 28.0 | 1905-1907. 24.1 3.9 The third prominent feature of the maps is an area of deficiency in the northern part of the Atlantic Coast region. The rest of the country shows no distinct tendency toward either excess or deficiency. In gen- eral one may say that, except for the Southwest, the United States is a region where areas of diminished precipitation during times of many sun-spots are scattered in such a way that they are the most prominent feature. This, again; is in agreement with Gregory’s map, where all of the United States except the Southwest is spotted with plus signs, indi- cating an increase of rainfall. It is also in agreement with Arctowski’s**4 % The Physiography of the Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico in Relation to Pueblo Culture. Washington, 1913. 38a H. Arctowski: Changes in the distribution of temperature in Europe and North America. Annals N. Y. Academy of Sci., vol. 24, 1914, p. 103. CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES HAY - conclusions as to variations of temperature. He finds that in New Mex- ico, Arizona, and southern California variations of temperature “display a striking preference to belong to the inverse type, and that in Pennsyl- vania and Oregon the direct type must predominate.” By direct he means that the temperature rises and falls in harmony with that.of Are- quipa, whose cycle of two or more years is taken as the standard of the pleions and antipleions of temperature which seem to arise from varia- tions in solar radiation. Asia.—In the Old World it has not been possible to work out the matter so carefully as in the New, partly because the problem is more complex and partly because there is no uniform series of records easily available. In Asia most authorities, as is indicated by Gregory’s map, believe that the climate of the center of the continent has changed. These changes appear to have been of essentially the same sort as those of the south- western United States, as is indicated by the trees of California, the fluctuations of the Caspian Sea, and other evidences. which form the basis of the curves of figure 13. Here, then, just as in the United States, the distribution of past climatic changes agrees with what we should expect if the changes were due to variations in the sun. In western Asia and the Mediterranean region I am strongly inclined to the same opinion for ‘reasons already stated. Another reason for holding this view is that in its relation to the continent and in its general climatic conditions this area Closely resembles the portion of the United States where the rainfall seems to have diminished. . Kurope.—In Europe it will within a few years be possible to make maps like the two of the United States shown in figures 16 and 17. Meanwhile we must turn to other lines of evidence. In that continent, as we have seen, periods of sun-spots appear to be characterized by continental con- ditions with dry winters and wet summers. At such times the barometric gradients are steepened, so that storms in the peripheral regions tend to be more violent than at times of sun-spot minima. The only evidence which we have as to changes of climate in Europe suggests that such con- ditions prevailed at certain times many centuries ago. Tycho Brahe, during the years 1582-1597, made meteorological observations on a little island in the North Sea. He recorded the direction of the wind and the occurrence of days characterized by cloudiness, rainfall, sun, and hail. His data have been compared with those of modern times, and the results are summed up in Hann’s Klimatologie, volume 1, pages 346-347. The general conclusion is that there is some indication that in Tycho Brache’s day the climate of western Europe was a trifle more continental than now, but, as Hann points out, the difference between then and now was 500 5. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES very slight. It amounts to no more than we could find at present by selecting two periods of 14 years each. This is interesting because the end of the sixteenth century, according to our California curve, was a time when the climate was practically the same as at present, although the California curve may indicate a slightly greater precipitation then than now. This means that the observations of Tycho Brahe agree with what we should expect. Going farther back, we find that the fourteenth century was highly peculiar. This has been discussed in various places, but is summed up by Pettersson.*” According to him, the fourteenth cen- tury shows “a record of extreme climatic variations. In the cold winters the rivers Rhine, Danube, Thames, and Po were frozen for weeks and months. On these cold winters there followed violent floods, so that the rivers mentioned inundated their valleys. Such floods are recorded in 55 summers in the 14th century. There is, of course, nothing astonishing in the fact that the inundations of the great rivers of Europe were more devastating 600 to 700 years ago than in our days, when the flow of the rivers has been regulated by canals, locks, ete. ; but still the inundations in the 13th and 14th centuries must have surpassed every- thing of that kind which has occurred since then. In 13842 the waters of the Rhine rose so high that they inundated the city of Mayence and the Cathedral ‘usque ad cingulum hominis.’ The walls of Cologne were flooded so that they could be passed by boats in July. This occurred also in 1374 in the midst of the month of February, which is of course an unusual season for disasters of the kind. Again in other years the drought was so intense that the same rivers, the Danube, Rhine, and others, nearly dried up, and the Rhine could be forded at Cologne. This happened at least twice in the same century. There is one exceptional summer of such evil record that centuries afterwards it was spoken of as ‘the old hot summer of 1357.’ ” Pettersson goes on to speak of two oceanic phenomena on which the old chronicles lay greater stress than on all others: “The first [is] the great storm-floods on the coasts of the North Sea and the Baltic, which occurred so frequently that not less than nineteen floods of a destructiveness unparalleled in later times are recorded from the 14th century. The coastline of the North Sea was completely altered by these floods. Thus on January 16, 1300, half of the island Heligoland and many other islands were engulfed by the sea. The same fate overtook the island of Borkum, torn into several islands by the storm-flood of January 16, which remoulded the Frisian Islands into their present shape, when also Wendingstadt, on the island of Sylt, and Thiryu parishes were engulfed. This flood is known under the name of ‘the great man-drowning.’ The coasts of the Baltic also were exposed to storm-floods of unparalleled violence. On November 1, 1804, the island of Ruden was torn asunder from Rugen by the force of the waves. Time does not allow me to dwell upon individual disasters of this kind, but it will be well to 29 O. Pettersson: The connection between hydrographical and meteorological phenom- ena. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, vol. 388, pp. 174-175. CLIMATE OF HISTORIC TIMES 551. note that of the nineteen great floods on record eighteen occurred in the cold season between the autumnal and vernal equinoxes. “The second remarkable phenomenon mentioned by the chronicles is the freezing of the entire Baltic, which occurred many times during the cold win- ters of these centuries. On such occasions it was possible to travel with car- riages over the ice from Sweden to Bornholm and from Denmark to the German coast (Lubeck), and in some cases even from Gotland to the coast of Estland.” These quotations are particularly significant when compared with the conclusions drawn from the growth of trees in Germany and the distribu- tion of storms as given by Kullmer. A careful reading of Pettersson’s statements shows that we have to deal with two distinct types of phe- nomena. In the first place, the climate of central Europe seems to have been peculiarly continental during the fourteenth century. The winters were so cold that the rivers froze, and the summers were so wet that there were floods every other year or oftener. This seems to be merely an intensification of the conditions which we have already seen to prevail at the present time during periods of many sun-spots, as indicated by the growth of the Eberswalde trees and by the number of storms in winter as compared with summer. ‘The prevalence of droughts, especially in the spring, 1s also not inconsistent with the existence of floods at other sea- _sons, for one of the chief characteristics of a continental climate is that the variations from one season to another are more marked than in oceanic climates. Even the summer droughts are typically continental, for when continental conditions prevail, the difference between the same _ Season in different years is extreme, as is well illustrated in Kansas. The second type of phenomena described by Pettersson is, as he takes pains to state, peculiarly oceanic in character. It consists of two parts, both of which are precisely what would be expected if a highly conti- nental climate prevailed over the land. In the first place, at certain times the cold area of high pressure, which is the predominating characteristic of a continent during the winter, apparently spread out over the neigh- boring oceans. Under such conditions an inland sea, such as the Baltic, would be frozen, so that carriages could cross the ice even in the far west. In the second place, because of the unusually high pressure over the con- tinent, the barometric gradients apparently became intensified. Hence at the margin of the continental high-pressure area the winds were un- usually strong and the storms of corresponding severity. Some of these storms may have passed entirely along oceanic tracks, while others in- vaded the borders of the land, and gave rise to the floods and to the wearing away of the coast described by Pettersson. Another highly significant fact in this connection appears in the curve 552. ~=E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES of the trees of California as given in figure 14. There it will be seen that the fourteenth century was a period of peculiarly rapid growth. It was the last great epoch when the growth of the trees approximated that of earlier centuries, such as the periods centering about 1000 A. D. and at the time of Christ. The high position of the curve in the middle of the fourteenth century is the condition which we should naturally expect at a time of many sun-spots. In this respect it agrees exactly with the con- ditions in Europe. THE PROBABILITY OF GREAT CHANGES IN SUN-SPOTS IN THE PAsT PETTERSSON’S SUN-SPOT HYPOTHESIS The importance of the data collected by Pettersson is not yet exhausted. He definitely connects sun-spots with the climatic vicissitudes which he describes: “In Europe the sun-spots were discovered as recently as in 1610, but in China they were observed 1,500 years earlier, and are recorded in Chinese annals from the first century. In these Chinese records, of course, only such years as were marked by a great number of spots are registered; and it is remarkable that those years occur in groups with long intervals, and that certain centuries are noted by an unusual frequency of spots. Thus in the fourteenth century the years from 1370 to 1385 are noted for sun-spot maxima. So long a period of maxima had not occurred since the end of the fourth century, and Wolf therefore considers that an absolute maximum of spots occurred about 1372.” ‘The importance of Pettersson’s connection of sun-spots with changes of climate scarcely needs to be pointed out. It is completely in accord with what we should expect. The agreement with expectation pertains even to details. For example, the curve of the storm frequency in the ~ main area of northward shifting in North America (figure 9) led us to suspect that the apparently connected phenomena of the sun and the earth reach their maxima at slightly different times. We concluded, it will be remembered, that the conditions look as if a certain force sets the atmos- pheres of both the earth and the sun in motion at the same time, but that the earth’s atmosphere reaches its maximum activity sooner than that of the sun and falls into quiescence sooner. The fact that the Cali- fornia curve reaches its maximum a few decades earlier than the date assigned by Wolf for the absolute maximum of sun-spots harmonizes with this idea. I do not lay much stress on- this, however, partly because we are as yet so totally in the dark as to the real cause of both sun-spots and storms and partly because of the considerations advanced in the next paragraph. 3 sini Bn aie hte PAST CHANGES IN SUN-SPOTS 558 THE SCARCITY OF EARLY SUN-SPOT DATA As is already clear to the reader, I am strongly inclined to beheve that Pettersson has discovered a genuine connection between sun-spots and the peculiar climatic conditions of Europe in the fourteenth century. Never- theless it is important that we should clearly recognize the difficulties in the way of any exact knowledge as to the sun-spots of past times. At a period as remote as the fourteenth century the difficulty is great. When still earlier periods are considered, the difficulty increases in geometrical ratio; so that we can scarcely hope ever to have any exact knowledge based on actual observation. Previous to the invention of the telescope it was almost impossible to form any accurate idea of the activity of the sun’s surface. Occasionally spots of unusual size might be visible to the naked eye. This, however, in itself is not a proof that the sun possessed an unusual degree of spottedness. Often a large spot occurs at a time when the general surface shows a minimum amount of disturbance. An- other reason for laying little weight on the sun-spot records previous to 1600 is that there was no one whose duty it was to record the occurrence of spots. The fact that a certain observer who was interested in the mat- ter recorded a large number may lead us to think that his particular period was marked by intense solar activity. This may merely mean, however, that at other periods of much greater activity there happened to be no one who was interested enough to record the matter.*® MAJOR SUN-SPOT CYCLES OF THE PRESENT TIME In view of the difficulty of obtaining exact knowledge of sun-spots more than two or three hundred years ago, let us examine the matter in another way. Let us look at the sun-spot curve since 1749, the date when accu- _rate figures first become available, and let us see what it suggests as to the laws of variability. The curve is given in figure 18, where the sun-spot numbers for each year are plotted according to Wolfer’s tables. Dotted lines have been added connecting the various maxima and also the min- ima. So much is said about the 11-year period of the solar spots that we are apt to think that this is their most important variation. Next after this in importance in our ordinary thought of the matter is the 35-year cycle of Briickner. A glance at the curve before us, however, shows that a still larger cycle is quite as important. Beginning with 1750, we see that during the first year of maxima the sun-spot number was about 83.4. “Our knowledge of the whole matter is largely due to Wolf. His observations, to- gether with later information as to both sun-spots and the related phenomena of polar lights, are summed up by H. Fritz in the Zurich Vierteljahrschrift, vol. 38, 1893, pp. 77-107. An abstract of this article is given in Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Beib- latter, v. 17, 1893, p. 930. 504 &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES 1910 1900 1850 1860 1870 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 IGURE 18.—Major and Minor Sun-spot Cycles 1790 80 t~ | 1770 1750 1760 The asterisks indicate two absolute minima of sun-spots in 1810 and 1913, and the middle years (1780 and 1854) of two periods when the sun-spot maxima never fell below 95 Then in succeeding cycles the maxima become more and more pronounced until, in 1778, the number was 154.4, or nearly twice as much as in 1750. Thereafter there is a decline to only 45.8 in 1816. An increase again fol- lows, and from 1837 to 1870 we have four maxima, all of which are above 95. Then the number of spots falls off once more. If we look at the dotted line joining the minima we see that it rises and falls in the same way as the line joining the maxima, although not nearly as much. In 1810 there were no sun-spots. An equally inactive state of the sun was not again attaimed until . 1913. The low state of both the max- ima and minima at these two dates in- dicates a cycle whose length is some- where near a century. ‘The interval from ohe main maximum to the next happens in this case to be somewhat different from the interval between the chief minima. The first great maxi- mum comes in 1778. Then comes an- other period of maxima with two main erests. one im 1837 and one mm Wen: In figure 18 two heavy lines have been drawn at a height of 95 in order to bring out the periods of many sun-spots as compared with the periods of few. It is remarkable that not only does the height of the maxima vary at different periods, but the length of the individual cycles varies in the same way. Appar- ently at the end of a period of abundant solar activity the active force, whatever it may have been, becomes dormant and we have a long interval before an- other and much smaller maximum ap- pears. For instance, the interval from PAST CHANGES IN SUN-SPOTS 55d the maximum of 1787 to that of 1804 is 17 years and from 1870 to 1883 is 13 years, the average of the two being 15 years. While the solar activity remains low, the length of the intervals from maximum to maxi- mum remains long. For instance, the five cycles between maxima which have sun-spot numbers of less than 95 have an average length of 12.2 years. The remaining cycles—that is, the seven which precede sun-spot maxima of 95 or higher—have an average length of 9.4 years. From this we see that in a period of about 100 years the sun-spots pass through a ereat cycle which begins with a very long minor cycle and a low maxi- mum. After this the length of the minor cycle decreases and the maxima rise higher and higher. Manifestly, as our diagram shows, the great or major cycle is quite as real as the so-called 11-year or minor cycle, which really varies from 7 to 17 years. The more we study sun-spots the more we see that they are characterized by great irregularity. All attempts to find a definite period have broken down. There may be a distinct pe- riodicity for a few cycles, but it soon changes. If sun-spots can vary in a minor cycle having a length from 7 to 17 years, in a larger cycle which perhaps has a length of about 50 years, as made out by Fritz, and in a still larger one, which has a length of perhaps a century, it would seem probable that they can also vary in cycles of very much greater length and greater intensity. THE NATURE OF 'SUN-SPOTS At this point a word may well be added as to the nature of sun-spots. Recent studies seem to indicate that they are probably cyclonic vortices which partake somewhat of the nature of voleanoes and somewhat of the nature of cyclonic storms. Of course, in a highly heated body like the sun, where everything, on the surface at least, is in a gaseous condition, we can not expect any exact analogy with our solid earth. Nevertheless the resemblances are striking. Like both volcanoes and cyclones, the sun- spots appear to carry material from lower to higher levels. It is thought by Hale and others that the material which is carried out is cooled some- what, and that this cooling may cause it to act like a cloud and thus ap- pear dark. Humphreys has suggested that perhaps a certain amount of solar radiation is actually cut off in this way. Another respect in which sun-spots resemble cyclones is that they seem to have a spiral motion re- sembling that of the inblowing winds of our terrestrial storms. They do not travel rapidly like cyclones, but they are not stationary like volcanoes. Another important characteristic is that they are highly electric in their constitution, and in this quality they resemble most volcanic discharges and many cyclonic storms. Still another characteristic is that they seem 556 8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES to be somehow allied to solar prominences, which in a rough way may be likened to clouds in the terrestrial atmosphere. Perhaps the prominences are more analogous to the clouds of dust sent out by volcanoes than to anything else, but we do not yet know enough of their character to speak at all positively. Like the volcanoes and cyclonic storms of the earth, sun-spots appear to be phenomena pertaining merely to the outer layer of the body on which they occur. Their activity varies in much the same irregular way as that of our storms. Roughly they are periodic, but the intervals may be longer or shorter. Volcanoes, too, vary in the same irregular way, for sometimes we have periods of great numbers of eruptions and at others the earth becomes quiescent. Both cyclones and volcanoes can vary greatly on the earth’s surface without necessitating any marked varia- tions in the mean temperature of that body and in the amount of heat which it radiates to space. Even the eruption of several hundred square miles of lava would not for any great length of time cause a measurable difference in the amount of heat which would be sent out from the earth to the sun. Such a volcano might erupt again and again at intervals for a century, but even then it would play a small and hardly noticeable part in the gradual cooling of the earth. In the same way there seems reason to think that although the mean temperature of the sun as a whole may remain unchanged, the activity of its surface as shown in the spots may vary as greatly as has the activity of voleanoes on the earth’s surface. Tirm CONNECTION BETWEEN HISTORIC CHANGES OF CLIMATE AND THE GLACIAL PERIOD COMPLEXITY OF POST-GLACIAL CLIMATIC VARIATIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST Before turning to the Glacial period let us examine the evidence afforded by the extinct or diminished lakes of the arid regions of the United States. The old strands of such lakes are almost universally re- garded as furnishing one of the most reliable records of ancient climatic variations. ‘The number, relative altitude, and relative degree of promi- nence of such strands, however, may differ greatly in two adjacent basins, even though both have been subjected to the same climatic changes. An example will make the matter clear. Suppose that two basins possess precisely the same climate and are each occupied by a lake 10 miles in diameter. Let there be no difference between the two except that in one basin the lake floor is exceedingly flat, so that the. slope from the shores of the lake toward the center is only 1 foot in 500. In the other basin the floor slopes more decidedly—let us say 1 foot in 25. Let us further add “EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ON GLACIATION VV i suppose that the two basins are so similar that a decrease of 5 or 10 per cent in the rainfall causes the same diminution in the amount of water reaching each lake. Under such circumstances each will eventually con- tract to the same degree, for the size of a lake in an arid region 1s deter- mined by the point at which the supply of water is balanced by the evaporation. If the supply and the evaporation are equal, the lakes must have the same area without respect to their depth or to the surrounding topography. This statement is so axiomatic that-it would not be neces- sary were it not that it is often overlooked.* Supposing, then, that both lakes contract so that their shores retire an average distance of 500 feet, what sort of new strands will be formed? The first lake will fall only one foot. It will be bordered by shores so flat that the waves will have little opportunity to cut bluffs or form beaches. What little work they accomplish will be so nearly at the same level as that of the original strand that in later times, if the lake disap- pears, it will be impossible to distinguish the one from the other. In the other lake, on the contrary, the fact that the bottom of the lake slopes at * This statement must not be understood as meaning that two lakes having the same water supply and climate, but differing in topography, are always of the same size. When climatic conditions remain stable for a considerable time such lakes must become of essentially the same size, but during the process of change they may act differently. The matter may be illustrated by supposing that under certain climatic conditions we have two similar lakes (A and B), nearly square in form, and having an area of 100 Square miles. Suppose that climatically both are subject to precisely the same condi- tions, and that their only point of difference is that A is extremely shallow and its bottom slopes only 1 foot in 600, while B is of a more common type, with a slope of 1 in 24. Suppose that the climate has been stable so long that the water supply and the evaporation are exactly equal. Then let the climate suddenly change so that the water supply of each lake is reduced 10 per cent. Let the new rate of evaporation be 40 inches per year in each. Supposing the climate to remain uniform under the new conditions, the course of events would be as shown in the following table: Annual reduction in level due 5 Area after level has been Total reduction o ue er a. reduced (square miles). ‘ level Gees: A. B. A. B. A. B. MSs VAT. . sss. .'. 4.00 4.00 98.41 99. 92 4.00 4.00 Second year....... 3.42 3.98 97.02 99. 87 7.42 7.98 Mhird year. ..5.... 2.89 3.95 96.04 99.81 10.31 193 Fourth year....... 2.50 3.93 95.26 99°. 75 12.81 15.86 Hirth year......... 2.21 oe ON 94.47 99.68 15.02 19.77 If this table were continued, we should see that the shallow lake (A) would in a few years be reduced to an area of approximately 90 square miles, the limit toward which it would tend under the assumed conditions. It would fall about 2 feet (26 inches). The other, although its rate of fall is much the faster of the two, would be far slower in reaching a condition near the point of equilibrium, for a vast amount of water would have to be evaporated before the level could be reduced to such a point that the evaporation would be no greater than the supply. Absolute equilibrium from the mathematical point of view would only be attained after an infinite series of years; but for the practical purposes of geology, with which alone we are concerned, essential equilibrium would be reached in a few centuries at a level 50 to 55 feet Lelow the original surface. These are the conditions referred to in the text, XL—BULL, GEOL. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 558 8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES the rate of 1 foot in 25 will oblige the water to fall 20 feet before the ‘evaporation surface becomes small enough to be in equilibrium with the diminished supply of water. If the lake remains at this level for a few decades, distinct beaches and bluffs will be formed, for the lake will not be so shallow as to prevent the waves from breaking on the shore, and the slope of the land will permit wave erosion to proceed rapidly. When this lake disappears, its two positions will be marked by strands whose eleva- tion will differ by 20 feet. These will form a pronounced and easily de- ciphered record of a climatic fluctuation which affected both lakes equally, but whose existence would be quite unknown if only the first of our two basins were studied. The importance of these considerations lies in the fact that the basins of our Western States show an extraordinary variation in the number of their old lake terraces. This variation may mean in part that the cli- matic changes of the past, like the little changes of the present, as shown in our maps of rainfall and storms, differed in intensity from place to place. In the quotation which will follow shortly the reader will notice that the greatest number of old strands is found not far from the center of the area shaded black in figures 16 and 17. This is what would be expected, for from the center outward the degree of change diminishes until the zero line is reached, after which it becomes of an opposite type. The variation in the number of terraces also means that topographic con- ditions sometimes favor the preservation of records of slight changes, and sometimes do not permit even the larger changes to leave a permanent record. Hence, if we desire to know the true degree of changeability, we must focus attention on the places where the fullest records have been preserved. FREE’S DATA AS TO OLD STRANDS IN THE SOUTHWEST Although the history of the main events in the histories of lakes Bonne- ville and Lahontan is familiar, there are many other old lakes whose very existence is almost unknown. They are now being studied, how- ever, and are giving most interesting results. Probably the most com- prehensive study yet made is that of Mr. EH. KE. Free, who, in his in- vestigation of potash and other salines on behalf of the United States Department of Agriculture, has spent several years in traveling about among the desert basins. He has published a summary of the topo- graphic features of those parts of North America which are without drainage to the sea, and has distinguished 126 basins which are of suffi- cient importance to deserve individual consideration. In addition to this he has most courteously permitted me to use some of his unpublished EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ON GLACIATION 559 data and has prepared a summary which is inserted below. It is a pleas- ure to express my appreciation of Mr. Free’s work and my gratitude for his cooperation.* “Sixty-two basins either contain unmistakable lake evidences or belong to one of the three great lake groups mentioned below. Two of these, the Lake Lahontan and Lake Bonneville groups, comprise twenty-nine present basins,? some of which were once flooded by the waters of the lakes, while some were higher tributary valleys now cut off hydrographically by the decay of the drainage systems. At its maximum stage Lake Bonneville discharged into the Columbia River. Lake Lahontan never overflowed. Each, however, has left a complex series of strands, terraces, and waye-bars, recording the fluctuations of its rise and fall. Wherever the waters of Bonneville or Lahontan invaded the smaller subsidiary basins the walls of the latter carry the terrace systems of the greater lakes, but as the fall of the waters exposed the divides and split the larger basins into smaller the subsidiary basins developed lower terrace systems different in each. This, complicated by temporary overflow from one subsidiary basin into another, has produced a total record of much complexity and which has not yet been read in full detail.® “The third group, that of the Owens-Searle lake chain, has been studied only recently, especially by H. S. Gale and by the writer. It appears that Owens Lake formerly stood at a higher level and overflowed southward through the pass now followed by the Owens Valley branch of the Southern Pacific Rail- way. This discharge filled and overflowed the shallow basin of China Lake, 1 See United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 54, 1914, by HE. E. Free. This contains full topographic details. A. list of undrained basins is given on pages 60-61, and all of these are shown on an accompanying maj. For the convenience of readers who may wish to refer to this list, Mr. Free divides the basins into the following groups in addition to the main group treated in the present paper: (1) Twenty-two basins not sufficiently known to the writer to enable discussion con- cerning the existence or non-existence of lake relicta. ‘These basins are: Guano, Oregon ; Long Valley, Huntoon, Goldfield, Penoyer, Gold Flat, Hmigrant, Frenchman Flat, Sheep Range, Spring Valley, and Opal Mountain, Nevada. Saline Valley, Eureka, Willard, Granite Mountain, Owl, Ivanpah, and Danby Lake, California; Salt Basin, Texas; La- guna Guzman, Mexico; Red Desert, Wyoming, and Hualpai, Arizona. (2) Thirty-two additional basins were formerly hydrographie parts of other basins or were drained to the sea. These are: Silver Lake, Summer Lake, Harney, White Horse, and Goose Lake, Oregon; Thousand Creek, Fairview, Acme, Luning, Mina, Kingston, Smiths Creek, Kawich, Yueca, Indian Spring, Pintwater, Lee Canyon, and Gannett, Ne- yada; Klamath Lakes, Aurora, Mesquite Lake, Dale Lake, Palen Lake, Bristol Lake, Cadiz Lake, Laguna Maquata, and Carriso Plains, California; Pinos Wells, Lordsburg Dry Lake, and the Plains of San Augustine, New Mexico; Cochise, Arizona, and San Luis Valley, Colorado. (3) Of the remaining basins there are ten in which careful examination has failed to disclose unmistakable evidences of former lakes. These are: Christmas Lake, Oregon ; Gabbs Valley, Rhodes, Garfield, Teels, Monte Cristo, Clayton, and Edwards Creek, Ne- vada, and Deep Springs Valley and Kane, California. In two of these cases (Christmas Lake and Kane) there is a doubtful possibility of previous overflow, and in four others (Garfield, Teels, Edwards Creek, and Deep Springs Valley) the writer has found topo- “graphic forms which may possibly be lake terraces, but which are too doubtful to justify a definite conclusion to that effect. 2These are individually indicated in the list of Bulletin 54, above referred to. 8 Active work is in progress on this problem mainly by Prof. J. Claude Jones, of the University of Nevada, and by Mr. H. S. Gale, of the U. S. Geological Survey. 560 5. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES which spilled in turn into the deep structural basin now occupied by the Searles “lake” or salt marsh. The Searles Basin filled to a depth of 600 feet above its present bottom and overflowed into the Panamint Valley to the east. It is believed by Gale* that the Panamint also was filled to the point of over- flow and discharged, for a time at least, into Death Valley over a pass about 1,000 feet above the floor of the tributary valley. There existed, therefore, a chain of four lakes—Owens, China, Searles, and Panamint—each of which overflowed, the final overflow being into Death Valley, in which no evidences of lake conditions have been found. In the basins of all four of these lakes terrace systems record the earlier conditions. In Owens the highest and best developed terrace is about 250 feet above the present lake level and marks the level of discharge. Below this are fairly well marked strands at approximately 20, 30, and 50 feet above the present lake, and probably one higher terrace, now much eroded, at perhaps about 150 feet. The basin of China Lake contains similar strands below the level of overflow, but the writer does not know them in detail. . In the basin of the Searles .salt marsh the overflow terrace is very well developed at approximately 600 feet above the present bottom. Below this is a series of many strands, of which the writer has counted 21, at approxi- mately the following elevations in feet above the present bottom of the basin: 550, 530, 500, 490, 475, 480,385, 350, 310, 265, 240, 220, 195, 105, 90, 75, 65, 45, 40, 35, and 20. . The 500-foot strand is particularly well developed, being almost as deeply cut as is the overflow (600-foot) terrace. In the lower 200 feet of this terrace series very faint strands 18 inches to 2 feet apart can sometimes be traced between the terraces noted. It seems probable that these fainter markings represent annual stages in the retreat of the ancient lake. A terrace system exists in the Panamint Basin, but is not known to the writer in detail. “Tn addition to the probable overflow from the Owens-Searles lake chain, Death Valley formerly received water from the drainage systems of the Amar- gosa and Mohave rivers, the former of which still flows in part to the sink. Several small basins now undrained were once tributary to one or the other of these rivers and contributed their quota to the former flow.> This means’ that Death Valley must have received a considerable drainage quite regardless of the volume of the overflow from the Panamint. Nevertheless, very careful search has failed to disclose any vestige of former lake conditions in Death Valley, this surprising circumstance remaining quite unexplained. “There remain eighteen individual undrained basins unconnected with any of the three larger groups and which contain unmistakable evidences of the former presence of lakes. In each case these lakes were individual and hydro- graphically unrelated to one another. In only one case (the Salton) is there probability of drainage by overflow, and in most cases it is certain that over- flow did not occur. These individual ancient lakes, with some description of their terrace systems, are given in the following pages: | “Abert Lake, Oregon.—The highest terrace was measured by the writer as approximately 200 feet above the present Abert Lake.® Below this are at least 4 Personal communication. °In the list of Bulletin 54 these basins are: Ralston Valley, Stonewall Flat, Sarco- batus Flat, Pahrump Valley, and Mesquite Valley, Nevada; Soda Lake, Rodriguez Lake, Harper Lake, Coyote Lake, Cronese Lake, and Langford Lake, California. * Russell (U. S. Geological Survey, Fourth Annual Report, 1884, p. 459) reports a terrace 250 to 300 feet higher, but the writer was unable to identify it. HEFECT OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ON GLACIATION 561. seven, major terraces at approximately 180, 150, 120, 90, 60, 25, and 15 feet. The 60-foot terrace is especially well developed. Below the 15-foot terrace there are at least five minor strands which appear to represent recent fiuctua- tions of Abert Lake, since the vegetation which they carry differs markedly from that of the basin slopes in general. “Alkali Lake, Oregon.—The highest terrace was measured by aneroid as 260 feet’ above the present bottom of the basin. Below this are at least four major terraces and perhaps five. About the present playa are recent strands at 1, 4, 8, and 15 feet. “The Warner Basin, Oregon.—Aneroid measurement indicates that the high- est terrace is about 200 feet above the present lakes. Below this are at least ten other terraces at elevations of approximately 190, 180, 170, 150, 120, 100, 80, 50, 30, and 15 feet. The 120-foot terrace is especially well marked and persistent. Below the 15-foot terrace are at least four recent strands. “The Catlow Valley, Oregon.—Waring® states that there are three well marked terraces, the highest over 75 feet above the present bottom of the valley. “The Surprise Valley, California.—The highest terrace is estimated by the writer as about 350 feet above the present lakes. Below this are at least six others at about 330, 310, 280, 250, 180, and 150 feet. The 250-foot terrace is very well developed. There are at least three recent strands a few feet above the present lakes. “The Alword Valley, Oregon.—Waring® reports four well marked terraces and two fainter ones, the highest over 100 feet above the present floor of the valley. “The Madeline Basin, California.—Traces of a terrace system have been ob- served by the writer but have not -been studied in detail. “Dixie Valley, Nevada.—The highest terrace is 150 feet by aneroid above the present salt marsh. There is one below at about 40 feet, and perhaps one or two between. All terraces are poorly preserved and are represented by. rem- nants only. “The Columbus Basin, Nevada——Conditions in this basin are complicated by considerable differences in level in different parts of the present playa and by the possibility of tilting since the lake period. At the south.end of the playa the high terrace is 144 feet above the playa. At the north end the. highest terrace found is 104 feet above the playa,” the north end of the playa being,, if anything, lower than the south end. The writer is uncertain whether this dis- crepancy is due to recent tilting or to the preservation. at the two ends of the basin of fragments of different terraces. Below the high terrace are at least two others, the elevations of which at the south end of the basin are 85 and 55 feet. “The Big Smoky Basin, Nevada.—A system of at least four terraces has been observed by the writer but not studied in detail. The highest appears to be about 50 feet above the present playa. “Diamond Valley, Nevada.—Denizens of this valley report to the writer the 7 Waring gives this as 275 feet. U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper 220, 1908, p. 31. 8U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper 231, 1909, p. 29. ® Loc. cit. 10 Both elevations are from instrumental determinations by the writer and assistants. 562 E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES existence of a system of well marked lake terraces. They have not been ex- amined. “Railroad Valley, Nevada—By repeated aneroid measurement the highest terrace is 155 feet above the present playa. It is double, with the lower strand about 3 feet below the upper. There are well marked lower terraces at about 120, 105, and 65 feet, the last being especially well developed. Minor strands have been distinguished at about 95, 90, 85, 75, GO, and 50 feet. “The Mono Basin, California.—Russell reports a high terrace about 680 feet above the present lake and a complex system of lower terraces and strands which he does not describe in detail. “The Salton Basin, Calitornia—The phenomena in this basin appear to have been complicated by the occasional infiow of the Colorado River, with the con- sequent filling of the basin. The present Salton Sea is due to such an inflow, which was stopped artificially before the basin became full. There is one high terrace at about the level of overflow into the Gulf of California, and below this an extensive series of recessional strands.” “The Otero Basin, New Mexico.—Huntington * reports several high terraces between 200 and 280 feet above the present playa and three recent strands at 4, 20, and 60 feet, the GO-foot strand being somewhat doubtful. “The Estancia Basin, New Mexico.—Meinzer * reports a highest terrace al- most 150 feet above the present playa and a complex system of lower terraces and strands, not described in detail. “The Encino Basin, New Mfexico.—Meinzer * reports a high terrace at 60 feet above the present playa, with some evidence of a temporary lake stage still higher. No lower strands were found. “Las Playas Valley, New Mexico—Huntington * reports at least one strand, the wave-bar which forms the Los Animas ‘Dam.’ ” A little study of the map shows that the basins described by Free as containing ‘traces of ancient lakes are found in all parts of the area shaded black on figures 16 and 17. They do not occur in any region where the rainfall at present decreases during periods of many sun-spots. Much more important than this, however, is their striking evidence of the great complexity of the climatic history of this region during post- Glacial times. One or two of the oldest, most denuded strands may per- haps antedate the last Glacial period. The freshness of the others, how- ever, and the fact that they do not appear to have been covered by water since they were formed indicates that they are of post-Glacial origin. The sharpness of the details of some of the smaller strands near the bot- tom indicates that they can not be of any great age—certainly not more than one or two thousand years, and perhaps only a few hundred. The 11U. S. Geological Survey, Highth Annual Report, 1889, pp. 269-394. 12 Wor details the reader is referred to MacDougal and others: The Salton Sea. Car- negie Institution Publication 193, 1914. 13 Carnegie Institution Publication 192, 1914, pp. 39-40. 14U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper 275, 1911, pp. 19-23. 1 Toc. cit., pp. 77-78. 15 120C; Heit sD O: EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ON GLACIATION 563 remarkable series of strands in the Searles Valley, 22 in all, including the overflow strand, is most extraordinary. After this lake ceased to overflow it was for a long time the end member of the Owens Lake series. It received its water from a long, narrow, structural valley surrounded by mountains, which in some places rise 9,000 feet above its floor. It thus forms one of the best rain-gauges in America. The topographic relationships are such that each little variation in climate is recorded. Free suggests that the “very faint strands eighteen inches to two feet apart” in the lower 200 feet of the terrace series may “represent annual stages in the retreat of the ancient lakes.” It seems more probable that they represent longer periods, such as the sun-spot cycle, or the 21-year cycle of Douglass and the 35-year cycle of Brickner. If this is so, the larger strands would represent periods from a few hundred to a thousand years in length, such as appear in the main fluctuations of the curves of tree growth in California. It is worth noting that the western edge of the Owens Valley drainage area is only from 25 to 35 miles from the dis- tricts where the big trees were measured. ‘The general climatic fluctua- tions must be similar. A series of twenty or thirty cycles, such as those which are shown by the trees to have culminated in the fourteenth, tenth, and first centuries of our era, would bridge the gap between the last Gla- cial period and the present day. That the strands preserve a remarkably full record of the events which occurred during this interval seems highly probable. Whether the level of Lake Searles fell greatly after each strand was formed and then rose again to form the next lower strand, or whether it merely fell and then paused, can not yet be determined. In either case the interval between the Glacial period and the present time seems to have been filled with constant climatic pulsations whose general tendency has been toward less and less severity. The complexity of the changes indicates that we must appeal to some highly variable cause, such as the sun, rather than to causes, such as crustal deformation and changes in the composition of the atmosphere, which by their very nature act slowly and do not repeatedly reverse themselves at short intervals. The absence of any gap between the past and the present suggests that the same cause has been constantly operating. THE INCLOSED LAKES OF ASIA The lakes of the Old World furnish the same kind of evidence as those of the New. The fluctuations of the Caspian seem to be of the same sort as those of other lakes all the way from North Africa’? to Mongolia.?® 17 See H. J. L. Beadnell: A desert oasis, pp. 110-122. 18D, Carruthers: Unknown Mongolia, vol 2. Appendix. 564. &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES One or two other lakes may be mentioned as samples of the intervening regions. Lake Buldur, in central Asia Minor, is surrounded by strands at elevations of 750, 460, 400, 100, and 35 feet, in addition to a minor - strand at 8 or 10 feet. Lop-Nor, a lake in the eastern part of Chinese Turkestan, is also surrounded by six strands at elevations of 600, 300, 115, 35, 20, and 12 feet and by several minor ones at lower levels. The lake of Seistan, in southeastern Persia, not only presents two pronounced strands as evidence of recent fluctuations, but its deposits have been up- lifted by recent earth mov ements, and show a series of apparently lacus- trine beds alternating with beds which were apparently deposited under arid conditions. The date of these beds is uncertain; but they represent the last phase of the geological history of the region previous to recent voleanic outbursts, and seem to afford good evidence of a succession of climatic changes, numbering about 15, and closely analogous to those indi- cated in the Searles Basin. The long, deep, narrow valley of the Dead Sea is much hke that of Owens Valley both structurally and climatically. It presents the same kind of favorable conditions for a full record of cli- matic changes. There we find old strands at elevations of 1430, 540, 430, 300, 250, 210, 170, 145, 115, 90, 70, 50, 40, 30, and 12 feet. It is scarcely necessary to point out the resemblance of this series of 15 strands to that of 22 in the Searles Basin. Inasmuch as some of the strands around the Dead Sea are double, the number of climatic fluctuations recorded at the two places is almost the same.*® It has sometimes been thought that strands ae as are here described may have been the work of temporary lakes, due to the rapid melting of ice and snow which had accumulated during the Glacial period. This view has been advocated by Gale in a Contribution to Economic Geology,’ published by the United States Geological Survey. He applies it specific- ally to such strands as are described by Free in the preceding quotation. According to this hypothesis, such lakes would have a very brief history, and would be only a transient phase of the glacial retreat due to increas- ing warmth rather than to variations in rainfall. That lakes of this sort were a feature of early post-Glacial time seems highly probable, but it is doubtful whether traces of them have yet been distinguished. The lakes which we are here considering do not seem to be of this origin for two reasons. In the first place, many of the strands are marked by broad, high beaches and ridges, or by lofty bluffs which could not have been 19 Further data on the strands of Asiatic lakes and the deposits of Seistan may be found in the following publications: Explorations in Turkestan, vol. 1; The Pulse of Asia ; Palestine and its Transformation; and Some Characteristics of the Glacial Period in Non-glaciated Regions. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 18, 1907. 19¢ Bulletin 540-N.: 1913, pp. 6-7. EFFECT OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ON GLACIATION 565 formed unless the water had stood at approximately the same level for centuries. In the second place, the strands of the Dead Sea, to take the most striking example, could not possibly have been produced in this way, because the surrounding mountains do not rise high enough. No signs of glaciation have been described in any. part of the area draining to that lake. Slight moraines are found on the west side of the Lebanon Moun- tains, but no part of this range drains to the Jordan River. There is no reason to think that there was any great accumulation of permanent snow, even at the height of the Glacial period, for no part of the drainage basin of the Jordan except the very top of Mount Hermon rises high enough. HKyen there the possible snow-covered area is not a tenth the size of the Dead Sea. The only feasible explanation of the strands of the Dead Sea seems to be changes of climate which express themselves chiefly in vari- ations in the amount of precipitation. This conclusion applies to many other lakes, both in the Old World and the New. THE CAUSES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD GENERAL DISCUSSION We have now examined the little chmatic changes which occur within the limits of the 11-year sun-spot cycle, the greater changes of historic times, and the still greater changes of the period between the culmina- tion of the last Ice Age and the beginnings of history. We have seen that they all appear to be of the same type, although differing in degree, and that all are apparently explicable on the hypothesis of a shifting of cli- matic zones, such as now occurs on a small scale with each increase and decrease of sun-spots. -This brings us face to face with the Glacial period. We must now examine that in respect to the three possible hypotheses of crustal deformation, change in the amount of CO,, and changes in the activity of the sun’s surface. No serious student of geology would question that the deformation of the earth’s crust and the resultant upheaval of mountains, elevation of continents, and formation of barriers in the ocean must have had most pronounced and long-continued effects on the climate. Such deformation must be regarded as one of the pri- mary climatic factors. In the production of Glacial stages and epochs as distinguished from Glacial periods, however, there is little ground for the idea that it has been the chief factor, or even a factor of great impor- tance. That the earth should have heaved up and down sufficiently to cause such vicissitudes, and yet that the evidence of it should be so weak and in many cases so strongly contradictory, is scarcely probable. A few geologists, to be sure, still cling to the idea that glaciation was due to an upheaval of the lands. They are forced, however, to reject most of the ¥ 566 — &. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES evidence which points to alternate Glacial and inter-Glacial epochs. It seems safe to say that the vast majority of geologists agree that Glacial epochs have succeeded one another too rapidly to allow us to entertain the hypothesis that they are due primarily to crustal movements. Such movements probably prepared the way for the Glacial period by raising the continents to a great altitude, but their work ended at that point. These considerations, together with what has already been said as to the meteorological and volcanic hypotheses, seem to limit our choice to the carbonic acid hypothesis and the solar hypothesis in one or the other of its forms. The carbonic acid hypothesis ranks as one of the great contributions to geology. Whether right or wrong, it has been remark- able for the extent to which it has stimulated investigation. The study of that hypothesis and a whole-hearted acceptance of it furnished one of the strongest of the stimuli which led to the present paper. The care with which it has been worked out and the admirable manner in which it has been presented will long serve as a model for geological work. I can not too strongly express my feeling of indebtedness to that hypothesis and of admiration for the way in which it has been framed. | THE CARBONIC ACID HYPOTHESIS The cyclonic solar hypothesis and the carbonic acid hypothesis are not necessarily antagonistic. Both may contain large elements of truth, for one may explain climatic variations of very long duration, while the other may explain those of shorter period and quicker activity. ‘Turning di- rectly to the carbonic acid hypothesis, the first thing to be pointed out is that its supporters do not invoke it as an explanation of such brief changes as those which appear to have occurred during the past two or three thousand years. Even when it comes to Glacial stages they hesitate somewhat in its application. Others who are not so directly interested in it believe that it can not act quickly enough even to produce Glacial — epochs. Its fundamental requirement is that changes shall be slow. A change in a given direction can be reversed only by a highly complicated rearrangement of the composition and movements of both the air and the ocean. Hundreds of thousands instead of mere hundreds of years are required to produce noteworthy effects. It is highly probable that changes in the carbonic acid content of the air are an important climatic factor. It scarcely seems possible that enormous amounts of CO, should at some periods be locked up in coal and limestone and at other periods be set free without altering the composition of the earth’s atmosphere. Such alterations can scarcely fail to produce an effect on climate, espe- cially through their alteration of the power of the atmosphere to hold CAUSES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD 567 moisture. ‘This conclusion is based on actual observation. Different authorities may not agree as to the amount of effect produced by changes ' in CO,, but all appear to agree that there is some effect. When it comes to changes in ocean currents, however, the case is not so clear. Here the hypothesis is necessarily not based on direct observation, but on a highly complicated chain of reasoning. A periodic-reversal of oceanic circula- tion appears to be the only way in which Glacial epochs can be explained according to the carbonic acid hypothesis, but the actual occurrence of any such reversal because of the action of CO, has never been demon- strated, even on a small scale. In the very nature of the case, any such demonstration is impossible, for the phenomenon must occur so slowly that many centuries would be required to detect it. In brief, the chief importance of CO, would seem to be in the production of climatic eras far longer than Glacial epochs. It may cause long periods of mild cli- mate when equatorial conditions prevail far toward the poles, or equally long periods when the atmosphere is relatively free from CO, and the earth’s temperature falls somewhat. This would mean that the influence of the composition of the atmosphere would vary with changes in the extent and elevation of the lands. In connection with the form of the solar hypothesis here presented we fully accept the idea that both defor- mation of the earth’s crust and changes in the amount of carbonic acid in the atmosphere have been and will continue to be among the chief ~ eauses of climatic changes whose length is measured in hundreds of thousands or millions of years. They do not seem, however, to have been anything like so effective in producing changes measured in hundreds, or thousands, or even tens of thousands of years. THE CYCLONIC SOLAR HYPOTHESIS General discussion.—lIf we have reasoned correctly in our exclusion of other hypotheses, the only one which seems to be competent to explain Glacial epochs and the minor cycles shown by the California trees is the solar hypothesis. In its “caloric” form it does not seem to stand the test, for present changes of climate do not agree with changes in solar temperature. Moreover, from the point of view of the physicist, it seems beyond the bounds of probability that the sun’s mean temperature should change sufficiently often and with sufficient rapidity to cause the observed terrestrial phenomena. The cyclonic form of the hypothesis seems to be free from such objections. We have already seen that there is a striking agreement between the changes of solar spots and variations in storms and winds. We have also seen that there is no inherent reason why the activity of the sun’s surface, especially in its magnetic or electrical con- 568 E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES ditions, may not have varied greatly and rapidly during past eras. It is now incumbent on us to test the matter in one more way. We must see what would happen if the present solar changes and the related terres- trial phenomena were to be greatly intensified. Let us see how closely the earth’s conditions would conform to those of a Glacial period if the disturbances of the sun’s atmosphere which we know as sun-spots and the apparently associated disturbances of the earth’s atmosphere became more intense than at present. Our assump- tion is simply that in their waning these various phenomena did not reach so low an ebb as at present, and that in their waxing they became decidedly more intense than today. Figures 7 and 12 may be taken as typical of the way in which the conditions of such a time would be dif- ferent from those now prevalent. ‘These maps show, in the first place, that the total number of storms, or rather the total storminess, for-Iull- mer’s figures include both the number of storms and the length of their courses, would be greater in times of many sun-spots than in times of few. Then, according to our assumption, the degree of storminess dur- ing a Glacial period would be several times as great as now. The second thing that the maps show is that the distribution of storms would be different from what it now is. If the conditions thus indicated increased in the proportion demanded by our assumption, the result would appar- ently be the production of two main storm belts, both in America and Europe. In America one would be a boreal belt of great ‘severity lying Nes acts in southern Canada, or perhaps slightly farther north. If it were con- centric with the magnetic pole, it would swing around over southern Greenland. It is quite possible, however, that during its course across the Atlantic Ocean it would be bent to the east and become the northern European belt. This, if it grew more intense than at present, would probably spread out so as to cover Scotland and much of Scandinavia, northern England, and the North Sea. The second, or subtropical belt, might have its most southerly point as far south as latitude 25° or 30° in America. Although less severe than the boreal belt, the storminess might be quite as great as in the present storm belt. Between the trop- ical and boreal storm belts would lie a region of comparatively few storms. The double storm belt in America.—The idea of two distinct storm belts separated by a zone of few storms is so important that it requires further elaboration. Evidences of it can be seen in the present distribu-. tion of storms both in America and Europe. To begin with America, the main storm belt, as shown in figure 3, has its center in the northern United States and southern Canada. A southern belt, almost merged with the first, but nevertheless plainly discernible, has its center in more CAUSES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD 569 ‘southerly regions. It can be seen in Colorado, where a square crossed by 22.8 storm tracks per year lies south of two which are crossed by only 17.8 and 18.8. Just west of this Colorado square, and in the western part of the same State, a square crossed by 13.2 tracks hes south of one crossed by 12.8 and of another crossed by 12. Still more to the north- west we have 9.0 south of 6.9 and 7.8. In times of numerous sun-spots there seems to be an unmistakable tendency for this incipient southern storm belt to become more highly developed. A study of figure 7 and of the others of the same kind proves that this must be the case. In times of many spots storminess decreases in the central United States and in- creases on either side. If this process goes far enough, we are bound to have an area of actual deficiency of storms in the center and two storm belts on either side. The case is like that of a heap of sand from which sand is shoveled to either side. No matter how high the central heap may be, its level will ultimately fall below that of the heaps on either side, provided the shoveling be continued long enough. In order to make the matter as concrete as possible, I have prepared the diagrams shown in figure 19. They represent the number of storm tracks in the given longitudes under four different conditions. The figures at the bottom represent latitudes; the height of each curve shows the number of storms. Each curve begins at zero in a latitude sufficiently far north so that no storm centers actually pass over it. Going south— that is, toward the right in the diagrams—the number of storms rises to a maximum and then decreases with more or less regularity. The first set of curves shows the conditions in longitude 60° to 65° west, the next im longitude 70° to 75° west, and so on to 120° to 125° west. In each set there are four curves. The upper, marked “Min,” shows the distri- _ bution of storminess at times of minimum sun-spots according to figure ¢. The next line, marked “Av,” shows the average distribution for 30 years according to figure 3. The third line shows the conditions at times of maximum spots according to figure 7. Finally, the lower line repre- sents the conditions which would prevail if the conditions which now exist during times of maximum sun-spots were magnified sixfold. This does not mean that the actual number of storms has been multiplied by six, but that the departures have been so multiplied. In other words, if at one particular point the curve marked “Max” shows that the number of storms at times of maximum spots now averages two in excess of the average for all the years for which data are available, this excess has been multiplied by six and becomes 12 in the “Max. & 6” curve. Thus the average number of storms for all years may be 20. During the nine 570 E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES y. Longitude» 60°-65° W.. Max. a: —— 6X 50° N. 40° N., 3 $ 0 7 SEE Min. 0 7 Av. 0 4 Max . Longitude 10 70°-75° W 9 6X’ 50° B 40° 30° N S 1) Min.. NE Slay 0 ees < Max Longitude 10 80°-85° W 0 Ox Bia ioret N) 0 Min. ) z Av ) ey Max 2U Longitude 90° -95- W 10 0 } 6x 50) 40°: 30° N. 5 $ 0 ] awe vu Ay. 0 e] Max. 20 Longitude 100°-105° W 10 6x : U 50 A0° 30° N. B § 0 | Min 0 Fe AV 0 a5?) Max 20 Longitude 110°-115° W 10 GK 30° N Min. Av Max. Longitude ~320°-125° W.. bx FIGURE 19—The double Storm Belt of the United States Ay. = Average number of storm centers during the 30 years from 1883 to 1912 Mn. — Average number of storm centers during 12 years of minimum spots Mx. = Average number of storm centers during 9 years of maximum spots 6x — Average number of storm centers if the departure of Mx. from Ay. were increased sixfold B= Boreal storm belt S = Subtropical storm belt The figures on the left of each diagram indicate the scale on which the number of storm tracks is plotted CAUSES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD elt years of maxima since 1877 the average may have been 21. If we sup- pose that the conditions which accompany sun-spots are magnified six- fold, the number of storms would be 26, and this is the figure used in plotting the lower curves. If we examine the various groups of curves, we see that they all agree in certain important features. Beginning with the curves for longitude 60° to 65°, we see that at times of minimum spots, as represented by the upper curve, there is a regular increase of storms as one approaches lati- tude 45° to 47°. The place where the storms are most numerous is indi- cated by the letters B+ 8. In the next curve, the average for all years, the high point, B + 8 becomes flattened. In the third curve, represent- ing conditions as they now exist at times of many sun-spots, the region of greatest storminess has moved two or three degrees north of its loca- tion in the minimum curve, while on the other side, southward, there has developed a somewhat prominent angle. Finally, in the lower curve we see that if the conditions which accompany many sun-spots at the present time should be exaggerated sixfold, there would be a sharply defined maximum of storminess between latitudes 47° 30’ and 50° and another maximum of less proportions between latitude 42° 30’ and 45°. Turning to the next set of curves for longitude 70° to 75°, we see the same con- ditions repeated. ‘The only essential difference is that here we have a hint of a double maximum even in the curves for the actual conditions as they exist today. The same is true of the curves for longitude 80° to 85° and 90° to 95°. The latter presents some slight irregularities which seem to be related to the curious little tongue which projects southward from the main area of northern increase of storminess in figure 7 and elsewhere. In the groups of curves for longitudes 100° to 105° and 110° to 115°, especially the former, the two belts of storms stand out dis- tinctly even in the upper curves. Finally, in the last group the condi- tions of the first are quite closely repeated. Summing up the whole matter, we see that except for the extreme borders of the continent the curves of present storminess all show not only the main crest of what we have termed the boreal storm belt, which is indicated by the letter B, but also some faint indications of the smaller subtropical belt, which is indicated by the letter 8. If we turn to the lower line in each group, we see that in all cases, without exception, there are two distinct crests. Invariably also there is a tendency for these two crests to separate from one another as the conditions which accompany maximum sun-spots become intensified. The boreal crest generally moves only 2 or 3 degrees from its present position, while the subtropical 572. BE. HUNTINGTON—-SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES crest may move twice as much. Between the two the number of storms decreases until there comes to be an area where storminess is slight. The glacial storm belts of Europe-——In Europe the double character of the storm belt at the present time is much more evident than in America, as may be seen in figure 4. The effect of changes in the belts in accordance with changes in the number of sun-spots, however, is by no means so clear as in Atierica, but will probably become so when we have figures for the last two sun-spot cycles. Meanwhile we can merely point out certain features which appear in figure 12 and whose main outlines may possibly be permanent characteristics when sun-spots are numerous. It must be remembered, however, that we here have only a single sun-spot maximum compared with two minima, and that the fig- ures are not so reliable'as in America. If we had more abundant data many of the minor features would probably disappear. In general the maps indicate that during times of many sun-spots there is a deficiency of storms over the Icelandic region and also in Finland, but this latter is of doubtful importance. A belt of increased storminess extends from Scotland up to Scandinavia, down into Germany and eastward. With more abundant data this would probably spread out so as to cover all of Seandinavia. In England we find a belt of deficiency which extends eastward into northern France, and from there down the Danube Valley and into Austria. In figure 10 this area goes directly across the Alps to the head of the Adriatic Sea. In figure 11 it goes north of the Alps and is much enlarged in Hungary, whence it continues east to the Crimea. What appears to be the samé as the Crimean area is apparent on a much reduced scale in the other map, where we have a decline in the rate of increase northeast of the Crimea, but not actually a deficiency. Just what would happen if the conditions illustrated in the European maps should become much intensified it is as yet hard to say, but presumably there would be a stormy area in the northwest and north, an area of de- ficiency in the west and center, and again an area of excess in the south- east. ‘The essential point is that both in America and in Hurope we have evidence that real changes are in progress in harmony with the sun-spot cycles, and that if these should become intensified the distribution of storms would apparently correspond with what presumably occurred dur- ing the Glacial period. The effect of the glacial storm belts on temperature and precipita- tion.—So much for the location of storms according to the cyclonic hy- pothesis. Now for the distribution of temperature. With high sun-spot frequency the temperature of the torrid zone appears to diminish. This CAUSES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD 573 seems to be well established and we have discussed its probable mechan- ism. According to our assumption, the temperature would merely be lowered still more than is now the case at times of sun-spot maxima. In the storm belts the temperature would be lower than at present, just as is now the ease at such times, but the amount of lowering would not be so great as within the tropics. In polar regions the temperature might remain about the same as now. ‘The facts are not yet well enough known to give any certainty. . Having indicated the conditions that would prevail according to our assumption, let us now set the mechanism in motion. In America, and to a less extent in Kurope, the more equatorial of the two belts of storms would keep the air of the torrid zone in active motion. Tropical hurri- canes would be more numerous than now, and storms of the eastward- moving type, characteristic of the temperate zone, would abound some- what to the north of the region of hurricanes. The active upward move- ment of the air in the storm centers would produce an abundance of rain and would carry away an abundance of heat. New air would be con- tinually brought. from the lands to the oceans and back again, so that evaporation would increase, even though the temperature were lower than now. Thus two. conditions would tend to promote the accumulation of snow and the formation of glaciers among the mountains. In the first place there would be more precipitation than now, and in the second place there would be less melting. Such conditions would prevail as far north as the center of the subtropical storm belt. Beyond this would lie the median belt of decreased storminess. The temperature there would apparently be lower than now, but the degree of lowering would presu- mably not be so great as within the tropics. Storms would occur in summer when the subtropical storm belt moved north, and in winter when the boreal belt moved south. Yet the actual amount of precipitation would probably, and indeed almost certainly, be less than at present. North of the subarid zone would he the great boreal storm belt. Far- ther north than now and more intense it would whirl its storms around the edge of the highlands of Labrador and Scandinavia. It would not only cause precipitation, but also constant cloudiness. Thus the snows of winter would have scant chance to melt. In the colder districts they would gradually accumulate, and as the storms grew more numerous great areas of permanent snow would appear, and continental glaciers would at length begin to creep forth. In their cold centers areas of high pressure would doubtless exist like those which now prevail in Antarctica and Greenland. The presence of these centers would in itself increase XLI—Butx. Gror. Soc. Am., Vor. 25, 1913 574 EB. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES the severity of the winds, for it would establish high barometric gradients, . down which the winds would sweep viciously. The growth of the glacial area would cause the region of high pressure also to increase in size, and thus the boreal storm belt would be pushed equatorward and would main- tain its position along the ice-front. As long as the sun maintained its high degree of activity the storms would continue and the glaciers would grow. Then when the solar disturbances ceased the terrestrial storms would also decrease in severity, the two cyclonic belts of each hemisphere would tend to merge, precipitation and cloudiness would decrease, and the sun would have an opportunity to melt the accumulated ice. The glacial precipitation of the Alps.—The severest test and the great- est confirmation of any hypothesis is found in the extent to which it ex- plains highly specialized facts which were not known or were not consid- ered when it was framed. Several such facts appear at onee as soon as our cyclonic hypothesis is applied to the glaciation of past times. They are not in any respect new, but were not thought of in framing the hy- pothesis. They came to mind only when the line of reasoning which has just been followed had been brought to the present point. ‘Then they — stood out so clearly that what I am about to say will probably be only a repetition of what has already occurred to most readers. Therein les their importance. A knowledge of the hypothesis here discussed would lead to the expectation that certain peculiar phenomena prevailed during times of glaciation. When we inspect the history of Glacial periods as worked out by geologists those phenomena stand out as among the most difficult to explain. The first is Penck’s conclusion that in the Alps, but not necessarily elsewhere, the snowfall during the Glacial period can not have been appreciably heavier than now. The upper surface of the ancient glaciers at their point of origin never rose higher than the present surface. Hence he infers that there can never have been more snow than today, and that the expansion of the Alpine glaciers must have been due entirely to the lowering of the temperature. A glance at figure 10 shows that during that particular period of maximum sun-spots the amount of storminess over the Alps did not increase nearly so much as in many other places. In fact it remained almost stationary. In figure 11 we see that the storminess of the Alps increased somewhat, but the area of in- crease is small and its intensity is not great. There is a strong proba- bility that if the general conditions which prevail. at times of sun-spot maxima should greatly increase, the Alpine area of excess would either be absorbed in the surrounding area of deficiency or would remain nearly neutral—that is, not appreciably different from what it is today. This CAUSES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD 575 would conform exactly with Penck’s conclusion. The temperature would fall because of the draining away of the warmth of the lower atmosphere. This in itself would tend to decrease precipitation somewhat. A slight increase in storminess would be needed in order to balance this. Thus if the Alps had somewhat more storminess than now, but were surrounded Deserts et régions subdeésertiques mntm Limite dela glaciation quaternaire anu? Kégions glacisires peu étendues Figure 20.—The Distribution of Loess. Its Relation to Quaternary Glaciation and to present Deserts and subarid Regions. (After De Martonne) (Reproduced from Fig. 310, p. 664, in De Martonne’s Traite de Géeographie Physique) by an area of decrease, we should get the conditions which seem actually to have existed. at | ? > Lhe distribution of loess—A more striking case than that of the Alps is found in the distribution of loess. This is illustrated in figure 20, which is taken from De Martonne’s Traité de Geographie Physique. As the map plainly shows, there are two chief types of loess. One consists of deposits on the leeward side of modern deserts. In places such as 576 E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES northern China this material has been accumulating for ages and is still in rapid process of deposition. There can be no question as to its origin. I have myself seen loess blown from the Takla Makan Desert of the Tarim Basin and deposited on the northern flank of the Kwen-lun Mountains, 8,000 feet above the desert and 60 miles away. Standing on the moun- tain side in the early morning, we could see the desert clearly. Gradually it became obscured by dust, under the influence of a strong north wind. By afternoon the dust reached us. It fell so thickly that our writing paper became covered with it and had to be brushed every few minutes to prevent the pen from blotting. Conditions like this seem to be the only ones where any great quantity of loess is being deposited at the present time. Nevertheless, as is seen in figure 20, there are large areas where vast deposits were formed during Pleistocene times, but which now are not in such relation to deserts that they could possibly receive dust from them. A belt of this sort extends across the southern borders of Siberia between 45° and 50° north. Its westward extension passes through southern Russia, across Roumania and Hungary, up the Danube, and over into France. There it extends as far as Brittany and even over into the extreme south of England. Other small areas of loess he in southern France near the mouth of the Rhone and in southern Spain. In America similar conditions prevail. The central part of the United States, espe- cially along the Missouri, Mississippi, and Ohio rivers, contains abundant deposits of loess dating from the Glacial period. Thus, although as a general rule it appears that in modern times all known deposition of loess on a large scale is due to winds blowing from deserts, yet in ancient— that is, Pleistocene—times the deposition of loess seems to have been closely associated with glaciation and to have taken place chiefly not far from the front of the ice. The ice indicates heavy precipitation or else low temperature and the consequent absence of rapid melting and evap- oration. ‘The loess indicates lack of precipitation or else high tempera- ture and extremely rapid evaporation. The peculiar juxtaposition of these two phenomena has been one of the most puzzling features of glacial geology. It has led to the theory of a twofold.origin of loess. Geologists have been forced to conclude that this material can originate not only in deserts, but also in the outwash plains which le in front of glaciers. It has been supposed that during the Pleistocene summer the ice melted rapidly and great streams flowed from its front. The streams must have spread into many channels and flooded large areas. During the winter, when melting ceased, the streams presumably diminished or even disappeared in many cases. Then the CAUSES OF THE GLACIAL PERIOD id winds had free play, and are supposed to have picked up the fine material deposited by the water and to have piled it in great drifts. The chief difficulty with this theory is that we do not now see it in operation ex- cept in a few insignificant cases. ‘There are many places where dry flood- plains are gathering grounds for wind-blown dust, but practically all the cases where this gives rise to loess are in deserts and not at the front of glaciers. The cyclonic form of the solar hypothesis seems to afford an adequate explanation of. the peculiar phenomena which have just been described. By its very nature the hypothesis demands that belts of excessive stormi- ness and precipitation should le close to belts of diminished storminess and of aridity. If these did not occur the theory would be untenable. _A comparison of figure 20 with figures 11, 12, and 7 shows that in both Europe and America the areas where storminess decreases at times of sun-spot maxima are the areas where loess was abundantly deposited during the Glacial period. Manifestly, if the decrease in storminess which is shown in central Europe and in the central United States in figures 11 and 7 should become intensified, those regions would become deserts and be the sort of places where loess could originate. Just north of the deserts—that is, not far from the ice-sheet—would lie the main track of storms. In summer, when storms were most frequent, their courses would lie farthest north, just as is now the case, and the centers would presumably often pass within the limits of.the ice. Therefore in the area fronting the ice the prevailing winds would be from a southerly direction, but ranging well toward both the east and the west. ‘They would be strong winds, for under the assumed conditions of our hy- pothesis the barometric gradients would be steep and the storms would be more severe than at present. ‘The constant indraft of air from the deserts would bring with it great amounts of dust, which would be de- posited in the regions where the glacial streams were depositing their outwash. The net result would be either the accumulation of pure wind- blown loess in areas not subject to inundation by glacial streams, or the deposition of an intermixture of loess and fluvio-glacial materials in the areas where the streams from the ice were laying down their burdens. The agreement of this condition with that which we know to have been the case during the Glacial epoch scarcely needs to be pointed out. 578 KE. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES PERMIAN GLACIATION GENHRAL DISCUSSION The last test to which we shall subject our theory is that of the peculiar - condition of Permian glaciation. This, still less than the snowfall of the Alps and the loess of Eurasia and America, was not even remotely con- sidered until the cyclonic hypothesis had reached its present form. Per- haps the most striking characteristic of Permian times was glaciation between 20° and 40° south of the present equator and to a less extent in the same latitudes north of the equator. ‘The extent of the evidences of glaciation is sufficient to imply the existence of considerable bodies of land. ‘The actual regions where the ice laid down its burden were in many cases at or near sealevel. ‘This, however, indicates nothing as to the conditions far back where the glaciers took their origin. At the present time glaciation is universally associated with mountains or with regions such as Greenland and Antarctica, which are presumably high plateaus. In the Pleistocene glacial period the great areas of the accu- mulation of ice were all of considerable elevation. Therefore, we seem to be led to the conclusion that during Permian times considerable areas of high land or mountains must have existed in latitudes 20° to 40°, where they served as a gathering ground for great quantities of ice. Even with this assumption, however, the peculiar location of Permian glaciation has been an even greater puzzle than the juxtaposition of glaciers and loess in Pleistocene times. The problem has been so difficult that some of the best geologists have thought that it might indicate a change in the location of the earth’s poles. Others have endeavored to explain it by a complete readjustment of oceanic and atmospheric circu- lation. Such a readjustment must certainly have taken place, no matter what hypothesis we accept in explanation of it, but its mode of occur- rence would vary according to whether it was due to crustal deformation, changes in the composition of the atmosphere, or changes in the cyclonic movements of the air. According to the cyclonic hypothesis, the Permian period was a time when the activity of the sun was even greater than during the Pleistocene glacial period. This, as we have seen, would involve the formation of a storm belt in subtropical latitudes, together with an increase of tropical hurricanes in subequatorial regions. Both of these types of cyclonic activity would involve a rapid upward movement of the air, which would be at its greatest intensity in a broad subtropical belt centering 25° or 30° from the equator on either side. Under such conditions two factors, PERMIAN GLACIATION 579 as we have already seen, would tend toward glaciation. One would be a pronounced increase of snowfall on the mountains and the other the general lowering of the temperature because of the great amount of heat carried upward by the storms. Conditions would apparently resemble those which would prevail in New Zealand if the temperature should ‘become somewhat lower than now and the snowy precipitation on the mountains should increase. At the present time the glaciers of New Zea- land descend almost to sealevel. For instance, the Aorangi glaciers push their way down into the forests as low as 400 feet above the sea. With an increase in snowfall and a shght lowering of temperature, these glaciers would descend still lower. They would coalesce with one another and might spread out over a considerable area of land at approximately sea- level. In order to get such conditions during the Permian era, the only requirements seem to be that the phenomena which now prevail at times of maximum sun-spots should become even more intensified than we have assumed to be the case in Pleistocene times. THE EFFECT OF PRECIPITATION ON TEMPERATURE At this point it is necessary to consider two points which may be raised as objections to the cyclonic hypothesis. One of these is the liberation of latent heat by reason of increased precipitation, which might cause the temperature to be raised instead of lowered in the subtropical storm belts. The other is the blanketing effect of an atmosphere full of moisture and clouds. The effect of the first can easily be determined. The heat re- quired for the evaporation of a given amount of water is exactly equal to the heat liberated by the condensation of the vapor thus produced. If the circulation of the air in subtropical latitudes were much more rapid in Permian times than at present, a constant supply of unsaturated air would be brought to the equatorial areas of chief evaporation. This air would take up moisture and in so doing would lose heat. It would then be carried upward, partly in equatorial regions and still more in the sub- tropical storm belt. At an altitude of a few thousand feet condensation would take place and the latent heat would be liberated. This would warm the air, and the amount of warming would be essentially the same as the amount of cooling which took place when the moisture was first evaporated. he effect on the earth’s surface, however, would be to pro- duce cooling, for the heat would be taken away from the air at low levels and would be released at the high level of the clouds. Moreover, when air is warmed by the condensation of moisture and the formation of clouds, it of course expands, and hence tends to rise more rapidly than before. Therefore its heat is carried to levels above those of the clouds, 580 5. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES and is largely lost, so far as any effect on the earth’s surface is concerned. Hence it appears that the greater the amount of evaporation from the ocean, the greater will be the amount of heat carried to high levels and. the greater will be the cooling effect on the earth’s surface. THE EFFECT OF A PERMIAN CLOUD BLANKET IN LOW LATITUDES We must now consider the extent to which an increase in atmospheric moisture and cloudiness in subtropical and equatorial regions would ex- ercise a blanketing effect which might neutralize the cooling effect de- scribed in the last paragraph. As every one knows, on clear nights frost is much more probable than on cloudy nights. When the air is full of moisture, and especially when it is cloudy, the earth’s heat is not radiated away so fast as when the air is clear and dry. The universality of this phenomenon raises the question whether under conditions such as we have postulated during Permian times the great abundance of clouds might not actually cause the temperature of the earth’s surface to rise rather than fall. To put the matter concretely, we must find the relation between two types of processes. On the one hand, we have the cooling processes. ‘These are three in number: First, the convective carrying away of heat from the earth’s surface by reason of rapid cyclonic cireu- lation ; second, the carrying away of heat because of rapid evaporation, and third, the actual loss of heat which would arise from the reflection of the sun’s rays from the upper surface of the clouds. This last factor has not hitherto been mentioned, but it plays an important part. Water, as is well known, possesses a high reflective power, and the same is true of clouds. If any part of the earth’s surface is shrouded with clouds, there must be a corresponding absolute loss in the amount of heat re- ceived from the sun. In opposition to the three cooling processes there seems to be only one heating process which would play any important part under the condi- ‘tions of the cyclonic hypothesis. Inasmuch as the wave length of sun- light is very short, solar energy, unless it is reflected from the surface of clouds or of other reflecting media, is able to pass through masses of vapor without being absorbed to any great extent. On reaching the earth, however, it is converted into heat and is sent out from the earth’s ‘surface in this form. The wave length of heat is great. Hence when the waves come into contact with vapor they can not easily pass through it, but are largely absorbed. For this reason clouds prevent the earth from becoming cool. Our problem is to determine whether, under the conditions of our hypothesis, the loss of heat in Permian times on account of increased | PERMIAN GLACIATION 581 convection, evaporation, and reflection exceeded the gain due to the blanketing effect of increased cloudiness. This can be tested either mathematically or empirically. Both methods meet with many compli- cations. Doubtless the mathematical method will in the end prove the most reliable, but with our present scanty knowledge it requires a great number of assumptions which expose it to constant error. Moreover, the process of calculation is so intricate that the layman is almost sure to make mistakes. Therefore it seems wiser to adhere to the method which prevails throughout this paper—that is, let us discover what is happening today and then ascertain what would have happened if the same thing had occurred on a larger scale in the past. THE BLANKETING EFFECT OF CLOUDS AT PRESENT In order to find the present relation of clouds to temperature, I have made use of four charts in Bartholomew’s Meteorological Atlas. 'T'wo show the mean cloudiness of the world in January and July. The cloudi- ness is expressed in tenths of the sky which are obscured. The other two charts are those of isanomalies of temperature in January and July. These indicate the extent to which the temperature departs from what would naturally be expected in any given place at the particular time in question. For instance, if there were no winds and ocean currents, the west coast of Ireland would be as cold as the east coast of Labrador. As a matter of fact, in January Ireland is more than 30° F. warmer than would be expected in its latitude, while the east coast of Labrador is 10° F. colder than would be expected. ‘These figures constitute the anomalies for the respective regions during January. ‘The parts of the earth more than 30° from the equator are subject to extreme anomalies, partly be- cause of the great size of the continents and partly because of the ocean currents. ‘Therefore the present investigation has been restricted to the area within 30° of the equator. This is the more appropriate, since, ac- cording to the assumptions of our hypothesis, it is chiefly there that storminess appears to have increased during Permian times. In the charts of cloudiness and temperature anomalies use has been made of the 126 points where the equator and the parallels of 10°, 20°, and 30° north and south intersect the meridians of 0°, 20°, and 40°, and so on at intervals of 20° around the world. For each point the anomaly and the cloudiness in January and July have been taken, and the figures have been combined so as to show whether increased cloudiness is ac- companied by a rise or fall of temperature. Three different methods have been pursued. In the first place all the points have been divided into groups on the basis of their anomaly. The first group, A in Table 7%, 582 E. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES TABLE 7 Cloudiness at Places having various Temperature Anomalies between 30° south and 30° north for the Months of January and July Whole world. Land. Ocean. Temperature anomaly. , A - A : A Basis, | AvGie®, | Pacis, | Avgiaee, | Beste: lana A, —10° F. or more. 5 Fy oe: oth ao Aft he Siete 4 5.0 B, —5° to —9.9°.... 25 4.68 = Sutin till Sie nkweecRa 23 4.638 C, —2.6° to —4.9°... 31 5.24 6* 4.58 28 D.09 D, —1.0° to —2.5°... D4 4.72 16* 3.63 38 5.18 E, —0.9° to 0.9°.... 26 5.06 5) 5,0 21 5.07 SOS UO eis Connree 54 4.99 18 4.67 36 5.15 G,2.6° to- AGee aici. 33 4.80 18 4.39 15 5.30 de par Wee wrayer’ INS ei 16 4.56 Wy, 4,58 oT 4.907 T-0° or more... 5 6: 8 3.19 re PAT! ose ae eee *JA, -B; and ¢: ¥ H and I. includes places showing an anomaly of —10° F. or more. The second, B, © includes places showing an anomaly of —9.9° to —5.0°, the third from —4,9° to —2.6°, and so on up to a plus anomaly of 10° or more. The results are shown in Table 7 and figure 21. Taking oceans and lands together, it appears that in the small number of cases included in group A, where the temperature falls most greatly below what would be ex- pected, the average cloudiness is 5.1° F., which means that the sky is covered with clouds a trifle more than half of the time. In the next three groups the cloudiness jumps back and forth, as is seen in the middle A B C D E F G H I —10° —5° —2.6° —1.0° —0.9° +1.0° +2.6° +5.0° +10 or to to to to to to to or Anomaly more —9.99 —4,9° —2.5° +0.9° +2,5° +4,9° +9.9° more Figure 21.—Cloudiness in Regions having various Temperature Anomalies, according to Table 7 Upper dash line = water alone Upper solid line = land and water Lower solid line = land alone PERMIAN GLACIATION 583 ~ hne of figure 21, but never departs far from 5. Then, beginning with group H, which includes all places having an anomaly of less than 1°, we see that there is a steady decrease in cloudiness as the anomaly becomes greater in the plus direction. In other words, where the temperature is lower than would be expected, there is a fairly high degree of cloudiness, whereas where the temperature is higher than would be expected there is relatively little cloudiness. This looks as if there were a distinct relation between unusually high anomaly and the absence of clouds. Over the ocean this relationship does not seem to be of any importance, as appears in the upper curve of figure 21. Over the lands, however, as appears in the lower curve, it is distinct, although a marked irregularity occurs at D, and there are almost no data for groups A and B. ‘Taken as a whole, the curves are not very conclusive except in one point. There can be no question that over the lands—that is, in the places where the climate depends most closely on the sun—an extreme excess of heat is found where the cloudiness is least. (od) | on) J oO Anomaly 0. 1 | 2 3 4 9 10 Clouds +5° +2.5° 0.0° —2.5° FIGURE 22.—Temperature Anomalies for various Degrees of Cloudiness, according to Table 8 Upper line = land areas Lower line — oceanic areas Middle line = oceans and land combined Let us test the matter in another way. In Table 8 our different points of observation are grouped according to the degree of cloudiness instead of according to the anomaly, as in Table 7. The first group includes all points having a cloudiness of 2 or less, the next those having a cloudi- ness of from 2 to 3, and so on up to those having from 6 to 7. The meaning of Table 8 can readily be grasped from figure 22. In the upper line it is evident that over the lands an increase of cloudiness is accom- panied by a fairly steady decline in the anomaly. Where the cloudiness is between 1 and 2 the temperature is on an average 3.89° F. higher than would be expected. Where the cloudiness rises to 4 or more, on the other hand, the anomaly drops to plus 1, or even to 0. The oceans, on the contrary, show a slight tendency in the opposite direction. They are of far less importance than the lands, however, for their temperature 584 8. HUNTINGTON—SOLAR HYPOTHESIS OF CLIMATIC CHANGES depends largely on the transportation of heat by ocean currents. ‘Thus an anomaly which actually arises in a sunny region may be transported toward a cloudy region, and may there be concentrated so that it appears more important than at its place of origin. Indeed, the place of origin may actually be cooled by the rapid removal of heat. If we take the lands alone we find that the method employed in Table 8 and figure 22 points strongly toward the conclusion that the presence of clouds is asso- ciated with relatively low temperature at the earth’s surface. TABLE 8 Temperature Anomalies at Places having various Degrees of Cloudiness between Latitudes 30° south and 30° north for the Months of January and July Entire area. Land area. Oceanic area. Degree of cloudi- a aes Basia Average Basi Averag@ Basi Average lp anomaly. ae anomaly. DER anomaly. Od heen 3 (+5.33°) 3 (+5.383°) QO. eee 1.1—2.0 . 16 +3.33° 14 +3.89° 2h eae 2.1—3.0 . 16 +1.78° 13 +2.35° 3. | (—0.67°) 3.1—4.0 42 —0.82° 12 +3.17° 30 —2.42° 4.1—5.0 75 —().52° 18 +1.11°° oT —1.04° 5.1—6.0 D8 —1.03° 12 ste OOF 46 —1.29° 6.1—7.0 38 —().14° 10 +1.40° 28 —0.70° 7.1—8.0 4 (+4.9°) 3 (+4.66°) OUR dees P35 ies 6 In the two preceding methods we have compared different parts of the ~ earth with one another, and hence have been liable to error because of the great variety of reef, currents, winds, and other physical character- istics which prevail in one region or another. Let us now compare the conditions of each region at different times of the year. he results ap- pear in Table 9. Among the 126 points used in our calculations 110 show a distinct change of cloudiness from January to July. In 59 cases the cloudiness decreases and in 51 it increases. Over the lands the aver- age temperature is higher in July than in January, no matter whether the cloudiness is greater or less, while over the oceans the reverse is true. This, however, does not prevent us from testing the matter, for we can determine whether the cloudy places have a greater or less increase or decrease of temperature than do the ones with less clouds. Testing the matter in this way, we find that on an average.the land stations where the cloudiness is greater in July than in January have an anomaly +-1.33° F. greater in July than in January. On the other hand, the stations where the cloudiness is less in July than in January have an PERMIAN GLACIATION a8a anomaly +1.92° F. greater in the later month than in the earlier. The difference between these two figures is 0.59° F. If there were no increase in cloudiness in the first group of places the temperature would appar- ently rise to this extent—that is, 0.59°—higher than it actually does. In the oceanic areas the result is similar. Here the places which show an increase of cloudiness show a lowering of their anomaly to the extent of —1.49°, while those which have a decrease of cloudiness show a lowering TABLE 9 Comparison of Changes of Cloudiness from January to July with Changes of Temperature Anomaly from January to July, beticeen 30° south and 30° north S Sigs ce Cae 2 ® E> 0) Ae S a2 Ss Ke) = 5 SH a2 mee) Sno ao oO aye Fa ete OS o£ es eee d ole Oe = a0 ane Whole world: Regions with same cloudiness in January AMMO anette ce Bolas. chen was oe ee sa es 12.0 0.00 +2 .59° Regions with less cloudiness in January HADTEAMMMU TR SMUMI WANs Mclaicte es at's ovata 6 ev eos ele a eigus 40.0 +1.37 —().06° Regions with more cloudiness in January TENANTS, TOTES FOU ROS gee Balk nS ee 48.0 —1.61 —0.35° Land : Regions with less cloudiness in January MODI AMIMMPIM ONL LZ eee cert sca cc jep ec ciel edie g eescahards ware « 10.2 —1.35 +1.92° Regions with more cloudiness in January Bale AMORETT MMA DUID eats se Paetenla Sutguene iia o ial'eyersssta ieee «3 19.4 +1.96 +1.33° Ocean : Regions with less cloudiness in January iCLOVAVTAL STILE, SB IVE ¢ tes eee se 30.0 —1.38 —(). 74° Regions with more cloudiness in January CLT, o TIT SAUNT Lyi es als nanny Sie ne OP en 28 .4 +1.28 —1.49° Average difference due to clouds, 0.70°. of their anomaly only to the extent of —0.74° F. The difference is 0.75° F. The meaning of these facts is that where cloudiness increases the temperature is lower than it would otherwise be to the extent of 0.75° F. over the oceans and 0.59° F. over the lands. Making due allow- ance for the difference in the area of the land and the sea, this gives us an average decrease of temperature amounting to 0.70° F. The amount by which the cloudiness changes on both land and sea is on an average about 1.5, but since the change is plus in one case and minus in the other ‘Oo age i HUNAN ae il ane , eo re I Ss ic cf Ne is ay a im . wee. " ee bi the . is ae ay Fs = —— | Ku =, 1,3 ie glaciation Uncertain glaciation. ” tu come] — o a oT a 5 ST setae oe TER Hrliut. d. geogn. Karte der Umgegend von Hainichen im K6nigr. Sachsen, 1871, p. 11. 6G. R. Credner: Das Griinschiefersystem von Hainichen im KoOnigr. Sachsen. Zeitschr. fiir die gesammten Naturwiss., vol. xiii, 1876, pp. 117-245. 7A. Rothpletz: Ueber mechanische Gesteinsumwandlungen bei Hainichen in Sachsen. Zeitschr. d. deutschen geol. Gesell., xxxi, 1879, pv. 355-398. “Die Breccienbildung des Aktinolithschiefers oder sogen. Griinschiefers von Hainichen,” pp. 374-398. See also Erlaut. zur geol. Specialkarte d. K6nigr. Sachsen, Sec. Frankenberg-Hainichen, 1881, jor, IL, °K. Dathe: Beitrag zur Kentniss der Diabas-Mandelsteine. Jahrb. d. Kénigl. Preuss, geol, Landesanstalt u, Bergakad. Berlin, 1883, pp. 410-448. DISTRIBUTION—-GERMANY 597 of the spheroids led Dalmer® to the conclusion that the remarkable sphe- roidal structure that is so abundant about Neumark and Planitz must be original and not the result of weathering. Hanover.—Nearly fifty years ago Credner’® described spheroidal and ellipsoidal structure in the mining district of Saint Andreasberg, in the Harz Mountains. The masses range from one-fourth of a foot to 2 feet in diameter and lie loosely on one another without filling the interstitial spaces. Hach mass is coated with a vesicular crust one-fourth to one- half inch in thickness containing abundant chlorite. Bavaria.—The altered aphanitic diabase of the Fichtelgebirge was de- scribed by Gregory"? as “jointed” into spheroids from 80 millimeters to more than 1 meter in diameter. The masses are compact, but at a little | distance from the surface and parallel to it is a band of variolite with varioles from 2 to 3 millimeters in diameter, decreasing in number and size on either side and passing into normal diabase. Some of the smallest masses are variolitic throughout. The origin of the spheroids is attrib- uted to contraction during solidification, while still semiviscid on the exterior but fluid within. Presumably this is conceived as a subterranean process, for the author adds: “Under the pressure of the forces that drove them upward these rolled over one another and were drawn out into oval masses.” From the country north of the Fichtelgebirge Hoffmann” has described excellent examples of pillow structure in the dense greenstones at Wiedes- ertiner Miihle, near Schauenstein. ‘The masses are finely vesicular to slagey, of rounded, elongated, or oval shape, and have their greatest diam- eters (6 to 8 feet) lying parallel. An elevation or depression in the sur- face of one is matched by a conformable irregularity in its neighbor, and from this it is concluded that they must have been formed contempora- neously from the fluid mass. ; Hesse.—Ludwig™ has described spheroidal and ellipsoidal constituents of the Upper Devonian “Deckdiabas” as flow-surface phenomena: “Man findet . . . im Schelder Walde und im Dilltale 6fter Wechsel von in Schollen abgesonderten Massen, der Art mit kugelf6rmig abgesonderten ®K. Dalmer: Erlaut. zur geol. Specialkarte d. KOnigr. Sachsens, See. Planitz-Ebers- brun, 1885; Sec. Rosswein-Nossen, 1887. See also Sec. Plauen-Olsnitz, 1887, by E. Weise. 10H. Credner: Geognotische Beschreibung des Bergwerkdistriktes von St. Andreasberg. Zeitschr. d. deutschen geol. Gesell., vol. xvii, 1865, pp. 11-231. uJ. W. Gregory: The variolitic diabase of the Fichtelgebirge. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soe. London, vol. 47, 1891, pp. 45-62. 12H. Hoffmann: Uebersicht der orographischen und geognotischen Verhiltnisse vom nordwestlichen Deutschland, vol. ii, p. 429. ; %R,. Ludwig: Geol. Specialkarte des Grosshertzogtums Hessen, Sec. Gladenbach, Darmstadt, 1870, pp. 34, 98, 96, 103, 106. 598 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS oder solchen, welche zusammengesetzt sind aus geflossenen Tropfen, Zapfen, Sphiroiden, gewundenen, abgerundeten Gestalten, wie man sie an den erkalte- ten Lavastrémen der nach titigen Vulkane so oft sieht.” . Denckmann and Streng** observed at Herborn and Londorf similar phenomena, including rounded and elongated rolls and ropy forms, which they regarded as marking the cooling surfaces of lava, and Brauns** has described analogous structures in the Upper Devonian diabases at Quot- shausen and Homertshausen, in the Hessian hinterland. At the former an exposed surface showed rope-like and fluted lava, with rounded (wulst- artig) masses, the surfaces of which are coated with glass; at the latter locality the upper surface of one flow and the bottom of another that im- mediately overlies it are also glassy and characterized by thick, rounded, and sacklike masses. Heineck?® found “dickwulstige, runde Formen, die sich als Oberflachformen erweisen” in the diabase flows about Herborn. Brauns" calls attention to the wide-spread occurrence of well preserved “stream-surface” phenomena in the “‘Deckdiabas” of uppermost Devonian, which consist of rounded swells and large and small spheroids closely packed together and attached to the massive rock by short, thick necks. The crusts are glass, with a variolitic layer beneath it in some places, and the masses have a radial, spokelike jointing. The plates illustrating this article show typical pillow lava, both in surface features and in cross- sections. Reuning'® found along the newly constructed road from Herborn to Dreidorf that the structures heretofore called “flow,” “surface,” and “cooling” forms, such as characterize the upper surfaces of many modern flows, in reality constitute the whole thickness of many of the flows, and that many of the rounded, spheroidal, ellipsoidal, and roll-like masses, which appear at first glance to be entirely isolated individuals, are con- nected to each other by short, little necks. The diameters range up to more than a meter; all are coated with glass, and radial, spokelike joint- ing iscommon. The filling between the masses is chiefly granular calcite in some beds, more chloritic in others, and at one place (near Neumihle) large spheroids are embedded in a light gray limestone that is rich in 14A. Denckmann and A. Streng: Zeitschr. d. deutschen geol. Gesell., vol. 39, 1887, pp. 624, 625. 1 R. Brauns: Mineralien und Gesteine aus dem hessi¢hen Hinterland. Zeitschr. d. deutschen geol. Gesell., vol. 41, 1889, pp. 491-544. 16 Wy, Heineck: Die Diabase an der Bahnstrecke Hartenrod-Uebernthal bei Herborn. Neues Jahrb. Min., etc., B. B., vol. xvii, 1903, pp. 77-162. 17 R. Brauns : Der Oberdevonische Deckdiabas, Diabasbomben, Schalstein, und Wisenerz. Neues Jahrb. Min., etc., B. B., vol. xxi, 1906, pp. 302-323. _ *8Ernst Reuning: Diabasgesteine an der Westerwaldbahn Herborn-Dreidorf. Neues Jahrb, Min,, etc., B. B., vol. xxiv, 1907, pp. 390-459. BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. = ss s = VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 15 PILLOW BASALT Showing radial columnar jointing and hollow spaces from which the interstitial material has been removed by weathering. The hammer is one foot long. The locality is McBride avenue, between Rockland and Howard streets, three-eighths of a mile above Passaic Falls, Pat- erson, New Jersey. Wie a = ? % p DISTRIBUTION—-FRANCE AND ITALY 599 erinoid remains. In places among the pillows there are continuous “masses of limestone with dimensions up to 30 by 60 centimeters. Reuning ascribes the origin of the pillows to a violent submarine erup- tion. The lava, boiling up with great force and coming into immediate contact with the water, was rent asunder and became balled-up into the various spheroidal, ellipsoidal, and roll-lke forms, which cooled quickly and settled down irregularly on one another. The larger lmestone masses were thought to have been brought up from the depths with the eruption, or else the lava masses sank into a soft, limy ooze and inclosed it among themselves. Several of Reuning’s plates show excellent exam- ples of pillow structure, and one of them shows a large cross-section of a pillow with radial jointing. FRANCE AND ITALY Mazzuoli and Issel*® have described from the eastern coast of Liguria a dense basic rock with a kidney-shaped nodular structure, the masses being 10 to 15 centimeters in diameter and having variolitic surfaces and con- centric internal structure consisting of bands of different color and hard- ness. These are arranged like the elements of a pudding in a paste for the most part epidotic. The masses are called concretionary (“‘arnione di concentrazione” ). Cole and Gregory*® described the porphyritic and variolitic diabase of Mont Genevre, on the French-Italian border, as a rock “which weathers into great rounded spheroids, the faces of which appear to be surfaces of cooling, since the masses are often jointed within into radial prisms.” These masses resemble pillows and soft cushions piled on and pressed against one another, so that each cliff shows a number of swelling sur- faces and curving lines of junction. There are small vesicles in the rock, especially toward the surfaces of the masses, and in places the whole rock is vesicular and slaggy. A layer of variolite, from 1 to 7 or 8 centimeters thick, believed to be a devitrified tachylite, forms the outer crusts, the varioles of which are drawn out parallel to the surface and range from almost microscopic to 5 centimeters in diameter. “It is possible that the surfaces of ordinary spheroids of contraction, even in the heart of a cooling mass, may differ appreciably from the more central portions and, consolidating more rapidly, exhibit a vitreous structure. : But we prefer to read in the irregular shape and involuted surfaces of the UL. Mazzuoli and A. Issel: Relazione degli stude fatti per un relievo delle masse ofiolitiche nelle riviera di Levante (Liguria). Boll. R. Comit. Geol. d’Italia, vol. xii, 1881, pp. 313-349. 20G. A. J. Cole and J. W. Gregory: The variolitic rocks of Mont Genévre. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 46, 1890, pp. 295-332. 600 J. V. LEWIS—-ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS diabase masses of Mont Genévre evidence of the rolling over of the lavas among themselves; and we are. led to regard the presence of variolitic selvages throughout such great thicknesses of rock as largely due to movements taking place within a crater.” Comparison is made with the movements of lava in the crater of Kilauea, the Mont Genevre rock being considered the equivalent of “only the lower layers of the volcanic ealdron,” the upper portions having been removed by erosion. Rocks described as “‘variolitic tuffs” are associated with the diabase, but “they may, indeed, be friction-breccias or lavas broken up while viscid or volcanic tuffs.”” Spherical “bombs” are abundant, coated with variolite and contained in a matrix that is regarded as ash. The masses have a radial columnar structure, which gives a tesselated appearance on the surface. The largest measured 70 by 43 by 45 centimeters. Small frag- ments are often scoriaceous and very angular and the matrix contains many particles and fragments of basic glass. Compared with the rugged aa flows of Hawaun, these beds are found dissimilar. ‘Neither the ar- rangement of the masses nor the globelike bombs correspond with the features so clearly described and figured by Professor Dana,” and the authors are led to consider these deposits as the products of true explosive action. Zaceagna*! has described a spheroidal diabase, with variolitic crusts identical with that of Mont Genévre from Monte Viso, in the western Alps south of Mont Genévre. He considered the spheroidal forms, how- ever, to be the result of weathering. 3 be ¢ “Queste roccie verdi constano in massima parte di serpentina con qualche intercalazione di anfiboloscisto e di diabase. . . .,. Anche la diabase che ~ trovasi nelle vicinanze inserita nel calcescisto @ identica a quella eocenica ed ha come questa la particolarita di fornire colla decomposizione delle masse sferoidali. Non di rado nelle masse testacee della roccia in decomposizione trovasi una crosta variolitica identica a quella della massa del Mont Genévre.” Platania*” has described the globular basalt at Acireale, on the eastern coast of Sicily, where two types of structure are found: (1) Large, with radial jointing, forming prismatic wedges, and (2) variable dimensions, with concentric cleavage, some of which inclose foreign rocks. Both are closely associated with tuff beds, and the globes are commonly slightly deformed, as if they had been pressed together while yet pasty. The crusts are glassy and the interspaces are occupied by clay and tuff. The sphe- 212. Zaccagna: Sulla geologia delle Alpi occidentali. Boll. del R. Comit. Geol. d’Italia, vol. xviii, 1887, p. 387. 2G. Platania: Geological notes of Acircale. The South Italian Volcanoes, ed. by H. J. Johnston-Lavis. Naples, 1891, pp. 37-44. DISTRIBUTION—-BRITISH ISLES 601 roids are compared to Johnston-Lavis’s experiment of injecting a dense viscous liquid into another, which produced spherical forms, with narrow necks, that may be severed, leaving the globes detached ; and the structure is thought to be “probably due to the injection of magma into a thick stratum of submarine silt, which occupies . . . the interspaces between the different globes.” BRITISH ISLES Wales.—In 1881 Bonney”? reported a “compact green rock with indu- bitable spheroidal structure . . . in places very distinctly spheroidal,” in what had formerly been called a serpentine at Porthdinlleyn, Carnar- vonshire. Raisin?* has described the spheroidal structure in the variolitic rocks of the Lleyn, Carnarvonshire, in which the masses are long and cushioned in appearance and some of them as much as 6 feet in diameter. Broken ones show a radial jointing toward the outer surfaces and a rhomboidal jointing within. Many of them contain “a zone of vesicles radially elon- gated as if gases had been prevented from escaping. Thus evidently a erust was formed at an early period, before the structures were com- pletely sohd.” 'The outer portions consist of a chloritic and serpentinous ageregate which is thought to represent a glassy crust. The spheroids are regarded as contraction products and the glassy material as due to a secondary movement of lava which “partially thrust itself in between them,” or possibly to differences in the glassy and cryptoerystalline char- acter of the outer and inner portions of the spheroids, respectively, and to the different results of crushing on these portions. The structure at this locality has been more recently described as a pillow lava by Cox and Jones,”’ who call attention to the association of the rock with a peculiar “limestone” with beds and strings of jasper, which in places wrap round the pillows. The structure is extremely complicated and the rocks are probably of pre-Cambrian age. The same authors describe from Sarn Mellteyrn, near Pwllheli, in Carnarvonshire, a bed of pillow lava 10 to 12 feet thick overlain by about the same thickness of a rock of allied character which is not pillowy, and this is followed in turn by flinty mudstones and micaceous shales, prob- 23'T, G. Bonney: On the sernentine and associated rocks of Anglesey, with a note on the so-called serpentine of Porthdinlleyn (Caernarvonshire). Quar. Jour. Geol. Soe. Lon- don, vol. 37, 1881, pp. 40-51. 24C, A. Raisin: Variolite of the Lleyn and associated volcanic rocks. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 49, 18938, pp. 145-165. 2 A. H. Cox and O. T. Jones: On various occurrences of pillow lavas in North and South Wales. Rept. Brit. Asso. Adv. Sci., Birmingham meeting, 1913, p. 495; also Geol. Mag., vol. x, 1913, pp. 516, 517. 602 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS ably of Lower Arenig age. A close jointed dark gray chert occurs between the pillows. Pillow lavas from Anglesey were described by Blake*® as rock that “weathers into some beautiful large spheroids, the interstices between which are filled with radiating zeolites.” The glasslike substance outside of the spheroids was found to contain microlites of feldspar. The sphe- roidal structure was considered an original product of cooling and only emphasized by weathering, and the ordinary spheroidal weathering of basalt was thought to be the same. Cole?* showed that the glassy coatings of the pillows at this locality are variolitic and bear the same relation to the diabase as the devitrified crusts at Mont Genévre, running into crey- ices and wrapping round the masses. “This appearance is due to its having developed as a product of rapid cooling on the spheroidal surfaces of a lava.” Silheca has replaced much of the original rock, even the whole interior of some of the spheroids, leaving unchanged tachylitic crusts wrapping round masses of red jasper. “This silica, which some would certainly associate with the action of hot springs, rising perhaps in pre-Cambrian times at the close of local volcanic activity, has actually replaced the igneous rock by a red or purple-red jasper.” The basic lavas of southeastern Anglesey have-been described by Greenly?® as “composed of ellipsoidal or spheroidal: masses piled and pressed upon one another as if they had been rolled over and over in a semiconsolidated condi- tion. . . . Sometimes smaller ellipsoids or pillowy masses fit into gentle reentering curves in the sides of the larger ones, suggesting very vividly, hard though they now are, the rolling and pressing against each other of pasty yet individualized bodies. (Footnote: The structure is evidently distinct from ordinary spheroidal jointing produced after consolidation. )”’ Varioles are arranged in zones near and approximately parallel to the sur- faces, as in the Mont Geneévre rock. The associated red jasper is thought to be of radiolarian origin. | The remarkably cellular (amygdaloidal) rock that forms the peak and southern declivity of Cader Idris, Merionethshire, is thus described by Geikie :7° 267. F. Blake: On the Monian system of rocks. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 44, 1888, pp. 463-547. The microscopic structure of the older rocks of Anglesey. Rept. Brit. Asso. Ady. Sci., 58th meeting, 1888, pp. 367-420. 27G. A. J. Cole: The variolite of Ceryg Gwladys, Anglesey. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., new ser., vol. vii, 1891-1892, pp. 112-120. 23 Hdward Greenly : The origin and associations of the jasper of southeastern Anglesey. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 58, 1902, pp. 425-440. 27 A. Geikie: Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. London, 1897, p. 184. DISTRIBUTION——BRITISH ISLES 603 “Tts surface displays a mass of spheroidal or pillow-shaped blocks aggre- gated together, each having a tendency to divide internally into prisms which diverge [converge ?] from the outside towards the center.” This occurrence is also described by Cox and Jones,*° who state that there is a little associated chert, and that the rock closely resembles that of Mullion Island, Cornwall. At the extreme west of Pembrokeshire, Jeffreys Haven, on the north side of Saint Brides Bay, Thomas*' records the occurrence of a basic lava with good pillow structure in a series of quartzites and shales immedi- ately beneath the Upper Llandovery shales. At Strumble Head, Pem- brokeshire, occurs a variolitic rock which was formerly thought intrusive and which has been described as having “spheroidal jointing.” Cox and Jones*? find here a succession of much altered highly basic flows, some of which have well developed pillow structure, while others show transitions to nonpillowy types. ‘There is much associated chert, especially with those having a pronounced pillow structure. Typical pillows range from 1 foot to 18 inches in diameter. England.—Fox** first described the pillow lavas of Mullion Island, south coast of Cornwall, as fine-grained greenstones “of a peculiar globular or ellipsoidal structure, associated in certain parts of the island with bands, sheets, and lenticles of chert, shale, and limestone.” At the same time a more detailed description of the rocks and their struc- tures was presented by Fox and Teall,** in which the greenstones are characterized as “separated into rude rolls by curvilinear joints. The rolls show circular or elliptical outlines in cross-section and measure from a few inches to 2 feet in diameter. Flat surfaces of this rock, such as are exposed at many places at the base of the cliff, remind one somewhat of the appearance of a lava of the pahoehoe type.” The rolls tend to a parallel elongation. Bits of limestone are found be- tween them and patches of chert and shale sticking to their surfaces. The stratified rocks are thin strips of cherts, shales, and limestones both underlain and overlain by igneous rocks and which can not be traced weer Cox and. 0. T. Jones. Loc. .cit. 31H. H. Thomas: The Skomer volcanic series (Pembrokeshire). Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 67, 1911, pp. 175-214. 32 A. H. Cox and O. T. Jones. Loc. cit. 33 Howard Fox: Mullion Island. Jour. Roy. Inst. Cornwall, vol. xii, 1893-1894-1895, pp. 34-38, %4 Howard Fox and J. J. H. Teall: On a radiolarian chert from Mullion Island. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 49, 1893, pp. 211-220. 604 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS across the island. The chert is radiolarian and is interstratified with the shale in bands from one-fourth of an inch to several inches thick, as many as 30 bands of it occurring in a thickness of 3 feet. The ellipsoidal lava is regarded as having the character of an extrusive: “The phenomena might be explained by the simple flow of a submarine lava, if such a lava possessed the power of insinuating itself between layers of deposit and tearing them up during its onward march.” Pillow lavas like those of Mullion Island were first recognized on the Cornish mainland at Gorran Haven in 1901,?° and their occurrence at Tregidden, Porthallow, and intermediate points was demonstrated by Prior®® in 1904. The rocks of the whole range, from Mullion Island to Porthallow, are described by Flett and Hill.*” They occur in the Veryan series of the Ordovician, with accompanying intrusive and tuffs. They are much shattered in places along a zone of brecciation, but the original igneous structure is exceptionally well preserved. Fine-grained dark green rocks prevail, with small, rounded steam cavities, but highly vesic- ular varieties also occur. Epidotization has given rise to a bright green color, as in similar rocks of Anglesey, the Lleyn, and other parts of Great Britain. Among the pillows are pale chert and shreds of laminated ma- terial “that suggest films of mud incorporated by the lava in its flow over the sea-bottom.” Ussher*® found pillow basalts, with “inrolled interstitial sediment,” in- cluding a little chert, in the Upper Devonian districts of Saltash and Devonport, Cornwall. At the Devonport workhouse quarry “detached pillows with concentric lines of steam cavities are found in the neighbor- ing slates.’ Near Henn Point cherts terminate abruptly against the igneous rocks. To the naked eye these look lke radiolarian cherts, but the microscopic characters do not confirm this impression. The great sheet of pillow lava more than 200 feet thick, near Port Isaac, Cornwall, was fully described, in 1908, by Reid and Dewey.®* As these authors indicate, the peculiar concentric structure had been noticed and figured by Whitley*® as early as 1848, the lava appearing 35 Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. Summary of Progress for 1901, p. 17. 36 G. T. Prior: Geol. Mag., 1904, pp. 447-449.- 37 J. S. Flett and J. B. Hill: The geology of the Lizard and Meneage. Mem. Geol. Sur- vey of Great Britain. England and Wales. Expl. of sheet 359, 1912, pp. 31, 177-182, 183-185. 38 W. A. E. Ussher: The geology of the country around Plymouth and Liskeard. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. England and Wales. Expl. of sheet 348, 1907, pp. 83, 94-97. See also Summary of Progress for 1904, p. 25. 39 Clement Reid and Henry Dewey: The origin of the pillow lava near Port Isaac, in Cornwall. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 64, 1908, pp. 264-272. 40 Nicholas Whitley : On the remains of ancient volcanoes on the north coast of Carn- wall, etc. Thirtieth Ann, Rept, Roy, Inst, Cornwall, App. vi, 1848-1849, p, 62, DISTRIBUTION—BRITISH ISLES 605 “as if it had rolled down a declivity and become partially cooled during its progress, and then consolidated into the rock which it now constitutes; in fact, much like the ends of bales of cloth piled one on another.” Reference was also made to this structure by Fox*! in 1902. The flow consists of masses 2 to 8 feet in diameter, many of which have large central cavities ranging up to 2 feet. The pillows are highly vesicular (plate 20, figure 1), having only about one-half the density of the solid lava, and are associated with purely marine strata. Hence the authors believe the lava to be a submarine eruption consisting of separate spheroidal individuals that rolled on cushions of steam and so light that the whole sheet probably moved almost like a liquid. “Tt seems therefore that the lava was in a true spheroidal state, each large drop ejected swelling up independently and forming a pillow more or less surrounded by escaping steam, so that the flowing mass on the sea bed formed a mobile sheet of rolling spheres, seldom touching one another till they cooled. As soon as the steam condensed, however, water would be sucked into the vesicles and the pillows would settle down.” The pillows are partially molded on each other and calcite fills the vesicles and interstitial spaces. Geikie and Strahan** have described a series of tuffs and basic flows (originally olivine basalts) interbedded with fossil-bearing Carboniferous limestones at Weston-super-Mare, Somerset. One sheet of dull green vesicular rock, 12 to 14 feet thick, shows marked ellipsoidal structure, with masses 2 to 8 feet in diameter, and a rugged scoriaceous upper sur- face, the irregularities of which are filled and overlain by fossiliferous limestone. Morgan and Reynolds** found the rock locally variohtic, and Boulton** concluded that the limestone between the pillows at Spring Cove, at any rate, came from the beds below. From a study of the asso- ciated limestones and their fossils, Strahan*® concluded that the lavas were parts of a submarine volcanic eruption which merely interrupted the deposition of the fossiliferous limestone. Some of the more hardy species began to struggle back immediately afterward and their remains are 41 Howard Fox: Some coast sections in the parish of St. Minver. Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. xii, 1902, p. 670. 42 A. Geikie and A. Strahan: Volcanic group in the Carboniferous limestone of North Somerset. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. Summary of Progress for 1898, pp. 104- 111. See also Geikie’s Textbook of Geology, 4th ed., 1903, vol. ii, p. 757. 4 C. L. Morgan and S. H. Reynolds: The igneous rocks associated with the Carbonifer- ous limestone of the Bristol district. Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 60, 1904, pp. 137-157. ; 44W. S. Boulton: On the igneous rocks at Spring Cove, near Weston-super-Mare Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 60, 1904, pp. 158-169. # A. Strahan: Geogr. Jaur., vol, xxxix, 1912, p. 130, 606 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS found with alternating coarse and fine tuff beds above. When the waters finally cleared, a teeming fauna again overspread the spot. Scotland.—South of Tayvallich, in Argyll, Peach*® found sheets of slaggy andesitic basalt, with marked pillow structure (plate 21, figures 1 and 2), intercalated with the black schist and limestone of the Dal- radian series (pre-Cambrian). There are also accompanying beds of tuffs and agglomerates. According to Dewey and Flett,*” these rocks continue through Argyll past Loch Awe and representatives are again met with at Ardwell, in Banffshire. Pillow structure in the Lower Carbon-. iferous lavas near Millstone Point, Argyll, northeast of the coast of Arran, is clearly shown in a photograph that I have obtained from the Geo- logical Survey of Great Britain. In Bute pillow structure occurs in the basic lavas of the Cement Group (Lower Carboniferous) at Corrie, in the Island of Arran; also in similar lavas of supposed Arenig age at Torr na lair Brice, north side of North Glen Lannox, Arran, as shown by the Survey photographs. Pillow lavas in the Silurian rocks of the south of Scotland, particularly well shown along the coast near Ballantrae, in Ayrshire (plate 20, figure 2), have been described by Peach, Horne, and Teall.** The rocks include a series of much altered basic and intermediate lavas and tufts, the micro- litic, nonporphyritic members of which show well developed pillow struc- ture in many places. Amygdules are arranged in concentric layers and are generally more abundant toward the outside of the masses. The pil- lows range from a few inches to several feet in diameter and lie with their longest axes parallel to the stratification of the sedimentaries. The spaces between are filled in various places with calcareous matter, flinty shale, chert, and jasper, the calcareous materials being confined mainly to the surfaces of the flows. Geikie*® has described the pillow lavas in the Carboniferous rocks of Fife, which are basic basalts of the “picrite type,” many of them thor- oughly vesicular from top to bottom and full of dirty green amygdules. These are much decomposed, but others are fresh compact blue or black basalts and in some places columnar. Some of the flows are partly one and partly the other, the fresh parts being ne surrounded by the © decayed amygdaloid. 46B. N. Peach: Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. Scotland. Summary of Progress for 1903, p. 69. 47 Geol. Mag., vol. viii, 1911, p. 241. 48B. N. Peach, John Horne, and J. J. H. Teall: The Silurian rocks of Britain. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain, vol. i, Scotland, 1899, pp. 84-86, 367, 431, and pls. i, ii, IV, 7 Ve vi. 49 A. Geikie: The geology of central and western Fife and Kinross. Mem. Geol. Survey of Great Britain. Scotland, 1900, pp. 54, 55, 62, 64, 69, 72, 74. BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 16 PILLOW BASALT Showing interstitial tachylite (glass) breccia with zeolites, etcetera, separating the rounded masses. ‘The large spheroid to the left of the center also shows a small pipelike cavity. The hammer is one foot long. The locality is the quarry of the Paterson Crushed Stone Company, at West Paterson, New Jersey. BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 17 FiGgurE 1.—-PILLOW BASALT Showing radial jointing (in the two upper masses), flattened pipe-like vacuoles (in the lower ellipsoid), and interstitial tachvlite breccia, cemented by zeolites. etcetera. Secondary minerals are also developed in the pipe-like cavities. The hammer is one foot long. The locality is the quarry of Francisco Bros., at Great Notch, New Jersey. FIGURE 2.—GLACIATED SURFACE OF ELY GREENSTONES, SHOWING “ELLIPSOIDAL PARTING” The locality is one mile east of Soudan, Vermilion iron-bearing district, Minnesota. Photo- graph by the U. S. Geological Survey. Monograph xlvy, plate iv-A PILLOW BASALT AND GLACIATED SURFACE OF ELY GREENSTONE ia EF aN fase tet eee DISTRIBUTION—-BRITISH ISLES 607 “A remarkable feature of many of them is their subdivision into large, irregular, sack-like or pillow-shaped blocks, which may have their central portions more largely vesicular than the rest. These ellipsoids were formed during the flow of the still moving lava along the floor of the lagoon or sea. The interstices between them have often been filled in with fine tuff, which was stratified horizontally from side to side in the fissures before the lava was covered by the next outflow of molten material. In some cases portions of the still fluid lava in the heart of the mass were forced into the interstices and now appear as veins of finely cellular basalt. The lava sheets range from 8 or 10 to 40 feet or more in thickness” (pages 54, 55). “This well-marked ‘pillow structure’ appears to indicate that, while still moving as molten masses, they separated into irregular ovoid, sack-like or pillow-shaped blocks of all sizes, from less than a foot to 5 or 6 feet in length. These blocks are frequently most cellular in the center, the vesicles being there largest in size and most crowded together. In other cases the vesicles are grouped around the margin and sometimes more particularly along one side of each ellipsoid. In the interstices between the blocks fine tuff and ashy sandstone may sometimes be seen, showing that the rude bowl- der-like masses were more or less separated from each other, so as to allow fine sediment to be dropped into the interspaces. This sediment is stratified horizontally or in the same direction as the general bedding-plane of the lava in which it lies. “As they rolled along over the lagoons and pools of the time the basalts now exposed on the shore west of Pettycur caught up and involved large quantities of the muddy and calcareous sediments which lay in their way” (page 62). In the southern borders of the Highlands, says Geikie,°° apparently a strip of Arenig rocks has been wedged in against the Highland schists along the great boundary fault with radiolarian cherts like those of the south of Scotland and in the same sequence. The dull green diabasic lavas show conspicuous pillow and sack-like forms in the ravines of For- farshire, and the igneous rocks are underlain, with cherts as in Ayrshire. These rocks are about 50 miles from the nearest corresponding forma- tions of the southern uplands, with which they may have been continuous, as possibly also with the north of Ireland, where this series, probably Arenig, attains its greatest development. From a review of the British examples, in 1911, Dewey and Flett*? concluded that “the pillow lavas are a group of basic igneous rocks that occur, in our experience, only as submarine flows.” The frequent asso- ciation of cherts, many of them radiolarian, with this structure in Great Britain, even where the flows are in coarse, shallow-water sediments, sug- 50 A. Geikie: Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. London, 1897, p. 201. 51H. Dewey and J. S. Flett: On some British pillow lavas and the rocks associated with them. Geol. Mag., vol. viii, 1911, pp. 202-209, 241-248. XLIV—BouLL. Gron, Soc. Am., Von. 25, 19138 608 | J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS gests a genetic connection. Magmatic vapors or solutions rich in dis- solved silicates of soda and other bases would be exhaled from the rocks as they cooled and some would escape into the sea. It is thought that these siliceous waters may have furnished favorable conditions for the increase of radiolarians, diatoms, and other silica-secreting organisms. The direct deposition of the silica among the pillows does not seem to have been considered by these authors, although many of the British and other examples have jaspers and nonradiolarian cherts between the masses, and in some cases the rock itself has been extensively replaced by silica, as shown by Cole.*? Treland.—In the Lough Mask region of western Connaught the pillows are compressed into rudely polygonal forms, says Geikie,** and the vesicles are greatly drawn out in the direction of the tension (at Bohaun, 9 miles south of Westport). By more shearing the pillows disappear and their crusts are broken up as fragments in a matrix of green schist. The lavas are andesites and more basic rocks of Bala (Ordovician) age. Some are strongly vesicular and sack-like structure is conspicuous in places. ! An immense development of pillow lavas is described by Gardiner and Reynolds®* as the most marked feature of a great series of igneous rocks of the Kilbride Peninsula, County Mayo. The rocks are “spilites” asso- ciated and interbedded with cherts, grits, breccias, flow-breccias, and shales of Arenig (Ordovician) age. They are dark green to purplish rocks, somewhat vesicular, some of them markedly so, and the pillows are generally more vesicular around the borders than in the center, or con- sist of concentric layers of vesicular and solid lava. Irregular strings and patches of chert fill spaces between the masses and form a network around many of them. Rarely a large mass of chert is found in the center of a spheroid. These cherts are believed to have been formed subsequently to the consolidation of the rock and chiefly through infiltration. An illus- tration of the Kilbride pillow structure accompanying this paper is re- markably like that of West Paterson and Great Notch, New J oles (com- pare plates 15-17). On the east coast of Ireland (Dungarvan Harbor and nontheas¢a aa crushed cherts, igneous rocks, sandstones, etcetera, occur between the Paleozoic on the south and the schists on the north, in the same relations as along the border of the Scotch Highlands, but in a much broader area and with better opportunity to observe the relations. Besides intrusives, 52G. A. J. Cole: Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc., new ser., vol. vii, 1891-1892, pp. 112-120. 53 A. Geikie: Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. London, 1897, p. 252. °C. I. Gardiner and 8. H. Reynolds: The Ordovician and Silurian rocks of ‘the Kil- bride Peninsula (Mayo). Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 68, 1912, pp. 75- 102. PrOrE DISTRIBU TION—SW EDEN 609 tuffs, and agglomerates, there are dull greenish fine-grained diabases, chiefly porphyritic, and some quite slaggy. “One of the most conspicuous features in some of these lavas is the occur- rence of the same sack-like or pillow-shaped structure which has been already referred to aS so marked among the Arenig lavas of Scotland. . . . occa- sionally interleaved with gray flinty mudstones, cherts, and red jaspers, which are more particularly developed immediately above.” *° Amyegdaloidal diabases with pillow structure occur with fragmental voleanics and intrusive igneous rocks for 12 miles near Slane and others south of Drogheda, associated with radiolarian cherts of Lower Llandeilo (Ordovician) age. SWEDEN Sundius*® has described fully the pillowy structures that characterize the basal greenstone of the Kiruna (pre-Cambrian ?) series of regionally metamorphic volcanics and sedimentary rocks. The rounded massive portions of the rock range from a few decimeters to more than half a meter in diameter and are separated by dark hornblendic “schlieren,” with whitish streaks of scapolite, the whole resembling an agglomerate. It is not sedimentary, however, but formed, according to the author, “by the crowding of viscous lava bodies (pillows).” Common features are radial jointing and a concentric structure consisting of a glassy outside crust, bands of vesicles, and sometimes of variolites and differently colored layers. The longest axes are parallel to the “surfaces of deposition,” and in some places there is a concentration of vesicles on the upper side of the pillows. The characteristic skeleton crystals, microlites, and dark pigment of the original glassy coatings of the pillows are well preserved, although largely replaced by scapolite, which has also been extensively developed by regional metamorphism in other rocks of the district of very different composition. There is also much schistosity developed in places. -Horn- blende amygdules occupy vesicles elongated at right angles to the surfaces of the pillows. “As a conclusion from evidence found in the field and under the microscope it appears that the occurrence of the pillows must be considered a flow- phenomenon in the lavas, where each pillow has formed an individual with its own surface of cooling. At Pahtosvaara the pillows occur everywhere in the fine grained varieties of the soda-greenstones, and when I have been able to distinguish separate lava flows they appear along one of the surfaces or, in one case, throughout the whole thickness of the bed.” °° A. Geikie: Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. London, 1897, pp. 239-244. °° N. Sundius: Pillow lava from the Kiruna District. Geol. Féren. i Stockholm Forhdl.. vol. 34, 1912, pp. 317-333. 610 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS Comparing with similar structures that have been interpreted as sub- marine flows in Great Britain and elsewhere and considering the over- lying Kurravaara conglomerate, “whose rounded and water-worn pebbles show it to be a marine deposit,” the author concludes that contact with water has been the factor that favored the development of the pillows. ICELAND AND THE FAROE ISLANDS Johnston-Lavis*’ mentions having seen many beautiful examples of pillow lavas in Iceland in which the lavas had the appearance of having entered soft sediment on the sea-floor. Parts of Cape Reykjanes, at the southwestern extremity of the island, furnish good examples. Anderson’® refers to the lava stream that crossed Lake Myvatn, in northeastern Ice- land, and extended some miles down the valley below the lake. A number of spiracles were formed by the water and the mud; the larger ones built cinder cones and the smaller ones, chiefly on the lava stream below the lake, where the action was less violent, formed small cones made up of lava masses comparable in size and shape to pillow lava. In 1880 James Geikie®® attributed to weathering the numerous ex- amples of spheroidal structure that he observed in the Faroe Islands. Whereas in ordinary flow structure the amygdules show a distribution in parallel horizontal lines, “they also occasionally show a kind of curled, coiled, or involved arrangement, as if the rock had been rolled over on itself while in a plastic or viscous state.” Archibald Geikie®® also speaks of the tendency of the vesicular basalts of the east side of Sudero to weather into globular forms resembling agglomerates. It seems highly probable that some of these will prove on reexamination to be true pillow or ellipsoidal basalts. EAST INDIES Verbeek* has described a series of melaphyres of “spilitic type” in the Island of Ambon, Dutch Kast Indies. A bed with amygdules of calcite and chalcedony is composed of irregular spheroids from the size of a man’s head to a meter in diameter. The masses are broken by radial, calcite- filled joints and coated with a black lustrous resinous tachylite. This glass and its alteration products also fill the spaces between the spheroids. The altered dull gray rock within consists of basic plagioclase in a brown *™H. J. Johnston-Lavis: The South Italian Volcanoes. Naples, 1891, p. 48 (foot- note). 81. Anderson: Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. 64, 1908, p. 271. °° James Geikie: On the geology of the Faroe Islands. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxx, 1883, pp. 217-269. 6 Archibald Geikie: Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. London, 1897, pp. 258, 259. *R. D. M. Verbeek: Description géologique de Vile d’Ambon. Jaarbock van het Mijn- wezen in Neder], Oost-Ind., Batavia, vol. xxxiv, 1905. ; DISTRIBUTION—-BRITISH AMERICA 611 glass basis, with pseudomorphs after augite and olivine. The glass coat- ing contains fresh olivine and feldspar, but augite is lacking. BRITISH AMERICA Newfoundland.—Daly® has described the variolitic pillow basalts of extreme northern Newfoundland, where they constitute flows 60 meters thick made up of round, smooth, bale-like and pillow-hke ellipsoidal masses which are discontinuous and, as a rule, perfectly individualized. The whole rests on solid basalt about 1 meter thick. The masses range in size from 5 centimeters to 2 meters or more in maximum diameter, and the interstices between are filled with coarsely crystallized calcite, quartz, and dark cherty masses. Numerous radial cracks in the pillows are filled chiefly with calcite and a little quartz. These cracks are com- monly widest and most numerous at the center, recalling the gaping eracks of many septaria, and are attributed to contraction while cooling. The rock is highly vesicular, the masses are slightly indented at their points of contact with each other, and the larger ones are flattened paral- lel to the dip of the accompanying strata. “In some cases the surfaces of single pillows, weathered out from their calcite matrix, were seen to have the exact appearance of ropy lava.” ‘The varioles tend to a con- centric arrangement and increase in both size and abundance toward the center of the masses. Daly finds the “detailed surface of pillow lavas more like that pre- served by pahoehoe than like the ragged surface of aa blocks,” and he concludes that their origin is due to “extrusion of basic lava into sea- water of some depth.” New Brunswick.—Hlls* described doleritic rocks from northern New Brunswick with a “concretionary structure,” the “concretions” varying in size from 6 inches to several feet in diameter, and on broken surfaces disclosing a circle of small holes in dots around the outer margin. Ontario.—kIn the greenstones of the Lake of the Woods region Law- son®* found a structure, “apparently concretionary” and closely resem- bling in appearance the associated lenticular agglomerates, and the rock of which is similar to the greenstone schist that constitutes the paste of the agglomerates. “This structure consists in the rock being divided into more or less irregular spherical or ovoid masses varying in diameter from 2 or 8 inches to as many ®R. A. Daly: Variolitic pillow lava from Newfoundland. Am. Geol., vol. xxxii, 1903, pp. 65-78. 8 R. W. Ells: Report on the geology of northern New Brunswick. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Canada, 1881, p. 24D. 64 A. C. Lawson: Report on the geology of the Lake of the Woods region. Geol, and Nat, Hist. Survey of Canada, 1885, pp. 51-53CC. 612 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS feet. The ovoid masses are not in close contact but are separated from one another by an interstitial material. The concretionary masses are, at their points of nearest approximation to one another, generally about a half an inch or an inch apart, no matter what may be their size, so that when the ovoid masses are large the interstitial material appears in sections as thin anastomosing sheets in which is developed a schistosity parallel to the outlines of the ovoid masses they enclose. The interstitial filling is generally of a darker color, more chloritic, softer, and a finer, more homogeneous texture than the ovoid masses and weathers out often leaving the latter, in the sections afforded by glaciated surfaces, surrounded by sharp little trenches. “The ovoid masses are uniformly arranged as regards the direction of their long axes, and each one is surrounded by a sharp border, half an inch wide, of a dark greenish-gray color, which has been more resistant to weathering agencies than the rest of the rock.” In portions of the greenstone that have been metamorphosed into horn- blende schist the interstitial matter forms thin anastomosing sheets of dark-green soft chloritic material, some of which lose themselves in tapering disconnected fashion in the main mass of the rock. Willmott® found the greenstone schists of the Michipicoten area char- acterized in many places by the same “elliptical” structure or “ellipsoidal parting,” as described by Clements in the Hemlock formation of the Crystal Falls district and in the greenstones of the Vermilion district. They are regarded as undoubted lava flows, but the origin of the struc- ture is not discussed. Exactly similar greenstones have been described by Allen®* from the Woman River district, in the Sudbury Mining Division of Ontario. These and similar greenstones of the Lake Superior region in general are thought to be of subaqueous origin. Hudson Bay.—In an “Algonkian basin” along the southeast shore of Hudson Bay, where the formations resemble in many respects those of the Lake Superior region, Leith®’ interpreted the “ellipsoidal or pillow parting” in basalts of the Richmond group as evidence of subaqueous eruption. “These were poured out approximately along the shores and tidal flats, for the coarse sediments immediately below and above them exhibit the wide variety of ripple and current marks duplicated in the tide flats of the shore today. Also the flows themselves show not only basaltic, amygdaloidal, and scoriaceous textures resulting from surface cooling, but the peculiar ellipsoidal 6 A. B. Willmott: The Michipicoten Huronian area. Am. Geol., vol. xxviii, 1901, pp. 14-19 ; also The nomenclature of the Lake Superior formations. Jour. Geol., vol. x, 1902, pp. 67-76. *°R. C. Allen: Iron formation of Woman River area. Eighteenth Rept. Ontario Bu- reau of Mines, 1909, pt. i, pp. 254-262. *C. K. Leith: An Algonkian Basin in Hudson Bay: A comparison with the Lake Superior Basin. Econ, Geol., vol. vy, 1910, pp. 227-246, DISTRIBUTION——-BRITISH AMERICA 613 or pillow parting, often ascribed to subaqueous cooling, indicating substantially shore or shallow water conditions.” These are overlain unconformably by a series of limestones, sand- stones, and quartzites of the Nastapoka group. ~ “Then came the great outburst of vuleanism . . . surface basalts, giving evidence by the thinly bedded, ripple-marked sediments above and below and between them, and by their own: combination of ellipsoidal with basaltic, amygdaloidal, and scoriaceous textures, of extrusion at or near water level, not improbably along tidal flats. “The basalts are all characterized by an abundance of jasper veins, jasper filling the amygdules, jasper cement between the blocks of ellipsoidally parted flows. Striking indeed is the brightly colored jasper cement outlining the pillow forms on many of the beautifully exposed glaciated surfaces.” UNITED STATES Lake Superior region.—Williams®* found some of the greenstone schists of the Menominee and Marquette districts characterized by divi- sion into oval or lenticular areas which interlace and are separated by finely schistose material of much finer grain, at first glance resembling the spheroidal weathermg of many eruptive rocks. The spheroidal, ovoid, lenticular, and more irregularly shaped masses, differing much in size and form, often exhibit a tendency to fit together like stones in a mosaic, but everywhere separated by interlacing bands of softer, more schistose, and generally darker material, which winds about the massive cores, becoming thinner and thicker as the masses approach each other or are more widely separated by the rounding of corners (compare plate 17, figure 2). This is not an agglomerate or a concretionary structure. Possibly in some cases it may be due to contraction which has produced spheroidal parting, the author suggests, like perlitic structure on a large scale; but on the whole he regards Rothpletz’s explanation of similar structures in central Saxony as the true one—that is, the rock masses, already finely subdivided by joint cracks, have had the corners of the individual blocks rounded and the interstitial matter produced by the rubbing of the blocks together under intense orographic pressure. Winchell®® described similar ellipsoidal greenstones from Ely, Minne- sota (plate 17, figure 2), as agglomerates, which he believed were pro- duced by the falling of voleanic bombs into the sea. He observed that about the peripheries of the masses there are numerous radial tubes, 6G. H. Williams: The Greenstone schist areas of the Menominee and Marquette regions of Michigan. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 62, 1890, pp. 137, 166-168, 203, 204. 8° N. H. Winchell: The Kawishiwin agglomerate at Ely, Minn, Am. Geol., vol. ix, 1892, pp. 359-368, 614 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS about an inch apart, having a diameter of about 2 millimeters and a maximum length of about 1 inch. These are normally filled with calcite. Winchell’ took exception to the dynamo-metamorphic origin of the Lake Superior greenstones advocated by Williams. While there had been some later pressure and stretching, he questioned the competency of pressure to produce both the parallel banding of the schists and the schistose layers that wind round and separate the spheroidal masses. In a later publication,’ after describing other occurrences of greenstones, which consist of rounded masses, with the “curiously amygdaloidal pe- riphery” of radial pipe-like tubes filled with calcite or chalcedonic silica, the author again reiterates his conviction that they are largely of pyro- clastic origin, but finally concedes that “their nature and origin are problematical.” Smyth,’? from a study of the Marquette greenstones, concurs in the opinion of Rothpletz and- Willams that the spheroidal structure is of mechanical origin. Clements‘? has described fully the ellipsoidal structure in the meta- basalts of the Hemlock formation in the Crystal Falls district. Many of them resemble a conglomerate of rounded boulders, all of the same kind of rock, in a matrix of very small amount and very different color. These are associated with and grade into nonellipsoidal varieties, apparently constituting the surfaces of the flows, and in some cases the whole flow. The masses range from a few inches to 6 or 8 feet in diameter, with sections generally ellipsoidal in all directions, and the longest axes ap- proximately parallel. Some of the ellipsoids “are only half formed— that is, attached by one side to the main unbroken part of the lava flow, the other side showing a rounded outline.” The amygdaloidal varieties are generally most amygdaloidal at the surfaces of the masses, and some of these are much more so at the top surface. Roughly radial jointing is visible in some of the masses. Some also show a transition into the chloritic matrix, which the author believes is clearly derived from the body of the rock and was probably originally a glass. Many interspheroidal spaces with triangular cross-section are filled with vein quartz instead of schistose material. Clements points to the concentric arrangement of the amygdules as 70 N. H. Winchell: The orisin of the Archean greenstones. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur- vey of Minn., 23d Ann. Rept., 1895, pp. 4-35. 71 N. H. Winchell: The geology of the north part of St. Louis County. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Minn., Final Rept., vol. iv, 1899, pp. 255-257. : 2A. L. Smyth: The Marquette iron-bearing district of Michigan. Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. xxviii, 1897, p. 155. 73 J. Morgan Clements: The Crystal Falls iron-bearing district of Michigan. Mono- graph U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. xxxvi, 1899, pp. 112-124. BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 18 7] FIGURE 1.-—PInnow LAVA AT PorntT Bonrra,-MARIN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA The masses of lava up to 3 feet, rarely 5 feet, in diameter. Photograph by Prof. A. C. Lawson, loaned by Dr. F. L. Ransome FIGuRE 2.—“BHLLIPSOIDAL STRUCTURE IN INTRUSIVE BASALT” (LAWSON) The locality is Hunter Point, San Francisco Bay, California. Photograph from the U. S. Geo- logical Survey. San Francisco Folio, plate v PILLOW LAVA AND ““ELLIPSOIDAL STRUCTURE IN INTRUSIVE BASALT’’ DISTRIBUTION—-UNITED STATES 615 proving the individuality of the masses before solidification, as shown by Dathe and Dalmer, and hence they can not be due to weathering. He compares them with the block lavas of Santorin and the aa lavas of Hawaii and attributes the structure to a “slow forward movement and contemporaneous breaking up of the viscous lava. . . . This is the shape which viscous material would naturally tend to take when subjected to the rolling action attendant upon the onward motion of the stream of which they form an outer portion, or in certain cases the entire thickness.” The rounding of the masses is thought to have been caused chiefly by rolling, but contraction due to cooling was regarded as a contributory cause, and later compression has broken off the jagged portions and partly filled the interstices. Pillow structure is found almost universally in the Ely greenstones of the Vermilion district of Minnesota (plate 17, figure 2), with essentially the same characteristics as in the Crystal Falls district. Clements,” who describes the features of this structure in great detail, calls attention to the fact that in some places the amygdules are concentrated chiefly on one side of the pillows (the upper side), and that perfect transitions are found between the ellipsoidal and the nonellipsoidal basalt, both of essen- tially the same grain. The author considers these rocks to have had the same history as the similar ones at Crystal Falls, and hence that the shape of the ellipsoids was determined to a great extent by the rolling over and over of the blocks of aa lava, while still retaining some plas- ticity. At the same time they were contracting through cooling, and possibly subsequent pressure may have molded them to a certain extent. Where they have been subjected to great pressure the ellipsoids have been mashed into disk-shaped bodies, and in extreme cases have been drawn out into bands, the material of the ellipsoids alternating with the thinner bands from the matrix. Clements calls attention to the wide range of this structure, both geo- graphically and geologically, in the various districts of the Lake Superior Tegion. “Thus, for example, it has been described from the Marquette and Crystal Falls districts of Michigan, and one can state with a fair degree of assurance from the occurrence of large quantities of greenstones in the Penokee-Gogebic of Michigan and Wisconsin that it also occurs there, although it has not been described from that district. It has also been observed by the writer in a number of places in the Menominee district of Michigan and in the Mesabi pt J. Morgan Clements: The Vermilion iron-bearing district of Minnesota. Monograph U. S, Geol. Survey, vol. xlv, 1903, pp. 144-152. 616 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS district of Minnesota. Lawson describes it in the rocks of the Lake of the Woods region. The same structure has been described from the Michipicoten iron-bearing district on the east side of Lake Superior by A. B. Willmott, and Dr. S. Weidman, of the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey, states that it occurs in greenstones of supposed Huronian age in the vicinity of Wausau, Wis. It has been observed in the Archean greenstones of Lake Nipigon, in Ontario, Canada. As a result of field studies in the Keweenawan voleanies of the north shore of Lake Superior in 1900, the writer knows that it occurs also in them. . . . The rocks in which it occurs range from the Archean of the Vermilion district of Minnesota and the adjacent Canadian districts and the Marquette district of Michigan to the Keweenawan. It oc- curs within the greatest superficial area of the Archean.” According to Leith,’ the structure of the basalts and inetabasalts of the Mesabi district is identical with that of the various other districts to which reference has already been made. “The ellipsoids themselves consist of basalt and vary in diameter from a few inches to one or two feet. They are separated by narrow bands of some- what lighter or darker basalt. The ellipsoidal structure is one supposed to have been induced in the rock when it first cooled from an extensive magma, perhaps subaqueous.” Van Hise and Leith,’® in summing up and revising the geology of the Lake Superior region, describe again the characteristic ellipsoidal struc- ture of many of the greenstones, which exhibit every gradation from typical pillow lavas to schists that show a banding, owing to the differ- ence in color between the deformed ellipsoids and their matrix. All of the iron-bearing formations, believed to be aqueous sediments, are “‘asso- ciated with basalts having conspicuous ellipsoidal structure which can be best explained as developed by flowing out under water.” These are strongly contrasted in this respect with the basic lavas of the Keweena- wan series. After reviewing some of the studies that have led to diverse views on the question of origin, the authors conclude that “the evidence seems to be that the ellipsoidal structure is both subaqueous . and subaerial in its development, that it is produced by the rolling of the blocks developed during the flow of the lava as a result of cooling, and that its development is therefore determined by the speed of flow and the rate of cooling, which in turn may be affected by entrance into water.” The interbedding of the basaltic flows with subaqueous sediments in the 7% C. K. Leith: The Mesabi iron-bearing district of Minnesota. Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. xliii, 1903, p. 65. 76C,. R. Van Hise and C. K. Leith: The geology of the Lake Superior region. Mono- graph U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. lii, 1911, pp. 120, 151, 502, 510-512, DISTRIBUTION—-UNITED STATES 617 Lake Superior region is regarded as adequate evidence that the ellipsoidal structure is largely of subaqueous origin. “Tt should not be assumed, however, that all the ellipsoidal basalts of the Lake Superior region are necessarily subaqueous. The region is a large one, the conditions are varied, the ellipsoidal structures are locally associated with structures ordinarily regarded as of subaerial origin, ellipsoidal structure is known elsewhere to develop subaerially, hence it is rather likely that a part of the structures in the Lake Superior region are of subaerial origin. Qualitatively the evidence favors the subaqueous origin of the major part of the ellipsoidal basalts.” Idaho.—Structures found in some of the basalts of the Snake River plains in Idaho seem to be comparable in many respects with pillow lavas, although whether any of these are actually identical with pillow structure, and if so to what extent they have been developed, must await more detailed studies for determination. Russell’* described a series of seven parasitic cones that were formed on a bare corrugated lava stream near its source. They are steep-sided and regular and range from 15 to 60 feet in height. They are composed principally of “rough ball-hke masses of highly vesicular or scoriaceous lava” 8 to 14 inches in diameter and plastic enough to adhere to one another. Russell found that two sheets near Hagerman showed contrasts be- tween the upper and lower portions, the upper and central parts of the flows being compact or moderately vesicular, while the lower is open in texture and composed of irregular fragments, some extremely rough on the surface and open and cellular within, like “a mass of irregular twigs of glassy lava compressed into a moderately compact mass.” There were also many rounded masses “resembling a pillow folded on itself,” the lower surfaces of which are flat or concave from being molded on those beneath. “These folded masses clearly indicate a rolling up of the still plastic lava.” There were also “oval or nearly spherical boulder-like masses from a few inches to 2 or more feet in diameter, which are ex- cessively hard and compact.” The inner portions of these consist of stony basalt with kernels of olivine and the surfaces are coated with black glass 1 to 2 inches thick. Both the spheroidal and the pillow-like masses are embedded in a coarse breccia of irregular glassy fragments. “All of the facts enumerated unite in indicating that the lava while yet molten entered water and was quickly cooled, hardening to a glass, and that the steam generated blew the still plastic material into shreds and excessively irregular branching forms. As the upper surfaces of the lava sheets are not 7]. C. Russell: Geology and water resources of the Snake River plains of Idaho, Bull, U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 199, 1902, pp, 76-98, 113-117. 618 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS glassy and do not show the other characteristics referred to, it appears that the water which the still hot lava entered was shallow.” In the Snake River Canyon, 1 mile above Salmon River, a brecciated and torn lava contains masses of stratified sand and clay up to 5 or 6 feet in diameter. In other places streams 30 to 40 feet thick rest on thinly laminated white sandy clay, evidently lake bottom, without dis- turbing it. The bottom is glassy and contains a few masses of the clay, however, and is vesicular from the steam generated. California.—Ransome’ first described the pillow structure in the erup- tive rocks of Point Bonita, near San Francisco, California (plate 18, figure 1), which include a glassy and in part porphyritic spheroidal ba- salt composed of rounded, flattened, bale-like, pillow-like, and variously twisted forms. Many of the masses are elongated and bolster-like, with their longest axes arranged roughly parallel. Dark green amygdules are numerous, increasing in size and number toward the center, and these spongy central portions often weather out, leaving empty shells. Dimen- sions range up to 3 and even 5 feet in diameter, and the masses are molded on each other with crushed and sheared material between, so that no empty spaces remain. The author considers it “evident that we are dealing with a structure taken on by the lava at the time of its original fluidity and movement. It is essentially a flow phenomenon.” It is compared with ropy pahoehoe, but is thought to have had greater viscosity and more sluggish movement, causing the rope-like forms to thicken up and shorten. “In brief then it is supposed that the spheroidal basait of Point Bonita flowed as a viscous pahoehoe, one sluggish outwelling of lava being piled upon another to form the whole mass of the flow.” Winchell,’ commenting editorially on Ransome’s description of the Point Bonita rocks, contended that the spheroidal basalt is of pyroclastic origin and not essentially different from the overlying bed of tuff. Small igneous masses with spheroidal structure on Angel Island were regarded by Ransome®? as apophyses from the same magma that formed the neighboring sill of fourchite. Hence it was thought that the pillow structure is not rigidly restricted to surface flows, but these masses “must have been erupted under very nearly surface conditions.” The rock con- 7%. L. Ransome: The eruptive rocks of Point Bonita. Bull. Dept. of Geol., Univ. of Cal., vol. i, 1893, pp. 71-113. 72 N. H. Winchell: Am. Geol., vol. xiv, 1894, pp. 321-326. 80. L. Ransome: The geology of Angel Island. Bull. Dept. of Geol., Univ. of Cal., vol. i, 1894, pp. 193-234. DISTRIBUTION—-UNITED STATES 619 tains inclusions of red and green radiolarian cherts, through which it breaks. Fairbanks*® has described a basalt from Point Sal, near San Francisco, which consists of elongated ropy masses packed over each other in all conceivable positions. A rude parallelism is apparent at one exposure, and some of the masses approximate the spherical form, with diameters ranging from a few inches to 3 feet. In many places also this structure is not sharply differentiated from the structureless basalt. The outer portions of the masses are more compact and have smaller amygdules than the inner, and hence they often weather out hollow. Lawson® regards all the variolitic spheroidal basalts and diabases of the region around San Francisco Bay (plate 18, figures 1 and 2) as in- trusives cutting the Franciscan series. These rocks occur at many places within the area of the four quadrangles included in the San Francisco Folio. “They are of irregular shape, they include no clean-cut dikes or intrusive sills, and their exposed contacts with the rocks they intrude are generally irregular and jagged. Fragments of the incasing rock, especially of the radiolarian cherts, are abundant at the contacts, where the chert is usually baked to a bright vermilion-red and its structure is in some places also greatly changed. Some inclusions show evidence of partial resorption. The sphe- roidal structure of these intrusive rocks is clearly revealed only on sea cliffs, as at Hunter Point and Point Bonita, but may also be detected in numerous road cuttings and on natural exposures on hillsides. On sea-cliff exposures the rock presents the appearance of an irregular pile of filled sacks, each sack having its rotundity deformed by contact with its neighbor. Each of these sack-like or ellipsoidal masses measures about 3 feet in its longest and about 1 foot in its shortest diameter. The rock between the ellipsoids is usually more decomposed than that elsewhere and so weathers out easily under the action of the waves, leaving the more resistant ellipsoids prominent. Some of the ellipsoids are vesicular, others are variolitic, and still others are both. The cause of this peculiar structure and the mode of its development are not yet understood.” Alaska.—Grant and Higgins** have described the ellipsoidal green- stones of the Orca group (Mesozoic) at Prince William Sound, Alaska (plate 19, figures 1 and 2), in which the spheroidal masses range from a few inches to 10 feet in diameter. In many places these bodies make up 8\H. W. Fairbanks: The geology of Point Sal. Bull. Dept. of Geol., Univ. of Cal., vol. ii, 1896, pp. 1-92. 82 A. C. Lawson: San Francisco Folio, U. 8S. Geol. Survey. I am greatly indebted to the Director of the Survey for permission to consult the proofs of this folio in advance of publication. : SU. S. Grant and D. F. Higgins: Reconnaissance of the geology and mineral re- sources of Prince William Sound, Alaska. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 443, 1910, pp. 21, 26, 51, 52. 620 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS nearly the entire flow. Between them is a softer greenish, locally schist- ose material, the origin of which is not clear. The masses are commonly somewhat flattened parallel to the dip of the flows, which, in some exam- ples at least, appears to be due to the pressure of one ellipsoid on another before they had completely solidified. Some of the masses are united by small necks (plate 19, figure 1) ; some broken ones show a radial jointing. “The main voleanic activity seems to have taken place near the shore line of the Orca Sea, while further out sediments were being deposited, and finally sedimentation became the prominent phenomenon even near the shore line.” The characteristic feature of these rocks in the Ellamar district, where they form thick accumulations of flows, is the “abundance of beds in which the greenstone consists of ellipsoidal forms.** “llipsoidal greenstones have generally been considered to indicate that the basic lava flows from which they were formed were poured out upon the bottom of a body of water, and that the flowing and cooling of the lavas under water induced this unusual type of parting into ellipsoidal or spheroidal forms. Many facts which can not be discussed here point to the conclusion that these greenstones were extruded upon the sea bottom, and that the deposition of the muds which formed the slates continued during the inter- missions between the separate flows.” Capps* further defines the greenstone member of the Orea group as consisting of “a number of lava flows which were intercalated between the slate and graywacke beds, but which did not stop their deposition,” and hence many beds of slate and graywacke were laid down between the separate flows. The ellipsoids at the base of a flow are flattened at the bottom, but rounded on the other sides, and the material between the lower ellipsoids is the same as that of the underlying slates. The bottom of a flow is flat and conformable with the stratification ; but the top pre- sents a very different appearance, “consisting of a succession of domes, resembling the surface of a magnified cobblestone pavement, the surfaces of the ellipsoids representing the cobblestones.” The mud next deposited takes the shape of the irregular lava. surface. These surfaces show no sign of weathering or erosion, and this is thought to add weight to the conclusion that the lavas and interbedded sediments were deposited suc- cessively under water. Maine.—In 1896 Smith®® described the dense amygdaloidal diabases S$. R. Capps and B. L. Johnson: Mineral deposits of the llamar district. Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 542, 1913, pp. 95, 96. : 8S. R. Capps: Report on the Ellamar district, Alaska. In manuscript, to which I am permitted to refer by courtesy of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 86 G. O. Smith: The geology of the Fox Islands, Maine. Dissertation, Johns Hopkins Univ., 1896, pp. 16-19. DISTRIBUTION——-UNITED STATES 621 of North Haven Island, Penobscot Bay, Maine, which are characterized by the same type of pillow structure as the greenstones of Saxony and the Lake Superior region. “Seen in cross section only, aS on a SER ete surface or low cliff on the shore, the rock appears to be divided into irregular ellipsoidal masses or lenses from a few inches to two feet in major diameter. These masses of compact rock are embedded in a matrix which is a schistose phase of the same rock, and the less resistance of the matrix to weathering agencies gives prominence to the structure, the oval sections often being surrounded by narrow crevices.” Dathe’s hypothesis of contractional parting during consolidation of the flow was considered inapplicable, since it would fail to account for the schistose matrix between the masses. Transition phases between the ellipsoidal rock andthe normal diabase with columnar structure were clearly observed, and hence a purely dynamic origin, that of brecciation in situ, was not entirely satisfactory. “In the present case, however, the origin seems to have been compound, a true contraction parting modified by dynamic action.” “At one locality these structures (columnar and ellipsoidal) can be com- pared with the concentric weathering in a dike, and the contrast is such as to allow no confusion of the three different structures.” -Gregory*? found among the andesites of the Aroostook area, Maine, “black, rusty-looking, spheroidal and elliptical masses of lava, one to two | feet in diameter,” strewn over the surface, and solid ledges composed of similar forms whose outlines are well displayed by weathering. The masses are amygdaloidal at the surface and denser within and are ce- mented together by a coarse breccia of glassy material and igneous rock of the same character as the spheroids. Flow into water or watery silt, as supposed for other structures of this kind, may, the author thinks, be the explanation of these; but, on the other hand, they may be “the ropy rolling surface at the font of a lava flow.” Massachusetts.—Crosby** has described the melaphyre flows of Nan- tasket, Massachusetts, in which a compact greenish matrix incloses irreg- ularly rounded amygdaloidal masses from 2 inches to 2 feet in their longest diameters. The amygdules are arranged in concentric lines or zones parallel with the exterior, the largest ones being either near the surface or near the center. The surfaces of some of the sheets show rounded multidomical protuberances or swellings from 1 to 4 feet in 87H. E. Gregory: Andesites of the Aroostook volcanic area of Maine. ‘Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser.,; vol. viii, 1899, pp. 359-369. 88. W. O. Crosby: Geology of the Boston Basin. Occas. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., iv, vol. i, pt. 1, 1893, pp. 50-53. ri - 622 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS diameter, the actual’ boundaries of which extend below the surface of the flow. These are not products of erosion and, according to the author, must be regarded as original structures. One flow is described as con- sisting of rounded pseudobombs thickly and uniformly scattered through the middle and upper parts of the sheet and wanting at the bottom. The author offers the tentative explanation that “during the flow of the lava layers and crusts were, by the unequal flowing and revolving motions, broken up and the fragments rounded into the forms we now see.” Emerson®® has described the Triassic basalt sheet of Deerfield, Massa- chusetts, a portion of which had formerly been regarded as an agglom- erate, the masses being separated in part by stringers of sandstone like that on which the sheet rests. “Many of the blocks have rows of these cavities [steam vesicles] around their borders in whole or in part, and these cavities are tubular at times and closely set at right angles to the fissure which separates the block from its neighbor. . . . [This arrangement] shows that the slow expansion of the steam was effective after the mass had cracked into great blocks.” Some of the blocks higher up seem to have been invaded by later lava, which, it was thought, sheathed the blocks and partially remelted them into a spheroidal form. Other masses are separated by an admixture of glass fragments and red sand. At the tower of Greenfield there is no basal bed of normal trap ; “but the whole mass was cooled nearly to the crystallizing point when ‘the sand rose up into it at almost equal intervals, and the streams of sand and glass breccia formed by the water rise in great streaks or ‘schlieren,’ anasto- mose, and pass with fluidal structure around the great rounded blocks of the normal trap. . . . The rounded bomb-like masses and the compact erystal- line trap which are contained in this breccia grade superficially through hyalopilitic trap into the green glass, and while compact at the center are toward the surface full of radiating steam pores. . . . Among the blocks are many long sheets and rounded masses connected by narrow necks, which could not have been blown into the air and have fallen as common bombs.” Typical pillow lavas are shown in-the illustrations, one of which I am permitted to reproduce by courtesy of Professor Emerson (see plate 24). Connecticut.—Emerson®® compares the structures described in the pre- ceding paragraphs with similar beds near Meriden, Connecticut, and attributes both to a rapid submarine flow of lava, while steam from the underlying water-soaked sediments broke the bottom crust and the mud - 8 B. K. Emerson: Diabase pitchstone and mud inclosures of the Triassic trap of New - England. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 8, 1897, pp. 59-86. Also Geology of Old’ Hampshire County, Massachusetts. Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey, vol. xxix, 1898, pp. 418-431. 90 B. K. Emerson: Loe. cit. : BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 19 FicgurE 1.—PILLOWY SURFACES IN ELLIPSOIDAL GREENSTONE OF THE ORCA GROUP (MbESOZOIC) The lava flow has been exposed by waves hear Rocky Point, Prince William Sound, Alaska, Masses range from a few inches to 10 feet in diameter. Photograph from the U. S. Geological Survey. Bulletin 443, plate viii-A. FIGURE 2.—CROSS-SECTION SHOWING RADIAL JOINTING OF THE PILLOWS AT THE SAME LOCALITY Masses range from a few inches to 10 feet in diameter. Photograph from the U. 8. Geological Survey. Bulletin 443, plate vili-B PILLOW SURFACES OF ELLIPSOIDAL GREENSTONE AND CROSS-SECTION OF RADIAL JOINTING OF PILLOW LAVA ae i at We ety i abo BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 20 Prigurr 1.—Pintow Lava Showing concentric layers of ainygdules and calcite filling the interstices between the pillows. The locality is Pentire Head, St. Minver, north coast of Cornwall, England. Photo- graph from the Geological Survey of Great Britain. FIGURE 2.—PILLOW “DIABASR”’ The locality is on the shore 2 1/3 miles south of Ballantrae, Ayrshire, Scotland. Photograph from the Geological Survey of Great Britain PILLOW LAVA AND PILLOW ‘‘DIABASE’’ DISTRIBUTION——-UNITED STATES 623 frothed up into the liquid lava, carrying with it blocks of the basal bed. “These blocks graduate outwardly into glass, and so have been rounded in place by remelting.” The whole mass of this structure is 30 to 70 feet thick for several miles and is covered everywhere by normal trap. ‘There is also normal trap beneath the “breccia” in many places, so that the latter “must have been formed in the midst of the sheet itself.” Davis and Whipple®* had previously described this structure near Meri- den, where the base of the sheet for a thickness of 20 feet or more con- tained “oval and discoidal areas of close-grained trap that we have inter- preted as volcanic bombs,” in a matrix consisting of trap fragments and voleanic glass, considered to be lapili. The “bombs” were found * markable for their nonvesicular character and their compact, es texture from center to surface.” New Jersey.—Rounded masses of lava on the northwestern slope of the First Watchung Mountain trap sheet at Glenside Park (formerly Felt- ville), 2 miles northeast of Scotch Plains (figure 2), were described by Russell®? in 1878 and compared to the “friction-breccias” of Von Cotta, as he then considered the trap to be intrusive. The masses were found to have a concentric structure, with a slaggy and scoriaceous exterior, and the spaces were filled with angular fragments of greenish rock bound to- gether with reddish cement like the overlying shale. Davis®* found the structure to consist of “a number of oval masses of trap up to 2 feet or more in diameter, contained in a peculiar red and black matrix. The trap masses vary in their texture and color with the distance from their surface; the outer part is black and dense, then amygdaloidal for a few inches with concentric bands of color, and rather dense near the center.” Darton®* also described this structure in 1890 and in 1908 and Kiim- mel® in 1897. In 1907 the writer described the structure at Paterson, New J ES and vicinity (plates 15 and ae as 2 W. M. Davis and C. L. Whipple: The intrusive and extrusive trap sheets of the Connecticut Valley. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. xvi (Geol. Ser., vol. ii), 1889, pp. 99-138. 927, C. Russell: On the intrusive nature of the Triassic trap sheets of New Jersey. Am. Jour. Sci. (3), vol. xv, 1878, pp. 277-280. 2 W. M. Davis: On the relations of the Triassic traps and sandstones of the eastern United States. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. vii, 1883, p. 274. -9%N. H. Darton: The relations of the traps of the Newark system in the New Jersey region. Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 67, 1890, pp. 26-28; also Passaic Folio (U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 157; Geol. Survey of N. J., No. 1), 1908, p. 9. % H. B. Kiimmel: The Newark system or red sandstone belt. Ann. Rept. State Geolo- gist of N. J. for 1897, pp. 82, 83. XLV—BULL. GEOL. Soc, AM., VOL. 25, 1913 624. J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS “nahoehoe or ropy rolling surfaces produced by the flowing of the viscous lava . . . the rounded billowy forms of which are often covered with dark glass one-half an inch to one inch thick. Often these ropy glassy sur- faces are also vesicular or amygdaloidal. In some of the quarries such rounded forms are superimposed to a depth of 50 to 75 feet and the cavernous spaces between them have been partially filled with calcite, quartz, and zeolites.”’ % Fenner®’ also described the pillow structure at Paterson as pahoehoe, and ascribed its origin to the flow of lava into shallow water with muddy bottom. First a thin flow caused a violent agitation and mixing of the lava and mud; successive spurts and tongues of fused material, chilled suddenly by steam rising around them, built up the structure of boulder- like forms. The original surface water was quickly driven off, but the wet sediments continued to furnish steam, some of which entered the lava and made it vesicular, but most of it worked its way around the masses and quickly cooled the crusts to glass. “The jets and tongues of fused material seem to have assumed the con- sistency of a thick syrup and instead of spreading laterally they solidified in smoothly rounded bowlder-like masses, having considerable similarity to the ‘pahoehoe’ of Hawaiian flows. . . . The pasty character of the fluid and its sluggish movements are well attested in the billowy forms presented when quarrying operations have attacked bodies of trap of this character. The rounded forms are sometimes built up to a thickness of 60-70 feet. The in- terior of the bowlders cooled with sufficient slowness to permit the basalt to crystallize with normal texture, but each is sheathed with a crust of glass (tachylite) varying from an inch to several inches in thickness, having often a laminated structure. . . . The crusts frequently present a shattered ap- pearance due to the sudden chill which they experienced, and at times pockets among the bowlders are filled with considerable masses of breccia of this nature.” Pillow structure in New Jersey, some examples of which have been described briefly in the preceding paragraphs, I have found typically developed in the Triassic (Newark) basalts of both First and Second Watchung Mountains. In First Mountain the structure may be traced in surface outcrops, quarries, and street and railway cuttings from the corner of Hamburg Avenue and Jane Street, one-half mile northwest of Passaic Falls, in Paterson, in a slightly curved belt near the middle of the trap outcrop, in a direction about south 25° west to the trap quarry | 6 J. Volney Lewis: Petrography of the Newark igneous rocks of New Jersey. Ann. Rept. State Geologist of N. J. for 1907, p. 152. 7 C, N. Fenner: Features indicative of physiographic conditions prevailing at the time of the trap extrusions in New Jersey. Jour. Geol., vol. xvi, 1908, pp. 299-327; also The Watchung basalt and the paragenesis of its zeolites and other secondary minerals, An- nals N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xx, 1910, pp. 99, 100. DISTRIBUTION—_UNITED STATES 625 near the railroad station at. Great Notch, a distance of four miles. The superficial exposures of pillowy basalt along this course vary from 100 or 200 feet to more than 1,000 feet in width. ‘There is no indication of an ending of the structure at either extremity of this belt, but the thick and almost continuous covering of glacial drift for several miles northeast of Paterson and southwest of Great Notch has thus far prevented the iden- tification of the structure beyond the points named. Pillow structure is exposed in great perfection of development in the trap quarries of West Paterson and Great Notch (plates 15, 16, and 17, figure 1), where it extends to the full depth of the quarries, and the bot- tom has not been reached. Fifteen miles farther southwest a precisely similar structure has been exposed to only a shallow depth in the same basalt sheet. (but at the upper surface instead of near the middle) by a small ravine and the old prospecting pits locally known as the “copper mine,” near Glenside Park (formerly Feltville), 2 miles northeast of Scotch Plains (figure 2, page 628). In contrast with these occurrences, the pillows of Second Mountain oceur at the bottom of the great basalt sheet. At Little Falls they are exposed at the northeast corner of the new concrete reservoir of the East Jersey Water Company, and may be seen at short intervals northward along the eastern border of the trap for more than half a mile. The pil- lows attain maximum diameters of 2 to 3 feet and, again in contrast with those of First Mountain, are for the most part markedly vesicular. They -are coated with the characteristic glassy (tachylitic) crust and form ac- cumulations 10 to 20 feet thick along the.old quarry walls and in the cliffs. In places they form the bottom of the sheet next to the underlying 1.d sandstone, which was formerly quarried extensively along this con- tact, and elsewhere they rise 10 feet or more above the base, the latter consisting in such places of normal basalt joited into small wedgy and splintery columns. The exposures at West Paterson and Great Notch are particularly fine. In grading the streets of Paterson the rock has been cut along McBride Avenue from Rockland Street to Howard Street (near the right bank of the Passaic River, three-eighths of a mile above the falls), exposing excel- lent examples of pillow structure with nearly circular cross-sections. in places (plate 15), but also showmeg ellipsoidal and long-drawn-out bolster- like masses. The common interstitial tachylite breccia, with calcite, quartz, zeolites, etcetera, has been weathered out so completely as to ex- hibit very clearly the spheroidal, boulder-like appearance of the pillows. Later excavations have modified the exposure along this street somewhat, but it still shows both the curved surfaces and the cross-sections of typical 626 J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS pillows of a wide range of form, and some of these show the short necks by which they are joined together. Three-eighths of a mile south of the river and just above the West Paterson station of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, a large quarry in the trap rock shows pillow structure (plate 16) constitut- ing the whole of the west and south walls of the quarry, a thickness ranging from 50 to 75 feet, and also a part of the east wall has the same structure. Northward along the east wall, however, the solid lava, about 20 feet thick, with somewhat irregular jointing, underlies the pillowy rock, and beneath this, in turn, the bottom part of the wall and the adja- cent bed of the quarry consist of extremely vesicular lava in somewhat rounded and irregular masses up to 8 or 10 feet in diameter and inti- mately mingled with a matrix of red mud, which here consists of a mix- = ° 7) A . First Watchung eos rn gee 3 Gg . uw u [oi =} > eae Mountain On ois 3 rl dg e wa iS Pipes peor S oe San hood Garrett Rock @ & i: 38 ; m £3 SS SNH — emaate mM a 5 SSS eg uma UT] NN ro SSS zee SSS (LALA DRA] Shale rand 1Sandstone Basalt - 1000 Ft. FiGgurRE 1.—Geéologic Cross-section of First Watchung Mountain Showing the position of quarries and railroad cut with pillow lava. Paterson, New Jersey. Horizontal and vertical scale the same ture of clay and very fine quartz sand. The masses in this portion are least vesicular at the center and extremely scoriaceous and spongy at the surface, where they are mingled with and stained by the red mud. North- ward this vesicular mass drops below the bed of the quarry and solid lava constitutes the whole of the depth at the northeast corner, with the lower- most 10 or 15 feet jointed in regular columns. About 500 feet westward an older and somewhat smaller quarry beside the railroad shows the pil- low structure in its southern and eastern walls. Interbedded massive basalt overlies this in the western wall, but pillow structure again occurs, at a higher horizon, in the railroad cut immediately northwest of the quarry. Most of the pillows are circular or elliptical in cross-section and range from | to 2 feet in diameter, although both smaller and larger individuals are found. They vary in shape from spheroidal to ellipsoidal and some- what more elongated bolster-like and irregular forms, but in general the structure is prevailingly ellipsoidal and remarkably regular. The indi-. vidual masses show little or no distortion at the points of contact with one DISTRIBUTION—-UNITED STATES 627 another.. Each one is covered with a sheath of basic glass (tachylite), varying from a thin film to an inch or more in thickness, and thin sec- tions show that this passes gradually into the holocrystalline mass of the interior. The glass is very brittle and has a tendency to shell off parallel to the surface on exposure to the weather or when struck with a hammer. Hence it is very difficult to collect a specimen of the crystalline rock with the glass still attached to it. In the First Mountain pillows, in striking contrast with those of Second Mountain, there are few amygdules, and these are small and chiefly near the surface coating of glass. On the other hand, many of the masses have a central “pipe” or cavity from 1 to 6 or 8 inches in diameter, many of these being flattened parallel to the bedding of the sedimentaries (plate 17, figure 1). Radial columnar jointing is a common characteristic of the spheroids and is especially well shown in weathered sections, as in the upper portions of quarry walls. The spaces between the masses are partly filled (in some places entirely so) with angular fragments of glass hke that which coats the individual pillows. This has generally been cemented into a breccia by the deposition of quartz, calcite, a great variety of zeo- lites, and many other less common minerals. | At Great Notch (plate 17, figure 1) a structure in every way similar to that at West Paterson forms the south wall of the trap quarry near the railroad station, where a thickness of 40 to 50 feet has been exposed. At Glenside Park (Feltville) the pillow structure outcrops. one-fourth of a mile east of the bridge in the narrow ravine of a brook that drains the northwestern slope of First Mountaim. Spheroids and irregular pil- lows are exposed in the bottom of the ravine and in several old prospect- ing pits, locally known as “the copper mine,” while the banks of the brook show a similar structure and its relations to the overlying shale (figure 2). The interstitial material is a mixture of shale and angular fragments of glass. The lava here is somewhat vesicular, many of the masses having elongated tubular vesicles, 3 to 4 inches long and one-fourth of an inch or less in diameter, set at right angles to their outer surfaces. Most of these tubes are filled with chlorite, calcite, quartz, and zeolites. Russell® reported the finding of some that contained a brillant jet-black bitumen. At Glenside Park (Feltville) the pillow lava occurs immediately at the upper surface of the flow (see figure 2) and extends downward to. an undetermined depth. A maximum depth of 10 or 12 feet is visible in the banks and the old prospecting pits, and the structure is typically devel- oped in the bed of the brook. The overlying shales rest on the uneroded — *8T. C. Russell: The occurrence of a solid hydrocarbon in the eruptive rocks of New Jersey. Am. Jour. Sci. (3), vol. xvi, 1878, pp. 112-114. 628 J. V. LEWIS——ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS surface of the flow, as shown by the unoxidized condition and -the dense enamel-like character of the undulating pillowy surface. The flow oc- curred in a broad intermont valley, or bolson, of continental deposition and was soon buried in the accumulating sediments.*° At Great Notch the situation of the quarries near the middle of the trap outcrop shows that they are also about the middle of the sheet, and the same condition holds northward to Paterson. The quarries at the latter place may be somewhat below the middle of the sheet, but they are still well above its base, as shown by figure 1, which has been constructed to true scale from the most accurate data obtainable. I do not believe it possible to consider the scoriaceous muddy lava encountered at one point in the floor of the quarry at West Paterson as the base of the sheet, al- though Fenner’? has so interpreted it. In attributing the origin of the pillows to the influence of this mud and possibly an accompanying body of water, Fenner further overlooked the very important fact that there is FIGcurE 2.—Diagrammatic Cross-section at Glenside Park, New Jersey : Showing relations between the massive basalt, pillow basalt, and the overlying shale in a ravine one-fourth of a mile cast of the bridge at Glenside Park (Feltville), New Jersey. Modified after Darton. Bulletin of the U. 8. Geological Survey, number 67. a thickness of 20 to 30 feet of massive lava between the muddy scoria and the pillows. In this there is no trace of mud, nor in the overlying pillow lava, and it is difficult to conceive of any possible genetic connection be- tween them. Somewhat similar structural relations seem to exist at Great Notch also. The aqueduct tunnel encountered much muddy, cindery lava, as shown by the refuse dumps; but the quarry, which lies about 100 feet above the tunnel, shows characteristic pillowy structure. without ad- mixture of mud. It is significant that here also the old quarry beside the railroad, a few hundred feet west of the present quarry and at a higher horizon, exposed a like scoriaceous muddy phase of the basalt. This lies well above the pillows and, like that below them, must be regarded as entirely independent. | 7 aS We are thus placed in the dilemma that Emerson faced at Greenfield, Massachusetts, where he ascribed the “breccia” (pillow Java) beds to the influence of the underlying wet sediment; but in many places normal °° J. Volney Lewis: The origin and relations of the Newark rocks. Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey of New Jersey for 1906, pp. 97-129; Charles Schuchert: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 20, 1910, pp. 438, 578, 579; Joseph Barrell: Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxxvi, 1913, p. 438, 109 C, N, Fenner; Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.; vol. xx, 1910, p. 99. : DISTRIBUTION—_UNITED STATES 629 trap also occurs beneath the “breccia,” “so that the latter must have been formed in the midst of the sheet itself,’ '°* by what process and through what connection with the underlying wet sediment the author did not undertake to explain. I have elsewhere presented evidence tending to show that the basalt flows did not well out in a single vast eruption for each sheet, but that in every case the great thickness was built up by a succession of smaller flows or pulsations which spread themselves one on another.‘ Here and there some of these subordinate flows encountered local pools of water or saturated deposits of mud on the undulating surface of the underlying lava, and the result was a frothing up of a small portion of the fresh flow at the contact and an intimate mixture of the mud with the vesicular mass. At Paterson one of these was overflowed with clean, solid basalt before the formation of pillow lava began, and throughout the great thick- ness of this zeolite-studded spheroidal mass there is no recognizable trace of the underlying mud. In fact the pillows, almost entirely free from vesicles and amygdules, are in striking contrast with the extremely scori- aceous mass with which the mud is mingled. On the other hand, the pillow lava of Second Mountain is highly vesic- ular, but is equally free from admixture of mud, although in many places it is developed in immediate contact with the underlying sediments, and the structure lies very near the bottom wherever it has been observed. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF PiLLow Lavas, PAHOEHOE, AND AA The descriptions that have been referred to in the preceding pages, to- gether with certain pertinent observations on the formation of pahoehoe and aa lavas, have been listed in chronological order in the following table. ‘Theories of origin, discussed or implied, are briefly indicated in the last column. Pillow lavas are to be understood unless otherwise indicated. 1021 B. K. Benen ie coloes of Old Hampshire County, Massachusetts. Monograph U. 8S. Geol. Survey, vol. xxix, 1898, p. 424. 1022 Ann. Rept. of State Geologist of N. J. for 1907, p. 150. J. V. LEWIS—ORIGIN OF PILLOW LAVAS 630 *SUT[OOD &q peonporg cover eee e esse eee sree soe soes Aoso[Suy ‘SULIOYJVOM [BplOleydg “°°"**'**“"Ssd[Ty UaeISeM ‘OSTA eJUOPL ‘BaS OJUL OSPOT WNOAJ SuTddoIq “"°°°**"*° "°°" ****** BART Teploreydg ‘UIYS Ysno} B SUIMIIOZ SMOP Jornb ‘[euMg “"s°r*rrcrrss""***Q0Go0qRd [BoOIMIOd ‘UISIIO OUIBS JO YJOq “°° "*****SOSSBUU OYI[-quiog puvw vy ‘BABI JO S9OVJANS SUITOOD “rer c streets sss assay ‘ULOgIO_L ‘IBUOTJOIOUOD ATJUOIBddY “""c" cet SpoOAA OYJ FO oyZvVT *SUIIOYICOM TOSATNSOTSION os ee eee eeeraee *£UOXBS ‘ZIUCT “MOY JS SOIL aS ee aig Cae bec eee epi saber WU ey 8 8) BY "BART pIndIT ATYSTY JO SJooysyo [Tug “"°°*s st (TreMBT) 9OYooreg “AOSIOL MON ‘OT[TAIO WT ‘BART PING Wodg JOoUIq cect tt puRySoA WON “AICUOTJOIONUOD “oe yOTMSTMIG MON ULION NTC LOLAO se) LLOG)i ie wetness eee ATVI] ‘VIANSIT 4Segy "SOTVM ‘UAOT[UIPY.10g *SUTIOYIVOM [eproz9ydg co eeer ees eer ees oeees “SPpUBIS]T 90187 ‘BART PING WOAT JOoIIqd "°°" ** °° BlIBAB_ ‘ULeJsSUONeYOY ‘O18 -soid ofqdeiso10o Aq yoo poyurof ul JUeTMAAO "ttt AUOXBYG ‘UaYOUTe ET *BIDDNId UOT “cvs cesses AOSIOL MON ‘OTTTAITOT ‘sul[oo) AQ WoTJoRVIJUOD “""* ttt tt oIMjonayS [epToreyds ‘NyIS Ut TOIWBDVIIG “"c* ct tts so cs*-ATOXBG ‘WOTOIUIeAy NUS: UY UOTIJBIOVOIG vor sess se sees ATOXeS “WoyoTure ry ‘euommOuUNYyd MOLT “o"* cst ttc essey ‘aplBAsepTeyos ‘9anjonz3s ‘stsoqjoddéy Arevuotje1ou0d Sjoofey [eploreyds pues Ssuyutof «avumnyjoo ‘ZIBFY ‘sloqsvoipuy « AJATPOP B UMOP PoT[OL PVY I JISy,, “coco TPBMUIOD ‘OBRST 110g “MOTIVZTT[VISAIO SULINP UOTJAIOMODQ sts tse aInjonays Teptloreydyg ‘aoTjow OTurvUAp AQ poIpom o}eIoMO[sSUOH “*" eect tt tts KTOXRS ‘UOYOIUTeET UISI1IO JO ALON, JOofqns 10 AVI; RIOT eee eee ee eee oe Os ET “A WE eeeceee *BUSBOOLTZ, ‘ad 2 °° ie = TOOTS) TM e899 9 9 "199I5) Ty “M. Feeeees pared “a ‘fp “-s--UUBUIyUed “VW "779s TOSMBT “O *V veeeees Tame “YT 59s -qOIINC “HO ee STAB “TNT A teesee ees ome “q Esc Vat | “VY pue T[ONZZeyL “T[ coer ee *AOUUOG 1) eB) reteese es saryTay fp Pees ay seen UUBTUSIOH Wy eceoeceree *Zjo[dy40Wy ‘Vv eeeeee *TTOSssny x6) T e229" KOUUOgd =) a “*'*-9UpeIg “WO “+> TURUNEN “Wt ‘O te ene a LAN OTL AT: me | se ***UOSTULOULL: “SVL eeceesee *“TeupalO "H a ee WOTIILUL AA: "N He teeeees -aggareq “VW OO TUR UN BN “1 ‘O lou ny BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM. VOL. 25, 1913, PL. 21 FIGURE 1.—PILLOW LAVA Showing concentric arrangement of vesicles and interstitial limestone, 3 miles southwest of Tayvallich, Argyll, Scotland. fhotograph from the Geological Survey of Great Britain FIGURE 2.—LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE SECTIONS OF PILLOW LAVA Showing concentric arrangement of vesicles. ‘Che exposure is near North Ardbeg, Argyl!, Scotland. Photograph from the Geological Survey of Great Britain PILLOW LAVA FEATURES 631 CHRONOLOGY OF DESCRIPTIONS “MOQ oULIBIIqnY ‘UISIIO [BOTUBTDOW ‘aovjans Mog Adoy “MOQ oULIBUIqnsS prIdey ‘VIS A1OJVM IO 10M OFUT MOLT “uOTT -oB8 oImBUAp Aq peyipom suyaed worjo¥V1}]U00 ‘BOS OJUL SUTT[VJ SOISBpPOIAg ‘SUOTJIPUOD VOBJANS ATIVE JBpUN TOISNAYUT “ONSBPOA ‘dn pedvsy soye0yed SNoostA ‘U0TJOM UL MOY Jo dn suryBorg “BABI JO MUOISBAUL AIBPUODGS puB sUuTUTIOL WOTOBIQVUOD ‘SBABT BAS-deep ATQISSod ‘ouTreUTqnY “SJUOUIIPYS SuIJeIeUed MOP oULIBUIqNY ‘IULIBU ‘SqUIOg JO a1BIOMIO[SSV ‘qIS oUTIBUAqNS OFUL UOTJOlUT *PIOSIAIUIOS OTIYM SUIT[OI puUv sUTIUIOL ‘BART PINDIT WOAZ JOoITG “MOP 9G} Y[snoiyg} SUISTA 91njstTom puNnod+) ‘SOSSBUL poJUIOl UL JUSMIBAOM OIUIBVUACG "107810 UIQJIM deep SJUSTIOAOIW ‘Squlod JO oIB1IJMIO[S3V ‘BUSTIOUDYd VBJINS MOTT UIS1I10 Jo A1Osy,L, nooOonoOCoOoO *puelsug ‘JaSIOULOG UAQLON cece ree reer ee ree oe JOLAISTP aonbaivyy ***KOSTOf MON ‘OT[TAITO **“SijesnyoVssey, ‘pleps9v9q ecoereoeoree eee ee ee 8 oe 8 8 8 ULBILIG 7B9d14) “BIULOJITED ‘TVS JUIOT ececeeceeceee ce oUule ‘SpuvIs] XOW eoeceeet ee eee eo © oo UOISO1 IOTI9dNnG oye] *-BIUAOJI[VO ‘puRIS] JOSuV Stee eeesters BVIUIOJITVD “eJUO_ JULOg “BIUIOJITRD ‘eUO JUIOT 950500 O00 00 SUOSNYTYVSSV]AL “JOYSVIUBN eelicleiejrelei eLe.euieiisl felerie. eens SO[TRM. ‘UAITT IUL ecoeeeveveerereee eereeecee ce SBABT MOTIIG eilelsoMelolielistiey chic [1[BMU.10(F) ‘puvBISsy UOTL [NIN ‘T[VPMUIOD “PUBIS[ WOTT[NPL O Sachi Osos ccrOnolONc. GO eee “BIOSOUUTIA, “ATO Se ee ATDOIS ‘I BOIDV eocececo ree eee coe es eee e ISIIQos[9IYO LA eeooccecec cee coerce eco ec eo eee oe Agso[suy “AOSIOL MON ‘OT[TAITAA ceeecen ** (11B MBE) BV **S1OLSIP oJJonbavy puw VOUIULOUN][ "*"91AQU0x) UOT **"4gnoTJOeUUOH ‘WeplIeyl **--9sseH ‘Tesneysjon?t) qoofqns 10 AV1[B00TT “coos *-TByBIIg “V PUB OTYTEN ° sis easter een rae care esntaect vastce CUE PON UL Agia? eoeoeoreeeeev eee eee *OUMUIN YT ep ° e@eeee * *TOS.1OUL AT > i @eeeeeee oe OTTO) ““SHUBQITET “AA eeoereeveeeee eeoeoeoeve278 02 28 @ @eeeenee 0 eo min oe < " UYTUIS “O° Mee oe HEE AS Rs TUOULAA “EE” tee eee ees sgurosmR yy TT: ++ -TTQNOULM CH * °° 9ulOSUBY “T coeeceereeee esceeseee Aqsoig ‘;O “M. en es) 2, tes + -UISTRY “WO --11ROL “HL CL “TIROL “H ££ pue xoy “A -uojsuyor “f “H pue vrueye[g “9 eoeseerveeeee ce ne se" KTOBOLD “M ole “CE Sie Sve ole 6 6 ce.) slurel e's pete ‘HOD "“ATOS0IH “M “£ PUB TOD “£ “V “D idan M‘T'O ae aoe ‘WM ecsece ree see sees “-“sunevig ms | 1oy ny 8681 LO8T L6O8T LO8T LOST 968T 968T S68T V68T POST S681 S68T S68T 68T S68T S68T G68T T68T T68T. I68T 06ST O68T O68T O68F 688T 68ST. Caer @ fl J. V. 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Stn | sag iy cp shiny cove sucht cess robe a oase ea cect AVE T Cn WNnIpyyWw Sh sSscniS ih te sSlae foes S; eee seuss pe ecear ey AMET aS1B0D TOES SEE OOO RG aSIRvOD AOA COD CAE MO Cre OOOO TTaUOO) [IME UOKS AIOA Bae eaten ea ROO ODI IS Y OF MOX0| ][/eus BOOB ORN EO COC OOOOH Cy oH MNO] WU IUE « SsuD a YO OOS FSH OA AOU 3218] ‘S]USTpoIsUy JO someN (ponulza0oD )—_4ysnq wamoys [0 U0YIw0AWOD WwOWDYIOW— 6Z AIFV.L 127 ANALYSIS OF SAND CONTAINING MAGNETITE e@eee eoee e@eece eocee e@eece @eooe e@ecee e ee ee eee ee e@eeee eoeee eeee e@ecee eeee e@ece eceo eecee eecee eeee eesee @ecoe eeecce eeee ecee eecoee e@eecoe e@eee ecee . ee e ee ° ee eeee e@eee eecoe ° ee e@ececo0e e@eeo @eco0e ecee eocee eeee ° ee eeee e@oee e@ocee ee eecee e@esee eeee ° ee ee ee ee bo A) aA) jor) 1 co 1.6) kK it~ rm . 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UDDEN—-COMPOSITION OF CLASTIC SEDIMENTS 25 “I 69E DNOT mo OS oe Oo HAN j re N rODOAOr-N eeve ONO OO ee eocee eee . ee cee e ee cee ecee ee ee ee cvee eee O OE) T9E O9€ Ota’ rr Oo EARS Keama a) 6G 8GE Se ie clei btn f=) ie) seus Co sH kt Seas 1D oD LSE ) 4 10 a | © A 996 GcE : MN SD 1 yy oe) rs “3s ODOT QAONHH HOT, ee iee Mes et moO wn e e e ° e e e eece e 0 eoeee e 0 eeee eeee ‘elieitemn eee eeee e eeee eeee rG& §G& 6Gs "**St0Z/T-FZOT/T “FCOL/T-ZIGE/T "**"@TS/T-9G2/T = "°9GG/T-8Z1/T “°° 9ct/1-¥9/T = 10/ cesT eect ORE Spe tee) O/T LODE ease OW pe oy ee eee J See aes arewr sa LOT: ie eee aca 0 ae Ao nf Sorat le Res Sere oe ER craieee= eran AS ACPA ES SORA ON ‘SLO OUT] [TU1 UY 19JIMIVIP JO IZIg Sig Sat Aes Me SW apcehe Ae te eT) oul ago a a GN POCORN G79) WHIpYy Se le atone ae OVENS) OSTBOL) SS I OS PSP a ah WI AEA ee eur ee Oo rei GIS) (4 oul DORE ato OCC Cur iT ol UTM ESN psy eeae apeze eee) se) chee OST) OSIBOD Peo pe Goo Moon OAS Sit AIO A pein eek ae Sy OOF ES) oul POO TO OOO ECO SCOOTER, WEDS AY PDC OUD O ODO OL OOF iS SAUTAOK) Diet ee eset eecees + T9apaS oUly steele 9 she te ood eT AGG UUM DOTNT DNRC DDG Sa Oo Cot Kony ayant! ISIBOD PSD DAH EY EHico) SH UCOD) NIRA sess ssessTOpTNOd [[eUIS AIO A pe See ee eS TORT OC [[eusg aif} ever siieleenenere *STop[noqg WNIpsfl POOR TO GOOC OE OTe a NOU os 1B'T ‘SJUSIPIISUL JO SUTIeN ‘SHMT NOUNDD Mau wavy wnossipy ay? fo sfmq oy, UP ssooT Jo uoyIsodwop JMomnyoopf—TEs ATAVL, SSAOT 729 ANALYSIS OF “GUMBO” “ 8¢0¢/T-FZOL/T ce eees DODO TKS RO CG eS Gb oa (ria) oul ** “E70L/T-ZEc/T Ne ee cee tn eee ead ae IC 0) UINIPEy "19+ *7T@/T-96c/T DF NCR ORS CRE CAC CAMO COSCO GAN ISIBOD "+++ -9e@7/T-977/T GO ORO OeCLGLG Dates. GES OREO ST 6) 10 VIS eug AIDA aE i Sz1/1-#9/T BOG UU Gor ob IOSD GR oon SUF aia) FG) MS SUUEy| eye Ostia to acnac'd Baia CROCS 8 0) 10 41S TWUNnIpsyw 5 TAG TO px 6 bho G0 U0, 0.0 ee AS LOFTS OSIBOD 97 /T-8/T nes Sree cet eesseeerees sess enues guy AIOA HEE GE Otay Paes (A, aWelreogen SUDO COU Circe Son oo OS TTaS Sta SOO Oc OG #/T- ~ TOL that by Hovey.*# He evidently had only a few hand specimens of. the material to work with and they were siliceous throughout. His conclu- sion in regard to the origin is stated thus: “The rock was evidently made from clear quartz sand by the action of alka- line waters depositing silica in the form of chalcedony around the fragments or aggregates of fragments of quartz and making the cement between the spherules of the same substance, while some of the quartz grains were caught in the chalcedony without being made the nuclei of spherules” (loc. cit.). In 189” Wieland assigned the origin of these oolites to hot springs. He found associated with them peculiar chert boulders, which he consid- ered to be the actual rims of hot springs and geysers on the shore of the sea where these accumulated. He thought that the silica first deposited would form rings, but that deposited while in more rapid motion would form the spherical oolites. The following year a very good description, with illustrations, was pre- pared by J. 8. Diller and published in Bulletin 150 of the United States Geological Survey. Diller called attention to. the work of previous writers, but did not add anything new in the way of explaining the origin of these oolites. This subject seems to have attracted no further attention until it was again brought before the geologists of this country in a paper by Moore, originally read before the British Association in 1911, and later pub- lished in the Journal of Geology.*® In this he clearly demonstrated that when found in place these siliceous oolites were derived from original ealeareous oolites. He described and figured microsections which showed various stages of gradation from complete calcareous oolites to wholly silicified grains. He thus substantiated the original. explanation of Bar- bour and Torrey, that these were altered calcareous oolites. A few months later another paper appeared by Ziegler, in which he de- scribes what he calls several distinct types of siliceous oolites, and while he accepts Moore’s explanation of the origin of one of the types (and this was the type investigated by all of the previous writers), he offers another explanation for the other types. He believes that many of these siliceous oolites were formed from pure quartz sands cemented and changed to siliceous oolite by silica-laden solutions subsequent to their deposition and after they were covered with limestones. But in order to account for the perfect concentric oolites he assumes that some of the sandstones already consisted of sand grains concentrically enlarged by % 1H. O. Hovey: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 5, 1894, pp. 627-629. 3%}, S. Moore: Jour. Geol., vol. xx, 1912, pp. 259-269. LV—BULL. GEOL. Soc. AM., VOL. 25, 1913 762 T, C. BROWN—OOLITES AND OOLITIC TEXTURE moving currents of siliceous waters (probably hot springs), and that sub- sequent to their deposition in layers the final cementing of the oolitic spherules took place. He summarizes his observations as follows: “In conclusion, then, it may be said that siliceous oolite occurs predomi- nantly in rocks of Upper Cambrian and Beekmantown age; that there is a series of definite layers, a conservative estimate being at least twenty; that some of the layers are the result of replacement of oolitie limestones, but that the majority are the result of direct deposition of silica from hot solutions about pure quartz sand.” * The writer has spent a great deal of time studying these siliceous oolites, both in the field and in the laboratory. Most of the localities mentioned by Ziegler have been examined very carefully, and several other localities have been studied which are not mentioned in his or any other paper. The majority of writers have considered the occurrence of siliceous oolites a phenomenon confined to a limited area; but this is an erroneous idea, for they are not only wide-spread in their distribution in central Pennsylvania, but also occur among the calcareous oolites of the eastern part of the State in the more highly metamorphosed beds of the same horizon (see plate 27, figures 5 and 6). The typical State College siliceous oolites have already been well de- | scribed by both Hovey and Diller. The essential features are these: The oolites are generally almost spherical in shape and range in size from one to one and one-third millimeters in diameter. The majority of them show a clear quartz sand grain nucleus, but some only show granular quartz in the center. This does not, however, indicate that the oolites without a sand grain necessarily lack a nucleus. While some undoubtedly do lack nuclei, this fact has probably been exaggerated in the descriptions thus far published. The accompanying figure (figure 1) has been drawn to show how some of those grains which appear to lack a nucleus may really have one which has not happened to be cut by the plane of the section. It also serves to illustrate how the range in size assigned to these oolites is undoubtedly greater than it really should be. A double nucleus consisting of two sand grains within a single oolite can now and then be seen (plate 28, figure 2). The quartz sand grain is very frequently enlarged by silica deposited in optical continuity with it. This secondary enlargement may consist of one or two zones, and when extensively developed may even show the outlines of a quartz crystal partially developed (plate 28, figure 3). As noted by Hovey, the first zone of secondary enlargement is always cloudy. %V. Ziegler: Am. Jour. Sci., 4 ser., vol. xxiv, 1912, pp. 113-127. PENNSYLVANIA SILICEOUS OOLITES 763 He assigned this cloudy appearance to impurities taken up by the sand grain in the process of the deposition of the silica about it. No form or’ composititon of these impurities was mentioned. An examination with a very high power of the microscope, however, shows them to be minute, microscopic, rhombohedral crystals of calcite contained within the silica. Figure 1.—Diagrammatic Reproductions of oolitic Structure Showing how the four identical oolites of A, when cut by the plane of a section as indicated by the dotted line, may give rise to four apparently different types of oolites of somewhat different size. This probably explains the greater part of the apparent variation in the State College type of siliceous oolites. The outer zone of secondary enlargement is always apparently clear, but may contain a few of these minute rhombohedral crystals of calcite. Around the original or secondarily enlarged nucleus, and forming the greater part of the mass of the oolite, is siliceous material either in gran- 764 T, C. BROWN—OOLITES AND OOLITIC TEXTURE ular form or as finely fibrous zones of chalcedony. The granular ma- terial is quartz and forms a zone of varying width around the nucleus, or if there is no nucleus apparent it fills the center of the grain. This zone of granular quartz may fail completely and the fibrous chalcedony extend all the way to the nucleus, or it may make up practically the whole of the oolite. In transmitted light the concentric rings of fibrous cnalecante fre- quently show faint yellow outlines, as if minute quantities of iron oxide had been deposited with the silica (plate 28, figure 1). “Occasionally the nucleal quartz is enveloped in a thick, dense layer of oxide of iron, and more rarely there are finely fibrous layers nearly midway between the center and the circumference of the spherule.” 37 Outside of the oolites proper, but concentric with them, though form- ing a part of the matrix, occur incomplete bands of more coarsely fibrous or finely crystalline material. Under very high powers of the microscope these look hke elongated columnar crystals of quartz, placed perpen- dicular to the surface of the oolites, with their free ends projecting into the interspaces, which are rarely incompletely filled.. These bands are incomplete where the oolites approach each other closely. They evi- dently belong to the matrix surrounding the oolites, and the difference in size and texture of the component fibers indicates clearly that they de- veloped at a different time and under somewhat different conditions from the fibrous material of the oolites proper. This fact has a direct bearing on the origin of the siliceous oolites. Occasionally an oolite can be seen which has been fractured and the two parts moved shghtly relative to one another. This crack or fracture has later been completely filled with crystalline quartz. BELLEFONTE TYPE OF SILICEOUS OOLITES In many of the beds of limestone and dolomite of the Beekmantown, or Lower Ordovician,** siliceous oolites occur, as noted by Ziegler, either in layers or as chert nodules. The State College type, with minor varia- tions, is characteristic of the bedded layers wherever they occur, and they can be obtained at various outcrops from Krumerine, near State College, to Bellefonte, a distance of nearly 12 miles. As an example of the chert nodule type of siliceous oolite, the writer has selected such a nodule from 37 Dillon: Loe. cit., p. 96. 38). O. Ulrich: The Canadian of Ulrich, including, from the top down, the Bellefonte dolomite, Axeman limestone, Nittany dolomite, and Sronglenge limestone. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 20, 1911, pp. 657-659. PENNSYLVANIA SILICEOUS OOLITES 765 the upper part of the Beekmantown (Bellefonte dolomite of Ulrich) for description. | This is from the same horizon and is an inclusion in the dolomitic oolite bed already described (see page 759). The oolites in this bed are very uniform in size and much smaller than those of the State College type. A series of measurements indicates that the range is between .45 mm. and .55 mm. in diameter. Probably the latter measurement is nearer the average, because the sections giving the smaller values may not have passed through the centers of the oolites. Neither the siliceous oolites nor the associated dolomitic forms have nuclei of sand grains, nor do they show any evidence of ever having had such nuclei. The majority’ of the siliceous spherules are aggregated into a single mass or nodule, . but a few individual siliceous spherules occur completely surrounded by dolomitic grains and at some little distance from the general nodule. Small rhombic crystals occur within the majority of the siliceous oolites. When well within the oolite, these rhombic crystals show considerable variation in size and hold no definite position in the oolite, although they are generally near the center. Some of the siliceous oolites show one, or occasionally two, rings of these rhombic crystals near their outer margin. The oolite proper is wholly made up of cryptocrystalline quartz in component parts too small to be resolved by the microscope. These oolites, however, like those from the State College locality, are often en- larged by incomplete zones of definite quartz fibers radiating from their outer margins into the interspaces among the grains. These are clearly secondary, for they fail where the oolites were originally in contact. Some of the interspaces among the siliceous oolites are completely filled with quartz; others are still filled with crystalline dolomite. In the wholly dolomitic part of the specimen a zone of minute rhombic dolo- mite crystals, similar to those in the outer margin of the siliceous spher- ules, surrounds nearly every oolite (see plate 27, figure 3). In a thin section cut from the boundary between the siliceous nodule and the adjacent dolomitic rock the oolites on either side of this bound- ary are seen to be identical in size and shape; they each have the zone of minute rhombic crystals of dolomite near the outer margin, and they differ only in that the siliceous oolites consist largely of fibrous quartz or chalcedony, while the others are made up of granular dolomite. These oolites were evidently derived from similar original spherules, and it is safe to assume that these originals consisted of calcium carbonate in the mineral form aragonite. They were evidently first attacked by magne- sian waters which began to develop in the outer zones of these spherules, and sometimes deep within them, the minute rhombic crystals. Then . 766 T. C. BROWN—OOLITES AND OOLITIC TEXTURE silica-bearing solutions began to act on certain particular areas and com- pletely changed the unaltered oolites to fibrous quartz or chalcedony. The little rhombic crystals already formed were more resistant than the aragonite and were consequently unaffected. Later magnesian-bearing solutions once more affected the stratum and all of the material not pre- viously altered was then changed to dolomite. The silica-bearing solu- tions did not stop when they completely altered the oolite grains within the nodule, but began to replace the matrix around and among the spheres. This matrix has in some interspaces been completely replaced, while in other spaces a part of the material was left and later changed to dolomite. A comparable course of events led to the formation of the State Col- lege type of siliceous oolites. It differed from that outlined above in three respects: (1) no magnesian waters were involved in the process; (2) the oolites attacked by the silica-laden waters had in most cases nuclei of quartz sand grains; (3) the silica-bearing solutions frequently also contained iron. ‘These differences caused the changes involved to take place as follows: The oolites composed of unstable aragonite began to gradually change to the more stable form calcite, just as in the organic ~ accumulations around coral reefs at the present time a part of the.ara- gonite quickly changes to calcite. This change frequently started near the foreign nucleus, but in many cases also near the outer margin of the oolites; it gave rise to the minute rhombic crystals which can still be seen under a high power of the microscope. ‘Then silica-laden waters began to percolate through this oolite stratum. Because of the molecular influence or molecular affinity of the quartz sand grain nuclei, this silica in many oolites began to replace the aragonite near the nuclear sand grain and to secondarily enlarge that sand grain. The calcium carbonate which had already changed to calcite was more stable and it remained as minute rhombic crystals within the first zone of secondary enlargement, giving to it the dusty appearance which has already been noted. In many cases this secondary enlargement continued until it passed beyond the zone in which incipient calcite crystallization had taken place. In such cases the aragonite more distant from the nuclear sand grain was com- pletely replaced, giving rise to the clear outer zone of secondary enlarge- ment, and this zone frequently develops partial to more or less perfect crystal boundaries of quartz. The outer zones, for reasons which it is not easy to explain, are generally composed of granular or finely fibrous quartz or chalcedony. ‘The interspaces, as in the previous case, are gen- erally filled with somewhat coarser fibrous quartz, all of the fibers being placed perpendicular to the circumference of the original oolite when. PENNSYLVANIA SILICEOUS OOLITES 767 they start from the outer margin of the oolite. The larger interspaces may be filled by irregular granules or fibers not related to the oolites. In some instances the nuclei have not been secondarily enlarged, and then the fibrous quartz deposit has started to form at the very beginning of alteration. Apparently the fibrous material and the secondary en- largement have both been formed simultaneously in different grains from the same solution (plate 28, figure 3). These silica solutions seem to have carried iron also, and this has been deposited as the oxide in the fibrous zones together with the silica. In the slides studied by the pres- ent writer this occurred in only minute amounts, but Diller has observed cases in which it formed a thick dense layer around the nucleus. The amount of iron present must have been very small, as is indicated by the following analyses, but it must have been deposited simultaneously with the quartz, and this throws an important light on the origin of ferruginous oolites, as will be explained later. Analyses of siliceous Oolite from State College, Pennsylwania A B Cc ROROS MRE ME aie) 204 oo) oer aialia 8 ooe 8, oreo avals ste Niele obs 95.83 98.72 98 .26 MNES a oa cicisar Scam os Sk eiaiias'e! si duele Gr avece Br Stas) 98.72 98.26 MMe Neier aioe) meee oe 01s eb-eace,aa ce ece ees 1.93 .09 .19 TER Cee AUB SRR aa ng area Pa EEACE eae rare oy mesons ate SRUOPM IND eters 5-5 fen ene hale See eee So clar wleese die! ew Saban .26 28 MG SRO MOI ELON: © ievercts: arcvelele ee sie! o's g'eiese) Dh aete (ele 34 54 100.69 99.95 99.89 A. Barbour and Torrey: American Journal of Science, III, Volume XL, pages 246-249. These authors record a trace of MgO in this analysis. It is possible that the minute rhombic crystals in the cloudy zone of second- ary enlargement may be dolomite. B. W. Bergt: Gesellschaft Isis in Dresden, Abhandlungen 15, pages 115-124. C. Ibid. The source of the silica was undoubtedly sponge spicules and diatoms, one or both, or, perhaps, radiolarian skeletons, which were originally either in the same beds as the oolites or in beds adjacent to them. The process of siliceous replacement was not a limited phenomenon, as indicated by many of the papers published on this subject, for these siliceous oolites occur not only over many square miles in the vicinity of State College and Bellefonte, but also in the eastern part of the State, in the oolitic beds of the same horizon—as, for example, near Allentown and north of Bethlehem. The chert boulders of the former (State Col- lege) vicinity are not limited in number to a few which might have 768 T, C. BROWN—OOLITES AND OOLITIC TEXTURE formed around hot springs, but are widely distributed at many horizons in this Lower Ordovician limestone. Chert bands and even bands of crystalline quartz resulting from the replacement of the original lime- stone and containing minute rhombic crystals similar to those within the oolites can be found. Where the limestones have been cracked and shattered during folding, quartz stringers and quartz veins can be found. An almost exact parallel to the course of events here outlined for the silicification of these oolites has led to the preservation of fossils at a slightly higher horizon in a magnesian limestone bed which has been quarried near Henderson’s Station, Montgomery County, Pennsylvania. The dynamic forces affecting these limestone beds have completely de- stroyed the fossils except where they have been preserved by silicification. : In this case the fossils, Maclurea and Raphistoma, possessed a shell more resistant than the surrounding matrix. The silica-bearing solutions therefore attacked the matrix, removing that and depositing quartz about the fossil shells. This quartz gave rise to quartz crystals, with their long axes perpendicular to the surface of attachment, and they continued to grow until they filled the cavities within the shells, and when the shells were close together the interspaces among the adjacent shells also. This produces a result’ that is apparently exactly comparable to the filling of the interspaces among the oolites, except that in the former case the quartz crystals frequently attained a length of an eighth to a quarter of an inch, while in the latter they rarely attained the same fraction of a millimeter in length. In the original Henderson Station fossils the shells were evidently of calcite and more resistant than the matrix. They have, however, been removed by circulating waters and | are now indicated only by the hollow molds within the quartz casing. CLINTON OoLITIcC [Ron ORE The Clinton oolitic iron ores are so widely distributed through the HKastern States from New York to Alabama and westward to Wisconsin and they occur within such narrow limits vertically in the geological column that they early attracted attention and have frequently been dis- cussed. ‘The Clinton ores are generally divided into two classes—the fossiliferous ores and the oolitic ores. The oolitic character is, however, the most constant feature and only the oolites are to be considered here. In describing the New York ores, Newland and Hartnagel say that one of the most characteristic features is “the almost universal presence of. oolitic grains in the ores, even those which are apparently of purely fos- siliferous nature.” *® Oolitic grains are almost always present in the- ‘ON. Y. State Museum Bull. 123, p. 51. CLINTON OOLITIC IRON ORE 769 Clinton ores of the Southern States, as is clearly indicated by the follow- ing statements. In describing the Clinton ores of the Birmingham dis- ‘trict, Burchard says: “One of the two varieties of ore generally predomi- nates in a bed, but in certain localities the fossil and oolitic materials are mixed im nearly equal proportions.” *° McCallie in describing the ores from Georgia says: “In some of the beds these particles make up the greater part of the ore, while in other beds they are almost entirely wanting.” * As the writer’s field experience with these Clinton ores has been rather limited, the following description is based largely on thin sections and the published reports of those who have made a special study of this subject. , The Clinton oolites possess a concentric structure which is not always apparent in thin section under the microscope, but which can be readily seen if the individual spherules are separated from the matrix and tapped with a light hammer. Each spherule will break into a series of concen- tric shells. The material is so opaque that this concentric structure can not be seen under the microscope, but the nature of the nucleus is readily made out. This nucleus usually consists of a well rounded quartz sand grain, but it may be a fragment of a shell. According to McCallie, some of the spherules may have a central nucleus of oxide of iron surrounded by a layer of calcite or silica, which in turn may be inclosed in layers of oxide of iron. He furthermore reports that in nearly every section of these oolites from Georgia spherules can be found with a nucleus of a granular, green, or yellowish green mineral. In some cases this green mineral occurs as granules within the spherule even when they do not form the nucleus. When the spherules are treated with hydrochloric acid, the iron oxide is dissolved out and there remains a skeleton of silica with a spongy and porous texture. This silica is often arranged in concentric layers which can be peeled off lke the layers of an onion. This silica is amorphous.* These oolites of iron ore are very frequently associated with fragments of fossils which have been more or less completely replaced by the iron oxide. When these are treated with hydrochloric acid, they, too, leave behind a skeleton of silica, although this material can not be seen in microscopic sections.** : This description is sufficient to indicate that the Clinton iron ore is made up in part of true oolites with concentric structure and generally 40 Bull. 400, U. S. Geological Survey, p. 26. “1 Bull. 17, Geol. Survey Georgia, p. 168. “McCallie: Loc. cit., pp. 173-174. 48 Smyth: Loe. cit., p. 489. 770 T, C. BROWN—-OOLITES AND OOLITIC TEXTURE with nuclei of sand grains or some foreign material. These oolites are — in almost every case mingled or associated with fossils or fragments of fossils composed of the same material, namely, iron oxide mingled with a certain amount of amorphous silica. Both oolites and fossils are, as a rule, imbedded in a matrix of calcium carbonate, sometimes in a granu- lar condition and sometimes in the form of rhombohedral crystals. If these fossils and oolites were composed of calcium carbonate we would have an association exactly similar to that which is forming today around the Red Sea and certain deep-sea islands like the Bahamas and Ber- — mudas, or like that which accumulated during the Pleistocene around the Florida Keys. The fossils certainly were not originally formed of iron oxide and silica, and the oolites have just as certainly undergone the same changes and passed through the same history as the fossils. Evidently both were calcium carbonate originally, and they have been changed by silica-bear- ing ferruginous solutions and molecular replacement to the iron oxide and silica of which they are now composed. The process of replacement was exactly the same in general outline as that described for the replace- ment of the State College siliceous oolites. It differed from that process chiefly in that here ferruginous salts were dominant in the solutions, with silica playing a subordinate part, while in the siliceous oolite re- placement silica was the dominant material in solution and ferruginous salts were present in an amount only sufficient to give a faint color to the concentric layers or occasionally form a coating around the nuclear sand grain. Smyth and others have considered these Clinton oolitic ores direct chemical precipitates from ferruginous solutions,-and they have based their argument on Newberry’s statement that similar ores are now form- ing in many Swedish lakes.** The conditions under which these Swedish lake ores are accumulating are certainly far from comparable with those under which the Clinton ores accumulated; furthermore, the recent de- scriptions of these Swedish lake ores hardly suggest that they could ever become ores like those of the Clinton beds.** Smyth has undoubtedly presented the strongest arguments in favor of the original deposition of the iron ore as an oolitic iron oxide. Those arguments which have a direct bearing on the present discussion may be summarized as follows: (1) “How is it possible for an iron-bearing 44 J. S. Newberry: Genesis of the ores of iron. School of Mines Quarterly, November, 1880. “For descriptions of the Swedish lake ores see J. A. Philips and Henry Louis: A treatise on ore deposits, 1896, p. 538; also R. Beck: The nature of ore deposits (W. H. Weed), vol. i, 1905, pp. 100-101. CLINTON OOLITIC IRON ORE Tin solution to pass through this compact calcite (of the matrix) until the spherule is reached, and then begin to deposit the iron and replace the calcite?” (2) If the ore resulted from the alteration of a limestone, the alteration would begin at the outside of the spherules and work toward the center. After the outer layers were altered they must have served to protect the interior and some trace of the interior should be preserved. (3) If the ore was produced by substitution, it must have been precipi- tated first as iron carbonate, and if so it is difficult to account for its present composition. These arguments against the replacement of original calcareous oolites may be answered categorically: (1) If the original calcareous oolites were formed as such oolites are being formed today under all conditions, they were built of calcium car- bonate in the mineral form aragonite, a mineral much less stable than calcite, and hence the first to be attacked by circulating solutions of any kind. These aragonite oolites would, therefore, most surely be replaced before any of the surrounding matrix was replaced by the ferruginous and silica-bearing solutions. Many fossils were originally composed of aragonite, and others which are not so constituted have the calcite of their skeletons in a more soluble form than the crystalline material which fills the interspaces among them. This is true of the fragments around a modern coral reef and was, undoubtedly, true in Clinton time. The fossil shells were, however, less easily aifected than the aragonite spher- - ules, and this is clearly indicated by the fact that in many of the fossil fragments the central interior part has not been replaced. (2) The outer, earliest replaced zones do not form impervious cases, however dense they may appear under the microscope. Circulating solu- tions can penetrate these outer layers and alter the interior just as cir- culating solutions can enter a spherical agate, or a geode, and build up the interior after the outer shell or case has been completed. It is well known that fossils may be molecularly replaced by silica or other sub- stances, such as pyrite, after they have been completely incased in a — matrix. If the numerous fossils of the New Scotland beds of the Lower Devonian of eastern New York can be completely replaced by silica while they are incased in a matrix of limestone, or if the cephalopods of the Middle Devonian can be replaced by pyrite, is it not reasonable to argue that the silica-bearing ferruginous solutions could penetrate the granular crystalline calcite matrix of the Clinton oolites and fossils to bring about their replacement ? (3) It is clearly stated by those who have studied these ores most carefully, both in New York and in the more southern outcrops, that Tiley T. C. BROWN-—OOLITES AND OOLITIC; TEXTURE some of the iron does occur as the carbonate. In Georgia, pyrite even is present to a certain extent. As already pointed out, McCallie records the fact that in the Georgia ores many of the spherules show green or yellowish green granules within them. hese increase in numbers as the sections are taken from greater depths, and a diamond drill core from the Birmingham district at a depth of 800 feet from the surface reveals a large amount of this material (called glauconite by McCalhe). This suggests that perhaps the reactions outlined by Cayeux for the European oolitic iron ores may all have taken place in the history of the formation of the Clinton ores. The possible replacements in passing from iron carbonate to the minerals now found in the ores are graphically sum- marized in figure 2. Calcium carbonate would first be changed to sider- Calcite Siderite Chlorite Hematite Limonite Hematite Pyrite Quartz FIGURE 2.—Graphic Summary of mineralogic Changes in Ores Modified from Cayeux. This shows the various mineral changes through which the aragonite oolites may have passed between their original condition and their present condition. ite, and then this might give rise to any one of the minerals—red hema- tite, limonite, chlorite (Cayeux = glauconite of McCallie), pyrite, or quartz. ; It is not within the field of the present paper to discuss the origin of the Clinton ores. The writer is convinced that all of the iron now found in the ore beds was probably deposited in them or near them in some form or other, but not as an oxide of oolitic texture. The iron oxide of the oolites is a secondary mineral exactly as the iron oxide of the fossils is a secondary mineral. Both fossils and oolites have been replaced by iron ore and silica which have come from some outside source; but it is believed that this source was within the beds where these ores are now found, and that the replacement was produced by slow movements of ground water. In the discussion of the siliceous oolites it was suggested that the silica probably came from diatoms and sponge spicules. 'The silica here might have been derived from the same source ; but 16 seems. CLINTON OOLITIC IRON ORE - : a YE} more likely that both the silica and the iron were originally deposited in these beds, as suggested by McCallie, in the form of glauconite. . If this be true, the iron is secondary in respect to the oolites, but not necessarily secondary in respect to the Clinton beds, although in all probability some lateral movement has taken place during the interchange of ma- terials and replacements of the oolites and fossils. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS From the observations here recorded it seems evident, therefore, that the recent oolites now forming in Great Salt Lake and Pyramid Lake are like those now forming in hot springs and in- the open ocean, com- posed of calcium carbonate in the mineral form aragonite, and they very frequently contain sand grains or nuclei of other foreign material. They probably are due to direct chemical precipitation caused by a reaction of sodium carbonate on the calcium sulphate held in solution by the water. The sodium carbonate in Great Salt Lake may be due to the decay of the dead minute alg found so closely associated with these oolites below the limit of wave action.. The argument in favor of these oolites having been derived from solutions of calcium sulphate is greatly strengthened by the fact that the great deposits of the oolitic sand along the shore of the lake are confined to a stretch near the mouth of the Jordan River, and this river until two or three decades ago carried calcium sulphate in solu- tion in excess of any other salt. This salt is now exceeded in amount by sodium chloride, due to the effects. of irrigation along the course of the river, but it is still the most prominent calcium salt. The older oolitic beds of Pennsylvania were probably all originally laid down as beds of calcareous oolites composed of the mineral aragonite. This mineral, being unstable under ordinary rock-forming conditions, soon began to change. Where the beds were not affected by waters bear- ing other minerals in solution they simply changed to the:more stable mineral calcite, and in doing so they often retained their original fibrous radiated and concentric structure. Sometimes, however, they became more or less completely changed into crystalline calcite, occasionally with twinned laimelle. When the circulating waters contained magnesium salts in solution the oolites became altered to dolomite, and in doing so lost their con- centric and fibrous structure. The oolitic structure is then only shown by the faint outlines of the original oolites, sometimes accentuated by a ring of rhombohedral crystals around their margin, denelones when, the process of alteration first commenced. TTA T, C. BROWN—OOLITES AND OOLITIC TEXTURE When the circulating waters contained silica in solution the oolites were frequently replaced by silica. If the oolite had an original nucleus consisting of a quartz sand grain, this was frequently secondarily en- larged by the deposition of silica around it and in optical continuity with it. In other oolites the replacement was accomplished either by the deposition of granular quartz or of finely fibrous chalcedony. In any case minute rhombs of calcite are frequently inclosed in the replacing silica, showing clearly that the aragonite had in part changed to calcite before replacement by silica began. With the silica is often deposited minute quantities of iron oxide intimately mixed with the fibrous chal- cedony. At the Clinton horizon in the Silurian, in Pennsylvania, and in other States along the Appalachian mountain belt, occurs one or more beds of iron ore which are either fossiliferous or oolitic. Oolites are present to some extent in all of these ores. They were evidently formed originally as aragonite oolites and later changed, together with the associated fos- sils, by ferruginous solutions, into oolites composed of iron oxide and silica intimately mixed, but with the iron oxide greatly in excess. It is very probable that the silica replacing the oolites of the Ordo- vician, and the iron and silica replacing the oolites of the Clinton, came from material already in the beds and at no great distance from where it now occurs. The silica probably came from sponge spicules and di- atoms, and the iron (with its associated silica, perhaps) from green sand or glauconite. BIBLIOGRAPHY The following list includes only the more important works consulted by the writer in the preparation of the present paper. Many of these papers contain further references, especially to the earlier literature on the subject: 1667. Hooker, RosBert: Micrography, or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies made by magnifying glasses, with observations and inquiries thereupon. 1851. Dr La BrEcHE, Sir HENRy T.: The Geological Observer, pages 122-123. 1857. VirRLET-D’AoustT: Sur les ceufs d’insectes donnant lieu 4 la formation d’oolithes dans des caleaires lacustres au Mexique. Compt. rend. 45, page 865. 1858. Rocers, H. D.: Geology of Pennsylvania, Volume I, page 238. 1872. Dana, JAMES D.: Corals and coral islands. 1877. CHAMBERLIN, T. C.: Clinton iron-ore deposits. Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Volume II, pages 327-335. 1879. 1880. 1884. 1885. 1887. 1888. 1889. 1889. 1889. 1890. 1890. 1891. 1891. 1892. 1892. 1892, 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. BIBLIOGRAPHY 775 Sorpy, H. C.: On the structure and origin of limestone. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, Volume XXXV, pages 56-95. NEWBERRY, J. S.: Genesis of the ores of iron. School of Mines Quar- terly, November. DINvILLIERS, E. V.: Second Geological Survey of nee aa Vol- ume T4, page 406. RUSSELL, I. C.: Geological history of Lake Lahontan. Monograph 11, U. S. Geological Survey. PortEerR, JOHN B.: The iron ores and coals of Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engi- neers, Volume XV, pages 170-218. SEELEY, H. G.: The oolitic texture in rocks. Bath Meeting, British Association for the Advancement of Science, Proceedings, pages 674- 675. -RUSSELL, I. C.: Subaerial decay of rocks. Bulletin 52, U. S. Geological Survey, pages 22-28. WETHERED, H.: On the microscopic structure of the Jurassic pisolite. Geological Magazine, Decade III, Volume VI, pages 196-200. WEED, W. H.: Formation of travertine and siliceous sinter by the vege- tation of hot springs. Ninth Annual Report, U. S. Geological Survey, pages 613-676. Barpour, E. H., and JosepH Torrey, Jr.: Notes on the microscopic structure of oolite, with analyses. American Journal of Science, third series, Volume XL, pages 246-249. GILBERT, G. K.: Lake Bonneville. Monograph I, U. S. Geological Sur- vey. ForrstgE, A. F.: On the Clinton oolitic iron ores. American Journal of Science, third series, Volume XLI, pages 28-29. KIMBALL, J. P.: Genesis of iron ores by isomorphous and pseudomor- phous replacement of limestone, etcetera. American Geologist, Vol- ume VIII, pages 355-358. ‘ Beret, W.: Ueber einen Kieseloolith aus Pennsylvanium. Gesellschaft Isis in Dresden. Abhandlungen 15, pages 115-124. ROTHPLETZ, A.: On the formation of oolite. American Geologist, Vol- ume X, pages 279-282. SmMytTH, C. H., Jr.: On the Clinton iron ore. American Journal of Sci- ence, third series, Volume XLIII, pages 487-496. ZIRKEL, F.: Lehrbuch der Petrographie, Volume I, pages 484-490. Hovey, E. O.: Siliceous oolite from Pennsylvania. Bulletin of the Geo- logical Society of America, Volume V, pages 627-629. WETHERED, EK. B.: The formation of oolite. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, Volume LI, pages 196-209. Hopkins, T. C.: Oolites and oolitic limestones in general (with bibli- ography). Indiana Department of Geology and Natural Resources, Twenty-first Annual Report, pages 397-410. 776 1897. 1898. 1900. 1901. 1903. 1903. 1906. 1907. 1908. 1908. 1909. 1909. 1909. 1909. 1909. 1910. 1910. 1910. 1911. 1912. T. C. BROWN—OOLITES AND OOLITIC TEXTURE WIELAND, G. R.: Eopaleozoic hot springs and the origin of the Penn- sylvania siliceous oolites. American Journal of Science, fourth se- ries, Volume IV, pages 262-264. % Ditter, J. S.: Siliceous oolite. Bulletin 150, U. S. Geological Survey, pages 95-97; see also pages 102-105. SHERZER, W. H.: Geological Survey of Michigan, Volume VII, pages 60-66. MEIGEN, W.: Wine einfache Reaktion zur Unterscheidung von Aragonit und Kalkspath. Centralblatt ftir Mineralogie, Geologie, und Pale- ontologie, pages 577-578. Linck, G.: Die Bildung der Oolithe und Rogensteine. Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geologie, und Paleontologie, B. B. 16, pages 495-518. GEIKIB, Sir A.: Text-book of Geology. PHALEN, W. C.: Origin and occurrence of certain iron ores of north- eastern Kentucky. Economic Geology, Volume I, pages 660-673. BLACKWELDER, ELi0oT: Geological researches in China. Carnegie In- stitution of Washington, Publication 54, Volume I, pages 378-383. McCatiiz, 8. W.: Fossil iron ores of Georgia. Bulletin 17, Geological Survey of Georgia. NEWLAND, D. H., and C. A. HAaRTNAGEL: Iron ores of the Clinton for- mation of New York State. New York State Museum Bulletin 123. BuRCHARD, E. F.: The Clinton iron-ore deposits in Alabama. 'Transac- tions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Volume XL, pages 75-133. GRABAU, A. W., and W. H. SHERzZER: The Monroe formation of south- ern Michigan and adjoining regions. Michigan Geological and Bio- logical Survey, Publication 2, Geological Series 1, pages 35-37. Linck, G.: Neber Bildung der Oolithe und Rogensteine. Janaische Zeitsch., Bd. 45, pages 267-278. NEWLAND, D. H.: The Clinton iron-ore deposits in New York State. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining Engineers, Volume XL, pages 165-183. RUTLEDGE, J. J.: The Clinton iron-ore deposits in Stone Valley, Hunt- ingdon County, Pennsylvania. ‘Transactions of the American Insti- tute of Mining Engineers, Volume XL, pages 134-164. BURCHARD, E. F., CHAS. Butts, and EH. C. EcKEL: Iron ores, fuels, and fluxes of the Birmingham District, Alabama. Bulletin 400, U. S. Geological Survey. FiscHrErR, H.: Experimentelle Studien ueber die Entstehung der Sedi- mentgesteine. Monatsberichte d. Deutschen Geologischen Gesell- schaft, pages 247-260. VAUGHAN, T. W.: A contribution to the history of the Floridian Pla- teau. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Publication 183, pages 99-185. Pe CLARKE, FEF. .W.: The data of geochemistry. Bulletin 491, U. S. Geo- logical Survey. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Year Book No. 11, pages 153-162. BIBLIOGRAPHY vera 1912. Moorr, E. S.: Siliceous oolites and other concretionary structures in the vicinity of State College, Pennsylvania. Journal of Geology, Volume XX, pages 259-269. 1912. ZirciER, V.: The siliceous oolites of central Pennsylvania. American Journal of Science, fourth series, Volume XXIV, pages 113-127. 1913. Matson, G. C., and SAMUEL SANForD: Geology and ground waters of Florida. Water Supply Paper 319, U. S. Geological Survey. 1918. VaucHan, T. W.: Remarks on the geology of the Bahama Islands and on the formation of the Floridian and Bahaman oolites. Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, Volume III, pages 302-304. LVI—Butu. Gro. Soc. AM., Vou. 25, 1913 778 T. C. BROWN—OOLITES AND OOLITIC TEXTURE EXPLANATION OF PLATES PLATE 26.—Micro-sections of oolitic Structures rene 1.—‘“‘Kettering Stone.” ; ate Reduced from the plate in Bieoee’ s Micrography, 1667. This rock occurs in.the Jurassic oolite, near Retiere Northamp- tonshire, England. FIGURE 2.—Photomicrograph of sections of oolites from Great Salt Lake, Utah. Nicols crossed. X15. The large grain near the center has a sanidine nucleus and shows the dark cross distinctly. The two outer zones of this grain differ in texture from the gen- eral mass of the grain. FicureE 3.—Great Salt Lake oolites. Reflected light. After Sherzer. Figure 4.—Section of Florida oolites from the Pleistocene. Nicols crossed. X15. Many of the oolites have undergone a partial recrystallization. FicgurRE 5.—Section of Cambrian oolites from Waddle, Pennsylvania. CeOngia Ob sk eo eee Sid eh ets Aura —— —— — Wowlsiana Ol: 22s nein seus eee See ee OE MO NAIS OS Lois as Sie osteo Gh eects 164 Bascom, F., Introduction of il beac OF, DEDLOH iA od Ore Grahame Brenan ure Gus able amaheteniccy 58 BASIN region, Oligocene of........... 153 i Coast Tertiary forma- honsesCocrEelanlonmotan see 156 Bassumer, R. S., Discussion of Alaska PaAleozoieeSecuions yeas ree eee 137 —-—-—new paleogeographic maps by. 136 JRA VAueIN, JUNO MAWES WO soos sob oe 597 BEADNELL, H. J. L., cited on inclosed TAKES HOT MBASIA ies ie a Genes Cae ee 563 IB WARIPAIW) | SIVATOTR Gero tee aetna cet mene 346 Beck, R., cited on ore deposits....... 770 Becker, G. F., Reference to speech at Gimnner | Diy Avie ee sue mene case ea 80 BELLY River beds ages ACA Oe cet r GR 369-371 River beds AIS Se cee Ss REET? oe I CoRR eS aE NN 369 —-—-— correlated with Ane Judith RVR LWCOS Aaa Miah See ene asie tae Weta 380 —— ——-_, Mossils from......... 370-377, 379 — — fauna compared with other faunas 387 BELLINGHAM series, Rocks of...... 448-449 BENTON, Sandstome! Vigie evade) ee. cee 345 BERCKHEIMER, F.; Caleareous alge OXON WAS SMMC. 5s ob acc kbc oo ae WE7 —, Discussion of intraformational cor- TUS ALOT g ede mes ean tees lan tiene Bul BERG Wer cited, on oolates 4a.) ene 760 Berry, E. W., appointed Secretary for Group B, Second Section......... 39 a CLLCH WON WVillcoxe Morass ane e BIB BI. BIBLIOGRAPHY of formation names..... 50 BiGELow, F. H., cited on storm tracks. 509 BELGIUM, Reference to formations along north coast of 321 Cer OW Cee taCa uta Ot Chip eMC Ena esr >= —— Mammal-bearing horizons in. BD BioTitn granites of “Diamond Hill- Cumberland GHSERTG@b goers ee ee 459 BLACKWELpDrER, E., cited on oolitic lime- ae Sa toga as) fe Ree Renn Wa ic gene Nie OAT 74 BUAKE, J. cited on Stony lava ee 602 BLAK®, W. i Reference to fossil shells collected in California Diss eee 162 Bouton, W, S., cited on pillow lavas... 605 OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA > Paves Bonney, T. G., cited on spheroidal ser- JOYS OULD Ga peee enna Mme Cr rales wie Ay 601 See an ieee tees aN 634 IOVS LOVE HOMUNBNTOIN Foe adngocssonoes 286 BoORNIDE, Composition Oke. see 90 . BOUNDARY between Cretaceous and Ter- tiary in North America as indicated by stratigraphy and invertebrate eObTBIS BAD MG ISBNS 6 ao bo a BounpDgEy, EH. S., Title of paper by..... 30WEN. N. L., Crystallization of cer- 341 124 tain pyroxene-bearing artificial z aoe deh gran Meine Sey aReNGLAA Ged oy Goa 0 91 BowEN, C. F., Reference to dinosaurs LOUMEMDW ates ca eee ee 328-329 — cited on triceratop-bearing beds..... 348 Box. pbs Reterence ton eee eee 163 BRACHIOPODA, Cambrian.............. 137 BRADLEY, , Geological work in Georgia OBR ERA GeO ea ee 174 BraHE, Tycho, Reference to meteoro- logic observations of......... 549-550 BRANNER, J. C., elected chairman of Cordilleran Section...) ) eee 125 —, Geological work in Arkansas of. 167 BRASSFIELD formation, Relation of the Cataract. to «thease foie ee 291. —- Sea, Paleogeography of............ 292 Brauns, R., cited on pillow structure.. 598 BRAZIL, Reference to glaciation in..... 31 BRIGHAM, A Pes cited on glacial phe- nomena in Hudson and Mohawk VAC VS) his coe ne Gn so enema Inve memes 70 BritisH AMERICA, Pillow lavas of..... 611 = sms. Palllow: Waiyals Oise eee 601 BRONTOTHERIUM, New method of re- SUORING saineaie a ieee a ceeteten ane 0, 406 Brooks, A. H., cited on agriculture in geological reportsia) seus eee eee 161 —-—-Nasina series of Alaska...... 186 — — — Nation River oe of - Aas Kat Pee eeh mere ele a aes Ea aes 199 -— ——- — Upper Derenhem shales and cherts: 70 sAllaskayrt2 a aces eee 196 —-, Geological work in Alaska by...... 180 Brooks, C. G. P., cited on climatic changes st lyf ahah Pca EEE Noa RO 541 Broom, R.; Relations of the American pelycosaurs to the South African dinocephalians ..... a1 Rg gece Mur eee 143 ; Note on the American Triassic SenUS —PIAGCEHGS WUUGUS ae 141 —;Structure and affinities of the mul- ; tituberculaita (5.8 Pokey cee eee 140 Brown, B., cited on dinosaur fauna of WOW a GM OM TOME seen nee 337 — —-— Lance formation............. Bye eS Laramie. esis a ees Ame eee 338 — — —relation strips of the Edmon- CON = LOLIMATIOM 24500 .c ener ce ka eee 392 —, Collections from Paskapoo. beds by. 388-389 —, Cretaceous - Hocene correlation in New Mexico, Wyoming, Montana, AIMDOLEAS eS Hae Bees nen eae 355 ——, Discussion of symposium papers by. 130 —, Reference to symposium paper of... 130 ——-— —— investigations by...........0- 323 Brown, T. C., cited on decomposition of MATIMEG AlSee vee serie We: ace a eee PITAL —, Discussion of Adirondack geology by 47 — elected to Paleontological Society. 134 ; Origin of oolites and the oolitic LEXLUEE Ok LOCKS 4s sy sien eae 58, 745 BRUCKNER, -——, Reference to 35-year CYCLE OL saa’ hw Series eee ee ene 563 BRUMBY, , Reference to assistance rendered Sir Charles Lyell....... 163 Bryant, H. C.; Vertebrate fauna of the Triassic limestones at Cow Bo Shasta County, California........ 155 INDEX TO VOLUME 25 Page BRYANT, WILLIAM L., elected to Pale- ontological SIGCIATEYS & 816 6) hioan ick OROHOES ee BupDINGTON, A. F.; Reconnaissance of the Algonkian rocks of southeast 134 INenyrOUnrGlleam Gd sel iy sieges ts) cleus oles aes 40 BEEKLY, A. L., cited on geology of In- AiAeGeSCEVAULONS)- « .:be\. estes et. ss. 350 —.— — triceratops-bearing beds....... 348 - BUCKLEY, 5 Reference to geological work AEs 6 O86 Ss Pee tn ae: OS Tee en OES 6 BuuLBous budding, Theory of origin of PHM ONVERLEAVIAS TD Var we cee os sais sinless 646 BURCHARD, , cited on oolitic iron OMICS IEEE Noh vise okay whe laterite ayey de as 169 Bure, L., cited on climatic pulsations. . 532-53 Buriep gorge of the Hudson River and geologic relations of Hudson sy- phon of the Catskill aqueduct ; WwW. O. ra 4-8) ad OS ROMER ECR ME BurLInG, L. D.; Cambrian and related Ordovician prachiopoda—a study of their inclosing sediments. ez 421 —ecited on Cambrian fossils from ASIIBISTREL se! 0 GROIN 6 cone ce Dae ee an 193 —, Discussion of new paleographic maps ne MSEC ETalidii cla! (cl feiwa, (situ 's\,\es ee] 0) )ee) © 00), 0 ©) .0) @ @ 2) —; ewes Paleozoic section of the Alaska-vukon boundary........... lott Burrs, CHARLES, Reference to Warren ROMOM DEP REIC ea cs cheact ticks Diswele sate sr © ahs 216 BuwaLpa; J. P.; Mammalian fauna of the Pleistocene beds at Manix, in the Mohave Desert region........ 156 By-LAws, Amendment to the.......... 49 = OhepnenG ecological Society........-.% 97 CasBots Hap section, Ontario......... 319 sen === SIRI “Gat ee Gah e ONS ence en emer cnn 280 CAIRNES, D. D.; Geological section along the Yukon-Alaska boundary line -between Yukon and Alaska NSIS | GiGi boa EE Soe en eee 179 — cited on the Racquet group of Alaska 198 CaiRNS, F. I., Deseription and analysis of minerals LOWY ig cede 3 ater ome 67 CALCAREOUS algze from the Silurian; Nia CRC IIN@ MNES fest sec seis esis © eel e es 137 CALIFORNIA, Charts of climatic changes VMN ee tse sleet s..o)'5 a, ein ale’ > auye as 530 , Contact ‘metamorphic minerals in. 125 __'Cretaceous-Tertiary, (OMIMEBKEIS Ns Gaia A 343 —. Glaciation on the northern coast EOC Cn OMe ay ales io! sels tists taeetion aieilews mrss « 120 = TGOlGcin —Sranodiorite Of. ....... ... 124 = VAR EIMe A UHOGEME Ob... ss. 22. a2: 154 —, Method of determining age Ter- AUP TOLMVA TIONS, Ls.) 25.66 6 tere « Way -—, Miocene dolphin from............. 142 Sem TON Man ARV USI ODE. 2 ce era. asue ofle cv cesneee: ase 618 —, Relation between Cretaceous and MINES IE Ven (Olt tstss ais) ellebeten ns +s) seieis ana arene 152 — — — Oligocene and Hocene in...... 153 — Triassic limestones. Fauna of the... 155 —, Vaqueros of southern............. 153 a Wokiations Im rainfall im. ...... 1. UPA CALORIC versus cyclonic form of solar ANA OMINESIS (ccc smenes averse Grchtnasl ec sianene vee 52 CALVmeRT, W. R.. cited on erosion sur- faces in South Dakota........... 326 —- — — geology of Indian resery ations. 350 — — — Lance HOMMMATOMe es yeu lee ke 330 — -— -—],ivingston formation of Mon- TUDE LG oF pA ed ore ORO AM ar oe ee eee ae 346 — —-— stratigraphic relations of Liy- POS STOM LORMA TOM is oo nase 5 eer 346 CAMBRIAN and related Ordovician brachiopoda—a study of their in- closing sediments; L. D. Burling... 421 783 Page CAMBRIAN and Ordovician faunas of southeastern Newfoundland; G. van STEREO) Aeaty anna P eect) done Koch OMB IEG O-Ona iC 138 === (COMO TNS pooh om Sob bobo ds wooo oe 268 —brachiopoda, Comparison of litho- logic, stratigraphic, and geographic LAMA MOL Ge ete aaa eke eee ot anemone — —, List OL A benassi eee 424-427 —fossiliferous localities of Diamond EMEC umb eran eis Cipenerienenel: 444 —of western North America; C. D. WC OG Ne es ER aia eae an Soh onto te ne 130 —rocks of Diamond Hill-Cumberland GISTRIGE Hert Mea ee as Sa het Sanaa 445-446 -— sedimentary rocks of Alaska........ 187 CANADA, Devonic black shale of....... 137 =, 1OGbhonovariera. ioTOKONO OvE,,gancuoo0ne 337 —, Glacial deposits of Don River, On- ERTL er Rect thes APR CR UDR Se ST LY aS AN 205 —, Mammal-bearing beds of........... 326 CAPPS, S. R., cited on ellipsoidal green- STONESEY Fh arte ey bate rer ciowantets 620 —-— origin of pillow lavas........ 648 CARBONIFEROUS rock formations of AUIBISIKA 5 Sek ha es a eo er eee 196 CARNEY, F., Discussion of glacial de- : JOOS Mim OMNI). JOScig bc coca dons G2 CARPENTER, W. M., Geological work in Louisiana. OFA Ean eee ea eee WV CARRUTHERS, D., cited on inclosed lakes OF Mon colia fairest eile oe eels 562 CASE, EH. C.; Evidence of climatic oscil- lation in the Permo-Carboniferous : beds) Ohi Mexasiya sear teieae eee are CATARACT formations of New York and OMEATIOME OAs or nen op ateee Eee 277 —-—in Ontario, Contacts of the [plate LASS ANY ste ee Meigcgiea ts oh PRU Saale AI he bo een 287 —, Medina and Clinton, Contact be- WWE CIN dice as ee TaMee aut ub aihem nner n ea 292 —, Relation to other Siluric faunas of GING Sb Siar Riceceantoes oe recay lod eee eee ae 290 7 Laleoseosraphiv voles soe 295 Sy SOURS ane Cinna BIT CATESBY, , Geological work in Mlonida vot. Veet e nen et eer 174 CATSKILL aqueduct, Geologic relations of Hudson sy phonsorithers me... 9 — Mountains, Divergent ice-flow on the plateau northeast of the......... 68 CAUSE of the postglacial deformation of the Ontario region; J. W. Spen- COI Desc) Sa sis rene dO Re bade 65 CEYLON, Reference to climatic changes EGY Sere GA es ESM Eom OMNI TT ETH i cones cha ay tae 482 CRRAMOP SY DEUS. 25) Nika Miche eee 325 MT STAM): Wai sus che oe de dete aun eee ees 356 - lation ShipPSMOt sees eel ene Bias CENTRAL AMERICA, Climatic changes in. 539 CEPHALOPODS, Restoration of Paleozoic. 136 CERNAYSIEN beds of France and Bel- FoariDN Oa deeeAieee ey ame ete MUM in tw AYMhe wat Sate Oe 5 323 Bi tess sear en as: cei arma ce pile sc 395 CEEAD WM CK iSMAES 00-6011 t atu ane ees 285 CHALMERS, R., cited on non-glaciation One Meek VMera ISIENNGIS, Gob loon aabae 84 CHANDLER, A. C.; Antelopes in the fauna of the Rancho La Brea.... 155 CHANGES in climate of Africa and the IANTING TS CAS We cco engi hen RI ae 541 — — -— California, Charts of....... 530 ——— —~, Wffect on glacial period of.. 556 —-— pr ecipitation Ee Recabananedane MeO ene ONCE 542 — -— the crystallographical and optical properties of quartz with rise in temperature; F. HE. Wright. « 44 CHARACTERISTICS of a corrosion con- glomerate; F. W. Sardeson. 39, 265 CHART of changes in California climate. 530 ———- cloudiness and temperature anom- alies 582-583 eee eee eoeervreecv eave eeevved 784 Page CHarr of comparative storminess during period of maximum and minimum SUMS POLS erie ee ele wei 545-546 ____ distribution of loess by De Mar- THOMAS Go acaac ae pasiyctey: seh ay eee S165) —__-—Wuropean storminess during sun- spot changes........----: 516, 518, 520 _____historie changes in precipitation. . 42 CHRISTMAN, E., CLAGGET formation.........---++++-2:: 340 CrARK. B. ai: Mauna) ot the Scutella breweriana zone of the Upper Mon- ferey, SCLICS!. 2 ajerm altace eens re ‘Hal Bs SS Sindee ol SOIIESs Goa oh eso 152 CLARKE, F. W., Analyses of Salt Lake WENBIS, OMe ado Soin 2 4.59 eo Wen Oo -755 — cited on oolites.......--- ange sae 759 CLARKE, J. M., cited on Albion forma- Ben FES TATU er Us iid cue Gln. Sacro plo sIbEN cio ocA Onn E 2; _______ non - glaciation of Magdalen MENG doar do ew oe tel esis 0 84 — ; Illustrations COMMU ACLOM pays aio l geese roles toler enon 37 __-_— recent exposure of Saratoga ie SpLINese ee coke eek eel enon, 38 —, Phylogenetic development of the Hexactinelid dyctyosponges as in- dicated by the ontogeny of an Up- per Devonian species......-.-----> , Reference to speech at dinner by. -. 80 CLASTIC sediments, Mechanical composi- TOT OLE i clensde Rn aarte teens ferences ell 655 CLEAVELAND, P., Coastal plain geology |B ees Netra AC bis agmacokonoes Gloria O08 160 CLEMENTS, J. M., cited on ellipsoidal DASA ES ea ie Hae ter Gust hone te etestiomerie hone 614 Soa IDIKY SUEOMISWOMNES 5 6 o500nc000006c 615 __ ——— origin of pillow lavas.---...-- 638 CLENDENIN, , Geological work in 1G GNBNISMEUNE!,: Oils 66 sla aco bio gale old o ooo ales} CLIMATIC changes, Effect on Glacial DELIOM ace eck Chee nee. 556 —-—#$in Yucatan and Guatemala...... 539 25 = POERIOG SxqOlEnNAMONS Olisso5500¢ 544 = SOlAT My POLNeSI SOL nance 47-82 —— oscillations in Permo-Carboniferous beds: Ole MEXa Si ee ey een seetiten Wetoenierelys — provinces of the United States west of the Rockies; W. G. Reed...... 124 ET OUIISENEIOINS) Clob plo dbo wou ooo Oooo oO Dey — yardstick, Use of trees aS a........ 529 = HOMES, SMAI Cie oeeovesoo esac 540-541 CLINTON, Medina, and Cataract, Con- TEKCUS INSMWOEMi soo cass oe no oon oac 292 SS GKOMMMG MEO ORs sucao0c0dcce0nnc0000 768 CLOSE of the Cretaceous and opening of Hocene time in North America; EES MS sOSDOTI Aye Be hee mee eae iA CLOUDINESS in regions having tempera- ture anomalies, Chart of......... 582 COAL-BEARING Eocene of western Wash- ington. I. Pierce County; W. F. TOTES ye ENE Ne Pee Secs et a PAA —-formations of Utah, Wyoming, anda Newer Miexd Gowns ieee iene 345 —, Mode of deposition of............. 58 Coast ranges of California, Glaciation Th deme Mas usta mabe ee Km Ace ad erm I Le ea Nin 120 COASTAL Plain geology, Pioneers in.... 157 — subsidence in New England...,..,. 61 BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA COASTAL subsidence, The problem of... _59 Coun, F., cited on formation of pisolite 747 Couez, G. A. J., cited on origin of pillow IG EIT eine tones: Gomi ararateldteucle said. dxecd'0.0 —— —-—_ pillow structure.......... 599, 602 — —-— silica replacement..........-. 608 CoLtpEMAN, A. P., Discussion of age of IDES OMUBIEO loss sco coosao5050- =~ =— — @olorado elaciation by...) 10: 31-32 -_——-—— deformation of Ontario region Vi —-——-— earth movement in Minnesota Oh ase Roloc Re IONE LC IeaCRG: O°0.0'0 "0 —— — pillow, lava) by..222 2). cee eee 33 ——; Length and character of the earliest TM KASVSIEVGIEN INCI 5G oo Gamo bane coos Tal —eited on Carboniferous conglomerate Of “AVASK ase cos ciel Abe A ee eee 201 —-— glacial features near Toronto. 206 CoLuinrR, A. J., cited on Devonian lime- stone of Alaska) sere cise ieee 193 COLLINGWOOD section, Ontario......... 318 CoLorRADO, Continuity of marine sedi- MEN CATIONS UTM Se shee baw eect este el eee erent 345 —, Harly Tertiary glaciation in....... ol — epoch, Coal-bearing formations of [OV ee pe a Aes eR p Caan 'oem Oc 345 — epoch, Crustal oscillations during 1) 1,2 ee IR NED eens ral PO aC ec Ct atc cm 344 — group, Conglomerate of the........ 346 —, Mammal-bearing beds of........... 325 —, Mesa Verde formation in.......... 345 COMPARISON of the oysters of the lower and upper horizons of the Miocene of the Muir syncline; D Wi Vi Clues siete thence etter ane nenene 154 COMPOSITION of bornite and its relation to other sulpho-minerals; HE. : Pierag CC ae yi na MAI na BiG Ale eG oes o.019 0.0 © 90 CONCEPTION Bay, Manganese deposits a OF S58 Rahs ene eee ee ee 73 CONGLOMERATH, Characteristics of a cor- TOSTOM 1 eye 2be. ee a en 265 —of the Galena formation........... 269 — — —-— Trenton series............. 265 CONNECTICUT and Hudson valleys, Sub- mergencexOlk the na 2 ciceeta ee eeen ee ee 63 ——, Mastodon oui deriiiarsessnieeeenen iene 143 —, Pillow lavas of...... MR a hei 622 — Valley, Devonian of the............ 126 —-—, Glacial meanders, oxbows, and KeECEIES TMA ahs seca Ait ole neice arin eee eee Za —-—— Marine submergence of: s)....0. 219 “CONRAD, T. A., cited on Medina forma- ELON: eters terepge so eee Eee 285, 286 ——-——— sandstone ..............:. 298 —— 1G eCOlosiicale awOrk sOlem mice eee 161 —-—-—in Florida of...........5..... 174 — ——— Georgia of...........2000% 174 — — — — Louisiana of.............. 172 —, Medina fauna described by......... , 288 CONRAD’S term Niagara sandstone, Ref- ELENCECON eee WW ee che ae) ae 286 CONSTITUTION of the Geological So- Gleb NE as eee Soe, Ge asc ety aee 93 Corb, EH. D., cited on Judith River LAWUMA ps okie Ae aise Sie oe ee oe 393 —-—-— Paleocene ................4.4. 399 —, Inadequacy of classification of dino- SPD RCH ON gee RAB AU ehaiaiaiy Blois Ole oc 378 —, Reference to reconstruction of cama- LOSAUMEUS mye ence ne Lhe ela eee eae 143 CoprpER Mine Hill, Geological section PM TOUS) AS. Akiekansute aoe oleae oar aOR 469 CORAL-RBEF tract of Florida compared with other coral-reef areas....... 41 CORDILLERAN Section, Proceedings of the smieeting sof) thera ieee 119 CONUS: E., Coastal Plain ete ee -——, Geological work in Georgia of..... 173 INDEX TO VOLUME 25 : Page CORRELATION of the Tertiary forma- tions of the Pacific coast and ba- sin regions of western United Signtes oe ds Cs" Wieraiere onl G5 5 Sako Sindnone 156 —-— typical late Cretaceous and early TTAPRIBAY IORUNENBIOMNS 56 Sa oh acuoodo og 393 CORROSION conglomerate, Characteris- GS) OIE Bisse SES Aaa nC tector aene a eee CORSTORPHINE, G. S., cited on Carbon- iferous conglomerate of Africa. 201 CoTTinG, J. R., Geological work in Geor- gia “GE. oh LO eee WS CoTrron-CULTURE reports of the Tenth (COMBUIS Gig eterna Hee Ae nae eee re eee i CoupErR, —-—-, Geological work in (Gi@OIRSIAL! “OIEAGA Scans ene eon peer ac ee ns 174 WGovsivew bl DCACKES us 66 be states eieee ces 237 Cox, A. H., cited on pillow lava.. CraiGc, J. I., cited on climatic changes. 541 CREDNER, G. R., cited on origin of pil- NOWRA Oe ee ie Wee esos elie) fowls eee: Shel aes ie == == [Oily SRO MONKS yop eb em oe 596-597 CRETACHOUS and Tertiary, California... 152 —-—- correlated with the BWuropean SMCCESSTOI Seale ces Ga cen OMe uO ed eran ——-—_jn North America, Boundary [DOATOCIO. Gea eicec eRe auch hana Aan 341 —-—- periods, Division between..... 398 —, Assignment of Lance formation to. 353 oe GIT ne ae ee 375 ——Kocene contact in North America... 342 == 7 cotrelation in New Mexico, Wyo- ming, Montana, Alberta; B. ‘Brown 355 —in the interior province, End of the. 347 — (late) and early Tertiary formation, Gormnelaelonge Olesya sacs or 393 —of Montana, Voleanic activity in the. 346 “— of western ‘Europe i AGE TA atin Ee eee 341 — sedimentation of the interior prov- TOG soc! d Soho RET ORE Aaa ae 343 Pema SMMC CIMA Wika sro es eel che clushc vey eulecefie eh alae. 6 BO, time in North America, Close of the. 321. — Tertiary boundary in the Rocky Mountain region; F. H. Knowlton. 325 — — problem, Evidence of the Paleo- cene-vertebrate fauna on the..... 381 CRIDER, , Geological work in Mis- sissippi and Louisiana of......... Wal CRINOID arms, Use in studies of phylog- UMA’ ONES See Ce Sr ae ey Orca Ane arn Can IC 11335) CRITICISM of the Hayfordian concep- tion of isostasy regarded from the standpoint of geology; W. H. JEIGIOINS cis Gatieee Slane cence lc Lea Ieee 34 Crosspy, W. O.; Buried gorge of the Hudson River and geologic rela- tions of Hudson syphon of the Garclkonilmnquediucieycis. «alee. s - sl 89 '—-cited on Blackstone series......... 443 aaa a claphyre tows’ of Nantasket. 621 — —-— origin of pillow lavas........ 638 —.: Physiographic relations of serpen- tine, with special reference to the serpentine stock of Staten Island, INI@ART : SOONER Gia Soe nie as oe poser anaes 87 CROSS, WHITMAN, cited on the Laramie 338 —-—-— magmatic assimilation........ —-—-— unconformity in the Denver DUSTIN sires eae eee th Ses) cuetiatan wes Mucralinn la Dears 329 —~, Discussion of glaciation in Colorado LDV MMEIINEN ONG esata rise bitin Gu eroneiae ar a lceney tars 32 en Rad DECSRDI eet chatwedei ars aitente steele & 81 CRYSTALLIZATION of certain pyroxene- bearing artificial melts; L. J EXON RISTO ere ae nene Mani i I Ia eet 91 Crumss, W. V.; Comparison of the oys- ters of the lower and upper hori- zons of the Miocene of the Muir ivanell ee gare werstatscetenercaonets Ve sive best sane 8 154 CUMBERLAND-Diamond Hill district in Rhode Island-Massachusetts. . 75, 435 785 Page CUMBERLAND Hill, section through Tr CUI AUT UZ LOS hence toyelcs saves ot etrenstotaas st cculet ats 440-442 CUMBERLANDITHS of Diamond Hill-Cum- berlanadraiSitnictaweueencwc pier creaele 450 CUSHING, H. P., cited on Adirondack TOCK SE 6s ede eae ria Meenas 247, 254, 263 ——, Acknowledgments to.......... 244, 251 CYCLONIC versus calorie form of solar hypothesis Geological DAKOTAS, Mammal-bearing beds of..... Dap, N. C., Analyses of Milford granite TON. yeaa vee cicero Se aproleslfe Pe ma Ree tee: 459 —; MManeanee deposits of Conception and Trinity bays, Newfoundland. . 13 DauL, W. H., cited on Upper Oligocene Of “MIORIGAGE AA. neers Giale ee rats —, Reterenge to bicgraphical sketch of Ry Ar a CONTAAMDY ap eee rhe Southern geological work of. DALMmr, K., cited on pillow structure. . Daty, R. A., cited on belt terrane of yews COMM. ooanccdooadcod: 189 —— — magmatie assimilation........ —=—— Oo Oe joilllOmy WWE ooo oo 637-638 structure TOU CoN iae AEN alotsoeus chin Gicus Aue tees vo Dana, J. D., cited on Connecticut Valley TOLE ACES Mes CEP er ween neem ees il ue benane DON Cr er = == —= OwSia OF joillllOny AWAS, 5 56 5 640, 642 —-——-—— submergence of Connecticut Viet Ue yeh say ie oa Nl oy cram aerate oe DANIAN beds = EDOSUUSS 2 Pegging ssa aaa) cae a eae vee GUN, IREIFSIRSINGS 106 oecbbeecunosoce BAL DANIEN. (See Danian.) DarTON, N. H., cited on New Jersey ELV SHIEG Cie i cai op Grae ele ca ROS a eb = ate of Committee on Photographs DV (tata halted Sse leivan anata ay pester a aee a ea 49 ; Stratigraphy of red beds of New DY <1 CKO SRO A Te CR eR aE ot Ca Hoe 81 DATHE, E., cited on pillow structure... DAUBENY, , cited on spheroidal SICIUIGEUTOS his cgh cards usta tape eerea eer Paget Dey 1s, C. A., Discussion of oolites by. 58 - Some historical evidence of coastal subsidence in New EHngland....... 61 Davis, W. M., cited on pillow lavas.... 623 —;Sublacustrine glacial erosion in IMO WAIN s a oes hey tek oR eee ie eee 86 TD AVWIS ONS DSS 5 Sees oe a ae weet ee 3 SOG Ole NOE adalat Nee ate ae ae 302 — formation, Correlation of the....... 334 Dawson, G. M., cited on Braeburn lime- SOM Cig re hee oe eel ESA Cee nee ti Mea nen Ne men, ——-— term “Laramie”... 2.000 00...05. 359 — — — Willow Creek seriese......... 361 Day, A. L., cited on origin of pillow UFEARVZEIS ON se Pe tent ine yn RNR: ern Mae Aer 643, 645 ; Some observations of the volcano IRMA WERY Ta RYCINOINs S556 obese code 80 DEEPEST boring in West Virginia; I. C. AYSIU es eng ee 2s oT ERS ae etsy cin a a 48 DPFORMATION of the Ontario region. 65 Dr LA BrenE, H. T., cited on oolitic TEXTURE ihe SS OME a at 746-747 Dr LAPARENT, ——-, cited on the Mon- TG Ole» IBSUEMUTINS 5 Sa so Oe boo obec ue 394. DELAWARE terraces; N. H. Winchell.... 86 DELESSH, A., cited on pillow lava...... 634 IDISUMOAS, GIEVCIRMG oo coe ook coooc ade. LAS Qi Dr MARTONNE, Chart of distribution of DENCKMANN, .A., cited on pillow struc- OUT A oer eR errr Uasreinere Nees OS IU Mask epan ACe 598 TOE NVR ECS(YS te hee aL Mice hme eagle 25 PLOT Ae et sos eect Me ade aie Cefn woterae 331- 333 786 : Page Drnver formation, Correlation of the. 334 DprBy, O. A., cited on glaciation in BWA UE Ua yay tami atais taller oiedih ty 31 DESERT waters, Hrosive potential of... 88 DESHANES, , cited on extinct mol- lusecan fauna of Paris basin....... 321 DESOR, , cited on Danien stage.... 321 DEVONIAN igneous rocks........... 452-461 —_of Upper Connecticut Valley; C. H. ELE CEH COCK ieee eet ohne 126 — species of Hexactinellid dictyosponges, Development Of ss ae Sale wa Dryonic black shale of Michigan, Ohio, Canada, and Western New York in- terpreted as a paleozoic delta de- DOSES AU IWe (Gal bane Ae a eneleiee. UB7 DEVONO-CAMBRIAN limestones and dolo- mites vor CAlaskarye ree iec celia menace 90 — OrpDOvICIAN shale of Alaska........ 195 Deweky, H., cited on origin of pillow lava and structure........... 636, 638 —-—- pillow lava.......... 604, 606-607 D’HALLOY, ———, Introduction of term Cretaceous Dye sores eel eee eee 3333 DIABAS dikes in Diamond Ifill district.. 474 DiaAMOND Hill-Cumberland district, Gla- CLATEVO Me Ine a en coi alae eS ha eS eta lo 438 —-—-—-—in Rhode Island-Massachu- SOL USS a alee ete Wecera na belie reruns ueiiep al ouasas 35 -—— —— —- —,, Petrography of............ 449 — — ——_ —, Table of rock formations of. 4389 se SS TOUSIUO EAN. i Sica eens inure tal enataeds Maks 461 —— quartz deposits................. 471 DIASTROPHISM and migrations of fauna. 397 DICKERSON, R. E., cited on Cretaceous- DOYEEINE |NKOWUNCBWAY, 56 50caceeundanse 343 —+;Faunal relations of the San Lorenzo Oligocene to the Hocene in Califor- nO be ARAL OHIO AAAT REDE Sse Mare Aca ANY CURLY AUC A 153 —- zones of the Martinez Eocene of Caio ee ey Nes TED cme ee Rayne enone 154 DIGHTON group of Narragansett series. 447 DILLER, J: S., cited on oolites...... 761-762 DILLON, -CLLEGMONMOOMtES Hee ele 764 DINOSAUR-bearing beds............. EA ODD) —faunas’ relationship to the uncon- formity separating Cretaceous and POTTED re to ha ates iene eee ese oney eae ae 337 DINOSAURS as evidence of Cretaceous ~— EVES cs RU eu tcl) o CAE ID PUES ede A pid B33) 1h — in Tertiary formations....... He aaaees ees 400 —, Occurrence and absence of......... 337 —, Reference to absence and occurrence CO BIER aCe cca OOM relied sai ieal al eae erat HEE, 334 —, Undetermined classification of forma- tions Co ARM Weate) Mee nt al ona Pa 342 D'INVILLIERS, HW. V., cited on Pennsyl- VANTA VOOM SR OM ANE nc needee a AR McWa cee 760 DIVERGENT ice-flow on the plateau north- east of the Catskill Mountains as revealed by ice-molded topography ; Aa Gach NR ae Mae CB ee ts MR A DOLLO, , cited on the Danien and Motion) (eu ieee ania 336 ——-—— Montian ................. 396 Ol Be Sui eee eslisiel OO IDX) Oversea Wil, 5 ondas adieu ows oes 66 Don River beds, Character of fossils LO UTNE DT ae eae tn a ses a aN 210 —-— Glacial deposits................. 200 D’ORBIGNY, , cited on demarcation between Cretaceous and Focene.... 321 DouGuass, A. H., cited on relation of precipitation to tree growth...... 529 —— — — tree measurements............ 495 —, Reference to 21-year cycle of...... 563 DoucL ASS, H)., cited on Fort Union fauna 389 ; Geology of the Uinta formation.144, 417 Drew, , cited on origin of oolites.. 762 DUMBLE, BH. T., Acknowledgments to. TT / BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Page DUMBLE, EH. T., Reference to geological WOT] FOL pated danas ane aot cL el nee ae 166 DUMONT, , cited on Mestrichtien SEALE yee Oe RASS EA ee Beal DUNDAS Section, “Ontario, 42)4- 0 a eee pylis Durst, D. M.; Physiographic features of the Haywards rift..........:... 123 DurtTon, C. E.,; cited on Pahoehoe MAW hal the one ea netaannal say on au euareeae 639, 641 LDNGH OOM ESEV ACOs olo ou oan hood od ono ooo uo 346 HAKLE, A. S., Disenssion of Nevada Stipnite “Dye wae Et ee ee 126 —--——-nomenclature by............. 125 —— presided at meeting................ 123 —; Some contact metamorphic minerals in crystalline limestone at Crest- | more, near Riverside, California... 125 HARLY Tertiary glaciation in the San Juan region of Colorado; W. W. ; ALWOOG Os St copes a Se ee 1 EARTH movements in the Minnesota por- tion of the Lake Agassiz basin dur- ing and since the lake occupancy ; Bo Weveretti G Roars se oe eo HARTHQUAKES in Panama and their CAUSES Seo Pde Bee iO ee 34 HARTHQUAKE Sea waves; H. IF. Reid.... 33 HASm [NDIES, Pillow, lawas! Of see 610 HASTMAN, C. R., elected representative on Supervisory Board of American Year Book ania iteect Beha en eee 134 HATTON, AMOS, cited on Medina. forma- LOT ee a eat na 7, 297 HCKEL, , Geological work of....... 171 ECHINODERMS of the San Pablo; W. S. Wis VIRE@ Wei) disveuie a ceileher aire elieteer te comeeemeaeere 152° HD MON RON LO RINT Ole ee 362-368 — —, Description end fossils of the. 373-376 === MOSSils Of mk eos Soe ee 365-367 — — intermediate between Judith River and Lance 0s Oana ae eee 380 i ANAS.) eA eee Ou EDMONTON-PIBRRE contact............ 368 —-—w—-., Fossils from................ 368 — — —, Geologic section of........... 369 — section, Fossil plants of the........ 3355 (1 EpwArRDS, W. S., Acknowledgments to.. 48 EFFUSIVE and intrusive in the quantita- tive classification; A. C. Lane..... 43 HLECTION of Officers and Fellows...... 5, 6 HLEPHANTS, Restoration of............ 142 ——— —the world series of........ 407-410 ELprRipGr, G. H., cited on structural breaks in Denver basin........... 345 ELLs, R. W., cited on pillow lava...... 611 EMERSON, B. K., cited on basalt sheet of Deerfield i. 22.5 5 ae 622 —-—— — Bellingham series............ 449 ——-— granite dike................. 468 — —- Milford granite.............. 454 ——— porphyry ........... 200 eee 463 ——— pillow lava.............. 628-629 — — — Pleistocene features of Connect- LCE Walle yes heen s te ine See 220, 224 ——-— submergence of the Connecti- Cute Valley sy: ck hee ee eee 63 -—, Mapping of quartz diorite area by.. 452 —, Work in the Diamond Hill- Cumber- igVoGl CHEE IAG one bbb Soa no 438, 441 EmMons, E., Geological work of...... 160 —, State geologist of North Carolina.. 160 Emory, W. H., Reference to Mexican © poundarys, SULVeVe Dyce eee 165 HNGLAND, Pillow lavas int... ..2-.4 5% 603 ENGLISH, W. AS Fauna of lower Fer- MANGO WSCLIES ssi Ras eee ee Poe ee 151 KockENrE and Oligocene of California, Re- LATIONS) (Of. SLs ti eee eo he ee 153 == CHIMAEO?! 38a A: he nee gr eae it a 20 ns ee 375 INDEX TO VOLUME 25 187 a I f the Scutella breweriana hier ‘ENE-Creté sla ad or MAUNA Of the Scut 7 wee eiegpiite 342 of the Upper Monterey series..... 151 RES ee Pcie antennas ak elcor'a ce 2 : the Up y be —— correlation in New Mexico, Wyo- I HATHERSTONHAUGH, G. W., Geological re ming, Montana, Alberta.......... 355 F researches Of.......::.5.+..+5--. 2 —faunas, Progress in revision of..... 144 HELLOWS, Blection ore teen a pelle, — (middle and upper) fauna compared ii ENNEMAN, N. M., Jiscussion (0) oP WiMerOtINeT? FAUNAS s sc cls oe 5 Shee 387 formational corrugation. . wee dae 3 — Lemuroid, Skeleton of............. 141 —, Preglacial Miami and _ Kentucky es —of California, Martinez............ 154 pL AMIera wate: Ieee tae Ay cereale (ols, bee Be it the Gulf region, Correlation of FENNER, C. N., cited on pillow ae 624, 628 ENC MBTIN ISIN Cir retest aera atelSieie gle Seeee go 334 ; Mode of formation of certain —-— Washington, Coal-bearing........ 332 eneisses in the highlands of New oe —-—western Hurope................ 341 Jersey Tu Rie Piero Guy oe Se eer cea — midway formations................ 332 7 N. L. Bowen HN omer » SAS: ved — shells from Alabama, Reference to.. 161 HERNANDO Series, Iauna 0 Lowe Pane — time in North America, Opening of. 321 oN esults in the apy loee ay of the bee YOPS, New pes aoa HAC UNSHIS § lal vihs (ONO MAS 5S a6 or os cm ed pF restor 140, 406 FLATTENING of aoa an Gade boul- Be is 7 ; raters : ders by solution; J. £ en. : Se ahiartee ewes es eee A eee a gg Fuerr, J. S., cited on origin of pillow ae age poe SOW oa Als ios 286 __lavas and ule ae fe ee : oe Ve Hrriner"rR, A. H., Photographs of glacial One area tract ‘compared with topography Dye l plate Oly oo. a) 205 ; later coral-reef areas. ........2.. 41 HUROPEAN Cretaceous and Hocene... = 341 : : eR ER ea i bg 174 — storminess during sun-spot changes, ais WOuR Sane Eee G@amibriani ipeuldens Chart Of.........+.e.eeee cei tao v HOUT CLYS Diy. eoroaeR nao a 460 ara uN and — minimum, 599 ~~ cited on fauna of Brassfield forma- Be Ce ko ee ca pe CIHR OEE ON oe lager a ae Peete Pen iit le ey Sts 8 * Peon RS Se 335 — — — fossiliferous localities of Dia- Europn, Chart of Sie tracks in. ehot 500 mond Hill-Cumberland HSE Hees ——— storminess during sun-s —, Discussion of phylogeny of crinoids UDINE Se oot eat ae velar ekani 8 bie doves 516 De elie ies Mis a eee eae 35 — Effect of Sun-spots on climate in... 549 asi Work inh the Dimon dEale@umanene —, ’ Record OlPSULOLMUMESS Mey.) 4 se. 2 499 lands district: by... “Se Scuaecees a 438 EVENTS leading up to the organization FontTatne, W. M., Bibliography of... .. 10 of the Geological Society of Amer- FS t Memorial cot ak ve tee Aaa eee 6 ica; J. J. Stevenson............. 15 wehotog raphe otems venereal 6 KVIDENCE of a glacial dam in the Alle- rate ORMATION names, Bibliography of. 50 gheny River between Warren, Penn- Forsuby, C. G, Geological work in Lou- Sylvania, and Tionesta; G. F. Ane isianial obs See. ly met enna mins 172 Wright ..........., i Cai ea 84,215 orr Union fauna, Characters of the.. —— climatic oscillations in the Permo- 389-390 Carboniferous beds of Texas: Ef. C. Sa MOLE is Poe fates Mies ise Oe ee ES eke 334 ESS oO TO A eee oe ea ult ——formation, Correlation of the.... 334 —-— the Paleocene vertebrate fauna on Fossin deposits of Macclesfield, Eng- the Cretaceous-Tertiary EADS ReVINGI 20s, naiee a ttn che hea Hates at MOE eee 211 Ve LOS PEM Le) IVS ene ee BSA Seneca Tryfaen, Wales..... 210-211 HyMAR, , cited on demareation be- = LUCOIdS! os...) ewes ae clea eee Dr tween Cretaceous and Eocene.. 321 __graptolites from Alaska........... 194 — localities of Diamond Hill- Cumpber- lander aiSirictesue «tansy ied wie ates 444 FAIRCHILD, H. L., Discussion of glacial SSD OME Stas aah ony hae teens Ieee ae 272 deposits in Ontario by........... 72 Fossris from Belly River beds....... 370 ; Pleistocene marine submergence of — - Wdmonton-Pierre contact........ 368 the Connecticut and Hudson val- — -— Red 'Deer River district, Canada. 362 INE ASL SSIS A aoe Cre ter ee ere Goad 1a eee Wance forma tout ole 352 oneview of the early history of the — -—-Paskapoo beds in Alberta..... 889 SOGIC ING CS ROAR ean ny Coie area ane @ —-—--——Upper Fort Union beds. 889-390 FAROE ep AN DS. PallOwelaveise Ol, aes si 610 = (OE (CENREKOE NIN). Ws el. 281-285 YWARRINGTON, O, Cy Discussion of change == == CORMAN TAMAS oo 5505655 c en. 395 in quartz through rise of tempera- ae DOOM Iver (Met sann ys tre einer bane 210 PMU Me MDM reba see hit eevee’ aliny epe's 0 ald ns AlGLO Teens 365-367, ——-— oolites of Chimney Hill forma- 374-376 POPE OYE) 5). wipecnelta ghee Sealy eco, 16° ~~. Galena formation..............\. 270 Paar City minerals by 2.0... 48 —— Hell Creek formation....... 357-359 FASSIG, , cited on tropical hurri- —— Medina fauna...) 0 one. 288-290 CEES RPO ee Ann NE a ao ee 494 === OioNlewing Wek. 5.505 0.02. 379-380 FYAUNAL migrations and diastrophism. ——— Paleocene formations of Europe.. 322 BUS 99)» ells askapoo Tormatiom.. 6 ae 371-373 —relations of the San Lorenzo Oligo- a = NUTONE Con bo Oo a ee 403-405 cene to the Wocene in California. 153 —on Long Island, Reference to....... 242 —zones of the Martinez Wocene of — Paleocene vertebrate AS EN eee aa 383-385 California; R. E. Dickerson...... 154 HOSTER, ft. C., cited on riebeckite gran- FAUNA of lower Fernando series: W. A. TH RSs oe epee Mersey hs A came Me hag i 470 STN IAIN A eral ME My Loot: ahd wes ay» 151 low Le, F. E., cited on solar radiation. 82 aie rie Cumberland Hae woah cave 2 — volcanic relation to climatic deposit). We Gidley. i. bibose.. 142 CHOMPES nis ecole ene Gree wee 483-484 — — — Oligocene (?) of Oregon; oe M. INOS, JEL. ‘cited on pillow lava..... 608, 605 PATERSON weic ce ean he hye shed os 154 lox Hills formation, Relationship of —-——-— San Pablo series Be tee ANSE weet ese DD, the-Pierre to) ther, i. ame ean le 8G 788 Page Hox Eilisesandstonery; sicteee anne ieaee: 350 —- SOCOM ite Ric isic) singe iean Sie ecwees Ole beTe 330 FRANCE, Reference to mammal-bearing NOLUZOMS TM ie toa cach slew Molegciemee Tene econ 323 == JEON JENWAS) Oli eo oes sods odau esied 599 Fren, ©. EH., cited on climatic changes IN| SOWUTMWE Sis yh Acree ee releaee sabes 558-562 Fritz, H., cited on sun-spots and re- lated mphenomenaace aetna 553 FRONTIpR formation, Coal-bearing mem- DELS Ol THEW Re Cine ecu mrs emer 346 GABBRO of Diamond Hill-Cumberland COUCH On Gh el nA Por es sins inde eran huis mm dus: AMI 449 GALE, H. S., cited on climatic changes INASOULMWES bin she ete cuetercre tharos 559 — — — Lake strands................ 564 GALENA formation, Conglomerate in the. 269 — -Trenton series, Conglomerates of the 265 GARDINER, C. I., cited on pillow iavas. 608 GARDNER, , cited on Puerco and IROLLETOM Hi LAUIMAS perce crane neal debe cette 401 GARNETIFEROUS hornblende schist of ING Wa vamap Sinai eee ee ceieie ecaeeemencare (5) GEIKIE, A., cited on Cretaceous of Hng- MRIS ee Whiercon tac oseepe rca rene Cc) en QR Esti na ware 341 — -— —lithologic sequence in [France and HWngland.................... 33 —— -— origin of pillow lavas.. 638-650 __ __ __ pillow eave tied Werte weer eats 602, 603, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610-635 So pructureom lavachenn: 592-593 ——-— Rhone glacier............... 491 GEIKIB, JAMES, cited on spheroidal SERUCTUC GA aii. secs) slenei ee emey sua ein) ahsernes GENESIS of glauconite; C. Palmer..... 91 GEOLOGIC history of the coral-reef tract and comparisons with other coral- TeCr Areas | lb Ned Wiebe ne To eee 41 GEOLOGICAL relations between the Cre- taceous and ‘Tertiary of southern Calitorniayys@, Av — section along the Yukon - Alaska boundary line between Yukon and Porcupine rivers; D. D. Cairnes. . GroLoGy of the Diamond Hill-Cumber- land district in Rhode Island-Mas- sachusetts; C. H. Warren and SNS. IPO WET SHAR A a Mies ea Aes nage eve aire 79, 435 —— -— southern end of the San Joa- quin- Valley 2-Gi"C. Gester!: 2.6 2-. 1233 —--— Uinta formation; G. Douglass. 144-417 ——~——— Wabana iron ore of Newfound- Pande Ae tO. EIAVeSE Shee cea reeiens 74 GbHoRGIA, Geological work in.......... GaowMONN, JEUUOMY HANES) Ms ees ono f 4 e GESTER, G. C., Geology of the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley.... GIDLEY, J. W., cited on Fort Union fauna —, Discussion of Multituberculata by.. —, Fauna of the Cumberland Pleisto- ceneticavel depositary cencniecueer 142 GILBERT, G. K., cited on land subsi- 123 COICO adie UE Se aaa satel eye dala ers lalate 60 —-—— washing of sediments. 730, 755-756 —, Reference to Niagara Falls pictures | ON gap the SBA th Stes hce cll ts Faint Ch vee Me SN Renee a) 36 GIEBE RT Giulitebeacheswin mia eee ree 237 GiuMeErR, I. W., Coastal Plain geology | Oy aheetesuren arate (SUN ta Lae tS ara an aber ea 160 GLACIAL dam in the Allegheny River, Pennsylvania Maes chee Conon PAIL I5 2 CONTA SI ee ieee ate annie uSee Tle ewe uiare bears Wace 241 — —, terraces, and detritus of the Con- necticut Valley Peel Sahih TARE EF 226-229 — deposits in the Don Valley......... 71 = == Of “Dom Rivers ciasc ree or ee 205 BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Pees GLACIAL drift on Magdalen Islands. 84 —erosion in Montana.........:.:.5. 86 —ice-dam in Allegheny River........ 84 —— Lake Missoula; R. W. Stone....... 87 — meanders, ox-bows, and kettles in thesCGonnecticut Valley... so sas 232 ——period, Various hypotheses as _ to CAUSES LOE Utheais = eee ee 565-577 —-, Connection between changes of CHa te ames 7s cede son ere ee 556 — temperatures, Reference to......... 537 — topography, Glade Run _ terrace, Pennsylvania [plate 9].......... 15 PEON and land distribution, Chart OE ph oa Sar eee ee bee a ee =m) LATS GNA isc aienen oe coe lohemen oie nee ela 31 — => Bravil) cos: eiie tec asc eee Ae 31 — -— Colorado, Marly Tertiary........ —- the northern coast ranges of Cali- POTION 5 sa Aral erase baeoetotete me tere 120. —of the Permian period......... 578-588 GLACIER Bay, Submarine topography in. 88 GUAUCONTLEH) Genesis Olea ee eee 91 GLENN, L. C., Geological work in Ten- NESSee OFM ee eR ie ee ee 168 GLENWILLIAM Section, Ontario........ Bub 7 GNEISSES of New Jersey, Mode of for- MALTON OL: | cae 5 es eee 4 GOooDE, G. B., Reference to writings of. 159 GOODSPEED, JR., G. E., cited on pre- Cambrian sa bDROn eee eee eee 450 GOLDTHWAIT, J. -W., Discussion of coastal subsidence by............ 62 — — — submergence of ‘Connecticut and Eiudsonyivalleyjseece eee eee 64 —, J. W. Merritt introduced by....... UD —,; Occurrence of glacial drift on the Maedalen a lsland Saeiecmucnenc ieee 84 GorpDoN, C. H., Geological work in Ten- NESSee! ORS FG ei Soe Sere 168 GRABAU, A. W., cited on Niagara Gorge Section 0s fue ee ee — cited on Medina fauna..... 281, 285, 286 — — — — formation ................ 302 SS SS OLIN OE OUUO WY JENS 5 so a 639 ———— pillow structures... 2.24 -oe ae 635 — —— Queenston ........6... 00000 287 ; Devonic black shale of Michigan, Ohio, Canada, and western New York interpreted as a Paleozoic delta= deposite fyi ss ae eee 13% —, Discussion of Silurian system of , Ontarion byt he ee eee 41 —-— -—p)philogeny of crinoids by...... WSHs —- Permo - Carboniferous beds of AOR AGL erkt eae taaee Ua. ele eee a 41 — — — coastal Subsidence by... 5... 2... 61 —, Fossils of the Cataract formation described bye ee fee eee eee ;Some new paleographic maps of North ‘Americas nevi Oe ee sae — suggests replacement of ‘“‘Grey Band”’ by Thorold sandstone............ 297 GRAFTON. quartzitel:|: on 2a. eres 441 CRANTLES VAM allivSes Olen enone enna eeee 466 GRANT, Cc: oo Acknowledgments to. 278 GRANT, U. S8., cited on ellipsoidal green- stones vy... te ie ee 619 —, Member of Auditing Committee. 49 GRANTS Mill granite of Diamond Hill- Cumiberclancdeadistiwiets esis eee 458 Cran cay WALTER, cited on Ojo Alamo [2X0 | SUPPER ryh ee Mme im 2 ———-— Paleocene vertebrate fauna.... —'——- Porrejon’ fauna.....:...5000% —, Reference to Eocene collections by. GRAPHIC ‘method of representing the chemical relations of a petrographic PL OVLN CO PEs dee, ine tay he uae GRAVEL boulders of limestone, Flatten- ; PINS OL Fae aid eee Ae ohare itt eee 66 INDEX TO VOLUME 25 Page GREEN, W. L., cited on Hawaiian lava flows of 1859 ——— origin of pillow lavas. 640-641, 644 GREENLY, H., cited on pillow lava GRIMSBY section, Ontario............ GREAT basin, Later deformations in cer- AMM SeS! OF CME os ee eels hove» GREAT BRITAIN, Reference to glacial geology of (GREAT UAKE MISTORY 0. cece eo eee tae we Grercory, H. H., cited on sand plains on Naugatuck Valley..:......%... —— — spheroidal lavas in Maine. veins of chalcopyrite and ga- Gane J. W., Chart of historic changes in precipitatidn prepared b 542-543 — cited on changes in precipitation. 536-537 —— — climatic changes in Asia...... 80 — —-— — pulsations '——w— origin of pillow lavas........ 638 ——-pillow structure......... 597, 599 — — —- titanotheres —, Discussion of Pelycosaurs by...... —-; Phyletic relationships of the lemu- roidea 141 —, Reference to materials assembled by 411 —, Skeleton of Notharctus, an Hocene eoere eee eee ee ee we ee we Guice OfOn6 Osc OOO Geosd GC 'Oh ONO O80 GO O86 Grosse CC es ee © © ew ew ee ee ee ee ee oe 8 WSTEDWUEOTC| Nee erate tasae Che cane io: eon CCA eae 141 Grour of twenty-six associated skele- tons of leptomeryxx from _ the White River Oligocene; BH. 8S. Riggs 145 GUATEMALA, Climatic changes in...... 539 _ GUELTARD’S mineralogical map of Lou- USHMAN ATUCNOAMAGA ini cave oe ee els 161 “GuMBO,” Mechanical analysis of...... 729 G-WILLIM, J. C., cited on Cache Creek group of British Columbia........ 198 Hawi, B., Reference to Niagara Falls PUGMUIRESH DY cece eisic Mele toe ie ee eee 36 Hauu, C. W.; Analyses of rocks of the Galena-Trenton series............ 270 HALL, JAMES, cited on Cataract fauna. 281 Clinton formation............ 278 — — — Medina’ formation.... 285, 286, 287 ——— —— sandstone ................ 299 ————— section .................. 306 ——-— Niagara formation........... 287 —-—- Rochester Siluric section..... 304 —, Geological work in Texas of....... 163 —, Medina fauna described by........ 288 —, Reference to survey of the American pe HL SMM LDV eNom Merrsae cle ous soe veluis ss ohtame kere + lene 36 THLAMILTON Section, Ontario........... 313 HWamMonp, H., Work on cotton reports ae LMU Mery aya) etre oe Sp Ateh a Rid ek elas eau T ILAue, , cited on Danien Stage. . ae Sea TIANNIBAL, H., Discussion of Oregon OM O COMMA oe sisted in wleke eee es 154 —; Vaqueros of the Santa Monica Mountains of southern California. 153 HANN, J., cited on climatic changes... 480, 527 ——-—sun-spots’ relation to climatic NEN ES eer ec in ee ty nigh e Oba! Lo 492, 494 ITANOVER, Garnetiferous hornblende SCLIN eg le ae ah a US er UO WMT Mc ee ke a. sec Scusnc 597 Harpy, T. S., Engineering work of.... 171 Hares, C. J., cited on cannon-ball for- SRDELIOI ON, yas) got ee dua aia vale 5 Ca eee eee 339 ——— geology of Indian reservations. 350, 851 Harris, G. D., Geological work in Ar- ISS HTOSCS MOU ar eae ea ol ener Fam ae Re 167 ——— —————— WOUISTANA, Of. 2. ... 0.06 sc ee 173 —, Reference to southern VOM Kemi veneer rictre Mewar ee. Rus cog Page Harknn, A., cited on origin of pillow VAR VAS tavern c eter eratare va chic Mariah ia Or cniatereis 639 — —— pillow structure............. 635 HARTNAGBEL, C. A., cited on Medina for- TAT OMS Bae ales ohatcecel acehekenc sd jeeteen endl 302 — — —oolitic iron ore........,...... 768 HatcH, F. H., cited on Carboniferous conglomerate Obm APTI Case eno Olas ZO Harcumr, J. B., Reference to fossils Colle CLE Gy fe cuci twee) seo isso ein ater orate 93 Hawes, G. W., Geological work in EV Oriday Of eeyiencsraee eke GS HAwveyr, J. C., Some physical features Of; Ela WwiVieTNCAV Elise oho ener aetsnerate tele 155 Hay, , cited on Fort Union fauna.. 389 —-—--— position of Puerco and Torre- VORA, TKOPA INEM EMONNS SG Sigith oo a's biocdlo oO Cuno 9 Hayns, A. O.;. Geology of the Wabana iron ore of Newfoundland........ 74 HAYFORDIAN conception of isostasy, CrICICISMVOL. Ae oe eRe ne HIAYNES, W.-P., cited on age of Narra- SaAnNsetl Seles sais «+ alee ee 448 = re-Cambrian gabbro......... 450 HAYWARDS Rift, Physiographic features OPM MOR eae) cata atraie var yen eaten ae eee 23 HrappEN, W. P., cited on Doughty SpPringsZoreColoradouss see 79 HEeDEN, SVEN, cited on climatic pulsa- CL OIS Fs Got ase ee Mia secon PRESET ON cee 532 EEpErr Creeks Weds smeetcs hen ores cin te eae 325 —-—-— similar to the Lance......... 358 — — — synchronous with the Lance.. 380 — -— formation, Fossils of the.... 357-359 See ras aris OM WAM wees amet acetal tures ements 356 HEILPRIN, A., Geological work of...... 161 HINECK, F., cited on pillow structure. 598 HENDERSON, , cited on climatic CHAIN ES rea oke ne tasers anata ace 548 HENLEY, me S., Discussion of coast range glaciation IDV stench cece aceieatecs ms lec parma PAL Henry, A. J., cited on precipitation in the mbimited: —— Climngine MeGWIAEES IP. 6 55s sa oe 124 ———— Great Basin deformations DY) 22 Be er BEING TEOhEE ION, SS Ske ne 5 Se Nex ada SHeMloyauiess [Oe ds 4 slo G6 a ele Lupwice, k., BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Page LOUDERBACK, G. D., Discussion of no- menclacune Moyes eee eae 12S — elected secretary of Cordilleran Sec- ELOY 2", she eT Oa ee ee ee eee 125 LOUGHLIN, G. F., cited on quartz de- POSTES: eek, SS ig) Sate Sire eee 473 a — Sterlineworamites. . shoei eee 470 LOUGHRIDGE, R. H., Work on cotton re- POTUS OB? spekhe Rae SAL eae nee 176 Louis, H., cited on oolitic iron ores.... T70 LOUISIANA, Geological work in........ 170 LoweER Edmonton, Dinosaur fauna of.. eee ion: Dedsis2htik Sihvo tee eee 5 — Miocene of Washington Cc EH IWiGaVOrKr Gah oloeselectos ac eis tens ere ene 153 — Paleozoic section of the Alaska-Yukon boundary.) De Burling.) see UST Lucas, F. A., cited on Imperial mam- moth measurements.............. 407 eited on pillow structure. . LULL, R. S., elected chairman Paleon- tological Society meeting......... 129 —; Miocene dolphin from California... 142 —;New accessions to the exhibition series at Yale Museum........... 143 : New mastodon found in Connecticut 143 —- Wipresided atimeebing: | Micn eee 89, 142 LVOUGSKOVO NE GHONMONEHNOMNS so saconcacccoc- 286 LYELL, C., cited on demarcation be- tween Hocene and Cretaceous..... Seale = — pillows taviaee ee cee eee 634 —, Geological work in Georgia of..... 174 — —= —— —— Jjouisiana’ Of ).: See. soe. 172 —, Visits to the Southern States of... 1638 LyNncuH, Linut., Reference to Dead Sea expedition biy .).\s2.0 2 seen Cee 162 MacDona.p, D. F.; Recent earthquakes in Panama and their causes...... McCauuby, H., Geological work in Ala- Dama Ol oa en he See eee 170 McCain, S. W., cited on oolitic iron ORES SN RA Seataere ee eee 769, 772-773 —, Geological. work in Georgia by..... 174 McCONNELL, R. G., cited on Belly River SOLID AS eae PA a oe 370 —-—--— Macmillan River beds of Alaska 202 —-—w-Nasina series of Alaska...... 186 -—-——-— rocks of Macmillan River of Alaska Ae eS SS Gee aac eee 198 —, Geological work on Porcupine River OR Asa Ln Sie aa ie eg Ne 180 MacDOouGAL, , cited on Salton Ba- Sim: MLEREA CES se uses eee 562 McGEE, W J, Researches in Coastal Plain reeolosy vob sao hae ae ic eee MACCLESFIELD, HWngland, Reference to GEPOSTES MT 2 aie, one ulere Se eee Paki MACLURE, WILLIAM, Geological work in GeOrevian Ofse i. ccc vss noche ne 173 — — — — [Louisiana of.............. Ae, —, President American Geological So- CODY oso sca. cad ars ren eet eee 160 —, Reference to writings of.......... 159 MA CREED A Of s\WeStaCOd Site) ae ie eae 151 MADAGASCAR, Reference to climatic Chanees “inser ace ee eee 2 MADDERN, A. G., cited on Tindir rocks oO: Porcupine Riverecn ae oma 188 M2STRICHTIEN Stage, Reference to.... 321 MAGDALEN Islands, Glacial drift on. 84 MAGMATIC differentiation and assimila- tion in the Adirondack region ; W. J. IMGT er io. ee ae ae ee emg 45, 243 WMO Mes iy JEON BYWAYS! Oli iGo soon 5 506 < 62 MAMMALIAN fauna of the Pleistocene beds at Manix, in the Mohave Des- ert region; J IBDNVEUICKIS Sos - 156 MANCAS beds, Flora of the........:.. 334 INDEX TO VOLUME 25 : 6 Page MANGANESE deposits of Conception and Trinity bays, Newfoundland; N. C. ~ IDYAIIG «6 52a eae Re tonsee eh econ ame 73 MANTnOUnIN limestone... ..5........2. 280 MANITOWANING section, Ontario....... 320 Marcou, J., Geological work of....... 165 Marcy’s survey of the Red River of Louisiana, Reference to.......... 165 MIAME OROMORIMNATION. sec cee ee 441 MarsuH, O. C., cited on Lance fauna... 391 SAOVES [OWS ah Aa RReR eae Renae iece one ener 378 Martin, B., appointed representative of Paleontological NOCIEUYsse eens on 150 : Observations on the use of the per- centage method in determining the age of Tertiary formations in Cali- ONSET MEM Me eey cies sc a sie sjwrieie “el dee es 152 “Martin, L.; Submarine topography in Gigcenepay. Alaska... 0.25. of... 88 MartTiInwz Hocene of California........ 154 MASSACHUSETTS, Cumberland - Diamond TEUTIUL, «GIISHETECTE iO) Eatyee Mncn Ia neesae aera iD meu MOW UAVS OP 228 ois ic cs oe eee eae 621 — Rhode Island Diamond Hill-Cumber- LANTRG!: \CMEHIGNC Relea kokelcacta econ mee ney ae 435 MaAsTopon find in Connecticut........ 143 MASTODONS, Restoration of........... 142 IOS VOLE olotoun ee 407-410 MATHEWS, H. B., Report of Auditing CW OMUIMMMGEE VOW beg css Ale 8 se sie wees 49 MatTrurnw, W. D., Acknowledgments to. 356 — acted as secretary of meeting...... 139 —-cited on extension of the definition OIE | LV Ras Sia eee as Se eee nen 338 -——, Discussion of Mylodont sloths by.. 144 ——-—-— Pleistocene cave deposit by... 142 —-— — Pyrotherium mammals........: 140 ——-—— Symposium papers by......... i1BX0 —-—-—the Lemuroidea by........... 141 -— elected secretary of meeting of Pale- Onitolosical Society.............:. 129 ; Hvidence of the Paleocene verte- brate fauna on the Cretaceous-Ter- te Ven TOMLIN os foo kan acs aicke os 381 —, Reference to investigations by..... 323 —— — Symposium paper by......... 130 —, Report of progress in the revision of the Lower Hocene faunas...... 144 Mauritius, Reference to climatic’ CSTE Ta a lie eco Cee a ee 482 MAYA ruins as evidence, of climatic CINDINGES BS Aaa ec coe aie tea 5389 MAYER, , cited on demarcation be- tween, Cretaceous and Hocene..... Sal MaAzzuoul, L., cited on pillow struc- aC Maura ar visi? sii oe Aina een iain Scave g 599 MEANDERS in the Connecticut Valley, (GAGIOW! GAS aye ese a eee 232 Mears, H. S., Analysis of quartz rock and felsite ID iene Sioa tekcio tare tec 473 Sie on Diamond Hill quartz depos- THES» 5 once RR ees eee Eee pe eg eT MECHANICAL composition of clastic sedi- MUCUS) eis)s 5 oe Boies ON eas 655 MECHANICS of formation of arcuate LH OUMPALMIS win che eElobbS 4. eee MEDINA and Cataract formations of the Siluric of New York and Ontario; GharlessSchuchent ose ake. QT ——, Cataract, and Clinton, Contacts be- TERE Oe eae et en ae os ok I aoe 292 oA MOSSES. Oicncc i reitoit) « alere cee 288, 290 -— formation, History of the.......... 297 —Sea, Paleogeography of............ 295 SE COM Mare aca chasse sreclha tier cehcts cttawter als 306 MnuHu, M. G., Title of paper by........ 135 MprGEN, W., cited on origin of oolites. 753 MBINZER, . cited on basin terraces GimeENG Wy, ys MEXICO! ca eat aac ets 562 793 Page MELDRUM, , cited on cyclones..... 83 nos tropical INCHGICMCRINESs ooo dice Adee 494 MEMBERS of the VPaleontological So- GLO o ar teacae re erent oteTonere rene altos elton 146 MrmoriALt of TT. M. Jackson by J. C. \VVOU Ee Woes GH ai Rerun pact okieat Seen ome area nneeeee aus tee 13 —_ —_ W.. M. Fontaine by T. L. Wilson. . 6 Merriam, C. Hart, cited on barriers to migration of land animals........ 397 ——, Reference to studies by....... 413, 415 MerrriaM, J. C., cited on Cretaceous-Ho- COME DOUMG AE 4 doa ere re areas merci 343 —-; Correlation of the Tertiary forma- tions of the Pacific coast and basin regions of western United States.. 156 ==) INMOUNOIT NEO’ lOyyo ge Ades Go cen e dou 151 —+;Results of recent work at Rancho Bae Cae Soe herr pene ee see taeaae Be heres 143 ao Lek restuaiall Oligocene of the basin region and its relation to the ma- rine Oligocene of the Pacific Coast [ODEO MAN EU CTNEN Garni PORE Aue lee SRM? ail elise ane te Etu 153 ; Vertebrate fauna of the Orindan and Siestan formations........... 156 Mnrriuu, G. P., Reference to writings ON Baye oh eee uncon eke (stehee oat Gunt Hult aane a Rit? ciucens 159 —, Discussion of coastal subsidence by. 60 —-——-oolites of Chimney Hill forma- GOT Weare pee eee aie ae ie enetaccere 76 Merrirer, J. W.; Sedimentary character of garnetiferous hornblende schist, Hanover, New Hampshire........ WO) OOS MVR ID} IHOMONRNMOING acoso nocosoaan 345 Mrsozoic mammals, Reference to...... Dee ennsylvanian- Orange group of NSLS Ca aba Betsts- ti J) ge el oe an 201 MirrrEoOROLOGICAL hypothesis of climatic CHAM SESH sisters eons eens ee ay che ee 481 MIAMI and Kentucky rivers, Preglacial. 95 MICHIGAN, Devonic black shale of..... UBT MICRO-SECTIONS of oolitic structures. 778-780 Mipway formation of the Hocene...... 332 MIGRATION and diastrophism of fauna.. 397 MiLrorpD granite of Diamond Hill-Cum- loxerelle navel? GhisimenGia W'S Aras 5 okaha ode aloo ss 454 Mintupr, HE. M., Discussion of Kentucky OOlMESH Dives Shade okca, w oesre rs eel tone ar suanene Mixture, G. S., Reference to studies by. 413, 416 VETER Wis is, rocks —, Discussion of cited on Adirondack 248, 251, 256-259 Adirondack geology Dees see tetc ehuc a cusitclteltiy trancteno ave seme bamoae —, Magmatiec differentiation and assimi- lation in the Adirondack region. 45-243 MILLINGTON, J., Geological work in Mis- SUISSTP Pl MOL Mor ewe. cratsusns att eerste agen MILoponT sloth of Rancho Labrea..... 143 MINERALS from the ore deposits at Rarki@itye Wtah Eo. Van) Elorne Aig MINNESOTA, Warth-movements in...... 34 ==, Secon Au Seubor Ie soto occa bho 267 MINUTES of the Fourth Annual Meet- ing of the Pacific Coast Section of the Paleontological Society ; JR 1 Dickerson, Secretary..........-.. 150 MIOCENE dolphin from California ; C15 dss TE DUE NRA aii SARA ewe EDR Noh cd 142 —of the Muir syncline.............. 154 -—— Washington, Lower............. 153 MISSISSIPPI embayment, Reference to.. oR Missouri, Paleozoic faunas in......:. 135 Mersozoic marine vertebrates, HExten- SiOia Ci! IMISKOAY Oligo ube soe bas 366-367 MITCHELL, B., State geologist of NortE Garolna ciety ee ae eee 160 Mobe of formation of certain gneisses in the highlands of New Jersey ; (OE ONG] Mey oh ae) BiG JA a vlog ele Sichcnae sn atisieiens 794 BULLETIN OF Page Mort Tryfaen, Wales, Reference to de- DOSIES PEON G Since yates ae neue MonuAveb Desert region, Pleistocene fauna 210- 201 OE TOME EA Ce Ea MnO aaa Mea an 156 Monawk Valley glacial features..... 209 MONGOLIA, InclosedMakes ory ewan 563 MONTANA beds, Elona of thes... 32.2... De =—. Conglomerate Ob tienen cee 346 —, Cretaceous-Hocene correlation in... 355 — epoch, Crustal oscillations during the 344 -———, Oscillating movements in....!.... 346 = GAGA MELOSTO TMM eee ue eee 86 — — Lake Missoula of............... 87 —, Livingston formation of........... 346 MONTEREY series, Mauna of the....... AL5)I MEO NAIMIEEN, COIS rye i Neto ga Cede NeW re 336 === CEDOSITES) Hes cou Pec ae Apes EN an er oa 342 —— Stage. Referenceltols oie Tees s eas: aml MIO ODYS BW las PAINOR UATE eSe izes e een aie WA MooxK, €. C.; Notes on Camarosaurus CODE SRO Se ey UE EON. cee as aan, Wael 143 MOORE, Neference to geological NVOTER OD eh Cabaia) reich aera pean ete wees bee 166 Moore, E. S., cited on oolites..... 761-762 Saratoga oil field of Texas....... 17 MorGAN, C. L., cited on pillow lavas.. 605 Moruby, HE. W., Analysis of Adirondack PO CRG ADV ahs. Miter shee ane ol omer anna Ge reaeg 251 MORTON, , Geological work by..... 160 — ha) (GOOreHE lNide boob sede oo san 173 MouNTING of rock and fossil specimens with, sulphur: ©. A. Reed. : 7 2. 2: 136 MurrsGlacier, Retreat obesar wane eee 209 —syncline, Miocene oysters of the.... 154 Mureoci, G., cited on climatic pulsa- EVO TASES ae Sai EN nee dat or ieee Peabo ne ea 533 Mtrib, ——, cited on anatomy of horse and Capi eee eee See Ar pet ce ee 406 MURRAY, —. cited on oolites........ 759 MAL OMMNTITIONS Oil WWE ReI Ss co soba 5 oc 411 NARRAGANSETT series, Divisions of..... 447 NaTurE of the later deformations in certain ranges of the great basin ; CRIB ae A ek aly Die Gil ae: A oe te 122 NAUMANN, C. E., cited on origin of pil- LOW VEVUS ei Shr rece doe Nar enc eine abate a 637 ——— —p)pillow lavas.........:... 595-596 NANSEN, F., cited on temperature varia- AKOMOS) May ANNAN Cwm S 65d oo Ge 93 NEVADA, Stibnite at Steamboat Springs. 126 NEw accessions to the Exhibition series BIE NEUE NI ADIeIoNeM Polke TS JAN es 6 oc 143 NEWBERRY, J. S., cited on oolitic iron CO} hey prem cir eau ME ANE LO NON eg 9S eran ane 770 Nrw BRUNSWICK, Pillow lava of...... 611 NEWCOMB, S., cited on solar heat.. 486, 499 NEWFOUNDLAND, Algonkian rocks of. 40 ‘jan and Ordovician faunas of. 138 —, Manganese deposits of............. 73 == PTO IAM ASHO Ley cetera otetreecuaks es cl ome 611 —— Waban (LONNORGS Olssneciemeta en oieacne : 74 New HAwWPSHIRE, Garnetiferous horn- plende Sehiisitey Olepas vee oe renee: UE New JERSHY gneisses, Mode of forma- LOM Olan eset Voie HO ene eee eel aes 44 —— EPUUTO Wp laVvalst O lise eines eto neice 623 NEWLAND, D. H., cited on oolitic iron OTE eh ae irs ea gir SN TE dag Ne pee ( NEw mastodon find in Connecticut ; Rvepire lacs WiHhL uyehd aon Bestia cr nicd eterno Cae ae 3 — method of restoring eotitanops and prontotherium; H. F. Osborn. 140, 406 Nrw Mexico coal-bearing strata, Depo- SLCIOM 1 OL nay Sas tae rae ace rouce aie ae Rea oe 345 —-—., Cretaceous-Hocene correlation in. 355 Regen co ?”? Puerco and Torrejon OE eis ie alcetys, en odelusite hie ies ipkell cules tote OMe tenet Ene ° THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA Page New Mexico, Mammal-bearing beds of. 325 ost-Cretaceous floras of....... 3 —-—, Record of rainfall in........... 535 =e Red: beds! Of acc ues Seo ee 81 —-—, Reference to dinosaur fauna of.. 323 NEW point in the geology of the Adiron- dackse oi Re Kem piscine eee 47 ——titanotheres from Uinta formation OF Utah: Oh A. Peterson. eee 144 New York, Devonic black shale of..... 137 —-—, Medina, Cataract formations of.. 277 ——, Reference to climatic changes in. 482 —.—, Serpentine of Staten Island..... 87 Si j j Lee eee ee 304-320 —_—-, Sketch map of eastern central.. 69 NIAGARA LOrse SECON meine eee a NICHOLSON, ——, cited on oolitic rock. 748 NTOBRARA Limestone = s5 4211s eee 345 NOMENCLATURE of minerals: A. FRO BENS Ao Fas RU ee ec 124 NortH AMERICAN Cretaceous and Ho- cene, Contact between............ 342 NorTH CAROLINA, Geological survey cre- PW iCcX OE Clie Maren yer eann Mery habe eee e ESSA 160 Nortu DaKkora, Lance formation of.... 348 NortH Park, Plant-bearing beds of. 333 Nore on the American Triassic genus fi, PLGCETIGS -VUGES. (ose eee NoTES on Camarosaurus cope; C. C MOOK oaks Sei eee ee 143 OBSERVATIONS on the use of the per- centage method in determining the age of Tertiary formations in Cali- fornia iB. Mianicimis eee ees eae 2 OCCURRENCE of free gold in granodiorite of Siskiyou County of “California ; A. F. Rogers and BE. S. Boundey.. 124 ——-— pjacial “drift om the )Magdalen Islands; J. W. Goldthwait........ ——_mammalian remains at Rancho lua Break R21C. Scone cane 156 —.— stibnite and metastibnite at Steam- boat Springs, Nevada; J. C. Jones. 126 OFFICERS and members of the Paleon- ; tological Society, Election of..... Be —, Correspondents, and Fellows of the Geolocical4Socielives arene 107 2 VMlectiony Obs iwc tices Ce EC ee 5 —for 1914, List of members selected as 3 — of the Cordilleran Section.......... 125 ————the Pacific Coast Section of the Paleontological Society........... A Ociuvig, I. H., cited on Adirondack FO CIS eae Rec eee Uhe eae 248 OuI10, Devonie black shale of.......... LBS Oso Alamo beds correlated with the TUGIGH. WV v1 bccn eee hee ee 380 —-——, Fossils of the........... 379-380 OKLAHOMA, Chimney Hill formation of. 75 OLIGOCENE and Wocene of California, Relations 20k k20% vieeahs ed coe eee alisy3} 502) ot! Oregon ssc ee eee 154 —-the basin region and its relation to Oligocene of Pacific Coast prov- INGOs ie Ce eee es Se 153 —, Skeletons of leptomeryx from White REVERT La igs cessor cuts Pete eens eae ee 145 OLMSTEAD, D., made State Geologist of INO mihi k Gai olimiaierr ea eee 160 ONTARIO, Canada, Siluric sections in 308-320 —, Contact of Cataract formation in. 287 ——, Glacial deposits ine .2 es. Genes tal —, Medina and Cataract formations of. 277 == Plow clay a HOt. acing hie eo oe 611 —region, Postglacial deformation of GG r Sal aded Sanh Rie ae eee 65 ——, Silurian system of.......... sci arene 40 —— PEMISKAMILE /LEOMI, |. sieieteies INDEX TO VOLUME 25 Page OouiTES and oolitic structures, Micro- SOOT ITS CE eerie nie eee 778-780 — — — texture, Bibliography of... 174-777 = Menoollbie texture, Origin of. .... 58 —of the Chimney Hill formation, Okla- Maite. cA RECS). ce. wee eae SS cy ee CCHS WIV ANIA 26 luc rele es os ep es 760 ———, Analyses of............00.0. 767 se, (OINGTIO, CUS Reese ee Ce eRraea eae ner a 745 Oouitic and pisolitic barite from the Saratoga oil field of Texas; BH. S. AUOGIOR 2A RAR ale lana cree ee eae rae a sa= HAG OIE. Ge ieee eee 768 j—texbures im rock, Origin of......... 745 OrmancHesroup Of Alaska... .. 6... 66s 8 201 ORDOVICIAN and Siluric Systems, Con- tacts between [plate 13]......... 286 ——Cambrian faunas of Newfound- PAINS MPOMMIENE Tati sila /ISt ai so OUR RIES ISDE ie. One nee 636 WWenGmNe | MULATIONS, Os. 2. ee ee es 142 WABANA iron ores of Newfoundland. 14 WaILES, B. L. C., Geological work in Mississippi EG GAS ar Re te 170 Watcott, C. D.; Cambrian of western North America ay Hopes eee as ens ope Nba 130 — cited on Cambrian Heachinpoda: 421-422 — — -— Paleozoic intraformational con- glomerate —, Delivery of presidential address, en- wi ey.e) (@) s elieta: 0 eevee) fea: @: ‘e 265-276 titled “‘The Cambrian of western North America,” by... 00. 2 6 es —, Discussion of pre-Cambrian uncon- formity in Vermont by........... 40 WaAtHS . Pillow lavas of.........6.6.- 601 WALKER, F. A., Reference to support given to research LON Seine Oe ot cae ca ReNenS 176 WALKER, G. T., cited on climatic changes Tale WONG NE er a eles sence ir 481 Waker, IT. L.; Temiskamite, A new nickel arsenide from Ontario...... 76 WALLACE, R. C., cited on Ordovician limestone in Manitoba............ 270 WALTHER, J., cited on origin of oolites. 751 WAMSuUTTA Red beds of Narragansett SECS Me ee arena nice Ballon dvs dco ee ee Sete e. ar 447 => WONGAINGES. Seis SNS en nee ieee earns 462 WARD, ey acer on measurement of ele- _ phan 11 50 Se OT ORE ECR RO ORI CHR ARAL AI AAR aPE 407 WARING, C H.; Geological relations be- tween the Cretaceous and Tertiary of southern California............ 152 — cited on basin terraces in Oregon... 561 WARREN, C. H., Analysis of Quincy PaeMITMRCHC DIV Wale os oye ke ola ele eid cam 466 —and S. Pownmrs; Geology of the Dia- mond Hill-Cumberland district in Rhode Island-Massachusetts.... 75, 435 — cited on pre-Cambrian gabbro....... 450 ee TI MOL AIS. oo. iS. cece ee cle 451 ~——— Quincy granite............... 464 — -—-— riebeckite granite............. 470 WASATCH equivalent to Sparnacian and YE/DIRSSHESIG, Fs See ese oe ence Cnet a karen 396 ——fauna compared with other faunas... 387 WASHINGTON, Coal-bearing Hocene of... 121 —, Lower Miocene of.?.............- 153 WatTeER deposits, Mechanical analyses of 693-712 — sediments, Differences between wind STING: GE ss eget ce ICE aE ka col 740 Watson, T. L., Memorial of W. M. AVON AMINE OW ewer ee cc sletaig sie: seus se sliste 6 WeraAver, C. H., cited on Cretaceous- Eocene boundary 1 i Saar SAO pera ete «i 343 —, Lower Miocene of Washington..... 153 WerBER, A. H., Discussion of California TPSVTTTAVTES YTS ONC AW Scere eee OR a ie 121 —-——— climatic provinces by......... 124 ——-— Haywards Rift by............ 123 -— —-— nomenclature by............. 125 WEED, W. H., cted on ore deposits..... 770 -—_—— — stratigraphic relations of Livingston formation............. 346 —-——— unconformity at base of the WATS SOM os ete) te cone a Sek eae ah 3c 346 WEIDMAN, S., cited on pillow lavas..... 616 WELLER, S.. and M. G. MEHL; Western extension of some Paleozoic faunas in southeastern Missouri.......... 135 WETHERED, FEF. B., cited on origin of DONUTS ae IeSe anche nome mees ce Ee carn eer ete near 749 WESTERN extension of some Paleozoic faunas in southeastern Missouri; S. Weller and M. G. Mehl........ 135 801 Page WersTERN fuel section of U. S. Geolog- ical Survey, Reference to......... 349 WHEST VIRGINIA, Deepest boring in..... 48 WHEELER, Mrs. H. I., Acknowledgments TOE eta eh ahs ee one Samia neh are oeproaton naweeil taicotson athe WHIPPLE, C. L., cited on pillow lavas.. 623 WHIPPLE, LIEUT., Reference to surveys in Texas Taya i et ens So satey ties ashes 165 WHITE, C. A., cited on Colorado inverte- brate fauna. wee nt ee tee lee ee hate at atiacteyiel eh wire) eiteita, 000 WHITE, Davin, Discussion of corrosion ‘conglomerate by................-. 37 ——-— symposium papers by......... 130 —, Introduction of BH. C. Jeffrey by.... 58 WHE, I. C., Deepest boring in West EV UTE INT Ae eco oeitpeey splstas oneen ce oem errata lassek oy en's 48 —, Memorial of T. M. Jackson by..... ils: —, Permian glaciation in Brazil e dis- CUSSEO MDa yaeend bas ie Geeta occa ee il WHITEHEAD, W. L., cited on riebeckite PATS ae bots ts eke ke oe eee aad oa ce SNS pelts 470 WHITLEY, N., cited on pillow lava..... 604 WIELAND, G. R., cited on oolites.... 760-761 WV IEDCLOD, THOVHIMBNNMOM Hg Gals obese Go ey Bo leo e 330 - SHOR DM HOt ek ehh ier a eects eet SoD oe WiuLcox, G. A., Discussion of Haywards FRR ED atehocatey ied outer oa es bust a omalionemane ete 123 WILLIAMS, i. H., cited on Clarendon PPAVEIS Mee ceis avetieeeton oak vs are 217, 218 fompe sation of copper in glacial GEDOSTUSh eee ets ore eee ere ee eae Dale WILLIAMS, C H., cited on origin of pil- Iya ilayaeee re ele en 6 eee 637 — —- spheroidal greenstone schists.. 613 WILLIAMS, J. L., Geological work in MOT CAO Behe sik Soe stag ny ayer re esitotens WILLIAMS, M. Y., cited on Cabots Head section, Ontario. 3 — -— — Manitowaning section, Ontario. 320 — -— —Clinton formation............ 279 —-, Photographs by [plate 14]........ 287 —;Sections illustrating the lower part of the Silurian system of south- Westen, OMUANEOscbbosocacedoosoc 40 WILLIS, JOHN, Fossil locality at ranch- INOUSE! Of ses ey cnele tote ee one See ene he 357 WILLISTON, S. W., cited on Mestrichtien ESTEE Fea eY Sa Mah An ea is a racic AnH le tee Pty 321 WILLISTON, —--—, Reference to model GESCEIDEO Discs hails eaten a ee 143 WILKES Expedition, Reference to fossils CONTE CECA DY ears occ eas aes arte de 62 WituMmMorrT, A. B.. cited on elliptical greenstone schists............... 612 — — — pillow lavas................. 616 WINCHELL, N. H., cited on ellipsoidal SLECNMSTOME We cece eee ale yeenl ove, tee 613-614 —-—-—-origin of pillow lavas........ 6387 ——— — pillow lavas......... Uo Nt 619 —; Delaware terraces................ 86 —, Discussion of Glacier Bay topogra- MOLD Vises ose peo tales oy sete eee aT el oe ee ee —- -— —— intraformational corrugation.. 37 —-—-— Ontario glaciation by......... 72 —, Reference to speech at dinner by... 80 —;Review of the formation of geo- logical societies in the United States 27 WINCHESTER, D. E., cited on Cannon- Dall aronmatlombaviecesmaeane sy seisls sickens 339 — —-—-— geology of Indian reservations. 350 WIND deposits, Mechanical analyses of. 713-726 — sediments, Differences between water ELT Lye aye toe teen cae Reema eee le eee 740 WINDLE, cited on anatomy of Horsecand taplrAye sn oe shee eee 06 Woop, &., Use of crinoid arms in studies Of cpMyVlOPeNny cies eee oem 135 WooDWARD, Henry, elected honorary member of Paleontological Society. 134 802 Page WoopworTtH, J. B., cited on Blackstone SOTIOS C4 Ea ope Sete ee eerste .. 444-445 —-——-— Diamond Hill quartz deposits.. 471 = Beno Wir IRPAAIle Go oo bh ebb 31 ————_ —_- Wamsutta voleanoes......:... 462 —, Work in the Diamond Hill-Cumber- land dict Capen ime teen ener 438-441 WOLF, Comparison of sun-spots ShnGl MNPWPEAIMES IONis oso o nce op sooo 494 WOLFER’S sun-spot numbers, Reference HO? EUR NU ear i ero ger r rieate .. 485 WRIGHT EE -h.; jand) Go AY RANKIN ; Physical-chemical system, 1im e- alumina-silica and its geological SiSmifiCaMmice oe Seysees one eee see RO —; Change in the crystallographical and optical properties of quartz with vise in temperature.............. 44 Wricut G. F.; Age of the Don River glacial deposits, Toronto, Ontario. 71, 205 —; Evidence of a glacial dam in the Allegheny River between Warren, Pennsylvania, and Tionesta..... 84, 215 WYOMING. Coal-bearing formations in.. 345 BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA WYOMING, Conglomerate of........... 346 —, Continuity of marine sedimentation movie; aiver (e\lale “opie. v\rel viele Med etch, eo: s) 0 ue, ie) ue) iofleiawans ——-, Wanee LOrma tion Ol. a. seen eae 345 , Mammal-bearing beds of........... 325 —~—, Mesaverde formation in........... 345 YALE Museum, Accessions to exhibition SERIES Ha bas fos tenehanare uaa Stach Seas eee 143 YEATES, W. S., Geological work in Geor- Foci: Nile 0) ER see PCR CERES OEP A TS eo 174 Younes, L. J., Analysis of concretions 5 NORCENT ems ena eI GCL! oon a 7 YPRESIAN and Sparnacian equivalent to Wasa tela 065 o). 2 ted oak ae eee eee 396 YUCATAN, Climatic changes in......... 539 YUKON-ALASKA boundary line, Geological Section eallone. tes se ee eee 179 ZACCAGNA, D.. cited on spheroidal dia- ASEM co SL eidis wo care lenele ele ee eee 600. ZIEGLER, Y., cited on oolites... 761-762, 764 THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA OFFICERS, 1914 President: Gronau F. BECKER, co D. c. (Term expires 1 S. W. Buyer, Ames, Io ArtTHuR Kairu, Wash (Term expires 619 ' R.A. F. PENROSE, Jr,, » Ph PUB ae ithe) ot suriideds wor if ry SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES > pba tea nivaeathaetith sharstathrvtathevsie: aise fiabortthedaitetan iP ger yeete Leto h Lt LU bans oi ott Me cy ih Nene a th Aa esi hs hw at Paps Hey pH, . 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