hollows and relative eminences’’ (page 564).
In discussing breaches in the escarpments and hill ranges of the
Wealden district, the same author says:
‘The only explanation of these facts is . . . marine erosion first produced
a surface of planation across the whole district while it was being slowly elevated,
so that this original surface sloped gently from a central line toward the north and
south. The primary streams naturally followed these slopes, . . . forming the
transverse valleys’’ (page 581).
Richthofen is the leading advocate of marine erosion among conti-
nental geologists. He treated the origin of plains of denudation, inde-
* Physical Geology, 1882, p. 577.
+ Second edition, 1887.
{ Handbook of Physical Geology, 1892, p. 620.
384 DAVIS—PLAINS OF MARINE AND SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
pendently of Ramsay’s writings, in his great work on China, attention
being led to the problem by the occurrence of unconformable marine
strata lying on smooth foundations, as observed in his eastern travels.
He concludes that the “ oldland” platform cannot have been produced
by atmospheric wasting or by running water; these agencies produce
valleys separated by ridges. Truly the valleys multiply and widen and
the ridges weaken, but reduction to a lowland can be reached only locally
and in small dimensions. Moreover, change in the altitude of land works
against complete denudation ; yet, although such a result is unattain-
able by subaerial agencies, it may be accomplished by the waves of the
sea beating onthe coast. Three cases are considered: astill-stand of the
land for an indefinite period, a slow elevation and a slow depression.
The still-standing land would be cut inward to a limited distance, after
which the waves would be exhausted on the platform of their own cary-
ing. During elevation slight effect could result, for the work would
always be beginning anew. Slow depression alone can produce regional
abrasion, for then the power of the waves is maintained by the continued
sinking of the bottom, while detritus accumulates on it. In contrast to
structural plateaus (Schichtungsplateaus), plateaus of denudation have
no relation to the structures across which they are cut or to the valleys
which are sunk beneath their level after general elevation. As examples,
the Ardennes and the uplands of the middle Rhine are first mentioned,
these being explained as producible only by sea waves; never by flowing
water or other subaerial agents. Another example given is the western
slope of the Sierra Nevada of California, now uplifted and dissected.*
The substance of the above is repeated in Richthofen’s ‘‘ Fiihrer fur
Forschungsreisende,”’ | emphasis being given to the association of plains
of denudation with unconformably overlying sediments, to which the
English school directs insufficient attention. Subaerial agents are de-
scribed as excavating valleys in uplifted plains of denudation, but not
in producing the plains (pages 171-173, 670, 671). The prevalence of
superposed streams in certain dissected uplands of abrasion is noted
(pages 671, 672), but no contrast drawn between these examples and
others in which the streams are systematically adjusted to the structures.
Cornet and Briart have made special study of the greatly deformed
Paleozoic rocks of Belgium, which they believe once rose in lofty moun-
tains. Although they regard subaerial agencies competent to produce
the “complete ablation” of a land surface, they conclude that it was
probably the waves of an encroaching sea that contributed largely to
destroy what remained of their ancient mountains in Cretaceous time.
* China, 1882, vol. ii, chap. xiv, sec. 3. + Berlin, 1886, pp. 353-361.
tLe relief du sol en Belgique. Ann. Soc. Geol., Belg., iv, 1877, pp. 72-113.
VIEWS OF AMERICAN WRITERS. 885
Philippson follows Richthofen in treating plains of denudation—
‘obrasionsflachen ”—as the result of wave action.*
Tar AMERICAN SCHOOL.
Few American writers accept the belief of the English school. The first
clear recognition of the importance of subaerial baseleveling should, I
believe, be credited to our geologists in the western surveys.t
Powell’s “ Exploration of the Colorado river” (1875) brought the
American view of the capabilities of subaerial erosion more prominently
forward, yet the text does not furnish brief explicit statement directly to
the effect that lowlands of denudation may be produced by subaerial
agencies. Extracts would lose their flavor apart from their context, but
in figuring a section of the wall in the Grand canyon the beveled sur-
face of the tilted older strata on which the horizontal Carboniferous strata
he is drawn smooth and even. The overlying beds “are records of the
invasion of the sea; the line of separation the record of a long time
when the region was dry land” (page 212). Here the implication is
that the sea gained entrance by depression of the baseleveledland. The
overlying strata are regarded as the ruins of some unrepresented land,
not of the locally buried land. The explanation is precisely opposite
to that given to similar structures by Richthofen.
In Powell’s ‘ Geology of the Uinta mountains ” (1876) there is a similar
absence of explicit account of baseleveled plains, apparently because
it was not necessary to expand truisms so simple; but the chapter on
degradation very clearly implies the capacity of subaerial forces to wear
down mountains, however high ; indeed, its burden is to show that the
destruction of a lofty range is so much accelerated by steep declivity that
its life cannot be much longer than that of a low range. Mountains are
“ephemeral topographic forms ;”’ all existing mountains are geologically
recent (page 197). All this without once calling on the aid of sea waves.
Dutton’s monograph on the “ Tertiary History of the Grand Canyon
district”? (1882) is most characteristically American in treatment as in
theme. Referring to the great unconformity near the base of the canyon
walls in the Kaibab and Sheavwits plateaus, he says, on page 207, that—
“The horizontal Carboniferous beds appear to have been laid down upon the
surface of a country which had been enormously eroded and afterward submerged.”
* Studien iber Wasserscheiden, 1886, p. 100.
+Marvine briefly presented the essence of the idea in 1873, but he made mention of marine
action in a late stage of the process, somewhat after the fashion of the English school. Deserib-
ing the east slope of the Rocky mountain front range, he wrote: “ The ancient erosion gradually
wore down the mass of Archean rocks to the surface of the sea, . . . the mass was finally
leveled off irrespective of structure or relative hardnesses of its beds, by the encroaching ocean,
which worked over its ruins and laid them down upon the smoothed surface in the form of the
Triassic and other beds” (Hayden’s Survey, Rept. for 1873, p. 144).
XLV—Boun. Gron. Soc. Am., Von. 7, 1895.
386 DAVIS—PLAINS OF MARINE AND SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
The erosion followed uplift, the deposition followed submergence when
the erosion was essentially completed. Along the surface of contact
there are—
‘*A few bosses of Silurian strata rising higher than the hard quartzitic sandstone
which forms the base of the Carboniferous. These are Paleozoic hills, which were
buried by the growing mass of sediment. But they are of insignificant mass, rarely
exceeding two or three hundred feet in height, and do not appear to have ruffled
the parallelism of the sandstones and limestones of the massive Red Wall group
above them ” (page 209).
On another page (181) Dutton says:
‘“The meaning of this great unconformity obviously is that after a vast body of
early Paleozoic strata had been laid down they were distorted by differential ver-
tical movements, were flexed and faulted,and were elevated above the sea. They
were then enormously eroded. . . Still later the region was again submerged.”
Over the rugged country thus ravaged, the later strata, perhaps 15,000
feet thick, were laid down.
Many other examples of the American view may be given. Most of
them, as in the cases already cited, take no account of the possibility that
the evenly abraded surface of the older terrane might be essentially the
product of wave work, but tacitly assume that it resulted from subaerial
erosion, followed by depression, with more or less tilting, so that the sub-
merged area comes to be sheeted over with waste derived from some non-
submerged area.
Irving concludes that in Wisconsin—
‘An amount of material vast beyond computation was removed from this ancient
land before the encroachment upon it of the sea within which the [Potsdam] sand-
stone was deposited.” *
The buried oldland is referred to as a “sub-Potsdam land surface.” +
Van Hise, writing of the great unconformities below and above the
Penokee series of Wisconsin and upper Michigan, implhes great subaerial
erosion, by which an uplifted region was reduced to a peneplain ; depres-
sion, submergence and deposition of material eroded elsewhere then fol-
lowed. The essentials of the explanation are that the Penokee series
rests upon an ancient land surface, more or less modified by wave action
at the time of submergence, but worn down from its constructional form
almost entirely by subaerial agents.
Walcott, recognizing wave work at the margin of an encroaching sea
as contributing to the formation of basal conglomerates, nevertheless ex-
plains the great pre-Cambrian land area of our country as “ approaching
*Seventh Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1888, p. 402. + Ibid., p. 409.
{ U.S. Geol. Survey, monograph xix, 1892, pp. 454-466.
VIEWS OF AMERICAN WRITERS. 387
the baselevel of erosion over large portions of its surface.”* Moreover,
it was a result of continental depression and not of erosive encroachment
of the waves that the upper Cambrian sea gained its extension over the
great interior of the continent (page 565). The relation of subacrial and
marine agencies are here, as in so many instances, just reversed from their
proportionate activities in Richthofen’s scheme.
McGee was the first to present a clear statement of the vast subaerial
denudation of our Atlantic slope in Mesozoic time: |
““ Before the initiation of Potomac deposition, but subsequent to the accumula-
tion of the Triassic and Rhaetic deposits and to the displacement and diking by
which they are affected, there was an eon of degradation during which a grand
mountain system was obliterated and its base reduced to a plain which, as its topog-
raphy tells us, was slightly inclined seaward and little elevated above tide. y
There followed a slight elevation of the land, when the rivers attacked their beds
and excavated valleys as deep as those today intersecting the Piedmont plain.
Then came the movement by which the deposition of the Potomac forma-
tion was initiated; the deeply ravined baselevel plain was at the same time sub-
merged and tilted oceanward.” Tf
It appears from the foregoing examples that, in denuded plains over
which unconformable sediments have been deposited, some late and small
share in the work of denudation may be allowed to the shore waves as
they advance over an already prepared peneplain when depression occurs ;
but it is otherwise with those uplifted and dissected plains of denudation
upon which there is no reason to think that unconformable sediments:
have ever been deposited. The plateau in which the Grand canyon of
the Colorado is cut is an extraordinary example of this kind. It is,
moreover, notable from consisting of nearly horizontal strata, where acute
observation has been needed to detect evidence of the long cycle of ero-
sion passed through before the region was uplifted to its present altitude.
The great plateau is beveled obliquely across the Carboniferous and
Permian strata, so that the undulating surface of the upland in its medial
part presents Permian beds on the hills and Carboniferous beds in the
hollows; but to the south, where the strata gently rise, the whole surface
is Carboniferous; to the north, where the strata sink, the surface is en-
tirely Permian.
‘We may suppose that this entire region, at the epoch at which the great denuda-
- tion of the Mesozoic system approached completion, occupied a level not much
above the sea. Under such circumstances it would have been at what Powell terms
baselevel of erosion. The rivers and tributaries would no longer corrade their
channels. The inequalities which are due to land sculpture and the general process
of erosion would then no longer increase, and the total energy of erosion would be
* Twelfth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1591, p. 562.
+ Three formations of the middle Atlantic slope. Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxxv, 1888, p. 142.
388 DAVIS—PLAINS OF MARINE AND SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
occupied in reducing such inequalities as had been previously generated. During
periods of upheaval, and for a considerable time thereafter, the streams are cutting
down their channels, and weathering widens them into broad valleys with ridges
between. The diversification so produced reaches a maximum when the streams
have nearly reached their baselevels; but when the streams can no longer corrade, »
and if the uplifting ceases, these diversifications are reduced and finally obliterated.
Such, I conceive, was the case here. . . . The entire region was planed down
to a comparatively smooth surface.’’ *
Willis first called attention to the occurrence of an uplifted and dis-
sected peneplain of subaerial denudation in the mountains of North
Carolina,t and Hayes and Campbell have since then shown the’ great
extent and area of this ancient land surface. { Willis and Hayes have
lately described the northern and southern Appalachians, § giving much
attention to the essential extinction of the mountains, except in the Caro-
lina highlands, in late Cretaceous time. The first author writes of the
lowland thus produced: “The land was flat, featureless and very slightly
elevated above the sea” (page 189). The second author writes: “The
whole region was reduced to a nearly featureless plain, relieved only by
a few groups of monadnocks where the highest mountains now stand”
(page 330).
Emerson writes of the Berkshire hills in western Massachusetts :
“ Erosion planed away the mountains to the general level, which can still be seen
in the average level of the plateau, pitching slightly east. * * * When this
peneplain was formed it was doubtless horizontal and near the sealevel, and was
what is called a baselevel.”’ ||
Salisbury says that the even crest-lines of the New Jersey highlands
tell of ‘mountainous elevations reduced to a peneplain near the level of
the sea.” 4]
Not only the tilted rocks of the Allezhenies and of the older Appa-
lachian belt, but the horizontal strata of the Allegheny plateau are
regarded as having been baseleveled, or almost so, before their present
uplift and dissection was gained. See, for example, the account of the
Cumberland plateau in Tennessee by Hayes.**
Griswold has recognized a greatly dissected peneplain in the even
crested ridges of the Arkansas novaculites, and has associated the warp-
ing of the great peneplain of which his special district was a part with the
origin of the lower course of the Mississippi in late Mesozoic time.ft
*Grand Canyon District. U.S. Geol. Survey Monogr., IJ, 1882, p. 119.
+ Round about Asheville, Nat. Geog. Magazine, vol. i, 1889, p. 297.
t Geomorphology of the southern Appalachians, ibid., vol. vi, 1894, p. 69.
2 Nat. Geog. Monographs, vol. i, 1895, nos. 6 and 10,
} Hawley sheet, Geol. Atlas U.S., 1894.
4 Geol. Survey New Jersey, 1894 (1895), p. 8.
** Sewanee sheet, Geol. Atlas U.S., 1895.
++ Geol. Surv. Arkansas, 1890, vol. iii, p. 222; Proc. Bost. Soc, Nat, Hist., vol. xxvi, 1895, p. 478.
VIEWS OF AMERICAN WRITERS. 389
Keyes * and Hershey ¢ have recently described the upland of the Ozark
plateau in Missouri as an uplifted and dissected peneplain. The region
has an essentially horizontal structure, like the Allegheny plateau, with
which it isin many ways homologous. ‘The latter author tells of residual
hills or monadnocks which still surmount the upland plain, and of faint
inequalities of form that seem to mark “ the hydrographic basins of the
streams which flowed on the Cretaceous lowland plain;” but as a whole
the region was ‘“‘a low, marshy plain of very slight relief, probably nearly
at sealevel.” ;
Darton describes the Piedmont area of Virginia as—
*“An undulating plateau carved in greater part in crystalline rocks . . traversed
by rivers which flow in gorges. . . It is now very clearly recognized that the
Piedmont plateau is a peneplain of Tertiary age. . . There is a system of very
low, flat divides coincident with those of the present drainage system.’’ t
Keith also describes the formerly even surface of the Piedmont belt in
which the valleys of today are incised, as a Tertiary baselevel of subae-
rial origin. §
The bevelled western slope of the Sierra Nevada, regarded as an up-
turned plain of marine abrasion by Richthofen, is ascribed by Gilbert, ||
Leconte,4] Lindgren, Diller}}+ and others to subaérial denudation ,
but Lindgren makes it clear that when the region stood lower it was
not worn smooth enough to be called a peneplain; “the declivities and
irregularities of the old surface are too consid erable for that.”
Diller describes a peneplain formed on the upturned Cretaceous rocks
of northern California and now dissected by various streams:
““The production of such a broad, uniform plain by the erosion of rocks varying
greatly in hardness could only be accomplished on a very gentle slope near the
level of the controlling water body, and we may therefore properly consider this
plain a baselevel of erosion.’’ tt
Lawson presents an instructive account of an uplifted and dissected
peneplain beveled across upturned strata in northern California. Water-
worn gravels occur on the ridges of the dissected upland. They “ can
only be interpreted as remnants of the stream gravels of the ancient
peneplain.” $§
, * Geol. Surv. Missouri, vol. viii, 1894, pp. 330, 352.
+ American Geologist, vol. xvi, 1895, p. 338.
t Chicago Jour. Geology, 1894, vol. ii, pp. 568-570.
2 Fourteenth Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1894, p. 369.
|| Science, vol. i, 1883, p. 195.
q Bull. Geol. Soe. Am., vol. 2, 1891, p. 327.
** Tbid., vol. 4, 1893, p. 298.
++ Chieago Jour. Geol., vol. ii, 1894, p. 34.
tt Fourteenth Ann. Rept. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1894, p. 405.
22 University of California; Bull. Dept. Geol., vol. i, 1894, p. 244.
390 DAVIS—PLAINS OF MARINE AND SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
G. M. Dawson describes an ancient peneplain, now an elevated and
dissected plateau, in the Rocky Mountain rezion of Canada:
‘*Climbing to the level of this old plateau, or to that of some slightly more ele-
vated point about the fiftieth or fifty-first parallel of latitude, the deep valleys of
modern rivers with other low tracts are lost sight of, and the eye appears to range
across an unbroken or but slightly diversified plain, which, on a clear day, may be
observed to be bounded to the northeast, southwest and south by mountain ranges
with rugged forms, and above which in a few places isolated higher points rise,
either as outstanding monuments of the denudation by which the plateau was pro-
duced, or as accumulations due to volcanic action of the Miocene or middle Tertiary
period.’’ *
After explicitly considering the alternatives of marine and subaerial
erosion, the author decides against the former, because the plateau dis-
trict is not accessible to the sea, and because there are no marine strata
thereabouts referable to the period when the peneplain was formed.
The river system of the region—
‘‘aided by other subaerial agencies, cut down almost its entire drainage basin
till this became a nearly uniform plain, with some slight slope in the main direc-
tion of the river’s flow, but of which the lowest part approximately coincided with
the sea-level of the time. . . . After reaching this baselevel of erosion the
rivers would, of course, be unable to do more than serve as channels for the con-
veyance of material brought into them from the surrounding country, which,
wherever it stood above the general level, was still subject to waste. The val-
leys became wide and shallow, and the surface as a whole assumed permanent
characters.’’ T
My ownstudies lead me to believe that subaerial denudation has reduced
Various mountainous or plateau-like uplifts to lowland peneplains.
A considerable number of extracts might be presented from the works
of foreign writers to show that the idea of marine denudation is on the
whole less favorably received by continental than by English geologists ;
but the features of land form and the processes of land sculpture have
not been studied in Europe with the attention that has been given to
stratigraphic succession or to the problems of paleontology and petrog-
raphy. Regions that are known to be uplands of denudation are often
described with abundant detail as to their structure, but with the scantiest
reference to the conditions of their topographic development.
* . . . The Rocky Mountain regionin Canada . . . , Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., viii, 1890, p. 11,
+ Loe. cit., p. 13.
t The following articles may be referred to: Relation of the coal of Montana to the older rocks
(Tenth Census U. S, vol. xv, 1886, p. 710); Topographic development . . . of the Connecticut
valley (Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xx xvii, 1889, p. 480) ; Geographic devetopment of northern New Jersey
(with J. W. Wood, Proc. Boston Soe. Nat. Hist., vol. xxiv, 1889, p. 373); Rivers of northern New Jer-
sey (Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. ii, 189), p. 6); Topographic forms of the Atlantic slope (Bull. Geol. Soc.
Am., vol. 2, 1891, p. 557); Physical geography of southern New England (Nat. Geog. Monogr., vol,
i, 1895, p. 276); Development of certain English rivers (Loudon Geog. Jour., vol. v, 185, p. 140).
VIEWS OF AMERICAN WRITERS. 391
A characteristic example of this.manner of treatment is found in the
valuable works by Lepsius on the mountains of the upper and middle
Rhine,* in which the Schiefergebirge and other ancient mountains are
fully treated as to structure, although little is said of their form and still
less of the origin of their form.
The following citations are from works in which land form and sculpture
are more fully considered.
The increasing importance attributed by Sir A. Geikie to subaerial
agencies in his later writings has already been noted. Professor James
Geikie goes further in this direction and says:
‘* Valleys continue to be deepened and widened, while the intervening mountains,
eaten into by the rivers and their countless feeders and shattered and pulverized
by springs and frosts, are gradually narrowed, interrupted and reduced until
eventually what was formerly a great mountain chain becomes converted into a
low-lying undulating plain.’’ fT
Gosselet, in his comprehensive monograph on the Ardennes, says that
the tilted, folded and faulted strata of their uplands haye been, as it were,
planed down by the combined action of atmospheric disintegration and
pluvial wearing. Both the Jurassic and Cretaceous formations are de-
scribed as lying on oldland soils, where they overlap the Paleozoic strata.
The elaborate treatise on “ Les formes du terrain” (1888), by de la
Noé and de Margerie, clearly maintains that pluvial denudation may not
only produce valleys, but it may wear down the divides between the val-
leys (page 106). The escarpments or cross-valleys of the Weald in south-
ern England may be explained without calling on marine erosion, as most
of the English geologists have done (pages 135, 136). Plateaus of abra-
sion, without a cover of unconformable strata, may be “ simply the result
of prolonged subaerial erosion.” If unconformably covered, it still re-
mains to be seen how far the abraded surface is—
‘““The modification by wave action of a hardly different surface, produced by the
prolonged work of streams which had long before attained faintly graded slopes,
and which had by the aid of atmospheric agents almost completely destroyed pre-
existing inequalities of form ’’ (page 188).
Penck concludes that the final aim of subaerial denuding agents is to
reduce a land almost completely to a plain,§ but his account of the
Schiefergebirge of the middle Rhine does not explicitly state whether the
“abrasionsplateau ” of their uplands is of marine or subaerial origin. ||
* Die Oberrheinische Tiefebene und ihre Randgebirge, Forschungen zur deut. Landeskunde, i,
1885, 35-91; Geologievon Deutschland, 1887.
+Mountains, their origin, growth and decay: Scot. Geog. Mag., vol. ii, 1886, p. 160.
{ L’Ardenne. Mém. Carte géol., France, 1888, pp. 802, 808, 837.
@ Das Endziel der Erosion und Denudation, Verh. viii deut. Geographentag, 1889, pp. 91-100.
|| Landerkunde des Erdtheils Europa, i, 1887, p. 316.
392 DAVIS—PLAINS OF MARINE AND SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
In his compendious volumes on the ‘‘ Morphologie der Erdoberfliiche ”’
(1894), he considers plains of marine and of subaerial denudation, both
as to process of origin and as to derivative forms, after elevation and dis-
section, but criteria for their discrimination are not discussed.*
De Lapparent, president of the French Geographical Society, has
advocated subaerial erosion as the means of denuding the Ardennes and
the Central plateau of France, f and later says:
“ La notion des pénéplaines est extremement féconde, et ce n’est pas un de ses
moindres mérites d’avoir porté le coup de grace 4 la théorie des plaines de dénuda-
tion marine, si fort en honneur de l’autre coté du détroit.” t
CoMPARISON OF THE TWO SCHOOLS.
It is noteworthy that, with few exceptions, the more recent writers here
quoted do not discuss both processes by which smoothly abraded plains,
whether buried or bare, may be produced, but directly announce their
conclusion as to the origin—by marine or by subaerial agencies—of the
surface under consideration. This, of course, implhes that they regard
the question as settled, just as for some time back it has been the habit
of geologists on finding marine shells in stratified rocks to conelude, with-
out reviving the discussions of earlier centuries, that the strata are of
marine origin, aud that their present position indicates a change in the
relative attitude of the land and sea. But in this latter example all
geologists are today agreed, while in the problem of the origin of plains
of denudation each writer follows only the conclusion of his own school,
not the conviction of the world. Jt is chiefly to arouse attention to this aspect
of the problem that the present review is undertaken.
It is further noteworthy that, with few exceptions, the authors who
discuss the matter at all do not attempt to discriminate between the two
possible classes of denuded surfaces by searching for features peculiar
to one or the other, but content themselves with @ priori argument as to
the possibility of producing plains by marine or subaerial agencies.
There is, however, a certain difference of attitude in the two schools
regarding the doctrine of the other. The English school hardly considers
at all the ability of subaerial agencies to produce smooth plains of denu-
dation; their discussion of the question turned really on the possible
origin of valleys by subaerial agencies. ‘The American school does not,
as far as I have read, deny the ability of marine agencies, but attributes
ereater ability, especially far in continental interiors, to subaerial agencies ;
their discussion of the question postulates the subaerial origin of ordinary
* Vol. ii, pp. 145, 181, 489.
+ L’age des formes topographiques, Rev. des quest. scient., Oct., 1894.
{La géomorphogénie, ibid., April, 1895.
COMPARISON OF ENGLISH AND AMERICAN SCHOOLS. 393
valleys as a matter already proved, and goes on from this to the possible
ultimate result of the valley-making processes. Again, the English school
denies, tacitly or directly, the probability or even the possibility of a
period of still-stand long enough for essentially complete subaerial denu-
dation close to sealevel, but assumes the possibility of a period of still-
stand or of slight depression continuous and long enough to allow the
sea waves to plane off the sinking lands. The American school tacitly
questions the occurrence of great erosive transgressions of the sea during
either a still-stand or a slow depression of the land, but admits the possi-
bility of essentially complete subaerial denudation to an average sealevel,
above and below which the land long hovers in many minor oscillations
before a new attitude is assumed by great depression, elevation or de-
formation. It should be borne in mind that the depressed and buried
or the uplifted and dissected plains of denudation whose origin is in
question are in no cases geometrical planes; they nearly always possess
perceptible inequalities, amounting frequently to two or three hundred
feet; but these measures are smallcompared to the inferred constructional
relief of earlier date, or compared to the deep valleys often eroded be-
neath the plain if it has been uplifted. By whatever process the so-called
“ plain of denudation” was produced, an explanation that will account
for a peneplain of moderate or slight relief is all that is necessary. Abso-
lute planation is so rare as hardly to need consideration here.
In no respect is the contrast between the two schools more strikingly
shown than in the beliefs concerning the cover of unconformable strata
that lie or are supposed to have lain upon an oldland. The continental
members of the English school generally regard these strata as an essen-
tial result of the process of marine denudation during slow depression ;
if such strata are absent from a dissected plateau, their absence is ex-
plained by denudation after uplift. The American school does not give
the cover of unconformable strata an essential place in the problem; if
present, it is generally ascribed to deposition following the submergence
of a region already for the most part baseleveled by subaerial agencies.
REVIEW OF THE A PRIORI ARGUMENT.
It may be noted that the value of marine agencies gained a high repu-
tation for effective work before subaerial agencies were recognized as
significantly affecting the form of the land, and that from that time to
the present the importance of the latter agencies has been steadily in-
creasing in the minds of geologists. The manifest work of waves on a
bold coast was perceived ata time when the production of valleys by
rain and rivers was scouted. Today it is not so much that the absolute
streneth of marine erosion is given a smaller value than heretofore, but
XLVI—Butt Grow. Soc. Am., Vou. 7, 1895.
394 DAVIS—PLAINS OF MARINE AND SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
that the relative importance of subaerial erosion is rated much higher
than at the beginning of the century. While the sea works energetically
along a line, subaerial forces work gently over a broad surface. Chiefly
for this reason Geikie concludes that “ before the sea, advancing at a rate
of ten feet a century, could pare off more than a mere marginal strip of
land between 70 and 80 miles in breadth, the whole land might be washed
into the ocean by atmospheric denudation.” *
A slight movement of elevation usually sets the sea back to begin its
work anew on the seaward side of its previous shoreline, but such an
elevation only accelerates the work of subaerial denudation all over the
elevated region. The waves on the seashore shift their line of attack
with every slight vertical movement of the coastal region ; but the sub-
aerial forces over large continenta] areas gain no notice of slight move-
ments until a considerable time after they have been accomplished, and
hence they perform their task only with reference to the average atti-
tude ofthe land. Observers near a shoreline naturally have their attention
directed to the unsteadiness of the land, as indicated by marks of many
recent changes of land level; hence they are perhaps indisposed to admit
that any land has ever stood still—or oscillated slightly above and below
an average attitude—long cnough to be nearly or quite baseleveled by
subaerial agencies. They prefer to think that the sea is, in spite of its
many stops and starts, the great leveler of the lands.
Some have intimated that the insular position of English observers
has led them to exaggerate the relative power of the sea. Thus W. T.
Blanford, after much experience in India and elsewhere, as well as at
home in England, writes:
“It is not surprising that the power of rain and rivers should be recognized with
difficulty in regions where their effects are comparatively so dwarfed as in the
British isles, while the power of marine denudation is at its maximum from the
enormous coastline exposed and the small amount of detritus furnished for its
protection by rivers of small length and in which floods are of exceptional occur-
rence.” fT
But even this weil practised observer contended only for the subaerial
origin of valleys, not of plains also. On the other hand, those whose
studies have been directed chiefly to large interior areas seldom have
occasion to observe the action of energetic shore waves, and hence are
apt to attribute relatively little importance to their work. The small
share of attention recently given by Powell to shore waves and coastal
forms in a general discussion of physiographic processes and features
is perhaps thus explained. { The citation from Dawson, given above, is
* Text-book, 1885, p. 432.
+ Geol. and Zo6l. Abyssinia, 1870, p. 158, note.
jt Nat. Geog. Monographs, vol. i, 1895, nos. 1 and 2.
THE A PRIORI AND A POSTERIORI ARGUMENTS. 395
an especially good illustration of the manner in which large continental
surroundings may affect the opinions of an observer who, from certain
associations, might be expected to follow the insular school.
Although mature deliberation and good judgment may lead through
a priori argument to a safe conclusion in many problems, the method is
of difficult application here on account of the great number of variable
factors whose appropriate values can be hardly determined. It is prob-
ably by reason of assigning different values to variable factors that the
opposite conclusions summarized above have been reached.
STATEMENT OF THE A POSTERIORI ARGUMENT.
In attempting to decide by arguing from effect to cause whether evenly
denuded regions have been worn down by subaerial or marine agencies,
let us try to stand on a provisional Atlantis, hoping that it may give
steady support long enough for us to gain an unprejudiced view of the
opinions that are so generally accepted on the lands to the east and west.
From this neutral ground let us attempt to deduce from the essential
conditions of each explanation of the problem as many as possible of its
essential consequences, and then confront these consequences with the
facts. The measure of accordance between consequences of theory and
facts of observation will then serve as a measure of the verity of the theory
from which the consequences are derived. No final decision can be
reached in many cases; for, however clearly the consequences may be
deduced, the facts with which they should be compared are often beyond
the reach of observation. In such cases it is advisable to announce in-
decision as clearly as decision is announced in the others.
As far as I have been able to carry the analysis of the problems, it is
more difficult to find positive criteria characteristic of plains of marine
denudation than of plains of subaerial denudation; hence I will take up
the latter class first. It should be remembered, however, that in each
class of plains both classes of agencies may have some share, one pre-
ponderating over the other.
CONSEQUENCES OF SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
Imagine a region of deformed harder and softer strata raised to a con-
siderable elevation. Then let the land stand essentially still, or oscillate
slightly above and below a mean position. ‘The rivers deepen their val-
leys, the valleys widen by the wasting of their slopes, and the hills are
slowly consumed. During this long process a most patient and thorough
examination of the structure is made by the destructive forces, * and
whatever is the drainage arrangement when the rivers begin to cut their
*See Bearing of physiography on uniformitarianism. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 7, 1895, pp. 8-11,
396 DAVIS—PLAINS OF MARINE AND SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
valleys a significant rearrangement of many drainage lines will result
from the processes of spontaneous adjustment of streams to structures.
This involves the adjustment of many subsequent streams to the weaker
structures and the shifting of many divides to the stronger structures.
Adjustment begins in the early stages of dissection, advances greatly
in the mature stages, and continues very slowly toward old age, while
the relief is fading away. Indeed, when the region is well worn down
some of the adjustments of maturity may be lost in the wanderings of
decrepitude, but this will seldom cause significant loss of adjustment
except in the larger rivers. Now, if a region thus baseleveled or nearly
baseleveled is raised by broad and even elevation into a new cycle of
geographical life, the rivers will carry the adjustments acquired in the
first cycle over to the second cycle. Still further adjustment may then
be accomplished. The master streams will increase their drainage area
in such a way that the minor streams will seldom head behind a hard
stratum. In a word, the drainage will become more and more longi-
tudinal and fewer and fewer small streams will persist in transverse
courses. All this is so systematic that I believe it safe to assert that the
advanced adjustments of a second cycle may in many cases be distin-
guished from the partial adjustments of a first cycle. It should be noted
further that in the early stages of the second cycle the residual reliefs of
the first will still be preserved on the uplands. and that they will be sys-
tematically related to the streams by which the dissection of the upland
is In progress, as noted in the examples described by Darton and Hershey.
It is manifestly impossible to apply what may be called the river test
to plains of denudation upon which a cover of unconformable sediments
is spread; but, before assuming that such buried plains are of marine
origin, their uppermost portion next beneath the cover should be exam-
ined to see if it presents indications of secular decay before burial; and,
if so, a subaerial origin for the plain may be argued. Certain aspects of
this division of the subject have been discussd by Pumpelly.* Another
matter of importance is the character of the undermost layers of the
cover. If these are fresh-water beds a subaerial origin for the plain on
which they rest may be inferred. The ‘Potomac formation offers an
example of this kind. +
CONSEQUENCES OF MARINE DENUDATION.
Now suppose that a region of disordered structure is partly worn down
by rain and rivers and is smoothly planed across by the sea during a time
of still-stand or of gradual depression. The land waste gained in the
* Bull. Geol. Soe. Am., vol. 2, 1891, p. #11.
+ McGee: Am. Jour. Sci., vol. xxxv, 1888, p. 187; Fontaine: Monogr. xv, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1889,
p. 61. ‘
CONSEQUENCES OF MARINE DENUDATION. Bulk
later attack will be spread off-shore on the platform abraded in the earlier
attack. The basal strata of the unconformable cover thus formed must
indicate their marine origin and must be appropriately related in com-
position and texture to their sources of supply. ‘The drainage systems
of the land will be essentially extinguished by the encroaching sea.
When the region rises, with the cover of new sediments lying evenly on
its smoothed back, a new system of original consequent streams will take
their way across it. If the elevation be sufficient, the streams will in-
cise their valleys through the cover of new sediments and in time find
themselves superposed on the ‘“oldland” beneath. As time passes,
more and more of the cover will be stripped off; at last it may disap-
pear far and wide, although the stripped surface of the oldland may still
retain a generally even sky-line as a memorial of its once even denuda-
tion. Now, in this case, the rivers by which the dissected plateau is
drained will have at most only a very slight adjustment to its structure.
Their courses will have been inherited from the slope of the lost cover ;
they will at first run at random across hard and soft structures; a little
later some adjus tment to the discovered structures will be made, but as
long as the even sky-line of the upland is recognizable, only the incom-
plete adjustments appropriate to the adolescent stage of denudation can
be gained.
EXAMPLES OF DISSECTED UPLANDS WITH ADJUSTED DRAINAGE.
This essay has already reached so much more than its expected length
that it will not be possible to give extended space to the consideration of
specific examples. This is, however, no great disadvantage, inasmuch as
the number of examples in which the problem has been considered in
relation to drainage arrangement and other discriminating features is
very small. The various articles already referred to concerning the geo-
graphical development of the Appalachian region treat this aspect of the
subject with some care; to these may be added my paper on “ Certain
English rivers,” in which it seems to me that there is shown some ground
for the consideration of the.alternative to the usual English view. Of
the Ardennes it may be briefly said that systematic longitudinal and
transverse streams are well developed in certain areas, and in those parts,
at least, there does not appear direct evidence of marine transgression.
Sheets 48 and 54 of the Belgian topographical map (scale, 1 : 40,000) ex-
hibit these features very clearly. On the other hand, the branches of the
Rhine and the Moselle in the Schiefergebirge suggest superposition from
a lost cover, as mapped on the sheets of the Karte des Deutschen Reichs
(scale, 1 : 100,000).
It is manifest that many plains of denudation, now uplifted and more
3998 DAVIS—PLAINS OF MARINE AND SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.
or less dissected, may be found in which no simple test based on the
presence of superposed streams will serve to settle the question of marine
origin. Indeed, it appears to mea difficult matter to adduce any ex-
amples of extensive plains of denudation whose origin is demonstrably
marine and to whose planation subaerial agencies have not contributed
the greater work. A region may be almost reduced to baselevel by sub-
aerial denudation when the transgressing sea completes the work, extin-
euishing the adjusted valleys and introducing superposed streams in the
next cycle of denudation. A region well baseleveled under the air may
by quick depression suffer rapid ingression of the sea, whose shore waves
will during depression nowhere reside long enough to perform a signifi-
cant amount of abrasion. When the region is thus submerged and stands
again relatively quiet, the waste from a non-submerged area, gained both
by marine and subaerial denudation, may be spread over the denuded
and depressed plain, and when afterwards elevated with an unconform-
able cover that will induce superposed drainage, all trace of former
adjustments will be lost; yet here the planation was not marine. A
district of superposed drainage in central New Jersey, where the Amboy
clays once spread over the red shales and sandstones of the Trias, may
probably be taken asan example of this kind. Superposed rivers cannot,
therefore, always be taken to prove that the uplands which they dissect
are uplifted plains whose denudation was chiefly performed by the sea.
Regions of essentially horizontal structure normally have wandering
streams; no systematic arrangement of drainage is here to be expected.
Discrimination in such regions has seldom been attempted between ex-
amples of one cycle of subaerial denudation, now adolescent or mature,
and examples of two cycles, the first having reached old age and the
second now being in its adolescence or maturity. The sky-line would —
be smooth and even in examples of either class: in the first, because its
original constructional form was a plain; in the second, because it was
planed down essentially smooth at the close of the cycle preceding the
current cycle. It is, however, sometimes possible in regions of horizontal
structure to recognize the records of old age reached in a former cycle by
a slight discordance between the general upland surface and the attitude
of the strata; or by the association of the region with an adjacent region
of tilted structure where indications of an earlier cycle of subaerial denu-
dation are manifest, both these tests being applicable in the Allegheny
plateau ; or by the arrangement of the faint residual relief of the uplands,
where not trenched by young or adolescent streams, this test having been
applied in the Piedmont district of Virginia, in the Ozark plateau of
Missouri, and in the Great plains of eastern Montana. Further study of
many other examples is desirable.
GNV1S! 30OHY ‘GNVISI 3ONS0NYd ‘iNIOd GNVS
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BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
VOL. 7, PP. 399-422, PL. 18 MARCH 28, 1896
CUSPATE FORELANDS
BY F. P. GULLIVER
(Read before the Society December 27, 1895)
CONTENTS
Page
LULSTECG. TI EIRIG Ds «6/4 PALA 7 SUE RO SIO ee EE MRE a ING PDT a oP 400
“NAITIAUTTS oo 0 aye. Ar Riri etc ee agate Om AL Ca ee 401
Bre eA RAPE M TR DRE IAP ih ye) 0.12 haath ake u ot's) bball abel g'ate leyiler vie b-ghetey ® were Am ala ha clone 401
rem CMM PHN ALOE Ge) seeker atts aN han A aah acy. AS Bis ele! dala ah oho wid WS He ble Ae ciacae altel Selb dlets 402
PVR OR OA Piney PSN OF Ss ch Se figiele isl, ai chac totor'es gray wichwaninne & Av Dyerau Dlecro ithe ayn's aetebe lar’ 402
Sette Gat PIP EON se Sie sa aera eS e cca! chins act’ yn! a)/aie, ep 5) nid a! ooe/ ai mletauey wee ee Oem sem eels 402
LEVEE ESIEL, SII CIERIA & rie Sc Aa ve I va tere sea 402
Mamma MON shOr CUCM i. 5. oes vied h se yee Ga eee we ca see eelade snc 403
Monee MUCMGEeSONOMCORY A 2 sks. eet eek dese lle bs Bolev eet ane tees 404
MEAT 6 Shh tio een g dial afer e lw cwae VIO ei Ed bs HIS AON Rie hee ane es 406
fee remnmemine OATOMWMAS Ns 15) tana ' ol wise bone e/t gb Sates eedts adi Mlges ola Side 407
rere nn TN GIN © TOMI fe Pea o exci teyeteyen viel seeak's wove » we dhalal en sie com tees 7 ee 408
emesmmaenections tm the Carolinas... 2.200.000. seednty igen deccdeede sts 408
Seta OTE The OO OKOUUUN oe ei one siepe: 2 9% yal > wicuiew anelis ee eie/ bul s) weave ars, slemengrs 409
Srlgra MMT e NG INTCE CAWOS case 8s Lc. oes aise #0) ee er o bine Gro noe who Seite etree ia vole 409
PETE e OMMEGOMN LOG WHINY PACT 66.6! 2 eis.0 eure jaf sie rnn eyo s Sesie Blaceeidlietace a Grae ears aac 409
Val GP ZSUMTI ON SS ARN eR ano RR eS a . 410
SOMOLEM, CIDOB! 9 © 6/6 GAL See Age ee eo eet em ee sapewn' ALL
Maman rMGkdeSerioGlOM, sa wi). . 4. nl Seen PUB ah lathes walwery ode alt 411
Tepe ee sta tO et Fe rath a Ae 411
Beg NONSENSE Ale a ledeirk wads) 1 on cae plein syavonsuien eae a ayer whateva Bee een oat 413
SIDES? SUEBYOSr gS SO aS aN cen ee Sr eS PO et cesT 413
Lagoon-marsh stage.......... Sash Dt HORA Rom efrSt Se MunTe ELEY? ean iat S oi Mehay acest 414
ATTN WMC MMR NRA 2 ofa) ate aie JhokSie eo bitin eRveh oneeaaadena cm eee uel ic Sack esa 'o ets als 415
Drie ama chem@leeo GOV ner, x2 Are tists nsttsw-cishe aalalave Mie ehQ NSE. ate lelew’ aleve Wee ce cs 416
Meomymcomeromved With tacts 215.2 biloiee nee sale slewier dees ae sie eecle belts oo 417
Lote TE, CICS gc di SE i OO RGD Car Sa eR a 417
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ENESEE VALLEY.
insverse to the water-parting.
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BULL. GEOL. SOC. AM.
VOL. 7, 1895, PL. 19
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HYDROGRAPHY OF THE GENESEE VALLEY.
Wat ng shown by heavy broken line.
Gl outlets indicated by bars transverse to the water-parting.
Figures indicate altitude above mean tide.
BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
VOL. 7, PP. 423-452, PLS. 19-21 APRIL 14, 1896
GLACIAL GENESEE LAKES
BY H. L. FAIRCHILD
(Read before the Society August 27, 1895)
CONTENTS
Page
LULD'GC UVCLILOIIS & oy ceBIS 2 Be Oe eae er aa ean RAL ae 424
Meee omaGenesce Valley! ices eee ow ee ee ee 425
PimaUuOctpMycamd: GopoeraAphy.!.i.5 028s oes oe Be von peace gees ee 425
LOTS) CIBTOO RINSE 8 UR Cis Oe Rei an apenas ea ae er ean Aa AEN Fl ee ae 426
LES DENCH SIONS Cre SES Es) eS ea Se 427
Postglacial channels of the Genesee........ Bs Taate Aisa Cetin caked A PD 427
Peostelaeial channels: of tributary streams..........00..02.. 0000000. ae. 428
iseMICMRC AMICI SKOlNMmMe GEESCCs.).c.0.) ve eek ee etl dese. eee fae e as 429
Sequence of events in the geological history of Genesee valley........ ss Sema)
ihaprodmetony Stabementy 00... desc. o ee ee lee ee LOR Shy Pes inde iis 8 2,8 429
irae preelacrlosubaerial Crosion: 2 oy .0. ce eee ee ee we eee ees 429
Ppisedesorlaikes! by ice-ad Vance... 66 ee. ee dal Set eee eee ena eee 430
MSOC eKOIMe AClanOMs At. yas iayh on sta se oe ee aL ae Sy ae aaa eae 48
orcaederotslakesviony ICC-remre at. .\.). 65s. ween le ieee een ee ea de sae ae edel 430
MOM OnuMNOraTMal MAKES. (os) isUels. Lie eis s eed e aed eee Ob eb pa see les 430
raver postelacial: subaerial erosion.....2. 20.055 .0. 00 cee eee neve eee 430
Peer Otte rola cla lla wes so... sien) 2 dase et ies Wa bagays @babe eon cma 431
OEM OL Oi Wiabel laMCGs —.\.' She's cs hinds iia asa ois 2 oth Slt cieraded Seana sty ble Woke 431
Mier tier Memo USP meet vary ce al, ba acasnisie Xx byoudies Goa. wate ancealelecson Muures uaa ey eo 432
Bionic meres tenvemMeOM ba cls <2. a cys erbatenieed.ckestin hos ais eisteeie | Sod ata ee ae saccn © ous « 432
Wecemipnon of the glacial lakes........3....... oe PU te oele aes EAT RCN Rs S ene 433
hiiemouace: wlbrce primary KiukeS. 20. o ihe dames dees Pee se se ade domes 433
(LTBI) sisted 2 Sealed 0 ARR Ms Re Me Sore BO oT) A) A A 433
Lah S INTIS OUT Scar oss ie Wee MCR RS GAMERS “E aT RAR Nac ec TA HAC 417 Sn ee 433
Sccondustee arenmnsylvania lakevsi,..cooerr eile. eS 434
(CUIUL EST IES, ON oa ta 8 ad ee gee LOR Pe ee eS ict op ie 434
RSP SCOT ho) che. onsy cya ees x a peeeasei yee ORI de REIL Peace at cao! SURO Ge 434
Peete aN Velie he Males 8 sl 5. ahha Wye Aleit ots cee ater e colons cs Wed Slabea ay 34
OMT Gs sb SSE ea re Bc TAP St Pas ec ag a 434
WVEIPCENCIS Ros chloe: oA eee P MERI AREER yh iG a fiche a ulte' poe eles 435
Houmiarstce: beltast=Hillmore lakes Mowe eco e se ties Cee Poe sa use tele 43
OTE LS Garnet cys Sea ye ale oc cp inks cat Pee Ne ken cn NEN aoe wl af Daud 436
NVPAULGIE LOW CIS aie Sitters ox < alo) Aa emis Sete Ntts athe Waletai a -eleia wane 4 hed 437
L—Butt. Grot, Soc. Am., Vou. 7, 1895. (423)
424 H. L. FAIRCHILD—GLAUIAL GENESEE LAKES.
Page
Fitth stage: Portageville-Numda lake! sve ee eter ee een, ae ee ee 438
Outleta coe costs es BAS SS ee ee en eee 438
General deseription:.<\.f.< 542 See see eee eee ee ee 438
Primary OWwuetig iso oo. siais dna ae ee eee Nace ea nee ee 439
UWiltimate outlets... o's. «0:5 as0e he ethabere, sparen See eer aay etree ce en ae 439
Water levels aici. cau 5 t's, bi oieeee theory ten ete arene hee ates er hee 439
Sixth stage: Darisville lake. i -o5. Aah Boe penis cre bo on Oe cp re 440
OUClete sale eed Sik vcs SS eee Ce bese nen ge Mop Spates © .. 440
Woater-levels s,s occa: sc egs set wis) o ten wl nelelate sus ae eee S Fleet oe ae eee 441
Seventh stage: Warren tributary lakes: 2.2 ps9 45--e oe te hee ee eee 442
Oatletig oc cis sak sein oe See aye ela ae eae tere pe 442
Water-levels............. sls nh SN BS NEE Ne ate eee hee ae 443
Highth stave: Warren waters. ..: oi. 23h. 2 ones saa eee ee ee ee 443
Ninth stage: Iroquois waters. 2.240: iw epee same bays cine eee oe 445
Tenth stage: lake Ontario (non-glawial): >. 7. soeeeec +s oan ee 446
SUIDIMLATY «sb iss a sine een m Mew a cle lereee mein ole emia eit eine ee ee 446
Contemporary local glacial lakes... ... 02... «- «ches soe ee ,. 446
In Genesee hydropraphic area... 2s. sacs ewinne ake inl oe 446
Conditions affecting formation of local lakes.......,.. .< i¢ina0 =e 446
Knight Greek lake.’ sia. in sped oaenie sets eel ee ie 447
Friendship (Van Campens Creek) lake...........0.eeceeeceersseeet 447
Black Creek lake..i:.. 0... sss staseute seeming hid eee ae ed eee 448
Rushford Lake sev iv spo 050d sv re dew de empl ers eis Ride Se Gee 448
WW re W Deb is jx onic s- anip wom my red gga ops wees Sete a a a 448
Dansville lake « 0s. 2» as's'ss 54 ose ot kines onl s arene ree ae ee 448
Seothabirre: Dales: x i.9 cress ute wv awn e's ta Phar ee Ree 448
Springwater lake. . acca. ssa. becom devine v temo ab ale ee 449
Tributary to Genesee HIER.) 05 2.55. nice wie ss sya a opie ple an ee 449
Subsequent morainal lakes . . 2 62002 ci eas shu pe odes wale nly ea 449
Tn Gemesee Piver. oa. .dsis aap 'sctaw Copp» pun 6 & oiecaiy bine Oe ee 449
In tributary streams.; i05. 50.0 <0). ss. Vol.4..) Vol-5. ~ Vol.'6: Total.
From Fellows............s066 Soacdde $2 45 $1 55 $0 35 $0 70 $2 75 $2 25 $10 05
From the public..............s.0 0 40 2 05 IPOD uanbedecko. eboccdaaseuan ecedaecates 3 95
Total for 1895.............. 2 85 3 60 1 85 0 70 2 75 2 25 14 00
By last report (1894).............. 18 05 13 00 4 00 4 85 MOD Digescam access 41 05
MNotal to date-:-2.......-.-.. $20 90 $16 60 $5 85 $5 55 $3 96 $2 25 $55 05
CTEM ClpetOltel leeenemomcuerecctetence toa ences casseaiccuvecois cet sciieensugecsudseeseeduccds eusae oeeeaneueben beceeeune $2,248 65
EVE COUVC CMO LEO LUMMCH pelea CL WELING Crancsevstidceossnerocenciansiseceatecstccsenctncceceaera sosecocerees 35 00
PRO Vale EC CM USHLORG AL Cleersenstccrcsweacl! saa ctosliecisss oso e sw case atlsasosioce Su alia Spaceeaedoecase steubecaasosane $2,283 65
BA ommineharsed. amc we MACOS Cte ses..cc.ccc2.. cues deevessnncue «ocesacdeaseucossuedaharcanacksouses 131 90
BRO cae Ulle Cinies AVE SHUORMAUCInccer scenes sccesiiscerter es scececrecesuscestcaehuonte a ennn steccemeeconeetees $2,415 55
Exchanges.—The list of institutions to which the Bulletin is donated
now numbers 85, of whom 10 receive brochures and 75 the completed
volume. Since the printing of this list, in connection with the list of the
library at the end of volume 6, the following changes have been made:
Library of University of Toronto and Library of McGill University have
become subscribers; Engineering and Mining Journal removed from the
list; Museo de la Plata, Geographical Society of Finland, Geological
Survey of Sweden, Cincinnati Society of Natural History, National Geo-
graphic Society, and American Geographical Society added to the list.
456 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
Library.—The books, pamphlets and maps belonging to the Society are
deposited with the Case Library, Cleveland, Ohio, under a contract which
was outlined in the Secretary’s report of last year. ‘The lst of material
deposited up to January, 1895, is printed in the Bulletin, volume 6,
pp. 001-516. The list of material deposited during the present year
should be printed in volume 7.
The library is available for the use of the Fellows under the following
rules:
1. Fellows are permitted to draw out material in reasonable quantity
for a period not exceeding two months.
2. The transportation charges both ways and other expenses are to be
paid by the Fellow so borrowing.
d. The Fellow is held responsible only for such loss or damage as may
occur through his fault, as, for example, by insufficient wrapping or mis-
directions.
EXPENDITURE OF SECRETARY’S OFFICE FOR THE SOCIETY’S FISCAL YEAR, NOVEMBER 30,
5 1894, TO NOVEMBER 30, 1895
Account of Administration
Postage wicca ae yh ao axipe ole» tet es ak ee ere oe $36 70
WX PVesSAGe..< 5.. a: dad oe shad, Soest en eee Re ee ee 4 77
Stationery-aned TeCOrdg. . ../¥ip. cas = tranche a bet oie ae ort hg cane ees 4 95
Printing, including stationery. tcc. =p seine aaa ie eRe ee 105 61
Mieetini oy oc e005 aa eee, cre de oe nk eee a La eee 17 50
Library. ..sss'.
the southward. These head in a plateau of Eocene overlain by the Lafayette
formation, and they cat more or less deeply into clays and sands of the Potomac
formation before they reach the low, swampy flats adjoining the river. At Fort
Motte there isa high bluff !ying a short way back from the river, in which the
Potomac beds are seen overlain by the Eocene marls and dark clays containing
abundant fossils.
In my trip down the Peedee river from Cheraw I traveled in a small skiff, and
although [ made a careful search for outcrops I found very few. It was not long
after a freshet and the water was still quite high, so that possibly a greater num-
ber of exposures would have been seen at low water. Low banks of Columbia
formation and wide areas of swamps were the only features that I observed except-
ing a short searp at Gardners bluff, 10 miles below Cheraw, and Hunts bluff, 20
miles farther down. In Gardners bluff the following section was noted :
1: Orariee aril doit said Loam. ).-d/ee aoa ee ee oh ees yi a Raps eS 5 feet
2. Orange sand with pebbles, cross-bedding |. «03 4-b. se. View oe eee Gis
3. Coarse gray sand with butt streakaync.. aie, 2a ey ane be eee one Sade
4. Coarse gray sand, somewhat cross-bedded; lines of clay and quartz
pebbles... \ 2S 264 nokia GS Sark Oe ae Bin eee ches ne ier eA iin ge 16%
5. Fine gray sandy clay, massive; contains indistinct lenses of purer clay.. 8 “
Numbers 2 and 3 are sharply separated throughout by a slightly waving line ;
numbers 4and 5 are separated by a moderately sharp break, which is quite irregu-
lar at several points. Beds 1 and 2 are probably Lafayette in age and the under-
lying deposits are undoubtedly Potomac formation. At Hunts bluff there is a 20-
foot exposure for about 200 feet along the northeast bank of the river. At its base
it exhibits gray, cross-bedded sands, with a few scattered quartz pebbles; next
there is an irregular bed of pebbly sands and then stratified gray to brown sands,
merging upward into brown-buff loams at the surface. The basal beds appear to
be Potomac, but the evidence is not conclusive. A short distance eastward in the
higher lands about Bennettsville there are observed the marls of marine Cretaceous
age, Which overlies these Potomac beds. The marls come to the river bank at
Mars bluff, below the railroad bridge, 10 miles east of Florence, in a fine series of
exposures which have been briefly described by Tuomey. The Potomac beds there
are sands and clays of the usual character, and they pass beneath the river a short
distance below. The marine Cretaceous marl and marlstone contain abundant
distinctive fossils, and they are in turn overlain by fossiliferous Eocene marlstone
for some distance. :
Several deep wells in South Carolina have penetrated the Potomac beds and
their records throw some additional light on the relations. The well in the village
of Aiken was bored thfough the formation at a point near the western edge of the
Eocene, and consequently it exhibits the full thickness of the Potomac. The fol-
lowing record is given :
0-45 feet red clay. Lafayette. 7}
45-100 ‘* sand. ; |
100-130 ‘ ‘‘chalk.” Mixture of fine white sand and kaolin. | Potomac.
130-465 ‘* sand and soft sandstone; some clay.
465-741 ‘‘ granite. J
A well at Florence, having a depth of 1,335 feet, passed through Miocene, marine
Cretaceous and Potomac formations, and at 608 feet entered typical red sandstone
‘
;
RELATIONS OF LOWER MEMBERS OF COASTAL PLAIN SERIES. 517
of the Newark formation. The Potomac beds begin at a depth of about 110 feet,
as nearly as I can recognize them, and consequently have a thickness of about 500
feet. They consist of gray sands in greater parts, presenting considerable variety
in coarseness. Considerable lignite was reported, but no clay appeared in the few
samples of borings which were saved. For the well at Marion I was unable to
obtain many definite data, but learned that the lower members of the Coastal Plain
series were alternating beds of sand and tough clay, and that their floor of crystal-
line rock was found at a depth of 700 feet. At Darlington the Potomac sands were
found underlying the Cretaceous marls, but the depth of the contact was not ascer-
tained. At Orangeburg the Potomac sands were entered for some distance in a
well which has a depth of 1,160 feet. i was only able to obtain meager informa-
tion for this well, and vould not determine the nature or age of the beds which lie
next above the Potomac sands, but I should expect them to include a considerable
portion of the marine Cretaceous marls which extend from 430 to over 1,800 feet
in the Charleston well. I might here add that I am strongly inclined to believe
that at least a portion of the lower beds in the Charleston wells may represent an
offshore phase of the Potomac formation. However, as higher Cretaceous mol-
luscan remains were reported from a depth of 1,955 feet in the first well, the
water-bearing sands and sandstones from 1,960 to 1,980 feet may be the top of the
Potomac formation.
Although I observed plant remains in the Potomac beds at many points * which
would no doubt settle any question as to the age of the beds, I have depended en-
tirely on the structural relations and physical characteristics for my correlation of
the formation.. There could not be any doubt as to the continuity of the great
series of sands, clays and sandstones which underlie both the Eocene buhrstone
and the Cretaceous marls and lie on the surface of the crystalline rocks. As this
series lies below quite old marine Cretaceous and above the Newark formation,
the most obvious correlation would be with the Potomac formation, which occupies
this position for hundreds of miles along the Atlantic slope, and moreover their
physical characteristics fully bear out the correlation. Of course in speaking of the
Potomac formation I refer to that formation as a whole, comprising the Tuscaloosa
beds, which I believe are eventually to be separated as an independent formation.
Marine OCreraceous ForMAtTION
I have nothing of general interest to add to the statements of Tuomey regarding
the Cretaceous marls and clays, for I did not extend my observations very far into
their area. The formation appears to thin out before reaching the Wateree river,
and on Black river it appears to be buried under the Tertiary, excepting possibly
for a short distance near Kingstree, where it is indicated on the geologic map issued
in 1883. The enormous expansion of the formation in the well at Charleston is a
rather surprising feature, but, as above suggested, it is possible or even probable
that the lower beds in this well are offshore deposits of Potomac age.
EocENE ForRMATIONS
The lowest Eocene beds westward are the buhrstone and some argillaceous marls
which underlie the buhrstone at certain localities. To the eastward there are sev -
*J have been informed by Professor Lester F. Ward that he has discovered plant remains of
Potomac age in the extension of these beds in North Carolina oh the Cape Fear river and also at
various points in eastern Alabama.
LXII—Butt. Grou. Soc. Am., Vor, 7, 1895,
518 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
eral hundred feet of overlying marls, and the buhrstone appears to lose its char-
acteristics in the extreme eastern part of the state. In the northern portion of the
state the Eocene formations thin rapidly as the marine Cretaceous beds rise to the
surface, and they are finally represented by thin outliers, often lying quite widely
scattered over the irregular surface of the Cretaceous marls. The western edge of
the buhrstone passes from Aiken to within 10 miles of Columbia, and thence to the
eastward to below the confluence of the Congaree and Wateree rivers. In the wells
at Charleston the Eocene members have a thickness of about 370 feet, and are sup-
posed to lie at about 60 feet below the surface. They there consist of marls of vari-
ous kinds, which are mainly argillaceous above and more calcareous below. The
buhrstone is a very hard silicious rock, often 15 to 20 feet thick, and usually filled
with shells. The overlying marls and marlstones are known as the Santee beds,
which consist mainly of light colored marls, with some beds of marlstone of con-
siderable extent, and the Ashley and Cooper marls, which are of darker color.
MiIo0cENE FORMATIONS
The Miocene deposits consist of sands and marls, which occur in scattered areas
mainly in the northern and eastern counties. Lately Dr Dall has found evidence
that the phosphate deposits are also of this age. The thickness of the sands and
marls is usually not over 30 feet, and they le on an irregular surface of the Eocene
or marine Cretaceous formations.
LAFAYETTE FORMATION *
This is a superficial mantle of orange sands and loams which covers the higher
plateau regions. The elevation of this plateau is about 650 feet along the western
border of the coastal plain. There it has a thickness of from 30 to 80 feet, and its
more loamy portions give rise to the greater part of the ‘“‘ Red Hills.” Its eastern
extension has not been traced, but it is thought to be the same as some of the
younger Pliocene marls.
. CoLuMBIA FORMATION
This is a thin capping, mainly of sands and loams, which covers the lower lands
and appears to extend as high as 400 feet or more in the higher region, giving rise
to some portions of the ‘‘Sand hills.”
RESUME OF GENERAL STRATIGRAPHIC RELATIONS IN THE ATLANTIC COASTAL
PLAIN FROM NEW JERSEY TO SOUTH CAROLINA
BY N. H. DARTON
Remarks were made by D. W. Langdon, Jr. An abstract of the latter
paper is published in the American Geologist, volume xvii, page 108.
* Described at several localities by McGee. Twelfth Annual Report of the Director of the U.S,
Geol. Survey, 1892, pp. 347-521.
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SOME STAGES OF APPALACHIAN EROSION. 519
The following paper was then read :
SOME STAGES OF APPALACHIAN EROSION
BY ARTHUR KEITH
Contents
Page
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INTRODUCTORY
In the southern Appalachians the phenomena of subaerial erosion are shown
under every phase except those of arid and glacial conditions and in nearly every
stage of development from alpine forms to complete reduction. The work of
degradation, which is controlled by the characteristic features of Appalachian
structure and stratigraphy, itself emphasizes these features most strongly. Various
publications have been made of facts and theories connected with the erosion and
uplift of the Appalachians. Willis* has described a characteristic Appalachian
baselevel plain; Davist has published theories and descriptions of peneplains in
New Jersey and Pennsylvania; Hayes and Campbell t have published a descrip-
tion, with a theory of the deformation of two peneplains shown at intervals over ©
the southern Appalachians; the present author 2 has described the nature and de-
formation of five Appalachian peneplains in northern Virginia and Maryland, and
various other publications have touched upon minor features of erosion. The sub-
ject is still far from fully grasped, however, and even the broad processes of the
production of the present surface are a subject for discussion. The purposes of this
paper are to classify the peneplains of the southern Appalachians according to the
ideas expressed previously by the author, and to oppose the extreme application of
the theory of deformation as advanced by Messrs Hayesand Campbell. For these
objects a systematic presentation of details need not be given.
GENERAL FEATURES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS
DRAINAGE BASINS
Four great groups of streams drain the southern Appalachians and are carrying
on the work of erosion. First of these are the tributaries of the Tennessee river
* National Geographic Magazine, vol. i, no. 4, pp. 291-300.
Ibid., vol. i, 1889, pp. 183-253.
+ Proce. Bost. Soe. Nat. Hist., vol. xxiv, 1889, pp. 365-423.
National Geographic Magazine, vol. ii, 1890, pp. 81-110.
Bull. Geol..Soe. Am., vol. 2, 1890, pp. 545-581.
t National Geographic Magazine, vol. vi, 1894, pp. 63-126.
2 Fourteenth Annual Report of the Director of the U.S. Geol. Survey, 1892-93, pp. 366-394,
520 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
draining into the Ohio river from northern Alabama, Tennessee, southwest Vir-
ginia and western North Carolina; these streams head upon the Blue Ridge, flow
northwest through the Unaka mountains, southwest along the Great valley of Ten-
nessee and Virginia and northwest through the Cumberland plateau. The second
group form the drainage of the Ohio river in southwest Virginia, West Virginia and
Kentucky; these flow northwest in converging lines through New river and various
arms of the Ohio. Third are the streams of middle and northern Virginia, Mary-
land and Pennsylvania, such as the James, Potomac and Susquehanna. The
fourth, or Atlantic group, comprises streams rising east of the mass of the Appa-
lachians and flowing directly into the Atlantic and the gulf of Mexico through
eastern Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. Their
waters run southeast into the Atlantic and south into the gulf of Mexico.
SURFACE FORMS
The typical surfaces produced by the cutting of these streams are well known
through literature and need only a brief mention here. Inthe Great valley a series
of long, straight valleys alternate with straight, narrow ridges. As compared with
their length, the valleys are narrow,even when most conspicuous in size. In the
Unaka mountains and Cumberland plateau the divides are irregular, the valleys
show little systematic arrangement beyond a normal convergence into the great
rivers, and the basins are broad in comparison with their width. Divides of the
Atlantic drainage have small relief except near the stream heads, and the streams
drain comparatively narrow, parallel basins.
Two general types of divides exist—those whose summits rise to nearly equal
heights and those which show great diversity. The latter prevails in the Unaka
mountains and along the borders of the chief river systems. The characteristic,
even crests prevail in the vicinity of the larger streams in all regions and are most
pronounced inthe Atlantic drainage, the Great valley and the Cumberland plateau.
Thus upon a broad view the Appalachians are most uniformly reduced near the
larger streams and are most irregular near the major divides. Such a result is
normal in ordinary erosion and would be expected in this case.
As deduced in theory and as exhibited in the Appalachians in hundreds of cases,
erosion produces a regular sequence of forms. Beginning on an unreduced sur-
face, a stream cuts a narrow trench steadily downward until it reaches its baselevel
of erosion. Then the sides of the canyon are attacked, the downward cutting ex-
tending meanwhile up the larger and smaller tributaries until an approximate base-
level grade is established, increasing in slope as the streams diminish in power.
Continued wear opens out the canyons into valleys and peneplains, which in time
occupy the entire area adjacent to the larger streams and extend up the tributaries.
Toward the heads of the streams these peneplains contract into valleys with floors
rounding upward at their borders, and these in turn give place to series of terraces
and bottoms. With the division and weakening of the streams, debris becomes
coarser near its source, the little falls over individual pebbles accumulate into
steeper grades, bottoms are replaced by planation slopes, and these by ravines and
gullies. Above all project the unreduced masses or residuals forming the main
divides. The details and successive steps of this process can be seen to perfection
in the streams flowing into the Atlantic, and are there rendered especially clear
because the streams flow over rocks of quite uniform powers of resistance. There
the uniformity and omnipresence of the concave curve establish it beyond a doubt
SOME STAGES OF APPALACHIAN EROSION. | 521
as the law, and the variation of the altitudes, hand in hand with the cutting power
of the streams, defines the whole series as the result of subaerial erosion. In the
Cumberland plateau the appearance of peneplains is often simulated by the out-
crop of flat beds of hard rock which may lie at various altitudes and represent no
period of reduction. In the Great valley also the peneplains are overshadowed
and masked by the great differences of the rocks in point of resistance to wear.
When once the criteria are established, however, it needs no extended search to
discover successive forms of degradation as distinct as in the Atlantic streams and
grouped in the same manner. Difficulties in the paths of the streams are more
localized, however, by the differences in the rocks, and need consideration in
coordinating the forms.
VARIATIONS OF LEVEL
During any extended period of degradation minor difficulties of erosion would
be reduced, but the major barriers, such as are produced by unusual groups of
rocks and affect entire river basins, can retard reduction so seriously as to produce
considerable discordance of elevation in different basins. An excellent instance
of this is furnished by the Pigeon and French Broad rivers in North Carolina.
These streams flow in concentric curves, and the larger or French Broad meets the
least obstruction ; 1t has accordingly reduced its peneplains and valleys which lie
above the barrier 400 feet lower than the corresponding ones of the Pigeon. Re-
sults in the same direction would ensue from warping of the surface, which would
give added slope and power to one stream and decrease the grade of an opposite
flowing stream. ‘This would retard final reduction merely by the added amount
of material to be removed, but would leave no permanent differences of altitude in
similar forms. An unfailing factor in producing differences of altitude at like
periods of reduction is the distance from the sea. A peneplain produced by a
stream 500 miles from its mouth will be higher than one produced only 100 miles
from the sea, whether by the same or a different stream and whether in the same
or a different region. A certain amount of fall, however slight, is necessary to
make the rivers flow and will be expressed in the accumulated altitudes. On this
account the Yadkin river, flowing direct to the Atlantic, has formed its peneplain
at 2,300 to 2,500 feet close up to the main residual of the Blue Ridge, while the
Nolichucky, 30 miles to the west, taking a longer course through the Tennessee,
has cut its peneplain along its main valley only down to 2,600, or 200 feet higher.
Most potent of all factors of variation is the amount and nature of debris fur-
nished to the streams. Insoluble rocks clog the streams with debris and large re-
siduals furnish great quantities of waste, so that, as residuals in general are composed
of the more obdurate strata, the two unite to raise the grades and perpetuate divides.
Soluble rocks yield debris which moves with a minimum grade, so that they seldom
remain as residuals. Accordingly grades over soluble rocks are low entirely to the
divides, which are thus at the mercy of local variations in the rocks and in the
stream powers, and which are correspondingly unstable. .
It is to be expected, therefore, that widely dissimilar basins will have peneplains
formed at the same time but at somewhat different altitudes. Such expectation is
amply borne out by the facts of the field, and is in fact exceeded. The least in-
spection of peneplains shows differences of altitude amounting to 3,000 feet. Two
explanations can be made of such great differences, either that one or two pene-
plains have been warped out of their original plane or that many peneplains are
22 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
Or
represented which were produced at different periods and successively elevated
with little warping.
FEATURES OF THE TENNESSEE BASIN
PENEPLAIN GROUPS
Inspection of the Tennessee basin in the Great valley reveals well developed
peneplains at four altitudes. The uppermost series appears in peneplains and
plateaus near the heads of the main streams from 3,300 to 3,700 feet high, falling
slightly away from the divides. As the streams increase in size these plains are
more and more dissected by sharp gorges of later origin, until along the northwest
front of the Unakas only the most insoluble rocks approximate the original height
at 3,000 to 3,200 feet. In the valley of Tennessee some ridges of hard rock remain
at this height, but are considerably dissected. On Cumberland plateau northwest
of Knoxville a large area of knobs and level ridges on one of the main divides
remains at 3,100 to 3,200 feet. As the draining streams grow larger this ancient
plain is dissected and supplanted by another and lower plain.
This second great group of forms is found at altitudes of 2,000 to 2,600 feet. It
begins as a series of peneplains along the upper Holston at 2,300 to 2,500 feet.
Behind the barrier of the Unakas the tributaries of the Tennessee, the Nolichucky,
French Broad and Pigeon rivers, have cut out broad peneplains from 2,300 to 2,700
feet. These are very well preserved, and in every case they show a slight but steady
rise upstream, whatever the direction of flow. As before stated, the Pigeon pene-
plain is uniformly higher than the adjacent French Broad plain. Passing down
the Great valley the second peneplain is much dissected, and appears only in sand-
stone ridges in the valley or in peneplain remnants along the foothills of the Unaka
mountains at elevations ranging from 2,100 to 2,400 feet. The Clinch and Bays
mountains and the Cumberland front, especially the former, are fine examples of
baseleveled ridges. Inthe lower Tennessee valley all traces of this peneplain have
been removed.
The third group of surface forms attains prominence in the Tennessee valley
after the confluence of Watauga river and the north and south forks of Holston
river at altitudes of 1,600 to 1,800 feet. Above the junction it is only manifest in
broad flood-plains, bottoms and similar features fingering between the remnants
of the peneplain last described. For 50 or 60 miles southwest down the valley this
altitude of 1,600 to 1,800 feet is prominent in broad peneplains. These become
more and more dissected, until only seattered ridges attain that height, and the
country stands at 1,000 to 1,100 feet. Along either side of the Great valley many
remnants of this peneplain appear; on the Hiawassee drainage through the Unakas
it is finely developed at 1,700 to 1,800 feet, and on the opposite side of the valley
Waldens ridge and Cumberland plateau exhibit broad areas at 1,500 to 1,700 feet.
The last series appearing in the Tennessee valley becomes predominant after the
union of Nolichucky, French Broad and Holston rivers above Knoxville. Broad
bottoms and gravel-covered terraces and valleys mark the emergence of the rivers
at 1,000 feet, their courses between that altitude and 1,600 to 1,800 feet being largely
confined to narrow valleys and gorges. Below these points broad valleys appear,
widen out into peneplains and soon occupy the entire valley at 1,000 to 1,100 feet,
extending southwestward at that height for many scores of miles. In the course
of still more recent erosion the streams have carved narrow canyons, which slowly
SOME STAGES OF APPALACHIAN EROSION. O2e
open out downstream and are bordered by terraces and bottoms from 600 to 700
feet above sea.
Thus in the Tennessee valley are seen four distinct groups of peneplains and
associated features, marking four periods of stable land and long degradation. The
greatest of these is the first, because it extended to the headwaters of the main
rivers, and only the most obdurate and remote masses escaped reduction. Each
successive period was less important than the preceding as measured by the results
accomplished. The forms of any minor period would have been obliterated, how-
ever, by a greater subsequent one, so that the record can only be expected to pre-
serve those which were in descending order of magnitude. At the present day the
most conspicuous are the 1,600 to 1,800 and the 1,000 to 1, 100-foot peneplains, which
occupy much of the Great valley, and, swinging around the south end of the Unaka
mountains and the Blue ridge, pass northeast along the heads of the Atlantic basins.
CLINCH SECTION
The relations of Clinch mountain, the typical baseleveled ridge of Tennessee,
furnish an epitome of the whole basin. Rising abruptly from the 1,000-foot pene-
plain and flanked on both sides by ridges of the next peneplain at 1,600 to 1,700
feet, its summits stand at 2,100 to 2,200 feet; a few points rise to 2,500 feet and a
few wind gaps are cut down to 2,000 feet. This average height of 2,200 feet is
maintained for 100 miles northeastward to Moccasin gap, near the state boundary
in Virginia, the flanking ridges continuing at uniform heights. Northeast of that
gap the mountain rises within three miles to 3,200 feet, and its summits continue
at that height for 30 miles to Little Moccasin gap. From this point northeastward
the mountain is very irregular in height and loses its identity in a great mass,
which is for the most part over 4,000 feet above the sea. In this group of ridges
the 1,000-foot peneplain is perfectly obvious ; the same characteristics that are con-
ceded to Clinch mountain at 2,200 feet are precisely repeated in the portion stand-
ing at 3,200 feet and in the flanking ridges at 1,600 feet. Therefore the same rea-
soning that identifies a baseleveled ridge at 2,200 feet must recognize the abruptness
of the jump from level to level and must identify three baselevel periods instead
of one. The linear profiles of the ridges are shown on the accompanying map.
UNAKA-BLUE RIDGE SECTION
A profile with similar features but less compact in form is taken along the head-
waters of the Tennessee branches between the Blue Ridge and the Unaka moun-
tains. It starts with a series of plateaus in Virginia and North Carolina, near the
state boundary, at heights of 3,100 to 3,200 feet. These are considerably inter-
rupted by the residuals between the Ohio streams and the Tennessee basin, but
can readily be traced over into the Tennessee basin at heights of 3,300 to 3,500
feet. Into this surface are sunk the fingers of the lower system at 2.600 to 2,700
feet. Onthis part of the section the peneplains are much interrupted by residuals,
and on the divides between the Watauga-Nolichucky and the Nolichucky-French
Broad basins the upper peneplain again. appears. The second plain is well shown
in the French Broad and Pigeon basins at 2,200 and 2,600 feet, and again on the
Tuckaseegee at 2,300 and the Little Tennessee at 2,200 to 2,100 feet. The Nantahalah
has barely produced a plain at the upper level of 3,500 to 3,600 feet, while into the
edges of this the two Hiawassee peneplains are cut at 2,100 feet and at 1,800 to
1,900 feet, with bottoms and terraces sloping up the streams. These plains with
small residuals continue in the Nottely and Toccoa basins, and the lower is carried
54 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
on through the Etowah basin, descending to 1,700 and 1,600 feet. In the latter
basin the 1,600-foot peneplain is shortly cut out by the 1,100 to 1,200-foot plain,
which gradually descends to 1,100 and 1,000 feet with the fall of the river, con-
tinuing at that height for nearly 100 miles. In this section the abundance of re-
siduals has necessarily increased the grades of the streams and produced the sem-
blance of warped surfaces, but the abruptness of the breaks from plain to plain and
the direction of the slope away from the divides in most cases remove the possi-
bility of warping and make it necessary to distinguish the plains as separate.
Northwest of Knoxville, Tennessee, the four series show the well developed steps
within a radius of eight miles, and in innumerable instances groups of three appear
in close connection. In each group of forms the sequence from dissected peneplain
through the peneplain into the broad valley, bottom and canyon is normal and
complete, and the beginnings of each lower plain cut deep into the heart of the
plain next above it. In its broad reaches each plain is remarkably constant in
level, but in its narrow portions, where grades are raised by debris from neighbor-
ing residuals, the slope upstream is invariably found, regardless of the direction of
flow. Areas occur in which peneplains are indubitably warped, but they are
readily recognized on the gronnd and are distinctly the exception. In short, ero-
sion has produced in this basin at least four peneplains, each approximately level
and each swinging around the neads of the lower plains in successive steps.
SUMMARY
Study of other river basins reveals similar series in every case, and without citing
the countless details thus far known it is sufficient to state in brief that Appalachian
degradation was marked by at least seven periods of approximate reduction. Each
of these produced a vast series of peneplains which appear in various forms at the
present day ; the oldest lie along the main divides and the youngest along the mar-
gin of the sea. In some cases these plains have been warped from their original
level, but far the greater portions of them retain nearly their original attitudes. It
follows, therefore, that the disturbances which caused the revival of erosion were
characterized by broad, uniform uplifts with local zones of warping quite subordi-
nate in area. This is typified by the peneplain in Maryland and eastern Virginia,
which ranges for 100 miles east and west and many times that distance to the south-
west at an altitude of 500 to 550 feet, but which along the Staunton river in southern
Virginia slopes up northwest 400 feet in 30 miles and‘then remains level for the
next 30 miles.
This view departs considerably from the theories of other authors, who have de-
fined the peneplains as dome-shaped or warped surfaces, making the warping the
predominant feature ofthe uplift. Further differences of view exist in the distinction
of many peneplains instead of a few. It is agreed that the higher peneplains are
associated with the main divides; that fact, however, is as well explained a priori
by the usual sequence of erosion as by the theory of warping. The peneplains must
have been deformed, otherwise the land never could have risen; but, on the other
hand, the peneplains must rise with the streams and in regions of massive residuals
with a considerable slope; therefore the differences of level must be studied in
each group and may be referred to one or both causes. The normal peneplain sur-
face is slightly sloping, and for each slope to which a different origin is ascribed
proof must be furnished to account for the abnormal condition. The present con-
fusion has been caused, in part at least, by correlating as parts of the same pene-
SOME STAGES OF APPALACHIAN EROSION. 925
plain features which in the field can be traced past one another as parts of different
peneplains. In other cases a peneplain actually slopes, but its slope is with the
fall of the stream and in a direction contrary to that demanded by the extreme
theory of warping. In short, the slopes of the peneplains are so slight in the great
majority of cases as to distinguish warping as the exceptional form of uplift. Al-
though the process was a simple one, the succession of uplifts was long and quite
complex. A full understanding of the different stages demands the expenditure
of much time and connected field work, and will be made the subject of future
publications.
The following paper was read by title:
THE CERRILLOS COAL FIELD OF NEW MEXICO
BY JOHN J. STEVENSON
[ Abstract ]
During August, 1895, the writer had an opportunity to revisit the Placer coal field
of New Mexico, now known as the Cerrillos coal field. It is about 25 miles south
from Santa Fé and directly beyond the Galisteo river. The field is small, appar-
ently a detached portion of the Laramie area extending far southward within the
Rio Grande region.
The district of especial interest is that lying south from Cerrillos and Waldo,
stations on the Santa Fé railroad. It is less than two miles wide. and reaches south-
ward to little more than five miles from the Galisteo, but it contains evidently all
of the workable coal beds, and exhibits the transition from bituminous to anthra-
cite in a very satisfactory manner. The mines are all on Coal canyon, which ex-
tends from the Placer or Ortiz mountains at the south to Waldo at the north, some-
what more than six miles.
The Ortiz mountains are largely trachytic; from them there extend northward
two plates, each about 200 feet thick, which pass between Laramie strata and follow
very closely the dip of the stratified beds. The upper plate covers the area east
from Coal canyon, and is now the surface rock, the overlying beds having been
removed. It extends northward to somewhat less than two miles south of Waldo,
terminating opposite the lower end of the village of Madrid, where are the offices
of the Cerrillos Coal Company. The lower plate, about 400 feet below the upper,
does not come to the surface on Coal canyon, but it was reached in a boringon the
mesa immediately west and comes out in an arroyo within a few rods west from
the boring. Several dikes extend upward from this plate, one evidently very large
being shown west from Coal canyon, which mus: have been connected with the
upper plate, as it rises very high above the mesa; a second is seen in Coal canyon,
not more than 10 or 12 feet wide; if, does not reach the upper plate ; a third, very
narrow, found in the same canyon at a mile and a half above Madrid, passes dis-
tinctly into the upper plate. Professor Kemp examined the specimens from several
exposures and recognizes the close resemblance in composition throughout.
The only stratified rocks within the district examined belong to the Laramie, and
the exposed section is somewhat more than 1,000 feet thick. The rocks resemble
those of the same age in the Trinidad coal field, but shale is present in greater pro-
portion. Limestone is wholly absent, apparently, and the sandstones are unusually
non-fossiliferous. The coal beds are numerous, but most of them are very thin and
several are not persistent in all of the sections.
LXIII—Butt, Grou. Soc. Am., Vou. 7, 1895,
526 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
The only coal beds of interest here are those within the interval between the
trachyte plates. They are
White-ash coal bed: .. :... sto ee: 2 feet 6 inches to 7 feet.
Tritenyal eters oo, Ne a ee i) rhe
Cokine coal bed....>. «2. santa 1 foot to 2 feet 6 inches.
Tbe oe ics Soe ee 80 feet.
Cook-White coal bed. :....:...... BR
Interval, about... ../. 2c hee ent LEO "*
Waldo-coal ped.c2 .. ice anemones anne
The White-ash bed is not more than 15 feet below the upper plate, and the Waldo
bed as found in the bore-hole about 10 feet above the lower plate of trachyte.
The White-ash bed has been mined at many pits along Coal canyon for a distance
of nearly three miles, beginning at about a mile and a half from Waldo. It is the
important bed of the region and the only one now mined. It was examined in
four pits, two of which are now in operation. At the old Boyle mine, about a mile
and a half above Madrid, the coal is a hard dry anthracite, varying much in char-
acter. It is slipped and jointed throughout. Some portions closely resemble the
graphitoid anthracite of Rhode Island.
The Lucas mine at Madrid was idle when visited, but work had been stopped
for only ashort time. The southerly levels of this mine yield an anthracite of ex-
cellent quality, equal in appearance and composition to the average anthracite of
Pennsylvania, but the northerly levels show arapid change. Jointing becomes an-
noying at a little distance from the slope and the coal is wasted in the breaker.
Within 350 feet evidences of great pressure and disturbance accumulate and the
coal soon is laminated, like that from some Vespertine mines of southwest Virginia,
with the polished surfaces, often curved, frequently not more than one-fourth of
an inch apart. This, however, is still anthracite, and work was stopped in these
northerly levels only because of great waste in breaking.
The Cunningham mine, at the lower end of Madrid, entered a tender coal at the
crop; the slope was pushed 1,100 feet, but no anthracite was found. The coal
burns with flame.
The White-ash mine, about half a mile north from the Lucas, is the important
pit. At one time trains might be seen coming from its slope made up of cars car-
rying, some of them, anthracite, others the tender, semi-bituminous, and others
still the rich bituminous coal which has given this mine its reputation. The bitu-
minous coal, containing 39 per cent of volatile combustible, is obtained from the
northerly levels, but the southerly levels yield for the most part what is called
tender coal. The latter is dull, very tender and much of it has an almost cone-in-
cone structure. It is reached in the southerly levels at varying distances from the
slope. The passage from bituminous into anthracite through this tender coal is
shown in the sixth level, southerly, where the tender coal was reached at 125 feet
from the slope and the anthracite at 450 feet. The passage is gradual. The an-
thracite makes its appearance at the bottom and thickens gradually, crushed coal
being replaced by laminated and that by the harder almost homogeneous coal,
the change being completed within 50 feet.
The Coking bed was worked some years ago at about two miles above Madrid,
where its coal was coked in ricks.
The Cook-White coal is no longer mined, but it has been opened at many places
along Coal canyon, and the changes in character of the coal are clearly shown,
CERRILLOS COAL FIELD OF NEW MEXICO. BK
Above Madrid fragments on the old dumps show that the coal is anthracite. A
pit at the lower end of Madrid, almost midway between the Cunningham and
White-ash mines, shows a tender coal which resembles that from Pocahontas, in
Virginia. Analysis shows that it contains about 30 per cent of volatile, which is
about what should be expected if its changes are similar to those of the White-ash.
The Waldo bed is not reached in the upper part of Coal canyon, but it has been
mined extensively further down. The only interest it has here is its existence in
the bore-hole west from Coal canyon, where it is not more than 10 feet above the
lower plate of trachyte, and shows no evidence of any metamorphism whatever.
Long ago Newberry and afterward Stevenson regarded the coal as metamorphosed
hy heat from a great dike of eruptive rock following the northerly side of the Placer
(now Ortiz) mountains. This, which then was but a suggestion, is sufficiently
clear as an explanation now. As the center of eruption was in the Ortiz moun-
tains, the metamorphism should be most notable near those mountains. That is
distinctly the condition, for at the most southerly point showing the White-ash
bed well the anthracite is very hard, but the change is less and less toward the
north until normal coal is reached in the White-ash mine below Madrid. The
gradation is equally clear in the Cook-White bed, but the small bed between the
main seams appears to contradict the hypothesis, as it is decidedly bituminous at
half a mile above the pit where the White-ash bed vields the hardest anthracite
observed. This condition is easily explained by the fact that the small bed is
broken by clay seams several feet wide, which sometimes cut out all of the coal ;
these seams would prevent the passage of heat from one portion to another.
The conditions at several localities show that mere proximity to the mass of
eruptive rock was insufficient to produce change. The lower plate of trachyte is
but 10 feet below the Waldo coal bed in the bore-hole west from Coal canyon, but,
though 200 feet thick, it had no appreciable effect upon the coal. The interval
between the White-ash bed and the upper plate of trachyte shows insignificant
variations along Coal canyon, and it must be approximately the same in the newer
parts of the White-ash mine, yet in the Lucas mineand at all localities south from
it the coal is anthracite, whereas at all points north from it to the border of the
eruptive rock one finds only transition coal. It seems clear that direct contact is
necessary to produce change.
Professor J. F. Kemp describes the eruptive rock as a trachyte closely allied to
andesite. Its outflow then was early, possibly at the time of the Laramide eleva-
tion, when great outpourings of andesite occurred in Colorado, Utah, Wyoming
and Montana. The coal was completely formed prior to this elevation, prior to any
disturbance, there being not only no evidence of pulpiness, but every evidence that
the coal was thoroughly hard. It was crushed into minute fragments, slickensided
like the Utica shales of Franklin county, Pennsylvania, or laminated and rolled
into leaves like the Vespertine coals of southwestern Virginia. The process of con-
version was complete before disturbance, not merely in the lowest beds, but also in
the White-ash bed at nearly 900 feet above the bottom of the Laramie.
The scientific program was declared finished. Vice-President Charles
H. Hitchcock offered the following resolution, which was unanimously
adopted :
‘““Resolved, That the sincere thanks of the Geological Society of America are
hereby tendered to the officers of the University of Pennsylvania for their kindness
528 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MERTING.
and courtesy, particularly in granting the use of rooms in the Department of Arts
building and for the midday luncheon; also to the ‘ Local Committee’ for their
efforts to make the meeting a success.”’
With a few appropriate remarks, the President declared the meeting
adjourned.
REGISTER OF THE PHILADELPHIA MEETING, 1895
The following Fellows were in attendance at the meeting:
FLORENCE Bascom.
Rospert BEL.
A. S. BickMORE.
H. D. CAMPBELL.
M. R. CAMPBELL.
W. B. CLARK.
EK. D. Cops.
WHITMAN Cross.
N. H. Darton.
W. M. Davis.
J) Oo. ne
E. V. D’INVILLIERS.
E. T. DUMBLE.
B. K. EMERSON.
S. F. Emmons.
H. L. FAarrcuixp.
PERSIFOR FRAZER.
G. K. GILBERT.
Hi; Pe Gunurvar:
C. W. HAYEs.
ANGELO HEILPRIN.
C. H. Hircucock.
JED. HorcHkKiIss.
EK. O. Hovey.
L. 1 -Hueearp,
J. P. IppInes.
R, T. JACKSON:
ARTHUR KEITH.
J. F. Kemp.
Hy taba
H. B. KUMMEL.
Total attendance, 61.
C. R. Keyes:
A. C. LANE.
D. W. Lanepon, JR.
FRANK LEVERETT.
By, Meee,
EpwArp ORTON,
L. V. Presson.
H. F. Rem.
W. N. Rice.
Hernricu Ries.
R. D. SAisBury.
CHARLES SCHUCHERT.
W. B. Scort.
N. S. SHALER.
C. H. Smyru, Jr.
J. STANLEY-BROWN.
T. W. STANTON.
J. J. STEVENSON.
H Oe Sas MN 8
R. S. Tarr.
C. R. Van Hise.
M. E. Wapsworta.
W. H. WEED.
I. C. Warre.
H. S. WILLiAMs.
BaItLey WILLIs.
J. E. Wo.irr.
G. F. WricHt.
Fellows-elect
Re fB Seay Tor:
J. B. WoopworruH.
OFFICERS AND FELLOWS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY
OF AMERICA
OFFICERS FOR 1896
President
JosEPH Lr Contr, Berkeley, Cal.
Vice-Presidents
C. H. Hircucock, Hanover, N. H.
EpwArpD Orton, Columbus, Ohio.
Secretary
H. L. Fatrcuiip, Rochester, N. Y.
Treasurer
I. C. WuitE, Morgantown, W. Va.
Editor
J. STANLEY-Brown, Washington, D. C.
Councillors
(Term expires 1896)
F. D. ApAms, Montreal, Canada.
I. C. Russerz, Ann Arbor, Mich,
(Term expires 1897)
R. W. Ets, Ottawa, Canada.
C. R. VAN Hise, Madison, Wis.
(Term expires 1898)
B. K. Emerson, Amherst, Mass.
' J. M. Sarrorp, Nashville, Tenn.
(529)
530 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
FELLOWS, APRIL, 1896
* Indicates Original Fellow (see article III of Constitution)
. Frank Dawson Apams, Ph. D., Montreal, Canada; Professor of Geology in McGill
University. December, 1889.
TruMAN H. Aupricn, M. E., Birmingham, Ala. May, 1889.
Henry M. Amt, A. M., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; Assistant Paleon-
tologist on Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. December, 1889.
Harry Foster Barn, M.S., Des Moines, Iowa; Assistant Geologist, lowa Geological
Survey. December, 1895.
S. Prentiss Batpwin, Cleveland, Ohio. August, 1895.
ALFRED E. Bartow, M. A., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; Geologist
on Canadian Geological Survey. August, 1892.
GeEoRGE H. Barron, B. 8., Boston, Mass.; Instructor in Geology in Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. August, 1890.
FLORENCE bascom, A. M., B.S., Ph. D., Bryn Mawr, Penn.; Instructor in Geology,
Petrography and Mineralogy in Bryn Mawr College. August, 1894.
Wituiam S. Baytey, Ph. D., Waterville, Maine; Professor of Geology in Colby
University. December, 1888.
* GrorGE F. Becker, Ph. D., Washington, D. C.; U. 8. Geological Survey.
Crarues E. Bercuer, Ph. D., Yale University, New Haven, Conn. May, 1889.
Ropert Bett, C. E., M. D., LL. D., Ottawa, Canada; Assistant Director of the
Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. May, 1889.
AvBert S. Brckmore, Ph. D., American Museum of Natural History, 77th St. and
Eighth Ave., N. Y. city; Curator of Anthropology in the American Museum
of Natural History. December, 1889.
Wituram P. BiaKke, Tucson, Ariz.; Professor of Geology, Metallurgy and Mining
in University of Arizona. August, 1891.
* Jonn C. Branner, Ph. D., Stanford University, Cal.; Professor of Geology in
Leland Stanford Jr. University.
Abert Perry Bricuam, A. B., A. M., Hamilton, N. Y.; Professor of Geology and
Natural History, Colgate University. December, 1893.
* GARLAND C. BroapHEAD, Columbia, Mo.; Professor of Geology in the University
of Missouri.
Henry P. H. Brumecy, Ottawa, Canada; Manager of N. A. Graphite and Mining
Company. August, 1892.
* SamMuEL Cavin, Iowa City, lowa; Professor of Geology and Zoology in the State
University of Iowa, ‘State Geologist.
Henry Donatp CAMPBELL, Ph. D., Lexington, Va.; Professor of Geology and
Biology in Washington and Lee University. May, 1889.
Marius R. CamMpsBE.., U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. August, 1892.
FRANKLIN R. Carpenter, Ph. D., Deadwood, South Dakota; Superintendent Dead-
wood and Delaware Smelting Company. May, 1889.
LIST OF FELLOWS. 5381
Rosert Cuatmers, Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; Geologist on Geo-
logical and Natural History Survey of Canada. May, 1889.
*T. CO. Cuamperiin, LL. D., Chicago, Ill.; Head Professor of Geology, University
of Chicago.
CLARENCE Raymonp CraGcHorn, B.S8., M. E., Vintondale, Pa. August, 1891.
* WittiAM B. Ciark, Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.; Professor of Geology in Johns
Hopkins University.
* Epwarpb W. Cuaypotg, D.Sc., Akron, O.; Professar of Natural Science in Buchtel
College.
Juxius M. Ciements, B. A., Ph. D., Madison, Wis. ; Assistant Professor of Geology
in University of Wisconsin. December, 1894.
CouLier Coss, A. B., A. M., Chapel Hill, N. C.; Professor of Geology in University
of North Carolina. December, 1894.
* THropore B. Comstock, Tucson, Ariz.; President of the University of Arizona.
* Epwarp D. Cops, Ph. D., 2102 Pine St., Philadelphia, Pa.; Professor of Geology
in the University of Pennsylvania.
*Francis W. Cracin, B. S., Colorado Springs, Col.; Professor of Geology and
Natural History in Colorado College.
* ALBERT R. CrRaNDALL, A. M., Milton, Wis.
* WituiAM O. Crossy, B. S., Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass. ;
Assistant Professor of Mineralogy and Lithology in Massachusetts Institute of
Technology.
Wurman Cross, Ph. D., U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. May, 1889.
Garry E. Cuniver, A. M., 1104 Wisconsin St., Stevens Point, Wis. December,
1891.
* Henry P. Cusnina, M. S§., Cleveland, Ohio; Associate Professor of Geology,
Adelbert College. )
T. Netson Date, Williamstown, Mass. ; Geologist, U. S. Geological Survey, In-
structor in Geology, Williams College. December, 1890.
* Netson H. Darron, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
* WitiiAM M. Davis, Cambridge, Mass. ; Professor of Physical Geography in Har-
vard University. ¢
GrEorGE M. Dawson, D. Sc., A. R.S. M., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada;
Director of Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. May, 1889.
Sir J. Witttam Dawson, LL. D., Montreal, Canada. May, 1889.
Davin T. Day, A. B., Ph. D., U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. August,
1891. .
OrvitLeE A. Dersy, M.S., Sao Paulo, Brazil; Director of the Geographical and
Geological Survey of the Province of Sao Paulo, Brazil. December, 1890.
*JosepH S. Dinier, B. S., United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
Epwarp V. p’Ixvinuers, E. M., 711 Walnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. December,
1888.
*Kpwin T. Dumsie, Austin, Texas, State Geologist.
CLARENCE E. Dutron, Major, U. S. A., Ordnance Department, San Antonio, Texas.
August, 1891.
*Wintram B. Dwicur, M. A., Ph. B., Poughkeepsie, N. Y.; Professor of Natural
History in Vassar College.
Cuartes Rk. Easrman, A. M., Ph. D., Cambridge, Mass. ; Assistant in Paleontology
in Harvard University. December, 1895.
532 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
*GrorGe H. Evpripasr, A. B., United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
Rozert W. Exts, LL. D., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; Geologist on
Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. December, 1888.
* BengaMiIn K. Emerson, Ph. D., Amherst, Mass. ; Professor in Amherst College.
*SamuEL F. Emmons, A. M., E. M., U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
JOHN Everman, F. Z. S., Oakhurst, Easton, Pa. August, 1891.
Haroutp W. Farrpanks, B. S., Berkeley, Cal.; Geologist State Mining Bureau.
August, 1892. 2
* Herman L. Farrcuip, B. 8., Rochester, N. Y.; Professor of Geology and Natural
History in University of Rochester.
J. C. Faves, Danville, Kentucky; Professor in Centre College. December, 1888.
Eucenrt Rupotper Faripaurtr, C. E., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada;
Geologist on Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. August, 1891.
P. J. Farnswortu, M. D., Clinton, Iowa; Professor in the State University of
Iowa. May, 1889.
Outver C. Farrtneron, Ph. D., Chicago, Ill.; In charge of Department of Geology,
Field Columbian Museum. December, 1895.
Sanprorp Fiemine, LL. D., Ottawa, Canada; Civil Engineer. August, 1893.
WitiramM M. Fonrarne, A. M., University of Virginia, Va.; Professor of Natural
History and Geology in University of Virginia. December, 1888.
* Persiror Frazer, D. Sc., 1042 Drexel Building, Philadelphia, Pa.; Professor of
Chemistry in Franklin Institute.
* Homer T. Fuuier, Ph. D., Springfield, Mo.; President of Drury College.
Henry Gannett, S. B., A. Met. B., U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
December, 1891.
* Grove K. Gitpert, A. M., United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
ApAM Capen Git, A. B., Ph. D., Ithaca, N. Y.; Assistant Professor of Mineralogy
and Petrography in Cornell University. December, 1888.
N. J. Giroux, C. E., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; Geologist on Geo-
logical and Natural History Survey of Canada. May, 1889.
Cuarves H. Gorpon, M.8., Beloit, Wis. August, 1893.
Untysses SHERMAN Gran’, Ph. D., Minneapolis, Minn.; Assistant on Geological
Survey of Minnesota. December, 1890.
WILLIAM StuKELEY Gres_ery, Erie, Pa.; Mining Engineer. December, 1893.
GEORGE P. Grims_ey, M. A., Ph. D., Topeka, Kan.; Professor of Geology in Wash-
burn College. August, 1895.
Leon S. Griswotp, A. B., 238 Boston St., Dorchester, Mass. August, 1892.
Freperick P. Guiiiver, A. M., Cambridge, Mass. August, 1895.
*WitiiaAmM F. E. Gurury, Springfield, Ill.; State Geologist.
ARNOLD Hagur, Ph. B., U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. May, 1889.
*Curistropuer W. Haut, A. M., 803 University Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.; Pro-
fessor of Geology and Mineralogy in University of Minnesota.
* James Haut, LL. D., State Hall, Albany, N. Y.; State Geologist and Director of
the State Museum.
Henry G. Hanks, 1124 Greenwich St., San Francisco, Cal.; lately State Mineralo-
gist. December, 1888.
Joun B. Hastrnas, M. E., Boisé City, Idaho. May, 1889.
* Jonn B. Hartcuer, Ph. B., Princeton, N. J.; Assistant in Geology, College of New
Jersey. August, 1895.
* ErAsMus Haworrn, Ph. D., Lawrence, Kan.
LIST OF FELLOWS. 533
C. WiLLARD Hayes, Ph. D., U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. May,
1889.
*ANGELO HeEtLprin, Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa.; Professor of
Paleontology in the Academy of Natural Sciences.
* KuGENE W. Hitearp, Ph. D., LL. D., Berkeley, Cal.; Professor of Agriculture in
University of California.
Frank A. Hitut, Roanoke, Va. May, 1889.
* Ropert T. Hit, B. S., U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
RicHarpD C. Hius, Mining Engineer, Denver, Colo. August, 1894.
* CHARLES H. Hircucocr, Ph. D., Hanover, N. H.; Professor of Geology in Dart-
mouth College.
WittiaAmM Herspert Hopspss, B. Sc., Ph. D., Madison, Wis.; Assistant Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Wisconsin. August, 1891.
* Levi Horsroor, A. M., P. O. Box 536, New York city.
ArrHur Houricx, Ph. B., Columbia College, New York ; Instructor in Paleontology.
August, 1893.
* JoserpH A. Hoimes, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; State Geologist and Professor
of Geology in University of North Carolina.
Mary E. Hormrs, Ph. D., 201 S. First St., Rockford, Illinois. May, 1889.
THomas ©. Hopkins, A. M., State College, Center county, Penn. December, 1894.
* JEDEDIAH Horcuxiss, 346 E. Beverly St., Staunton, Virginia.
* EpMUND Otis Hovey, Ph. D., American Museum of Natural History, New York
city, Assistant Curator of Geology.
* Horace C. Hovey, D. D., Newburyport, Mass.
* Epwin E. Howe, A. M., 612 17th St. N. W., Washington, D. C.
Lucius L. Hupparp, A. B., LL. B., Ph. D., Houghton, Mich.; State Geologist of
Michigan. December, 1894.
*ArtpHeus Hyatt, B.8., Bost. Soc. of Nat. Hist., Boston, Mass.; Curator of Boston
Society of Natural History.
JosepH P. Ippines, Ph. B., Professor of Petrographic Geology, University of Chi-
cago, Chicago, Ill. May, 1889.
Exrric D. Inca, Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; in charge of Mineral
Statistics and Mines. August, 1894.
A. WreNDELL Jackson, Ph. B., 407 St. Nicholas Ave., New York city. December,
1888.
Rosert T. Jackson, 8. B., 8. D., 33 Gloucester St., Boston, Mass.; Instructor in
Paleontology in Harvard University. August, 1894.
Tuomas M. Jackson, C. E., 8. D., Clarksburg, W. Va. May, 1889.
* JosepuH F. JAmMes, M. 8., Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
* Wrinttarp D. Jonnson, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
Avexis A. Jutien, Ph. D., Columbia College, New York city; Instructor in Co-
lumbia College. May, 1889.
Artruur Kertu, A. M., U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. May, 1889.
* James F. Kemp, A. B., E. M., Columbia College, New York city; Professor of
Geology.
Cuartes Roriin Keyes, A. M., Ph. D., Jefferson City, Missouri; State Geologist.
August, 1890.
Frank H. Knowuton, M. S., Washington, D. C.; Assistant Paleontologist U. S.
Geological Survey. May, 1889.
LXIV—Buttu. Grou, Soc. AM., Vou. 7, 1895,
534 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
Henry B. Ktimmer, A. M., Ph. D., Trenton, New Jersey; Assistant on the State
Geological Survey of New Jersey. December, 1895.
* GeorGE F. Kunz, care of Tiffany & Co., 15 Union Square, New York.
Ravpu D. Lacog, Pittston, Pa. December, 1889.
GerorGE Epa@ar Lapp, A. B., A. M., 81 Oxford St., Cambridge, Mass: August,
1891.
J.C. K. Lartamnoe, M. A., D. D., Quebec, Canada; Professor of Mineralogy and
Geology in University eet Quem August, 1890.
Lawrence M. Lampe, Ottawa, Ganaaee Artist and Assistant in Palohaialeee Geo-
logical Survey of Canada. August, 1890.
Atrrep C. Lang, Ph. D., Houghton, Mich.; Assistant on Geological Survey of
Michigan. December, 1889.
DanieL W. Lanapon, Jr., A. B., 6 Wall St., New York city; Geologist of Chesa-
peake and Ohio Railroad Company. December, 1889.
AnprEwW C. Lawson, Ph. D., Berkeley, Cal.; Assistant Professor of Geology in the
University of California. May, 1889.
* JosepH Lr Conte, M. D., LL. D., Berkeley, Cal.; Professor of Geology in the
University of California.
* J, Perer Lestry, LL. D., 1008 Clinton St., Philadelphia, Pa.; State Geologist.
FrANK LEVERETY, B. S., Tee Iowa.; eee U.S. Geyienes Survey. Au-
gust, 1890.
WALDEMAR LinpGREN, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. August, 1890.
Roperr H. LouGHrinGe, Ph. D., Berkeley, Cal.: Assistant Professor of Agricultural
Chemistry in University of California. May, 1889.
Apert P. Low, B. S., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; Geologist on
Canadian Geslapthal Survey. August, 1892.
Tuomas H. Macsripe, Iowa City, lowa; Professor of Botany in the State University
of Iowa. May, 1889.
Henry McCatury, A. M., C. E.. University, Tuscaloosa county, Ala.; Assistant on
Geological Survey of Alabama. May, 1889.
Ricaarp G. McConneti, A. B., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; Geolo-
gist on Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. May, 1889.
James Rreman MAcFArRLANE, A. B., Pittsburg, Pa. August, 1891.
*W J McGer, Washington, D. C.; Bureau of North American Ethnology.
Wiustam McInngs, A. B., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada; Geologist,
Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada. May, 1889.
Perer McKe var, Fort William, Ontario, Canada. August, 1890.
Oxtver Marcy, LL. D., Evanston, Cook Co., Ill.; Professor of Natural History in
Northwestern University. May, 1889.
Oruniet C. Marsu, Ph. D., LL. D., New Haven, Conn.; Professor of Paleontology
in Yale University. May, 1889.
Vernon F. Marsters, A. B., Bloomington, Ind.; Associate Professor of Geology
in Indiana State University. August, 1892.
Epwarp B. Matuews, Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.; Instructor in Petrography in Johns
Hopkins University. August, 1895.
~P. H. Ment, M. E., Ph. D., Auburn, Ala.; Professor of Geology and Natural History
in the State Polytechnic Institute. December, 1888.
* Joun C. Merriam, Ph. D., Berkeley, Cal.; Instructor in Paleontology in University
of California. August, 1895.
LIST OF FELLOWS. 535
* Freperick J. H. Merrinu, Ph. D., State Museum, Albany, N. Y.; Assistant State
Geologist and Assistant Director of State Museum.
Grorce P. Merritt, M. S., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.; Curator
of Department of Lithology and Physical Geology. December, 1888.
James KE. Mirus, B. S., Quincy, Plumas Co., Cal., December, 1888.
THomas F. Moszs, M. D., Urbana, Ohio. May, 1889.
*Frank L. Nason, A. B., 5 Union St., New Brunswick, N. J.; Assistant on Geo-
logical Survey of New Jersey.
*Prrer Nerr, A. M., 361 Russell Ave., Cleveland, Ohio; Librarian, Western Re-
serve Historical Society.
FREDERICK H. Nrewe t, B. S., U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. May,
1889.
WiiAm H. Niuzs, Ph. B., M. A., Cambridge, Mass. August, 1891.
Wituiam H. Norron, M. A., Mt. Vernon, Iowa; Professor of Geology in Cornell
College. December, 1895. .
Caries J. Norwoop, Frankfort, Ky.; State Mine Inspector of Kentucky. August,
1894.
* EDWARD Orton, Ph. D., LL. D., Columbus, Ohio; State Geologist and Professor
of Geology in the State University.
* Amos O. OsBporn, Waterville, Oneida Co., N. Y.
CHARLES Patacur, B. S., Mineralogical Laboratory, Harvard University, Cam-
bridge, Mass. August, 1894.
* Horace B. Parron, Ph. D., Golden, Col.; Professor of Geology and Mineralogy
in Colorado School of Mines.
RicHarp A. F. Penross, Jr., Ph. D., 1331 Spruce St., Philadelphia, Pa. May,
1889.
JosEPH H. Perry, 176 Highland St., Worcester, Mass. December, 1888.
*WintiaAM H. Perrer, A. M., Ann Arbor, Mich.; Professor of Mineralogy, Eco-
nomical Geology and Mining Engineering in Michigan University.
Louis V. Prrssox, Ph. B., New Haven, Conn.; Assistant Professor of Inorganic
Geology, Sheffield Scientific School. August, 1894.
* FrRankiin Piatt, 1617 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa.
* Juttus Pontman, M. D., University of Buffalo, Buffalo, N. Y.
Wii B. Porrer, A. M., E. M., St. Louis, Mo.; Professor of Mining and Metal-
lurgy in Washington University. August, 1890.
*Joun W. Powstt, Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C.
* CHARLES S. Prosser, M. S., Schenectady, N. Y.; Professor of Geology in Union
College.
* RAPHAEL Pumpetty, U. 8. Geological Survey, Newport, R. I.
Freperick L. Ransome, B. §., Berkeley, Cal. August, 1895.
Harry Frevprne Rei, Ph. D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. De-
cember, 1892.
Wittram Norra Rice, A. M., Ph. D., LL. D., Middletown, Conn.; Professor of
Geology in Wesleyan University. August, 1890.
Heryricu Ries, Ph. B., Fellow in Mineralogy, Columbia College, New York city.
December, 1893. ;
Craries W. Rorrs, M. 8., Urbana, Champaign Co., Ill.; Professor of Geology in
University of Illinois. May, 1889.
536 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
*TsragEL ©. Russevu, M. §., Ann Arbor, Mich.; Professor of Geology in University
of Michigan.
* James M. Sarrorp, M. D., LL. D., Nashville, Tenn.; State Geologist; Professor
in Vanderbilt University.
Orestes H. St. Joun, Topeka, Kan. May, 1889.
* Routiin D. Santspury, A. M., Chicago, Ill.; Professor of General and Geographic
Geology in University of Chicago.
Freperick W. Sarpeson, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minn. Decem-
ber, 1892.
* CHARLES SCHAEFFER, M. D., 1309 Arch St., Philadelphia, Pa. .
CuHarueEs ScaucHert, Washington, D. C.; Assistant Curator in Paleontology, U.S.
National Museum. August, 1895.
WiiuraAM B. Scott, M. A., Ph. D.,56 Bayard Ave., Princeton, N. J.; Blair Professor
of Geology in College of New Jersey. August, 1892.
Henry M. Seery, M. D., Middlebury, Vt.; Professor of Geology in Middlebury
College. May, 1889.
Aurrep R. C. Setwyn, C. M. G., LL. D., Ottawa, Canada. December, 1889.
* NaTHANIEL S. SHaver, LL. D., Cambridge, Mass.; Professor of Geology in Har-
vard University.
Wii H. SHerzer, M.S., Ypsilanti, Mich.; Professor in State Normal School. De-
cember, 1890.
_* Freperick W. Srwonps, Ph. D., Austin, Texas; Professor of Geology in Univer-
sity of Texas.
* EuGene A. Smuiru, Ph. D., University, Tuscaloosa Co., Ala.; State Geologist and
Professor of Chemistry and Geology in University of Alabama.
JaMeES Perrin Smiru, M. S., Ph. D., Palo Alto, California; Assistant Professor of
Paleontology, Leland Stanford Jr. University. December, 1893.
* Joun C. Smock, Ph. D., Trenton, N..J.; State Geologist.
Cuarues H. Smyrn, Jr., Ph. D., Clinton, N. Y.; Professor of Geology in Hamilton
College. August, 1892. .
Henry L. Smyru, A. B., Cambridge, Mass.; Instructor in Mining Geology in
Harvard University. August, 1894.
* J. W. Spencer, A. M., Ph. D., 1820 Corcoran St., Washington, D. C.
JostAH KE. Spurr, A. B., A. M., Gloucester, Mass. December, 1894.
JosEPH STANLEY-Brown, 1318 Massachusetts Ave., Washington, D.C. August, 1892.
Timotay WruttaAm Sranron, B.S., U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.;
Assistant Paleontologist U. S. Geological Survey. August, 1891.
* Joun J. Srevenson, Ph. D., LL. D., University of the City of New York; Pro-
fessor of Geology in the University of the City of New York.
JoseeH A. Tarr, B.S., Washington, D.C.; Assistant Geologist U. 8. Geological
Survey. August, 1895.
Ravpg §. Tarr, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.; Assistant Professor of Geology.
August, 1890.
Frank B. Taytor, Fort Wayne, Ind. December, 1895.
* Asa Scorr Tirrany, 901 West Fifth St., Davenport, Iowa.
* James E. Topp, A. M., Vermillion, S#Dak.; Professor of Geology and Mineralogy
in University of South Dakota.
* Henry W. Turner, B. S., U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C.
LIST OF FELLOWS. yon
JosEPpH B. Tyrresi, M. A., B. Sc., Geological Survey Office, Ottawa, Canada;
Geologist on the Canadian Geological Survey. May, 1889.
* Epwarp O. Uric, A. M., Newport, Ky.; Paleontologist of the Geological Survey
of Minnesota.
*WarreN Upnam, A. M., Librarian Minnesota Historical Society, St. Paul, Minn.
*CHARLES R. Van Hisz, M. S., Madison, Wis.; Professor of Mineralogy and
Petrography in Wisconsin University ; Geologist U. S. Geological Survey.
* AnrHony W. Voeprs, Alcatraz Island, San Francisco, Cal.; Captain Fifth Artil-
liginyy, Wash ainahig
*MarsHmMan E. Wapswortu, Ph. D., Houghton, Mich.; State Geologist ; Director
of Michigan Mining School.
* CHARLES D. Watcory, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.; Director U.S.
Geological Survey.
Watrer H. Weep, M. E., U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. May, 1889.
Lewis G. Wesrcarr, 1303 Chicago Ave., Evanston, Ill. August, 1894.
Tomas C. Weston, Ottawa, Canada. August, 1893.
Davip Wuirs, U.S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.; Assistant Paleontolo-
gist, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. May, 1889.
*TsrarL C. Wuirsz, Ph. D., Morgantown, W. Va.
* CHARLES A. Wuits, M. D., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.; Paleon-
tologist U. 8. Geological Survey.
JOSEPH FREDERICK WHITEAVES, Ottawa, Canada; Paleontologist and Assistant Di-
rector Geological Survey of Canada. December, 1892.
* Ropert P. Warrrietp, Ph. D., American Museum of Natural History, 77th St.
and Eighth Ave., New York city ; Curator of Geology and Paleontology.
* Kpwarp H. Wiriams, Jr., A..C., E. M., 117 Church St., Bethlehem, Pa.; Pro-
fessor of Mining Engineering and Geology in Lehigh University.
* Henry S. WitiraMs, Ph. D., New Haven, Conn.; Professor of Geology and Paleon-
tology in Yale University.
Battey Wiis, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C. December, 1889.
* HoRACE VAUGHN WINCHELL, 1306 S. E. 7th St., Minneapolis, Minn.; Assistant
on Geological Survey of Minnesota.
*Nrwton H. Wincneiit, A. M., Minneapolis, Minn.; State Geologist; Professor
in University of Minnesota.
*ArtHur Winstow, B. §., Roe Building, 5th and Pine streets, St. Louis, Mo.
Joun EK. Worrr, Ph. D., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.; Assistant Pro-
fessor in Petrography, Harvard University. December, 1889.
Raosert Stimpson Woopwarp, C. E., Columbia College, New York city; Professor
of Mechanics in Columbia College. May, 1889.
Jay B. WoopwortH, B. S., Cambridge, Mass.; Instructor in Harvard University.
December, 1895.
Ausert A. Wricut, A. B., Ph. B., Oberlin, Ohio; Professor of Geology in Oberlin
College. August, 1893.
*G. FrepERIcK WricHt, D. D., Oberlin, Ohio; Professor in Oberlin Theological
Seminary.
Lorenzo G. Yatrs, M. D., Los Angeles, Cal. December, 1889.
Wim §, Yuatss, A. B., A. M., Atlanta, Ga.; State Geologist of Georgia. August,
1894.
538 PROCEEDINGS OF PHILADELPHIA MEETING.
FELLOWS DECEASED
* Indicates Original Fellow (see article III of Constitution)
* CHARLES A. ASHBURNER, M. S., C. E. Died December 24, 1889.
Amos Bowman. Died June 18, 1894.
* J. H. Cuapin, Ph. D. Died March 14, 1892.
GerorcE H. Cook, Ph. D., LL. D. Died September 22, 1889.
ANTONIO DEL CastinLo. Died October 28, 1895.
* JamEs D. Dana, LL. D. Died April 14, 1895.
*ArBerr E. Foote. Died October 10, 1895.
* Ropert Hay. Died December 14, 1895.
Davip Honeyman, D. C. L. Died October 17, 1889.
Tuomas Srerry Hunt, D. Sc., LL. D. Died February, 1892.
* Henry B. Nason, M. D., Ph. D., LL. D., Troy, N. Y. Died January 17, 1895.
* Joun S. Newsperry, M. D., LL. D. Died December 7, 1892.
* RicHarD Owen, LL. D. Died March 24, 1890.
CHarLes WacumurH. Died February 7, 1896.
* Grorce H. Wiiitams, Ph. D. Died July 12, 1894.
* J. Francis Witurams, Ph. D. Died November 9, 1891.
* ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL. D. Died February 19, 1891.
Summary
Onipitial Kellows .. ..20% beens cence nea s vane ebay 87
Mlected: PEUGwWs. vo. 0h) ees athe heehee ae eee 141
NESTS TP: ¢.01~ anon ots tae eR Sp LE On 228
Doceased Fellows. 25.0. feces th wee ade ehGas os eal.
ACCESSIONS TO LIBRARY FROM JANUARY, 1895, TO MARCH,
1896
BY H. L. FAIRCHILD, Secretary and Acting Librarian
Contents’
Page
(A) From societies and institutions receiving the Bulletin as donation (* Exchanges”’)........... 539
(@)). ATC VRT OE CLARA SB ERENCE SHORES BOLE RPS ae ene ea eta ne Seb ry ie TR An car | Mamet ie aC OU eT) feng oe 539
MOS MDESTUDICE) DC reek Aathea ct ats du ac dehs'- Sos vs of Aura deay Gas hcceh acca eres Lomas aoe aN Buea obs stra setae wanes ed voubinne duces Bumeewaeste 541
MENMMENGH leccans oo caa tai Nisin desed ome chances Seteutree closes aba eeea sea aac SAS aS Smear Roe tamed oc ok a So Sein veShiuuatas Tiros etal Sas cece meet 544
GL) AMUISITEY ERSTE aay are erecta Wire ns Wo Sie Gar mene gH aS OR 9. 1 0 Tied dak ne ae EO On 544
ReipEnomi state SHEcueel (Corba lOresc3s¢ ccagssedo opp ooocooeooeAsene 460
—; Geology of old Hampshire county, in
INES SACHS CEES LAVA ict econ cho casecstenc soem tees 5
—, Reference to discussion of paper by 7, 11, 507,
509, 512
EMERTON, J. H., Acknowledgments to....... 136
—, Reference to drawings by ....... 174; 216, 246
Emmons, E., cited on inclusions in apatite 127
— — — rounded apatite crystals ....... Hhnatee sea 127
EMMONS, S. F., continued on Mount Ranier
Forest Reserve commiittee........... ....s008 2
ENGLAND, Figures of fossils from the Car-
[SORT RRESRONDIS Oyosocc qsoceudonecoscopadsdocosOocnce 252, 253
—, Reference to drumlins im................200-0000 27
== =} SLACIALION IY. 620 jinoessoncccesceecuh toneectes 28
—, Shore forms on coast Of..............0sceseeeeeses 415
EOCENE formations of the Coastal ies ae 517
— fossils from Cuba, Reference to............... 8
= history Of Cuba... ceticd decatesseschesdetessecees 75-81
ESCHWEGE, W. I. VON, cited on Brazilian
DOMMES teas aticcwteos sees oseeceeceesetae neem 277, 278
ext OlatlOm Ol nOCkKSiy -e-seeeeen eee eee
292
ETHERIDGE, H. G., cited on denudation...., 383
ETHERIDGE, R., cited on relations of Olizo-
WPOTGUS sadctiyae ss deo valdsaaneiesesstanaste sects casceee cs 189, He
EUROPE, Reference to ice-sheets of..............
EXAMPLES of stream-robbing in the Cats-
kill mountains ; N. H. Darton........ eh 505
FAILYER, G. H., cited on nitric acid in rain.. 307
FAIRCHILD, H, sla elected Secretary........... 460
; Glacial Genesee lakes! ve wie on 423
_, ’ makes TAS] OXOP ALE US) SISO RSA BENG ondacacoocsouaine 456
—; Proceedings of the Eighth Annual
Meeting, held at Phitadelphia, Decem-
JOYE AS; 27) BONGL As}, WUBIN), cco seecaaceotodd Gadosouddco 453
- Proceedings of the Seventh Summer
” Meeting held at Springfield, Massachu-
setts, August 27 and 28, 1895...........0...0000 I
—, Reference to ‘“‘ Glacial lakes of western
INS Mots 2) MD jcntachiescsven sectereccescenaances sstoce 424
—— — ‘The kame-moraine at Rochester ”’
by SEO Sac OORDDACOLEDEOOUICCROUCODOSUOTaErEic odode Dnesenar Raare 445
Title of a DRA ecient eae ee 4, 510
FARRINGTON, O .C., Announcement of elec-
TLO TO Lae catenisciessveshe ones ce ate te cunpledeniin es 454
=P EOE CHIOMIO NM iiicietescoscdcodsedee se clewess lees eeu Os T
—, Reference to memoir of Dana by........... 473
FERGUSON, EK. L., List of photographs pre- ~
SGM BSCR yas tn nt atebawarteooceun uaclees ses ukeoeanumn at 495
IENDICILONAS), JS) (CI BUONO) BennassecopdabaeeooeaboEcHoeRsoee> I
FERRAND, M. P., cited on rock decay.... 262, 263
FERRIER, W. G., cited on gneiss..............05. 123
FINLAND, Morainic drift hills in................. 28
FISCHER, FERDINAND, cited on carbonic
acid in the air.. ; O5
FLORIDA, Shore forms on coast of... . 406, ‘407, 408
FONSECA, J. S. DA, cited on ant nests.......... 299
ae roel decay OUND ieoee tit dablaiasteenis Bouananean ene 264
—, quoted on Brazilian temperatures.......... 286
FONTENELLE, J. F., cited on Brazilian to-
pography. Nea Up eANceeee ck eM Liisa Ste Ala BRA 277
Foote, A. E., Announcement of death of.... 454
502
Page
Foore, A. E., Bibliography Of........c.s...sssss0s 485
—. IWLeaT ac OF Sake Ree a Re ea on 481
FORBES, J. D., cited on temperatures......... 287
FORCE, C. G., ‘Altitudes determined by.. 339, 340
FOREL, A. cited, on cause of rock decay..... 295
FORELANDS, CUTS Paley eaecscrsanesahecne Schenken eee 399
FOssEY, MATYEN DE, Reference to............- 486
Fossiv fauna of Labrador, Xen Oliconssece bee
—— Plant Prom Cu Dahenscesecicce-stesacesrastves ie-senndndpnenocem. ceeaiere 416
GILBERT, G. K., cited on changes of level
of lake Iroquois See One day ska coger eae Vee Reg « 446
at LS INO TY oo espun nro nanph es eann ae peaeneeaaeaa 359
— — — erosion. gesgarecersaghes G00
—-—— vegetations effect on rock Ascagt seen 302
— — — Pleistocene glacial lakes.. PS ners le)
— — — rock decay ........ Sivotencne der seb csesentnneeeens 265
— —— Sheridan beach .:. 2.5: scccesccesdcncoctowans 342
— — — shore forms in lake Lahontan......... 410
=== WAIVE ACHON TOOK GIGCENG sGaaonocech os Paced coaeceeneen beaeeo 261
HUSSAK, EUGEN, cited on tock decay... 260, 263
HUTTON, W., cited on guiding pape in
geological STG TSS hoe sce sspcoed sae ac oee oe
—, Reference to views of, on geology. scenes sooo Aho
Seas te VUELOS OL. .ctsc-.cccestccsece-voeeehnaetweceoe ‘9, II
HYAtTT, A., Acknowledgments to................ 135
— cited on accelerated development i in Pa-
NSS Chiit OUMSA ces sotvsccccesseeassnsssecuseanehelees 176
—, Reference to discussion by....... Bape eewiaie sckise |
IcE age, Correlation of the stages of the, in-
UI CAESC BBM ue Nr smactesaiciiseuch ah ciceocesae Seewes os!
——, Reference to subdivisions GME HE u3 cose 65
ICE- SHEETS, Drumlins and marginal mo-
raines of... weedeat 7
IDDINGS, J. P. , Acknowledgments TOR atat 95
—, cited on differentiation of magmas........ 124
—, Reference to discussion of paper by....... 507
ILL INOIS, Figures of Subcarboniferous fos-
sils from. A tanon cation decskescesetatececueseseeereeas 251, 254
—, Mapping of morainic material in........... 24
ILLUSTRATIONS of the dynamic metamor-
phism of anorthosites and related rocks
in the Adirondacks; J. F. Kemp........... 488
INDIANA, Figure of Subcarboniferous fossil
from... Saab easter aso occctnicinc cues tienes trond apescliosesueeeens 251
—, Mapping of morainic material in......--.-. 24
Iowa, WO MRUUTTAN TING O foe sess eases eoteeterccsdecotes sceete 21
_—, Figures of Subcarboniferous fossils
FLOM veseees BADEN sh tciac cece eae ana mocseeeeines eS e252
IOWAN stage correlated with Polandian...... 3
— —, Reference to.. Reel seeks 2
IRELAND, Figures of. Carboniferous’ fossils
si COMA eos hi Siete ae SN LOSES sguatativoucaanevecacws 252
—, Reference to glaciation i Aft oseese reese icevetesss 28
——— drumlins i LMM eteetececoececcss SA es ceenad See 27
IRVING, R. D., cited on denudation drcasbeeee +. 300
ITALY, Shore currents ON COASUIOl ese 420, 421
Page
Jackson, R. T., and T. A. JAGGAR, JR.;
Studies of Melonites MUULPOVUS, .s000+.e0re- 135
—, cited on accelerated development in
Paleeechinoidea. Meda aaea Saweaalstaguete nome ce oerees 176
— Sy ee Busses term ‘ “phylembryo”... e285
WOtidies ons Lalcechinoldedesescrssseseesasse-e- 171
—, =? Title of paper by .. 7
JAEKEL, OTTO, cited on. ‘pores ‘in Bothrio-
(BOOP AUS soces paqcean90 20603000090: bo RgaDOoRDOdT Oda. 212, 234
JaGGaR, T. A., JR., and R. T. JACKSON ;
Studies of Melonites MULLLPOYUS.....-4 02000 135
—, compares plate arrangement of Melo-
nites multiporus with that of Oligoporus
OND TRE see COSC OPEC EDOCEEEPELE DEEL EEE ee 197
—, Reference to specimen owned by............ 160
—, Studies of Palg@echinus gigas DY..........0++ 207
== ISIE EVO LED Apel (DWansse-d Gecttesssseecescocm-losas ce 7
JAYNE, HORACE, Announcement of recep-
tion to Society 18S /eetoabacnascooc00a7, caeaataozaachod 493
Jouns HopxkKINS UNIVERSITY collection,
JEMAUEKE ONE SHO oNSsOl Tho soc psc saccocsarcanaonce 248
Jounson, C. W., Acknowledgments to........ 136
JOHNSON, Miss I. L., Acknowledgment
LCOS ened deride Sane Seen OCOR OAC IRE LCACEScareaabc oct caaces 207
JOHNSON, Wry Cruel Cral, Che obtay bipae 6 sonearosneeoose 20
JOHNSON, S. Wit cited on influence of hu-
mus acid on rock GIS CANY Breese deeeessitesesncecess 302
———— vegetation on rock decay......... 301
EEN CE Sache cece oe 306
' JUKES, J. B., cited on denudation............... 379
JUKES- ‘BROWN, A. J., cited on denudation.. 383
—, cited on radiolarian Carths......cccscscesee 81
JULIEN, A. A., cited on influence of humus
acid on rock GECAY....cerseccneeeee seveee senses ere 302
FHS EKONOL AGA) SHAN acoecsnooaconoeneodosune 306
ee im TO CK CC CA a2- cence ccooeconestoaiseccre 287, 288, 292
JUTLAND, Shore forms on coast Of............... 405
KALKOWSKY, ERNST, cited on sillimanite.. 284
KANSAN STAGE correlated with Saxonian
GDOCL, sesaccacsotcooscoososnesenqosose easooshosone coddHaseN 3
Se Ey IRE SIIVOS 1H), o -Scoanacneccus odo psacodBbaObo Beeede 23
KEEPING, W., cited on Perischodomus bise-
VULUUS rareenecciti ck sive Saesteaigetee, sect soeobereleatees ensece 226
— founded genus Rhoechinus... scgsscsen200
KEITH, ARTHUR, cited on denudation......... 389
— , Reference to discussion of paper bye Loh as 512
; Some stages of Appalachian erosion...... 519
KELLNER, O., cited on nitric acid in rain... 307
KELLER- LEUZINGER, Reference to “A ma-
zon and Madeira Rivers”’ by........ ....... 278
KELVIN, ious cited on conductivity of
rocks.. Sresneesssh LOO
KEMP, J. iF, “cited on ‘Cerrillos Coal... 525
—_——-—— trachyte K cboteessiuueite tess ssuasacectivcsteessecosece 527
; Illustrations of the dynamic metamor-
hism of anorthosites and related rocks
Am telne PAI OT al CiShiiasesseccunec-seoseesceveresns: 488
— offers resolution of thanks... .........,....sse00 ) 16)
—, Reading of paper DY..........---eeseesesree sree 494
—, Reference to discussion of paper by.. ..... 507
ante Study of Brazilian gneiss by............ 283, 284
—,; Titaniferous iron ores of the Adiron-
MOSLEY SS SL SAD Ly hao PO, gat ati gt er ER I
KENTUCKY, Figures of Subcarboniferous
FOSSINS MMO MIN cea ee Gene Panes bececsese teres sees 249, 252
KERR, W. C., cited on agencies affecting
rock decomposition meadneueCotiscecunsevle senoeeeeens 359
KEYES, C. R., cited on Arch@ocidarts......... 214
wes EH erica tons aela sone dats sc tesdina eseess 389
— — — genital plates of Melonztes multi po-
Gale Sapte sacvac ee eicac Ne ucles tide desist ae ee denlascenes esha 155
— — — horizon of ‘Oligoporus MISSOUVLENSLS 184
— = — FLYBOECHINUS..0 vere ssnneneereenneronenoevenseess 207
; Geographic relations of the granites
and porphyries in the eastern. part of
LINE (OZB0 RE So onescane Ben EH DECOR SEO oCOECU IOC OOUCIOS 363
TUTE Ost FORT OETE hi econ ccosedesnccosodaeeosdoe Feces ASS
KINAHAN, G. H., cited on drumlins...... ..... 27
KING, H.,.cited on geology of Missouri........ 369
504
Page
KING, CLARENCE, cited on glaciation in
Massachusetts.............- Ssgaenteutrss cain eucdaweanas P35 |
IGT RETAIN Hips iINe he nGMCe LOysuerr. secret waned: 336
KNOWLTON, F. H., Identification of fossil
PVAME, Diy.5< caewecanape cmmdocceteencccm Jbiancedeana eters 73
KOENIG, G. A., cited on diamond-carbon in
meteorites. ec caladeicn es acjanaaahad acs deve saawerwonwawaes 485
— — — some recently discovered minerals. 484
KOSTER, HENRY, cited on Brazilian boul-
GES ee pasta Sac cciseananvanaascestancos cele oinnes apa 279
Sa Ss TAUPO ce. cas wt vara iatave caus svaswsedoeassce 310
KUMMEL, H. B., election of... See AGT
KUNZ, G. F.; - Memoir of Albert E. Foote.. . 481
LABRADOR fossils... 3
LACROIX, A., ated on “microcline- eneiss.. 120
LAERNE, C. V. VAN D., cited on ANESsjicncense .. 298
LAFAYETTE nee correlated with
Seamiati PITOCCHE cise eco ance tae caavscenocsnure «Janta 2
=~ Of SOUL: CALOlIMAr..coccenssusdavdesccce eeuecanns 518
LANE, A. C., Reference to discussion of
paper by... pele cuanto eneawe - 490, 507
—, Title of paper by. epee contiscun seh cannon suareenna cea 507
LANGDON, D.: W., JR., Reference to discus-
sion of paper by... 512, 518
LAPPARENT; A. DE, cited on ‘denudation... - 392
LARAMIE rocks of Alberta, Reference to.. 32, 34
LAWES, SIR J. B., cited on composition of
SAU Oleg) foe Gl ee ee ere oe ye ae mee ra NDS 307
Lawson, A. C., cited on banded structure... 129
— — — CENUAAtION......cccessensnesvesecesern ins sernce 389
—— — gneiss.. re oe es
— — — hornblende- achist- wake a. eee 125
——\-——" Lawrentiam TOCKS: 4 cewsders-sascbwulekyn aces 126
J /— FOCK SEMMICEULE:, . seasrconsdeaneneoss oobwips foxes 133
LAURENTIAN system, Reference to.. owe (QT
Le CONTE, JOSEPH, cited on denudation... .- 389
a= === WAVE ACTION. ssw ccebseteeswevtersceacsiarnces 402
_- elected PHESIDENE. fassct in ceabew pcaeer nti bauatecee de 460
; Memoir of James Dwight Dana............. 461
LEGARRA, SALTERAIN Y, cited on geology
of Cuba... 68, 71, 74, 78, 80
LEOPARD rock ‘from. Ottawa. ‘county, Can-
BGA: sakes ovssoaystunksBeerue vussanegerneten dees en eoehe aude 95
LEPpsIvus, G. R., cited on denudation... 391
LESLEY, J. P., Resolution of greetings 'to.. 09
LEVERETT, FR ANK, cited on Crittenden
DE ACM Eta ccceun tt ispebewicen cine dem eaeyoubend ponue semana ce 344
— — — drumlins.. pesweer | 20
== ——-—— AStory Of glacial lakes in Ohio....... 344
aS | ELD SIC) DEAC His scan awese pee vayaten Maaseneeers 341
— — — moraines and raised beaches of lake
DEV TV GD searedeee dhe caters eacannanpisVebeeomecdas oyeie bn 443, 444
—-—— Pleistocene glacial lakes.. - 340
— — —retreatal moraines in Ohio.. "330. 337, 345
= —\— Sheridan DEACHI...b...-cscerenunsot cveseeeesrs 342
Mapping of morainic material in the
WIESE YE eee isles anceabrSvinutenpoubde pL mesennia eee 24
= SRererenee to discussion of paper by. sees 509
DIRIES Of PADELS DY vn asc. an ccemsnshnenstenncaeeiay
LEW Is, H. C., cited on glaciation in Great
Britain and Ireland... ccssscccccssesee covees 28
— — — glaciation in Pennsylvania.............. 27
—, Reference to work of, asa glacialist...... 471
Lew y, L., cited on amount of carbonic acid
Pere or le WP BER Tin I 03
Liars, E., cited on landslides in Brazil.. 267
— — ~ rock oer: hee eee ees 261, 4
LINCOLN, D. F., cited on drumlins.............
LINDGREN, W., cited on denudation........... 389
LITHOLOGY of Missouri granites and por-
PHY TIES: esiaecc hho eee eeneaic es toes 366, 367
LIVERMORE, S. T., cited on former mates ah
Sandy point........ » 422
LOGAN, SIR W. E., cited on ‘Erie clay. Jatin «9/330
LONG ISLAND, Cretaceous strata Of... sees 12
—, Shore forms on coast of... eee. "405, 406
Loomis, ELIAs, cited on Brazilian rainfall. 311
Lovin, ‘SVEN, cited on ambulacral plates of
echimaids:: .cekeat see Agios BA Seaen® nee eOMeEe
BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA.
Page
Lovén, SVEN, cited on Arachnoides pla-
CENLES Hise sG sansvaxs senda oesbreseae outer assekes 230, 231
— — — Clypeastroids and Spatangoidg........
— ——ccorona of Echinoidea ........ 229, 231,
EOC YCLICR « wscn cub tte bute stavvarsotawae ae eee eae
— — — Goniocidaris and Str ong viocentr o-
tus.. bs --- 144, 145, 192
— — — modern echinoids... a> pap sicmeemeyeemeLne
— — — Perischoechinoida.......sc0-cssscsseceeeeee 138
= LIAKECK IN US sv coondiananveuss caucsvy cvexunmlAi areas
Luc, J. A: Dr, cited on torelandSas-ssesaes +» 400
LUND, AM,, cited on antsic.c.cuscnsuewdoe eee 298
LYELL, SIR CHARLES, cited on denudation.. 379
—-—— wave action pis 0B sha mio'tuNn sa Sun do slap sev aviansies 402
—, Reference to views of, on geology......... 463
— — — WTItiNgS Of... ceceee sees eye ohiwianigele sre OL AEE
MCCONNELL, R. G., and G. M. Dawson;
Glacial deposits of southwestern AI-
berta in the vicinity of the Rocky moun-
TAINS «. ssssiosensinsl iia: eacnadelvads cece g ie eR eee 3I
—, invents term ‘‘ Saskatchewan neni Me we
=) Title of paper Dyn. -.3- is scatnnarces cs says temeeaen 12
McCook, H. C., cited on ant burrows.......... 297
M’Coy, F., cited on Arch @octdarts....cs.0..00+0 213
— — — Paleechinoidea ..........0.sececcees ; meee
— — — PAIGCECRANUS )vcvcniessessevasysaceues nencs. s TAN UbAsNtn Rb seniiee 3
SCANDINAVIA, Reference to drumlins in..... 27
SCANIAN Pliocene correlated with Lafayette 2
ScHMIDT?, F., cited on Bothrtocidarts.....cc000 234
— — — pOres 1n BOlhrOcidarts wccccsseereceoees 212
SCHUCHERT, C., Acknowledgments to... 135, 229
—, Announcement of election Of... 2, 454
SCHULT ZE, I,., cited on Lepidocentrus miil-
LOWE, vcscns cus soveks inisons¥qasdeoy dagioa sides ine pena tae ee ES 224
SCOTLAND, Reference to drumlins in............ 27
Scott, W. B., Acknowledgments to............. 136
_ , Announcement Ofecture Dyt..<..panacees 493
SCOULER, JouN, cited on influence of vege-
EATIOUIONTOCK CECH Y.-.isc0nccenensascenpoveeenneee 302
Scropg, G. P., cited on exfoliated rocks...... 291
SEELEY, R., cited on denudation... . 383
SELWYN, A. R. C., Acknowledgments to..... 95
SHALER, N. S., cited on action of shore cur-
LEDUES hicvaaivdecereuuaebesaakeoaato oes saddvcnssyoeouhiass 408
— — — Boston drumlins. .........cceeeeeeseeeeeeeeeees 20
— — = 'COAate CHSDS. ie sseveso ves cnsumess aces siemens aon AO
cw (eee bt AT UT ITIS 457 seve sccwdvssunussankescenieueenatees 27
— — — exfoliation Of rOCKS............ccceeseeceesees 291
— — —. headwaters of Genesee river.. » A383
— — — sand movement on Atlantic coast... 404
— opens Philadelphia meeting ... . ...........+ 453
— — Seventh Summer Meeting........ ......... I
— placed on Mount Rainier Forest Reserve
Conimittee ss: Gees, Viecss. ae ruees eer sreeciees 2
—, Reference to discussion of paper by.. 4, 7, I1,
14, 15, 493, 505-509
; Relations of geologic science to educa-
’ tion.. RAISE OERUOTIES aso oronperonosanbacreuabeckeace 444
—; Drumlins and marginal moraines of
ICE [SMSSES site slink nad eden eee ee I
— ; Preglacial and postglacial valleys of the
Cuyahoga and Rocky rivers.. Be
—, Reference to correlation of the Lafayette
with the Saskatchewan by.............., sce
= OLS Of (asa SlaCialisty.c. ewasceeeer sews 471
= atlerok pape4»n, Dy iy weit. cee aceeceteaveus 12, 510
URSEL, CHARLES a , cited on rock decay..... 261
VAN HIsgE, C. R., cited on denudation... ..... 386
Sa MOSEL EH RANON IDES Seco naccen eeeccnpenH sae 375
— — — secondary origin of crystals laine 132
— — — titaniferous ores. 15
—, Reference to discussion of paper “Dy... “7 504,
507, 512
Title of Paper LD iene ee cee rt rah at ae aa II, 507
VAN Nuys, T. C., cited on carbonic acid in
JELENA sc a eee ait Oe cen A eee TER, 304
VARIGNY, H. DE, cited on evaporation from
WSS most esetobo, aso! 2 sedan ecOupeEEd Saban L eee eee RBAEESG 361
VENNOR, H. Ge “cited on geology of Canada. 96
VER MONT argillites be anassease rea lceine nesta aye SII, 512
Sy DETOn Mat TO mMOted sratiyn- te nseeesecs
— suggests name Melonttes seplenarius........ 182
WHITNEY, MILTON, Analysis of rock by 351-353
— cited on residual clays of Wisconsin... 359
WHITTYLESEY, CHARLES, cited on Cuy ahoga
AKAN AMES [WAS s wccccsuencienensndctay svectieun tices: 330
— — — Pleistocene glacial MQICES Ts casaxetesesecees 340
WIGGINS, JOHN, cited on forelands.............. 400
WILKES, CHARLES, quoted on Brazilian
LER PEHALITES Hi. manu pecedereustetenvesbcaeendes ua 286
WILKINS expedition, Reference to ............ 336
WILLARD, J. T., cited on nitric acid in rain 307
WILLIAMS, G. Hi; cited on rock structure... 133
Eee oo: SAMA Batts RDO Sesh 1a ssa tas ay reeks . 284
WILLIAMS, H. E., cited on ant nests............ 299
WILLIAMS, H. S., euearas of memoir of
Dana by ey Se onbern ead
—, Reference to memoir ‘on Dana by.. Lc meawnchy 467
-- — — discussion of paper by...... ..... 4, 504, 512
WILLIAMSON, E., cited on Brazilian boul-
BULLETIN OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA.
Page
WILLIs, BAILEY, cited on Appalachian ero-
sion.. Soe en aesenee set Saubiviei tesa dy cee wens SLO
— Se dentidation cnt eases eee 388
— continued on Mount Rainier Forest Re-
serve Committee .. made 2
-~-, Reference to discussion of - paper ‘by. 504, 507
WINCHELL, N. H., cited on Belmore ridge... 341
— — — drumlins in the northwest............. Oe
— --— Pleistocene glacial lakes... .,4\.......... 340
WINOGRADSKY, S., cited on acters le + 303
WINSLOW, ARTHUR, cited on cr line
TOCKS OF MiSSOUTi........ec00cceccecneneh gfe ooeese 369
WISCONSIN correlated with the Me len-
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